LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA PRESENTED BY MRS. THOMAS A. DRISCOLL ■■ >\*_ / GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART. GOLDSMITH, OLIVER. /'/•//,■ xr BEETON'S \) DICTIONAEY OF UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY: BEING THE Jita jof (Bvxmtd limits at %ll &imes. With the Pronunciation op Evert Name. ILLUSTRATED WITH A GREAT NUMBER OF PORTRAITS WARD, LOCK AND CO. LONDON: WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.O. NEW YORK : BOND STREET. < PREFACE There is, perhaps, no department of literature so generally in- teresting', or so frequently referred to, as Biography. The lives of those who have figured prominently in the world, either in the domain of thought or of action, possess an ever-fresh attraction for their fellows ; and the demand for knowledge concerning the sayings and doings of the great and gifted has employed many pens, and called into existence a special department of literary Jahour. Biographical dictionaries there are in plenty; but, though many of these woi'ks are characterized by high excellence, most of them are too elaborate, and therefore too expensive, to be within the reach of the great bulk of buyers ; while the few that are pro- fessedly designed for the million are so full of old stock names of no real significance, and are often such mere dry records of dates, as to be utterly uninteresting, and even repulsive. The aim of the compilers of the following work has been to avoid those fardts, and while giving accurate records of facts, to make this volume not merely useful as a work of reference, but interesting and instructive for ordinary perusal. In carrying out this idea the following distinctive objects have been kept in view, and, it is hoped, successfully accomplished: — ■ 1. By careful selection, by refraining from commentary and criticism, and excluding names of no positive value, space has been so economized as to admit of giving such life-like touches of character and conduct as would enable the reader to form some conception as to " what manner of man " the subject o? |y PREFACE. the particular notice really was. Of course this idea could only be partially carried out in the limits to which the work was con- fined; but it is believed that to some extent, at least, an im- provement in this respect has been here achieved, as compared with other works of a similar character. 2. The pronunciation of the names given will, it is hoped, be useful to those who, unacquainted with foreign languages, may yet be anxious to pronounce correctly the names of persons of whom they may have occasion to speak. That absolute accuracy in all cases has been attained, it would perhaps be too much to expect ; as near an approximation as possible has been given ; and any defects in this respect will be most readily pardoned by those who are best acquainted with the difficulty of representing uttered sounds by any mere combination of letters. 3. Persons bearing the same name have been arranged chrono- logically, so that sons follow sires, and a natural and connected sequence of events often depending upon each other has been pre- served — a result which, while keeping up an almost unbroken narrative, serves to show at a glance those instances in which one generation has sustained, or even extended, the fame and reputa- tion won by the preceding. 4. By deviating from the usual rule, in such works as the pre- sent, of including only those whose career has been closed by death, so far as to embrace persons who have already made their name and position, and in whose lives and characters no very marked events or changes are likely to occur, the work is made to subserve the purpose of a record of the lives of persons of eminence both of past and present times. THE DICTIONARY OF BIOGRAPHY. Aa [Where a is used in the explanatory pronun- ciation, it is sounded as a in bar, car, tar ; where a is used, it is sounded as a in can, fan, tan ; where ai is used, it is sounded as a in fate, hate, late ; where aw is used, it is sounded as a in fall, tall, wall ; and a final has an obscure sound, between the a in bar and the a in fan.] A a, Gerard van der, a-a. This individual, and his two sons, Philip and Adolphus, have acquired honourable historical notice in the an- nals of the United Provinces, from the strenuous efforts they made to resist Philip II. of Spain in his endeavours to tyrannize over their country, as well as from the distinguished part they took in its liberation, 1571. Aa, Charles Henry van der, a native of Zwolle, and an active Lutheran minister, greatly instru- mental in establishing the Academy of Sciences, and the Society for the Study of Economics, at Haerlem. u. 1718; d. 1795. Aa, Peter van der, an eminent lawyer, who, In 1574, became president of the Council of Luxembourg, b. at Louvain. 1530 ; d. 159-1. Aa, Peter van der, a bookseller of Leyden, and an extensive compiler and publisher of tra- vels and voyages, d. 1730. — This person issued an illustrative atlas, which was entitled " Galerie du Monde," and which extended to sixty-six vols. Aagahd, Christian, a-qard", a Danish pro- fessor of poetry at Soto, and a poet himself. B. 1596; d. 1664. Aagabd, Nicholas, brother of the above, and also a professor at Sora, and a writer on philo- sophical subjects. B. 1612 ; D. 1657. Aali Pasha, Mehemet Emin, an eminent Turkish statesman, ambassador to England, 18)1— i, and representative of the Porte at the Conferences of Vienna (1855), and Paris (1856). e was made grand vizier the fifth time, April it, 1867. B.at Constantinople, 1815 ; d. 1871. Aalst, Everard, a Dutch artist, distinguished for the accuracy with which he painted armour and fruit pieces, b. at Delft, 1602 ; d. 1658. Aalst, William, nephew of the above, and reckoned superior to him as an artist, b. 1620; ». 1679. "Aahe, Dirk van der, aar, bishop of Utrecht, w ho, although a priest, was much better fitted for 1 Aarsens wearing the helmet than the cowl. He was con- stantly at war with William Count of Holland, each being prisoner to the other almost alter- nately, though the churchman in the end was worsted, d. 1212, at Deventer, after ruling Utrecht for 14 years. Aabon, air-on, signifying mountain of ttrengtk, or a teacher, the brother of Moses, and first high priest of the Israelites, d. on Mount Hor, in the 123rd year of his age, a.m. 2553, B.C. 1451. Aaron, a priest and physician who flourished at Alexandria in the 7th century. He wrote a variety of works, among others a description of measles and small-pox, then new diseases in Egypt, and, as he supposed, originating there. Aabon, St., a British Martyr, who suffered in the persecution of the Christians by Diocletian, a.d. 303. He was canonized 1000 years later. — There is another St. Aaron, who founded the first Monastery in Bretaigne, and flourished in the 6th century. Aaron, Isaac, a Greek, and attached to the emperor Manuel Comnenus as interpreter. He was charged with wilful misinterpretation, and deprived both of his office and his sight, but sub- sequently reinstated in office, when he revenged himself cruelly upon his enemies. He ultimately died of torture, which the emperor Isaac Angelus ordered to be inflicted upon him, in 1203. Aabon, a Spanish Jew of Barcelona, who lived in the 13th century, and wrote " Precepts on Moses," published at Venice in 1523. Aaron, Pietro, canon of L'imini, and a volu- minous writer on music. He flourished at Florence in the 16th century. Aabon Ben Asser, a Jew of the Sth century, to whom is attributed the invention of the lie- brew points and accents. Aaron Hacharon, a Nieomedian Jew, s 1346, and author of " The Garden of Eden," a work explanatory of Jewish customs and doc- trines. Aaron Schascon, a Jewish rabbi, and author of the "Law of Truth," printed in 1631, at Venice. Aaron, Ben Chaim, a rabbi of Fez, and reckoned the most learned of the Jews of Africa, whose commentaries are still held in high esteem by his people, d. about 1610. Aaron, or Haeoun. (See Haroun At KAscnm.) Aarsi:ns, or Aersens, Peter, aar-sem, u celf B THE DICTIONARY Aarssen brated Dutch artist. He painted a fine altar- piece, representing the crucifixion, at Antwerp, which was destroyed in an insurrection in 1566. b. at Amsterdam, 1519; d. 1585. — Aarsens left three sons, also celebrated painters. Aarssen, Cornelius van, a Brabant states- man, but not distinguished either for ability or integrity. Aabssen, Franz van, son of the above, and Lord of Someldyck and Spyck, one of the great- est negotiators bf the United Netherland Pro- vinces. In 1640 he was deputed one of the three ambassadors extraordinary to England, to settle the marriage between the Princess Mary and Prince William, the Stadtholdcr's son. b. at the Hague, 1572 ; d. 1641. — Some other persons of this name appear in the history of Holland, one of whom was governor of Surinam, and was murdered by his soldiers in 1638; another wrote an account of his travels in Spain. Aaktqens, aart'-jens, a Dutch artist who gained some fame, but died poor in consequence of his dissipated habits, b. 1493 ; d. 1564. Aabtsen, aart-sen, an artist of Holland, born at Amsterdam, who was eminent for his power of depicting vulgar subjects, and for the minute finish of his pictures, u. 1507; D. 1575. Aba, or Albo>", a'-ba, king of Hungary, who involved his country in perpetual wars, and cruelly oppressed his subjects. He was put to death'in 104L Abacco, Antonio, ab-ak-ko, an architect and engraver, and pupil of San Gallo. He published engravings of the antiquities of Home, and of plans from St. Peter's in that city, after designs by San Gallo. Flourished about 1558. Abaco, a-ba-kd. There were two individuals of this name, who lived in the eighteenth cen- tury, and who were celebrated, both as composers of music and players on the violin and violon- cello. Abad I., a'-bad, who, at first governor of Se- ville, afterwards declared himself independent, and erected his states into a monarchy, 1015. lie was about to add Cordova to his kingdom, when stayed by death in 1041. Abad II., son of the above, but superior to him in reputation, aimed at the subjugation of the whole of Southern Spain, of which he suc- ceeded to the sovereignty of a considerable por- tion; but his indolence and love of pleasure frustrated his ambitious designs. He had at one time 800 females in his harem ; and this, and building many palaces and but few mosques, greatly scandalized the faithful Moslem. He was a poet and man of letters, b. 1002; d. 1069, of grief for the loss of a favourite daughter. Abad III., who succeeded his father Abad II., was subject to singularly diversified fortunes. At the very beginning of his reign, he lost his Eriueipal cities, Seville and Cordova, from which low, however, he recovered. He then made an allrince with Alfonso VI. of Leon, but found the Chi istian king a dangerous ally, and invited into Spain,Yussef-Ben-Taxi'yn,greatestofthedynasty of the Almoravides, who, however, proved even worse than Alfonso ; for after defeating the latter on the plains of Zalaca, he compelled Abad to the humiliation of being his tributary. The latter made an attempt to shake off his depen- dence, but was defeated, expelled from his do- minions, and sent a prisoner to Africa, where ho suffered great hardships from poverty and iwrfect. Nevertheless, ho bore his privations wi>ii remspntiou r.ud fortitndfl for above fivo Abate years, when he died, and with him his dynasty. He bore the character of being a wise, prudent, and just ruler, as well as that of a poet of superior ability. ». 1075, a.d. Abaffi, ah'-af-fe, Michael, ruler of Transyl- vania in the 17th century ,was in the disagrecabU dilemma of having two masters, Turkey and Austria, to both of whom he had to pay tribute. He leant most to the Turks, however, and in 1681 made war upon Austria, as well as supported the Hungarians against her. He abdicated in 1690 in favour of his son, Abaffi II., but the Austrians conquered him; and incorporated Transylvania with the Austrian empire, d. 1713. Aba'ka Kuan, a-ba-ka' kau, eighth emperor of the Moguls of the race of Zingis. He defeated the king of Bokhara and the Egyptians, who had invaded his dominions, d. 1282. Abamoiti, Ct-hi-moo'-te, a Neapolitan, B. 1763. Was a liberal in polities, and a member of the executive when Ferdinand IV. left Naples in 1806. He retired from office on the restoration of the monarchy. Abano, Piedro di, a-ba'-no, a learned Italian, who first studied at Padua, and afterwards at Paris. He travelled in England and Scotland, whence he was recalled to take the professorship of medicine at Padua on its becoming vacant. He was not only an astronomer, but an astrolo- gist, and had some pretensions to magic. In 1315, for the second time, he was brought before the Inquisition, on account of his doctrines, but died before the inquiry was completed, b. at Abano, 1250; d. 1316. j Abantidas, ab'-an-d-dat, made himself mas- ter of Sicyon, after he had murdered Clinias, the | father of Aratus. He was himself assassinated j soon after, 267 B.C. Abaeca, Maria de, ab'-ar-ka, a Spanish lady who, in the middle of the 17th century, distin- I guished herself by the excellence of the portraits > she painted. She was contemporary with Velas- quez and Rubens, who held her in much esteem. j The date of her death is not known. I Abaeca, Don Joaquin, a Spanish ecclesiastic, I bishop of Leon, who supported Don Carlos in his attempt to gain the Spanish crown, 1834-9, and became one of the chiefs of his party. He was banished from Spain in 1839, and died near Turin in 184-1. b. 1780. Ababis, iib'-u-ris, the Hyperborean, a person- age of antiquity, of whose learning and accom- plishments several writers speak highly, but lrom what country he came is an undecided question. Some say he was of Scythia, and others of the western islands of Scotland. The Greeks say that he rode through the air on a sacred arrow, which he gave to Pythagoras, in return for the instructions he received from that philosopher. Flourished 8 cent, b c. Abakus, a-bair-ns, an Arabian prince, who perfidiously deserted Crassus ia his expedition against Farthia. Abascal, Jose" Fernando, a-bas'-kal, a Spanish General who was lor.s engiged in the service of his country, in the West Indies and in South America. He was governor of Peru from ISO J to 1816, and preserved that fine province to the mother country when her other possessions in America threw off their dependence. He was unable, however, ultimately to withstand the tide of rebellion, and was recalled by Ferdinand VII. B. 1743 ; D. 1321. Ab>te, Andrea, a-bat, a famous painter of fruit and still lift. e. at Naj lea ; c, 1782, OF BIOGRAPHY. Abati Abbot Abati, Niccolo, a-ba-W, a fresco painter of Modena, who assisted in decorating the palace of Fontainebleau. His finest easel-piece in oil is in the Dresden Gallery, representing the martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul. b. 1512; t>. 1571. — There are several other painters of his name mentioned in Lanzi. Abatia, Bernard, a-ba-te-a, an astrologer of Toulouse, who lived in the 16th century, and was famous in his day. Abatini, Guido Ubaldo, a-la-te'-ne, an artist of the Roman school, who became eminent as a painter of sacred subjects in fresco. Most of his works are at Rome. b. at Citta di Castello, 1600; d. at Rome, 1656.' Abapzit, Firmin, a-bo-ze', a man of letters, who lost his father early, and was sent by his mother to Geneva, to prevent his being brought up in the Romish persuasion. For this she was confined in the castle of Somieres ; and did not arrive at Geneva till two years after her son. Having finished his studies, he went to Holland some Arabic verses by her, on the subject of her love for Giafar. — Lived in the 8th centuYy. Abba Thullb, ab-ba-tool, king of the Po'.ew Islands. He allowed his second son, Prince Lee Boo, to visit England, where he died. \V hen the king heard of the event, his conduct was marked by great resignation, and he continued till his death the friend of Englishmen, d. 1791. Abbatissa, Paul, a Sicilian poet, who lived about the year 1570, and wrote a translation oi the " Iliad " and " Odyssey" in Latin verse. Abbatcccx, Jacques Pierre, ub-a-tut'-ehe, a Corsican, who, after serving under Paoli, joined the French army, in which he served both Louis XVI. and the Republic. Three of his sons died in the French wars. n. 1726; d. 1S12. Abbatucci, Charles, son of the preceding, who entered the French army about the same time as Napoleon, rose to the rank of general, and foil in the Dutch campaign of 1790. b. 1 771. Abbb, Louise, abb, a poetess of France, who flourished in the 16th century, and was sur- and England, and in the latter country formed na med La Belle Cordon niere— the fair cobbler, an intimacy with Sir Isaac Newton. King Abbiaii, Filippo, ub-be-a'-te, an historical William wished him to settle there, but filial [painter, was bom at Milan in 1610, and died in affection recalled him to Geneva, where he w& 1715. admitted a citizen, and in 1730 published an Abbon, de Fleury, ab-boug, a learned French improved edition of Spoil's History of Geneva. Ubbot of the monastery of Fleury. King Ko- B. at Uses, 1679 ; D. at Geneva, 1767. _ bert sent liim to Rome to avert the wrath of Abbadie, James, ab'-ba-de', an eminent divine, Gregory V., who threatened to lay the kingdom who took the degree of D.D. at Sedan, and was w^ier au interdict, and Abbon obtained all that afterwards made ministerof the French church' be asked. Killed in a auarrel between - al-Raschid, by whom she was married to Giafai his vizier, on'a singular condition of wedlock'^;, ," f "which, in"l038, he was lord mayor which failed to be fulfilled. There arc extant' 1 r^o, j u o date of bis birth it uncertain. THE DICTIONARY Abbot Abbot, George, son of the above, was en- gaged in the great civil war on the s.de of the l'arliament. He was author of a paraphrase of the Book of Job. b. 1600 ; d. 1648. Abbot, Charles. {See Coi.chkstf.b, Lord.) Abbot, Lemue 1 , a portrait painter distin- guished for ihe truthfu!ntss of the resem- blances he produced, but devoid of any other merit, b. in Leicestershire ; d. in 1803, aged 40. Abbot, Robert, an English divine of the 17th eentury, who published several volumes of ser- ■nons, and was vicar of Cranbrook, in Kent, and afterwards incumbent of St. Austin's, Watliug- etreet, London, b. about 1585; d. 1660. Abbott, Charles. (See Te.nteeden, Lord.) Abbott, Jacob, a modern American divine, who has published a scries of juvenile works, which enjoy a large sale in the United States, and have been reprinted in England, n. 1803. Abbott, John, brother of the above, also an American divine, who has written several his- torical works of interest and value, the prin- cipal of which is an admirable biography of Napoleon Bonaparte, published some years since in London, b. 1806. Abut, Thomas, abt, a German writer, whose precocity of talent enabled him to produce, at the age of 13, a work deemed of great ability, and entitled "llistoria Vita? Magistra." lie subsequently attracted the notice of Prince Schaumbcrg-Lippe, by whom he was held in high estimation, and liberally patronized, b. at Ulm, in Suabia, 1738; d. at the early age of 28, 1766. A no .u.L.ut, ab-dal-la, father of Mahomet. He was only a camel-driver; but the Mussulmans, having nothing better to boast of concerning him, declare that he was offered the finest women of his tribe when he was fourscore years old, and that on his wedding night a hundred girls died of grief, for having lost the honour of being his bride, b. about 545; d. 570. ABDAXLAH-BEN-MonAMMED, one of the Ma- hometan kings of Spain, and noted for his magnanimity and forbearance towards Ins ene- mies, d. 901. ABDALLAH-BEN-YiSsiM.founderofthedynasty of the Almoravides, in the 11th century — a dy- nasty which exercised a mighty influence on the destinies of Africa and Spain, and of which, until comparatively recent times, little of the direct history was known. (SeeYcssEF-BEN-TAX- riH.) Abdallah raised himself from the position of teacher to that of ruler of liis people, and the tribe itself, from an obscure position in the Atlas Mountains, became one of the noted conquering races of the middle ages. d. 1058. Abdallah-ben-Ali, ub-ddV -la-ben-uli, uncle of the first two caliphs of the Abbasides, under whom he served as a general against the caliph Mcrwan, whom he vanquished, and proclaimed his nephew in his stead. He was guilty of horrible cruelties on the family of the Ommi- edes, the name of the rival family of caliphs. When his eldest nephew died, his brother Al- Mansur assumed the government, which so dis- pleased Abdallah, that he raised an army against him, but was defeated. Put to death, 755. Abdallah-uen-Zobkib, ub-dul' -la-len-zo- leer, made caliph by the people of Mecca in 680, who wished to be independent of Yezid, the caliph of Syria. He fell righting bravely in the defence of Met ca, in his 72r.d year. Abdallatif, ub-dd-lai'-tif, a distinguished Arabic writer, who produced an admirable history of Egypt, b. at Bagdad, 11C2; d. 1231, Abd-el-Kader Abd-al-melek, ubd-aV -me-leh, fifth caliph of the race of the Ommiades. His reign was very successful ; and on account of his great avarice, he was named the peeler of ttone. The vulgar saying of skinning a flint is supposed to be de- rived from this circumstance. He reigned twenty-one years, at the close of the 7th nuz beginning of the 8th centuries. (685-705.) Abdalonymtts, &b-da-U>ri-i-mu$, king o Sidon, who, though only a gardener, was of fh< blood royal, and received the crown under tltf following circumstances : — When Alexandtf conquered that country, he allowed Hepha:stioii to dispose of the crown. Hephxstion offered i/ to three brothers, who all refused it ; but beinj requested to point out a proper person, they fixed on Abdalonymus. Being brought to Alex- ander, the conqueror observed the dignity of his aspect, and said to his courtiers, "1 wish to know how he bore his poverty." Abdalony- mus hearing this, said, "Would to Heaven I may bear my prosperity as well !" Tins answer so pleased Alexander that he confirmed the ap. pointment. Abdalbahmait, Ben Abdallah, ub-dJl-ra'- miin, a Saraceu general, and governor of Spain, who, after ravaging France with fire and sword, was vanquished and slain at Tours by Charles Martel, in 732. Monkish writers state the carnage in this battle at 370,000, which must be a gross exaggeration. Abdalbahman I., Ben Moawiyah, surnamed the Just, one of the family of the Ommiades, who went to Spain in 755, where he commanded the Saracens against their governor, Yuscf. Abdalrahman slew that prince, and was then acknowledged caiiph. He also assumed the title of king of Cordova, b. at Damascus about 731 ; d. about 789. Abdalbahmax II., surnamed the Victorious, king of Cordova from 822 to 852, who conquered the Christian princes of Aragon, Navarre, and the Asturias. Abbaleahjiait III., king of Cordova, from 912 to 961. He was defeated by Ramirez II., king of Leon and the Asturias, in a great battle at Simancas (938), in which it is said that 80,000 Moors were slain. Abdas, ub-dils, a Persian bishop in the time of the younger Theodosius, who brought upon the Christians a violent persecution, and was the first to fall in it. The clergy called in Theo- dosius, by whom the Persians were worsted; but the persecution raged forty years. Abb-el-Kadeb, iib-del-kai'-der, or ka'-der, the third son of a marabout of the Arab tribe of Hashem, who had risen to influence through his rank, coupled with a great sanctity of demea- nour. The early days of Abd-el-Kader are lost ir. obscurity, and by 1328 he had not only acquired the reputation of a scholar, but that of a saint, from his having twice made a pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet. In Eng- land, however, he is best known by the perse- vering courage with which he opposed the ag- gressions of the French upon his country. Ac- companied by his father, he preached "a holy war, and called upon the faithful to rise anil expel the infidels. In 1832, he found himself at the head of 10,000 warriors, with whom he attacked the town of Oran, but was several times repulsed with great slaughter. Notwith- standing his discomfiture, however, he might be said to be a gainer, for he had not only increased his reputation for skill and bravery, but had OF BTOGRAPHT, Abdelmumem taught his Arabs to face artillery — an act fi\ h which they had hitherto recoiled. In 1834, h entered into a treaty with the French, in which he was recognized as emir of Mascara, with the sovereignty of Oran, and a monopoly of com- merce with the Interior was granted to him. This treaty added to the importance of the emir in the eyes of the natives, who naturally looked npon their chief as a personage of high conse- quence, from his having compelled the enemy to recognize him as a sovereign. His success, however, excited the jealousy and envy of seme of his brothers in arms, who rose against his authority, but whom he was soon enabled to subdue. For a period of fifteen years he con- trived to defend his country, and tight against the encroachments of France, but in 1847 he was compelled to surrender himself a prisoner to General Lamoriciere, on condition of being sent to Alexandria or St. Jean-d'Aci 9. The French government, however, refused to ratify the terms of the treaty, and Abd-el-R vder was con- signed a prisoner to Fort Lamalgv e, at Toulon. After suffering imprisonment for f >ur years, in 1852 Louis Napoleon restored him to freedom, on condition that he would not return to Algiers, or conspire against the French. The brave but fallen Arab consented, and Brussa, in Asia Minor, was assigned him for his future residence. For that place he accordingly set out in 1853, but has since been permitted to remove to Constantinople. In 1855 he visited Paris, to see the Exposition. During the mas- sacre of the Maronites by the Druses in the Lebanon in 1860, the ex-emir exerted his influ- ence with his co-religionists to stay the effusion of blood. In 18G3 he made a pilgrimage to Mecca, and in 1867 he again visited Paris, and stayed a short time in London, b. near Mas- cara, province of Oran, 1807. d. at Mecca 1S73. Abdelmumem:, ub-del'-mu-mem, or Abdal- mom, though the son of a potter, became a general, and at last a monarch, by the style of Emir al Mumenin (head of the true believers). Ac took Morocco, and destroyed the whole of the family of the Almoravides. d. 1102 r Abdebahman. See ABDALBAnMAif, Ben Abdallah. Abdias, cib'-de-as, of Babylon, a pretender to be one of the seventy-two disciples sent out by Jesus Christ, and to have been appointed by Simon and Jude the first bishop of Babylon. — He is the author of a legend entitled "Historia Certaminis Apostolici," printed at B.»ile, 1571. Abdul-Aziz, ub-dul-az'-ez, sultan of Turkey, succeeded his brother Abdul-Medjid, 1861, in virtue of the law of Turkey, by which the eldest male of the family succeeefs in preference to the children of the last occupant of the throne. He was born in 1S30, and was thus 31 years of age at his accession. He appears to be a man of greater energy and force of character than his brother, although he had been, as usual in the Fast, immured in the royal palaces from his in- fancy, and debarred from all intercourse with the world and all share in conducting public affairs, taking no part whatever in the govern- ment of the country. Some of the first acts of his reign, however — such as the reduction of expenditure on the harem, and the dismissal of Riza Pasha and other officials accused of whole- sale peculation, and the appointment to power of men who have some character for honesty and intelligence — certainly indicate that he is alive to the evils under which his empire Abdul-Mejid labours, and is desirous of removing them. He has at all times shown a favourable spirit towards his Christian subjects, who in 1867 were for the first time permitted to hold offices of importance in the Turkish Council of State. The chief event of his reign has been the Cretan insurrection of 1866-8, the Cretans seek- ing separation from Turkey and annexation to Greece, but without much prospect of effecting their purpose. Abdul-Aziz has remodelled the Turkish army after the European system, and has done much to reform the wasteful expen- diture common under former sultans. In July, 1867, ho visited Paris to see the Exhibition, and afterwards spent a short time in Londor this being the first occasion on which aTurkisn sultan had quitted his dominions to visit t>>e w stern nations of Europe, b 1830 ; d. 1 876. Abdul-Mejid, ab-duLmed-jid, sultan of Turkey, succeeded his father, Slahmoud II., on the 1st of July, 1839. Like most of the sons of sultans, he was brought up in the harem, and although his father had desired that he should receive an English education, that sovereign was compelled to resign his wishes, and yield to the power of a Mahometan priesthood, who re- volted against such an innovation upon the established usages of their country. When he ascended the throne, Turkey was in a very pre- carious condition. The minds of its people were unsettled by the reforms of Ins father, whoso resolute will was sufficient to keep in check the spirit of open rebellion, but whose demise no v seemed to have opened a road for a return to t le old system of things. The revolt of Mehemet AH was checked, however, by the interference of the principal European powers, and the ancient dynasty was saved. The dangers from assassi- nation which beset the first few years of the sultan's reign were happily averted, and Abdul- Mejid gradually rose in popular estimation, until he came to be regarded, not only with re- spect, but with affection by his people. Bevolts in different parts of liis dominions were sup- pressed, and the strong desire he always evinced to improve the condition of his subjects, has been testified to by English statesmen, emi- nent themselves in the annals of social reform. However popular the name of the sultan might be in his own country, it was not until the breaking out of the war with Kussia that he came to be more especially regarded in this country with a feeling of deep interest. It had long been considered a design of the emperors of Kussia to appropriate as much of Turkey as possible on the north side of the Bosphorus, and the time seemed to have arrived when an at- tempt should be made to effect the long-coveted object. Accordingly, in 1853, the emperor Nicholas availed himself of a slight dispute which had arisen about the guardianship of the *' Holy Places" to advance his claim to the pro- tectorship of the Greek Cliristians in Turkey. This was refused by the sultan, and the Russian war was the result. The firmness with which the sultan preserved his position throughout this trying period procured for him universal sympathy, and the consequence was, that France and England united with Turkey in repelling the pretensions of Russia. The war was pro- secuted with vigour until 1855, when the allies were joined by a contingent from Sardinia. In the same year Sebastopol fell, and peace was concluded shortly afterwards. Abdul-Mejid, although apparently of a weak and compliant THE DICTIONARY A'Beekett disposition, occasionally showed that he could be lirm when he liked. His refusal to surrender the Hungarian refugees, after the revolution of B48, is a proof of this ; and throughout the Russian war his conduct was marked by many traits which could not fail to give additional lustre to his character in the eyes of his sub- jects, whilst in those of his allies they raised his reputation both as a man and a sovereign. His great fault as a ruler was his extravagance, or rather the weakness that permitted extrava- iranee in others. The sums expended by him on his harem, and in building royal palaces, were immense; and the result was serious embar- rassments in the public finances. He is also accused of advancing unworthy favourites, who practised the most shameless embezzlement with impunity, b. 1823; d. 1861. A'Beckett, Gilbert Abbott, a comic dramatic writer and humourist, was born in Golden- square, London, in 1811. He was the son of i solicitor, was educated at Westminster school, and chose the bar as his profession. He early, however, displayed remarkable talent for comic and burlesque writing, and produced a variety of pieces, which were very popular, both on the stage and when published. He was one of the earliest and most constant contributors to " Punch," for which he wrote the " Adventures of Mr. Dunup," and other witty morceaux. He was also the author of the "Comic lilackstonc," a "Comic History of England," and a "Comic History of Rome." Of a serious character, he produced some works connected with law. In 18-19, he was appointed one of the stipendiary magistrates of London, the duties of which office lie continued to discharge till shortly before his death in 1856. Abedxf.go, ai-bed-ne-cjo, signifying the "ser- vant of light," is the Chaldee name conferred by the king of Habylon's officer upon Azariah, one of the three companions of Dame!. Abeille, Gaspard, a-bail, a native of l?iez, in Provence, who went to Paris when very young, and became secretary to the Marshal de Luxem- bourg. — Known as a writer of odes, epistles, and wme dramatic pieces, r. at Paris in 1718. Abeii.le, Scipio, brother of the above, sur- geon-major in the army, and author of "The Complete Army Surgeon," and a " History of ♦he Hones." d. in 1697. Abel, ai'-bel, signifying "mourning," the second son of our first parents. He was mur- dered by his brother Cain, from envy, because Abel's offering was accepted and Cain's rejected. Abel, Frederic Gotfricd, a German physician and poet, but bred a divine. Not obtaining the preferment he expected, he turned his attention to physic, in which he took his doctor's degree at Konigsberg, and practised at Halberstadt with great reputation. He published a German translation of Juvenal in 1788. b. at Halberstadt ; d. 1791. Abel, king of Denmark, the sonofWalde- mar II. He assassinated his brother Eric IV., in 1250, and took possession of the throne. He was killed (1252) by the Frisons, who revolted against him on account of the heavy taxes im- posed upon them. Abel, Charles Frederic, an eminent German musician, b. 1725; d. in London, 1787. Abel, Gaspard, an historian of Germany, b. •t Hindauberg in 1075; n. 1763. Ab el, Nicholas Henry, a distinguished mathe- matician, was born at Christiana, in Norway, in Abell 1802, and died in 1829. The Swedish govern- ment published his works in 1839, in 2 vols. 4to. Abel, Dr. Clarke, medical officer and historian of Lord Amherst's embassy to China. He was an accomplished naturalist, a close observer of nature, and a profound thinker, besides being characterized by a highly philanthropic mind. D. 1826. Abela, John Francis, ab'-e-la, commander of the order of Malta, and author of a work entitled " Maltha Illustrata," 1647, folio, a description of that island and its antiquities, d. in the 17th century. Abelard, Peter, ab'-e-lar, a celebrated phi- losopher, logician, mathematician, and divine, who has become memorable in biographical annals from the romantic loves which existed between him and ayoung damsel named Heloise. This girl was the? iece of a wealthy canon, named Fulbert, whodesiied thatAbelard should instruct her in philosophy ; but instead of leading her through the intricate paths of learning, he taught her to love, and he liimself became so intoxicated with this passion, that his lectures, which had attracted admiring crowds, lost their charm, and Fulbert, perceiving the cause, turned him from his house. Heloise followed him, and he conveyed her to his sister's in Brittany, where she gave birth to a son, whom she called Astro- labius. Abelard now proposed to Fulbert to marry Heloise, and although he accepted the offer, the lady herself rejected it. She afterwards, indeed, consented to a private marriage, but never would own it, and did not scruple some- times to swear that it was not true. This in- creased greatly the rage of Fulbert ; and Abelard sent her, in consequence, to the monastery of Ar- genteuil, where she put on the religious habit, but did not take the veil, Fulbert now caused Abelard to be cruelly mutilated by ruffians, when he became a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, which he soon left, and retired to Champaigne, where he once more became a successful lec- turer. H is fame procured him numerous enemies, particularly the professors at Kheims, who charged him with heterodoxy on the subject of the Trinity, and he was censured at the council of Soissons, in 1121. Subsequently he erected an oratory in the diocese of Troyes, called the Paraclete, "the Comforter," but was soon driven from it, and next became abbot of Ruys, in the diocese of Vannes, and gave Heloise and some other nuns the Paraclete. After a life of many vicissitudes, Abelard died. Heloise lived many years after him. His body being sent to her after his death, she deposited it in the Paraclete. b. at Palais, near Nantes, 1079 ; d. in the priory of St. Marcelj in 1142. — Pope, in his epistles, and other poets, have immortalized the names of these unfortunate lovers. An elegant Gothic monument to their memory, built of the ruins of the abbey of the Paraclete, is one of the most interesting objects in the cemetery of Pere-la- Chaise, Paris. The principal works of Abelard are composed in Latin, and consist of, "An Address to the Paraclete on the Study of Scrip- ture," "Sermons and Festivals," &c. Abell, John, ai-bell, an English musician, celebrated as a singer and as a player on the lute. Although he gamed considerable sums, his improvidence frequently reduced him to painful necessities. Traveling on one occasion on the continent, he arrived at Warsaw, when he was sent for by the king of Poland to conic to court, Abel!, however, refused to com- OF BIOGRAPHY. Abelly ply, when peremptory orders were given to compel his attendance. On his arrival he was seated in a chair in a spacious hall, and drawn up by machinery to a great height, when the king and his train appeared in a gallery opposite to him. Several wild bears were then turned into ths hall, and the king told him to take his choice, either to sing or be let down among the bears. Abell preferred the former alternative, and used to say that he never sang so well in his life. The year of his death is unknown, but in 1701 he published a collection of songs in several languages. Abellt, Louis, uh'-el-le, a French prelate, who wrote " Medulla Thcologica." He obtained the bishopric of Rodez in 1664, but resigned it three years afterwards, and retired to St. Lazare. B. 1608; d. at St. Lazare, 1691. Abes', Esra, ai-ben, a Jewish scholar, who passed a considerable portion of his life in tra- velling in various countries, and who is best known to us by his commentary on the Old Testament, which he would seem to have written in the Hebrew language between 1140 and 1167. He also wrote on astronomy, philosophy, mathe- matics, medicine, philology, and astrology. He appears to have been possessed of some skill as a poet as well, for he composed a treatise in verse on the game of chess, which was trans- lated by Thomas Hyde, and published at Oxford in 1667. He visited this country in 1159. His own countrymen, the Jews, styled him the great, wise, and admirable doctor. His name in full was Abraham ben Me'ir ben Esra, which is ab- breviated into Aben Esra. n. at Toledo about 1119; d. about 1194. According to some autho- rities he is said to have died at Rhodes in 1174. Aeexdana, Jacob, ab-en-da'->w, a Spanish Jew, and prefect of a synagogue in London, d. x685. — He wrote a Hebrew commentary on several passages of Scripture, which appeared at Amsterdam the same year that he died. Abes gnefil, ub-en-ne'-Jil, an Arabian physi- cian of the 12th century. — Author of a book, a translation of which, entitled, " De Virtutibus MedicinarumetCiborum," was printed atVenice in 1581, folio. ABEN-MELEC.ui'-crc-Mie'-fcfc, a Jewish rabbi. — Author of a Hebrew commentary on the Bible, entitled, " The Perfection of Beauty," Amster- dam, 1661, folio. Aberli, John Louis, (tb'-er-le, a landscape and portrait painter of considerable eminence. b. at Winterthur, 1723; d. at Berne, 1786. Abercrombie, Thomas, ub'-er-krom-be, a Scottish physician, d. 1726.— Author of "Mar- tial Achievements of Scotland," and a " Treatise on Wit." He became the medical adviser of James II. of England. Abercrombie, John, M.D., an eminent Scot- tish physician, was the son of the Rev. Mr. Abercrombie, one of the ministers of Aberdeen. Dr. Abercrombie studied in Edinburgh, then the most distinguished seat of medical education in Great Britain. He took his degree on the 4th of June, 1803, and applying himself diligently to the practice and study of his profession, he soon rose to be one of its most eminent members. He at first practised surgery as well as physic, which was usually done by the Scottish faculty ; but after the death of the celebrated Dr. Gre- gory, in the year 1821, he devoted himself en- tirely to medicine. In 1823 he became a Licen- tiate, and in the following year a Fellow, of the Royal College of Phjruicians. Tho University of Abercroniby Oxford, in 1834, granted him their honorary degree of Doctor of Medicine — an honour seldom conferred on alumni of the northern universities ; and in 1835 he was chosen Lord Kcetor of Marischal College, Aberdeen. He was also physician in ordinary to her Majesty in Scotland, was vice-president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and held numerous other honorary distinctions, chiefly connected with charitable and learned bodies. He was a volu- minous contributor to the literature of his pro- fession, and in the earlier portion of his careei published numerous papers in the " Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal," and other perio- dicals. He subsequently printed several valu- able works — such as " Pathological and Prac- tical Researches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord" (1828) ; " Pathological and Prac- tical Researches into the Diseases of the Intes- tinal Canal, Liver, and other Viscera of the Abdomen" (1829). He next devoted his atten- tion to the higher walks of mental philosophy, and gave the results of his investigations to the world in the shape of two works, entitled re- spectively, " Inquiries respecting the Intel- lectual Powers and the Investigation of Truth" (1830), and "The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings" (1833). These works were at once recognised as of high value, especially as regards the light he threw on the difficult subject of spectral illusions. Dr. Abercrombie died sud- denly from bursting of the coronary artery of the heart on the 14th of November, i814. Abercromby, Sir Ralph, a British general, descended from an ancient family in Scotland. The first commission of Sir Ralph was a cor- netcy in the Guards, and in 1760 he obtained a lieutenancy. Passing through several degrees of rank, which he attained by his great military talents, he was made a Knight of the Bath in 1795. In 1797 he was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general. He was then employed under the Duke of York in the enterprise against Holland, where it was confessed, even by the enemy, that his abilities were of the most brilliant order. It being resolved to send an army to dispossess the French of Egypt, Sir Ralph was appointed to the command of the expedition. He landed at the head of liis troops, March 8th, 1801, and defeated the French at Aboukir. On the 21st of the same month was fought, near Alexandria, a memorable battle, in which the English were again the victors, but in which their general was wounded. Tliis took place early in the action, but he concealed the circumstance from his troops until some time after the battle was over. It was then found to be too late for surgical skill to be of any avail to him. He was immediately conveyed to the ship of the admiral, Lord Keith, where he lin- gered till the 28th, when he expired. His body was conveyed to Malta, and buried under the ramparts of St. Elmo, near the town of Valetta. b. at Menstry, Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 1734; D. 1801.— A monument to his memory is to be seen in St. Paul's Cathedral. Abercromby, Sir Robert, the younger bro- ther of Sir Ralph, for thirty years governor of Edinburgh Castle. t>. 1827. Abercromby, Hon. Alexander, a judge of the courts of session in Scotland, and justiciary of that country, was the youngest son of George Abereromby of Tullibodie, Clackmannanshire. He was born in 1745, called to the Scottish liar in 176.1 where he "ioon distinguished himself THE DICTIONARY Aberdeen In 1792 he was raised to the bench by the title of Lord Abercromby. Besides his eminence as a lawyer and judge, he was an elegant writer, and contributed numerous papers to the Mirror and Xonnr/er, D. 1795. Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, Earl of, ab'-er-deen, succeeded to the title on the death of his grandfather in 1802, and in 1814 was created Viscount Gordon, hi right of which he sat in the House of Lords. On account of his former classic researches into antiquarian re- mains, he was called in Lord Byron's " English Birds and Scotch Reviewers," " the travelled thane, Athenian Aberdeen." It is as a poli- tician and statesman, however, that he is best known. In 1813 he was sent on a special mis- sion to Vienna, and was the means of bringing over Austria to the alliance against France. Subsequently he was recognised as a stanch adherent of the Tory party, and accepted, under the first administration of the Duke of Wel- lington, the office of Secretary for Foreign Affairs, which he retained till the ministry re- signed, in 1830. Wliilst in office he assisted in establishing the independence of Greece. Under the brief administration of Sir Bobcrt Peel (1834-5), he was Colonial Secretary, and on the restoration to power of that statesman, in 1841, he once more became Foreign Secretary, which office he held until the ministry fell, in 1846. On the death of Sir Robert, the Earl of Aberdeen was considered to be the virtual representative of what was known as the Peel party, and on the fall of the Derby ministry, in 1852, he was empowered to form a new administration. This he effected, and he steadily endeavoured to prevent the country from entering upon the conflict with Bussia. All his efforts, how- ever, were unavailing, and war was declared against the northern autocrat. Under the re- mainder of his administration, the public be- lieved that the war was not conducted with that degree of vigour necessary to insure favourable results. Failing to receive sufficient support to enable him to carry out his measures, the earl "• »signed in 1855. He afterwards took no active _nrt in public affairs, and died in Dec, 1860, aged 't, having been born in 1784. As an author, the earl is known by a work entitled, "An Inquiry Into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Archi- tecture," embodying the result of his antiquarian researches in Greece. Abernethy, John, ah'-er-ne-thy, a divine, was born in 16S0, at Coleraine, in Ireland, educated at Glasgow, where he took the degree of JI.A., and then went to Edinburgh, and studied divinity. In 1708 he became pastor of a congregation at Antrim, but subsequently accepted an invitation from the congregation of Wood-street, Dublin. ». at Dublin, 1740. — Two volumes of his sermons were printed at London in 1743, and are held in great estimation. Abernetiiy, John, F.R.S., a surgeon of dis- tinguished practice and reputation. In 1786 ho succeeded 3Ir. Pott as assistant-surgeon at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, and shortly after- wards took the place of that gentleman as lec- turer in surgery and anatomy. On the decease of Sir Charles lilick, his former instructor, Abcrnethy was elected master surgeon, when St. Bartholomew's Hospital began to increase in reputation, and soon acquired a degree of cele- brity far beyond anything it had hitherto at- tained. He was the lirst to enur.ciate and esta- blish the great principle " that local 'Jiseascs are Abington symptoms of a disordered constitution, not pri- mary and independent maladies, and that they are to be cured by remedies calculated to make a salutary impression on the general frame, not by topical dressing, nor any mere manipulations of surgery." To this he added a second, namely, " that this disordered state of the constitution either originates from, or is rigorously allied to, derangements of the stomach and bowels, and that it can only be reached by remedies which first exercise a curative influence upon these organs." These principles revolutionized the whole field of surgery, and raised it from the rank of a manual art to the position of a science. — In private life the character of this eminent man was as spotless as his public life was humane and useful, b. at Abcrnethy, in Scotland, or Derry, in Ireland, 1764; d. 1831. Abgarus, ub'-gd-rii!, king of Edessa, in Mesopotamia. This sovereign, it is said, wrote a letter to our Saviour, and received an answer, which, with the other, is extant and well known. Both letters, however, have been de- clared to be forgeries. Flourished in the time of our Saviour. Abgillus, Hb'-qil-lui, surnamed Prestcr John, a king of the Frisons. He attended Charle- magne to the Holy Land, and did not return with him, but made great conquests in Abys- sinia, which was called from him the empire of Prestcr John. He is said to have written the history of Charlemagne's journey, and of his own to the East. Lived in the 8th century. Abiathar, iii-bi-a-thar, "father of abun- dance," a Jewish high-priest, was the son cf Abimelech, who was killed by Saul. He suc- ceeded his father, and attached himself to David, but, on his death, attempting to put Adonijah on the throne, he was deposed and banished by Solomon, 1014 B.C. Abigail, .atSalamanca,1600. — His "History of the West-ladies," first printed in Spanish, in 1590, 6vo, is universally known and esteemed. Acosta, Uriel, an extraordinary character, who, at the age of twenty-five, was made trea- surer of a Church in Oporto, but, having em- braced Judaism, resolved to quit Portugal, with his mother and brothers, whom he had converted to the same faith. They proceeded to Amster- dam, and were received into a synagogue. Not long alter, becoming dissatisfied with the Jewish rites and expressing his sentiments with freedom, he was excommunicated. He then wrote a book, in which he denied the immortality of the soul ; for winch he was thrown into prison, whence he was bailed; but all the copies of this book were sci" U, and a fine levied upon the author. After lying under excommunication fifteen years, he was, on making submission, re-admitted into the synagogue, but was again expelled for not con- lV/;i:inig to the laws of Moses, and for dissuading l>vo christians from turning Jews. In this state he remained seven years, abandoned by liis friends, and reduced to the utmost destitution. At the end of that time he n.ade another sub- mission, and underwent an extraordinary penalise lit Aetuarius in the synagogue ; where, after making his re- cantation, he was publicly scourged, and had to lay himself down on the threshold, and allow all the people to walk over him. b. at Oporto ; shot himself in 1640, or, according to others, 1647. Acquaviva, Andrew Matthew, duke of Atri and prince of Teramo, in the kingdom of Naples. b. 1456 ; d. 1528. — Was one of the greatest luminaries of his age, and seems to have been the first who conceived the idea of an Encyclc pa;dia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts anj Sciences. He published a work under that nti« in 2 vols, folio, which, though scanty and defec- tive, was found sufficient to give some hints foi conducting a compilation of that kind. AcEAir/s, a-kmi'-tut, a freed man of Nero, sent into Asia to plunder the temples of the gods. Acros", or Acbo, ai-cron, an ancient scholiast on Horace. Lived in the 7th century. — His work is extant in an edition of Horace printed at Basle in 1527, 8vo. Acron, a Sicilian physician who expelled the plague from Athens by burning perfumes. Flourished b.c. 439. Acbon, a king of the Ca?cinenses, who, after the rape of the Sabines, was slain by Romulus in single combat. His spoils were dedicated to Jupiter, under the name of Feretrius, because they were carried on a frame. Acropolita, George, u-kro-pol '-e-ta, a writer on the Byzantine hisiory, who, at the age of twenty-one, disputed with a physician concerning solar eclipses, before the emperor John. He afterwards rose to the rank of chancellor of the empire, b. at Constantinople 1220; d. 1282.— His " Chronicle of the Greek Empire " was printed at Paris, in Greek and Latin, in 1651, folio. Acropolita, Constantine, son of the above, was called the younger Metaphrastes, and was great chancellor of the empire. Flourished about 1270. Act.ecs, ak-tee'-ut, a powerful person who made himself master of a part of Greece, which he called Attica. His daughter Agraulos married Cecrops, whom the Athenians called their first king, though Aetams reigned before him. This word has the same signification as Atticut, an inhabitant of Attica. Actia, aV-te-a, the mother of Augustus. Actis, ak-tis, went from Greece into Egypt, where he taught astrology, and founded Helio- polis. Actisanes, ak-tis -a-nees, a king of Ethiopia, who conquered Egypt, and expelled KingAmasis. He was famous for his equity, which is hi soma measure contradicted by his severity to robbers, whose noses he cut off, and whom he banished to a desert place, where they were in want of all aliment, and lived only upon crows. Actius Navics, ak'-te-us nai'-ve-ns, an augur who cut a whetstone i l two with a razor, before Tarquin and the Roman people, to convince them of his skill in lus art. Acton, Joseph, dk-ton, originally in the French naval service, but subsequently prime minister at the court of Naples, n. at Besancon, France, 1737; d. in obscurity, in Sicily, 1803.— Many of the political persecutions which took place in Naples after the French invasion of 1799 are attributed to the influence of Acton at the Nea- politan court. Actuarius, John, ak'-tu-air'-e-ut, a Greek physician of the Jewish faith, who flourished at Constantinople in the 13th century. — His books on Therapeutics, the Animal Spirits, on THE DICTIONARY Acuna Urines, &c., have been printed together, and in parts. Acuica, Christopher, a-hu'-na, a Spanish Je- suit, many years a missionary in South America. b. at Burgos, 1597. — He published, in 1641, " A Description of the Great Kiver of the Amazons," which was afterwards translated into French, in 2 vols. 12mo, 1682. d. at Lima about 1675. AcusiLAua and Damagetus, ilk-u-se-lai'-us, two brothers, conquerors at the Olympic games. The Greeks covered their father, whose name was Diagoras, with flowers, and proclaimed him happy in having such worthy sons. Acusilaus, a Greek lustorian, who was born at Argos, and flourished at the same time with Cadmus the Milesian (about 1500 B.C.). He composed a work on the genealogies of the prin- cipal families of Greece, from some brazen tablets, which his father was reported to have found while digging in his house. Ada, ai'-da, the wife of Aidricus, and sister to Queen Artemisia. On the death of her husband she succeeded to the throne of Caria, but was expelled by her younger brother, when she re- tired to Alindae, which she gave up to Alexander, after adopting him as her son. Adair, James, a-dair, son of an army agent, and an eminent lawyer. After passing through the usual course of study, in 1774 he was raised io the degree of serjeant-at-law, and on the death of Serjeant Glynne, was chosen recorder of London. On being promoted to be une of his majesty's serjeants-at-law, he resigned the re- cordership, in expectation of higher preferment, but was disappointed, d. 1798. — He 6at as member of parliament, first for Cocketmouth, and afterwards for Higham Ferrars, and wrote two tracts, one entitled " Thoughts on the Dis- mission of Officers for their Conduct in Parlia- ment," and the other, " Observations on the Tower of Alienations of the Crown, before the first of Queen Anne." Adaib, Sir Robert, a statesman who espoused the political views of Mr. Fox. He was the son of Robert Adair, sergeant-surgeon to George J J I. In 1803 he was specially selected for a mission to the Porte, where he successfully negotiated the treaty of the Dardanelles, 180U. In the same year he was appointed ambas- sador at Constantinople, in which he re- mained till 1811. In 1831 he was despatched on a special mission to Prince Leopold, when be- sieged by William, prince of Orange, in Liege. Sir Robert, on seeing the situation of Leopold, pressed him to fly ; but that prince, having only recently been elected to the throne, declined to adopt advice which might so easily have brought discredit on his reign. " I am ready to fight," said he, "but will allow you to nego- tiate." Accordingly, Sir Robert, fastening a handkerchief to a ramrod, went to the hostile army, and in an interview with Prince William, succeeded in obtaining his connivance for Leo- pold to withdraw to Malincs, where Sir Robert accompanied him. b. in London, 1763 ; d. 1855.— Sir Robert married a daughter of the marquis of Hazincourt, in 1S05, but had no issue. In 1802 he represented Appleby, and in 1806-7, Camelford. lie published accounts of two of his missions, and as he was possessed of great information, and had mingled much in the polities of Europe, he was enabled to pene- trate the designs of Russia, and predict many i vents which have since occurred. AuitAKn. or Adllaed, S-dd-lar, cousin-per- Jt Adam man of Charlemagne. In 823 ho founded the abbey of New Corbie, in Saxony, b. about 753; d. 826.— Some fragments of his writings are extant. Adalbeboh, a-dal'-be-ron, archbishop of Rheims, and chancellor under Lothaire and Louis V., who consecrated Hugh Capet on his accession to the throne of France in 987. Adalbebon, bishop of Laon, who contri- buted to the success of the revolution which placed Hugh Capet on the throne, by betray- ing his rival, Charles of Lorraine, "into lua hands. There is a satirical poem of his ex- tant in the tenth volume of the " Historians of France," which contains some curious de- tails of the times in which he lived. Adalbebt, St., archbishop of Prague, and a successful missionary in Hungary, Prussia, and Lithuania, where he was murdered by a pagan priest in the 10th century. — It is af- firmed that Boleslaus, prince of Poland, ran- somed the body of this archbishop with its weight in gold. Adam, ad-am, the father of mankind, was created out of the earth, and placed in the garden of Eden, whence ho was expelled for eating the forbidden fruit. The creation of Adam is generally placed in the year 4004 before Christ. After his exile from Paradise lie lived 930 years. Adam:, Alexander, rector of the Edinburgh High School, and author of several works on Roman history and literature. His " Homan Antiquities" is held in high esteem, and is a class-book in many eminent educational esta- blishments. He also published a Summary of Geography and History, and a Latin Dic- tionary, which was to have been followed by a larger work, which he left unfinished. He held a high position as a scholar and educator, and was at the same time much esteemed for his kindly disposition and unassuming manners. B. 1741 ; D. 1809. Adam, Melchior, a German biographer, born in Silesia, and educated in the college of Bricg. d. 1622. — He published 5 vols, of " Memoirs of Eminent J! en," a work still esteemed. Adam, Scotus, a Scotch monkish historian, educated in the monastery of Lindisfarne. Thence he went to Paris, and became a member of the Sorbonne. He afterwards returned to his native country, and was a monk, first at Mel- rose, and lastly at Durham. Flourished in the 12th century. — Adam Scotus wrote the life of St. Columbus, and that of David I., king of Scotland, which were printed at Antwerp in 1659, folio. Adam, Lambert Sigisbert, a French sculptor. Various works of his are scattered over France, and are greatly admired, b. at Nanev, 1700; d. 1759. Adam, Nicholas, brother of the above, also an eminent artist. He executed the mausoleum of the Queen of Poland, at lionsecours, and some other fine pieces, b. at Nancy, 1705; d. 1773. Adam, Francis Gaspard, a younger brother of the above, who followed the same occupation with his brothers. He went to Prussia, where he gained a great reputation. B. at Nancy, 1710 ; d. at Paris, 1759. Adam, a canon of Bremen, lived in the 11th century. — His work, entitled "llistoria 1'ccle- siastica Eeclesiaj Hamburgensis et Bremensis," was printed in 1670, 4to. Adam Bit.laut, a French poet, originally a joiner of Severs, and patiODized by Cardinal OF BIOGRAPHY. Adam Richelieu, who gave him a pension, d. 1662. His poems are now extremely scarce. Adam, Robert, an architect, who studied in Italy, and on his return was made architect to King George III., which office he resigned, in 1763, on becoming a member of Parliament. He gave a new turn to the architecture of this count ry, and procured great fame by the number and elegance of his designs, b. at Kirkaldy, Fifeshire, 1723 ; r. 1792. Adam represented in Parliament the county of Kinross, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He and his bro- ther were the first to make use of stucco in London, as an imitation of stone. Adam, Thomas, an English divine, who at Hertford College, Oxford, took his degree of li.A. On entering into orders, he obtained the living of Wintringham, in Lincolnshire, of which he continued rector fifty-eiadit years, though he might have had considerable prefer- ment; but being opposed to pluralities, he re- fused every oiler of promotion, b. at Leeds, 1701 ; D. at Wintringham, 1781.— He published a paraphrase of the first eleven chapters of the Romans, 8vo. His other works are lectures on the Church Catechism, a volume of sermons, and a posthumous collection of " Thoughts," to which his life is prefixed. Adam, William, an eminent lawyer, who. after being a member of Parliament, and filling seve- ral important legal offices in England, as well as that of Chancellor of the Duchy of Cornwall under the Grey and Grenville administration, in 1806, was appointed chief commissioner of the Jury Court of Scotland, on its institution in 1316. He was proprietor of the estate of Blair- Adam in Kinross-shire, from the mansion of which there is a remarkably fine view of llonarty-hill and its environs. Sheridan once paid .Mr. Adam a visit here, and was so pleased with the quiet beauty of the scenery around him, that he wrote the following couplet with a diamond on a window in his room — " Happy the man, who, free from all party, Looks from his window on bonny lionarty." B. 1757 ; D. 1S39. Adam, Adolphe Charles, a distinguished French composer, the son of a professor at the Conservatoire, was early placed under the care of Boieldieu to acquire a knowledge of pianism. Adolphe, however, soon turned his attention to musical composition, in which he displayed emi- nent ability. In 1829, his first opera, " Peter and Catherine," was produced; in 1830, lps "Danilowa;" and in 1830, his "Postilion of Longjumeau." M. Adam is also author of se- veral lighter pieces, besides being a skilful pianist, b. in Paris, 1803; d. 1856. Adams, Sir Thomas, ild'-ams, Lord Mayor of London, and brought up a draper in thai city. In 1609 he was chosen an alderman, and in 1615 served the office of lord mayor. He was so noted for his loyalty, that the republicans searched his house in hopes of finding King Charles I., and, though disappointed, they con- fined Adams in the Tower. He sent Charles II. £10,000 during his exile, and when the restora- tion was resolved on, he was appointed by the City to wait on that sovereign, who knighted him at the Hague, and in 1601 created him a baronet, b. at Wcm, Shropshire, 1566 ; d. 1007. — After his death, a stone was taken from him weighing twenty-five ounces, which is now in the laboratory at Cambridge. He founded a ichool at Wcm, and an Arabic professorship nt 1$ Adams Cambridge, and was at the expense of printing the Gospels in Persian, and sending them to the East. Adams, Thomas, A.M., a fellow of Brazenosi! College, Oxford, who was ejected in 1662 for nonconformity. He then became chaplain to Sir Samuel Jones, of Shropshire, and afterward* to Lady Clare, in Northamptonshire, d. in 1670.— He wrote " Protestant Union, or Princi- ples of Religion," a very useful work. Adams, Richard, A.M., was also educated at Brazenose College, Oxford, and afterwards had the living of St. Mildred, Bread-street, London, whence he was ejected in 1662. d. in 169S. — He was one of the editors of Charnock's works, and helped to finish Matthew Poole's annotations on the Bible. Adams, John, an eminent American states- man, who took an active part in effecting the independence of his country. Before the rup- ture between Great Britain and America he practised as a lawyer, and, in 1770, met in con- vention at Boston, when the British govern- ment had announced their in'.ention of station- ing a military force in that city, to make the people submit to the new imposts on tea, glass, paper, &c. In 1773 he became a member of the Council of State, and devoted all his energies to promote the cause he had espoused. He advo- cated and seconded the Declaration of Inde- pendence, which was passed on the 4th of Julv, 1776,and which had been drawn up by Mr. Jell'er- son. In 1780 he represented the United States in Holland, and in 1782 co-operated with Franklin and the other American commissioners in negotiating a treaty of peace with the mother country. In 17S5 he became the first ambas- sador from the United States to Great Britain, and in that capacity had his first audiense with George III. on the 2nd of June. He staved in England till 1787. In 1789, when Washington was elected president, he was made vice-presi- dent, and in 1793 had the same office again con- ferred on him. In 1797, on the retirement of Washington, he was chosen president, and at the close of his term of four years, being defeated by Jefferson in the eandidateship for re-election, he retired from public life. b. at Braintree, near Boston, Massachusetts, 1735; d. at Quiney, 1826.— It was on the 50th anniversary of tlie Declaration of American Independence that Mr. Adams died, and Jefferson, his coadjutor in lav- ing the foundations of the great commonwealth of the Js ew World, expired on the same day. As an author, Mr. Adams is known by a work entitled "A Defence of the Constitution and Government of the United States," which, in a new dress, again appeared with the title of a " His- tory of the Piincipal Republics of the World." Adams, John Quincy, the eldest son of the second President of the United States. He re- presented his country at Berlin, and in 1S11 was plenipotentiary of the United States at the con- gress of Vienna. In 1S15 he was ambassador at the court of St. James's. In 1317 he became secretary, and in 1325 President, of the Union, in which office he was succeeded by General Jackson. B.in Boston, Mass., 1707; d. at Wash- ington, 1813.— Mr. Adams published, in a vo- lume, a series of letters on the state of Silesia, which were the result of his observations made while on a tour through that country. He was a warm advocate of the abolition of slavery. Adams, Charles Francis, son of the preceding Amercan statesman, educated at St, Peters- THE DICTIONARY Adams Addison burg and London, and a graduate of Harvard University. He was candidate for the Viee- Presideuuhip of the United States, with Mr. Van Duren, in 1843. In 1861 he succeeded Mr. Dallas as American minister at the court of St. James's, a post which he held until 1868, when he was recalled, b. at Boston, Mass., Aug. 18, 1807. Adams, John, the " Patriarch of Pitcairn a Island " and one of the mutineers in his ma- jesty's ship Bounty, 1789. He settled, with several other of the mutineers and some Ota- heitans, on Pitcaira's Island, where, after the death or destruction of his English compa- nions, he became, from a rough and desperate character, a humane and religious man ; he in- troduced Christianity and the laws of marriage amongst those that were, with him on the island, and regulated the community entirely upon Christian principles, d. 1829. — A portrait of Adams, whose original name was Smith, and a fac-siuiile of his handwriting, were published in Captain Beechey's " Voyages." Circum-r stances made him, as they do most celebrated men, an extraordinary character. Adams, John Couch, an astronomer, and one of the discoverers of the planet Neptune. He became president of the Astronomical Society, and in 1848 received the Copley medal, as the highest scientific award of the Royal Society. b. in a small farmhouse in the Bodmin Moors, Cornwall, about 1817. Adams, Samuel, a member of the American Congress, and one of the warmest advocates of the political separation of that country from Britain, b. 1722 ; d. 1S03. Adams, Lieutenant-General, a distinguished soldier, who fought under Wellington in India, and who, for his meritorious services, was gra- dually promoted to the rank of lieutenant-gene- ral, d. in Pembroke, 1834.— The death of this soldier occurred under melancholy circum- stances. He was shooting on his own estate, when his fowling-piece, accidentally discharging itself whilst he was getting over a hedge, blew one side of his head completely oft'. Adamson, Patrick, dd-atn-»un, a Scotch pre- late, who, passing through several vicissitudes In various countries in which he travelled, re- turned to his own in 1573, and became minister of Paisley. In 1575 he sat as commissioner for •ettling the government of the church, and soon after was appointed to the see of St. Andrew's, on which he was violently persecuted by the Pres- byterians. In 1583 he was sent ambassador to Queen Elizabeth; but on his return to Scotland, in 1584, he found the Presbyterian party very violent, and at a synod, in 1566, they excom- municated him. The king also alienated the revenues of his see, and thereby reduced him and his family to a wret'jhed condition. His works have been collected and published in 4to. b. at Perth, 1513; d. 1591, — Adamson wrote a Latin poem on the birth of James VI., for which he was arrested at Paris, and confined six months. Whilst under concealment, at an inn in Bourges, for seven months, he employed himself in trans- biting the book of Job into Latin verse, and in writing a tragedy in the same tongue, founded on the life of Herod of Jewry. Aiia.nsox, Michael, dcf-an-iun, a French na- turalist, cf Scotch extraction, who is supposed to have imbibed bis love of natural history from Ins preceptors, the celebrated Kcaumur an:i Uernard de Jussicu. His genius being of that ■rtive kind which dclighta in adventure, in his 10 21st year he set out on a voyage to Senegal, where he spent five years in making collections illustrative of his favourite pursuits. In 1753 be returned to Paris, greatly reduced in circum- stances ; but it is to be presumed that his vastly increased fund of knowledge helped to restore his fortunes. He continued to pursue his studies until the breaking out of the French revolution, which involved him in ruin. We find him, after this, so poor that, on being invited to become a member on the establishment of the Institute of France, he was compelled to refuse, because he could not make his appearance, for-the " want of shoes." About the close of his life he enjoyed • small pension from the French government. b. at Aix, in Provence, 1727 ; d. at Paris, 1806. — Adanson wrote a work entitled " The Natural History of Senegal," and another under the name of " The Families of Plants," in which he advocated a system of classification different from that of Linnaeus. For many years pre- vious to his death, he entertained the plan of producing an " Encyclopaedia of Natural His- tory," to be embellished with 40,000 figures; but it fell to the ground. Adanson was a great friend to civil liberty, and an ardent philanthro- pist, being among the first to advocate slave emancipation. . Addington, Anthony, iitf-ing-ton, a physi- cian who settled at Heading, where he had considerable practice, particularly in cases of insanity, b. 1713; d. 1790.— Wrote an "Es- say on the Scurvy, with the Method of pre- serving Water Sweet atSca,"8vo; another on " Mortality among Cattle," 8vo ; and a pamplilet concerning a negotiation between Lord Chatham and Lord Bute, 8vo. He was the father of Viscount Sidmouth. Addijtgton, Henry. (See Sidmouth, Lord.) Addison, Lancelot, ad-de-tun, a divine, who was sent to Queen's College, Oxford, where he took his degrees in arts. He was chosen ono of the terras filii at the Act in 1658, but being satirical on the men in power in his oration, be was obliged to ask pardon on his knees. He soon after quitted Oxford, and lived retired till the Restoration, when he became chaplain to the garrison at Dunkirk ; and ir. 1663, to that at Tangier. He returned to England in 1670, and was made chaplain in ordinary to his majesty. Shortly afterwards he obtained the living of Mil- ston, in Wiltshire, and a prebend in the cathedral of Salisbury. In 1683 he was promoted to the deanery of Lichfield, b. at Crosby Ravens- worth, Westmoreland, 1632 ; d. 1703.— He is the author of " An Account of the Present State of the Jews," and a " Description of West Iiarbary," which show him to have been a man of learning and observation. Addison-, Joseph, son of the above, was, after receiving the rudiments of his education, sent to the Charter-house, where he contracted an intimacy with Sir Kit-hard Steele. In 1687 he was admitted at Queen's College, Oxford, but afterwards was entered at Magdalen. In 1693 he took Ids degree of M.A., and became eminent for his Latin poetry. At the age of 22 he ad- dressed some verses to Dryden, in English, and not long after published a translation of part of Virgil's fourth " Georgic." About this time he wrote the arguments prefixed to the several books of Dryden's Virgil, and composed the " Essay on the Georgics." In 1695 he addressed a poem to King William, which recommended him to Lord Somers. In 1699 he obtained a OP BIOGRAPHY. Adelaide pension of £300 a year, to enable him to travel. ile made the tonr of France and Italy, improving his mind to the best advantage, as appears from his " Letter to Lord Halifax," which is con- sidered the most elegant of his poetical works, and his " Travels iu Italy," which he dedicated, en his return, to Lord Somers. He came home in 1702, and found his old friends out of oflice. In 1701 he was introduced to Lord Godolphin as a fit person to celebrate the victory of Blen- heim, and produced " The Campaign," for which be was rewarded with the place of commissioner of appeals. Next year he went to Hanover with Lord Halifax, and soon after was appointed under-secretary of state. The rage for Italian operas which then prevailed, induced him to write his " Rosamond." When the marquis of Wharton went to Ireland as lord-lieutenant, Addison accompanied him as secretary, and was made keeper of the records there, with a salary of £300 a year. While he was in Ireland, Steele commenced the *' Tatler," to which Ad- dison liberally contributed. This was followed by the " Spectator," which he also enriched by his contributions, distinguished by one of the letters of the word clio. In 1713 his tragedy of " Cato" was brought upon the stage, amidst the plaudits of both Whigs and Tories. At this time the " Guardian " appeared, to which Addison contributed those papers which are marked thus C3-. An attempt was afterwards made to revive the " Spectator," but after the publication of eighty numbers, the work was relinquished. Addison's quota amounts to about a fourth part of this second attempt. In 1715 he began the " Freeholder," and continued it till the middle of the next year, in defence of the government. In 1710 he married the Countess Dowager of Warwick, to whose son he had been tutor ; but the marriage did not prove happy. In 1717 he became secretary of state, which office he soon resigned, on a pension of £1500 a year. In his retirement he planned a tragedy on the death of Socrates, but did not execute it. What was perhaps more in accordance with his sentiments, he commenced " A Defence of the Christian Iieligion," part of which appeared after his death, and makes us regret that he did not live to perfect it. He also conceived the plan of an English dictionary, to be carried out in the manner subsequently adopted by Ur. Johnson. In 1719 he engaged in a political dispute with Steele, whom, in his pamphlet of the "Old Whig," he contemptuously styled "Little Dicky." b. at Milston, Wilts, 1672; d. at Holland ilouse, 1710.— It is to be regretted that the same year which witnessed the demise of Addison should have been clouded by a dis- pute between him and his old friend and co- adjutor, Steele. It is said that when he felt the finger of death upon him, he sent for Lord Warwick, and, affectionately pressing his hand, whispered, "See in what peace a Christian can die !" He left only one daughter, who died, unmarried, in 1797. Dr. Johnson says, " Who- ever wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison." His style, however, is deficient in force. Adelaide, Madame, ad'-e-luld, an aunt of Louis XVI. of France. On the 19th of February, 1791, she, with her sister Victoire, fled from the horrors of the French revolution, and sought an asylum in Home, Naples, and several other 17 Ader p!a 'Cs, without success. At length they arrived at Corfu, where they obtained protection until the Russian general Outschacoff took them to Trieste, where they fixed their residence. Vic- toire died in 1799, and her sister followed her to the grave nine months afterwards. Adelaide, Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline, wife of William IV., and queen of England. She was sister to the duke of Saxe-Jleiningen, and was married July 11, 1818. She was a lady pos- sessed of many exalted virtues, and was a liberal benefactress of the poor. n. 1792; d. 1849. Adelard, ad'-e-lar, a monk of Bath, who tra- velled into Egypt and Arabia, and translated the " Elements of Euclid" out of Arabic into Latin, before any Greek copies of that celebrated work had been discovered. He also translated and wrote several other treatises on mathemati- cal and medical subjects, which are to be seen in MS. in the libraries of Corpus Christi and Trinity colleges, Oxford.— Flourished in the 12th century. Adklboid, (iJ-el-bold, a bishop of Utrecht, who wrote the life of Henry II., emperor of Germany, which is still extant, d. 1027. Adel'er, Ourtius, ud'-e-lei; also named Sir- vesen, a Norwegian, who, after serving in the Dutch navy, entered the Venetian service, in which he was raised to the rank of admiral, and, subsequently, was made a knight of St. Mark, and obtained a pension for his meritorious con- duct. On leaving the Venetian service, he went to Amsterdam, where he married a lady of rank. We next find him admiral-in-chief of the Danish fleet, and created a noble, b. 1622; d. at Copen- hagen, 1675. Adelgreiff, John Albrecht, act-el-qrccf, a German, supposed to be a magician, whose re- puted blasphemous fanaticism and sedition caused him to be put to death at Konigsburg, 1636. Adelmah, ad' -el-man, a bishop of Brescia, who wrote a letter on the Eucharist, which is in a collection printed at Louvain in 1501, in 8vo. d. 1062. Adelmus, ai'-rfel'-phus, a disciple of Plato, and the originator of a singular theory, com- pounded of the doctrines of Plato, the Gnostics, and others; he was greatly followed, though opposed by Plotinus.— Flourished iu the third century. Adelujtg, Johann Christoph, M-e-limg, a universal linguist and grammarian, who finished his education at the university of Halle. He became professor in the Evangelical Gymnasium at Erfurt, which appointment he resigned in 1761, on account of a religious dispute with the Catholic town magistrates. He then went to Leipsic, where he supported himself by literature till 1787, when he was appointed to the oflice of principal librarian at Dresden, b. at Spantckon, in Pomerania, in August, 1732; d. at Dresden, September, 1806. — He is best known by his " Grammatical and Critical Dictionary." Ademar, ild'-e-mar, a monk, who wrote ? " Chronicle of France," which was published by Labbe. d. 1030. Adeodatus, ai-de'-o-dai-fiis, "God's-gift," a pious and charitable pontiff, who obtained 'the tiara in 672. b. at Rome ; d. 670. Ader, William, a-der, a physician of Toulouse, who wrote a book entitled, "De vEgrotis et Morbis Evangelicis ;" in which ho proves that the diseases healed by our Sa^ iour were incura- ble by medicine,— Flourished in Hie 17th century THE DICTIONARY Adet Adret3 Adet, P. A., a'-dai, an envoy who represented Franee in the United States, 1796. He is known both as an original writer on chemistry and as a translator; he suggested new chemical charac- ters and nomenclature. Adganestrics, ad-gan-es'-lre-us, a prince of Gaul, who sent to Home for poison to destroy Arminius, and was answered by the senate that the Romans fought their enemies openly, and did not use perfidious measures. Adhad-Eddoulat, ad'-ka-ed'-doo-la, a Per- sian emperor who succeeded his uncle, Amad- Eddoulat, and by his conquests greatly enlarged his territories. In 977 he took Bagdad, and increased its beauty by the erection of hospitals, mosques, and other public works, d. 982.— This emperor was a friend to literature, and gave great encouragement to poets and men of learn- ing. Adhelme. tid-helm, son of Kenred and nephew of Ina, king of the West Saxons, lie became abbot of Malmcsbury, was the first bishop of Sherborne, as he was also the first Englishman who wrote in Latin, and the first who introduced poetry into tliis country, d. 709, and was ca- nonized. Adhemae, William, ad-he'-mar, a celebrated poet of Provence, d. about 1190. Adiaiokix, ai-de-at'-o-rix, a governor of Galatia, who, to gain Antony's favour, slaugh- tered, in one night, all the inhabitants of the Roman colony of Heraclea, in Pontus. He was made prisoner at Actium, and after being led in triumph by Augustus, was strangled in prison. Adijiantus, dd-e-mcni'-tus, one of the sect of the Aianichees, who denied the authority of the Old Testament, in a book which was answered by St. Augustine.— Flourished at the end of the 3rd century. Adimari, Raphael, ad-e-ma-re, an Italian author, who wrote the history of Rimini. Nourished in the 10th century. Adimaei, Alexander, a Florentine poet, who acquired a high reputation, n. at Florence, 1579 ; d. 1619. Adlkk, Jaro*! George, ad'-!er,a D-mish ori- entals and philo-oph'er. He produced a work entitled "M^eum Cuflcum," and -ever»lw rk- on the lang.a->e, laws, and rues of the Jews. B. 1755; d. 1805. Adi.er, Philip, a German engraver, and ap- parently ihe t under of the school which cave rise to tlieHopfersand Hollar.— He nourished inthelothoen. n. 14S4; date of death unknown. Adleefet.dt, Gustavus, ad'-ler-felt, a gentle- man of the bedchamber of Charles XII. of 8weden,whose history he wrote withgreat fidelity. E. at Stockholm. Fell at the battle of Pultowa, j 709.— A French translation of his history was published in 1740. Adlzreiitee, John, adl-zreil-ter, a German, chancellor of Bavaria, who wrote the annals of that country in Latin.— Flourished in the 17th century.— His " Annals" were printed at Leip- jic in 1710, folio. Adolfi, Giaeomo and Giro, brothers, a-dol'-fe, Italian painters of Bergamo, where they flou- rished in the first half of the 18th century. Ado, a-do, archbishop of Vienne, in Dau- phiny. d. 875, aged 75.— He wrote a "Uni- versal Chronicle," printed at Paris, 1522, and at Iiome in 1715, folio; and a "Martyrology," published in 1613. ADOLPJtATi, a-dol-fa'-te, an Italian musician, rho composed a piece in which there were 18 two kinds of time — one of two notes, and the other of three — in the same air. He wac, besides, both the author and composer of several operas. Adolphus, John, ii-dol'-fut, a barrister of considerable standing in the criminal courts, being a ready speaker, a sharp advocate, and ■» sound lawyer. He was leading counsel in the Thistlewood conspiracy of 1820, in which case he greatly distinguished himself, although he was retained for the conspirators but a few hours before the trial of the prisoners, b. 1770; d. 1845. — As an author, Adolphns is known by a " History of England from the Accession of George III." He was also the author of the "Political State of the British Empire," "Bio- graphical Memoirs," and fugitive pieces and pamphlets now forgotten. Adolphus, Count of Nassau, elected emperor of Germany in 1292. His rapacity and tyran- nical conduct caused a confederation to be formed against him, at the head of which was Albert, duke of Austria. He fell in battle, July 2, 1293. Adolmus, Count of Cloves, who instituted the Order of Fools, 1330, which consisted of the principal noblemen of Cleves, and which has long since ceased to exist. Adolphus, G., a warlike duke of Holstein, and son of Frederick, king of Denmark, n. 152G ; D. 1586. — His name frequently occurs in the military transactions of Germany. Adolphus-Frederick II. of Holstcin-Got- torp, king of Sweden, succeeded his father in 1751. He reformed the laws, and encouraged learning and the arts of peace, b. 1710; d. 1771. — This sovereign instituted, at Tornea, in Lapland, an academy of inscriptions and belle*- lettres. Ado^i-bezek, ad-o'-ni-le'-zelc, king of Bezek, in Chnaan. He was a cruel prince, on account of which his thumbs and great toes wero cut oil by the tribes of Judah and Simeon, after they had defeated him in a great battle. ». at Jeru- salem, b.c. 1443. Adonijah, ad'-o-ni-ja, the fourth son of King David, by Haggith. He aimed at his father's crown, but Solomon was proclaimed king of Israel, when Adonijah fled to the tabernacle for protection. B.C. 1015. Adohne, Francis, ad-orn, a Jesuit of Genoa, who wrote a treatise on ecclesiastical discipline. D. 15S6. Adeamjielech, iid-ram'-c-lel; "magnificence of the king," a son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, slain by his sons, n.c. 713. Adrastus, Ud-riit'-tua. There are many oi this name in ancient history, the most remark- able of whom is the son of Talaus and Lysi- mache, and who was king of Argos. Polynieca being banished from Thebes by his brother Etcoclcs, lied to Argos, where he married Argia, daughter of Adrastus. The king assisted his son-in-law, and marched against Thebes with an army led by seven of his most famous generals. All perished in the war except Adrastus, who. with a few men who were saved from slaughter, fled to Athens, and implored the aid of Theseus against the Thebans, who opposed the burying of the Argives fallen in battle. Theseus went to his assistance, and was victorious. — Adrastus, after a long reign, died through grief, occasioned by the death of his son yEgialeus. A ;cmple wap raised to his memory at bicyon. ADiiiiis, Francis de Beaumont, jcrcn :ic4 OF BIOGRAPHY. Adria ud'-iiu, a violent Huguenot, who signalized nimself by many daring exploits, as well as cruelties. He subsequently became a Catholic, but died as he had lived, in general detestation. d. 1587.— At some places he obliged his pri- soners to throw themselves from the battle- ments, upon the pikes of his soldiers. Re- proaching one for retreating twice from the fatal leap, " Sir," replied the man, " I defy you, with all your bravery, to take it in three." This keen rejoinder saved his life. Adria, John James, ad'-re-a, a Sicilian writer, who became physician-general to Charles V. of Spain, d. 15(50. Adrian, Marie, a-dre-am, a female who, at the age of 10, defended her native town of Lyons with the utmost valour throughout the whole time of its being besieged, in 1793, by the French army of the Convention. At the close of the siege she was arrested and executed, with many others, who had so bravely exerted them- selves, for a period of two months, in defence of the beleaguered city. Adrian, Publius iElius, ai-dre-an, one of the greatest of the Roman emperors. He entered early into the army, and became tribune of a legion, when he married Sabina, the heiress of Trajan, whom he accompanied in his expedi- tions, and became successively prsetor, governor of Pannonia, and consul. On the death of Trajan, in 117 a. d., he assumed the government, made peace with the Persians, and remitted the debts of the Roman people. No monarch in- formed himself more by travelling than Adrian. In 120 he visited Gaul, whence he passed over to Britain, where he erected a wall extending from the Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tync. The object of this was to secure the Roman province from the incursions of the Caledonians. On leaving Britain he went into Africa and Asia, and in 125 A.ft. was initiated into the Eleusi- nian mysteries at Athens. This, as a matter of course, according to Greek superstition, secured him an abode in the Elysian fields after his death. In his reign the Christians underwent a dreadful persecution. He built a temple to Jupiter, on Mount Calvary, and placed a statue of Adonis in the manger of Bethlehem ; he also had images of swine engraved on the gates of Jerusalem, all of which acts indicate a contempt for Christianity, b. a.d. 76; d. at Baia?, 133.— On his deathbed ho composed some Latin verses, addressed to his soul, which betray his uncertainty with regard to a future state. He had great virtues, which were, however, blended with as great vices. He adopted as his son Titus Antoninus, on condition that ho should adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, all of whom succeeded to the purple. Adrian, an author who wrote an introduc- tion to the Scriptures in Greek, printed at Augsburg in 1602, 4to ; and in Latin, in 1030, folio. Lived in the fifth century. Adrian, a Carthusian monk, known by a treatise, entitled "Dellcmediis Utriusque For- tune," printed at Cologne in 1171, folio. Adrian I., one of a L'oman patrician family, elected to the pontificate in 772. He sanctioned the worship of images, which had been allowed in a council held at Nice, in 787, but which was opposed by the kings of France and England. D. 795. Adrian II., an ecclesiastic who succeeded to the papal chair in 867. He contended, without success, for superiority over the patriarch of 19 Adrian de Castello Constantinople and the crowned heads of the West, b. at Home ; d. 872. Adrian III., a Roman, raised to the pontifi- cate in 881, but died the next year, on his journey to a diet at Worms. Adrian IV., the only Englishman wlio was ever raised to the dignity of tho papal chair. His name was Nicholas Breakespeare ; and for some time he filled a mean situation in the mo- nastery of St. Alban's. Being refused the habit in that house, he went to France, and became a clerk in the monastery of St. Rufus, in Pro- vence, of which ho was afterwards chosen abbot. Eugenius III. created him a cardinal in 1116, and in 1118 sent him legate to Denmark and Norway, which nations he converted to the Christian faith. In 1151 he obtained the tiara, and Henry II., king of England, sent the abbot of St. Alban's, with three bishops, to congra- tulate him. Adrian, forgetting the slight formerly put upon him by the brethren of Si. Alban's, granted considerable privileges to that monastery, and a bull to Henry for the conquest of Ireland. In 1155 he excommunicated the king of Sicily; and about the same time, tho emperor Frederic, meeting him near Sutrium, held his stirrup while he mounted his horse. With this act his holiness seems to have been pleased, for he took the emperor to Uome with him, and consecrated him king of the Romans in St. Peter's church. The next year the king of Sicily submitted, and was absolved, b. at Langley, near St. Alban's; d., supposed of poison, 1159. — Adrian, by his active conduct, left the papal territory in a better state than lie found it, and bequeathed to posterity some letters and homilies still extant. Adrian V. ascended the papal throne in 1270. He was despatched as legate to England in 1251, and again in 1265, to settle the disputes between Henry III. and his barons, b. at Genoa; d. 1276. — He only lived thirty-eight days after his election. Adrian VI., a Dutchman, was educated on charity at Louvain. The bishopric, of Tortosa was conferred upon him by Ferdinand, king of Spain ; and his successor Charles, during his minority, chose him to be regent. When that prince became emperor, by tho title of Charles V., he placed unlimited confidence in Adrian, who, on the death of Leo X., in 1522, was elected pope. n. at Utrecht, 1459 ; d. 1523. Adrian de.Castkli.o, an Italian, who, passing through several employments, it is presumed without success, at last' found his way to Eng- land, where Henry VII. first made him his agent at Rome, then gave him the bishopric of Here- ford, and afterwards that of Bath and Wells. lie farmed out his bishopric, preferring to live at Pome, where he built a superb palace, which he left to the king of England and his successors. Alexander VI. created him cardinal in 1503 ; soon after which he narrowly escaped being poisoned, with others of his order, at a feast given by the pope and his son Ccesar Borgia. Engaging in a plot against Pope Leo X., into which he was led by tho prediction of a fortune-teller, that Leo should die a violent death, and be succeeded by one Adrian, ho was fined 12,500 ducats, and prohibited from leaving Pome. However, in 1518, he fled from that city and was excommuni- cated. At this time he went to Venice; but what became of him afterwards is unknown. Polydore Virgil says he ended his days at Riva. in the diocese of Treut ; and gives him a high C 2 THE DICTIONARY Adriani character for erudition, b. at Cornet o, in Tus- cany. 1450. Adriani, John Baptist, a-ire-d-ne, a Floren- tine who wrote the history of his own times in Italian, b. at Florence, I0O6 ; d. there, 1579. Adriani, Marcel Virgil, a chancellor of the republic of Florence, and an expert scholar in the Greek and Latin languages, lie translated Dioscoridcs from the former into the latter, b. 1461; D. 1521. Adriani, Marcel, secretary to the Florentine republic, and son of the above chancellor, b. at Florence, 1513; d. 1579. — He wrote a "History of his Own Times," which has considerable merit. Adkiano, a-dre-a'-vo, a Carmelite friar, of Cordova, in Spain, and a painter of some cx- ecllence, who destroyed his works almost as soon as he had finished them. d. 1650. Adricdomia, Cornelia, iid-re-ko'-me-a, a Dutch nun of a noble family, who in the sixteenth cen- tury wrote a poetical version of the Psalms. Adrichomius, Christian, iid-rt>-l-o-me-w>, a Dutch author, who wrote a description of the Holy Land, and a chronicle of the Old and New Testaments, published in 1593. b. at Delft, 1533 ; D. at Cologne, 1585. Adbiansen, Alexander, a Flemish artist, who was peculiarly excellent as a painter of fruit, flowers, marble vases, and fish. He was also a good colonrist. b. at Antwerp about 1025. Adry, J. F., a'-dre, a professor of rhetoric in France, and a voluminous author, b. 1719; d. 1818. — Among his works we may notice his " Life of the Duchess of Sehombcrg ;" a " Bio- graphy of Malebranche," and a "History of Vittoria Accarambono." Adsox, act-siu), abbot of Lnxcuil, who was the author of a book on the Miracles of St. Wan- (1 albert, and of another concerning Antichrist. — Lived in the 10th century. ..Edesius, e-de'-se-v$, a Platonic philosopher, who succeeded Iambliehus as teacher of philoso- phy in Cappadoeia. He pretended to hold com- munion with the deities. Flourished in the 4th century. .Egeates, John, e-ji/-a-tee», aXestorian monk, who wrote an ecclesiastical history, and a trea- tise against the council of Clialcedon. Flourished in the 5th century. ylCom's, e-je '-vs, kinir of Athens, son of Pan- dion, being desirous of having children, went to consult the oracle, and in his return stopped at the court of Pitthous, king of Troezenc, who pave him his daughter .Ethra in marriage. He left her pregnant, and told her if she had a son to send him to Athens as soon as he could lift a stone under which he had concealed his sword. By this sword the son was to be known to yEgeus, who did not wish to make any public discovery of off- spring, for fear of his nephews, the Pa 11 an tides, who expected his crown, jEthra became mother of Theseus, whom she accordingly sent to Athens with his father's sword. At that time yFgeus lived with Medea, the divorced wife of Jason. When Theseus came to Athens, Medea attempted to poison him ; but he escaped, and upon show- ing .F.geus the sword he wore, discovered him- self to be his son. The .Egean Sea is supposed by some to be called after him. Theseus had agreed with JEgeus, that on his return from Crete, he should hoist white sails, as a signal of his having subdued the Minotaur; forget- ting to do so, his disconsolate father, at the sight of the b'ai k sails, threw himself into the iElianus sea. iEgeus reigned forty-eight years, and died B.C. 1235. jEgialeus, e-ji-a-le-us, son of Adrastus, by Amphitea, was one of the Epigoni, or sons of the seven generals who were killed in the first Thcban war. They went against the Thebans, who had refused to give burial to their fathers, and were victorious. They all returned homo safe except .flSgialeus, who was killed. This expedition is called the War of the Epigoni. JEgidics, Petrus Albicnsis, e-jid'-c-us, an Asiatic and African traveller, who wrote a de- scription of Thrace and Constantinople, together with other works. r>. 1555. yEoidips Atheniensis, a Greek ecclesiastic and physician, who wrote several books, the chief of "which are, " De Pulsibusct de Vencnis." Flourished in the 8th century. JEgidiusbe Column a, a monk of the Augus- tine order, who taught divinity at Paris with great reputation, but whose works have long since sunk into oblivion. One of his books, however, as an early specimen of typography, it still sought for. d. 1316. yEgineta, Panlus, e-ji-ne'-ta, a native of the island jEgina, who first noticed the cathartic quality of rhubarb. Lived in the 7th century. His works were published in Paris in 1532, fo'io. yEgixtiard, e'-jin-hard, the secretary of Charlemagne, beloved by Emma, the daughter of that monarch, who carried him through the snow from her chamber, to prevent his being traced by his footsteps. Being seen by her father, however, Charlemagne consented to their union. yEginhard was a German, ami wrote the life of Charlemagne, also a book of annals from 741 to 8^9. The first edition is that published at Paris, in 1576, 2 vols, folio. An im- proved edition of his works, with notes by Her- mann Schmincke, was published in 4to in 1711. vEgles, e-(jlee», a Samian wrestler, born dumb. Seeing some unfair measures practised in a contest, he broke the string which held his tongue, through the desire of speaking, an I always afterwards spoke with ease. .'Elfkic, el'-f'ril-, a distinguished Saxon pre- late, supposed to have been the son of an earl of Kent. He entered the monastery of Abingdon a-< a Benedictine, and subsequently became one of the priests of the cathedral of Winchester. He was afterwards removed to Cerne Abbey, and next was created abbot of St. Alban's, and j then bishop of Wilton. In 991 he was made arch- bishop of Canterbury, over which see he presided till his death, n. 1005. — This churchman pos- sessed great ability, which he employed in the diffusion of such knowledge as the age in which he lived enabled him to possess. His principal productions are, a Saxon translation of the greater number of the historical books of the Old Testament; a Latin and Saxon Glossary; a Saxon Grammar in Latin, and two volumes of Homilies translated from the Latin fathers. yEliaxus, Claudius, e-le-a-mtt, an Italian his- torian and rhetorician, who, though he never left his native country, became so perfect in the Greek language as to write it with the greatest purity. In the reign of Adrian, as some suppose, though others place him in that of Alexander Scverus, he taught rhetoric at Pome, and wrote a " Various History," which consists of a curious collection of anecdotes. He also wrote a valu- able "History of Animals." His works were collected and published by Gesncr. at Zurich, iu 1506. OF BIOGEAPHY. .ffilianus JEi.ii.yu9, Meceius, a physician of whom Galen speaks with great praise. He was the first who used a compound similar to Venice treacle as a preventive against the plague. /Elivs, e'-le-u*. There were several Homnns of this name, the most rcmarkSble of whom is (J. /El. Partus, son of Scxtus, or Publius. As he sat in the senate-house, a woodpecker perched on his head: upon which a soothsayer ex- claimed, that if he preserved the bird, his house would flourish, and Home decay; and if he killed it, the contrary must happen. Hearing this, /Elius, in the presence of the senate, bit oft the head of the bird. All the youths of his family were killed at Canine, and the Roman arms were soon attended with success. /Elius, Saturnius, a Roman satirist, thrown from the Tarpeian Rock for writing verses against Tiberius. .Elius, Scxtus Catus, censor with II. Ccthc- gus. lie separated the senators from the people in the public spectacles. During his consulship, the ambassadors of the JEtolians found him feasting oft" earthen dishes, and ottered him silver vessels, which he refused, satislied with the others, which for his virtues he had received from his father-in-law, Paulus, after the con- quest of Macedonia. ..Elius, Spartianus, author of the lives of the emperors Adrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. He nourished in the iirst half of the 3rd century, a.». ..Elst, Everhard, van, eetet, a Dutch painter, famous for his dead-game and fruit pieces, b. at Delft, 1602; D. 1658. /Elst, William van, called by the Italians Gulielmo, was the nephew and pupil of the above, but was more famous than his in- structor. His pencil was so light and elegant that his productions seem to be real. He fol- lowed his profession for some years in France and Italy, and then returned to Holland, where his pictures were in great request, b. at Delft in 1620 ; D. 1679. /Emili ant. Jerome, e-mil'e-a'-ne, a Venetian of a noble family, and one of the founders of the regular clerks of St. Maieul, in the 16th century. /Emilianus, C. Julius, e-mit-e-ai'vus, a Moor, who, from the lowest station, rose to be emperor of Rome. He reigned only four months, when he was killed, in his forty-sixth year, by his own soldiers, who then ottered the crown to Vale- -ian. D. 253. .Eiiilius, Paulus, e-mil'-e-un, a Eoman gene- ral, who was of noble family, and passed through' several civil offices with reputation, until he obtained a military command, in which he acquired great glory. At the age of 46 he held the office of consul ; and at 60 accepted the command of the armies against Perseus, king of Macedon, whom he made prisoner, leading him and the king of lllyria, his ally, in triumph through Italy. On his arrival at Pome, he ob- tained a magnificent triumph, in which Perseus and his family, as captives, led the procession. He afterwards served the office of censor, b. 22S B.C. ; n. universally regretted, 100. B.C. .Kmii-us, Censoiinus, a cruel tyrant of pi. ily, who liberally rewarded those who in- dented new means of torture. Patereulus gave him a brazen horse for this purpose, and the tyrant made the lirst experiments upon the donor. .Emilius, Paulus, a canon in the cathedral of Pavis, who was employed thirty years in writing 21 .Sihieas the history of the kings of France, which he did not live to finish. It was, however, conti- nued by Arnold Feron, and published in 1570. b. at Verona ; v. at Paris, 1520. ./Eneas, e-ne'-iis, a Trojan prince, and, ac- cording to Greek fable, the son of Anchises and the goddess Venus. The care of his infancy was intrusted to a nymph ; but at the age of live he was recalled to Troy, and placed under the inspection of Alcathous, the friend and companion of his father. He afterwards improved himself in Thessaly, under Chiron, whose house was frequented "by all the young princes and heroes of the age. Soon after his return home, he married Creusa, Priam's daughter, by whom he had a son, called Asca- nius. During the Trojan war he behaved with great valour in defence of his country, and en- countered Diomedes and Achilles. Yet he is accused, with Antcnor, of betraying his country to the Greeks, and of preserving his life and fortune by this treacherous measure. He lived at variance with Priam, on account of not re- ceiving sufficient marks cf distinction from the king and his family, a circumstance which might have provoked him to seek revenge by perfidy. When Troy was in flames, he carried away upon his shoulders his father Anchises and the statues of his household gods, leading his son Ascanius by his hand, and leaving his wife to follow behind. Some say that he retired to Mount Ida, where he built a fleet of twenty ships, and set sail hi quest of a settlement. Strabo, on the contrary, says that /Eneas never left his country, but rebuilt Troy, where he reigned, and his posterity after him. Even Homer, who lived four hundred years after the Trojan war, says that the gods destined /Eneas and his posterity to reign over the Trojans. According to Virgil and other Latin authors, he was sailing from Sicily to Italy, when he landed in Epirus, and, driven on the coasts of Africa, was received by Dido, queen of Car- thage, to whom, on his first interview, he gave one of the garments of the beautiful Helen. Dido being enamoured of him, wished to marry him ; but he left Carthage, and after a voyage of seven years, and the loss of thirteen ships, arrived in the fiber. Latinus, the king of the country, re- ceived him with hospitality, and promised him his daughter Lavinia, who had been before be- trothed to King Turnus by her mother A mat a. To prevent tills marriage, Turnus made war against /Eneas ; and after many battles, it was terminated by a combat between the two rivals, in which Turnus was killed. /Eneas married Lavinia, in whose honour he built the town of Lavinium, and succeeded his father-in-law. His reign was but of short duration, various ac- counts being given of the cause of his death. — .Eneas has been praised for his piety and sub- mission to the will of Heaven. The story of the loves of Dido and .Eneas is allowed to be a mere poetical ornament, introduced by a violent :>:iachronism. (Seethe " Iliad" of Homes, and the " /Eneid " of Virgil.) /Eneas, Gszeus, a disciple of the doctrines of Plato, who, becoming a convert to Christianity, wrote a dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul and the Resurrection of the Body. Flourished in the 5th century. — His dialogue was printed in (ireek and Latin, at ilasle, 1060, and at Leipsie in 1655. /Eneas or /Engus, an Irish bishop, who eompjsed the history of the Old Testament in THE DICTIONAKY J&neas verse, and compiled, in five books, a history of Irish saints. D. about 820. yEneas, Taeticus, a Greek author, who wrote on the art of war. Flourished about 336 B.C. — His work was prefixed by Casaubon to his edi- tion of Polybius, Paris, 1009, and reprinted at Leyden in 1633. .Spinus, John, e-pi-nas, a Franciscan friar, a fellow-labourer with Luther and Melancthon in the great cause of the Preformation. He be- came a convert to Lutheranism, and pastor of St. Peter's church, Hamburg, b. 1499 ; d. 1553. -rEpixcs, Francis Maria Ulric Theodore, a distinguished electrician, who was the first to see the affinity between magnetism and electri- city in its full extent, and to perceive how these may illustrate each other. He is also the in- ventor of the condenser of electricity and of the eleetropus. He published several memoirs re- lating to philosophical subjects, and seems to have devoted a considerable portion of his time to mechanical pursuits, b. at Iiostock, Lower Saxony, 1721; d. atDorpat.inLivonia, 1802. Aeuius, al-e'-re-us, an Asiatic presbyter, who, from being a follower of Arius (the founder of Arianism), advocated the notion that there was no distinction between bishops and presbyters, and procured many followers, who were named Arians. Flourished at Sebastia, Pontus, in the 4th century. Aekschot, aar'-shot, a noble of the Nether- lands, celebrated in the struggle of the Dutch Republic against Philip of Spam. He refused to join the league that was formed against Car- dinal Granvelle (archbishop of Mechlin), the governor of the Netherlands. He was gover- nor of Antwerp, and subsequently of Flanders ; but the treachery of Ids disposition made him no favourite with the people, who took him pri- soner and confined him at Ghent for a long period. Lived in the middle of the 16th cen- tury. AERis.Richard.aarts, aDutchpainter of sacred subjects chiefly. When a boy, he lost one of his legs, and while suffering from this deprivation, he amused himself with drawing in chalk. He afterwards was placed with a master, and at- tained to some eminence, b. at Wyck, 1482 ; d. at Antwerp, 1577. iEusEiN", Peter, ar-sen, a Dutch painter, sur- named Longo. b. at Amsterdam, 1519; b. 1575. .LscniNES, e'-ski-neet, a disciple of Socrates and the son of a sausage-maker. He went to the court of Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, and afterwards maintained himself by teaching phi- losophy at Athens. His dialogues so closely re- semble those of Socrates, that Menedemus charges him with having stolen them from that philosopher. Flourished B.C. 350. Only three of his dialogues are extant; of which Le Clerc published a Latin translation, with notes, in 1711. vEschines, usually distinguished as "the Orator," was the contemporary and rival of De- mosthenes. He was first a schoolmaster, then a clerk, then an actor, and finally a political orator. There are only three of his orations extant, which are exquisitely beautiful, n. at Athens, B.C. 393 ; d. at Samos, 317. — He was considered the founder of the Khodian school of eloquence, and his style, though wanting in the close sententious severity of the Athenian school, is marked by great correctness and desrness of language. 23 .ZEsopus •ZEschbioit, e-ikre-on, a poet of Mitylene, in- timate with Aristotle. He accompanied Alex- ander in his Asiatic expedition.— Another Iambic poet of Samos. .ffiscHYLUs, e'-glci-lus, the father of the Athe- nian drama. He was in the sea-fight at Sala- mis, and received a wound on the plains of Marathon. His most solid fame, however, rests on his powers as a tragic poet. Of ninety tra- gedies produced by him, forty were rewarded with the public prize, but only seven have come down to us. He was the first to introduce two actors on the stage, and to clothe them with dresses suitable to their character. He likewise removed murder from the sight of the audience. He decorated the theatre with the best paint- ings of the time, and on the ancient, as is done on the modem stage, exhibited temples, sepul- chres, armies, fleets, flying cars, and apparitions. He mounted the actors on stilts, and gave them masks to augment the natural sounds of their voices. The priests accused him before the Areopagus of bringing upon the stage the mys- teries of religion ; but the wounds he had re- ceived at Marathon pleaded his cause and ob- tained his acquittal, b. at Athens, 525 b.c. ; d. in Sicily, in his 69th year. — It is fabled that an eagle mistaking his bald head for a stone, as he slept in a field, dropped upon it a tortoise, winch instantly killed him. His imagination was strong but wild, vast in its conceptions, but dealing largely in improbabilities. The ob- scurity of lus style is admitted, and an excellent modern critic has pronounced him the most difficult of all the Greek classics. yEsculapius, e-sku-lai'-pe-us, was the father of medicine. He was taught the healing art by Chiron, and became physician to the Argo- nauts. jEsculapius received divine honours after death, ehielly at Epidaurus, Pergamus, Athens, Smyrna, &c. Goats, bulls, lambs, and pigs, were sacrificed to him, and the cock and the serpent were sacred to him. jEseulapius is re- presented with a large beard, holding a staff round which a serpent is wreathed. He married Epione, by whom he had two sons, famous for their skill in medicine, and four daughters, of whom Hygeia, worshipped as the goddess of health, was one. Some have supposed that he lived a short time after the Trojan war. JEsop, e'-sop, the fable writer, is usually held as the. inventor of those short pieces of moral wisdom with which the readers of all ages, since his time, have been delighted. He is said to have been first bought as a slave by an Athe- nian, from whom he learned the Greek lan- guage, and then passed successively into the service of Xanthus and Idmon, both of Samos. The latter gave him lus freedom, on which he was retained by Croesus. The scenes and dates of his birth and death are both uncertain. He was contemporary, however, with Solon and Pisistratus ; therefore flourished in the 6th cen- tury, b.c. The only version in Greek of iEsop't fables is the collection made by Babrius, an excellent edition of which was produced by Sir G. C. Lewis, in 1817. jEsop, the author of a romantic history of Alexander the Great, in Greek, which has been translated into Latin and German. The age in which he lived is unknown. iEsopus, Clodius, e-so'-pus, a famous actor, who had the honour of instructing Cicero in oratory. He was a great epicure, and at an en- tertainment is said to have Itad a dish of singing OF BIOGRAPHY. ^jtherius birds which cost above £800. D. worth £'100,000, about 60 b.c. — His son was also noted for his luxuriousness ; and Horace says that he swallowed a pearl of great value dis- solved in vinegar. /Ethekius, e-lke'-re-us, an architect of Con- stantinople, who is supposed to have built the wall which runs from the sea to Selimbria, to' keep out the Bulgarians and Scythians. Lived in the 6th ceptury. jEtiojt, e'-she-on, a Greek painter, whose pic- ture of the nuptials of Alexander and Roxnna, shown at the Olympic games, obtained for him the daughter of one of the judges in marriage, although he was quite unknown. Aetius, a-e'-she-us, a famous general in the reign of Valentinian III., emperor of the West. He was brought up in the emperor's guards, and after the battle of Pollentia, in a.d. 403, was delivered as a hostage to Alaric, and next to the Huns. On the death of Honorius. he took the side of the usurper John, for whose service he engaged an army of Huns. He was afterwards taken into favour by Valentinian, who gave him the title of count, lleing jealous of the powerof Boniface, governor of Africa, he secretly advised his recall, and at the same time counselled the governor not to obey the mandate. This pro- duced a revolt, resulting in an irruption of the Vandals into that province. The treachery of Aetius being discovered, a war ensued between him and Boniface, in which the latter was slain. Aetius now appealed to the Huns, of whom he raised a large army, and returning, so greatly alarmed Placidia, the mother of Valentinian, that she put hersel f into h is power. H e defended the declining empire with great bravery, and compelled Attila to retire beyond the Rhine. Stubbed, 4o i, by Valentinian. — This crime was committed under the conviction that Aetius entertained a design upon the imperial throne. Aetius, a bishop of Antioch, who, before en- tering into orders, was a physician, and remark- able for a contentious and sceptical spirit. Ho contended for a dissimilarity between the Father and the Son, for which he was banished by Con- stantius, but recalled by Julian. Lived ia the 4th century. Aetius, a physician of Mesopotamia, who wrote on the diseases of women, and other works, which are extant in Greek. He is sup- posed to have been a Christian. Flourished in the 6th century. Afeb, Domitius, ai-fer, an ancient orator, "»'ho obtained the praHorship of Home; but being disappointed of further promotion, he be- came an informer against Claudia Pulchra, cousin of Agrippa, and by his abilities succeeded in gaining the favour of Tiberius. He wrote an inscript.on, which he affixed to a statue of Cali- gula, and which embodied the remark that he had been a second time consul at the age of twenty-two. This was meant for an encomium, but the emperor took it as a sarcasm, and made a violent speech in the senate against the author. Afer, instead of replying, supplicated pardon, saying that he feared less the power of the em- peror than his eloquence, which (lattery so pleased Caligula, that he raised him to the con- sular dignity, b. at Nismes; d. at Rome, a.d. 69. — Quintilian mentions two books of his, on the subject of evidence. Afesa, Peter, ai-fe'-sa, a native of the liasili- cata, Naples, who painted religious subjects in a good stvic. Lived in the 10th ceuturv, Zi Agamemnon Afflitto, Matthew, vf-Jle-to, a distinguished lawyer of Italy, b. at Naples; d. 1673. — He wrote several works on Neapolitan law. Affo, Irenaus, af-fo, an Italian historical author, b. in the Duchy of Placentia ; d. about the end of the 18th century.— He is best known by Ins History of Parma, which, although com- posed in a very indifferent style, has value on account of its general truthfulness. Affte, Denis Auguste, affr, a French student at the seminary of St. Sulpico, who rose to be archbisnop of Paris, b. at Remy, 1793; d. 1818. — Atlre fell whilst endeavouring to prevent bloodshed between the soldiery and Parisian insurgents. Although previously warned by General Cavaignac of the danger to be appre- hended from appearing amongst an excited mob, he replied that " his life was of small con- sequence," and, preceded by a man in a work- man's dress, with a green branch, as an emblem of peace, in his hand, he went forth to stay the fury of the combatants. Some of the crowd who beheld him thought they were betrayed, and he was soon shot down. When he fell, he was surrounded by many of the insurgents, who blamed the Garde Mobile for the act, and on whom they vowed to avenge him. He, however, exclaimed, " No, no, my friends, blood enough has been shed; let mine be the last on this occasion." He was buried on the 7th of July, 1818, universally regretted by the people. Affky, Louis Augustine I'hilip, Count d', af-fre, a statesman of Switzerland, who attained the chief magistracy of his country after Na- poleon 1. became protector of the Helvetic Con- federacy. He was a true patriot, and did ail that he could to resist the power of the French; but finding his efforts unavailing, he embraced the views of Napoleon, and gave his assistance in forming a new government in accordance with the theories of that conqueror, b. at Fri- burg, 17-13 ; D. 1810. Afkaxia, a-fi-ui'-ne-a, the inventor of the bassoon. He nourished at Ferrara in the 16th century. Afranius, a-frai-ne-ns, a Roman poet, who wrote some Latin comedies, of which only a few fragments remain. — Flourished about 100 years b.c. Afkanius, a senator of Rome, who was put to death by Nero for having written a satire against him. Afkicanus, Julius, uf-re-cai'-nus, the author of a letter pronouncing the story of Susannah a forgery; and another, in which he reconciled St. .Matthew and St. Luke's genealogies of our Saviour. — He also compiled a chronicle of events from the commencement of the world to the early part of the 3rd century of the Christian era. Flourished in the 3rd century. Afkicanl's. (See Scipio, Publius Cornelius.) Afkicanus, Sextus Cjecilius, a Roman jurist who flourished during the reign of the emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, and was a voluminous and valuable writer en Roman law. His " .Nine Books of Questions" are often quoted in the "Digest" of Justinian. Agag, ai'-gag, a king of the Amalekite?, who, on the Israelites coming out of Egypt, attacked them in the wilderness and slew all stragglers. Ha was hewn in pieces in Gilgal. Agajiemxon, iig'-a-mem'-non, king of Mycena; and Argos, was brother to Menclaus, and son of Plisthenes, the son of Atreus. Homer calls theni sons of Atreus, which is wrong, upon the authc. THE DICTIONARY Aganduru Agathon rity of Ilesiod and others. When Atreus was dead, his brother Thyestes seized the kingdom of Argos, and removed Agamemnon and Mene- laus. Agamemnon married Clytemnestra, and Menelaus became the liusband of Helen, both daughters of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, who assisted them to recover their father's kingdom, where Agamemnon established himself at My- cenie. Menelaus succeeded his father-in-law. When Helen was stolen by Paris, Agamemnon was elected commander-in-chief of the Grecian forces levied against Troy, and departed for the siege, leaving his kingdom and wife in the guardianship of iEgisthus, king of Argos. The fleet with the troops being detained vA, Aulis, Agamemnon there sacrificed his daughter to appease Diana. During the Trojan war, Aga- memnon behaved with great valour, but his quarrel with Achilles, on account of the amiable Priscis, whom he took from Achilles by force, was very prejudicial to the cause of the Greeks. Clytemnestra, with her adulterer iEgisthus, pre- pared to murder Agamemnon on his return; and as he came from the bath, in order to em- barrass him, and effect her purpose, she gave him a tunic, the sleeves of which were sewed together. Whilst trying to put it on, she brought him to the ground with the stroke of a hatchet, and iEgisthus seconded her blows. His death was revenged by his son Orestes. Agandueu, lioderic Moriz, ag'-an-du'-ru, a Spanish missionary, who went to Japan and other oriental parts to disseminate Christianity. Lived in the 17th century. Agapetus I., ag-a-pe'-tus, a Roman pontiff, who opposed the attempts of Justinian to invade the rights of the Church. He was raised to the pontificate in 5U5, and died the year after, b. at Home. Agapetcs II., a man of great reputation for sanctity of character. He received the tiara in 940. d. 950. Agapetus, a deacon of Constantinople, who wrote a letter to Justinian on the duties of a Christian prince. Flourished in the 6th cen- tury. Agapius, u-gai'-pe-us, a Greek monk, who wrote a treatise on the Salvation of a Sinner. Flourished in the 17th century.— His treatise was printed in modern Greek, at Venice, 1011. Agard, Arthur, ag'-ard, an English antiquary, who held the office of deputy chamberlain in the Exchequer during a period of forty-iive years. In conjunction with Sir Robert Cotton and other eminent men, he formed a society of antiquaries. u. at Eoston, Derbyshire, 1540; buried in West- minster Abbey, 10*15 — He wrote a treatise to o\plain the Domesday book, which was deposited in the Cotton Library, and several tracts of his on antiquarian subjects were published by Hearne. Agar, Jaques d", datf-air, a French portrait painter. Ii. 1010. D. 1710. Agasias, u-gai-se-as, a sculptor of Ephesus, celebrated for his admirable statue of the Gla- diator. A(, asicles, u-gas'-i-cleof, a king of Sparta, who used to sav, " A king ought to govern his sub- jects as a father his family." Agassiz, LoWf, a-gh'-ie, a distinguished French naturalist, for many years professor of natural history at Neufchitel. in 1810 he went to America, and, in 1-52, became professor of comparative anatomy in the Medical College :it Charleston. As a naturalist his lame dates from 1828, ar 1 much of his attention has been devoted to fossil remains. He was the first to propose the division of fossil fishes in accordance with the formation of their scales. He was also amongst the first to confirm Mr. Shuttleworth's discovery of animalcula! being in the red snow of the Alps, and has shown that there are higher forms of animal existence there than were before suspect- ed. As a geologist he has directed attention to a large series of important phenomena; and ban, in various publications, developed the views he has been led to entertain upon them. He is an up- holder of the doctrine which teaches the suc- cessive creation of higher orders of organized beings on the surface of the earth, and believes that the human race has had, in its several dis- tinct species, separate stocks of originality, both as to time and space. As an author, his contri- butions to natural history have been extensive, and it may be remarked that he was the founder of the " ISibliographia Zoologica et Geologica," a great work, which has been edited by the late Mr. Strickland and Sir W. Jardine, bart. On the death of the late Professor Edward Forbes, he was offered the chair of natural history in Edinburgh, but he declined it. n. in the parish of Mottier, near the lake of Neufchitel, Swit- zerland, May 28, 1807. ». 1«73. Agathangelus, ai-gath-un'-je-bis, an his- torian of Armenia, who recorded the introduc- tion of Christianity into his native country. Flourished in the 11th century. Agamaucides, (ig'-athar'-ie-dees, a native of Cnidos, who wrote in Greek a history of the suc- cesses cf Alexander. Flourished about 180 B.C. Ag atii ahcus, ag'-ulh-ark'-us, a Samian painter, whom iEschylus employed to paint scenes for Ms stage. Flourished 180 B.C. Agatiiemf.r, Orthonis, Hg-a-the'-mer, the au- thor of a " Compendium of Geography," in Greek, which was published by Hudson, at Ox- ford, in 170o. Lived in the 3rd century, AGATniAS, a-gai'-the-as, a Greek historian, who wrote a history of the reign of Justinian in five books. He was also a writer of epigrams, some of which are to be found in the " Antho- logia." Flourished in the Gth century. — Dig history was published in Paris in 1600. Agatuocles, ug-dtk'-o-clees. There were many of this name, the most remarkable of whom was a licentious and ambitious man, the son of a potter, who, entering the Sicilian army, rose to the greatest honours, and made himself master of Syracuse. He reduced all Sicily under his power; but being defeated at Hiinera by the Carthaginians, he carried the war into Africa, where, for four years, he extended his conquests over his enemy. He afterwards passed into Italy, and made himself master of Crotoua. d. in his 72nd year, u.c. 2s9, after a reign of 28 years of great prosperity mingled with the deepest adversity. AG.VTKODiMON, ilg' -a-tho-de'-mon, a map- maker of Alexandria, and the supposed con- structor of the maps found in the oldest manu- scripts of the Geography of Claudius Ptole- miens. It cannot be determined with accuracy when he flourished. Agatho.v, a'-ga-ti, on, a pope, who despatched legates to the council called at Constantinople to condemn the Eutychians, a sect who denied the human nature of Christ, and asserted that his body was only an aerial vehicle. In 078 he was elected to the papal chair, ii. at Palermo; ». tM. ALBERT, PRINCE CONSORT. ALBEMARLE, GEORGE MONK, DUKE OF. ALBERT EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES. ANTONELLI. Plate II OF BIOGRAPHY. Agathon AGATHoy, a dramatic poet, who flourished at Athens in the time of Pericles, d. about 401 b.c. Plato introduces him in his work called the "Ban- quet." The titles only, and a few fragments of his tragedies remain. He imitated Euripides iu style. Ageuo, Joseph, aj'-e-le-o, a native of So- rcnto, in Italy, who painted good landscapes, and was much employed by historical painters to till up their backgrounds. Agelius, Anthony, Sj-e-le-us, bishop of Accrno, in the kingdom of Naples, who wrote commentaries on some parts of the Old Testa- ment, d. 1608. % Ag"elnotii, uj'-el-noth, an archbishop of Canterbury, and a favourite of King Canute. On the death of that monarch, he refused to crown his son Harold, alleging that the de- ceased king had commanded him to crown none but the issue of Queen Emma. It is uncertain whether Harold ever was crowned, d. 1038. — He wrote some religious pieces. Agenob, ii-je'-nor, king of Phoenicia, was bro- ther to llelus. He married Telephassa, called by some Agriope, by whom he had Cadmus, "hcenix, Cilix, and Europa. As Carthage was ouilt by his descendants, it is called Ageiwris urbs. Ageb, Nicholas, aj-air, a professor of medicine at Strasburg ; distinguished as a bo- tanist and physician. Lived in the 17th cen- tury. Agesandeb, itj-e-tdn'-der, a famous sculptor of lthodcs, who, in the time of Vespasian, made a representation of the death of Laocoon, which now passes for the best relic of all ancient mulpture. The Laocoon was discovered at Home in 1506, and afterwards deposited in the Farnese palace, where it still remains. Agesilaus, (ij-en'-e-lai-us, king of Sparta, of the family of the Agida?, son of Doryssus, and father of Arehelaus. During his reign, Lyeur- gus instituted liis famous laws, Reigned 850 B.C. Agesilaus, son of Archidamus, of the family of tlic Proclidaj, elected king of Sparta over his nephew Leotychidcs. He made war against Artaxerxes, king of Persia, with success ; but in the midst of his conquests he was called home to oppose the Athenians and Boeotians, who were ravaging his country. The despatch which he made on this occasion was such, that in thirty days he passed over the same extent of country which occupied the army of Xerxes a whole year. He defeated his enemies at Coro- nea ; but sickness prevented the progress of his conquests, and the Spartans were beaten in every engagement, especially at Leuctra, till he again appeared at their head. Though de- formed, small of stature, and lame, he was brave, and possessed of a magnanimity which compensated for all his physical imperfections. In his 8oth year he went to assist Tachus, king of Egypt, whose servants could hardly be per- suaded that the Lacedicmonian was a king, when they beheld him eating with his soldiers on the bare ground, and with no covering to his head. d. on his return from Egypt, after a reign of 36 years, 362 b.c, and his remains were em- balmed and brought to Lacedaemon. — There were others of this name, but of inferior note. Agesipolis I., uj-e-sip'-o-Ug, king of Laee- diemonand son of PauKuiias, and who obtained a great victory over the Mantineans. He reigned fourteen years, and was succeeded by his bro- .ther Clcombrotus, 3*0 b.c. £5 Agnesi Aggas, Ralph, ug'-gtis, an engraver and sur- veyor, who was the first to execute a plan of London, which was published for the iirst time in 1560, afterwards in 1618, and again in 17-1.8. He also produced plans of Cambridge, Oxford, and Dunwich in Suffolk. ». about 1539. Aggas, Robert, or more commonly called Angus, a painter of landscapes in the reign of Charles II. d. in London 1679. Agias, oj-e-an, a famous Lacedaemonian soothsayer, who foretold to Lysander his future success at ^Egospotamos, and the destruction of the Athenian fleet. Agilulf, aj'-e-loolf, duke of Turin, chosen king of the Lombards in 591. He renounced Arianism, and embraced the Catholic faith ; but while engaged in a war with some of the Italian princes, he perpetrated great ravages in the Ecclesiastical States, d. CI 9. Agis, ai'-jces, king of Sparta, succeeded his father, Eurysthenes, and, after a reign of one year, was succeeded by his son Echestratus, 1058 B.C. Agis II., king of Sparta, waged fierce wars with the Athenians, whom he compelled to re- store freedom to several Greek cities which they had subjugated. He died shortly after a success- ful expedition to Elis. Reigned b.c. 427 to 397. Agis III., king of Sparta, the son of king Archidamus III. He stirred up several of the Grecian states against Alexander, and fell fighting against the Macedonians, 331 n.c. Agis, a poet of Argos, who attended Aiex- ! ander in his Asiatic expedition, and rendered ' himself agreeable by the meanest adulation, lie I promised his patron immortality, and declared that Bacchus, Hercules, and the sons of Leda, i would yield to his superior merits in the assem- bly of the gods. Aglaophox, tig-lai'-o-fon. There are t\vo Grecian painters distinguished in antiquity by this name, natives of the island of Thasos. Flourished about 500 years B.C. Aglionby, John, uy'-le-ou'-bi>, a divine, who was made chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, and in 1601 elected principal of Edmund Hall. He was concerned in the translation of the New Testament as at present used. b. in Cumber- land, 1567; D. at Islip, of which he was rector, 1610. — There was another John Aglionby, who was dean of Canterbury, but died a few months after his nomination, 1613. He appears to have been the son of the preceding. Aglionby, Edward, a poet of the reign of Elizabeth, from whom he received a pension for writing her pedigree. Agnan, or Ajtianus, ag'-nan, a bishop of Orleans, who compelled Attila to raise tho siege of that town. d. 453. Agxellus, an-yail'-looa, an abbot of Ra- venna, who wrote the lives of the bishops and archbishops of that city. Lived in the 9th century. Agnesi, Maria Gaetana, an-ye'-se, an illus- trious Italian lady, who by her application to mathematical learning, and her progress therein, so distinguished herself, that Pope Benedict XIV. appointed her, in 1750, professor of mathematics in the university of Bologna. Subsequently to this act of the pontiff, she touk the veil. b. at Milan, 1718; d. about 1799 — Her " Analytical Institutions" were published at Milan 'in 1713. They were translated into French by M. Cousin, and published at Palis in 1775, and have appeared in Ihiglh.h in 2 vols., with her life prelixed, taken lVo:n Montucla. THE DICTIONARY Agnesi Agijesi, Maria Teresa, a sister of the above, and the composer of three operas, "Sopho- nisba," "Ciro," and "Nitocri." b. at Milan, 1750. Agnolo, Baccio d', ba-che-o dan'-yo'-lo, a Florentine wood-engraver, which profession he abandoned for that of an architect. Whilst in Rome, pursuing his studies among the remains of antiquity, his workshop was visited by Ra- phael, Michael Angelo, and others, and on re- turning to^Florence he rose into eminence, not- withstanding the ridicule and detraction which too often follow the footsteps of originality. When he died, his son Giuliano directed the works he had left unfinished, b. at Florence, 1460; d. 15 13. Agxoit, ag'-non, son of Nicias, was present at the taking of Samos by Pericles. In the Pelo- ponnesian war, he went against I'otidaja, but abandoned his expedition through disease. He built Amphipolis, whose inhabitants favoured Brasidas, whom they regarded as their founder, forgetful of Agnon. Agnonides, ag-non-e-deet, a rhetorician of Athens, who accused Phocion of betraying the Pirajus to Nicanor. When the people recollected the services Phocion had rendered them, they raised him statues, and put his accuser to death. Agobaed, ag'-o-bar, an archbishop of Lyons, who was deprived of his dignity for deposing Louis the Meek, in the assembly of Compiegne, but was afterwards restored, lie opposed image- worship, and wrote against the belief of witchcraft and the practice of duelling, b. 810.— His works wore printed in 1666, in two vols. 8vo. Agop, John, a-gop, a grammarian and critic of Armenia, who flourished in the 17th century. Agorackitus, ag-o-rale-re-tiu, a sculptor of Paros, and disciple of Phidias. Flourished 429 B.C. — He was such a favourite with his master, that it is said Phidias allowed Mm to affix his name to some works which ho liimself had executed. AGOSTiNi,Leonardo, ag-os-te'-ne, an antiquary of the 17th century. He wrote a work on Sicilian medals, and another upon gems celebrated in ancient times. Agostino, Paolo da Valerano, a'-gos-te'-no, a celebrated musical composer, and master of the pope's chapel at Rome. d. 1629, aged 36.— His choruses are highly spoken of. Agostino, two brothers who greatly distin- guished themselves as architects and sculptors in the infancy of art in Italy. They were natives of Siena, which they embellished with many of their best works. Agoult, Guillaume d', d-goolt, a gentleman of Provence, who wrote ballads about the year 1198. Agreda, Marie d', og'-re-da, superior of the convent of the Immaculate Conception at Ag- reda, in Spain, who pretended to have received directions in a vision to write the life of the Virgin Mary, which she accordingly did. b. 1602 ; took the veil, 1620 j d. 1065.— Her " Life of the Virgin Mary" was not published till after her death, when it was prohibited at Rome, and censured by the Sorbonne of Paris, though highly esteemed in Spain. Aghesti, Livio, ag-res'-te, an historical painter, employed in the Vatican by Gregory XIII. He was famed for the richness of his in- vention, the correctness of his design, and the excellence of hi; colouring. »■ 1530. Agricola Agbestis, Julius, ii-gres'-tis, a Roman captain, who, when Antonius revolted to Vespasian, and laid in ruins the city of Cremona, obtained leave of the emperor to survey the state of the enemy's forces. He returned with a faithful report, but not being believed, he put an end to his life. a.d. 61. Ageicola, Cnoeus Julius, a-griV-o-la, a Ro- man commander, whose father,' Julius G/aecinu?, was an orator, put to death by Caligula for refusing to plead against Silanus. Agricola was carefully brought up by his mother Julia Pro- cilla, and sent to Massilia (Marseilles), the chief seat of learniffg in Gaul, to pursue his studies. After entering the army, he was sent to Britain, where he was at the time of the insurrection of Roadicea, in a.d. 61. On his return to Rome, he married Domitia Decidiana, a lady of rank. He was next made quaestor of Asia, and became tribune of the people, and praetor under Nero. In the commotions between Otho and Vitellius, his mother was murdered, and her estate in Liguria plundered by the flest of Otho. Being informed on his journey thither, that Vespasian had assumed the government, he espoused his cause. The 20th legion having mutinied in Britain, he was despatched to reduce it to obe- dience, in which he succeeded. On his return to Rome, he was raised to the rank of patrician and made governor of Aquitania, in Gaul. In 77a. d. he was chosen consul with Oomitian; and, in the same year, gave liis daughter in marriage to Tacitus, the historian. Kext year he was appointed governor of Britain, where he restored tranquillity and brought the natives to a love uf the Roman language and manners. He ex- tended his conquests into Scotland, and built a chain of forts from the Clyde to the Frith of Forth, to prevent the incursions of the inhabi- tants of the north. He defeated Galgacus at the foot of the Grampian hills, and then made peace with the Caledonians. At the termination of this campaign, a Roman fleet for the first time sailed round Britain. On the accession of Domi- tian, Agricola had a triumph decreed him, and was recalled. By command of the emperor, he entered Rome at night, and meeting with a cold reception, retired from public life. b. at Forum Julii, now Frejus, in Provence, a.d. 37 ; d. at Rome, a.d. 93. — Tacitus represents the character of Agricola as that of a great and good man. He bequeathed what property he possessed to his wife Domitia, his only daughter, the wife of Tacitus, and the emperor Domitian, notwithstanding, as is asserted, that he fell a sacrifice by poison to the jealousy of tho latter. Agricola, George, an eminent metallurgist and physician, who wrote a number of books on metals, &c. b. at Glauchen, Misnia, 1491; d. 1555. Agricola, Christopher Ludwig, a painter and engraver, born at Katisbon, Germany, in 16J7, who excelled in landscape and portrait, but U chiefly known for his prints. Agricola, George Andrew, a German phy- sician, who wrote on the multiplication of plants and trees, b. at Ratisbon, 1672; d. 1738. — A French translation of hi3 work was published ir> Amsterdam in 1720. Agricola, John, a German divine who studied theology at Wittenberg, where he embraced the sentiments of Luther, and acquired considerable reputation as a preacher ; but entered into a dispute with Melaucthon on the use of the law OF BIOGRAPHY. Agricola under the gospel dispensation. With the bishop of Nuremberg and others, he made a vain at- tempt to reconcile the differences between the Protestants and Catholics, u. at Eisleben, 1492; v. at Berlin, 1566.— He wrote commentaries on St. Luke, and made a collection of German pro- verbs. Agricola, Rodolphus, a learned writer, who was educated at Louvain, but settled at Ferrara, where he taught Latin with great reputation. Here he studied Greek, and attended the philo- sophical lectures of Theodore Gaza. In 1477 he returned to the Netherlands, and on visiting the city of Deventer saw Erasmus, Who was then only ten years old, but who, he predicted, would be a great man. In 1432 Agricola settled in the Palatinate, giving occasional lectures at Heidel- berg and Worms, n. at Bafflon, liaffel, or Battlo, three miles from Groningen, Friesland, 1413 ; d. at Heidelberg, 1435. Agricola was the first who introduced the Greek language into Ger- many. His works were printed at Louvain in 1516, and at Cologne in 1539, 4to. \gbicola, Michael, a Lutheran minister at Abo, in Finland, the first who translated the New Testament into the language of that coun- try, d. 1556. Agbippa, a-grip'-a, a Bithynian astronomer, who was held in high estimation for the accuracy of his observations. Flourished in the 1st cen- tury A.D. Agbippa, Camillo, a Milanese architect, who, during the pontificate of Gregory X1IL, removed a vast obelisk to St. Peter's Square, of which he published an account at Rome, in 1583. Flou- rished in the 16th century. Agbippa, Henry Cornelius, a French physician and astrologer of considerable learning and talent. He, being of a good family, became secretary to Maximilian I., by whom he was knighted for his bravery in the Italian wars, and afterwards created a doctor in law and physic. He travelled through various parts of Europe, and visited England, but in 1518 settled at Mcntz, where he became a councillor of the city; but having, by some indiscretion, drawn upon himself the enmity of the monks, he was compelled to quit that place, and seek a residence elsewhere. In 1520 we rind him at Cologne, and in the year following, at Geneva. Francis I. now gave him the appointment of physici.'ji to his mother ; but for not gratifying the curio- sity of that lady iu an astrological experiment, he received his dismissal. From France he went to Antwerp, and was taken into the service of Margaret of Parma, governor of the Low Coun- tries. In 1535 he was at Lyons, where he was imprisoned for defaming the king's mother, his former mistress. B. at Cologne, 14S6 ; ». at Grenoble, 1535. — Agrippa seems to have been emphatically a man born to many changes. He was either twice or thrice married, and had several children. He wrote a goodly number of works, but the oneby which he is best remembered now, is that entitled " Vanity of the Sciences," which is a satire on the various kinds of learning in vogue during his age. All his works were collected and printed at Leyden in 1550, in two vols. 8vo. He also wrote, with a view of pleasing his patroness, Margaret of Parma, a very in- genious and learned pamphlet to prove the superiority of woman over man. An excellent biography of this talented but unfortunate doctor appeared iu 1S5U, written by Mr. Henry Morley. Agrippina Agbippa I., Herod, grandson of Herod the Great, king of Judaea in the time of Augustus Ca:sar. He was made by his grandfather go- vernor of Tiberias, where he lived so extrava- gantly as to incur Herod's displeasure. He then went to Rome, and attached himself to Caius, the son of Germanicus, who succeeding Tiberius, made Agrippa tetrarch of Batanaia and Tra- chonitis; to which Claudius added the whole kingdom of Juda:a, with that of Chalcis. In order to please the Jews, he now commenced to persecute the Christians, ai'd put St. James the Apostle to death. Being soon after at Caisarea, he instituted games in honour of the emperor Claudius, at which the Tyrians waited on him to sue for peace. Agrippa made a pom- pous appearance on his throne, and when he spoke, his flatterers exclaimed his voice was that of a god, which impious adulation he was weak enough to receive with pleasure. On this he was immediately smitten by the angel of the Lord with a disorder in his bowels. D. A.D. 43. Agbippa II., Herod, son of the preceding, ascended the throne at the age of seventeen. This is the sovereign before whom St. Paul pleaded with so much eloquence that he ex- claimed he had almost been persuaded to become a Christian. j>. at Rome a.d. 94. Agbippa, Marcus Vipsanius, the friend of Augustus ; he accused Cassius to the senate, and distinguished himself greatly in the naval battle of Actium, by which Octavianus gained the em- pire. Previous to this, he had beaten the enemy at Mylse and at Naulochus, on the coast of Sicily, and had completely broken the naval power of Sextus Pompcius. These victories procured him the reward of a naval crown, and he was, per- haps, the first who received that honour. He now rose to the highest dignities. In his third consulate he dedicated to Jupiter the Pantheon, which, to this day, is considered the most beau- tiful specimen of Roman architecture. It was erected to commemorate his victory near Actium, and is now called, from its form, Santa Maria della Rotonda, but it still bears the inscription, " M. Agrippa L. F. Cos. tertium fecit." u. about B.C. G3 ; d. in Campania n.c. 12. — Agrippa was first married to Attica, daughter of Atticus, the friend of Cicero ; secondly to Marcella, the niece of Augustus and sister of Marcellus, and thirdly to Julia, the daughter of the emperor, and the young widow of Marcellus. He had five children by his third wife, every one of whom, it has been observed, came to a prema- ture end. Agbippa, Menenius, a Roman consul, who is celebrated for having appeased a commotion among the Roman people by the fable of the belly and the limbs, d. in the year of the city 261.'— He was buried at the public expense, anil his daughters were so poor that the people gave them dowries, out of respect for the memory of their father. Ageippixa, clff-rip-e-iia, the elder, was daugh- ter of Marcus Agrippa and Julia, and the wife of Germanicus Casar, whom she accompanied in his military expeditions, and when Piso poisoned him, she carried his ashes to Italy, and accused his murderer, who stabbed himself. She fell under the displeasure of Tiberius, who banished her to the island of Pandataria, where she starved herself to death, a.d. 33. — Four famous busts of this lady arc iu the Cabinet of Antiquities at -Dresden. THE DICTIONARY Agrippina Agrippina, the younger, was the daughter of Gcrmanicus, 6istcr of Caligula, and mother of Nero. After losing two husbands, she was married to her uncle Claudius, the emperor, whom she poisoned to make way for her son Nero. That monster caused her to be assassi- nated, in a.d. GO, and exhibited to the senate a list of all the infamous crimes of which she had been guilty. Agrippina was endowed with great natural gifts, but her ambition was boundless, and her disposition intriguing and dissolute. It is said that her son viewed her dead body with all the raptures of admiration, 1 saying, that he never could have believed his mother was so beautiful. She left memoirs which assisted Tacitus in the composition of his " An- nals." The town built by her at the place where she was born, on the borders of the Ehine, and called Agrippina Colonia.is the modern Cologne. Agrippina Vipsaxia, daughter of Marcus Agrippa and Marcella, and wife of the emperor Tiberius, who divorced her with great reluct- ance when obliged to marry Julia, the daughter of Augustus. Agrippina was afterwards mar- ried to Asinius Gallus, whom Tiberius, retain- ing his affection for his former wife, condemned to perpetual imprisonment, in the spirit of a jealous rival. Ar.sni, nij'-gcm, the name of two distinguished Turkish authors — the one, Abderahman, who lived in the 17th century, being a writer on Anthology ; and the other, Ismacl, of the J8th century, a poet, historian, and mufti. Aguesseau, Henry Francis d', a-gice*'-so, a chancellor of France, whose father was intend- ant of Languedoc, and devoted himself to the education of his son. In 1091 he was admitted advocate-general of Paris; and in 1700 was named procureur-gcncral, in which he appeared to the greatest advantage, regulating thuse jurisdictions which were under the control of parliament, and preserving a stru t discipline in the tribunals. He improved the proceedings in criminal matters, and introduced several excel- lent regulations ; but what he' plumed himself most upon was the administration of the hos- pitals. After the death of Louis XIV., the regent Orleans appointed him chancellor ; but in 1718 he was displaced, on account of his opposition to the financial system pro- mulgated by John Law. In 1720 he had the seals restored to him, but two years afterwards he was again deprived of them. In 17-7 he once more became chancellor, which office he held with the highest honour to himself and benefit to the nation till 1750, when infirmities obliged him to resign it. b. at Limoges, 100S; d. at Paris, 1751. His works make nine volumes quarto, and are held in great estima- tion. D'Aguesseau never passed a day without reading some portion of Scripture, which he said was the balm of his life.— A statue of him was erected by Napoleon the Great in front of the Palais Legislatif. by the side of one erected in honour of L'Hopital. According to Voltaire, D'Aguesseau was the most learned magistrate that France ever had. Aguillom, Francis, a-gwil'-on, a Flemish mathematician, of the order of Jesus, who pro- duced a book on optics and spheric projections. B. 15GG; d. at Seville, 10 17. Aguirra, Joseph, u'-r/oo-eer-ra, a Spanish Benedictine monk, who received a cardinalship from Innocent XI. B. 1G30; D. at Lome, 1G99. — He compiled a collection of the councils of 2n Ahithophel Spain, in six vols, folio, and wrote some theolo- gical pieces. Aguiari, a'-goo-e-a-re, an Italian vocalist of great celebrity, who was paid a salary of 4:100 per night, for which he only sang two songs. d. at Parma, 1783. Agylee, or Agyl.eus, Henry, a'-je-kii, a lawyer and general scholar, who translated the " Nomocanon " of Photius. u. at Bois-le-Duc, 1533 ; i>. 1595. Ahab, ai'-hab, king of Israel, and the son of Omri, whom he succeeded, lteigncd from about 918 to 897 B.C. He was married to Jeze- bel, whose wickedness instigated him to the commission of such acts of cruelty and idolatry, that he surpassed all his predecessors in im- piety. He was slain by an arrow in a war with the Syrians, and his blood was licked by the dogs on the spot where he had caused Naboth to be muJlcrcd, about a.m. 3103. Ahasuerus, u-has-u-eer'-ut, the Persian king whose decrees and extravagant mode of life are recorded in the book of Esther. lie is called by Josephus Arthasastha, or Artaxerxcs. '1 he word Achashverosh has been applied to him as well as other Persian monarchs, because it means a noble, or excellent prince. It is doubtful whe- ther lie is the Artaxerxes Longimanus of the Greek historians; but his reign may be fixed to have commenced about 515 n.o. Ahaz, ac'-haz, king of Judah, who, at the he- ginning of his reign, defeated Uezin, king of Syria, according to the promise of Isaiah. Notwithstanding this, he abandoned the wor- ship of God, fell into idolatrous practices, and became so impious that his body was not per- mitted to be buried in the royal sepulchres.— Reigned from 742 b.c. to 720. AnAzrAir; S-hd-zi'-ah, king of Israel. There are two kingsof this name mentioned in Scrip- ture: the first was the son of Ahab (1 Kings xxii.) and the other king of Judah. This last was slain by Jehu, about 8^! B.C. Aiiiau, u-hi'-a, "friend of Jehovah," the son and successor of the high-priest Ahitub. Aiiiezeb- a-hi-e'-zer, son of Ammishaddai, and hereditary chief of the children of Han, who came out of Lgypt at the head of his tribe, con- sisting of 72,000 men. Ahijaii, u-hi-ja, the prophet who dwelt at Shiloh, and spoke twice to Jeroboam by the inspiration of God. He wrote the history of Solomon's life. — Another, who was the father of llaasha, king of Israel. Ahimaaz, a-hiiu'-a-nz," brother of anger," the son of Zadok, and high-priest under Solomon. He rendered great service to David in his war with Absalom. Flourished in the 10th century B.C. AniMAx, a-hi'-mtm, a giant of the race or" Anak, who with his brethren, Shcshai and Tal'.nai, was driven out of Hebron when Caleb took that city. (Josh. xv. 11 .) Ahimelech, a-liim-e'-lek, "brother of tin) king," the son of Ahitub, and the successor of Ahiah in the priestship in the time of David. Anio, a-hi'-o, " brotherly," he who, witli his brother Ikzah, brought the ark to Jerusalem, from the house of Abinadab. Ahiba, a-hi'-ra, chief of Naphtali, who canu) out of Kgypt at the head of 53, 100 men. AumiopnF.L, a-liil'-o-fel, " brother of foolish- ness," a native of (iiloh.and the friend of David until the rebellion of Absalom, whose cause he espoused, and, on foreseeing its yrobabld OF BIOGRAPHY. Ahlwardt failure, hanged himself to avert tlic certainty of a more ignominious death, b c. 1023. Ahlwabdt, I'eter, al'-vart, a learned German, who, from being the son of a shoemaker, rose to lie professor of logic and metaphysics in his Dative place, b. at Greifswaltlc, 1710; d. 1791. — He wrote, " On the Human Understanding," "The Immortality of the Soul," and " Thoughts on Thunder and Lightning." He was also the founder of the Abelite Society. which had for its object the promotion of sin- cerity. Ahmed ben Fakes, a'-med ben fair'-cs, an eminent lawyer and lexicographer of Arabia, who was also named El Jtazi. Lived in the 10th century. Ahmed ben Mohammed, a-med ben mo'- hnm-erf, a Moorish poet of Spain, whose effu- sions partook of the oriental style. He wrote historical annals of Spain. Flourished in the 10th century. Ahmed KnAN, a'-med Jcar, successor of Abaka Khan, and the first of the Moguls who professed Mahometanism, which gave great offence to his family. He was conspired against by his courtiers, who set up in his stead Argoun, his nephew. IMt to death a.d. 1234. Ahmed SHAH el Abdat.y, a'-med sha el ub'- da-le, the founder of the kingdom of Cabul and Candahar. He was a great warrior, and broke the power of the Mahrattas, by defeating them in the battle of Paniput, on the 7th of January, 1761. In the latter part of his life he was en- gaged in continual warfare with the Sikhs, but ended his days the sovereign of an empire which he had conquered, and which extended from Sirhind on the east, to Herat on the west, and from the mouths of the Indus and the Arabian Sea on the south, to the banks of the Oxus and Cashmere on the north, d. 1773. AnKEXDT, or Arents, Martin Frederick, a'-rent, a paleographer and distinguished anti- quary, who passed forty years of his life travel- ling, on foot, through France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and other European kingdoms, seeking for Scandinavian antiquities and deciphering Runic characters. He is, per- haps, one of the greatest examples of antiqua- rian enthusiasm oh record, b. at Holstein ; d. in a village near Vienna, 1824. Aiah, ai-i'-a, the concubine of Saul and daughter of Iiizpah. Her children were given up by David to the Gibconites, lo be hanged before the Lord. Aidajt, ai'-dan, a British bishop, who success- fully proselytized the people of the northern parts of England to Christianity. lie was bishop of Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, in Northumber- land, and a prelate of exemplary piety, d. Au- gust 31, G51. Aignan, Stephen, ain-ang, an ardent French republican, a member of the French Academy, and a writer of considerable ability. At the early age of 10 his revolutionary zeal obtained him a situation of responsibility in the district of Orleans, and subsequently several official ap- pointments under the regime of Napoleon 1. b. 1773; d. 1821. — As an author, he is known by some poetical pieces and several dramas, and also by translations of the works of Pope and Goldsmith. Ah.xkaix, Robert and Anthony, ain'-yo, two brothers, who composed some poems, and trans- lated into French verse the works of Horace and Virgil. Flourished in the 16th century. at Aimoin Aikin, John, M.D., ai'-kin, an eminent phy- sician, but more distinguished as a popular author. He was the only son of the Rev. John Aikin, D.D., f»r many years a tutor of divinity at a dissenting academy at Warrington, Lan- cashire. After finishing his studies at the uni- versity of Edinburgh, he became a pupil of Dr. William Hunter, and first settled as a surgeon at Chester. Thence he removed to Warrington, and ultimately succeeded in establishing himself in the metropolis of England. Here, with his sister, Mrs. Earbauld, he pursued literature with considerable success, producing several works, which aimed at making science popular amongst those classes who, without such works, would in all probability never have entered upon scientific studies of any kind. His " Evenings at Home" still commands a wide reputation, and is decidedly the most useful of all Dr. Aikin's works. To this, which extended to six volumes, Mrs. Barbauld contributed, but net to a greater extent than about half a volume. His " Natural History of the Year" is another work which has enjoyed considerable popularity, b. 1747 ; d. at Stoke Newington, 1822. Aikin, Arthur, eldest son of the above, in- herited much of his father's literary talent, but chiefly applied himself to scientific pursuits. He was for several years editor of the "-Annual Review," and in 1814 contributed to science a " Manual of Mineralogy." He also produced a " Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures," and another of "Chemistry and Mineralogy." b. 1781; d. in Eloomsbury, 1854. — Resides being the author of the above, Mr. Aikin was a large contributor to scientific journals, and was for several years the resident secretary to the So- ciety of Arts. Aikin, Edmund, an architect, who wrote an account of St. Paid's Cathedral, d. 1820. Aikman, William, aik'-mun, a Scotch painter, was the only son of William Aikman, Esq., of Cairncy, advocate, by Margaret, sister of Sir John Clerk, of Pennycuick, bart. He was in- tended for the profession of the law, but his passion for the line arts was so great that he determined to indulge it. Accordingly, he relinquished the law and applied himself assidu- ously to painting. After studying three years in Italy, he visited Turkey ; thence he went to Rome, whence, after a short stay, lie came back to England, and found a patron in the duke of Argylc. He excelled most in portrait-painting. B. 1632; D. 1731. Aiilt, Peter d', dai'-le, a bishop of Cambray, and a zealous champion of popery. He presided at the council of Constance, where he con- demned John Huss to the stake. Pope John XXIII. created him aeardiual. b. at Compiegne, 1350 ; D. 1420. Ailmer, or ^Ethelmakes, an carl of Cornwall and Devon in the time of king Edgar. He was very rich and powerful; and in" 1016, when Canute invaded England, he joined the Danes along with the notorious Edric-Streona, and some others, against Edmund Ironsides. Ail- mer did not long survive this treason. Ailred, Ethelred, or Ealred, uil'-red, ab- bot of Revesby, in Lincolnshire. Flourished at the beginning of the 12th century. — He wrote a " Genealogy of English Kings," " The Life of Edward the Confessor," and other productions. Aimoin, ai'-monff, a French Benedictine, who wrote a history of France, to be found in the third volume of Duchesne's collection B. at THE DICTIONARY Ainsworth ViUefranche, in the province of Perigord; n. 1008. Aiuswobth, Henry, ains'-icorth, an ingenious and learned commentator on the Bible, who from a follower of the founder of the Brownists became an Independent, and proceeded to Am- sterdam, where he grew so popular as to gather a congregation for himself. Quarrelling with some of the members of his church, he left them and went to Ireland for a time, but once more returned to Amsterdam. He died in this town in 1G62. — He is said to have been poisoned by a Jew, who had lost a diamond of great value, which was found by Ainsworth ; and when the Jew offered him a reward, he only requested to have a conference with some of the rabbis on the prophecies respecting the Messiah. This the Jew promised to obtain for him, but being unable to accomplish it, he administered to Mm a deadly drug. Ainsworth was well versed in the Hebrew, and his commentary on the Penta- teuch is both curious and valuable. Ainswoeth, Robert, a learned lexicographer, who was educated at Bolton, Lancashire, where he afterwards kept a school. Thence he removed to London, where for many years he followed the same profession, b. in Lancashire, 1660 ; d. in London, 1743. — He printed " A Short Trea- tise of Grammatical Institution ;" but ho is best known by his " Dictionary, Latin and English," Ito and 8vo, in the compilation of which he spent twenty years. Ainswokih, William Harrison, a writer of popular novels, who first obtained celebrity by selecting for his heroes such characters as Jack Sheppard and Dick Turpin, noted robbers and highwaymen, b. 1805. Ainswobth, William Francis, cousin of the above, the author of several works of travel, among which his " Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks," and "Cilicia and its Governors," deserve especial mention, b. 1807. Aikat, Henry, air'-ai, an English divine, who after being a fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, was, in 1600, elected provost ; and in 1606 served the office of vice-chancellor, b. in Westmore- land, 1560; d. 1616.— He was a rigid Calvinist, and wrote a few theological pieces. Aibay, Christopher, a divine related to the above, who had the living of Milford, in Hamp- shire, d. 1678. — He wrote a few pieces in Latin and English. Aird, Thomas, aird, an original poet of con- siderable power, a contributor to periodical literature, and author of the " Old Bachelor in the Old Scottish Village," " Religious Charac- teristics," and "The Devil's Dream," a poem pronounced " a wonderful piece of weird, super- natural imagination." He was editor of the " Edinburgh"Weekly Journal," "The Dumfries Herald," and of an edition of the poems of Dr. Moir, the "Delta" of Blackwood's Magazine. b. at Bowden, Roxburghshire, 1802. Aieet, Sir Richard, air'-e, a general engaged fn the Crimea during the Russian war of 1351. In the year 1857 he was made quartermaster- general of the British army under the Duke of Cambridge as commander-in-chief, b. 1803. Aibola, AngelicaVeronica, ai-rol'-ya, a lady of a noble family of Genoa, possessed of much inge- nuity and taste, who learned the principles and practice of the art of painting, and executed some pictures on religious subjects. She afterwards became a nun. Lived in the 17th century. Aikt, George Biddeil, air'-e, the present 30 Ajala astronomer-royal, is by birth a Northumbrian. After being educated at several private schools, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a •izar, at the age of 18. He stood at the head of all the men of his year as senior wrangler in 1823. In 1824 he was elected fellow of the college, and in 1826 was appointed to the Lu- casian chair. AVhilst holding this appointment, he delivered a course of admirable lectures on experimental philosophy. In 1828 he was chosen for the Plumian professorship of astronomy, for which he resigned his former appointment. He now earnestly devoted himself to astronomical studies, and in 1835, on the resignation of Mr. Pond, he had the honourable office of astrono- mer-royal conferred upon him. In this position he has been enabled to labour successfully for the advancement of science, and through his exertions the Greenwich Observatory stands second to none in the world. Mr. Airy has written much uppn mechanics and optics ; and has had his great abilities honourably recognised by various scientific societies. In 1 828 he be- came a fellow of the Astronomical Society, and in 1835 was elected its president. In 1836 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and is a member of various other scientific bodies both in Europe and America, b. at Alnwick, 1801. — Mr. Airy has received two of the medals of the Astronomical Society, one for his " Pla- netary Observations," and the other for his " Discovery of the Inequality of Venus and the Earth." He has also received the Copley and the Royal Medals of the Royal Society, and the Lalande medal of the French Academy of Sciences. Aistulph, or Astolphus, ais'-tulf, king of the Lombards, who succeeded his brother Rachis in 749. The commencement of Ms reign was sig- nalized by his making an inroad on the terri- tories of the Roman see; but Pepin, king of France, besieged him in Pavia, and compelled him to restore all the places he had taken. The treaty which had been entered into was after- wards violated by Aistulph, who again invaded the Roman states. Pepin once more came to the assistance of the pope, and Aistulph retired to Pavia, where ho was forced to sue for peace. He was killed in hunting, 756. Aitoit, William, ai'-ton, a Scotch common gar- dener, who came to London to seek employment, obtained it, and ultimately became superintend- ent of the botanical garden at Kew, which he greatly improved, and in 1783 was appointed to manage also the pleasure and kitchen gardens. b. near Hamilton, Lanark, 1731 ; d. 1703. — In 1789 he published his " Hortus Kewcnsis." King George III. appointed liis son to succeed him in both his places. Aitzema, Leo, ail'-ze-ma, a resident repre- sentative of the Hanse Towns at the Hague, who became eminent as an historian, b. at Dorkum, Friesland, 1600; d. 1669.— His "His- tory of the United Provinces" is written in Dutch, and extends to fifteen vols., 4to. It has been continued down to 1692 and published. Ajala, Martin Perez d', a-ja'-la, a Spanisli ecclesiastic who was sent by Charles V. to tl* council of Trent, and afterwards made arch bishop of Valentia. He discharged the duties of his station in an exemplary manner, b. at Carthagena, 1504; d. 1556. — The principal of his works is entitled " De Divinis Traditionibus." — There were two others of the same name : 1. Balthazar of Antwerp, who wroto " De Jure et OP BIOGRAPHY. Ajax Offlciis Bellicis, ac Militari Disciplina." 2. Ga- briel, a physician at Louvain in the 16th cen- tury, and brother of the preceding. He wrote "Popularia Epigrammata," "Do Lue Pesti- lenti," &c. Ajax, ai'-jax, the son of Tclamon, by Peribcea or Eribcea, daughter of Alcathous, and, with the exception of Achilles, the bravest of all the Greeks in the Trojan war. He encountered Hector, with whom at parting he exchanged arms. After the death of Achilles, Ajax and Ulysses each claimed the arms of the dead hero. When they were given to the latter, Ajax was so enraged that he slaughtered a whole flock of sheep — supposing them to be the sons of Atreus, who had given the preference to Ulysses —and stabbed himself with his sword. The blood which ran to the ground from the wound was changed into the flower hyacinth. It is affirmed by some that lie was killed by Paris in battle, and by others that he was murdered by Ulysses. His body was buried at Siganim ; some say on Mount Rhcetus. His tomb was visited by Alexander the Great. Hercules, according to several authors, prayed to the gods that his friend Telamon, who was childless, might have a son with a skin as impenetrable as that of the Nemean lion which he then wore. His prayers were heard, and when Ajax was born, Hercules wrapped him up in tlie lion's skin, which ren- dered his body invulnerable, except that part which was left uncovered by a hole through which Hercules hung his quiver. This vulne- rable part was in the breast, or, according to gome authorities, behind the neck. — Another, the son of Oileus, king of Locris, surnamed Locrian, in contradistinction to the son of Tela- mon. As one of Helen's suitors, he sailed with forty ships to the Trojan war. The night that Troy was taken he offered violence to Cassan- dra, who fled into the temple of Minerva. For this, as he was returning home, the goddess, who had obtained the thunders of Jupiter and the power of tempests from Neptune, destroyed his ship in a storm. Ajax swam to a rock, and exclaimed that he was safe in spite of the gods. Such impiety offended Neptune, who struck the rock with liis trident, and Ajax fell with part of the rock into the sea, and was drowned. His body was afterwards found by the Greeks, and black sheep offered on his tomb. — According to the fanciful mythology of ancient Greece, these two heroes were supposed after death to be transported to the island of Leuce, a separate place, reserved only for the bravest of anti- quity. Akakia, Martin, a-Tca'-ke-a, a 'learned profes- sor of physic at Paris. B. at Chalons, Cham- pagne; D. 1551. — He translated into Latin " Galen de Katione Curandi," and " Ars Medica." Akakia, Martin, son of the above, and phy- sician to Henry III. n. 1588.— He wrote a treatise "I)e Morbis Mulicribus, et Consilia Medica," to be published after his death. — There are several other persons of the same name and family, who acquired reputation in different professions. The true name of this family was Sam-Malice, "without malice," but this was changed into the Greek form of the name, Aka- kia ; after a fashion much followed in those days of giving a Latin or Greek form to surnames. Akbab, ak'-bar, sultan of the Moguls, suc- ceeded his father Humayun in 1556, and was the neatest of all the aovcreigns who have reigned 31 Akenside in Hindostan, He ascended the throne in his thirteenth year, when his country was torn by dissensions ; but although possessed of superior intelligence, he was wholly unequal to the task of governing his kingdom. Accordingly he called in to his assistance a Turcoman nobleman named Bahrain Khan, on whom he conferred the power of regent, and left the administration of affairs chiefly to him. By the severity of the measures adopted by this personage, the country was restored to comparative tranquillity ; but the rigour with which he exercised his autho- rity was felt by Akbar himself, who, in 1553, broke from his control, and took the reins of government into his own hands. Bahram now raised the standard of rebellion, and for two years endeavoured to create an independent province for himself in Mahva ; failing in this, however, he submitted to Akbar, and was par- doned. The young monarch now turned his attention to the enlargement of his kingdom, which had been greatly reduced by the inva- sions of successful chiefs, who lost no oppor- tunity of extending their own territories in a country in which the right of the sword was the only power recognised and acknowledged. At first his dominions only comprised the Punjab and the provinces of Agra and Delhi, but, by the fortieth year of his reign, his empire extended from the Hindoo-Coosh mountains to the borders of the Deccan, and from the ISra- mahputra to Candahar. b. 1542 ; d. 1605. — Great as Akbar was as a conqueror, his sway was characterized by general mildness, wisdom, and toleration. He laboured to abolish the most cruel of the superstitious rites of the Hindoo religion, and expressed his opinion, that God could only be worshipped by following reason, and not by yielding an implicit faith to any alleged revelation. The memory of the beneficence of his reign is still vividly impressed on the mind of the Hindoo, and not without reason, as is shown by the following extract from an address presented by the rajah of Joudpoor to the emperor Aurungzebe a centurv after the reign of Akbar : — " Your ancestor Akbar, whose throne is now in heaven, con- ducted the affairs of his empire in equity and security for the space of fifty years. He pre- served every tribe of men in ease and happi- ness, whether they were followers of Jesus or of Moses, of Brahma or Mahomet. Of what- ever sect or creed they might be, they all equally enjoyed his countenance and favour, insomuch that his people, in gratitude for the indiscrimi- nate protection which he afforded them, distin- guished him by the appellation of ' Guardian of Mankind.' " Akenside, Mark, ai'-ken-side, an English poet and physician, who, when young, was crippled by the falling of a cleaver on his foot in the shop of his father, who was a butcher. He had the singular weakness of being always ashamed of his origin, though the limp in his gait was such as to preserve it continually in his memory. His parents being dissenters, in- tended him for the ministry in their sect, and at the age of eighteen he was sent to Edinburgh to pursue his studies; but instead of following divinity, he devoted bin-self to physic. In 1741 he went to Lcyden, where, in three years, he took his degree of M.D. In 1741 he published his " Pleasures of Imagination," a performance wliichat once attained celebrity, and proved him a true poet. He soon afterwards commenced THE DICTIONARY Akerblad practising ns a physician at Northampton. .Meeting with little success, he removed to Hampstead, and a J"»r. Dyson generously al- lowed him £300 a year till he could fix himself in practice. Having obtained his doctor's de- cree at Cambridge, he was elected fellow of the College of Physicians, one of the physicians of St 'lhomas's Hospital, and physician to the queen. In 1761 he printed a discourse in Latin on dysentery, and was in a fair way of at- taining considerable eminence in his profession, when he was carried oif by a putrid fever, b. at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1721; d. in London, 1770. His remains were interred in the church of St. James's, Westminster. His life and memoirs, written by ISucke, appeared in 1832 in a work entitled, "The Life, Writings, and Genius of Akenside." Akerblad, John David, ak'-er-blad, a learned Swede, who, being appointed secretary to the Swedish embassy at Constantinople, had an op- portunity of pursuing researches into Phoenician literature. He was not only able to read but to converse in several European and Oriental lan- guages. D. at Rome, 1S19. Akiba, a-ki'-ba, a Jewish rabbi, who was at first a shepherd, but at the age of forty devoted himself to learning, and became a teacher. He was flayed alive by the Romans, a.d. 135, at the age, as is stated, of 120 years.— Akiba was one of the first compilers of the "Misehna," or traditions of the Jews. Alabaster, William, a-la-bas'-ter,an English divine, of considerable attainments, who was educated in Trinity College, Cambridge, and who accompanied the Earl of Essex to Cadiz, where he turned papist. On his return to England, he again became a Protestant, and had some church preferment. Applying himself to the study of the Hebrew language, he became enthusiastically fond of the Cabala, or Jewish traditions, b. at Hadleigh, Suffolk; d. 1640 — He wrote a Latin tragedy called "Roxana," acted at Cambridge by the students ; on which occasion a lady, hearing the word tequar repeated in a terrible manner, was so affected as to lose her senses. He was also the author of a Lexicon Pentaglotton, folio, 1637. Alain, John, a' -lain, a Danish author, who wrote " On the Origin of the Cimbri," and other subjects, b. 1569; d. 1630. Alain de l'Isle, a -lain ile-leeV, surnamed the universal doctor, and a divine of great re- putation in the university of Paris, d. 1203.— His works were printed in 1658, folio. Alain, Nicholas, a French dramatic author, whose fame rests upon the production of some trifling comedies. Flourished at the beginning of the ISth century. Alain Cuartiei:, a French writer, who pro- duced several pieces, the most esteemed of which is his "Chronicle of Charles VII.," to ivbom he was secretary. Flourished at the be- giuLiing of the Hth century. Alamanes, H-la-mai'-nes, a statuary of Athens, and disciple of Phidias. Alamanni, Luigi, a-la-mau'-e, a Florentine, who, conspiring against Julius de Medici, was compelled to quit his native country, until Charles V. captured Rome, when he returned and was employed in public affairs, till the re- establishment of the SI editi family obliged him to leave Florence again. He finally settled in France, and became a favourite of Francis I., who in 15 1-1 sent him ambassador to the imperial 32 Alarcon court, b. at Florence, 1195; d. 1550. — Alamannl was of a noble family, and wrote many beautiful poems in the Italian language. His son Raptiste became almoner to Queen Catherine of France, and successively bishop of Bazos and Macon, d. 1531. A collection of his letters is extant, but in MS. Alamos, Balthazar, a'-la-mo*, a Castilian, educated at Salamanca. He entered into tho service of Anthony Perez, secretary of state to Philip II., and when that minister fell into dis- grace, Alamos was cast into prison, where ho lay eleven years. On the accession of Philip III. he obtained his liberty, and was employed by the duke of Olivarez in several important situa- tions. Lived in the 16th century, b. at Medina del Campo ; d. in his 88th year. — He translated Tacitus into Spanish, and left other works. Alan of Tewkesbury, author of the " Life and Banishment of Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury." d. 1291. Alan, Allen, or Alletn, William, was edu- cated at Oriel College, Oxford, and in 1550 be- came one of its fellows. In 1556 he was chosen principal of St. Mary's Hall, and two years after- wards was made canon of York; but on the accession of Elizabeth he went to Louvain, and was appointed head of the English college. Here he wrote, in defence of the Romish church, some treatises, whivh raised his reputation as a con- troversialist to such a degree, that he obtained several valuable preferments. In his own coun- try, however, he was considered a traitor, and a man was hanged for bringing over from tho continent some of his books. In 1586 he pub- lished a defence of the Pope's bull excom- municating Queen Elizabeth, to which he added an exhortation to her subjects to revolt against her in favour of the Spaniards. For tliis he obtained the archbishopric of Mechlin, with the dignity of a cardinal, b. at Rossal, in Lan- cashire, in 1532; d. at Rome, in 1591. Alan of Lynn, so called from the place of his nativity. Ho became famous for his theological writings. Lived in the 15th century. Aland, Sir John Fortescue, al'-and, an Eng- lish judge, who took the name of Aland, in compliment to his lady, who was the eldest daughter of Henry Aland, esq., of Waterford, in Ireland. He wa3 educated at Oxford, whence he removed to the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar about 1690. In 1714, he was ap- pointed solicitor-general to the prince of Wales, and afterwards to the king. In 1717 he wa» created a baron of the Exchequer, and, next year, one of the justices of the court of King's Bench. On the accession of George II. he was removed from that office, but for what cause docs not appear. In 1728 he was made one of the justices of the Common Pleas, which situ- ation ho resigned in 1746, and was created a peer of Ireland, by the title of Baron Fortescue of Crcden. b. in Devonshire, 1670; d. 1746. — Baron Fortescue belonged to the ancient family of Fortescue, in Devonshire, and was an able lawyer, an impartial judge, and versed in the Northern and Saxon literature. He published, in 1714, 8vo, his ancestor Sir John Fortescue'* treatise on "Absolute and Limited Monarchy." Alarcon, Don Juan Ruiz de, a-lar-kou, a Spanish theatrical writer of the reign of Philip I V. Some of his productions are so excellent as to have been attributed to Lope de Vega and Montalvan. His drama of " La Vcrdad sospo- chosa" (suspicious truth) was imitated by Cor- OF BIOGRAPHY. Alard neille in his " Le Menteur," which, in fact, is founded upon it. None of the Spanish drama- tists, taken as a whole, merit a higher place in the drama than Alarcon, who is said to have written thirty plays, and whose verse glows with high, chivalrous sentiment, and is marked by those nice discriminating qualities which indi- cate an honourable mind. b. at Tlasco, or Tlachco, in Mexico, towards the end of the 16th century. Alabd, a'-lar, a Romish divine who wrote a great number of theological pieces now little known or regarded, b. at Amsterdam; d. at Louvain, 15-11. Alard, Lambert, the inspector of the public schools in Brunswick, a theological writer and the compiler of a Greek Lexicon, d. 1672. Alakic I., al'-e-rik, king of the Visigoths, was descended from an illustrious family, and served in the wars between the Goths and Romans, when his countrymen submitted to Theodosius. He afterwards served in the imperial army, but being refused a chief command, he revolted, and entering Greece, devastated several of its pro- vinces with fire and sword. Whilst thus en- gaged, he was encountered by the famous Stilicho, who compelled him to retire into Epi- rus. About this time, a.d. 400, he was acknow- ledged king of the Visigoths, and entered Italy, whence he carried away a large amount of plunder and a great many captives. Two years afterwards, he again entered that country, but was opposed by Stilicho, his former adversary, and after a well-contested battle, lost his wife and children, who were taken prisoners. He then entered into a treaty, and retired across the Po. He now submitted to the emperor Honorius, who was then reigning, and into whose service he entered, and, for three years, seems to have served that prince in Epirus. For this he de- manded an extravagant reward, which being refused, he raised the standard of revolt, and advanced upon Rome, and laying siege to it, the Romans were ultimately compelled to comply with such terms as the conqueror chose to dic- tate. Having achieved this success, he withdrew into Tuscany; but finding that Honorius failed to fulfil the conditions of the treaty into which he had entered, Alaric again attacked the " Eternal city," and compelled its submission. He himself now appointed Attalus, prefect of the city, to be em- peror in the room of Honorius ; but the imbecility of that personage rendered him unfit for the responsibilities of Iris station. He was therefore deprived of his regal honours, and Honorius once more enthroned. These measures, how- ever, had hardly been completed, when a trea- cherous attack made by the Romans upon the soldiers of Alaric, roused his indignation against the imperial city, which ho gave up for six days to his soldiers. An indiscriminate pillage was the result of this act ; but Alaric, to his honour, ordered his troops to avoid unnecessary blood- shed, to respect female chastity, and to preserve the buildings devoted to the purposes of religion. Having sufficiently satiated his vengeance, he withdrew into the southern provinces of Italy, where he died during the siege of Cosenza, in Cala'/ria, in the year 410. — Alaric was a skilful wa'rior, and exhibited the qualities of prompti- tude and courage in a high degree. During his first siege of Rome, the inhabitants intimated to him that if they were driven to take up arms, they would fight with the utmost determination. "Do bo," said I've barbarian soldier; "but the 4J Albani closer hay is pressed, the more easily it is cut." On being further asked what he would leave to the besieged if they surrendered, " Their lives," was his laconic reply ; and at the same time he demanded all their wealth. Alakic II., king of the Visigoths, ascended the throne in 484 : he was slain in a battle which he fought with Clovis, king of France, near Poictiers, in 507. This monarch was of a much more pacific disposition than the first Alaric. He left behind him a regularly drawn up system of legislation, a code which is known as the Breviarium Alaricianum. Alasco, John, a-las'-ko, a Polish Roman Catholic bishop, who, having embraced the Pro- testant religion, came to England in the reign of Edward VI., and became pastor to a Dutch church in London. On the accession of Mary, he returned to his own country, where he dis- tinguished himself so greatly in "the cause of tho Reformation, that he received the title of tha Reformer of Poland, b. 1499; d. at Frankfort, 1560. — Alasco was the uncle of Sigismund, king of Poland, and was greatly esteemed by the lead- ing men among the Reformers ; particularly by Erasmus, whose library he purchased. Alava, Diego Esquiesel, a-la'-va, a bishop of Cordova, in Spain, who was at the Council of Trent, and wrote a book on "General Councils." d. 1562. Alava, Miguel Ricardo d', a native of Spain, who took a leading part in the troubles of his country from the time of the invasion under Ka- poleon till his death. He at first joined the French, but afterwards abandoned them in con- sequence of the oppression they practised on his countrymen. He then served under the Duke of Wellington, who appointed him one of his aides- de-camp. On the restoration of Ferdinand VII. ho was cast into prison, his early defection having weighed more with the king than his late ser- vices. The Duke of Wellington, however, stood Iris friend, procured his release, and ultimately his appointment as ambassador to the Nether- lands. In the revolution of 1820, he joined tho constitutional party, was president of the Cortes in 1822, negotiated the liberation of Ferdinand with the Duo d'Angouleme in 1823 ; but the pro- mises then made by the king having been broken, Alava retired to England. On the death of Ferdinand he returned to Spain, and espoused the cause of Isabella II. against Don Carlos, and was appointed ambassador successively to Eng- land and France. After the insurrection of La Granja, he declined to swear allegiance to the constitution of 1812, retired to France, and in 1843 died at Bareges, b. at Vitoria in 1771. Albakese, al-ba-nal'-sai, an Italian musician of high reputation, d. at Paris, 1800. Albani, Francis, al-ba'-ne, an Italian painter, whose first master was Denys Calvert, who left him to the instructions of his pupil Guido, whom he accompanied to the school of the Carracci. Having finished his studies at Bologna, Albani went to Rome, where his first wife died. He married again, and his second wife was very beautiful. This lady became the mother of several tine boys, and Albani painted pieces in which his wife and children served as models for his Venuses and Cupids. He was fond of repre- senting the fair sex, and his compositions on love-subjects are held in high esteem, b. at Bologna, 1573; ». 1660. — His brother and dis- ciple, John Liaptiste, was an eminent historical and landscape painter. He died in Id'! '•. THE DICTIONARY Albani Albani, John Jerome, a civilian and cardinal, who wrote some books in vindication of the papal power, b. at Bergamo ; d. 1591. Albani, Alexander, an Italian, created a car- dinal by Innocent XIII. b. at Urbino, 1692; d. 1779. This personage was a great virtuoso, and possessed a collection of drawings and en- gravings, which, at his death, was purchased by George 111. for 14,000 crowns. Albani, John Francis, also a cardinal, and nephew of tho above, was distinguished as a pa- tron of the fine arts. Although he endeavoured to prevent the suppression of the Jesuits, he was in other respects liberal and enlightened. His palace was plundered by tho French invading army in 1793, when he made his escape to Na- ples, stripped of all his possessions. In 1S00 he returned to Rome, where he took up his abode in private lodgings, b. at Rome, 1720; ». 1803. Alban, St., al'-lan, the proto-martyr of Britain, who served in the Roman army, and became a convert to Christianity, through one Amphibalus, a monk. b. at St. Alban's.in the third century ; d. for his religion in the per- secution under Diocletian, 303. Albany, Louisa, Countess of, ul'-ba-ne, daugh- ter of Prince Stolberg, of Gedcrn, in Germany, and wife of Charles James Edward, the grandson of James II., and whose adventurous spirit led him to enter Scotland with a few followers in 1745 to endeavour to recover the lost crown of his ancestors. Their marriage took place in 1772, but the countess being much the younger, the match was ill-assorted, and she retired to a convent. Subsequently she went to France, but on the death of her husband in 1788, returned to Italy, and finally settled in Florence. Here she secretly allied herself by marriage to Count Alfieri, the poet, taking the title of Countess of Albany, as the relict of the last of the Stuarts. b. 1753 ; d. at Florence, 1824. — When this lady and her husband, called the young Pretender, resided at Rome, they held a little court, and were addressed as king and queen. She was possessed of a refined mind, loved literature and the arts, and whilst in Florence her house was the resort of the most cultivated and distin- guished persons. Alfieri died in her house, and in 1810 she erected to his memory, in the church of Santa Croce, a monument executed byCa- nova. (See Ciiarles Edwakd, p. 252.) Albategni, ul'-ba-ten'-ye, an Arabian astro- nomer, who lived in Mesopotamia, and who wrote a book on the knowledge of the stars and the obliquity of the zodiac, which was printed at Nuremberg in 1537, 4to, and at Bologna in 1845. b. at Baten, Mesopotamia ;d. 929.— He was the first who substituted sines for chords, and who may be said to have determined the length of the tropical year. He is considered to have had a larger number of methods in spherical trigonometry than the Greeks, and to be the greatest of the Arabian school, which connects Greek science with that of our own times. Albf.mvkle, George Monk, Duke of, aV-hc- marl, a military and naval commander, who, being ft younger son of a good family, entered the army as a volunteer, and served in the Netherlands under his relation, Sir Richard Orcnville. On the breaking out of the war between Charles I. and the Scotch in 1639, he obtained a colonel's commission, and attended his majesty in both his expeditions to Scotland. At the commence- ment of the rebellion in Ireland, in 1641, he was sent to that country, where his services were so Albemarle important as to obtain for him the favour of the Lords Justices, who appointed him governor of Dublin. At the time of his return to England, the town of Nantwich was invested by the Parliamentary forces, against whom he was despatched; but he was taken prisoner and confined in the Tower. Here he remained till 1646, when, on the ruin of the royal cause, he was released on condition of accepting a com- mand in the army of the Parliament, to which he consented. He was now despatched to Ire- land to subdue the rebels there; but concluding an unsatisfactory peace with them, he drew upon himself the indignation of the Parlia- ment, who passed a vote of censure upon his conduct. Cromwell, however, had discovered the great military talents which he possessed, and, raising him to the rank of lieutenant- general, conferred upon him the chief command of the army in Scotland. Whilst here, his con- duct was such as to excite the suspicions of the Protector, who, not long before his death, wrote him a letter to which he added this postscript : — " There be that tell me that there is a certain cunning fellow in Scotland, called George Monk, who is said to lie in wait there to intro- duce Charles Stuart : I pray you use your dili- gence to apprehend him and send him up to me." On the death of Cromwell, the position of Monk was one of extreme difficulty ; but having a powerful army at his command, he determined to march into England. That he was favourable to the restoration of the Stuart dynasty, the sagacity of the late Protector had already discovered; but as he acted with ex- treme caution, no one could positively decide as to what were the real objects he had in view. Accordingly, when he arrived in England, he was courted by the republicans, whilst the royalists feared that he would set up for him- self. The moderate party, however, pressed him to call a free parliament, to which, being in ac- cordance with his own desires, he acceded. When this assembly met, they voted the re- storation of the king, with whom Genera) Monk had carried on a secret correspondence, and who was consequently restored to his throne without violence or bloodshed. Thus was this great event effected by the prudence of one man, who became an object of the highest esteem, both with the people and the king. Wealth and honours were now heaped upon him. He was created duke of Albemarle, with a pension of JE1.000 a year, and subsequeutly was appointed, in conjunction with Prince Rupert, admiral of the fleet, and gained a great victory over th Dutch, in 1660, in a light which lasted three days, off the mouth of the Thames. Whilst the plague ravaged the city of London, he remained among the inhabitants, many of whom regarded his presence at such a a period as great consolation, b. at Pothc- ridge, near Torrington, Devonshire, 1608 ; d. 1670.— The character of Monk, as represented by Macaulay, is that of a prudent 'and cautious rather than a bold and far-seeing man ; and hence the impenetrable secrecy with which ho veiled his policy on the death of the great Cromwell. In private life he was possessed of many virtues ; and although it is said that he never feared the shot of a cannon, be had a wholesome dread of his wife, who was tho daughter of a common blacksmith, had been, bred a milliner, and was a proficient in the lan- guage of Billingsgate. She bore him a son, OF BIOGRAPHY. Alberelli named Christopher, who afterwards figured as duke of Albemarle, and in 1638 died governor of Jamaica. The general was the author of a work on military and political affairs, which was published in 1671, and a collection of his letters was printed in 1715. He was interred in the chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. Alberelli, Giacomo, al'-bair-el-e, a native of Venice, who painted historical subjects with considerable credit. Many of his pieces arc in the-churches and public buildings of Ids native city, where he died about 1 650. Albebgati Capacelli, the Marquis Francis, aV-bair-ga'-te ca'-pa-chel'-le, an Italian senator as well as a comic writer, who spent his early youth in every kind of dissipation, and did not apply himself to study until he had attained his thirty-fourth year. At forty, however, he had not only become a powerful dramatist, but such an excellent performer, as to merit the title of the "Garrick of the Italian nobility." d. at Bologna, 1728; d. 1804. The works of this man have been pronounced unrivalled for wit, humour, facetious sallies, and knowledge of the world. A complete edition was published at Bologna in 1781. Albergotti, Francis, al'-bair-gof-e, an Italian civilian, the disciple of Baldi, and who, after exercising his profession as an advocate at Arezzo, removed to Florence, where he received the honour of nobility. His character for ve- racity was so great, "that he had the title of " Teacher of Solid Truth." Flourished in the 11th century. Alberic, aV-be-rik, a French historian, and canon of Aix, who, not being able to take an active part in the first crusade, wrote its history from the year 1095 to 112J. Lived in the 13th century. His Chronicle was printed at Helm- stadt in 1584. Alberic db Rosate, dai-ro-sa'-ie, of Ber- gamo, a lawyer, who wrote Commentaries on the Decretals. Lived in the 11th century. Alberici, Enrico, al'-bai-re-che, an Italian historical painter, but chiefly eminent for his religious pieces, was born near Bergamo in 1714; D. 1775. Alberoni, Julius, al'-bai-ro'-ne, who, having entered into orders, became curate of a village near Parma, where he happened to relieve the wants of the secretary of the duke of Ven- dome, who had been robbed. Some time after- wards the duke entered Italy with his army, for which there was no means of providing, as the peasantry had taken the precaution to conceal their corn. He happened to be in the neigh- bourhood of the village in which the poor curate, who had formerly relieved the necessi- ties of his secretary, resided. Recollecting this circumstance, Alberoni was sent for in thepresent distress of the duke, to whom he revealed the secret places in which the peasantry had con- cealed their grain. This service was so great, that the duke, on returning to Madrid, took him with him, and p: ocured him the favour of the princess of Orsini, the favourite of Philip V. By her recommendation, he was appointed agent for the duke of Parma at the Spanish court, and greatly advanced the interests of his sovereign, by obtaining Elizabeth Farncse, princess of Parma, for his second wife. For this, Alberoni was made a privy councillor, was next appointed prime minister, and finally had a eardinalship conferred upon him. Having thus obtained the highest honours, he occupied him- 35 Albert self with schemes for the benefit of the Spanish nation; but, being undermined by foreign in- fluence, he was deprived of his posts and ba- nished to Rome. b. at Plaeentia, 1661 ; d. there 1752. Albert, al'-bert, duke of Austria, and subse- quently emperor of Germany, was the son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, who founded the Aus- trian imperial dynasty. He was crowned in 1298, after defeating and slaying his competitor, Adolphus of Nassau, and was assassinated in 1303, by his nephew John, son of the duke of Suabia, whose paternal estates he had seized.— On the bank of the Reuss, where Albeit was murdered, Agnes, his eldest daughter, and queen of Hungary, built a monastery, and called it Konigsfelden. Here, after taking a dreadful vengeance, not only on the assassins of her father, but on many innocent families whom she supposed implicated in their crime, she shut herself up and ended her days. Her apartments are still shown in the dilapidated building, which stands on the high road from Dasle to Baden and Zurich, and in the vicinity of the fortress of Hapsburg, whence originally sprung the house of Austria. Albert II., emperor and duke of Austria, who, having married the daughter of Sigis- mund, emperor and king of Hungary, had be- queathed to hir i by that monarch his dominions of Hungary and Bohemia. B. 1397; D. 1439. Albert, archduke of Austria, was the sixth son of the emperor Maximilian II. He adopted the ecclesiastical profession, and obtained a eardinalship and the archbishopric of Toledo. In 1583 he was made viceroy of Portugal, in which capacity his conduct was so satisfactory to his uncle, Philip II., king of Spain, that he sent him into the Low Countries to endeavour to quell the insurrection which had broken out in the seven United Provinces. In this, however, he had little success. In 1598 he married the daughter of Philip, on which he renounced the ecclesiastical character, and in 1600 encountered Prince Maurice of Nassau, at Nieuport, and was defeated. This battle de-ided the independence of Holland. Albert afterwards directed his energies against Ostcnd, to which he laid siege, and after the loss of lOO.OnO men on both sides, the place fell before his arms. A twelve years' truce was now concluded with the Dutch, and, before the termination of that period, Albert expired, b. 1559; r>. 1621. (See Motley's " Rise of the Dutch Republic") Albert, prince of Mecklenburg, was elected king of Sweden in 1361 by those nobles who had become dissatisfied with the reign of Mag- nus II., and by whom that monarch was de- posed. The result of this measure was a war between the partisans of Albert and Magnus, which lasted several years, and which was finally closed in 1371, by Magnus making a formal resignation of the crown to Albert. The new monarch, however, was little less for- tunate m pleasing liis nobles than the former king. Accordingly, those disaffected chiefs otfered tue crown to Margaret, queen of Den- mark ai d Norway, who manhed into the country, and after a fierce battle at Talkoping, in 1388, took Albert prisoner. Albert was kept in confinement till 1394, when he recovered his liberty on condition of ceding Stockholm to Margaret. He attempted again to recover his crown, but failing, spent the remainder of Ida life in Mecklenburg, d. 1412. D 2 THE DICTIONARY Albert Albert, the Warlike, marquis of Branden- burg- Culmbach, called the Alcibiades of Ger- many, on account of his beauty. His fatherdytng when he was an infant, left him to the care of his uncle. In 1541 he took possession of his hereditary estates, and in the disturbances of Germany during the reign of Charles V., en- tered into the confederacy formed by Maurice, elector of Saxony, and other princes, against that monarch. He committed many excesses in this war, burning towns, and levying heavy contributions wherever he marched. Subse- quently a league was formed against him, at the head of which was his old ally the elector of Saxony. Between these princes a great battle was fought at Siverhus, in 1553, in which Maurice was slain and Albert wounded. He was afterwards put under the ban of the em- pire, and deprived of his possessions, b. 1522; d. 1558. Albert, margrave of Brandenburg, the first duke of Prussia, was elected grand-master of the Teutonic order in 1511, and entered into a war with Sigismund, king of Poland, in de- fence of the independence of that order. A peace was concluded at Cracow in 1525, by which it was stipulated that the grand-master should possess Prussia as a fief of Poland. Not long after this, Albert avowed himself a Pro- testant, and married a princess of Denmark. In consequence of this act, he fell under the ban of the empire, b. 1490 ; d. 1568. — A descendant of this prince threw off the allegiance of Poland, and his son, Frederick I., exchanged the title of duke for that of Icing of Prussia, in 1701. Albert, Prince. Albert Francis Charles Emmanuel, prince of Saxc-Coburg-Gotha, and consort of Queen Victoria, was the second son of Duke Ernest I., and younger brother of the present duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He re- ceived the rudiments of his education under the eonsistorial councillor Florschutz, and completed it at the University of Bonn. A few days pre- vious to his marriage with the queen, on the 10th of February, 1840, he was naturalized by an act of Parliament, and by another act, passed on the 4th of August of the same year, it was provided that he should assume the respon- sibility of regent should the queen die before the next lineal heir to the throne should have attained the age of eighteen. Besides assisting in many other noble undertakings, he took an active part in the Great Exhibition of 1851, and contributed not a little to its success. He had also a share in originating and in carrying out the early part of the arrangements for the Exhibition of 1862 ; but, unfortunately, did not live to witness their completion, having died after a short illness at Windsor Castle, on the 14th of December, 1861. The death of this ex- cellent Prince was regarded as a national cala- mity, and called forth an intense and universal expression of regret, not only in the British do- minions, but throughout the civilized world. A large subscription was at once made to erect a monument to hie memory, which has been erected in Hyde Park, on the site of the Great Exhibition of 1851. Besides this national tri- bute, there is scarcely a district of the kingdom in which hospitals, museums, &c, have not been erected as monuments in his honour; so that it may be said that in a few years Great Britain and Ireland were studded over with memo- rials of the worth of this exemplary Priuce and excellent man, as well as of the respect and M Albert Durer esteem in which he was held by the people. The tendencies of the Prince Consort's mind were entirely A a pacific character, and all his pursuits aim id at exalting and refining the sen- timents, wl"ilst ameliorating the condition, of the subject* of the amiable sovereign whose hus- band he was. b. 1819; d. Dee. 14, 1861. Albert Edward, prince of Wales, and heir- apparent to the British throne. On the 10th of November, 1858, he was gazetted as having been invested with the rank of a colonel in the army. The prince, in the summer of the year 1860, visited America, where he met with a hearty welcome both in Canada and in the United States ; and in 1862, he undertook a tour in Egypt, Syria, the Holy Land, &c. On the 10th of March, 1863, he married the Princess Alexandra of Denmark, by whom he has issue, lour children, two boys and two girls, b. at Buckingham Palace, November 9th, 1841. Albert, Charles d , tharl dal'-bair, duke of Luynes, a favourite of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. of France. He rose to the highest honours, caused the fall of the Marshal d'Ancre, and ruled the kingdom as he pleased ; so that even his master was jealous aud afraid of his power. He fomented the war with the Hu- guenots, and in 1621 laid siege to Montaiiban, where he was seized with a fever, of which he died. b. 1578.— The family of D'Albert, de- scended from a branch of the Florentine family of Alberti, has produced many eminent men, among whom may be named Louis Charles, son of the preceding, and father of the duke of Chevreuse, and Paul d'Albert, cardinal de Luynes and archbishop of Sens in 1753. Albert, Martin Alexander, originally an ar- tisan, and subsequently a journalist, who became one of the provisional government of 1848, after the flight of Louis Philippe from Paris in that year. He was a button-maker by trade, and continued to work at his calling even while editing a paper called L' Atelier, which he had ftartcd in 1810. He took an active part in the revolution of 1848, and was subsequently elected a member of the Constituent Assembly for the department of the Seine. For taking part in the attempted rising of May 15, he was sentenced to transportation. After a detention of ten years at Doullcns, Belle Isle, and Tours, he was set at liberty by the amnesty of 1859, since which time he has been employed in the gas works at Paris, b. at Bury (Oise), April 27, 1815. Albert, Erasmus, a Gorman divine, who wag educated under Luther, and who is known as the author of a book entitled the " Koran of the Cordeliers," ridiculing the impiety of the Franciscans, who compare the actions of St. Francis with those of Jesus Christ, n. 1551. — His book was printed in German, with a pre- face by Luther, in 1531, and in Latin in 1542. The last edition of it is that of Amsterdam, in 2 vols. 12mo, 1734. Albert, Krantz, a German professor of di- vinity, b. at Hamburg; d. 1517. — He wrote the " History of Saxony, and of the Vandals ;" a Chronicle from the time of Charlemagne to 1504, &c. Albert of Stade, a Benedictine monk, who wrote a Chronicle from the creation to 1256. Lived in the 13th century. Albert of Strasburg, who compiled a Chro- nicle from 1270 to 1378. Lived in the 14th century. Albert Bceer. (-See Dcrxr.) OF BIOGRAPHY. Albertet Albertet, al'-bair-tai, a poet and mathema- tician of Provence, who flourished in the 13th eentury. Alberti, Cherubino, al-bair'-te, an eminent historical painter and engraver of Italy. He was the son of Michael Alberti, an historical painter, and executed many pictures for the churches in Borne. He is, however, best known for liis engravings, b. 1552; d. 1G15. Alberti, Solomon, a celebrated German ana- tomist, born at Naumburg in 1540, who made many important discoveries with regard to the structure of the human body, and wrote many works on medicine and anatomy, which were held in high estimation, d. 1600. Alberti, Andrew, author of a Latin book on perspective, printed at Nuremberg, 1078, folio. Alberti, Durante, a painter in oil and fresco. He lived nearly all his life at Rome, where he executed many pictures for the churches, b. 1538 ; d. 1613. — His son, Pietro Francesco, was also a good artist. He painted historical sub- verts. Alberti, John, a German lawyer, who abridged the Koran, with notes, for which he was knighted, d. 1559. He published in 1556 the New Testament in Syriac, the whole edition of which, with the exception of 500 copies, was sent to the East : he also wrote a Syriac gram- mar. Alberti, Leander, provincial of the Domini- cans, and distinguished for his literary attain- ments, b. at Bologna; d. 15- : .2. — He wrote — 1. "A History of Illustrious T •ominicans," folio. 2. "A Description of Ita'y," 4to. 3. Various Biographical Memoirs. 4. " The History of Bologna." Alberti, Leon Baptista, an eminent archi- tect, who was employed by Pope Nicholas V., and was the architect of several excellent works in Florence, b. 1481.— He was author of a comedy long believed to be the production of an ancient poet, and wrote upon paintinur, sculpture, and architecture, and also on morality and arithmetic. Alberti, Giovanni, an Italian artist, who excelled in perspective and in landscape sub- jects, b. near Florence, 1553 ; d. 1601. Alberti, Dominico, a Venetian musician, who was for some time in London, but who after- wards went to Kerne, where he attained great eminence both as a singer and performer. He excelled on the harpsichord, and invented a new style of playing on that instrument. Lived in the eighteenth century. — In 1737 he set to musie Mctastasio's " Endimione," and published some other fine pieces of his own composition. Alberti, Giovanni Carlo, a native of Pied- mont, who painted several excellent pieces in fresco, especially two from the life of St. Au- gusti.ic, for the church dedicated to that saint at Asti, where the artist was born in 16S0. These pictures are full of finely-executed figures, the heads in particular being remarkable for force of expression, p. 1740. Albeutinelli, Mariotto, al'-bair-te-nel'-e, mar-e-ut-o, a pupil of Rosclli, an imitator of Fra ISartolomeo, and one of the finest of the early Florentine painters. His ckef-d'auvre is in the Imperial Gallery of Florence, and is known as the Visitation of the Virgin to Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist. He was a man of sin- gularly dissipated habits, to which he fell a victim at the early age of 45. b. at Florence, 1475 ; D. about 1520. 87 Albinus ALBERTiNus,Francis,ai-iajr-. 1401. Albi, al'-be, Henry, a learned Jesuit, who wrote a history of illustrious cardinals. Flourished in the 17th century. Albicus, al'-be-cus, an archbishop of Prague, whose attention to Huss and other reformers has caused many writers to attack him violently. Lived in the loth century. — He wrote some medical pieces, which were printed at Leipsic in 1484. Albixi, Alessandro, al-be'-nt, a pupil of the Caracci, to whom he did much credit by the excellence of his designs. He was a native of Bologna, where there are many of liis pictures. d. 1610. Albixovanus Celsus, al'-be-no-vai'-nun gel'- sus, a Latin poet, who was intimate with Ovid. He wrote elegies, epigrams, and heroic poetry i but only two of his pieces are extant, one being an elegy on the death of Drusus, and the other on that of Maecenas. Flourished a.d. 16. Albinus, al-bi'-nus, a Roman general, who was made governor of Britain by Commodus. After the murder of Pertinax, he was elected emperor by the soldiers in Britain. Severus had also been invested with the imperial dignity by his own army; and these two rivals, with about 50,000 men each, came into Gaul to decide tha THE DICTIONARY Albinus fate of the empire. Severus was victorious, and he ordered the head of Albinus to be cut off, and his body to be thrown into the Rhone, a.d. 197. b. at Adrumetum, in Africa. — A praetorian, sent to Sylla as ambassador from the senate during the civil wars. He was put to death by Sylla's e oldiers. — A Roman plebeian, who received the Vestals into his chariot in preference to his own family, when they fled from Rome, which the Gauls had sacked. Albinus, Bernard, whose real name was Weiss, i.e. White, studied physic at Leyden, where, in 1702, he became professor in that faculty, b. at Dessau; d. 1721.— He wrote ssveral valuable treatises on medicine. Albinus, Bernard Siegfred, son of the above, became professor of medicine at Leyden. b. at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1G98 ; d. 1770.— His ana- tomical plates, in 3 vols, folio, 174-1, 1749, and 1753, prove him to have been one of the greatest anatomists that ever lived.— His younger bro- ther, Christian Bernard, distinguished himself also as medical professor at Utrecht. Albinus, Eleazar, a writer who published a natural history of birds, a French translation of which appealed at the Hague in 1750, 2 vols, ito. Albinus, Peter, professor of poetry and mathematics at Wirtemberg, and secretary to the elector at Dresden. He published the "Chronicles of Misuia" in 1580, and other pieces. Albitte, Antoine Louis, al'-beet, one of those fierce Jacobins who distinguished themselves by the force and violence with which they advo- cated their principles during the great French revolution. In 1791 he was elected, with Sers for his colleague, a member of the Legislative Assembly, representing the department of the Lower Seine, whilst following, at the same time, the profession of an advocate at Dieppe. In this assembly he seems to have been actuated by a desirp to annihilate everything that might be supposed to recall the recollection of a king. He and Sers obtained the passing of the resolu- tion which decreed destruction to every statue of a sovereign, and placed a representation of Liberty in its stead. He now became a member of the National Convention, and was among those who first voted against allowing Louis XVI. counsel at his trial, and next that he should be put to death. In 1793 he carried the measure for massacring emigrants captured in foreign countries, whether found with or without arms. He seems to have been characterized by a wolfish ferocity, and to have gloated over the cruelties which he had been the means of inflicting upon lis fellow-beings. He became commissioner to tiie armies of the republic, and rose to the mili- tary rank of adjutant-general. In this capacity he was present at the siege of Lyons, and after- wards at Toulon, where he became acquainted with Napoleon. Although his career, like that of a wild beast, was tracked with blood, he was still successful, and plunged into the greatest excesses of extravagance. At Bourg, he bathed every morning in the milk which was brought to supply the inhabitants of the town, and in his private hours would amuse himself by guillo- tining in effigy the king of England and the pope. Although in great danger, and voted to be arrested by the Convention, alter the 20th May, 1795, — amongst the most dreadful days of the revolution, — he was so fortunate as to make his escape, and subsequently, after the general «3 Albornoz amnesty of the 2Cth October, 1795, was ap- pointed by the Directory municipal commissary at Dieppe. When the Directory fell, he became a warm partisan of Napoleon, who made him his sub-inspector of reviews. As such he ac- companied the emperor in his invasion of Russia, and during the retreat from Moscow died of eold, hunger, and fatigue, 1812. — This wretch is said to have preserved his existence for three days on the remains of a flask of brandy, which in his dying moments he shared with one of his companions ; and this is the only act of benevo- lence recounted in his history. Albo, Joseph, al'-bo, a Spanish rabbi, whose learning was considerable, and who, in 1412, assisted at a conference between the Jews and the Christians. Lived in the loth century. — He wrote a book against the Gospels, and called it " Sepher Hikkarim." Alboin, aUboin, a king of Lombardy, who on ascending the throne, demanded Rosamond, the daughter of Cunimond, in marriage, and being refused, commenced hostilities against Cuni- mond, whom he slew, and whose skull he con- verted into a drinking-cup. Rosamond also fell into his hands, and Alboin made her his wife. In 568 he conquered Italy, and removed the seat of his government to Pavia, where, at a feast, he sent some wine to Rosamond in her father's skull, which so excited her resentment that she caused him to be assassinated in 573. A.lbon, Jacques d', djah dal'-ban, marquis of Fronsac, and marshal de St. Andre, a French nobleman, who in 1547 was made gentleman of the bedchamber by Henry II. In 1550 he was deputed to bear the collar of the order of St. Andrew to Heury VIII. of England, who made him a knight of the Garter. On his return, he was appointed to the command of the army in Cham- pagne, where he greatly distinguished himself; but at the battle of St. Quentin was taken pri- soner. On the death of Henry II. he was chosen one of the regency. Killed at the battle of Dreux, in 1562. — The Huguenots called Albon " the harquebusier of the West." Alboni, Signora Marietta, al-bo'-ne, a charm- ing and popular contralto singer, who made her delut in England as Arsace, in " Semiramide," in the spring of 1817, the same season which introduced Jenny Lind to a Lon- don audience. From the time of her fir-t appearand, she has maintained a gre it and d< served reputation as a vocalist of vvry considerable talent. B. at Forli in 1821. — In 1853 Alboni was married to Count Pepoli, an Italian nobleman. Alboresi, Giacomo, al-bo' -raise, a landscape and architectural painter of Bologna, where lie was born in 1632; d. 1677. Albobnoz, Gilles Alvarez Cnr'iUo, al-bcr'-uoth, archbishop of Toledo, was born in New Cas- tille. On being raised to the dignity <>f car- dinal, he resigned the archbishopric. He wae of a very bold spirit, and taking up arms in favour of Pope Urban V., he brought all Italy into subjection, and then retired to Viterbo. b. at Cuenea, in Spain ; d. at Viterbo, 1364. — Al- bornoz was a man of chivalrous spirit, and a successful military commander, although an ecclesiastical teacher. He was the instrument of saving the life of his sovereign, Alphonso XL, whilst engaged with the Moors at Tarifa. After h/> had *ubdued Italy, Urban sent for him to give an account of the manner in which he had conducted the administration, of tho couc- OF BIOGRAPHY. Albrecht try; when he loaded a cart with old locks and keys, and bringing them before the pontilt', said, " Here are the locks and keys of the towns and castles I have taken for you, and put into your possession, and with which I now present you." Urban was satisfied with his conduct, and remained his friend ever afterwards. He founded the grand college at liarcclona. Albbecht, Wilhelm, vil'-hehn al'-brecht, a distinguished German agriculturist, who taught the science of rural economy in Fellenberg's school at Hofwyl. b. 1786; d. in Francouia, 1848.- He wrote much on agricultural subjects, and edited a weekly journal which was devoted to the science of rural economy. He also edited "Annals of the Agricultural Society of Nassau," to which society he was perpetual secretary. ALBBECHTSBEEGEE.JohannGeorge.oWrec/^- Ler-jair, a German musician, a learned contra- puntist, and the instructor of Beethoven, was author of numerous compositions, about twenty of which have been published. He was also author of a " Guide to Composition," and seve- ral papers on harmony, which have been printed, b. near Vienna in 1736 ; d. 1809. Albbet, Jeanne d", djun! dal'-bray, daughter of Henri d'Albret, the king of Navarre. At eleven she was united to the duke of Cleves, but the marriage was afterwards annulled by the pope. In 1548 she espoused Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Vendoine. In 1553 she was delivered of a son (afterwards famous as Henry IV. of France), and on the death of her father, in 1555, became queen of Navarre. In 1562 she lost her husband, when, although opposed by the kings of France and Spain, she eagerly began to establish the Reformation in her kingdom. Being invited to the French court to assist at the nuptials of her son with Margaret of Valois, she suddenly expired, not without suspicion of having been poisoned, n. 1523; d. 1572. Albc quebque, Alphonso d', al'-bu-kerke, a Portuguese commander, who, in 1503, was sent with a squadron to India, by Emanuel the For- tunate, king of Portugal. Part of the squadron was under Francis Albuquerque, who was either the cousin or uncle of Alphonso. The Portu- guese adventurers landed in Cochin.Hindostan, and aided the king of that country to regain his capital, which had been seized by the zamorin or prince of the town and territory of Calicut. The two Albuquerques soon after sailed for Portugal, where Alphonso arrived in safety, but the other was lost. In 1508 he sailed for Ormuz, and attacked and subdued Zcifadin, its king} hut he was soon obliged to relinquish tins latter conq icst and return to India. Here, in a rash attack on Calicut, he was wounded, and compelled to retreat. In 1510 he took Goa, but wis forced to re-embark, on account of a mutiny on board his fleet. He afterwards cap- tured the strong city of Malacca, and had pro- jected other enterprises when he was taken ill at Goa, where he died. b. 1452; d. 1515.— This man has been surnamed the "Great," and called the " Portuguese Mars," from the mag- nitude and extent of his military exploits. He was the first to lead a European fleet into the waters of the Red Sea. That he was a great and enlightened man, there can be no question ; mid this is testified by the rare fact of both Moors and Indians, after his death, repairing to his tomb as to that of a father, to implore ic- 39 Alchadele dress from the cruelty and wrong which they were doomed to sutler from his successors. Fifty years- after his death, his remains were conveyed to Portugal. His greatest enterprise was the capture of (Jrmuz, which he took in 1503, and which remained in the hands of the Portu- guese until 1022, when, in conjunction with Shah Abbas, it was taken by the English. (See Abbas.) The son of Albuquerque was ennobled by Emanuel, king of Portugal, who commanded him to take the name of Alphonso. Ho wrote a history of his father's enterprises, and died iu 1580. Albuqueeque Coelho, Edward d', a noble Portuguese, who distinguished himself as a soldier, and wrote a " History of the Wars of Brazil." d. 165S. — His work was printed at Madrid in 1654, 4to. Albutius, al-bu'-she-us, a prince of Gelti- beria, to whom Scipio restored his wife. Albutius, a sordid man, father of Canidia. According to Horace, he beat his servants be- fore they were guilty of any offence, " lest," said he, " I should have no time to punish them when they do offend." Albutius, Titus, a Roman philosopher, and proprietor of Sardinia, who for corruption was banished by the senate. On account of his at- tachment to the Grecian language and customs, he is ridiculed by Cicero, d. at Athens. AjLciEvs,ul-!ce'-us, a celebrated lyric poet, of Mitylene, in Lesbos, who fled from a battle, and whose enemies hung up, in the temple of Mi- nerva, the armour which he left in the field. He was a contemporary of the famous Sappho, to whom he paid his addresses. Flourished about 600 B.C.— Of all his works, nothing but a few fragments remain : they are found in Athe- na;us. Alckus, an Athenian poet, who wrote what is denominated mixed comedy. He was the author of ten pieces, one of which, entitled "Pasiphae," he composed in competition with Aristophanes. Lived about 388 e.c. ALCiEus, of Messene, a writer of epigrams, who in one of his compositions satirized Philip HI. of Macedonia : the latter replied also in an epigram, in which he intimated that should the scribe fall into his hands, he would use other means of revenge. Alcajienes, al-ka-me'-nes, one of the Agida 1 , and king of Sparta, is known by his apoph- thegms. He succeeded his father Teleclus, and reigned thirty-seven years. Lived 900 years B.C. The Helots rebelled in his reign. Alcaiienes, a Greek sculptor, the disciple and rival of Phidias. He was one of the three greatest statuaries of ancient Greece, the others being Phidias and Polyclctus. Flourished in the 5th century B.C. Alcebo, Antonio de, an-to'-ne-o dai al-thai'- do, a native of Spanish America, who distin- guished himself as a geographer. Little or nothing is known of his history, more than that he was an officer in the royal army, and an ardent geographical student. He spent twenty years of his lite in compiling a " Dictionary o'f American Geography," which iu 1736 was pub- lished in Madrid. Alchabitius, aV-cha-lil'-e-i's, an Arabian astrologer, who lived in the 12th century, lie wrote " On the Judgment of the Stars," "The Conjunction of the Planets," and " Optics," printed at Venice in 1491, and at Seville in 1521. Alcuadile, al-chu'-de-le, a noble of Spain. THE DICTIONARY Alchindiis who was distinguished as an astronomer, and who lived about the close of the 15th century. Several works by him exist in MS., but only one has been printed. Alchindus, al-ehin'-dm, an Arabian astro- loger and physician, some of whose works are extant ; one of which, upon the art of magic, is full of superstition and absurdity. Lived about the 12th century. Alciati, Andrew, at-se-a-te, a famous lawyer, who in 1529 was chosen professor of law at Anjou. He subsequently removed to Bourges, to discharge the same office, at the desire of Francis I. The duke of Milan prevailed upon him to return to his native country, where he was created a senator, b. at Milan, 1492 ; d. at Pavia, 1550. — His most esteemed work is his " Emblems." A history of Milan by him was published after his death. He left his fortune to Francis Alciati, who succeeded him in the professorship at Pavia, and acquired great emi- nence in his profession ; he was made cardinal, and died at Kome in 1580. Alcibiades, dl-se-bi-a-dees, the son of Clinias, an Athenian soldier, the disciple of Socrates, and possessed of great versatility of talent. He traced his ancestry, on the father's side, up to the heroic ages, through Ajax to .lupiter. On the mother's side, he proclaimed himself descended from the Alcnuconidae ; and, himself possessed of one of the greatest for- tunes in Athens, he took a wife who brought him the largest dowry that had ever been given in Greece. These advantages concurred with the vivacity of his temper and the generosity of his disposition to render him acceptable in society. By degrees he fell into excesses, and, in pursu- ing the flowery paths of pleasure, too often forgot the admirable lessons of virtue taught him by the greatest of moral philosophers. His prolusion and ambition seemed to go hand in hand in stimulating his desire to become famous. " He contended at Olympia," says Mr. Thirhvall, in his History of Greece, "with seven chariots in the same race, and won the first, second, and third or fourth crown — success unexampled as the competition. He afterwards feasted all the spectators; and the entertain- ment was not more remarkable for its profusion and for the multitude of the guests, than for the new kind of homage paid to him by the subjects of Athens. The Kphesians pitched a splendid Persian tent for him ; the Chians fur- nished provender for his horses ; the Cyzicenes, victims for the sacrifice ; the Lesbians, wine and other requisites for the banquet." At the age of 18, according to the Athenian law, he attained his majority, and in 432 B.C., whilst serving with Socrates at the siege of Potidsea, his life was saved by that philosopher. For the valour he displayed on this occasion, he was rewarded with a crown and suit of armour by the Atheni- ans ; tins was done at the instance of Socrates, to whom, however, the honour appears to have been more justly due. Subsequently, at Delium, he in turn saved the life of the philosopher. The friendship of these two distinguished person- ages may be regarded as one of the most extra- ordinary instances of mutual respect and ail'ec- tion which history has recorded as having ex- isted between two celebrated men of entirely opposite natures. The virtuous teachings of the philosopher, however, were inadequate to subdue the violent passions of the statesman and soldier. In the Peloponncsian war, Alci- 40 Alcman biades was appointed to command with Lysi- machus, under Nicias, in an expedition against Syracuse; but while he was thus employed, a charge of impiety was preferred against him at home. One morning all the Herma;, or half- statues of Mercury, which abounded at Athens, were found defaced ; and on a reward being offered for the discovery of the offenders, some slaves gave information that it was done by Alcibiades and his drunken companions. For this he was ordered home ; but, fearful of the consequences, he withdrew to Sparta, and stirred up the Lacedaemonians to declare war against Athens. Soon after this, however, his friendship for the Spartans declined, when he went over to the king of Persia. Subsequently, he was recalled by the Athenians, when he obliged the Lacedaemonians to sue for peace, made several conquests in Asia, and was received in triumph at Athens. His popularity was of short duration: the failure of an expedition against the island of Andros exposed him again to the resentment of the people, and he fled to Pharnabazus, whom he nearly induced to make war upon Lacedsemon. Thiswastoldto Lysander, the Spartan general, who prevailed upon Phar- nabazus to murder Alcibiades. Two servants were sent for that purpose, and they set on lire the cottage where he was, and killed him with darts as he attempted to make his escape, d. in the 46th year of his age, 404 B.C., after a life of perpetual difficulties. — His character has been cleared from the aspersions of malevolence by the writings of Thucydides. Alcidamas, dl-sid-a-mds, a Greek rhetori- cian, who was the disciple of Gorgias, the orator and sophist. He wrote a discourse in praise of death. Flourished in the 5th century B.C. — There are two orations extant under his name ; the first printed by Aldus in his edition of the Greek orators, 1518, and the second in the same printer's edition of Isocrates, 1518. Alcidamidas, dl'-se-ddm'-e-dds, a general of the Messenians, who retired to Rhegium, after the taking of Ithome by the Spartans, b.c. 723. Alcimus, dl'-ne-mus, surnamed Jachim, a high-priest of the Jews, who obtained that office from Antiochus Eupator, king of Syria, but rendered himseL* odious to his countrymen by his avarice and cruelty. He died two years after his election. Lived in the 2nd century B.C. Alcinoxjs, al'-se-no'-us, a Platonic philoso- pher, who wrote an " Introduction to the Phi- losophy of Plato," which has been translated into English by Stanley. Supposed to have lived in the 2nd century a.d. Alciphrox, dt-se-fron, a Grecian philoso- pher, who lived in the time of Alexander tin Great. Some epistles in Greek which bear his name give a curious picture of Grecian man- ners. An English translation of them waa published in 1791. Lucian is supposed to have imitated him. Alcju-OIT, ulk-me'-on, a philosopher of Crc- tona, and the disciple of Pythagoras. He wa» the first writer on natural philosophy, and be- lieved in the theory that the stars were animated beings. Lived about 550 b.c. Alomar, ulk'-man, of Sardis, in Asia Minor, was one of the earliest Grecian writers, but of whose poems only some fragments remain in different authors. He is said to have been the first writer of amorous poetry. Flourished G72 b.c— M iillcr, in lib " Literature of Greece," sayF, ALEXANDER II., EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. ALFORD, DEAN. ARNOLD, THOMAS, D.D. ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD. Plate III. OF BIOGRAPHY. Alcock " that ho is remarkable for simple and cheerful views of life, connected with an intense enthu- siasm for the beautiful in whatever age or sex, especially for the grace of virgins." Alcock, John, al'-kok, an English prelate, educated at Cambridge. He became dean of West- minster, and master of the Kolls, and in 1471 was preferred to the see of Rochester ; whence he was translated to Worcester, and finally to Ely. Henry VII. made him lord president of Wales and eliancellor of England, b. at Bever- ley, Yorkshire; d. 1500. — He endowed a school at Kingston-upon-Hull (now Hull), built the hall in Ely palace, and founded Jesus College, Cambridge. He was buried in the chapel which he built in Ely Cathedral. Atomic, or Alcuinus, Albinus Flaceus, al'- Jcu-in, an English divine, was born in Yorkshire, educated first by the Venerable Bede, and then by Egbert, archbishop of York, who made him his librarian. He afterwards became abbot of Canterbury, and in 793 went to France, at the request of Charlemagne, who gave him several rich abbeys: he attended that prince to the council of Frankfort, b. probably in York, about 735 ; d. at Tours, in France, 804. — Alcuin was the most learned and accomplished man of his age, a great public teacher, and the principal instrument in restoring the extinguished study of literature and science. His works were pub- lished, in 1 vol. folio, at Paris, in 1617. Alctoxius, Peter, iil'-se-o'-ne-us, an Italian writer and corrector of the press to Aldus Ma- nutius, and afterwards professor at Florence. He resigned that position, and went to Home, where he was professor of eloquence ; but pe- rished during the troubles excited by the Colon- nas about 1527. — He wrote some ingenious pieces in Latin ; and among the rest, a treatise on banishment, which he is said to have taken from a MS. on glory by Cicero, which he found in a monastery, and which, after copying as much as was sufficient for his purpose, he burnt. He was a man of rude manners, and of an arrogant, conceited, and quarrelsome disposition. By his contemporaries he was personally disliked, though his learning and talents were admitted even by his opponents. Aldat, John, al'-dai, a popular English writer, and translator of the work of i'eter Boaistuau, entitled " Theatrum Mundi," &c. Lived in the 16th century. Aldebert, or Adalbert, al'-de-lair, a French impostor, who pretended to be inspired, and exercised the episcopal function without authority : he was condemned by a council at Borne, and thrown into prison, where he died. Lived in the 8th century. Aldegreveb, Heinrich, hine-rish al-de-grai'- vair, a German painter and engraver, who was both a pupil and a successful imitator of the performances of Albert Diirer. b. at Soest, Westphalia, 1502 ; d. 1562. Alderktte, Bernard and Joseph, al'-de-ret, two brothers, members of the Society of Jesus, who wrote two learned works on the origin of the Castilian languages and the antiquities of Spain, b. at Malaga, and nourished in the 17th century. — They were so perfectly alike as to be frequently mistaken for each other. Aldiielsi, or Adelii, St., aid 1 -helm, bishop of Sherborne, and consecrated at Home by Ser- gius I. He is said to be the first Englishman who wrote in Latin, and the first who introduced poetry into England. The nconle in ms time 41 Aldrich. being extremely illiterate, paid little regard to prosaic discourses, which suggested to Aldhclrn the idea of entertaining them with ballads of hiV own composition, in which he blended religious subjects with those of a lighter kind, and thus induced numbers to listen to his addresses, b. at Malmesbury ; d. in 709. Aldhun, ald'-hun, the founder of the see of Durham. In 990 he became bishop of Lindis- farne, or Holy Island, which place he left on account of its being infested by the Danes. Taking with him the body of St. Cuthbert, he went to Durham, where he built a church, d. 1018. Aldini, Giovanni, al-de'-ne, a nephew of Gal- vani, the discoverer of galvanism. H is great merit was in endeavouring to give publicity to such discoveries as he thought would be useful to mankind. He delighted in philosophical pur- suits, and at his death bequeathed his scien- tific instruments and a large sum of money to found a public institution at Bologna, to instruct artisans in chemistry and physics, n. at Bo- logna, 1762; d. 1834. Aldixi, Count Antonio, a brother of the above, who distinguished himself as an Italian statesman. Aldobbaxdim, Sylvester, al'-do-bran-de'-ne, a Florentine writer, who was appointed advocate of the treasury and apostolic chamber by Pope Paul III. b. at Florence, 1499 ; d. 1558. Aldobbandini, Ippolito, a son of the above, who became pope, as Clement VIII. Aldbed, aid-red, abbot of Tavistock, and bishop of Worcester, who was appointed ambas- sador to the emperor of Germany, and was the first English bishop to visit Jerusalem, which he did about 1050. On his return he was made archbishop of York, with leave to hold his former see ; but the pope refused him the pallium (arch- bishop's robe) unless he resigned the bishopric. On the death of Edward the Confessor, Aldred crowned Harold II., and afterwards assisted in the coronation of William the Conqueror, d. 1069. Aldric, St., al'-drik, a bishop of Mans, who held a distinguished station in the court of Charlemagne and Louis le DeBonair. He re- nounced it, however, for the ecclesias! ical state, and in 832 was made bishop of Mans. He convoked an assembly of bishops for the refor- mation of abuses in the church, and compiled a body of canons, d. 856. Aldrich, Bobert, alJ'-rich, an English pre- late, who was educated at Eton and King's Col- lege, Cambridge. He was afterwards appointed provost of Eton, and in 1534 made canon of Windsor, and registrar of the order of the Garter. In 1537 he was consecrated bishop of Carlisle. b. at Burnham, in Buckinghamshire; d. 1555.— lie was the writer of several works which evince considerable learning. Aldrich, Henry, a divine who from lVest- minster school went to Christchurch, Oxford, where he was elected student. In 1681 he was installed canon of Christchurch, aad in the same year took the degree of D.D. He wrote, in the reign of James II., two able tracts, " On the Adoration of our Saviour in the Eui harist." After the Revolution of 1683, he was made dean of Christchurch, in which station he behaved in the most exemplary manner, and every year published a Greek classic, or part of one, as a gift to the students of the college. lie was one of the persons intrusted with the publication of THE DICTIONARY Aldringer Lord Clarendon's "History of the Rebellion." His knowledge of architecture and music was •nsiderable, as appears by Peckwater Square, In Oxford, the chapel of Trinity College, and the church of All Saints, which were designed by him ; and the numerous services and anthems which he composed. He was also the composer of two catches; viz., " Hark, the bonny Christ- church Bells ;" and the other, a Smoking Catch. He held the rectory of Wem, in Shrop- shire, and in the convocation of 1702 sat as pro- locutor, b. in Westminster, 16-17 ; d. 1710. Besides the above works, he printed "Artis Logicae Compendium," and the " Elements of Architecture," in Latin. Aldringer, al'-drinj-er, a general of the German empire. Though a servant to some young students at Paris, he acquired a know- ledge of the languages and sciences, and then went to Italy, and had an appointment under Cardinal Madrucci; of this, however, he was deprived, and going to Uermany, he entered the army as a common soldier. His merits were soon recognised, and he was raised to the rank of captain. After passing through several gra- dations, he was made a field-marshal, and was also employed as ambassador. He distinguished him- self on many occasions as a brave commander; but his avarice and cruelty were extreme. _b. at Luxembourg; slain near Landshut, in 1634. Aldrovandini, Tommaso, al-dro-tan-de'-ne, an architectural and landscape painter of Bo- logna. His principal work is in the council chamber of Genoa, n. 1653; ». 1736. Aldrovandus, Ulysses, al-dro-van'-doo$, an Italian, distinguished as a natural historian. After passing a life devoted to the most exalted pursuits, and bringing together, at vast labour and expense, a magnificent collection of minerals, plants, and animals, he died in an hospital, to which he was compelled to resort on account of his poverty, b. at Bologna, 1522; D. 1607.— In 159!) he published his first work on natural his- tory, which was devoted to birds ; in 1603 his work on insects appeared ; and in 1606 that on the lower animals. The remainder of his works were published after his death, and are a monu- ment of his industry and zeal. Aldbude, at-droo-dai, Countess of Berti- uoro, in Romagna, who was celebrated for her beauty and magnanimity, and who, in conjunc- t ion with William degli Adelardi, a citizen of Ferrara, compelled the Venetians and Imperial- ists to raise the siege of Aneona. The growing opulence of that port having excited the jea- lousy of the Venetians and the emperor of Ger- many, they united their forces, and laid siege to it in 1172. On this occasion, the citizens dis- tinguished themselves by the bravery of their resistance ; but, being closely pressed, they were driven to the greatest necessities by the want of provisions. When their distress was at its height, they applied to William degli Adelardi and the countess of Bertinoro, who assembled their vassals, and marclied to the relief of the Anconians. Aldrude, by her presence and ex- hortations, inspired the troops with courage, and the besiegers fled in confusion. On her re- turn homeward, she encountered several parties of the enemy, and in every action was victo- rious. William, having disbanded his troops, T.ent to Constantinople, where he was received by the emperor witli distinguished honours. Lived in the 12th century. Aldus. {Sec Masviips.) Alembert Aleander, Jerome, at-e-an-der, a cardinal, who taught the belles-lettres at Paris, and af- terwards entered into the service of Pope Leo X., who, in 1515, sent him nuncio to Germany, and next year appointed him librarian of the Vatican. At the diet of Worms he displayed his eloquence against Luther, causing the works of the great reformer to be burned, and himself proscribed. Clement VII. made him archbishop of Brindisi, and appointed him his nuncio to France. In 1531 he was despatched to Ger- many in the same capacity, and vainly endea- voured to prevent Charles" V. from making a truce with the Protestants. In 1536 he was made a cardinal by Paul 111. b. 1430; d. 1542. Aleandeb, Jerome, nephew of the above, was distinguished for his abilities and learning. He first held the appointment of secretary to Cardinal Octavio Bandini, and lastly to Car- dinal Barberini. b. at Friuli in 1574; d. of a surfeit, 1631. — In the republic of letters he is known by several works ou antiquarian sub- jects. Alegambe, Philip, at-e-gamb, a Jesuit, who took the religious habit in Sicily, and afterwards became professor of philosophy and divinity at Gratz, in Austria. In 1638 he went to Rome, and was retained there by the general of his order as secretary for Germany and president of spiritual affairs, b. at Brussels, 1592; d. 1652. — His works are but few, and relate to the his- tory of his order. Alegkinus, John, id-e-gri-nui, a cardinal and patriarch of Constantinople, who was appointed legate to Spain and Portugal, b. at Abbeville, in Picardy ; d. 1240. Aleman, Louis, al'-e-man, a Roman cardinal, who, in 1422, being archbishop of Aries, was sent legate to Siena by Pope Martin V. The object of his mission was to procure the re- moval of the council of Pavia to that city. Afterwards the pope made him a cardinal, and ho was subsequently appointed president of the council of Basle, in which he opposed Eugenius IV., who excommunicated him. Nicholas V. restored Mm to his dignities, and sent him as legate into Germany, b. 1390; d. 1459; and was afterwards canonized. Aleman, Louis Augustine, a lawyer of Gre- noble, who, in 1690, published the posthumous remarks of Vaugelas, with a preface and notes of his own. b. 1653. — Besides the above work, he wrote the "Journal Historique de 1' Eu- rope," and some other works. Aleman, Mateo, al'-ui-man, a Spanish writer, who satirized the manners of his countrymen in a work entitled "Guzman d'Alfarache," which was published at Madrid in 1599. — Lived in the 16th century. Alembert, d', John Le Rond, da-!am'-bair,a French philosopher, whom his foster-mother, the wife of a glazier, defined to be " a fool who plagues himself all his life, that he may be spoken of after his death." He was named John le Rond from the church near which lie was exposed as a foundling, and where he waa discovered by the overseer of the district, who gave him in charge of the glazier's wife. His father hearing of Ins abandonment by his mo- ther, came forth and claimed him, charging himself with his maintenance and education. At 12 he was placed in the College de Qu:itr6 Nations, where he composed a commentary ou the Epistle to the Romans, which the Janscn- ists read with astonishment. IJc then engaged OF BIOGRAPHY. Alembert in the study of mathematics, in which he made a surprising progress. On leaving the college, he went to live with his nurse, with whom he resided forty years, contented with an annual fortune of 1200 francs, which had been left him. His friends advised him to endeavour to better his condition by studying the law, in which he subsequently took his degrees, but soon quitted the profession, in order to apply liimself to the more congenial study of the physical sciences. Whatever progress he may have made in these, however, he abandoned them for mathematics, and in 1741 was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. Two years after this event, he produced his treatise on dynamics. In 1746 he obtained the prize medal from the Academy of Berlin for a dis- course on the theory of winds. In 1749 he solved the problem of the precession of the equinoxes, ascertained its quantity, and ex- plained the rotation of the terrestrial axis. In 1752 he published an essay on the resistance of fluids, and soon after obtained a pension from Louis XV. He next engaged with Diderot in compiling the celebrated " Encyclopedic," for which he wrote the preliminary discourse, which was so excellent, that it drew from Condorcet the compliment that in a century only two or three men appeared capable of writing such. While engaged on mathematical subjects, his name was not much known ; but now he became celebrated by works of an his- torical and miscellaneous character ; such as his " Philosophical, Historical, and Philological Miscellanies," " The Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden," and his " Elements of Phi- losophy." Frederick, king of Prussia, offered him the office of president of his academy, and Catherine, the empress of Russia, invited him into her dominions as tutor to the grand duke ; but Alembert refused both. In a letter of the latter, again pressing him to comply with her wishes, she says, " 1 know that your refusal springs from your desire to pursue your studies and to cultivate your friendships in peace. But this is of no consequence. Bring all your friends with you, and I promise you that both you and they shall have all the accommodation it is in my power to give." In 1765 he pub- lished his dissertation on the destruction of the Jesuits. He also published nine volumes of memoirs and miscellaneous pieces, and the " Elements of Music." In 1772 he was elected secretary to the French Academy, and wrote the history of seventy of its members, who died between 1700 and 1771. b. at Paris, 1717; d. 1783. — D'Alembert enriched the science and literature of his country by the composition of a great many more works, which,. after his death, were collected by M. Bastien, and published in 18 vols. fevo. — His religious opinions have al- ways been conceived to be the same as those held by Voltaire, Diderot, and other professed infidels, who made the followers of Christianity a butt for their ridicule. But if this were the case, he was generous enough to praise Massil- lon, Fleury, Fenelon, Bossuet, and Flechier, not only as writers, but as priests. For ourselves, we do not think he comes quite under the cate- gory of the school of Voltaire, from whom a visit was refused by the same empress of Russia who pressed D'Alembert to come to her domi- nions. "There is no Parnassus in my domi- nions," said she of Voltaire on this occasion, " for those who speak disrespect fully of re! Lrion," 43 Alexander Alkn, Johnvan./on a'-len, an eminent Dutch painter, who for his representations of birds, landscapes, and still life, enjoyed a distinguished reputation, n. at Amsterdam, 1651 ; d. 1698. Aleni, Tommaso, a'-lai-ne, a native of Cre- mona, who studied under Galeazzo Campi, whose style he copied so closely that it is diffi- cult to distinguish their works b. 1500: x^ 1560. Alento, Julius, a-lai'-ne-o, a Venetian Jesuit, who, during thirty-six years, propagated Chris- tianity in China with great success, n. at Brescia, 1582; d. 1649. — He wrote several books on religious and mathematical subjects in the Chinese language. Aleotti, Jean Baptiste, a'-lai-ol'-e, an archi- tect, who, from beingacommonlabourer, by great diligence and application to the study of geo- metry and architecture, rose to considerable eminence, d. 1630. — He produced several works on the subject of his profession. Aleb, Paul, a'-lai, a French Jesuit, whose work entitled " Gradus ad Parnassum," has long enjoyed an established reputation in the schools of Europe, d. 1727. Ales, Alexander, ails, a Scotch divine, who, from being a zealous Catholic, became as zealous a Protestant. In 1535 he visited England, and was greatly esteemed by Archbishop Cranmerr but soon after went to Germany, where he rose successively to the professorial chairs of Di- vinity in the universities of Frankfort and Leipsic. n. at Edinburgh, 1500; n. 1565. — lie wrote several books on theological subjects, particularly on the necessity of good works to justification. Alessi, Galeas, a-lah'-e^ a famous architect, who planned the monastery and church of the Escurial, the royal palace of Madrid, u. at Perugia, 1500; d. 1572. Alesso, d', Matthew Peter, da-lais'-to, an Italian, eminent as a painter and an engraver. His most celebrated performance is a fresco figure of St. Christopher, in the great church of Seville. The calf of each leg is an ell in thick- ness and all the other parts are in proportion. b. at home; d. 1600. Aletino, Benedetto, al'-ai-fe'-no, the fictitious name of a professor of philosophy in the Jesuits' college at Naples, d. 1719. — In 1688, he printed a work which had for its object the overthrowing of the Cartesian philosophy, and the establishing in its stead that of Aristotle. Alexander I., al'-ex-an'-der, son of Amyntas I., is said to have been the tenth king of Mace- donia, and to have lived at the time of the great Persian invasion of Greece, 480 b.c. Alexander II., son of Amyntas II., and the sixteenth king of Macedonia." Lived 370 b.c. Alexander III., surnamed the Great, was the son of Philip, king of Macedonia, and was born the same year in which the famed temple of Diana, at Ephesus, was destroyed ; a cir- cumstance which was afterwards considered ta have been indicative of the greatness of his cha- racter. At an early age he was placed undei the tuition of I.ysimachus, and afterwards under Aristotle, who took great pains to form the mind of his illustrious pupil; and throughout Alexander's brief but active life the influence which his distinguished tutor had exercised over his mind frequently manifested itself amidst his most gigantic undertakings. When still young, the ambition of his character was indicated by KYeriil expressions winch historians dclisrht to THE DICTIONARY Alexander record. " My father will leave me nothing to achieve," said he, on hearing of the victories of Philip. " Give me kings to encounter, and I will enter immediately," was another of his re- marks when his father expressed surprise that he did not enter the lists at the Olympic games. At a very early age he succeeded in subduing Bucephalus, his famous war-horse, which no one had previously been able to manage. The " Iliad" of Homer was his favourite book, as the " Ossian" of MacPherson was that of Na- poleon; and Achilles was the hero he chose for his model, and upon whose merits he endeavoured to form himself. On the assassi- nation of Philip, 336 b.c, he ascended the throne, in his twentieth year, and began that series of conquests by which his name has ac- quired a world-wide celebrity. At this period several of the Grecian states were struggling to shake off the Macedonian yoke, imposed on them by Philip, when Alexander went against them, compelled them to submit, and acknowledge him generalissimo of all the Grecian armies, except those of Sparta, — an appointment which his father had enjoyed. He then marched into Thrace, and made several conquests. During his absence, Thebes revolted; on the intelligence of which Alexander returned into Greece, took that city by storm, and put many of the inhabi- tants to death. He also destroyed all the buildings except tho residence of Pindar, the poet. This severe example had its effect on the other states ; and even Athens, which was the most impatient under the domination of Mace- donia, distinguished itself by a servile submis- sion to the conqueror. He next turned his arms agairvst Darius Codomannus, king of Persia, and in his 22nd year crossed the Hellespont, with an army of about 40,000 men. It was on this ex- pedition that he, with his friend Hephaestion, visited the mound in which the remains of Achilles were supposed to lie. With the force at his command, he defeated the Persians at the Granicus, and afterwards made himself master of numerous places. At Gordium, where he assembled his army, he cut the famous knot on which the fate of Asia was said to depend. While he was in Cilicia he caught a dangerous fever, owing to his imprudently bathing in the river Cydnus when very hot. In this state he received a letter from Parmenio, intimating his suspicions that his physician Philip had been bribed to poison him. When Philip attended with a strong medicine, Alex- ander gave him the letter to read as he drank off the potion. On his recovery from this illness, he liberally rewarded the physician for his skill and integrity. Shortly after this, he defeated Darius near Issus, took a quantity of treasure and a number of prisoners ; among whom were the mother, wife, and children of tho king of Persia, who made his escape by flight. The renerous conduct of Alexander to these fallen princesses forms the most brilliant episode in lis distinguished career (333 B.C.). This victory was followed by the conquest of Phoenicia, Da- mascus, and other places. The siege of Tyre, however, occupied him seven months, and in re- venge he perpetrated great barbarities on the inhabitants. He next marched to Jerusalem, where he was met by the high-priest, dressed in his sacerdotal vestments. On seeing this vene- rable personage, the hero bowed to the ground with such reverence as excited the astonishment of Parmenio, who attended him; when Alex- Alexander ander informed him that a personage of his de- scription had appeared to him in a dream in Macedonia, and promised him success in his ex- pedition. The high-priest then presented to the monarch the prophecy of Daniel, in which it was foretold that a Grecian prince should de- stroy the Persian empire. In consequence of this, Alexander bestowed liberal presents on the Jews, and passed into Egypt, which country he subdued. While there he founded the famous city of Alexandria, and consulted the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, tho priest of which flattered his vanity by asserting that he was the son of that deity. Darius, having col- lected a considerable army, resolved to make another struggle for his dominions, but was de- feated at Arbela, and the fate of Asia was de- cided, 331 b.c. This battle was followed by the taking of Susa and Persepolis. The latter city Alexander caused to be burnt, at the instigation of a favourite Athenian courtesan named Thais. While pursuing Darius, he received intelligence of that monarch having been slain in the deserts of Parthia by one of his own satraps, called Bessus. This individual Alexander caused to be put to death for his treachery, and when he came to the spot where the body of the unfor- tunate king lay, he covered it with his own cloak, and sent it to Persepolis to be buried in the tomb of his ancestors. The ambition for conquest had now become in Alexander an in- ordinate passion. He entirely subdued Persia, and then prepared to invade India. In the early part of the year 326 b.c. he crossed the Indus, — it is supposed at a place a little north of the mo- dern Attock, — and entered the Punjaub, or the country of the Five Kivers. On the banks of the Hydaspes, — the modern Behut, or Bcduster, — he encountered Porus, an Indian prince, with a numerous army, in which were several ele- phants. The wonted fortune of the Macedo- nians prevailed ; but Alexander was so pleased with the gallantry of Porus, that he restored to him lus kingdom, and entered into an alli- ance with him. Continuing the career of con- quest, he advanced to the Acesines (the Che- naub), traversed the barren plain between it and the Hydraotes (the Bavee), where he was met by the warlike Cathoei, "Whom he defeated, giving their territory to his ally, Porus. Pur- suing his march, he arrived at the river Hyphasis (the Garra), which was the limit of his Indian expedition, and where he erected twelve colossal towers to mark this circum- stance. All the country he had subdued between the Hydaspes and the Hyphasis he presented to Ins ally, Porus ; and thus made him the most powerful prince in India. He now ordered a fleet to be built,- and sailed down the Indus, and leaving the ships to Nearchus, whom he di- rected to the Persian Gulf, returned with his army through Persia to Babylon, where he was carried off by a fever, in the thirty-third year of his age, 323 b.c. b. at Bella, 356 li.c. The un- settled state of India at a recent period im- parts a far deeper interest to the narrative of Alexander's conquests in the Punjaub than they might otherwise deserve, when the remote period at which they occurred, and the objects for which they were made, are taken into con- sideration. He had four wives, — liarsina, the daughter of Artabazes; Koxana, a Persian princess, by whom he left a son of hia own name, who was assassinated, with his mother, by Cassandcr; Parysatis, daughter of Artaxerxes OF BIOGEAPHT. Alexander Ochus; and Statira, daughter of Darius Codo- mannus. By his own direction, his body was carried to Alexandria, where Ptolemy Lagus deposited it in a gold coflin, which one of his successors changed for a glass one. Having appointed no successor, his generals divided his conquests among themselves. The character of Alexander was made up of very great and very bad qualities. He committed many odious cruelties, and drank to a shameful excess. In one of his drunken fits, he, with Ins own hand, stabbed his most intimate friend, Clytus. Yet lie often performed deeds that indicated a bene- volent mind ; and though he was pleased with the fulsome ascription of divinity, on other occasions he expressed his abhorrence of adula- tion and flattery. He possessed a taste for learning and the fine arts, and had always about him men of science, philosophers, and poets. Alexander Balas, an impostor, who pre- tended to be a son of Antiochus Epiphancs, king of Syria, and laid claim to the kingdom when Antiochus Eupator, the son and successor ofAntiochusEpiphanes,was killed by Demetrius Soter in 162 B.C. Demetrius was defeated and siain by Alexander in 150, but the pretender was killed by Demetrius Nicator, son of Demetrius Soter, 146 B.C. — There are in the British Museum copper and silver coins with the head of Balas. Alexander II., king of part of Syria. He was called Zebinas, or the " bought one," as it was reported that he had been purchased from slavery. Reigned from 128 b.c. to 122.— The British Museum contains coins, both copper and silver, of this sovereign also. Alexander Jann^eus, king of the Jews, the Bon of John Hyrcanus, succeeded his brother Aristobulus, 101 b.c. Aristobulus had cast him into prison ; whence he was taken at his death and placed on the throne. He began his reign by murdering one of his brothers, and entered into hostilities, which lasted long, with Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of Egypt. His cruelties irritated his subjects, and produced a civil war, which endured six years. Alexander, however, proved successful, and in one day caused 800 captives to be crucified, after their wives and children had been murdered before their eyes. Having se- cured the throne, he carried his arms into foreign countries, and made several important conquests. d. of intemperance, 77 B.C. Alexander was the son of Aristobulus II., king of the Jews. He was sent prisoner to Rome by Pompcy, with his father, his brother Antigo- lius, and two sisters. On being delivered from prison and going into Judaja, he raised an army, and opposed Hyrcanus, the brother of Aristo- bulus, but was defeated by Gabinius, the Roman freneral, b.c. 57, taken prisoner and sent to Rome. Caesar afterwards restored him to liberty, in hope that he would be serviceable to him in Syria ; but he again turned against the Romans, and with the same bad success. Scipio caused him to be beheaded at Antioch, by order of Pompey, 49 b.c. Alexander Severtts. (See Severus.) Alexander I., king of Scotland, succeeded his brother Edgar in 1107. Before his accession he was remarkable for his seeming piety and humility, but afterwards he was so distinguished by his fiery disposition, that he was called " the Fierce." He was very rigorous in the adminis- tration of justice; on which account several insurrections took place, all of which he sub- dued. i>. 1124. Alexander Alexander II., king of Scotland, succeeded his father, William the Lion, in 1214, at the age of 16. He engaged in a long and destructive war with John, king of England, who invaded his do- minions ; but he retaliated severely, by marching into England, where he committed great ravages. In 1221 he married the sister of Henry 111. of England ; in consequence of which, peace was restored between the two kingdoms, d. 1249. Alexander III., king of Scotland, was the son of the preceding by his second wife, and came to the crown at the age of eight years. Soon after he was married to Margaret, daughter of Henry III. of England, whom he assisted against the English barons, lie defeated the king of Norway, who had invaded Scotland with a large army. He was killed while hunting, near Kinghorn, in Fife, in 1285, leaving the character of a great and good prince. The ex- tinction of the direct Royal line by the death of Alexander's granddaughter, known as " The Maid of Norway," led to the disputes about (be succession between Bruce, lialiol, ana others, which afforded Edward 1. of England a pretext to interfere. The consequence was that long period of war and English domination in Scot- land, which was closed, and the independence of the country secured, by the victory of King Robert Bruce over the army of Edward II., on the field of Bannockburn, in 1314. Alexander, king of Poland, was chosen such on the death of his brother, John Albert, in 1501. d. 1506, aged 45. — He was a courageous, humane, and liberal prince. Alexander Nevskoi, grand-duke of Russia, and a saint of the Greek church. His father, Jiiioslaf, in 1237, removed his residence from Novgorod to Perjaslawl, leaving at the former place his second son, Alexander, as his repre- sentative and viceroy, his elder son Feodor having died when a youth in 1232. About 1239 he married a princess of Polotzk, and began to strengthen the kingdom against the incursions of his neighbours, Eric III., king of Sweden, the Danes, and the Teutonic knights, who were prompted to attack him by Pope Gregory IX. Alexander defeated this combination in two pitched battles, one fought July 15, 1240, at the confluence of the Ishora and the Neva, and the other on April 5, 1242, on the frozen surface of Lake Peipus. For his prowess in the first battle Alexander gained the name of Nevskoi, or Alex- ander of the Neva. b. at Vladimir, 1218 or 1219 ; d. at Kassimcow, 1263. — After his death, he was canonized ; and in 1712, Peter the Great erected a monastery on the spot where he gained his fame, to which, in 1723, ho caused the bones of the saint to be brought in great pomp. The empress Catherine built a superb church within the same monastery, with a magnificent mau- soleum for herself and her descendants. The shrine of the saint is of massive silver. Peter the Great instituted the order of St. Alexander Nevskoi; but dying before he had named the knights, this was done by Catherine I. in 1725. Alexander I., emperor of Russia, was the son of the emperor Paul and of Maria, daughter of Prince Eugene of Wurtemberg. On the 24th of March, 1801, Paul was assassinated, not without Borne suspicions that Alexander was implicated in the conspiracy which had been formed against him, and which terminated so fatally to the son of the empress Catherine II. When he ascended the throne, Russia was en- gaged in a war with England; and as he found THE DICTIONARY Alexander that the commerce of the former was being greatly crippled by the naval ascendancy of the British, he took immediate steps to endeavour to reconcile the hostile differences between the two kingdoms. Accordingly a convention took place, and an agreement was signed between them on the 17th of June, 1801. The unparalleled successes of Napoleon were then striking alarm into the breasts of most of the sovereigns ni Europe, and on the 11th of April, 1805, Alexander concluded an alliance with England, which was joined by Austria on the 9th of August following, and by Sweden on the 3rd of October. The lightning rapidity with which Napoleon conducted his wars, however, rendered almost entirely nuga- tory the physical influence of Russia against him ; for the succession of battles which were fought between the 6th and the 18th of October completely crushed the armies of Austria before the arrival of the Russian troops. On the 25th, Alexander made his appearance at Berlin, con- cluded a secret convention with the king of Prussia, joined hands with him at. midnight in the tomb of Frederick the Great, whose coffin he kissed, and in the gloomy vault of the de- parted, the two sovereigns pledged themselves to an eternal friendship with each other. Alexander now hastened to join the emperor of Austria. On the 2nd of December the Russian and Aus- trian troops, commanded in person by their respective emperors, were met and beaten by the French at the battle of Austerlitz, which was the cause of an immediate convention being agreed to between France and Austria, and the departure of Alexander with the remains of his shattered army. In order to gain time and re- cruit his strength, Alexander feigned to treat for peace, but suddenly broke off the nego- tiations, or failed to fulfil the conditions which had been partially made, and recommenced hos- tilities. The battles of Jena and Eylau were fought and won by Napoleon, and on the 14th of June, 1807, the united armies of Russia and Prussia were signally defeated at the destructive battle of Friedland, and compelled to fall back behind the Niemen. Thi3 decisive event ended the campaign. On the 21st an armistice was arranged, and five days later, the emperors of Russia and France met in a tent on a raft in the middle of the Niemen. It is affirmed that the foes became friends, and on the 7th of July following, a treaty of peace was signed at Tilsit, Alexander, in a secret article, engaging to unite with Napoleon in a war against England. This treaty converted all the former friends of Alex- ander into enemies. In accordance with the plans of Napoleon, on the 24th of February, 1808, Alexander declared war against Sweden, and finally, after much hard fighting, obtained possession of Swedish Finland. On the 27th of September, the French and Russian emperors again met at Erfurt, where a congress was held for the purpose of bringing about a general peace; and although both Napoleon and Alex- ander united in proposing terms to England, '.he negotiations proved unsuccessful, and were broken off in a few weeks. The friendship be- tween these two sovereigns lasted five years, and the treaty of Vienna, signed on the 11th of October, 1809, secured to Russia the province of Eastern Galicia, ceded by Austria. By the close of IS 11 disputes had risen to such a height between the it:c. emperors, that a rupture be- came inevitable, and on the following 19th of March, Alexanderdeeiared war against Napoleon. 40 Alexander A peace was concluded with Turkey, with which Russia had been at war, and by the 25th of June, Napoleon, with an immense army under his command, was marching upon Russian ground. Alexander had an interview, in Finland, with Bernadotte, the crown-prince of Sweden. The French army had already entered Smolensk. " Should St. Petersburg be taken," saidAlexander, "1 will go into Siberia. I will resume our ancient customs, and, like our long-bearded ancestors, will return anew to conquer the empire." "This resolution," cried Bernadotte, "will liberate Europe !" On the 7th of September, Borodino was fought, and on each side 25,000 men fell. On the 14th, Moscow was entered by the French, but only to find it a vast pile of smoking and flaming ruins. Napoleon commenced his retreat, and before the remnant of his immense army had crossed the Niemen, on the 16th of Decem- ber, the bones of 300,000 Frenchmen were al- ready bleaching on the plains of Russia. Alex- ander had joined his army in pursuit of Napo- leon. He was present at the battle of Dresden, fought on the 26th and 27th of August ; at that of Leipsic on the 18th of October ; and on the 24th of February, 1814, met the king of Prussia at Chaumont. Here these two sovereigns bound themselves by a treaty to pursue the war against France until it was successfully closed, even at the sacrifice of all the resources of their dominions. On the 30th of March following, they victoriously entered the French capital, Napoleon was deposed, and on the 25th of July, Alexander returned to his own capital, St. Petershjirg, where he was greeted with every public demonstration of joy by his admiring subjects. At the congress of Vienna, opened on the3rdof November, 1814, Alexander was recog- nised as king of Poland, which country had for some time been merged in his dominions. The escape of Napoleon from Elba, and the events which followed it, brought Alexander again to Paris, where, on the 26th of September, 1815, he, the emperor of Austria, and the king ot Prussia, affixed their signatures to an instru- ment which had for its object the preservation of universal peace on Christian principles, and which was called the Holy Alliance. By the 13th of Decer ber fo lowing, he was once more in his own capital. With the banishment of Napoleon, the great events which had marked the political career of Alexander closed. In the beginning of 1825 he left St. Petersburg on a tour through his southern provinces. After visiting the principal towns in the Crimea, he arrived at Taganrog, on the Sea of Azof. Here he was taken ill of the common intermittent fever of the country, and gradually sank into insensibility, and then into death, n. 1777; d. at Taganrog, 1825. — Alexander and Frederick William, king of Prussia, visited England in 1814, and were received with the most tumul- tuous rejoicings, and entertained with truly magnificent hospitality. As a sovereign, lie greatly increased the happiness of his people, promoted their literature, advanced their civili- zation, and improved their institutions. Ho founded upwards of 2000 schools for the benefit of the humbler classes, established 204 gym- nasia, and remodelled seven universities. He abolished personal slavery, paved the way for the final emancipation of those serfs that are attached to the soil, and from a subordinate rank, raised his country to be one of the leading European powers. At his death it was rv> OF BIOGRAPHY. Alexander moored that he had been poisoned, but there was no foundation for such a report. Alexander II., present emperor of Russia, is surnamed Nicholaewitch, as the eldest son of the late emperor Nicholas. His mother was a sister of Frederick William IV., the late king of Prussia. On the death of his father, which took place on March 2, 1855, he became autocrat of all the Russias, and immediately issued a proclamation intimating his reso- lution to pursue the plans of Nicholas, and, if possible, bring the war which was then raging in the Crimea, between the united forces of Turkey, England, France, and Sardinia, and those of his own dominions, to a successful ter- mination. In this, however, he was doomed to disappointment ; for on the Sth of September, 1S55, the allies obtained possession of Sebas- topol, the stronghold of the Crimea, which event was the immediate precursor to a suspension of hostilities. Peace was concluded in the same year ; since which time Alexander has steadily devoted himself to the administration of the internal policy of his extensive dominions, to the development of arts and manufactures, and to the gradual abolition of serfdom, a task which even the energy of his father recoiled from un- dertaking, b. 1818. Alexander I., bishop of Rome, was a Roman by birth, and succeeded Evaristus in 109. He stands as a martyr and saint in the Roman calendar, d. 119.— Platina attributes the introduction of holy water to this pope. Alexander II., Pope, was raised to the papal see in 1061. The imperial party opposed his election, and in a council held at Basle pro- cured Cadalous, bishop of Parma, to be elected by the name of Honorius II. After a fierce contest, the party of Alexander prevailed, and all Europe acknowledged him pope. He car- ried the papal power to a great height, and most of the sovereign princes yielded to his authority, d. 1073. Alexander III., Pope, succeeded Adrian VII. in 1159. There was a competitor set up against him by the emperor Frederick I., but England and France acknowledged Alexander. On the death of his opponent, the emperor procured Cardinal Guy to be elected pope, by the name of Paschal III. ; but Alexander, being supported by the Woman clergy, deposed the emperor, and absolved his subjects from their allegiance. On this Frederick marched to Home, and having driven out Alexander, placed his rival in the pontifical chair; but becoming weary of the contest, he acknowledged Alexander as legal pontilf. d. at Rome, 1181.— This pontiff took part with Thomas a-Becket in his quarrel with Henry II., and canonized him after his assassi- nation. _ Alexander IV, Pope, was raised from the bishopric of Ostia to the papal throne, in 1251. He claimed a right to dispose of the crown of Sicily, but was unsuccessful in the dispute which it occasioned, d. 1261. Alexander V., Pope, was born of such poor parents that in his childhood he was obliged to go about begging. An Italian monk taking a fancy to him, got him admitted among the Friars Minors. After studying at Paris, he ob- tained the bishopric of Vicenza, and next the archbishopric of Milan. Pope Innocent VII. made him cardinal, and appointed him legato On the deposition of Gregory XII., in 1409, the council of Pisa elected him pope, b, in the 47 Alexander island of Candia ; d. at Bologna, 1410. — He waa a liberal and munificent pontiff. Alexander VI., Pope. The original name of this pontiff was Rodcric Borgia, and his mother was sister to Calixtus III., by whom he was made cardinal in 1455. On the death of Inno- cent VIII., he contrived by his intrigues to get himself elected by the conclave, though he had then four sons and a daughter by a Roman lady. His sou, Ca>sar Borgia, was a monster of wick- edness like himself. There is hardly a crime of which these profligate wretches have not been accused, and seemingly with justice. At length Providence punished them by the same means which they had prepared for the ruin of others. In 1503 the pope and his son attempted to poison a rich cardinal on account of his wealth ; when, by a mistake of the attendant, they drank the wine which they had destined for their victim. The pope died almost directly, but Ca;sar recovered, and was killed some years after, b. at Valencia, Spain, 1431. Alexander VII., Pope, was originally called Fabio Chigi. After passing through a variety of offices with credit, he became a bishop anil cardinal. In 1655, on the death of Innocent X., he was elected pope, owing to his affectation of extraordinary piety and humility, b. at Siena, 1599 ; d. 1667.— He published, in 1656, a famous bull against the Jansenists ; yet, it is said, he was a liberal-minded prelate, and particularly favourable to the Protestants. He was an emi- nent scholar, and an encourager of learning. Alexander VIII., Pope, received several preferments from Urban VIII.; Innocent X. created him a cardinal, and in 10S9 the college raised him to the papal chair, b. at Venice, 1610; d. 1691. Alexander Polteistor, an historian, who was the slave of Cornelius Lcntulus, who became his pupil, and gave him his freedom. He was burnt to death in his house at Laurentum, which so affected his wife, that she hanged herself. Lived SO years b.c. — He wrote live books con- cerning Rome ; and various other works of his, in history and philosophy, are mentioned by Plutarch and others. Suidas says, that in his writings he mentions a Hebrew woman named Moso, who was the author of the Jewish laws. All his works are lost. Alexander of jEgea, a Peripatetic philoso- pher, was the tutor of Nero, whom it is said he corrupted by his instructions. Lived in the 1st century a.d. — He wrote a commentary on Aris- totle's Meteorology. Alexander, a bishop of Jerusalem, celebrated alike for his piety and his sufferings, studied under Pantamus, and afterwards under St. Cle- ment of Alexandria. Being made bishop of Cappadoeia, he was imprisoned in the persecu- tion begun by Severus, and remained in confine- ment nearly eight years. On his release he was associated in the government of Jerusalem with Narcissus, on whose death he became sole bishop ; but in the reign of Decius he was again imprisoned and cruelly used. Lived in the 3rd century. — He wrote many letters, which arc lost; but Eusebius has preserved extracts of four. He was the founder of a library at J erusalem, spoken of by Jerome. Alexander, St., a patriarch of Alexandria, and a staunch opponent of the heresies of Alius. He convened a council at Nicca, at which Arianism was formally condemned, in 325. He died in the following year. THE DICTIONARY Alexander Albxander, a bishop of Hierapolis, who espoused the doctrine of Nestorius, that there were two different natures in Christ, which he supported in the council of Ephesus. Lived in the 5th century, and died in exile. Alexander, a Roman by birth, and made bishop ef Lincoln in 1123. He rebuilt the cathedral, which had been burnt down, and en- larged the revenues of his see ; he also built the castles of Banbury, Sleaford, and Newark, and founded two monasteries, d. 1147. Alexander of Paris, a French author, who wrote a poem on the Life of Alexander the Great, in verses of twelve syllables, which measure has ever since been called Alexandrine. Flourished in the 12th century. Alexander, Noel, professor of philosophy at Paris, and author of an ecclesiastical history, upon which he bestowed great pains, and which was completed in 16S6. He was a Dominican friar, the friend of both the Colberts, the younger of whom, afterwards archbishop of Rouen, he aided in educating, b. at Rouen in 1639; d. 1724. Alexander of Hales, a celebrated English theologian, known as the Irrefragable Doctor. He studied theology in Paris, and entered the order of the Minorite Friars in 1222. Hia " Summa Universa Theologiae," written by desire of Innocent IV., was ordered by Alex- ander IV. to be used by all students of theology. He insists strongly on the pope's supremacy in all matters spiritual and temporal, d. 1245. Alexander ab Alexandro, an eminent law- yer, who renounced his profession in digust, in consequence of the corrupt state in which the practice of it was in his time. B. at Naples, 1461 ; d. about 1524. He wrote a curious book entitled "Genialium Dierum," in the manner of Aulus Gellius's " Attic Nights." Alexander, William, a Scotch statesman and poet, who, in 1613, became gentleman usher to Prince Charles, and received the honour of knighthood from James I. In 1621 the same monarch gave him a grant of Nova Scotia, which he intended to colonize,an J Charles I. afterwards patronized the scheme by appointing him lieu- tenant of that country, and founding an order of knights-baronet in Scotland, each of whom was to contribute towards the settlement, and to have a portion of land for doing so. The number of these baronets was limited to 150. Sir William afterwards sold Nova Scotia to the French. In 1630 he was created viscount, and afterwards Earl of Stirling, b. at Menstrie, 1580; d. 1610.— The title is now extinct, the last of the male descendants having died in 1739. Notwithstanding great facility in versification, Alexander was entirely destitute of the poetic faculty. His poem entitled "Aurora" was pub- lished in 1604, and in 1607 a collection of his tragedies appeared in 4to. Alexander, Sir William, an eminent lawyer, who, educated at the University of Edinburgh, was called to the English bar in 1782, appointed king's counsel in 1800, master in chancery 1802, and filled the office of Lord Chief Baron of Ex- chequer, 1824-1831. Had the reputation of being an excellent equity lawyer, b. 1754; d. 1842. Alexander, Solomon, a converted Jew, who was consecrated first Protestant bishop of Jeru- salem in 1811, after being professor of Helrew in King's College, London. B.at Poscn, 1799; d. on amission to the Christians of Cairo, Nov. 1S15. Alexis of Piedmont, a writer who was of a 48 Alexis noble family, and spent fifty-seven years of his life in travelling. At the age of 82 he was in Milan, and happening to see a poor man expire under the hands of an unskilful surgeon, he was so deeply stung by remorse for not interfering to save his life, that he renounced the world and sought retirement in a hermitage. Lived in the 16th century. — He was the author, of " Medical Secrets," a work which was printed at Basle, 1536, and which has been translated into sev 3ral languages. Alexis, or Alexet, Michaelowitch, i»V- kel-o-vitch, the son of Michael, czar of Russia, ascended the throne in 1645, at the age of six- teen. His reign was disturbed by foreign and civil wars. Having succeeded in quelling do- mestic dissension, he engaged in a war with Poland, which ended by his acquiring the pro- vinces of Smolensko, Tchernigov, and Seweria, for a sum of money. He next entered upon a long and destructive war against Charles Gus- tavus of Sweden, who was more than his equal, and compelled him to retire within his own ter- ritories. He next engaged the Turks, uniting his forces with those of the king of Poland under the famous John Sobieski, who, on the 18th of October, 1672, gained a splendid victory over the Ottomans at Kaluzo. A short peace with Turkey was the result of this battle ; but the terms on which it was obtained being deemed unsatisfactory by the Polish chief, war was recommenced, and before it was again con- cluded, Alexis died. b. at Moscow, 1630; d. 1676. — He was an upright but severe prince, and was the first who caused the laws of Russia to be printed. He also encouraged the arts and sci- ences, paid attention to the interests of com- merce, and originated those projects which his son Peter the Great afterwards carried into execution. Alexis Petrowitch, pe'-fro-vitch, son of Peter the Great, by Eudoxia his first wife, wae brought up from childhood by the Russian piiests.who instilled into him all their barbarous prejudices. Being of a disposition which seemed likely to overturn all the reforms which his father had planned for the civilization of his people, he was obliged to sign his renunciation of the right of succession, in 1716. Soon after- wards he escaped to Vienna, and put himself under the protection of Charles VI., who sent him first to Innspruck, and then to Naples. By a promise of forgiveness, however, he was induced to return to Moscow, where he was thrown into prison, tried secretly, and condemned to death. The trial was printed by order of the emperor. The public manifesto asserts that he died of an apoplectic fit, but it is suspected t'>at he was secretly put to death, b. 1699 ; d. 1718. Alexis I., Comnenus, Icom-ne'-nus, who on the deposition of Niccphorus, in 1081, was chosen emperor of the East by the troops. The greatest part of his reign was disturbed by wars with the Turks, Scythians, and other powers, b. at Con- stantinople, 1048; d. 1118. — He was a vigilant prince, well versed in the art of government, and attentive to the interests of his people. He was the father of the celebrated Anna Comnena, who, in the "Alexiad," the history of her father's reign, has drawn his character in the most nat- tering colours. The first crusaders, roused to action by the preaching of Peter the Hermit, passed through his dominions during his reign. Alexis II. Comnenus, 6urnamcd Porphyro- GENitus, por'-ji-ro-gen'-e-tu», wu3 the son of OF BIOGRAPHY. Alexis Michael Comnenus, whom he succeeded in 1180, under the care of the empress Maria,his mother. Hc^ conduct gave offence to the nobility, and at length an open insurrection occurred, headed by Andronicus Comnenus, who took Constantinople In 1183, imprisoned the empress, and compelled the young emperor to admit him as his associate in the empire. In the following year, however, Andronicus caused Alexis to be strangled. Alexis III. (Angelus), emperor of the East, deposed his brother Isaac, and threw him into prison, where he was deprived of his sight. Alexis, the son of Isaac, prevailed on the French and Venetians to espouse the cause of his father. A large army besieged Constantinople in 1203, and the usurper fled with his treasure to Thrace. The people then released Isaac, and placed him on the throne. Alexis fell into the hands of Theodore Lascaris, who put out his eyes, and confined him in a monastery, where he died. Alf.xis IV., after the flight of his uncle, was associated with his father Isaac in the govern- ment, lie was deposed and put to death by the people, for endeavouring to raise heavy contri- butions to pay his allies, and to bring the Eastern empire under the authority of the pope. n. 1204. Alexis V. (Ducas), called Murtzuflle, from his black, heavy eyebrows, on the murder of the last- mentioned emperor, was raised to the throne. The Latins, however, laid siege to Constan- tinople, and pressed it so closely, that Murtzuflle was obliged to escape by night. He was deprived of his eyes by his father-in-law, to whom he fled for refuge ; and, after rambling about as a men- dicant, was seized by the Latins, who cast him from the top of Thcodosius's Pillar, when ho was dashed to pieces. Assumed the govern-' nient of the Eastern Empire, 1204. Alexis, a native of Piedmont, but whose real name is said to have been Kosallo, wrote what he called a " Book of Secrets," which was printed in Basle in 1536, was translated into several European languages, and was long a popular work. Alexis del Abco, a-laiu/-eg dail-ar'-ko, a cele- brated deaf and dumb Spanish portrait-painter. B. at Madrid, 1625; d. 1700. Aleyjt, Charles, a-lain', an English poet, who wrote two pieces on the battles of Creasy and Poictiers, and some other effusions, d. 1610. Alfaxo, Orazio, al-fa'-no, an Italian painter, and great imitator of Raphael, for whose work some of his pieces have been mistaken, b. 1530 ; ». 1533. AIlfaeabi, al-far-a'-be, an eastern philoso- pher, who after studying at Bagdad, and tra- velling to perfect his knowledge, settled at Damascus, where he was cordially welcomed by the sovereign, who gave him a pension, which he enjoyed till his death. Here Alfarabi lived an austere life, and wrote many works, and is particularly worthy of notice as being the first person who compiled an encyclopaedia, in which he gave definitions and explanations of all the arts and sciences. There is a copy in MS. in the library of the Escurial. He also wrote a treatise on music, b. in Transoxiana; d. 950 a.d. Alfabo t Gomez, Juan de, al'-fa-ro e go'-mez, a Spanish artist who studied under Veiasquez, whose style he partly followed, but adopted that of Vandyck in his portraits. His personal history is melancholy. He had attached himself to the admiral ol'Castille, and suffered much during the latter's disgrace and imprisonment. Receiving a slight from his patron on going to congratulate bim on his release, the artist died of a broken 4V Alford heart in a few days. In Alfaro, Spain lost on» of her best artists at the early age of 40. b. 1640 ; D. 16S0. Alfehus Vahus, Publius, al-fe'-nu* vair'-us, a Roman jurist, who, from being a shoemaker, became an advocate, and at length consul. He wrote forty"books of digests, and some collec- tions, cited by Aulas Gellius. Horace mentions him in his third satire, and Virgil speaks of his conduct towards him with gratitude, b. at Cremona. Lived in the 1st century b.c. — There is another of this name, who was captain of the jruards to Vitellius. Alfeegaitt, Mohammed, al-fer-gan'-y, an Arabian, who lived in the time of the Caliph Almamoun, was distinguished as an astronomer, and was named " the Calculator," from his skill at computation. He wrote some works on astro- nomy, on dials, and the use of the astrolabe. He is not remarkable for originality, d. about 820. Alfieei, Vittoria, vee-tor 1 -e-o al'-fe-air'-e, a celebrated poet.sprung from a wealthy and noble Italian family. He lost his father when a child, and his mother having married again, he was placed under the guardianship of his uncle, and at the age of 13 was admitted a student of phi- losophy at the university of Turin. At 14 he became master of his own income, entered the army, and at 17 commenced his travels under the escort of an English Roman Catholic tutor. He visited France, England, and Holland, and then returned to Italy and took up his abode first at Siena, and then at Florence. Here he made the acquaintance of the wife of Charles Edward Stuart, known as the Young Pretender, and upon whom the affections of his heart were fixed for ever afterwards. On the death of that lady's husband, it is said that he privately mar- ried her, although she continued to retain the title of countess of Albany. With the exception of a brief interval, when he resided in France with the countess, he spent the remainder of his life in Florence, devoting nearly the whole of his time to study, b. at Asti, Piedmont, 1749; d. at Florence, 1803. — The early years of Alfieri were given to dissipation, and not till 1773 did he commence writing with a view to public fame. By 1782 he had completed fourteen tra- gedies, which are wonderfully effective in operating upon the passions of an Italian au- dience. His "Saul" and his "Filipo" arj considered the finest of his productions. (See Albany, Countess of.) Alfokd, Rev. Henry, B.D., al'.-furd, Biblical critic and poet, is a native of London, where he was born in 1810. He was educated at the gram- mar-school of Ilminster, in Somersetshire, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was the friend and schoolfellow of Maeaulay, Hartley Coleridge, Mackworth Praed, and Sydney Walker. His parents were in good circumstances, so that his predilection for literature and poetry was not the result of necessity, but of choice. In 1831, he published at Cambridge a volume entitled " Poems and Poetical Fragments ;" and in ls36, " The School of the Heart, and other Poems," in 2 vols. In 1831, he was elected a fellow of his college, having previously entered the church.andfrom 1835 to 1853,held the benefice of Wymcswold, Leicestershire; in 1-sil-i he was Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge, when he published " Chapters on the Poets of Greece," and at tha same time was examiner in logic and natural philosophy at the London University. In IS 14, Mr. Alford published the first, and in 1802 the E THE DICTIONARY Alfred second, volume of his edition of the New Testa- ment; from 1853 to 1857 he was minister of Quebec-street chapel, where he enjoyed a high reputation for eloquence. In 1857 he was ap- pointed dean of Canterbury, n. 1871. Alfred the Great was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, and Osburga, daughter of Oslac the Goth, who inherited the blood of the sub-kings of the Isle of Wight. At the age of five he was sent to Rome, where Pope Leo IV. anointed him with the royal unction. Ethelwolf died in 857, leaving his dominions to Ethelbald and Ethelbert, andhis personal estate to his younger sons, Ethelred and Alfred. Ethel- bald did not long survive his father, and was succeeded by Ethelbert; but he dying in 866, left the throne to Ethelred, who made Alfred his prime-minister and general of his armies. Ethel- red dying in 871, from a wound which he received from the Danes at the battle of Mertune, — pro- bably Merton, near Reading, — Alfred found him- self, at the age of 22, the monarch of a distracted kingdom. After several unfortunate actions with the Danes, he disbanded his followers and wandered about the woods, and finally found shelter in the cottage of a herdsman named Denulf, at Athelney, in Somersetshire. In this retreat he remained about five months, when he received information that Odun, earl of Devon, had obtained a victory over the Danes, in Devon- shire, and had taken their magical standard. On this, Alfred is said to have disguised himself as a harper, and obtained admission to the Danish camp, where his skill was so much ad- mired that he was retained a considerable time, and was admitted to play before King Gorm, or Guthrun, and his chiefs. Having gained a knowledge of the state of the camp, Alfred directed his nobles to collect their vassals, and to meet him at Selwood, in Wiltshire, which was done so secretly that the Danes were surprised at Eddington, and completely defeated. This was in May, 878. After the victory Alfred behaved with great magnanimity to his foes, giving up the kingdom of the East Angles to those of the Danes who embraced the Christian religion. His success now enabled him to put his kingdom into a state of defence, and to increase his navy. Having recovered London, which had been taken by the Danes, the whole country seemed to ac- quire a new life under his vigorous administra- tion. After the repose of a few years, an immense number of Danish forces landed in Kent; on which those who were settled in Northumber- i.r.id broke their treaty, and, fitting out two fleets, idled round the coast, and committed great nvages. They were, however, soon defeated by Alfred, who caused several of their leaders to be executed at Winchester as an example. Thus by his energy, activity, bravery, and wisdom, did he secure the peace of his dominions, and strike terror into the hearts of his enemies, leaving the country in a very different condition, as to its internal safety and prosperity, from that in which he found it. n. at Wantage, in Berkshire, 849 ; d. 900. — There is, perhaps, no prince who has had the surname of " Great" given him with more universal consent than Alfred. He is said to have been engaged in 56 battles by sea and land, al- though his valour as a warrior has excited less admiration than his wisdom as a legislator. He composed a body of statutes, instituted trial by jury, and divided the kingdom into shires and tithings. He was so cxa.i in his government that robbery was unheard of, and valuable goods Algardi might be left on the high-road without danger. He also formed a parliament, which met in London twice a year. There was so little learn- ing in his time, that from the Thames to the Humber hardly a man could be found who un- derstood Latin. To remedy this state of things, he invited learned men from all parts, and endowed schools throughout his kingdom ; and if indeed he was not the founder of the University of Oxford, he raised it to a reputation which it had never before enjoyed. Among other acts of munificence to that seat of learning, he founded University College. He was himself a learned prince, composed several works, and translated others from the Latin. He divided the twenty- four hours into three equal parts; one he devoted to the service of God, another to public affairs, and the third to rest and re- freshment. To Alfred, also, England is indebted for the foundation of her navy. In private life he was benevolent, pious, cheerful, and affable ; and his deportment was both dignified and engaging. Several of the romantic incidents of his eventful lib have suggested subjects for the historical pamter : one of the best known of these is his allowing the cakes to burn whilst making his arrows in the cottage of the herds- man, during his obscurity at Athelney. " You can eat the cakes fast enough, though you will not take the trouble to look after them," was the rebuke which the herdsman's angry wife gave on this occasion to the disguised monarch for his want of vigilance. (Set Pearson's " Early and Middle Ages of England," &c.) Alfred, the son of Ethelred the Unready, by Emma, daughter of Richard I., duke of Nor- mandy. The ravages of the Danes induced his father to send him with his brother, afterwards Edward the Confessor, to Normandy, where they were educated. On the death of Canute, he landed in England with a chosen band of Normans, and would have succeeded in de- throning Harold, surnamed "Harefoot," if it had not been for the treachery of Earl Godwin Alfred was taken prisoner, and his eyes were put out; after 1 which he was confined in the monastery at Ely, where he died, or, as some say, was murdered, about 1037. b. 1003. Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke of Edin- burgh, second son of her Majesty Queen Vic- toria and the late Prince Consort, was born at Windsor Castle, April 6, 1814. Having decided toenter the navy, he passed his examination as a naval cadet in 1858, and was appointed to the Euryalut. In December l»62 the Greeks wished to place him on the throne of their country, which he declined. In 1866 he was created Duke of Edinburgh, and took his seat in the House of Lords : inlhesame year he was sworn in as Master of the Trinity House. In 1867 he left England in the Galatea on a voyage round the world, visiting the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, &c. On March 13, 1868, at the Sailors' Home picnic, near Sydney, a Fenian, named O'Farrelhshot him in the back, inflicting a severe wound. On his recovery the Duke re- turned to England, and was warmly welcomed. Algardi, Alexander, al-aar'-de, an Italian architect and sculptor, was the son of a silk mercer. He studied under Louis Caracci, and ex- ecuted many fine works ; amongst which may be mentioned the Attila, which is the largest alto- relievo in the world, and is in St. Peter's church of the Vatican at Rome. u. at Bologna; d. it Rome, 1651. — A* a sculptor, Algardi ranks OF BIOGRAPHY. . Algarotti among the first of the moderns. In infantile representation his excellence was great. Algarotti, Francis, aV-ga-rot'-e, an Italian author, who received a liberal education, and after visiting different countries, was made by irederick, king of Prussia, chevalier of the Order of Merit, created a count, and appointed chamberlain. The king of Poland also highly esteemed him, and conferred upon him the title of privy counsellor of the affairs of war. b. at Venice, 1712; d. at Pisa, 1764. — His works were published in Italian at Leghorn, 1765, and after- wards translated into French. Algarotti was a man of lively, but superficial genius; and though his writings show a taste for the fine arts, they convey little information. Alger, al'-jai, a learned French ecclesiastic, who lived in the 11th and 12th centuries, and wrote several books on religious subjects, some of which are lost. He was a native of Liege, where he was deacon of the church ; but ulti- mately he retired to the monastery of Cluny, and died there in 1131. Ai.giialib-Billaii, al-ga'-leeb-bil-la, called Al-ahmak, first Moorish king of Granada, was born in 1195, and died 1273, after having reigned 42 years, and consolidated his kingdom, which he formed on the decay of the Almohadean empire in Spain. He was the patron of learn- ing, arts, and manufactures, and adorned Gra- nada in a style suited to the metropolis of a powerful and prosperous country, The cele- brated palace of the Alhambra was begun by him ; and the dynasty he founded reigned for two centuries, and was finally subverted by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492. Alghazzal, commonly called Algazel, al'- aai'-zel, a famous Arabian philosopher and divine, who was teacher of theology at Bagdad, and afterwards retired to Mecca, where for seve- ral years he led a monastic and studious life. He was a very voluminous writer, and attempted to form a system of Mahometan theology on a phi- losophical basis. ! n this he was unsuccessful, as he gave great offence to the orthodox Mussul- mans, and also came into collision with the fol- lowers of Aristotle. His principal work was entitled "The Destruction of the Philoso- phers," in which he argued that there was no certainty in the doctrines of pliilosophy, and that men must always take refuge in religious faith. He was b.;rn at Tus, in Khorasan, in 1058; and d. at Bardad in 1111 a.d. Alghisi, al-ge -se, a name common to several Italians of note: — 1. Francesco, a musician of Brescia, who composed two operas which had considerable success, n. 1606; d. 1733. — 2. Galcazzo, an architect, who designed a palace for the duke of Ferrara, and wrote a work on military architecture, lived in the 16th century. . — 3. Tommaso, a distinguished surgeon, and par- ticularly famous as a lithotomist. b. at Flo- rence 1069; d. 1713. Aleazen, al-hai'-zen, an Arabian philosopher of the 11th century, was born at Bassora, which lie forsook for Egypt, to which one of t'i" Fati- mite Caliphs invited him. Here he attempted to form a system by which the alternate overflow- ings and decrease of the Nile might be regulated and controlled. In this, however, he failed, and It is said feigned madness in order to avert the consequences of his failure. But his chief dis- tinction is derived from his discoveries in the science of optics, and from his explanation of various natural phenomena which had previ- 51 Ali Pacha ously puzzled the learned. He was an original thinker and bold experimenter, and his contri- butions to scientific knowledge are commemo- rated in glowing terms by M. Bailly in his his- tory of astronomy, b. at Cairo, 1038. Ali, a'-le, the cousin and son-in-law of Ma- homet, whom he was to have succeeded; but being successfully opposed by Omar andOthman, he raised a sect of his own, and gained many followers. On the death of Othman he was de- clared caliph in 655, but was assassinated in a mosque, a.d. 669. — He had nine wives, by whom he had fourteen sons and eighteen daughters. Ali Beg, a'-le-beg, a Pole, who became first dragoman or interpreter to the grand seignior of Turkey. He was taken prisoner by the Tar- tars when a child, and sold to the Turks, and was brought up in the Mahometan faith, d. 1075. — He understood English, and translated the Catechism of the Church of England, and all the Bible, into the Turkish language. His greatest work is a book on the liturgy of the Turks, their pilgrimages to Mecca, &c, trans- lated into Lathi by Dr. Smith. Ali Bet, a'-le bai, a Circassian adventurer, who when young was taken by robbers ans conveyed to Cairo, where he was bought by Ibrahim, an officer in the army, who en- tered him among the Mamelukes. For his gal- lantry against the Arabs he was created a bey. In 1753 his patron was murdered by a party headed by a person also called Ibrahim, a Cir- cassian. In 1703 Ali had attained not only high rank, but considerable power in the state, and soon after slew Ibrahim, to revenge the murder of his patron. This raised against him numerous enemies, who obliged him to fly to Acre, where he was protected by the sheik Daher. In 1700 he was recalled by the people, and, after revenging himself upon his enemies, he declared war against the Arabs, and by the success of his achievements encircled Ins name with renown. Having now risen to be the head of the government, Egypt under his rule began to revive ; agriculture flourished, and the coun- try seemed to bid fair to recover its former splendour. In 1768 war broke out between Russia and Turkey, and Ali sent 12,000 men to serve in the Ottoman army. His enemies re- ported at Constantinople that these troops wero designed to assist the Russians ; in consequence of which a capigi, and four attendants, were sent to take off his head. Ali being informed of this, seized these messengers of death and handed them over to the fate designed for himself. Ho then declared war against the Porte, and for a time preserved his indepen- dence, and obtained several advantages. At last his principal commanders revolted with their troops, and in a battle which took place between Ali and the forces of one of his chief Mame- lukes, he was taken prisoner, and died of his wounds in 1773. b. in Cireassia, 172n. — The object of Ali was to endeavour to re-establish the independence of Egypt; to resuscitate some of its long-gone grandeur; and had he been supported' by a similar spirit of <«iergy in his people, Egypt might once again have taken a prominent place among the nations of the modern world. Ali, Hydcr. (See Htder Ali Kuan.) Ali Pacha, a'-le pa-shaw', or pa'-sha, an Al- banian chief, who in his fourteenth year was secured in the inheritance of his father's estates by the cruelty of his mother, from whom he seema THE DICTIONARY Ali Pacha to have inherited the ferocity by which ho was actuated in many of the deeds he perpetrated in winning his way to wealth and power. Born amongst a community of robbers, his early life was passed amid scenes of continual vicissitude and the most daring and dangerous adventure ; but whilst he was distinguishing himself by his bravery, he was at the same time accumu- lating riches and gathering power. At length he was enabled, by intriguing at Constanti- nople, to obtain the secret commission which enabled him to execute the sentence of death against Selim, pasha of Delvino. lie was then appointed lieutenant to the new derwend pasha of Roumili, in which his conduct was marked by great rapacity, even amon» the klephtis, or robbers, with whom he was leagued in spoli- ating all that came within his reach. The country now swarmed with marauders. His .power grew with his increasing riches ; but the Porte was dissatisfied, and the derwend pasha was recalled and decapitated. Ali, although summoned to the capital, was too wary to be caught. He bribed the divan, remained where he was, and avoided the loss of his head. Ali soon afterwards managed to make his peace with the Porte, and successively became pasha of Tricala, in Thessaly, then derwend pasha of Roumili, when he, from being a robber himself, raised a body of 4,000 Albanians, and gained additional favour with the Porte by clearing the country of the depredators by whom it was in- fested. He next took Jaimina, the capital of southern Albania, or Epirus, usurped the pa- shalic, got himself confirmed in it, and began vigorously to extend his territories. These finally embraced all Epirus, and extended into Acarnania and jEtolia, or Western Greece. He attacked and defeated the Suliotes, and executed upon them the most dreadful vengeance for the bravery with which they had resisted his efforts to conquer them. He reduced many of the towns on the Gulf of Arta and the coast of the Adriatic; penetrated, on the north, Albania proper ; intrigued for and obtained the pashalic of Berat ; seized the government of Ochrida, in Upper Albania; attacked, by order of the Porte, the pasha of Scutari, or Skodra ; defeated him, and then appropriated his territories. At all these daring acts the Porte was compelled to connive, and Ali was even appointed inspector }f the principal division of the empire, with a residence at Monastir, and an army of 24,000 men. He subsequently became a vizier, or pasha with three tails, but by his intriguing and tr<-acherous disposition he finally roused the ire of the sultan, who had him excommunicated, and commanded all the pashas of European Turkey to march against him. Ali was com- pelled to abandon his stronghold in Jannina, and on a promise of pardon surrendered himself to the Porte. The treachery by which so many of the deeds of his own life had been distinguished now fell upon himself. He was betrayed and murdered. His head was transported to Con- stantinople, where, upon the gate, of the seraglio, it was stuck and exhibited to the gaze of the populace, b. at Tepelcn, 1750; d. 1822. — Ali had three sons, who shared his fate; and whatever regret might be felt for them, there was none on his behalf. Lord Byron visited him in his fortress at Tepelcn, and thus sings of him in the second canto of " Childe Harold :" "He pass'd bleak Pindus, Acherusia's lake, And left the primal city of the laud. a Alison And onwards did his further journey take, To greet Albania's chief, whose dread com- mand Is lawless law." The lineaments of Ali, however, did not, in the noble poet's opinion, indicate the ensanguined ferocity which characterized his disposition. Notwithstanding that he was a man of " war and woes," and that crimes had " marked hiin with a tiger's tooth," — " Yet in his lineaments ye cannot trace, — While gentleness her milder radiance throws Along that aged, venerable face, — The deeds that lurk beneath, and stain him with disgrace !" Alibeandi, Girolamo, a-le-bran'-de, aSieilian painter, who was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinei, whom lie closely imitated. His works are mostly in the churches of Messina, his native town. B. 1470; D. 1524. Alienus Cscina, ai-le-e'-nus tesi'-na, a qurestor in Bceotia, appointed by Galba to the command of a legion in Germany. The empe- ror disgraced him for his bad conduct, and he then raised commotions in the empire, about the middle of the 1st century. Alimentus, al'-e-men'-tus, an historian of the second Punic war, who wrote in Greek an ac- count of Hannibal, besides a treatise on military matters. Alison, Archibald, al'-e-mtn, a clergyman, whose father was a magistrate of the city of Edinburgh, and who educated his son for the church. After receiving several preferments, ho finally became the senior clergyman of the epis- copal chapel in the Cowgate, Edinburgh, the congregation of which subsequently removed to a new Gothic structure which they erected in York Place, where Mr. Alison continued to officiate, until increasing infirmity compelled him to relinquish his public duties, b. in Edin- burgh, 1757 ; d. 1839. — Mr. Alison is best known by his " Essays on Taste," which attained no great degree of popularity till the appearance of a second edition, when an elegant and able cri- tique by the late Lord Jeffrey, in the " Edin- burgh Keview," brought them prominently into notice. They then enjoyed a brief popularity, but are now little read. Alison, Sir Archibald, Bart., son of the above, was born in Shropshire, while his father officiated as vicar of Kenley, in that county. In 1800 his father removed to Edinburgh, whither he brought his son, who received his education in the schools and university of that city, and in 1814 was called to the Scottish bar as an advo- cate. His literary predilections stimulated him to become a contributor to periodical publica- tions ; and although Ids fust appearance in the world of letters was as a writer on the cri- minal law of Scotland, he acl^eved little cele- brity until the appearance of his " History of Europe from the Commencement of the French Kevolution in 1789 to the Restoration of the Bourbons in 1815," the first volume of which was published in 1839. This work has been continued as the "History of Europe from the Fall of Napoleon in 1815, to the Accession of Louis Napoleon in 1852." Although it is very diffuse in some parts, still its comprehensive grasp, and the evident endeavour to give, as far as possible, an impartial narrative of events, coupled with the fervour and animation of style which pervade it, have procured for Sir Archi- bald's "History" a high degree of popular favour, OF BIOGRAPHY. Alison It has been translated into most of the Eu- ropean, and into some of the Eastern lan- guages. In 1828, Mr. Alison was appointed, Allan. His intimacy with the latter, together ■heritl' of the county of Lanark, and on the for ^nation of the Derby ministry in 1852, was created a baronet. In 1851 he was elected lord- rector of the University of Glasgow, and in 1853 had conferred upon him the honorary degree of P.C.L. by the University of Oxford. Besides his "History," Sir Archibald Alison has written li "Life of Marlborough," "Historical, Poli- tical, and Miscellaneous Essays," which ori- ginally appeared in " Blackwood's Magazine," two volumes on the "Principles of Popula-. tion," and other works, b. 1792; d. 1S6S. Alison, William Pulteney, M.D., brother of Sir Archibald, a distinguished physician, and professor of medical jurisprudence and of the theory and practice of medicine in the Univer- sity of Edinburgh. He was a voluminous writer on medical subjects, and contributed nu- merous articles to the medical periodicals of Edinburgh and London. He was likewise emi- nent for the benevolence of his disposition and his numerous charities; while in the enjoyment of a large practice, and perhaps the most popul ar consulting physician of his day in Edinburgh, he was ever more ready to attend the calls of the poor than of the rich. In consequence of this, ne did not amass riches, but lived comparatively poor in the goods of this world, but rich in the love and veneration of his fellow-citizens. In 1855, declining health compelled Dr. Alison to resign his chair, after which time ho ceased to appear much in public, b. about 1789 : d. at Colinton, near Edinburgh, Sept. 22, 1859. Ai.kmar, Henry von, fon alk-mar, a German poet, who translated the celebrated satire called the " Fable of Ileynard," which has been popu- larized in several languages. Flourished in the loth century. — The story of " Reynard the Fox" is entirely fictitious, although it has been en- deavoured to be otherwise proved, and is founded upon the supposition ot a court of animals in which the lion is the king, and which has been assembled for the purpose of putting " Reynard" upon his trial for the numerous tricks of rapa- city and cruelty which he was in the constant habit of playing oil' upon others of the quadru- pedal species less quick-witted than himself. Although he is sentenced to be hanged, he is released from punishment on account of his de- claration that he knows of a great treasure, which he would discover to the king. This is found to be a falsehood, and he is condemned to punishment again ; but he offers to fight in single combat with his principal accuser, the wolf, in which it is generally supposed he is certain to be killed. By a trick, however, he conquers the wolf; for which he is pardoned, and is finally received into the favour of the king. Notwithstanding the almost universal popularity of this cll'usion on the Continent, the moral which it conveys is of a low, if not of an absolutely bad kind ; namely, that the successful practice of fraud and cunning constitutes the basis of true wisdom. Allan, Thomas, al'-an, a distinguished Eng- lish mathematician, was a native ofUttoxeter, Staffordshire, where he was born in 1542. He studiedatTrinityCollege, Oxford, and took hisde- gree in 1507, as Master of Arts. He retired to Glou- cester Hall in 1580, where he studied closely, and soon became celebrated for knowledge of anti- quities, mathematics, and philosophy. Heury, 63 Allan earl of Northumberland, and the earl of Leices- ter, Elizabeth's favourite, were great friends of with the reputation he had acquired as a mathe- matician, made Allan suspected of necromancy, and he is gravely accused of using his skill in an unlawful way to promote Leicester's projects of ambition. He wrote on astronomy and other subjects, and had a fine collection of MSS., &c, many of which are in the Bodleian library, to which they were given by Sir Kenclm Digby. Allan lived to be 90 years of age, having died in 1632. Allan, David, the son of a Scottish shore- master in Alloa, has been called the " Scottish Hogarth," although far inferior to the distin- guished Englishman in the path of humorous and eccentric delineations of human character- istics. His genius was first displayed in some rude chalk drawings upon the floor, whilst con- fined to the house from a burnt foot. The im- mediate cause, however, of his being put to study for a painter, arose from a caricature which he made of his schoolmaster inflicting punishment upon a boy. Whilst the ludicrous turn given to this sketch brought upon him ex- pulsion from school, it secured the countenance of a Mr. Stuart, the collector of the customs of Alloa, who had him sent to the academy of Messrs. Andrew and Robert Foulis, at Glasgow, to be educated as a painter. After spending nine years at this academy, he was patronized by Lord Cathcart, who introduced him to Erskine of Mar, who generously sent him to Rome to prosecute his studies. Here a painting of a Corinthian Maid executing a profile of her lover's countenance round the shadow thrown by a lamp upon the wall, procured him a gold medal in the academy of St. Luke, and a pro- portionate amount of reputation. He subse- quently painted those humorous subjects by which he obtained considerable fame, and which, although deficient in sensibility, are yet replete with broad rustic fun. n. at Alloa, 1741; n. at Edinburgh, 1796. — The most popular designs of Allan are his twelve illustrations of Ramsay's far- famed Scottish pastoral, "TheGentle Shepherd." Allan, Sir William, adistinguished Scottish ar- tist, who, after passing through the High School of Edinburgh, was put to be a coach-painter ; but, evincing a great desire to improve in his art, he was entered as a pupil in the Trustees' Academy, where he had Wilkie for a fellow-student and companion. After a certain period he became a student of the Royal Academy of London, but failing in attracting the notice to which he thought himself entitled, he set out for St. Petersburg, where he passed ten years, with the exception of the time necessary at various periods to visit Tartary, Turkey, the shores of the Black Sea, &c, where he enriched his portfolio with sketches of numerous objects and scenes of interest. On his return to Scotland in 1814, he publicly exhibited the fruits of his travels and labours ; and for a large picture of " Circassian Captives " he received 1000 guineas, which was subscribed for by a hundred gentle- men, at ten guineas eaoh, on the suggestion of Sir Walter Scott. This picture is now in the possession of the earl of Wemyss. Soon after this period, Allan turned his attention to painting native historical subjects, and the " Murder of Archbishop Sharpe," " Knox Ad- monishing Mary, Queen of Scots," the " Parting of Prince Charles Stuart and Flora M'Douald," THE DICTIONARY Allatius and the "Murder of the Regent Murray," were the result. A disease having affected his eyes, lie suspended his studies, and visited Asia M inor, Greece, and Italy. On returning, he produced lus "Slave-market at Constantinople," which tended to enhance his reputation. Subsequently he painted the companion pictures of "Scott in his Study, Writing," and " Scott in his Study, Reading," both of which are well known from the naturalness with which he has succeeded in investing them. His most important pictures, however, are the " Battle of Waterloo," which AVellington approved of and bought, the "Battle of Prestonpans," "Nelson Boarding the San Nicolas," and the " Battle of Bannockbum," a large picture upon which he was working when overtaken by death, b. in Edinburgh, 1782: d. 1850. — In 1825 Allan became an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1838 was elected President of the Scottish Academy. On the death of Wilkie, he received the' appointment of her Majesty's limner for Scotland, and in 1842 was knighted. He is considered by his countrymen to stand at the head of Scottish art. Allatius, Leo, cd-ai'-she-us, a Greek, educated first in Calabria, and then at Rome, where he taught the belles-l-etlres. He was appointed keeper of the Vatican library by Alexander VII. His learning was extensive, and he founded a college in the island of Chios, b. in Chios, 15SG ; ». at Rome, 1669. Allectus, al-ek'-ins, the prime minister of Carausius, emperor of Britain, whom he mur- dered and then usurped the dignity ; after main- taining his position for three years, he was de- feated and slain in a battle with the troops of Constantius, commanded by Asclepiodotus. Britain was thus restored to the Roman empire, after a disjunction of ten years, in 297 a.d. Allegbain, Christopher Gabriel, al'-e-jjrang, an eminent French sculptor. His principal works are the figure of a young man, for which he was admitted into the Academy; also a Venus and a Diana, d. 1795. Allegei. (See Cobeeggio.) Allegbi, Grcgorio, al'-ai-gre, a celebrated musician, whose compositions are still retained in the pontifical chapel. The chief is the " Mi- serere," which is always sung on Good Friday. B. about 1537 ; d. 16K). Clement XIV. sent a magnificent copy of the "Miserere" to King tieorge III. in 1773. Allegbin i, Francesco, al-ai-gre'-ne, also called Da Gubbio, an Italian historical painter, who taught art in Rome, ai3d had two sons, Angelo and Flaminio, who distinguished themselves in the same branch of painting, b. 1537; d. 1663. Allegbini, Francesco, an engraver of Flo- rence, who was also a good designer, d. 1775. Allein, Joseph, fd'-ain, a nonconformist minister, who, in 1655, became curate of Taun- ton. In 1662 he was ejected for nonconformity, but continued to preach privately, for which he was imprisoned. b. at Devizes, 1623; d. at Bath, 1668. His book entitled "An Alarm to Un- conveited Sinners" has gone through i3umerous editions, and is still popular among certain classes. Ali-en, John, al'-en, archbishop of Dublin in the reign of Henry VI II., was born in 1176, and educated at Oxford and Cambridge. After having visited Italy, he was appointed chaplain to Wolsey, whom he assisted in erecting his col- leges at Oxford and at Ipswich. -In 1528, he was consecrated to the sec of Dublin, and shortly 54 Allestry afterwards was made chancellor of Ireland. In some of his offices he was suspected of great cor- ruption ; and was murdered by a eon of the earl of Kildare in 1534. Allen, Sir Thomas, an English admiral of high repute in the reign of Charles II., who was the first to enter upon hostilities against the Dutch in 1665, by attacking their Smyrna fleet. His squadron consisted only of eight ships, but he killed their commodore, Brackel, took four rich merchantmen, and drove the rest into the Bay of Cadiz. Several other successes were achieved by him, and in 1666 he defeated the van of the Dutch fleet, three of their admirals falling in the fight. Retired from active service in 1688. Allen, John, M.D., a metaphysical, histoii- cal, and physiological writer, and an extensive contributor to the " Edinburgh Review." He also took an active part in politics, on which subject he published several pampnlets, be- sides contributions to the " Edinburgh Re- view." In 1830, he published a valuable con- stitutional work on the " Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England." He was considered one of the best physiological lecturers in Europe, b. at Redford, near Edinburgh, 1 770 ; d. 1843. — Lord brougham has drawn the cha- racter of Allen in the third series of his "His- torical Sketches of the Statesmen of the Time of George III." Allen, Joseph W., an English painter who enjoyed considerable reputation for his landscape pieces, b. in Lambeth, Surrey, 1803; d. 1852. — He was for some time the principal scene-painter at the Olympic theatre, and hi3 forte lay in pas- toral scenery. Allen, William, an eminent chemical and experimental professos - , who lectured at Guy's Hospital. In his chemical investigations he demonstrated that the diamond was of pure carbon, and in conjunction with Mr. Pepys proved the proportion of eai-bon in carbonic acid. b. in London, 1770; d. at Lindfield, Sus- sex, 1813. — Mr. Allen was one of the principal persons concerned in establishing the Pharma- ceutical Society. Allen, Ethan, an American brigadicr-genei'al, who distinguished himself by his activity and bi - avery in the war of independence against Great Britain, d. 1789. He was somewhat of an eccentric writer also. — There are several American statesmen, divines, and warriors bear- ing the name, but none of them of any great celebrity. . Allestry, or Allestree, Richard, al'-et-tre, a divine, who, in 1641, took up arms, with many other young men of the university of Oxford, in favour of Charles I. After serving eoinc time in a military capacity, he returned to his studies, but afterwards again entered the army, and fol- lowed the fortunes of the king. At the end of the civil war he took orders, and in 1659 visited f'harlcs II. in Flanders, and on his return was seized at Dover, but found means to secure his dispatches. At the Restoration he was made canon of Christchurch, and served one of the lectureships of Oxford, the salary of which he gave to the poor. In 1660 he took the degree of D.D., became chaplain to the king, and rcgius professor of divinity. In 16H5 he was appointed provost of Eton. b. at Uppington, Shropshire, 1619; d. at Eton, 1673. He was buried in the chapel of Eton College, where there is a monu- ment to his memory. 01? BIOGRAPHY. Allestry Almeida ■Aliestrt - , Jacob, an English poet of the 17th century, was t te son of a London bookseller. He died young, in 1636. Some of his poems maybe found in a collection called "Miscellany Poems," rubiished in 1721. Alleys', Edward, al'-ain, founder of Dulwieh College, in Surrey, acquired great reputa- tion as an actor, and became proprietor of a playhouse in Moorfields, and keeper of the royal bear-garden. Aubrey relates a ridiculous story of the devil appearing to Alleyn when personating the character of Satan, and so frightening him, that he grew serious and quitted the stage. He laid the foundation of his college in 1614, anc completed it in 1G17, at an expense of £10,000 ; he then endowed it with £800 per annum for the maintenance of one master and one warden (who must be unmarried, and always of the name of Alleyn or Allen), and four fellows, of whom three must be clergymen, and the fourth an organist ; besides six poor men and six women, with twelve boys, who are to be edu- cated till the age of fourteen or sixteen, when - hey are to be apprenticed to some trade. This building is called " The College of God's Gift." He was himself the first master, b. in London, 1666; r. 1626, and was buried in the chapel of i ho college which he founded. In 1858 mea- sures were taken to secure a proper administra- tion of the fund3 of this college; the first stone of the new school buildings was laid, June, 18G6. Allin Gniji, John Till, dl' -ing-ham, a success- ful dramatist, was the son of a wine-merchant, and brought up in the profession of the law. He subsequently became a stockbroker; but very little is known of his history. Flourished at the beginning of the 19th century. — Ailing- ham's best-known productions are " Fortune's Frolic" and " The Weathercock," in which there is more bustle than poetry, and sprightli- ness of dialogue than cither wit or humour. Allix, Pierre, (V.'-ai, a French Protestant mi- nister, who, under the toleration secured by the Edict of Nantes, was a preacher in Rouen, and wrote several pamphlets in defence of Protestant- ism. On the revocation of that famous Edict, he went to England, where he was well received, and wherehe continued his labours amongthe French refugees. He wrote a " Defence of the Chris- tian Religion," and also engaged in controver- sies with the Unitarians. He ultimately lost position by endeavouring to prove that the 6ccond advent of the Saviour would take place in 1720, or 1736 at latest. He was born at Alcncon, in 1611, and died in London, in 1717. Alloei, Alexander, al'-or-e, a painter of Flo- rence, who was instructed by his uncle Bron- ...iu, also a painter of considerable celebrity. d. 1607. — This painter mostly introduced por- t rails of his friends into his historical works. Alloei, Cristofano, son of the above, a better pamter, and most skilful copyist. Some of his copies of the "Magdalen" of Corregsdo are supposed to be duplicates of the original by Correirgio himself, b. at Florence, 1577; d. 1621. ' Allost, Baldassare, called Galaninc, al'-os-e, a famous portrait painter of Rologna. He studied under the Caracci, and was so eminent for the truthfulness and life-like character of his por- traits, as to be ranked by his contemporaries with Vandyck. b. 1678 ; d. 1C38. Allston, Washington, awl'-ston, an eminent American landscape and historical painter, who ' In 1801 visited England, and entered the Eoyal 66 Academy of London, where he studied for three years during the presidency of West. He then visited Paris and Rome, where he remained for four years, studying the styles of the best masters. In the "Eternal city" "he at- tracted considerable notice by a picture which he executed, called "Jacob's Vision." In 1809 he returned to America, and married the sister of the celebrated Dr. Channing. In 1811 he revisited England, and gained the two hun- dred guinea prize from the British Institution for his picture of the " Dead Man raised by Elisha's Bones." On returning to his native country, he continued to devote himself to his art; but being of a weakly constitution, he lived much in retirement. lie is also spoken o\ as an elegant writer and an accomplished gen- tleman, b. in South Carolina, 1779; d. a* Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, 1843. Almagbo, Diego d', de-ui-qo dal-ma'-gro, Spanish commander, of mean descent, who, in 1525, accompanied Pizarro in his expedition against Peru. He is accused of having had o share in the murder of Atahualpa. the inca. In 1535 he partially effected the conquest of Chili. Through jealousy of the power of Pizarro, he attacked Cuzeo, the capital of Peru, captured Pizarro's two brothers and cast them into prison, when a civil war ensued. For some time Al- magro's party had great success ; but at length he was taken prisoner. After undergoing a long confinement, he was murdered by strangulation in 1538. — His son Diego endeavoured to revenge his father's death, but failed in the attempt, and was beheaded by De Castro in 1542. Al-Mamuh, al'-mai-mun, or " The Trust- worthy," caliph of Bagdad, was the son of Haroun-al-Rasehid, and succeeded to the throne in 813. d. about S33.— He was a great, cneou- rager of learned men, founded an academy at Bagdad, calculated a set of astronomical tables, and caused the works of the most celebrated ancient authors to be translated into Arabic. Al-Mausur, al-mari-sur, regent of Cordova, in Spain, guardian of the son of Al-Hakem II., who died in 976. He was engaged in perpetual wars with the Christians, and from his victories, was called the " Victorious." d. about lOuO. Al-Manscb was second caliph of the race of the Abbasides, and ascended the throne in 753. He was opposed by his uncle, Abdallah-ben-Ali, who was defeated by Al-Mansur's general, Abu Moslem. Fearing this general's abilities and popularity, Al-Mansur caused him to be assas- sinated. Several insurrections took place in his reign, which were all suppressed, b. 713; D. on a pilgrimage to Mecca, in the 63rd year of his age, 774. Almeida, Francis, al'-mai-e-da, a Portuguese gentleman, who in 1505 was appointed by King Emanuel the first viceroy of the Portuguese pos- sessions in India. He took the city of (Juiloa, and made many other important conquests. A ilect loaded with spices, and dispatched by him from the coast of Malabar, was the first to discover the island of Madagascar. While he was engaged in extending the conquests of the Portuguese, Albuquerque received orders from Portugal to supersede him; but Almeida, being about to proceed to Dabul with a fleet, refused to resign his command, and imprisoned the new viceroy. In his expedition against Dabul he sullied his reputation by cruelty, and afterwards falling in with the fleet of the enemy, he defeated it, and effected a peace. On his passage to Europe he THE DICTIONARY Aim on was slain at the Cape of Good Hope, in a skir- mish with the natives, 1509. Almo.v, John, dl'-mon, a political writer, who was educated at Warrington, and served his apprenticeship to a bookseller, but became a traveller in foreign countries, and finally settled in London, where he pursued literature as a profession. On the death of George II. he wrote an account of his majesty's reign, which jassed through two editions, and in 1761 pub- lished a review of the elder Pitt's administration, which was also well received, and procured for him the friendship of Lord Temple. He was also the zealous friend of Mr. Wilkes, whom he defended against Kidgell, and in 1765 began business as a bookseller in Piccadilly. He still, however, continued to exercise his pen on poli- tics. Not long afterwards he was tried, and found guilty, for publishing Junius's letter to the king ; for which he was fined, and obliged to give security for his good behaviour for three years. In 1774 he began the "Parliamentary Register," which was the first periodical jour- nal of the kind. On the death of Lord Chat- ham, he published anecdotes of the life cf that great statesman ; and, after a considerable inter- val, published biographical, literary, and politi- cal anecdotes of several of the most eminent persons of the age. In 1801 he gave to the world the genuine correspondence of Mr. Wilkes, which was succeeded by a collection of the poetical works of the author of the " Heroic Epistle to Sir William Chambers," and after- wards by a valuable edition of " Junius's Let- ters," illustrated by numerous biographical and explanatory notes, and preceded by a critical inquiry respecting their real author, b. at Li- verpool, 1738; D. 1805. Aloadin, a-lo'-a-din, a Mahometan sheik, better known by the appellation of ttc Old Man of the Mountain, was prince of the Arsacides, or Assassins. His residence was a castle be- tween Antioch and Damascus, and he had a number of youthful followers, so devoted to his will as to engage in any of his attempts to as- sassinate the monarchs and princes with whom he was at enmity. Lived in the 13th century. Alompra, a-lom'-pra, an inhuman chief, who, from being the head of a petty Asiatic village, became, by conquest and barbarity, the founder of the reign - ng dynasty of Burmah. b. 1711; D. near Maitaban, 1760. Alp-Arslan, " a valiant lion," alp-ar J -»lan, se- cond sultan of Persia of the dynasty of Seljuk, a conqueror and able ruler, who reduced his empire from a state of anarchy to peace and order, added much territory to it by conquest, and ultimately, in 1068-70, engaged in a war with the Koman empire, then having it3 chief seat at Constanti- nople. After one or two reverses, Alp-Arslan totally defeated the Greeks under the emperor Komanus Liogenoa, who was taken prisoner. On the emperor being brought before his con- queror, the latter asked what treatment he ex- pected to receive, on which Romanus answered, — " If you are cruel, you will kill me ; if you wish to gratify your pride, you will drag me at your chariot wheels ; if you are wise, you will accept a ransom, and let me go back to my country." " Put," said the conqueror, " what would you have done had you been in my position and I in yours?" "I would have given thee many stripes," replied the emperor, with coolness. The sultan, pleased with the bold spirit of his captive, declared that he n Alphonso would not do an act which he disapproved, and would not perpetrate cruelty even on an enemy. He accordingly accepted ransom for the empe- ror, imposed on him a tribute of 3000 pieces cf gold, required an inter-marriage between their families, and the liberation of all the captive Mussulmans in the hands of the Greeks. Alp- Arslan's power now extended over the fairest portions of Asia: he had around his throne 1200 princes or the sons of princes, and at his command an army of 200,000 men. But, still unsatisfied, he determined upon the conquest of Turkistan, from whence his race had originally come; and with that view proceeded to pass the Oxus. Here, however, his course was stayed : for Yussef Kothual, a Turcoman, whom he had taken prisoner and was about to condemn to torture, stabbed him to the heart with a dagger, and the sultan almost immediately af- terwards etpircd, in 1072 a.d., in the 42nd year of his age, having been born in 1030. Alphebt, Nicephorus, al-fer'-r, a Russian prince, who, when that country was rent in pieces by civil dissensions, at the end of the 16th century, was sent, with two of his brothers, to England, to the care of a Russian merchant, by whom they were placed in the university of Oxford, where two of them died of the small- pox. Nicephorus entered into orders, and in 1618 obtained the rectory of Warley, in Hunting- donshire, whence he was ejected during the civil war, and cruelly treated by the republican party. At the Restoration he was reinstated in his living ; but, being old and infirm, he com- mitted the care of it to a curate, and retired to Hammersmith, where he died. ALrnics, Avitus, al'-fe-ui, a Roman poet, who wrote the lives of eminent persons, and the history of the Carthaginian war, in verse. Flourished in the 3rd century. Alphonso, Alfonso, or Alonzo, Bl-fon'-zo, the name of a great many sovereigns of the diffe- rent states of the Iberian peninsula. We give particulars of the lives of the most distin- guished : — Alphonso I., surnamed the Catholic, chosen king of the Asturias, in 739, extended his de- minions over nearly the fourth part of Spain, and took Lara and Saldana, in Castillo, from the Moors. D. 757. Alphonso II. of Leon, Castille, and Asturias, surnamed the Chaste, was but a child when, in 768, his lather Fruela was assassinated. King Aureho, in 774, invested him with regal power, and in 783, on Aurelio's death, he became soic monarch. His uucle Maurcgato afterwards dethroned him, and retained the usurped authority for five years, during which time Al- phonso lived in Biscay, where lie htd many friends. Maurcgato was succeeded by Bcr- mudo, who took Alphonso into partnership ;r the throne ; he then engaged in a war with th Muurs, whom he defeated in a great battle a Ledas, and subsequently captured Lisbo Another rebellion of his subjects compelled him to fly to Galicia, but he soon regained his domi- nions. Charlemagne came into Spain on his invitation, and during this reign the great battle of Ronccsvalles took place. Alphonso made Oviedo t'je capital of his kingdom, greatly adorned it, and died there in 842, aged 85. His surname of the Chaste was derived from his continence, which he is said to have rigidly preserved in accordance with a vow he had made. He was married, but left no offspring. OF BIOGRAPHY. Alphonso Alphonso III., called the Great, came to the throne of Asturias at the age of 18, on the death of his father Ordono in 866. The early part of his reign was disturbed by a contention with l'ruela, son of King licrmudo, who, however, being assassinated in consequence of his tyranny, Alphonso regained full possession of his king- dom, having put down a rebellion on the part of his two brothers, whom he blinded and cast into prison. He then engaged in wars with the Moors, from his success in which he acquired the title of Great. He gained many victories, built several cities, and greatly extended his dominions ; but internal troubles interfered with his career. His son Garcia, supported by the queen and several princes of the blood-royal, raised an insurrection, on the pretence that the king's continual wars impoverished the people. Alphonso was at first successful — he defeated Garcia and made him prisoner; but seeing no other way of securing domestic peace, he re- signed the crown to Don Garcia in 910. He did not, however, relinquish the sword with the sceptre; but, on the Moors invading the king- dom, took the command of the army as his son's lieutenant, and was so successful that he gained fresh laurels as a warrior. Alphonso was an author as well as a soldier, and wrote a book of Spanish annals. He was esteemed a liberal, affable, and remarkably handsome man. D. near Zamora, in 910. Alphonso IV. of Leon and Castille, surnamed the Monk, ascended the throne in 924, but abdi- cated in favour of his brother Kamiro, and re- tired to the monastery of Sahagun. He after- w lrds became tired of seclusion, and made an attempt to resume the sceptre, but was defeated by his brother, who, having captured him. had his eyes put out, and threw him into prison. Alphonso abdicated in 930, and died in seclu- sion in 942. Alphonso V. came to the crown of Leon m 999 ; but being only in his fifth year, the go- vernment was administered by a regent. During his reign Cordova was conquered and Leon re- built. Killed at the siege of Viseu, in 1028. Alphonso VI. of Leon and Castille, sunnTr.ed the Valiant, was crowned in 1066. During the reign of this sovereign, Asturias, Leon, Castille, and Galicia, were united under his authority. lie was a successful warricr, and had Spain not been invaded by the Almoravides with a power- ful army, he would have succeeded in driving the Moors from the peninsula. As it was, he wrested from them the city of Toledo, which they had held for 370 years, and where he himself had found a refuge from the resent- ment of his brother Sancho, together with a large portion of territory, and many other towns. Hcing now sovereign of nearly all Spain, he assumed tho title of emperor. During this reign, in 1093, Peter the Hermit began to preach the first crusade, in which, however, it does not ar pear that Alphonso engaged. His illegitimate daughter Teresa was married to Henry of Be- sancon, on whom Alphonso conferred the title of earl of Portugal, which fief Henry held under the sovereignty of Castille. This was the beginning of the kingdom of Portugal, the regal title being afterwards assumed by its princes, in whose family it remained for more than 400 years, d. at Toledo, 1109. — It was in the reign of this monarch that Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, surnamed the Cid, achieved the poetical celebrity with which his name has been surrounded by the 57 Alphonso Spanish romance-writers. Urraca, daughter of Alphonso VI., was married to Alphonso I. ol Aragon and Navarre; and the latter succeeded to the united crowns ; but on his repudiating his wife, the nobles of Leon, Castille, and Galicia threw off their allegiance, and elected Alphonso Raymond to the throne, who ascended it under the title of Alphonso VIII., who is usually called the Emperor, and who was engaged in vigorously- prosecuted wars against the Moors, and having gained considerable advantages over them, he, in his exultation, assembled the Cortes, and assumed the imperial title, although his sway did not extend over so great a territory as Alphonso VI. had ruled. In an expedition, under- taken in 1157, he gained a great victory over the Moors at Jaen, but died near Toledo on his return in the same year. The military order of Alcantara, which has since become so renowned, was founded towards the close of this reign. He rescued the remnant of the army of his old rival, Alphonso of Aragon, after the death of that monarch at Fraga. This prince was dis- tinguished for the respect he paid to the rights and privileges of his subjects, and by his anxiety to govern according to law. He was married to a daughter of Henry II. of England; and by uniting one of his own daughters to Louis le Jeune of France, began those alliances between the French and Spanish crowns which have been so frequently repeated since. Alphonso IX., like his immediatepredeccssor, and indeed nearly all the Spanish monarchs, was engaged in wars against the Moors, d. at Vil- lanueva de Sarria, in 1230. Alphonso X., surnamed the Learned, king of Leon and Castille, succeeded his father Fer- dinand III. in 1252. His reign was unprosperous, but he acquired great reputation as a man of learning and science — and hence his title of " Learned." The " Alphonsine Tables" were drawn up under his direction, and at his expense. b. 1203; d. 1284. — He wrote on the motions of the stars, and a History of Spain ; and was the per- son who used the expression, so differently interpreted, that " If he had been consulted at the creation of the world, he could have saved the Deity from falling into many blunders." ALpnoNso XL, in 1312 succeeded his fathci Ferdinand IV. on the throne of Leon and Cas- tille. During a long minority, his kingdom was rent by convulsions. He took Algesiras and Tarifa from the Moors, but died of the plague while besieging Gibraltar, in 1350. He was sur- named the Avenger, from the severity with which he put down and punished the brigandage to which his long minority had given rise. Alphonso I. of Aragon and Navarre, and ordinarily reckoned the VII. of Leon and Cas- tille, surnamed tho Fighter, succeeded his brother Pedro I. in 1104. At his accession the kingdom of Aragon was exhausted by the con- tinuous wars it had waged against the Moors, who, under the dynasty of the Almoravides, were making great head in Spain. The first car.i of Alphonso was to give reiit to his kingdom, in order to gather strength for a renewal o r the struggle. When this was accomplish- d, and after accommodating a difference with the nobles of Leon which his repudiation of his wile Urraca had occasioned, he entered upon the career of warfare which procured him the sur- name of the Fighter. Ho captured Tudela, in- vaded Sarngoza, defeated the armies of the r.n- THE DICTIONARY Alphonso Alpini peror of Morocco, took the city of Granada, defeated a large army of Alraoravides at Daroea in 1120 a.d., leaving 20,000 of their dead on the field, and invaded the kingdom of Valencia. He took immense spoil from the Moors, who, however, did not revenge themselves upon Ar- agon, but upon Estremadura. He now deter- mined to complete the conquest of Saragoza, and soon succeeded in subjugating the whole country. Two cities, however— Mequinenza and Fraga— still held out. The first he captured, putting the garrison to the sword; and then besieged Fraga, but during a sally from the town he received a womid which speedily proved mortal. His army was cut to pieces, the camp taken and pillaged, and it was only the aid given by Alphonso Baymond of Leon that saved a remnant of the host from the fate of their fellows. Alphonso had been successful in 29 battles, and had never sustained a check until the day on which he met his death, d. 1131. Alphonso 111. of Aragon came to the throne in 1235, and though his reign lasted but a few years, it was signalized by the establishment of the freest constitution known in those times. The Cortes was empowered to summon even the king before that body, and to depose him in the event of his being guilty of any infringe- ment of the laws. The Cortes of Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia were united in this reign, which the kings by their coronation oalh were bound never again to disunite, d. 1291. Alphonso V. of Aragon, surnamed the Mag- nanimous, succeeded his father Ferdinand the Just in 1416. Soon after his accession, a con- federacy was formed against him, but he frus- trated its object and pardoned the conspirators. His own dominions affording too limited a sphere for his aspirations, he almost totally abandoned them, returning only on urgent occasions, and made the shores of the Mediterranean the theatre of his exploits. He laid claim to the throne of Naples, upon an agreement with Joan, queen of that kingdom, that he should be her heir. This embroiled him in a war with several of the Italian states, and he and his fleet were taken by the Genoese under Visconti, duke of Milan, lie was conveyed to Milan, where he made the duke his friend, and was thereby enabled to con- quer Naples in 1442. B.1384; d. atNaplcs,1458. — He left his Neapolitan dominions to his natural son Ferdinand, and those of Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily, to his brother Juan, king of Navarre. Besides being a learned prince and a patron of men of letters, he was valiant and liberal, and greatly beloved by his subjects. Acourtier remon- strating with him for walking about without a guard : "A father," said Alphonso, "has nothing to dread in the midst of his children." One of his vessels being in danger of perishing, he jumped into a boat, and hastened to her relief, saying, " I had rather partake, than behold, the calamity of my people." — This last is a particu- larly fine observation, and indicates the magna- nimity of the man. Alfhoxso I. of Portugal wastheson of Henry carl of Portugal, by Teresa, daughter of Al- phonso V I ., king of Leon and Castille. He was but three years of age when his father iitd, and left him under the tutelage of his mother. On coming of age, his first task was to ivrest from Teresa the power which she had disgraced by her vices and incapacity, but which she was un- willing to resign. Having succeeded in this, and in defeating the Castilians, who had come f o 68 the support ef his enemies, he freed Portugal from the dependence in which it had hitherto been hold by Leon and Castille. In 1139 his ter- ritories being invaded by the Moors, he at- tacked them with greatly inferior numbers, and obtained a signal victory on the plains of Ouriqne, and was proclaimed king on the field of battle. On being crowned by the archbishop of Braganza, before the assembled Cortes at Lamego. he said, holding his drawn sword in his hand—" With this sword I have tonqaered the Moors, delivered you from your enemies, and won independence for your country: you have made me king. Let us now frame laws to maintain peace, order, and justice in the realm." A constitution was accordingly drawn up and voted by the assembly, with the entire concurrence of all classes in the state, d. at Coirabra 1185. His memory is greatly venerated by the Portuguese, as that of the founder of their independence and of constitutional go- vernment among them. Alphonso II. of Portugal passed his reign in comparative peace, excepting disputes with the Church in consequence of his endeavouring to exact military service from the clergy, d. 1223. Alphonso III. of Portugal, was engaged in a war with the Mahometans, from whom he made a few conquests, d. 1279. Alphonso IV. of Portugal, succeeded his father Denis in 1325, and though in the early part of his reign he so outraged the rights and interest of his subjects as to provoke a threat of deposition, yet he subsequently changed his policy, and instituted many good laws and regu- lations for the benefit of his subjects, dispensing justice with impartiality, though sometimes with too great severity, b. 1290 ; d. 1357. Alphonso V. of Portugal, was born in 1432, succeeding his father Edward when he was but six years old. He invaded Africa several times, took Alcazar, Seguer, and Tangier, and acquired the surname of Africano. d. of the plague at Cintra, in 1491.— He was a beneficent prince, and an encourager of learning. In his reign. Guinea was discovered by the Portuguese. Alphonso II., king of Naples, succeeded hi3 father Ferdinand in 1494. He was of so cruel and tyrannical a disposition, that his subjects invited Charles VIII. of France to invade the country. That prince took Naples ; and A lphonso, after abdicating the throne, retired to a monas- tery in Sicily, where he died about 1496. ALpnTEGHiN, alip-ter-nn, founder of the Ghuznerite dynasty, and grandfather of the famous Mahmoud of Ghuzni, was originally a slave, but, obtaining his freedom, gradually rose till he was appointed governor of Khorasan, when he revolted, and made himself indepen- dent at Ghuzni. d. 775 a.d. Alpini, Prosper, al-pe'-ne, a Venetian phy- sician and botanist. He was at first a soldior, but quitted that profession and went to Padua, where he made so great progress in learning that he became deputy rector and syndic. In 1578 he took his degree of M.D., and in 1580 went to Egypt as physician to the Venetian consul. He resided there three years, in which time he greatly improved himself in botany. He was the first who discovered the sexes and generation of plants. On his return to Venice, in 1586, Andrea Doria, prince of Melfi, ap- pointed him his physician; and in 1593 he was called to the botanical professorship at Padua, OF BIOGRAPHY. Alsop which he held until his death, u. 1553; r>. at Padua, 1617.— He has bequeathed to posterity several learned works upon botany and medi- cine. Alsop, Anthony, al'-sop, a poet and divine, who lived in the beginning of tho 18th century, published sonic editions of jEsop's fables, toge- ther with original poems, and took part with Mr. Boyle in the celebrated dispute with Dr. Hentley, for which he is mentioned with sneers by the latter as " Tony Alsop." Alsted, John Henry, al'-sted, a German protcstant clergyman, a very voluminous writer, and professor at Ilerborn, in Nassau, and at Weissenberg, in Transylvania. In 1638, he published an Encyclopaedia, one of the earliest works of that class, and which was in considerable repute for many years. Amongst other works, he composed a treatise to show that the principles of all sciences and arts are taught in the Bible, d. in 1638. Alston, Charles, M.D., al'-sfun, a Scottish writer on botany and medicine, and one of the founders of the Edinburgh school of medicine, was born in 1683. He lectured on botany and materia medica with much reputation for many years, and at his death in 1760, left the cha- racter of being one of the ablest teachers of the healing art of hid time. He published papers in the " Edinburgh Medical, Physical, and Literary Essays;" but his most complete and important work is his "Materia Medica," printed in 1770. Alstromer, Jonas, al'-stvo-mer, an eminent patriotic Swede, who, after visiting England, returned to his own country, and became re- markable for the great improvements he there introduced into arts and manufactures. For his great efforts he was made a knight of the Polar Star, chancellor of Commerce, and a member of the Academy of Sciences, b. at Alingsoes, 1635; ». 1761. Altdorfer, Albrecht, all-Sor'-fer, a distin- guished German engraver and painter, who employed himself on sacred, profane, historical, and mythological subjects. Holbein is supposed *o have studied his cuts. n. at Altdorf, in Bavaria, U88 ; D. 1533. Althen, Ehan, or Jean, alt'-Jien, a Persian, who was the first to introduce madder {for dyeing) into France. He was the son of the go- vernor of a Persian province, but, with the ex- ception of himself, all his family were massa- cred when the Persian empire was overthrown by the usurper Thamas-Kouli-Khan. b. 1711 ; d. at Caumont, in France, 1774. — Althen, during his life, was treated ungratefully, but, by way of atonement, a tablet was after his death erected in the museum of Avignon, with the following inscription, which we transcribe, as it tells when and where madder wa3 first in- troduced into France : — " To Jean Althen, a Persian, who was the first to introduce and cultivate madder in the territory of Avignon, under the patronage of the Marquis do Cau- mont, in 1765." This testimonial was erected in 1821. Althobp, Lord. (See Spencer, Earl.) Alunno, Niccolo, a-loo'-no, an Italian painter of considerablemerit, who flourished in the loth century. There are few of his works extant, but those which are entitle him to praise, e. at Foligno about 1430; i>. about 1510. Alurf.d, a-lu'-red, of Beverley, an ancient English historian. He was canon and treasurer Alvarado of the church of St. John, in Beverley, and wrote a chronicle of the English kings, which was published by Hearne in 1716. r>. 1129. Alva, Ferdinand Alvarez, duke of, ul'-va, a distinguished soldier, and descended from one of the most ancient families in Spain. He made his first campaign at the age of 17, and was present at the battle of Pavia. He was a great favourite of the emperor Charles V., who made him a general ; but though he distin- guished himself by the high order of his mili- tary talents, he became equally noted for the cruelty of his disposition. At the siege of Metz he performed prodigies of valour ; and al- though he commanded there, the place was so well defended that he was obliged to raise the siege. In the campaign against Pope Paul IV., in 1556, Alva was completely successful, and obliged the pontiff to sue for peace, after which he repaired to Home, to ask pardon for having opposed his holiness in the war. In 1567, Philip II. sent him into the Low Countries, to reduce the Netherlands to the Spanish yoke, which they were attempting to throw ott*. Here he established a council composed of twelve judges, whom he denominated Judges of the Tumults ; but this tribunal, from its cruelty, was called by the people the " Court of Blood." His tyranny was now as intolerable as his power was extraordinary. Thirty thousand persons fled their country and sought refuge in other parts. He filled the United Provinces with terror and scenes of carnage, for which his memory is held in detestation to this day. He hastily tried and beheaded counts Egmont and Horn, two patriots and friends of the prince of Orange, who had defeated a body cf Spaniards at Groningcn. He fortified Antwerp, and when the works were completed, he caused a statue of himself to be cast in brass and erected in the middle of the fortress. Under his feet was an allegorical representation of the nobility and the people, in the shape of a double-headed monster. Insult upon insult he heaped upon those he had subjected to his go- vernment, until even his friends became disgusted with him ; and his inhumanity to the inhabi- tants of Haerlem brought his unpopularity to a climax. Un the surrender of that city, he caused two thousand of its inhabitants to be executed. In 1573 he left the country he had ruled with a rod of iron, followed by the curses of the people. It is affirmed that during Ins administration in the Netherlands, he had caused to be executed eighteen thousand human beings, independent of those who fell in the various battles and sieges. He was afterwards employed against Portugal, where he greatly added to his military renown by driving Don Antonio from the throne in 1580. b. 1508; d. 1588.— Alva was an able general, and un- questionably a master of warlike strategy. He never fought if he could gain his object other- wise. The archbishop' of Cologne, who was struck by his efforts to avoid a conflict, having on one occasion urged him to engage the Dutch, " The object of a general," replied Alva, "is not to fight, but to conquer: he fights enough who obtains the victory." He is said never to have lost a battle. The character of this willing servant of the despotism ofCharlea V. and Philip II. is ably drawn, and his deeds faithfully narrated, in "Mr. Motley's History, " The Rise of the Dutch Republic." Alvabado Pedro de, al'-va-ra'-do, a distin- THE DICTIONARY Alvarez guished companion of Hernando Cortes in the conquest of Mexico. He was engaged in every battle till the final reduction of that kingdom. b. at Badajoz ; d. on the coast of Guatemala, loll. — Alvarado was some time governor of Guatemala, to which was added the province of Honduras, which from being in a state of con- tinual internal warfare, seems to have enjoyed some degree of repose under his administration. Alvarez, Francis, al-va'-raiz, a Portuguese divine who accompanied Don Edward Galvam as secretary, when sent by Emanuel, king of Portugal, on an embassy to Ethiopia or Abys- sinia, d. 1540. In the same year Alvarez pub- lished a narrative of the mission. Alvarez de Luna, or Ai.varo, was the fa- vourite of John II., king of Castille. He was the natural son of Don Alvaro de Luna, and in 1403 was appointed gentleman of the bedcham- ber to the king ; but the courtiers taking a dis- like to him, forced him to retire from court. He was afterwards recalled by the king, who at his request banished his enemies. After enjoy- ing the splendour of royal favour forty-five years, he fell into disgrace, and was beheaded for high treason in 1453. b. 1389. Alvarez, Don Jose, an eminent Spanish sculptor and artist, whose statue of Ganymede, which he executed in 1804, whilst studying at Paris, placed him in the first rank of modern sculptors. His studio was twice visited by Na- poleon I., who presented him with a gold medal valued at 500 francs. The conduct of Napoleon towards Spain, however, excited the disgust of Alvarez, who took such an aversion to the French emperor, that he would never model his bust. Subsequently he chiefly resided at Rome, and became court sculptor to Ferdinand VII. of Spain, for whom, in 1818, he executed his famous group of Antilochus and Memnon. He enjoyed a pension from the Spanish crown, b. at Priego, Cordova, 1768; d. at Madrid, 1826. Alvarez, Manuel, also a Spanish sculptor of eminence, was director of the academy of San Fernando, and held the honorary office of king's sculptor. He was usually styled El Gri-go, or the Greek, in compliment to the purity of his style, b. at Salamanca, 1727; ». 1797. Alvenslebex, Philip Charles, Count d', al'- ten-slai'-ben, a distinguished Prussian statesman and diplomatist, b. 1745 ; i>. 1802. — Also a Prussian general of great braver)*, who distin- guished himself at the battles of Lutzen, Dres- den, and under the walls of Paris, b. at Sclio- churtz, 1778; d. 1831. Alvewslebest, Count Albert, an eminent Prussian diplomatist, was born in Halbcrtstadt in 1794. lie began lite as a cavalry officer, but afterwards exchanged the military career for the political and diplomatic service of his country. He also studied law; and was one of the ministers appointed to represent Prussia in the German conference held at Vienna ill 1331. He subsequently held the portfolio of finance, and in 1837 that of minister of commerce and public works, in which capa- city ho was prominent in promoting the German customs union. He subsequently officiated as Pruisian minister at the conferences of Dres- den, but, from want of adequate support at Berlin, failed in accomplishing all he could have desired in giving energy and decision to the pro- verbially wavering policy of the Berlin Cabinet In opposing the schemes of Austria, tw' Amadous Alviajto, Bartholomew, al-ve-a'-no, a Vene- tian general who obtained signal advantages over the emperor Maximilian, for which he re- ceived triumphal honours, d. at the siege of Brescia, in 1515. — The state of Venice gave him a magnificent burial, and pensioned his family. Alviuzi, Joseph, Baron d", al-veen'-ze, a gen- eral in the service of Austria, during the great French war. Being defeated by Napoleon at Rivoli, in 1796, and Areola, in 1797, he was superseded in the command of the army of Italy. In 1798 he became governor of Hungary, and in 1808 he was made a field marshal of Austria, b. 1735; ». in Hungary, 1810. Altfitts, a-lip'-e-us, a geographer, who was employed by the emperor Julian, first in Britain as deputy-governor, and next at Jerusalem ii rebuilding the temple. At the close of life hi, was banished, but for what cause is not known. Lived in the 4th century. A geographical de- scription of the world by him was printed in 4t«. at Geneva, in 1623.— There were two othei persons of this name — one a Greek writer ou music, whose era is uncertain; the other, s» Christian divine of the 4th century, who assisted St. Augustine in the controversy with thb Donatists, and also wrote an epistle against tho Nestorians. Amadeddulat, a-mi-ded'-u-la, the founder ot a Persian dynasty, was the son of a fisherman. He and his two brothers took Persia Proper, Persian Irak, and Caramania, which they divided among them. He settled at Schiraz, in Persia Proper, in 933. d. 919. Amadeus V., a-mii-de'-us, count of Savoy, called the Great, began his government in 12s.3. lie was distinguished by great penetration, prudence, wisdom, and valour ; and so highly were his qualities esteemed by his contempo- raries, that the princes of Europe appointed him umpire to settle their differences. A relative of this prince resided in England for many years in the reign of Henry III., and built the Savoy Palace in the Strand, London, of which part of the chapel still remains. ». 1323. Amadeus VI., count of Savoy, was one of the most warlike princes of his age. He was sur- hamed the " Green Count." He succeeded his father in 1343. In 1354 he defeated the French at Arbrette, and took some territory from them, and subsequently became viceroy of the em- peror Charles IV., over a considerable part of Northern Italv. n. 1210 j i>. 1333. Amadeus VIII., count of Savoy, entered upon the sovereignty in 1391. In 1416 Savoy was created a duchy, and not long after the duke retired from tin throne and his family to a monastery, where he instituted an order of knighthood, by the name of the Annunciata. The knights, however, lived in a luxurious style, without any of the severities of monachism. In 1439 he caused himself to be elected pope by the council of Basle, on which he took the name of Felix V. This led to much disunion in the church, as the pontificate was also claimed by Eugenius, and a long controversy ensued. On the death of Eugenius, the cardinals elected Thomas de Sarzan, who took the name of Nicholas V., Amadeus was dispossessed of his title, and in 1419 made a formal abdication in favour of Nicholas, who gave him a cardinalship, and made him dean of the Sacred College, d. 1451. Amadeus IX., duke of Savoy, was a very charitable prince, and so beloved by his subjects, OF BIOGRAPHY. Amaflnius Amasis that they called him the " blessed Amadeus." u. 1472. — There were nine rulers in Savoy of this name, but the above are the only remarkable men. AMAPixir/s, a-ma-Jin'-e-ut, a Eoman who first taught his countrymen the tenets of Epi- curus, which they embraced with avidity. Amage, am'-a-je, a queen of Sarmatia, re- markable for her justice and fortitude. Amak, or Abulnagie al Bokhabi, a'-malc, a Persian poet, entertained at the court of the sultan Khedar Khan, who instituted an academy of poets, of which he made Amak president. Flourished in the 5th century, and lived to a great age. — His chief poem is the " History of the Loves of Joseph and Zoleiskah." Amalabic, or Amat/by, u-mutt'-a-rik, king of the Visigoths, was the son of Alaric II. He succeeded his grandfather Theodoric in 526. He married Clotilda, the daughter of Clovis, king of Fiance, whom he used barbarously to make her embrace Arianism. At length she complained to her brother Childebert, king of Paris, who, in 531, marched against Amalaric and defeated him in a battle fought in Catalonia. He took refuge in a church, where he was slain. Amalasontha, d-mat-a-aon'-tai, daughter of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, was appointed regent for her son Athalaric, and being a woman of great natural talents, which had been carefully cultivated, she governed with great wisdom and justice, encouraged learning, and restrained the rude and savage disposition of the Goths, whom, however, she could not succeed in weaning altogether from their wild habits. Being removed from power, and confined in an island in the lake Bolsena, she was strangled in the bath in the year 535. This cruel deed was per- petrated at the instance of the empress Theo- dora, who was jealous of the respect paid by the emperor Justinian to Amalasontha. Amalek, d-mal'-ec, the son of Eliphaz, and grandson of Esau. Some have supposed him to be the father of *he Amalekites, but they are mentioned as a powerful people long before Ids birth. Amalie, or Amelia, Anna, a-md-le, princess of Prussia, daughter of Frederick William 1., and sister of Frederick the Great, was greatly distinguished by her musical talents, to the cul- tivation of which she devoted nearly all her time. She was likewise distinguished for her piety and charity, b. Nov. 9, 1723 ; u. at Berlin, March 30, 1787. Amalie, the wife of the duke of Sax e- Weimar, who at an early age lost her husband, but managed to preserve her little state intact during some of the most troublous times of the continental wars. She resided in the city of Weimar, and invited the most distinguished men of letters to her capital. Wielaud, Herder, Schiller, and Goethe settled here, and enjoyed her patronage as well as her company, d. 1807. Aiialbic, or Abnauld, a-mal'-reek, a Spanish military churchman, who distinguished himself by his cruelties against the Albigenses. In 1209 he laid siege to Beziers, and commanded 60,000 of the inhabitants to be slaughtered alter the town had surrendered. " How are we to dis- tinguish the Catholics from the heretics ?" inquired one of his officers. "Kill them all — God knows his own," replied Amalrie. d. 1225. Amalteo, Pomponio, a-mal'-tai-o, an eminent painter of the Venetian school, n. at San Vito, in Friuli 1505. The Year of his death is not known. His muster-pieces are the Three Judg- ments, in the court of justice at Ceneda. The subjects are — The Judgment of Solomon, tha Judgment of Daniel, and a Judgment of Trajan. They were long considered the works of Por- denone, under whom he studied, from the similarity of style between the master and pupii. His brother, Girolamo, had also considerable talent as a painter, but his pictures are small, though distinguished by great care and finish. He died young. Amalihea, ii-mdl-the'-a, the Cuma>an Sibyl who offered Tarquin nine books on the fate oi Rome, for which she demanded 300 crowns. He refused to make the purchase, when she burnt three of them, and demanded the same sum for the remainder. Tarquin still refusing, she burnt three more, and required as much for those which were left. The king, astonished, con- suited the priests, and by their advice made the purchase of the remaining tliree, which were committed to the care of two magistrates, who were to consult them on extraordinary occasions. They are known as the Sibylline oracles. Amama, Sixtinus, a-ma'-ma, a learned Dutch- man, who became eminent for his knowledge of the Oriental languages. He was at Oxford in 1613, and taught Hebrew in Exeter College. After residing there some years, he returned to Franeker, and became Hebrew professor, d. 1629.— His greatest work is a censure of the Vulgate. Aman, Johann, a'-man, an eminent German architect, who was employed in various public buildings by several princes of Germany, and by the emperor of Austria, b. 1765 ; n. 1834. r Aman d, Mark Anthony Gerard, sieur de Saint, a'-mang, a French poet, whose father was a commander in the English navy, and was three years confined in the Black Tower at Constan- tinople, n. at Rouen, 1591; d. 1661.— The poems of Amand, which are chiefly comic, were published in 8 vols., 1649, Paris. Amaea, Sinha, a-ma'-ra, an eminent Sanscrit scholar and poet, who published a 'thesaurus of the language. Lived in the fifth century. His book has been several times reprinted. Amabal, Andrea, am'-a-ral, a Portuguese knight of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, beheaded for secretly inviting the Turks to invade the island of Rhodes', 1522. — The result of this invasion was the surrender of Rhodes to Sultan Solyman, on the Christmas-day of 1522. Amabi, Michele, am'-ar-e, an Italian historian of marked progressive tendencies in his political opinions, and devoted to literary pursuits. He translated the " M armiiu». " of Scott into 1' ilian, and wrote a history of the Sicilian Vespers, which brought him into immediate notice. With a view to the production of a history of Sicily under the Mussulman rule, he is generally believed to hare applied himself successfully to the study of Arabic, b. at Palermo, 1806. Amasa, a-mai'-sa, a son of Jethcr, who is elsewhere called Ithra. He was pardoned -by David, though he fought against him in the army of Absalom. A masai, d-mus'-a-i, a Levite, and one of tne sons of Elkanah, who assisted David against Saul. Amasis, d-mai'-sis, a king of Egypt. He was prime minister to Aprics, king of that country, on whose deposition he mounted the throne, B.C. 369, and immediately put Aprics to death. THE DICTIONARY Amati Egypt flourished greatly in liis reign, b. 525 B.C. Amati, Andrea and Antonio, a-ma'-te, father and son, eminent as violin-makers. Their in- struments are called Cremonas, from their having their residence and carrying on their business in that town. Andrea lived in the 16th century : Antonio was born in 1565. Amati, Pasquale, an antiquary of Italy, wrote several learned works, still held in esteem, b. 1716 ; d. 1796. He had two sons, Girolamo and Basilio, who were also distinguished, the first as an antiquary and the second as a poet. Amato, Giovanni Antonio d', one of the best of the Neapolitan painters. He possessed the venerativo faculty in a high degree, and carried his sentiments of propriety so far as to consider it wrong to paint a woman in a state of even partial nudity. He was a man of great general acquirements, and wrote a commentary on some difficult passages of Scripture, which was much valued even by the clergy, b. at Naples, 1475 ; D. 1555. Amato trained numerous pupils, the most distinguished of whom was his nephew of the same name, usually called the Young, a beautiful colourist. b. 1535; d. 1599. Amato, or Amatus, Joannes Rodcricus, a- ma'-to, a distinguished Jewish physician, who was born at Castel Branco, in the province of Beira, Portugal, in 1511. He is sometimes called Amatus Lusitanus. Ho was educated at Salamanca, and about 15-13 he removed to An- eoua, where he resided until 1555, being fre- quently summoned to Rome to attend Pope Julius III. Fearing the Inquisition, he went to Thessalonica, where he could openly profess the Jewish faith. He wrote numerous works on medicine, &c. Date of death unknown. Amauki I., a-maw'-re, king of Jerusalem, suc- ceeded his brother Baldwin III. in 1162. ^ n. 1173. He was a courageous and enterprising prince: but these qualities were sullied by ava- rice and cruelty. AirAtm II., king of Jerusalem, succeeded his brother, Guy de Lusignan, king of Jerusalem and Cyprus, at his death in 1192, as king of Cyprus. In 1197 he succeeded Henri de Cham- pagne as titular king of Jerusalem, having married his widow Isabella. He held his court at Ptolemais, as Jerusalem was in the possession of Saladin and the Saracens. D. 1205. Amaury de Chartres, a-maw'-re, a French visionary, who maintained the eternity of mat- ter, and that religion has three epochs, agree- ably to the three persons of the Trinity. His opinions were condemned by the Council of Paris in 1209, and some of his followers were burned. To avoid a similar fate, he renounced his errors, and retired to St. Martin des Champs, where he died of vexation. Lived in the 13th century. Amaziah, ii-ma-zi'-a, king of Judah, suc- ceeded his father Joash at the age of 25. He blended idolatry with the worship of God. With the assistance of the Israelites, he defeated the Kdomites in the Valley of Salt ; but afterwards commenced war on his allies, by whom he was taken prisoner. Slain by his own subjects 610 B.C. Amberger, Christoph, am-bair'-ger, a dis- tinguished German painter, some of whose copies pass for originals of Holbein. He also engraved on wood, from his own designs, b. at Nurnberg, 1190; d. 1563-9. AiiiiioHix, am-W -o-rix, a kicjj of the Ebu- 03 Ambrose rones, in Gaul. He was a great enemy to Home, and was killed in a battle with Caesar, in which 60,000 of his countrymen were slain. Amdoise, Francis d', am-bo'-aw, a French ad- vocate distinguished for eloquence, knowledge of law, and poetical ability. He successively filled the offices of Advocate for the French nation, Counsellor in the Parliament of Bretagne, and Master of Requests and Counsellor of State. He was a great traveller, and published an ac- count of his travels, together with some poetical pieces. Flourished in the 16th century. — His brothers Adrian and James also rose to some eminence — Adrian in the church, and James as a physician. Amboise, George d\ a cardinal, who became successively bishop of Montauban, archbishop of Narbonne, and lastly of Rouen. Louis XII. made him prime-minister, and he soon acquired great popularity, by taking off the taxes which had usually been levied on the people at the accession of every new monarch. Subsequently to this he was appointed the pope's legate in France, with the dignity of cardinal, and in that capacity effected a considerable reform among the religious orders, b. 1460 ; d. 1510. — D'Amboise was one of the wisest statesmen France ever had. He reformed the church, purified the courts of justice, remitted the bur- dens' of the people, and conscientiously labour: d to promote the public happiness. Amboise, Frances d'.the wife of Peter II., duke of Brittany, who treated her with great brutality, which she bore with meekness. She distin- guished herself by effecting a reformation in the manners of the Bretons. On the death of the duke, in 1457, she was solicited in marriage by the prince of Savoy, but refused the offer, and retired into a monastery, where she died in 14S5. Ambbogi, Domeuico, am-bro'-je, a painter of Bologna, who excelled in design. He was par- ticularly eminent for painting cabinet pieces. Lived about 1678. Ambrose, St., am'-brose, the son of a prefect of Gaul, who became archbishop of Milan, and governor of Liguria and .Emilia. On the death of Auxentius, archbishop of Milan, in 37 1, and after a contest between the Arians and Catholics, he was consecrated bishop. In 3S3 he was deputed by the emperor Valentinian to prevail upon the tyrant Maximns not to en, cr Italy, and was successful in his mission. Sud- sequently, however, Maximus entered Italy, made himself master of the Western empire, and en- tered Milan in triumph. Valentinian sought refuge with Theodosius, who defeated Maximus, and restored the fugitive monarch to his throne. While Theodosius was in Italy, in 390, an insur- rection arose in Thessalonica, in which the em- peror's lieutenant was slain. Theodosius in revenge put to death a vast number of persons in cold blood— no less, it is said, than 7000 with- out distinction of sex or criminality. Soon after this massacre, he came to Milan, and was about to enter the great church, when he was met on its threshold by Ambrose, who refused him ad- mittance as a homicide ; and it was not till a year afterwards, and on his showing tokens of repentance, that the prelate would admit him to Christian communion, b. at Milan, 340; d. 397. — The best edition of the works of St. Ambrose is that of Paris, in 2 vols, folio, 1091. Ho is said to have composed that noble hymn, " To- Dsum laudamus," but this is doubtful. OF BIOGRAPHY. Ambrose Ambrose of Alexandria, the friend of Origen, and to whom the latter dedicated many of his works, and at whose expense they were published. Lived in the 3rd century. Ambbose, Isaac, a nonconformist divine, who, on the breaking out of the civil wars, quitted the Church of England, took the Covenant, and became a Presbyterian preacher, first at Gars- tang, and afterwards at Preston, b. in Lan- cashire; d. 1661. — His works are much esteemed by the Calvinists, particularly one entitled " Looking unto Jesus." Ambbosius AujELiAurs, am'-bro-se-us aw- re'-le-ai'-nus, king of the Britons. About a.d. 457 he came from Armorica, to assist in expelling the Saxons, who had been invited over by Vorti- gern. On the death of that monarch, the sovereignty was vested in him, and he main- tained the dignity with credit. The famous king Arthur was brought up under him. d. at Win- chester, 508. Ameilhon, Hubert Pascal, a'-mail-hawng, a Frenchman who was the means of saving many valuable libraries, amounting in all to 800,000 volumes, during the revolutionary madness of the populace of Paris. He was also a consider- able contributor to periodical literature, and wrote a work entitled " the History of the Com- merce and Navigation of the Egyptians under the Ptolemies." e. 1730; d. 1811. Asielot de la Houssaye, Abraham Nicholas, am'-ai-lo de la hoos'-ai, a French writer on morals and church history, and the translator of Father Paul's " History of the Council of Trent," Machiavelli's " Prince," and other Italian works, into French. He was for a time in great favour with the Court of France, but afterwards was sent to the Bastile in consequence of the influ- ence exerted against him by the Venetians and the clergy, some of whom his writings had offended. * He was born at Orleans in 1031; d. at Paris, 1706. Amelotte, Denis, i'nn'-ai-lot, an eminent French writer, who published a translation of the Bible, with commentary, in the years 1666, 1667, and 1668. He had a quarrel with the Port Royalists, who having satirized him, he revenged himself by frustrating their intention of publish- ing a translation of the Scriptures which they had prepared. He was a member of the congre- gation of priests called the Oratory, b. 1606 ; b. 1678. Ames, William, aims, a Puritan divine, who went to Franckcr, in Holland, and was chosen professor of divinity. He afterwards settled at Rotterdam as associate with Hugh Peters, who had gathered a congregation of Brownists in that city. b. in Norfolk, 1576; j>. 1633.— The principal of his works is entitled ".Medulla Theologica." Ames, Joseph, a Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, was originally a ship-chandler in Wappunr. He devoted himself to.the study of Antiquities, in which ho acquired eminence. B. 1689; d. 1759. — He published a work, entifled "Typographical Antiquities; being an Hisf orical Account of Printing in England, &c." 4to. 1749. Ames, Fisher, an American legislator, dis- tinguished as a speaker and supporter of Washington, b. at Dcdham, Massachusetts, 1758 ; d. 18o8. Amherst, Jeffrey, Lord, am'-hertt, a distin- guished British general, was descended from an ancient Kentish family, He entered the army in Amidano 1731, and in 1741 was aide-de-camp to General Ligonier, under whom he served at the battles of Dettingen, Fontenoy, and Rocoux. In 1756 he was appointed colonel of the 15th regiment of foot; and in 1758 was made major-general, and went to America, commanding at the siege of Louisburg. Forts Duquesne, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Niagara, were afterwards re- duced, and the British prestige, which had suffered considerably in Canada, was entirely restored. In 1763 ho returned to England, having been previously made a Knight of the Bath, received the thanks of Parliament, and was appointed governor of Virginia. He sub- sequently was appointed to the governorship of Guernsey, and in 1776 was created Baron Amherst of Holmsdale. In 1778 he was made commander-in-chief of the army in England, and was active, but humane, in suppressing the London riots of 1780. A change of the ministry occurring, he lost his military appointments, but received them again, to voluntarily resign them in 1795, when he was made a field-marshal. B. at Sevenoaks, 1717; d. 1797. Amheest, William Amherst, Earl, nephew of the above, who, having no child, procured the reversion of his barony for this gentleman. In 1816, he was sent out to Pekin to effect a treaty of commerce with the emperor of China ; but as he would not prostrate himself before that sovereign, nothing was effected. He was go- vernor general of India from 1823 to 1828, when he was created Earl Amherst for his services, with a pension of £3,000 a year. b. 1773; d. at Knowle House, near Sevenoaks, 1857. Amhubst, Nicholas, am'-hurst, a political and satirical writer, first educated at Merchant Tay- lors' School, whence he was removed to St. Johns College, Oxford, but thence expelled for irregularity, without taking a degree. In con- sequence of this disgrace, he wrote several satires against the university, under the title of "Terric Filius," 2 vols. 12mo, 1726, and settled in London as a writer by profession, b. at Marden, Kent, 1700 j d. 1742.— His most cele- brated undertaking was " The Craftsman," which was carried on for many years with great success. In this publication he was assisted by Lord Bolingbrolse and Mr. Pulteney, by whom he was neglected when they got into place. Amico, Bernardino, um'-r-ko, a native of Gal- lipoli, in the kingdom of Naples, who entered into holy orders, and became prior of a convent at Jerusalem. Here he made drawings of the Holy City, which lie had engraved by Callot, and published after his return to Italy. The work is now very rare and valuable. This book appeared at Rome in 1020; but the dates oi Amieo's birth and death are uncertain. Amiconi, Giacomo, am'-e-lco'-ne, an historical and portrait painter of Venice, who, in 1 729, •■cme to England, and painted many fine pieces for the principal nobility. He afterwards went to Spain and was appointed portrait-painter tc ihe king. d. 1752. Amicus, Antonius, 2 he presented a spirited remonstrance to Charles II, relative to the state of the nation, and the clanger to be apprehended from the duke of York being a papist. Soon after this he was dismissed from office, when he retired to his country seat, where he died, leaving several children, n. 1614; d. 1686.— He wrote a " His- tory of the Troubles of Ireland," from 1611 to THE DICTIONARY Anglesey 1660, which is lost ; but his Memoirs, published in 1669, 8vo, are full of interesting' matter. Anglesey, Henry William Paget, marquis of, was the eldest son of the first earl of Uxbridge, and at an early age entered Parliament as member forthe Carnarvon boroughs. The bent of his incli- nation, however, was for a military life. On the breaking out of the French revolutionary war in 1793,he raised among his father's tenantry a regi- ment, which was at first called the Staffordshire militia, but was subsequently admitted into the regular army as the 80th foot. Of this regiment he became lieutenant-colonel, and in 1794 was with the Duke of York in Flanders, where he greatly distinguished himself. When he returned to England, he was appointed to the command of a cavalry regiment, and devoted himself so successfully to his military duties, as to be re- cognised as the first cavalry officer in the service. He continued to be actively engaged throughout the wars with Napoleon. On the death of his father, in 1812, he succeeded to the title of earl of Uxbridge. At Waterloo he led the final charge which destroyed the French Guards, and near the close of the battle received a shot in the knee, which caused him to lose his limb. It was for las services in this great conflict that he was created Marquis of Anglesey, and made a Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. In 1813 he was elected a Knight of the Garter, and in the following yeai was made a general in the army. In 1827, under Canning, he filled the office of M aster-general of the Ordnance, which he again resumed, after an interval of 18 years, under Lord John Kussell, in 1843. In 1822, he was appointed Lord-lieutenant of Ireland by the Duke of Wellington, and gained immense "popu- larity by the zeal, energy, and good-heartedness which he displayed in the discharge of his duties. His conduct on" the question of Catholic eman- cipation especially won the hearts of the Irish people; but as his letter declaring in favour of that measure was deemed premature and indis- creet by his political superiors, he was at once recalled. lie was, however, restored to his office by Earl Grey in 1830 ; but his popularity was gone, and he never recovered it. His Irish government was distinguished by the institution of the Board of Education, which he originated and of which he was always a warm patron. On the resignation of Earl Grey in 1833, he abandoned politics entirely, for his appoint- ment as Master-general of the Ordnance in 1816 can scarcely be regarded in apolitical light. In 1842 he was made colonel of the Horse Guards, and in 1346 was appointed field marshal, b. 1708 ; d. 1854. An gouleme, Charles de Valois, due d', dan-god- [aim, was the illegitimate son of Charles IX. Catherine dc Medici bequeathed to him her estates of Auvergne and Lauragnais, when he married the daughter of Henry Montmorenci, constable of France. The will of Catherine, however, was set aside in favour of Margaret of Valois. Charles retained the title of Count d'Auvcrgne, and in 1619 was created Duke of Angoulemc. He was actuated by a restless and an ambitious spirit, and, as a military commander, acquired considerable reputation. In 1623, the siege of Kochelle was commenced under him, and he was engaged in the wars of Germany, Languedoe, and Flanders, u. 1573; d. 1650. Angouleme, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, due d', was the son of the Comte d'Artois (aftcr- vyanis Charles X. of France), and sharc'l the 70 Anjou exile of his family during the Revolutionary wars and the first Empire. His mother was a princess of Savoy, and at Turin the due d'Ansouleme spent the earlier period of his exile. He after- wards serv?d in Germany, but with no distinc- tion, and he returned to inaction until the restoration of the Bourbons in 1314. On the escape of Napoleon from Elba, the duke exerted himself to preserve Bordeaux for the Bourbons ; and on the accession of his father to the throne in 1824, he assumed the title of Dauphin. But he was never destined to attain the royal dignity, for the revolution of 1830 again sent him into exile, a part of which he spent in England, and the remainder in Hungary, where he died in 1811. b. 1775. Angouleme, Maria Therese Charlotte, duchess d', wife of the above, the daughter of Louis XVI., by Maria Antoinette of Austria, was born at Versailles in 1778. When only 14 years of age, the occurrences of August 10, 1792, upset the throne of France, and sent its occupant and his family to the prison of the Temple, which he and the queen only left for the scaffold. The prin- cess, who from her cradle bore the title of Ma- dame Koyale, was the only child of her parents who survived those terrible times; and in 1799 was married to her cousin, the due d'Angouleme. The duchess shared her husband's exile till 1814, and aided him with much firmness and energy in resisting Bonaparte after his return from Elba; in reference to which exertions, and her vigour of character generally, Napoleon re- marked of her that " she was the only man of her family." i>. at Goritz, in Hungary, where she had retired with her family after the revolution ol 1830, in 1851. Anguisciola, Sofonisba,an-^e'-ge-o'-?rt, a cele- brated female painter of Cremona. She was patronized by Philip II. of Spain, and Vandyck said that he was tausrht more by her conversation than he had learned from the study of the works of the great masters. She was twice married, and became blind in her old days. A portrait of her is said to be at Althorp, Northamp- tonshire, in which she is represented as playing on the harpsichord, b. 1533 ; d. at Genoa, about 1620. Anichixi, Lewis, an'-e-lce'-ne, a native of Ferrara, in Italy, who made for Pope Paul III. a medal, on which was represented the inter- view between Alexander the Great and the high-priest at Jerusalem, so exquisitely engraved, that Michael Angelo, on examining it, exclaimed that the art had arrived at the height of per fection. Lived in the middle of the 16th century. Anieilo. (See Masaniello.) Anjou, counts and dukes of, ari-joo, one of the earliest noble families of France, some of whose members have greatly distinguished themselves. In the 13th century, Charles of Anjou, fourth son of Louis VIII., was selected by the popo for the crown of Naples, and took possession of the country in 1265. He endeavoured, by crushing the Ghibclins, to found an empire in Italy, but was unsuccessful. Whilst engaged in this work, the celebrated massacre historically known as the " Sicilian Vespers " took place, in which 4000 of his French soldiers were butchered by the Sicilians in Palermo, on the Easter Monday of 12a2. He had laid siege to Messina, where his fleet was captured by the admiral of Peter of Aragon, who had assumed the title of liipg of Sicily. Tliis even; ^llcd hi;ja with fury, OF BIOGRAPHY. Anjou and he sent a challenge to Peter to meet him in single combat. In order to gain time, the challenge was accepted, though subsequently declined; shortly after which Charles died, in his 75th year, 1285. — He was by far the most distinguished of his house. Anjou, Francois de France, due d', youngest son of Henry II. and Catherine de Medici. He was first called duke of Alencon, and was of a treacherous, unstable disposition, although it is said that he was a friend of Admiral Coligny, and expressed his abhorrence of the massacre of St. Bartholomew. In 1575 he was at the head of the Huguenot army, and. peace being soon concluded, the duchies of Aruoc, Touraine, and Berri were transferred to him. In 1581, such of the Netherland states as were under the con- trol of William of Orange, elected him sovereign, in the hope of obtaining the assistance of the French against the Spaniards, and he was one of the numerous suitors of Queen Elizabeth. The virgin queen, however, dismissed him, and, becoming an object of suspicion in the Low Countries, he was finally expelled from the country, b. 1551; d. 1584. Ankarstbom, John Jacob, an-kar'-strom, a Swedish regicide, who conspired against Gus- tavus III., king of Sweden, whom he shot with a pistol at a masked ball. He confessed the crime, for which he stood in the pillory three times, was publicly scourged, had his right hand, cut off, and lastly, was beheaded, in 1792. Anxa, (T«'-ntf,the wife of Tobit, and his sup- port in his poverty. — The daughter of Phanuel, and a prophetess. — The mother of the Blessed Virgin, and wife of Joachim. AnnaComnena, an'-tt-fcom-«e'-na,daughterof the emperor Alexis Comnenus I., a princess of extraordinary talents, who, for conspiring against her brother the emperor, was forced from court into retirement, where she employed herself in writing the history of her father's reign. This work has great merit, and is still extant. B. 1083 ; d. 1148. (See Alexis I.) Anna Ivanovna, e' -van-on' -na, empress of Russia, was the daughter of the czar Ivan Alexiovitch, who, on the death of her husband, Frederick William, duke of Courland, took into favour Ernest John liiren, a man of low origin, by whom she was ruled in an arbitrary manner during the remainder of her life. In 1730 she ascended the throne of Russia, but Biren managed all the affairs of government, and is said to have banished upwards of 20,000 persons to Siberia, b. 1693; d. 1740.— A una left the crown to her grand-nephew Ivan. Anne of Cleves, an, wife of Henry VIII., kingof England, was the daughter of John III., duke of Cleves. She was designated the " Flanders marc" by Henry VIII., and divorced by him. She had philosophy sufficient, how- ever, not to take these circumstances much to heart, but quietly returned to her native country, d. 1557. Anne, queen of Great Britain, was the second daughter of James II., by Lady Anne Hyde, daughter of the great earl of Clarendon. In 1683 she married Prince George of Denmark, by whom she had several children, all of whom died young. In 1702, on the death of William III., she succeeded to the crown. Her reign was a continual scene of public glory; and the domineering power of the French nation was completely subdued by the vigour of tiie British troops under the coiMmand of the 71 Ansaldo duke of Marlborough, b. 1664 ; d. 1714.— One of the greatest events of this important reign was the union of Scotland with England. On account of the number of eminent literary characters who flourished in her reign, it has been called the Augustan age of Britain. Queeu Anne, though too much the dupe of her minis- ters and favourites, will ever stand distin- guished for the general excellence of her private character. Anquetil, Louis Pierre, dn-ke'-til, an eminent French historian, was born in 1723, at Paris. He was the elder brother of the distinguished orien- tialist of the same name. He was an ecclesiastic, and in 1759 was appointed prior of the Abbayo de la Roe, in Anjou, and director of the College of Senlis. At the beginning of the revolution he held the cure of La Villette, near Paris, waa imprisoned in the Lazare during the Reign of Terror, where he occupied himself with the com- position of his Universal History. He became a member of the Institute on its formation, and was afterwards attached to the ministry of foreign affairs. His writings are numerous, extend over awide range of historical subjects, and all exhibit marks of research and erudition, d. 1808. Anquetil du Pebron, Abraham Hyacinthe, doo-pe'-rontj, brother of the above-named, anemi- nent French Oriental scholar, was born at Paris in 1731, where he acquired an intimate knowledge of Hebrew. He was strongly urged to. enter the church, but could not be induced to abandoe the study of the Eastern tongues. In pur- suit of his favourite study he travelled in the East, in the hope of discovering the works of Zoroaster, and of learning the Zend language, in which they were supposed to be written. His enthusiasm was so great, that he even entered himself as a private soldier in an expe- dition fitting out for Judca. He was, however, furnished with a free passage, and other facili- ties. The wars between England and France prevented him carrying out all his plans of in- vestigating the languages of the East ; he yet made himself master of several of them, and on his return to France, in 1762, was pen- sioned, with the title of oriental interpreter in the royal library. He published, in 1771, the " Zendavcsta, or Sacred Books of the Parsees ; " and between that time and his death, which happened in 1805, he gave to the world the results of his studies in the shape of treatises on language, commerce, &c. Aneaat, Peter Van, an'-rat, au artist of whom little is known, save that ho executed some very good pictures of religious scenes. ANSALDi,CastoInnoeente,«H-sa£'-rff,an Italian divine and professor of theology at Brescia and Ferrara, and of philosophy at -arm and Milan. He was a Dominican, but a san of independence of character. H is writing are very voluminous, and were published at each of the cities where Ansaldi was located. Some have boen reprinted at Oxford and elsewhere, b. at Plaisance, 1710; d. 1779. Ansaldi, Innocenzio Andrea, an Italian artist and author, was born in Tuscany in 1734. He occupied himself in decorating the churches of Pescia, his native town, and wrote a descrip- tion of the works of art in them, together with some poetical pieces, translations, &e. d. 1810'. Ansaldo, Giovanni Andrea, an-sal'-do, a native of Voltri, near Genoa, who imitated the style of Paul Veronese. The churches of Genoa possess his principal pieces, u. 1551; v. 1633. THE DICTIONARY Ansaloni Ansaloni, Giordano, dn-sai-lo'-ne, a Domini- can missionary, who was put to death in Japan in 1634. He was a native of Sicily, and had only been two years in Japan when he suffered martyrdom, for which he was, with others, canonized by Pope Pius IX. in 1862. Ansaloni, Vincenzio, a native of Bologna, and pupil of Ludovico Carracci, devoted himself especially to figure-painting, in which line he was very successful, and is spoken of in high praise for some pieces on religious subjects which he executed, especially one representing the mar- tyrdom of St. Sebastian. The dates of his birth and death are uncertain. Ansdell, Richard, ans'-dell, a painter of animals, elected an associate of the Royal Aca- demy in 18G1. His productions are inferior only to those of Sir Edwin Landseer : among the best may be named " The Hunted Hare," exhibited in 1863. b. at Liverpool. 1815. Anscarius, ana'ka'-re-us, called the apostle of the north, was a native of Picardy, where he was born in 801. He was educated by the Benedictines, and accompanied Harold of Den- mark to the North, with the view of introducing Christianity into the Danish dominions. Internal troubles preventing the immediate realization of this intention, Anscarius applied himself to teaching the Gospel in Friesland. He after- wards went on a mission into Sweden, where he preached for six months. He was now ap- pointed archbishop of Hamburg and bishop of Bremen ; but his early love for missionary labour was still active within him, and he again visited Denmark and Sweden, in both of which he succeeded in establishing Christianity. He died at Bremen in 861, and was afterwards cano- nized. AxsELir,an'-se/jn, a distinguished archbishop of Canterbury, who took an active part in all that related to the church, b. at Aosta, in Piedmont, 1033.; d. at Canterbury, 1109.— He was the first archbishop who restrained the English clergy from marrying, in a synod held at Westminster in 1102. Anselm, St., was appointed bishop of Lucca in 1061, where he succeeded his uncle, and acted as legate of Leo X. in Lombardy. He was the author of an apology for Pope Gregory VII., and a Refutation of the Pretensions of the anti- Pope Guibert, both of which are contained in Caniuiss's "Lection Antiquse," and in the Bibliothcquc do Paris." d. at Milan 1086. He was canonized some time after his death. Anselm of Laon.calledthe scholastic, wasborn at I.aon, about the middle of theeleventh century, of poor parents. He is supposed to have been a disciple of St. Anselm at Bee. He began to teach at Paris about 1076, and was one of the founders of the university of that city. He afterwards returned to Laon, where he and his brother Ralph lectured on theology and belles lettres, and soon these schools were famous all over Europe. He wrote several works, but his commentaries on the Scriptures arc best known. d. 1117. Anselme, Antoine, a famous French preacher, was born in 1652. He had a wonderful memory, and at twelve years of age could repeat any sermon that he happened to hear. His (irst appearance in the pulpit was at Cimont, when very young, on which occasion he received the soubriquet of the " Little Prophet," which ever alter adhered to him. By the time he was thirty years of age, he had attained such popu- Artspach larity, that his engagements to preach extended to four and five years in prospective. He finally retired to the abbey of St. Sever, in Gascony, where he busied himself with literature at home and benevolence abroad. Four volumes of sermons by him were published in 1731. ». 1737. — There are several other divines, lawyers, and litterateurs who bore this name, but none of prominent importance. Anselme, Jaques Bernard Modeste d', a general of division in the French Revolutionary army, who, after taking Nice, Villa Franca, and Montalban, was appointed to the command of the army in Italy ; but having failed to maintain discipline, he was superseded by the Convention and imprisoned. The revolution of 9th Ther- midor, 1794, gave him his liberty; but he did not again take a prominent part in the mili- tary events of his time. b. 1740: d. about 1812. Anselme, de Sainte-Marie, a French writer on genealogy, chronology, and heraldry, who flourished in the seventeenth century. Anselmi, Michael Angelo, un-sel'-me, a native of Siena, and pupil of Vercelli, but best known for his close imitation of Correggio. ». 1491 ; d. 1554. Anson, George, General, an'-son, commander- in-chief of the British forces in India during the earlier period of the Sepoy mutiny of 1857. He was advancing with his troops from Umballa to Delhi, when he was seized with cholera at Kur- naul, where he died, 27th May. It has been said that he was interred without even an ordi- nary salute. Anson, George, Lord, an eminent naval com- mander, who went to sea at a very early age, and in 1724 was made post-captain. In 1739 he was chosen commander of an expedition against the Spanish settlements in South America, and sailed from Portsmouth with five men-of-war, a sloop, and two victualling vessels. In 1741 he doubled Cape Horn, after losing two of his ships. In Junefollowing he arrived off Juan Fernandez, with only two ships and two tenders ; and having been successful in taking several rich prizes, and in causing much damage to the enemy, he returned to England in 1744, when for his dis- tinguished services against the Spanish, he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and one of the lords of the Admiralty. He was also chosen member of parliament for the borough of Hey- don. In 1747 he commanded the Channel fleet, and captured six French men-of-war and four East-Indiamen. For these services he was created Lord Anson, and on the death of Sir John Norris, was made vice-admiral of England. In 1751 he was appointed first lord of the Admi- ralty, which post he held, with a short interval, till his death. In 1753 he again commanded the Channel fleet, having under him the gallant Sir Edward Hawke. After this he was appointed admiral and commander-in-chief of the British fleet, b. in the parish of C'olwich, Staffordshire, 1697; n. at Moor Park, Hertfordshire, 1762 — He is the hero of the well-known book called " Anson's Voyage round the World," which was written by a Mr. Benjamin Iiobins, from infor- mation furnished by Lord Anson. Anspacii, Elizabeth, Margravine of, ans'-pak, who is known as an authoress, was the daughter of the fourth earl of Berkeley, and was married, first to Mr. William Craven, afterwards earl of Craven, from whom she was separated altera union of several years, t? he travelled much on OF BIOGRAPHY. Anster the continent for some years, and lived for a considerable time at Anspach, where she occu- pied a prominent place at Court, wrote plays, and established a theatre. On the death of the earl of Craven and of the margravine, she was mar- ried to his serene liighness the margrave of Anspach and Baireuth, whom she accompanied to England when he sold his territorial rights to the king of Prussia. On the death of the margrave, she again went abroad, and died at Naples in 1828, leaving a certain reputation for literary talent, and a name in social aspects noways enviable. Assies, John, LL.D., in'-tter, an eminent German scholar, and regius professor of civil law in the university of Dublin. His translation from German literature, especially that of Goethe's " Faust," have been received with great favour. Mr. Anster has also been a large contributor to periodical literature in the leading magazines, b. at Charlcville, Cork, 1798. d. 1867. AysTET, Christopher, dn'-»te, a fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and the author of the " New Bath Guide," which, according to the statement of Dodsley, its publisher, was the most profitable book he ever sold within a certain period of time, and on this account he afterwards restored the copyright to the author, although he had purchased it — an instance of generosity not very common among publishers, b. 1724; d. at Chippenham, 1805. Anstis, John, dn'-stis, an English antiquary, who obtained the appointment of Garter king- at-arms, and the post of genealogist and registrar of the Bath. n. at St. Neots, Cornwall, 1069 ; d. 1754. — He wrote several works illustrative of the orders of knighthood. Anstrutheb, Sir John, ari-ttru-ther, an emi- nent member of parliament, and chief justice of Bengal in 1798. b. 1753 ; d. 1811. Antagobas, dn-tag'-ur-as, of Khodes, a Greek writer of epigrams and a great gourmand, so much so, that he never allowed any one but him- self to prepare his favourite dish — conger eels. He was generally violent and intemperate in his conduct and language. Antalcidas, dn-tal' -si-das, a Spartan, who is famous in history as the negotiator of the dis- advantageous peace wliich the Lacedaemonians concluded with Persia, and by which the Greeks gave up their footing in Asia. He was after- wards employed on another mission to Arta- xcrxes, in which he failed, and became exposed to the contempt and derision of his countrymen. He is said to have starved himself to death. Lived about 337 B.C. Astab, or Antabah, an'-tar, a famous poet and warrior of Arabia, who nourished about the end of the Gth century. His mother was a slave, and his father Seheddad long refused to allow him the name and rank of a free-born Arab ; but Antar's heroism finally overcame all opposition. He is the hero of romances com- posed by others, and was thus not only a poet himself, but a source of inspiration to the muse of his brethren. His whole career, indeed, is represented as one continuous scries of martial achievements, accomplished against various races and in very diverse circumstances, his sword and his steed participating in the fame of their owner. Sir William Jones translated one of his poems, and thus introduced the name of Antar to Europe, which has since been made familiar by the version of Mr. Terrick Hamilton. 73 Antiochus published in 1820. He was killed in battle by an enemy whose life he had spared, shortly sub- sequent to the birth of the prophet Mohammed. Antelmi, Joseph, an'-tail-me, a French anti- quary, and writer on church history, was born in 1648 at Frejus, of which place he was a canon, d. 1697. Awtenor, an-^e'-nor, a Trojan prince, who is said to have maintained a correspondence with the Greeks during the Trojan war, and tc have betrayed Troy to the enemy. Anthemius, dn-thai-me-oos, the name of seve- ral persons of antiquity : 1. A consul under the emperor Arcadius, and who managed the affairs of the empire during the minority of Theodosius II. 2. An emperor of the West, who was killed by his son-in-law, Ricimer, on the sack of Kome in 472. 3. A mathematician and architect of Tralles, in Lydia, who nourished about 532 a.c. AifTiioif, Charles, LL.D., an -thon, a well- known American classic scholar, rector of the College Grammar-school, New York. b. at New York 1797. n. 1867. Ajtthoine, Antoinelgnace, an'-twoin, an emi- nent merchant of Marseilles, who contributed largely to the establishment of the French trade in the Levant and Black Sea, for which he pro- cured great facilities from tho Russian and Turkish governments. In 1781, he was re- warded with letters of nobility by Lotiis XVI. b. at Embrun, 1749; d. at Marseilles, 1826. Antigoncs I., tin-tig' -o-nus, a Macedonian captain, who, on the death of Alexander the Great, obtained the provinces of Pamphylia, Lydia, and Phrygia Major, after which his ambi- tion led him to enlarge his territories. He finally conquered Asia. He was slain in a battle which he fought with Seleucus and Lysimachus at Ipsus, in the 84th year of his age, 301 b.c. Antigon'us Gojtatas, son of Demetrius Poliorr etcs, and grandson of the above, was a prince distinguished by his filial piety, and his extraordinary humanity, r>. 2-43 or 239, b.c. Antigoxus Doson, king of Macedon, Hic- eceded his brother Demetrius II., defeated Cleo- menes, and took the city of Sparta. He also repelled the Illyrians, who had invaded his terri- tories. D. 221 B.C. Antigonus Soch.kus, the founder of the Jewish sect of the Sadducees, lived about 300 years b.c. Antinocs, dn-iin'-o-us, a Bithynian youth, tho favourite of tho emperor Adrian, who erected a city to his memory, and named it Antinopolis. Antiochus III., un-U'-o-kus, called the Great, king of Antioeh, was the son of Seleucus Callinicus; and on the death of his brother Seleucus Ceraunus, 223 b.c, soecceaed to the crown. He was defeated by Ptolemy l'hilopater at Eaphia, b.c. 217, when trying to regain Palestine and Ccelesyria. He afterwards marched to India, where his success was such as to procure him the title of "great." On the death of Ptolemy Philopater, Antiochus re- covered Palestine and Coelesyria, and reduced a great part of upper Asia. At this the free cities of Greece became alarmed, and applied to the Romans for aid, while Hannibal sought the pro- tection of Antiochus. After several embassies between the king and the republic, hostilities commenced ,in which the armies of Kome, under the two Scipios, were victorious, and Antiochus was forced to make an ignoble peace. d. 187 b.c. — There were several other sovereigns THE DICTIONARY Antipater of Antioch of this name, who lived both before and after the above. ANTiPATEB,aH-?/p'-a-fer, anative of Maeedon, pupil of Aristotle, and the faithful minister of Philip and Alexander. While Alexander was : broad, he left Antipater in the government of Maeedon; and by his prudent management he '.•reserved Greece tranquil. On the death of his master, Antipater obtained the European pro- vinces. Not long after, the confederate states of Greece attacked him; but he subdued them, and subverted their democratic forms of go- vernment; on which he was called the father of Greece. His last advice to his successor was " never to allow a woman to meddle in state afairs." d. 319 B.C. — There were two other kings of this name. Antiphilus, un-ti'-jV-lus, a distinguished Greek painter, who flourished in the third cen- tury b.c. He lived in Egypt, and his works are mentioned with high praise by Quintilian and Pliny, the latter of whom enumerates many works by him which were in Eome at the time he wrote. Antiphilus was the inventor of a kind of caricatures called Grylli — grotesque monsters, part man and part animal or bird — which were in great request among the Greeks and Romans of the time. Antiphon, un'-ti-fon, the Ehamnusian, an Athenian orator, and the first to lay down rules of oratory. He is said to have assisted in esta- blishing the tyranny of the four hundred, for which he was put to death, 411 b.c. — There are sixteen orations under his name, in the collec- tion of ancient orators, b. about b.c. 480. Antiques, John, an-te-hu'-its, an historical paL'ter of distinguished merit, who travelled over nearly all Europe, was everywhere received with rtspect, and never failed to leave monu- ments of his genius wherever he went. He Eainted with great facility in the historical ranch of art, was excellent in design, and a good colourist. His principal patron was the grand duke of Tuscany, for whom he executed a fine picture of the 1 all of the Giants, b. at Groningen, 1702; d. at Breda, 1750. — His bro- ther Lambert, who generally travelled with him, was also a good painter of landscapes. Antistiienes, an-tis'-the-iiees, an Athenian philosopher, and founder of the sect of the Cynics. He procured Melitus to be put to death, and Anytus banished, for their persecution of Socrates. Lived 400 b.c. Of his works only a few apophthegms remain. Antoinette, Marie, viar'-e iiri-ticoi-net, archduchess of Austria, and Queen of France, was one of the most beautiful persons of her time, as she was also one of the most unfor- tunate. She had a highly-cultivated mind, and in her fifteenth year was married to the son of Louis XV., afterwards Louis XVI. In 1793 she fell a victim to the fury of the French revo- lutionary mob. b. at Vienna, 1755 ; beheaded at Paris, 1793. Antomjiarciii, Francesco, an-tom-ar'-ke, a distinguished French anatomist, and physician to Napoleon I. at St. Helena, b. at Corsica, 17s0; D. at San Antonio, Cuba, 1S38. Antonei.li, Cardinal Giacomo, an.to-nel'-e, prime minister of Pope Pius IX., in whose councils he exercised great influence. He was raised to the dignity of cardinal by Pius IX. in 1817. B. at Sonnino, April _>, 1S0G ; d. 1S"G. Antonia, Ctn-to'-nc-a, the name of some emi- nent Roman ladies, the most remarkable of 74 Antonius whom was the wife of Drusus, the son of Livia, and brother of Tiberius. She became mother of three children — Germanicus, Caligula's father; Claudius the emperor; and the disreputable Livia. d. about a.d. 38. Antoninus, an-to-wi'-»w», surnamed Pius, on account of his great and erood qualities, was adopted by the emperor Adrian, whom he suc- ceeded. When told of conquering heroes, he said, with Seipio, " I prefer the life and preserva- tion of one citizen to the death of a hundred enemies." H is life was a scene of universal benevo- lence, and his last moments were easy, though preceded by a lingering illness, d. 161 a.d. — He extended the boundaries of the Roman province in Britaii:, and built a rampart between the friths of Clyde and Forth; but he waged no aggressive wars, and only repulsed the enemies of the empire who appeared in the field. He was succeeded by his adopted son M, Aurelius Antoninus, surnamed the Pliilosopher, a prince as virtuous as his predecessor. B.at Lanuvium,86. .Antonio, or Anton ello, da Messina, an-to'- ne-o, the first Italian who painted in oil, which art he learned of John Van Eyck, in Flanders. After the death of Van Eyck he returned to Italy, and passed the remainder of his life in Venice, with the exception of eight years, from 1465 to 1473, spent in his native town. After his return to Venice he executed many paintings for the state and private persons, but his works are now very rare. B. at Messina, 1414; ». 1493. Antonioze, Cornelius, an-ton'-e-ose, a Dutch artist, who painted a large picture of his native city, Amsterdam, He also engraved on wood. B. 1500 ; D. 1536. Antonius, Marcus, an-to'-ne-vs, a celebrated Roman orator, who was made consul, and was afterwards governor of Cilicia, where he distin- guished himself by his military achievements, and obtained the honour of a triumph. After his return, he discharged the office of censor with great credit. Cicero says, that in him Rome might boast of a rival in eloquence to Greece itself. He fell in the commotions raised by Marius and Cinna, 87 b.c. b. 142. Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony), the tri- umvir, was the son of M. Antonius Crcticus, by Julia, a noble lady of great merit. On the death of his father, he led a very dissipated life. Af- terwards he applied himself to the study of the art of war, and evinced great courage and ad- dress in restoring Ptolemy to the throne of Egypt. He next served in Gaul, under Ca?sar, who enabled him to go to Rome, where he ob- tained the qmestorship, in which office he became very active in behalf of his patron. He assisted Ciesar in gaining the empire, for which service he was made governor of Italy, and commander of the legions, by whom he was greatly beloved on account of his liberality. Cicsar afterwards appointed him master of the horse, for his eon- duct at the battle of Pharsalia, and chose him aj his colleague in the consulship, 44 b.c. After the death of Caesar and the flight of his assassins, Antony began to exercise his authority in such a manner as to convince all parties that he aimed at assuming the sovereignty. To check his career, the patriots espoused the cause of Octavianus, the heir of Cesar, when Antony re- tired to his government of Cisalpine Gaul, and began a civil war by laying siege to Mutina, now Modena. The consuls Hirtius and Pansa, with Octavianus, were sent against him, and though he was defeated, both consuls were slain, OF BIOGRAPHY. Antony and Octavianus alone left at the head of a victo- rious army. Antony now crossed the Alps, and joined Lepidus, with whom and Octavianus he contrived to form a second triumvirate, to which Cicero fell a victim, through the personal re- venge of Antony. After the defeat of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, he went into Asia, and distinguished himself, above all other princes, by the splendour of his court. Here Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, captivated him, and he accom- panied her to Alexandria, where he gave himself up to pleasure. In the mean time Octavianus, at the instigation of Fulvia, the wife of Antony, commenced hostilities in Italy ; but a reconcilia- tion being etl'ected between them, Antony married Octavia, the sister of his colleague. A new division of the empire was the conse- quence of this alliance; the West being allotted to Octavianus, and the East to Antony, and Africa to Lepidus ; bat Antony, infatuated with the charms of Cleopatra, renewed his inter- course with her in a manner so shameless and undisguised, that he was deprived of his consular dignity, and war was declared against the Egyp- tian queen by the senate. Immense preparations were making on both sides, whilst Antony was immersed in dissipation, which destroyed his military spirit. Defeated in the battle of Actium, 31 B.C., he escaped to Alexandria, hut whon Octavianus appeared before that town the year following, he stabbed himself, b. about 86 b.c. Antony, St., (in'-to-ne, the founder of mon- aehism, who, though born to a large estate, re- nounced the world, and assumed the habit of a recluse. He resided in a cell in the desert nearly twenty years, and the fame of his sanctity drew to him many followers, for whom he erected nu- merous monasteries, b. at Coma, Upper Egypt, 251 ; d. 356. — Roman Catholio writers relate many whimsical stories of the assaults which the saint encountered from evil spirits. Antony of Iiourbon, king of Navarre, which title he obtained by his marriage with Jeanne d'Albret, in 1543. He was the sou of Charles of Eourbon, duke ofVendome, and, renouncing the Protestant religion, in which he had been edu- cated, united with the dukes of Guise and Mont- morenci in forming the famous Catholic league. On the breaking out of the civil war, he raised an army, and took Ulois, Tours, and Rouen. At the siege of the last-mentioned place he received a wound in the shoulder, of which he died, in 1 562. lie left a son, who was afterwards Henry IV. (See Albeet, Jeanne d'.) Anytus, dit'-i-tus, a rhetorician of Athens, the enemy of Socrates. He prevailed on Aristophanes to ridicule the philosopher in a comedy, and, in conjunction with Melitus, procured his con- demnation. After the death of the philosopher, the people discovered their error, when Anytus was banished, and stoned to death at Heraclea, Lived in the 5th century B.C. Appel, Jacob, ap'-el, a Dutch artist of the 13th century. He was eminent alike in land- scape, historical, and portrait painting, b. at Amsterdam 1680 ; d. 1751. Appf.lman, Parent, up 1 -el-man, also a Dutch painter, was born at the Hague in 1610. He excelled in landscapes, his favourite subjects being scenes in Italy, r>. 1686. Apeli.es, ii-pel'-es, a native of the isle of Cos, called the " Prince of Painters," much admired by Alexander the Great, who would permit no other person to paint his portrait. 11 is most famous work was a painting of Venus rising Apollodoru3 from the sea, which Augustus purchased of the people of Cos, and placed in the temple of Ca;sar. He was a man of wit, and much addicted to pleasure. Flourished hi the beginning of the 4th century b.c. Apellbs, the founder of a sect of heretics called by his name, who lived in the 2nd cen- tury a.d. He adopted the Manichaian dogma of the good and evil principles, and taught that the body of Christ was not composed of flesh and blood, but of air ; and that as he had obtained it from the atmosphere in his descent to earth, so in his ascension it again melted into its original ele- ments, and that consequently there was no resur- rection of the body typified by our Saviour rising from the dead. His followers are also accused of denying the authority of the Old Testament. Apellicon, ii-pel'-i-kon, a peripatetic philoso- pher, to whom the world is indebted for the works of Aristotle, which he bought at a vast price about ninety years b.c. They were after- wards seized by Sylla, and carried to Home. Apicius, ii-pisk'-e-iis, the name of three cele- brated Roman gluttons. The first lived under Sylla, the second under Augustus and Tiberius, and the third under Trajan. The second ex- pended immense sums in glutton)', and was the inventor of several sorts of cakes. Finding his wealth reduced to a sum of £12,000, he, thinking he must starve, poisoned himself. Appendini, Francesco Maria, up-en-de'-ne, a native of Italy, who, after studying at Rome, was appointed to the chair of rhetoric at Hagusa, where he became a great proficient in the Sla- vonian language, and published a history of Hagusa, which gives an interesting account of that small republic, which existed for centuries till subverted by Napoleon I. b. 1763; d. 1837. AppiAist, Andrea, ap-e-d-ne, by some con- sidered the best fresco painter of the 18th century, was Napoleon's principal painter in Italy; executed frescoes in the royal palace at Milan, and in the church of Santa Maria Vergine in the same city, where they still are. He was a knight of the Iron Crown, and a member of the Legion of Honour, b. 1751 ; d. 1818. — There was another fresco painter of the same name, Francisco Appiani,who likewise flourished in the 18th century, whose works exhibit a vigour surpassed by few rivals. He also painted well in oils, and is said to have executed many pictures for England, b. 1702 ; u. 1792. Appiano, d', dap-e-d-no, an Italian family which in the middle ages rose to sovereign rank, as princes of Pisa, and afterwards of Piombino and Elba. In the latter part oi the 11th century, Jacopo d'Appiano, after killing the chief magistrate of Pisa, assumed the title of lord of that city, and was supported in his usurpation by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, duke of Milan. Jacopo died in 1393, when his son Gherardo sold Pisa to the duke of Milan, and reserved for himself the sovereignty of Piombino and Elba. The family retained possession of these states for some generations, till they were dispossessed of them by the Spaniards in 1539. The fiefs ultimately passed to the family of Cuoncompagni of Rome, which held them till the French revolutionary invasion. Napoleon, on making himself emperor, bestowed the prin- cipality cw Piombino on his brother-in-law, Felix liaciocchi. Apollodorvs, a-pol'-o-dor'-ut>, an eminent architect, who was employed by the emperor Trajan to build the great bridge over the THE DICTIONARY Apollodorus Danube, and other structures, b. at Damascus. Lived in the second century. Apoliodobus, a famous painter at Athens, who flourished B.C. 408. He was outshone by Zeuxis, which he greatly lamented in a poem. Appollonio, Jacopo, u.p'-ol-on-e'-o, an Italian, who painted some fine pictures for the churches of Bassano, his native city, where he was born in 1584; D. 1654. Aquila, Pompei del, S-que'-Ia, so named from 'he place of his birth, who painted sacred pieces M a very grand manner. His principal work, a descent from the cross, has been engraved. Flourished about 1580. Aquinas, St. Thomas, a-qui-niis, called the " Angelic Doctor," was born of a noble Italian family, and entered into the society of Preaching Friars at Naples, against the inclination of his parents. After teaching divinity in various uni- versities, he settled at Naples, and obtained a pension from the king. He refused the arch- bishopric of Naples, which was ottered him by Pope Clement IV. b. in the castle of Aquino, Italy, 1227; d. at the monastery of Fossanova, near Terracina, 1274. — The authority of Aquinas has always been very high in the Roman church, and he was canonized in 1323. His works made 1 7 vols, folio.and have been printed several times at different places. Arago, Francois Jean Dominique, a-ra'-go, a distinguished French mathematician, astrono- mer, and man of science, who, in the " History of his Youth," has given a detailed narrative of his adventures up to his 22nd year. From 1812 to 1845 he lectured in Paris, on astronomy and kindred subjects, and was pronounced by the French emperor, Louis Napoleon, to be not only "the grand high-priest of science, but able to initiate the vulgar into its mysteries." In conjunction with Gay-Lussac, he established the " Annales de Chimie et de Physique," a valuable serial still continued ; and throughout his life prosecuted scientific discovery with unwearied effort. Amongst his other discoveries may be here recorded that of a neutral point in the polarization of the atmosphere, and the suggestion of a positive proof of the theory of undulations, which has since been established by Foucault. b. near Perpignan, 1786; d. at Paris, 1853. — Arago was a determined repub- lican, played a prominent part in the revolution of 1848, and refused to take the oath of allegiance after the coup-d'etat of 1852, and gave his reasons in a spirited letter to the government. Louis Na- poleon was then the prince-president, and he, to his honour, caused his minister to write, that " a special exception would be made in favour of a philosopher whose labours had rendered France illustrious, and whose existence the government would be loath to sadden." Abaldi, Alexander, ur-al'-de, an artist of Italy, was born at Parma, and was a pupil of (J. Bellini. There is at Parma a picture of the Annunciation by him, which has been greatly admired. He died in 1528. Akam, Eugene, air-am, a self-educated York- shireman, who, by persevering industry, obtained a knowledge of the mathematics, and an exten- sive acauaintance with the Latin and Greek languages, together with the Hebrew and Chaldec. In 1744 he taught Latin and writing at a school in London ; and after passing many years in apparent innocence, in 1758 he was i,pprehcndc-l at Lynn, for the murder of Daniel Clarke, a shoemaker of luiaresborough, porpe- 76 Arbogast trated thirteen years before. He was brought to trial in 1759, and made an admirable defence, but was found guilty; and the next morning confessed his crime, alleging that he was prompted to it through a suspicion of Clarke's having a criminal intercourse with his wife. Executed at York, 1759.— The history of this person has suggested one of the most interesting of Sir Bulwer Lytton's novels, b. 1704. Arajtda, Don Pedro Pablo Abarea de Bolea, count of, a-ran'-da, a distinguished Spanish statesman of the 18th century. He abolished the order of the Jesuits, and greatly diminished the power of the Inquisition. In 1773, to avoid ruin, he got himself appointed ambassador to Paris, where he remained till 1784. In 1792 he became the prime minister of Charles IV., but through the intrigues of a rival, the infamous Godoy, was soon afterwards dismissed, b. in Aragon about 1718; d. 1791 or 1799. Akaujo d'Azevkdo, Antonio, a-rau'-yo, a Portuguese statesman, who devoted more time to literature and science than to politics, and thereby incapacitated himself for conducting with success the affairs of his country. In 1806, when Napoleon I. declared that the house of Braganza had ceased to reign, he made his escape to Brazil, whither he took his mineralogical collection and a printing apparatus which he had imported from London. This was the first printing-press that had been seen in Bio Janeiro, where he began to busy himself with scientific pursuits. Whilst thus engaged, however, he felt severely the dis- grace under which he lay on account of his political errors. Accordingly, he wrote to the prince regent, defending his conduct against some assertions of his calumniators. He re- ceived a gracious reply, and in 1815 was created Count da Barca. He finally became sole minister in Brazil, b. at Ponte de Lima, 1752; d. at Bio Janeiro, 1817. Abantius, Julius Ca?sar, a-ran-'she-us, a dis- tinguished anatomist, was professor at Bologna for 32 years, and published several works, em- bodying the results of his investigations in phy- siology and kindred themes, b. 1530; d. 1589. Aratus, a-rai-tus, a Greek poet, whose poem entitled "Phenomena," still extant, shows him to have been also an astronomer, b. in Cilicia, about 300 B.C. A r atcs of Sicyon, son of Cleinias, who by hi* activity, established the Acfuean league, and recovered Corinth from Antigonus of Maeedon, but afterwards became the friend and counsellor of Antigonus and his successor, Philip, at whose instigation Aratus was ultimately poisoned, b. 271 ; d. 213 b.c. He wrote commentaries on his own transactions. Arbaces, ar'-ba-fees, the Mede, who revolted against Sardanapalus, and afterwards headed the confederation of kingdoms formed on the destruction of the Assyrian empire. His revolt occurred about 820 b.c. Arbasia, Cesare, ar-bai'-se-a, an Italian, who visited Spain, and painted the ceiling of the cathedral at Cordova. He worked chiefly in fresco, and copied the style of Leonardo da Vinci. D. about 1620. Arblat, Madame d'. (See Burnet.) Arbogast, Louis Francois Anto'mc,ar -lo-ffnrt, a French mathematician, who in 1800 published his great work called the " Calcul des Deriva- tions," a production which has been the means of throwing much light on the connexion of various parts of analysis, n. 1759; », 1803. OF BIOGRAPHF. Arborio Areorio, Mercurino, ar-bor'-e-o, a faithful ad- viser and chancellor of Charles V. of Spain. Although a Catholic in his sentiments, he was the advocate of mild measures, and never lost the confidence of his great master. He became a cardinal, and throughout his career exercised considerable influence upon the affairs of Ger- many, b. at Vercelli, Piedmont, 1465 ; d. at Inn- spruck, 1530. Arborius, JEmilius Magnus, ar-lo'-re-iu, a scholar who lived in the time of the emperor Constantino, who entrusted him with the task of educating one of his sons. He had the reputa- tion of being one of the most eloquent men of his time ; but of this we cannot judge, as his works have perished, r>. at Constantinople 335 a.d. Arbrissel, Robert d", dar-bres -sel, a famous French ecclesiastic who flourished in the eleventh century, was the founder of the Abbey of Fonte- vrault, and of the religious order so called, and celebrated asone of the most eloquent preachers the Catholic church has produced. Pope Urban II. gave him permission to preach "per universum mundum," a privilege of which he was not slow to avail himself, as he went about from one place to another preaching, and was everywhere followed by immense crowds. Scandalous imputations have been cast upon him and the community at Fontevrault in consequence of the mixture of the sexes which formed a feature of the order ; but those imputations appear to be unfounded. Robert d' Arbrissel was born at the village of the same name, near Rennes, in 1047 ; founded Fon- tevrault Abbey in 1103; andi>.aboutll04orll05. Arbuthnot, Alexander, ar-buth'-not, a dis- tinguished Scottish divine, who was principal of the University of Aberdeen, and took an active part in the settlement of the church of Scotland after the Reformation. He was twice moderator of the General Assembly, and was prominent in all discussions connected with church matters. He edited Buchanan's History of Scotland in 1582, which gave great offence to James VI., who ordered him not to quit Aber- deen, lest he should too much sway the councils of the General Assembly which met at Edin- burgh in that year. He was well versed in law, which he had studied in France, besides divinity, philosophy, and the mathematics. He was a son of ISaron Arbuthnot. b. 1538 ; d. 1583. Arbuthnot, John, a celebrated writer and physician, educated at Aberdeen, and, coming to London, supported himself by teaching the mathematics. Accidentally administering relief to Prince George of Denmark at Epsom, he became physician to his royal highness, and in 1 709 wasappointed physician in ordinary to Queen Anne. He engaged with Pope and Swift in a scheme to write a satire on the abuse of human learning, under the title of "Memoirs of Mar- tinus Scriblerus," but the death of the queen put an end to the project and deprived the world of some ingenious performances, b. at Arbuthnot, near Montrose, Scotland, 1675 ; d. in London, 1735. — Arbuthnot was the author of several other performances, partly of a satirical and political character, and others in connexion with natural history, the mathematics, &c. ; but his principal work is one entitled "Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, and Measures." It is said he was one of the greatest wits of his time, that his humour was generally without any mix- ture of ill-nature, being a most humane and amiable man. He at one time attempted to settle as a physician at Doncaster. then cele- 77 Arcesilaus brated for its salubrity, but met with small suc- cess ; and on being seen galloping out of the town, replied to an inquiry as to whither bo was going, " To leave this confounded place, where I can neither live nor die." He was intimate with all the prominent men of his time- wits, scholars, and politicians— and was es- teemed by all. Arbuthnot, Mariot, a British admiral, said to be a nephew of Dr. John Arbuthuot mentioned above, was born in 1711, and was principally engaged in connection with the American War of Independence, in which he commanded the British fleet on the station for some time, and in that capacity led the naval forces at the capture of Charleston, South Caro- lina, in 1781. In March of the same year, admiral Arbuthnot fought an action with the French fleet off Cape Virginia, the indecisive result of which has caused his conduct to be much criticised, and his tactics severely con- demned. He shortly afterwards returned to England, struck his flag, and was not again em- ployed during the war. d. in London, 1794, aged 83. Arc. (See Joan op Arc.) Arc, Philip Auguste de ste Foix, Chevalier d', dark, an illegitimate son of the Comte de Thou- louse, author of two works, both of which arc incomplete — namely, " Histoire Generale des Gucrres," and " Histoire du Commerce ct de la Navigation des Anciens et des Modcmcs." d. 1779. Arcadio, Jean Francois, ar-ka'-de-o, a physi- cian of the seventeenth century, who was a native of Piedmont, and wrote some works in which h. 1791. A rchdekin, Richard, arch' -de-kin, a celebrated Irish Jesuit, was born at Kilkenny in 1619. He was the author of various works which were very popular, and some of which reached a 10th and 12th edition, and of which from 15,000 to 20,000 copies were circulated — which, for the time, may well be deemed wonderful. His Essay on Miracles, and a Treatise on Universal Theo- logy, were in especial request. He died at Ant- werp in 1690. Aechexholz, Johann Wilhelm von, ark'- en-holtz, a voluminous German author and journalist, was born near Dantzic in 1745, and after serving some time in the Prussian army, from which he was dismissed for his im- moderate passion for gambling, he travelled over the greater part of Europe, and ulti- mately settled in his native country, residing at Dresden, Leipsic, Berlin, and Hamburg, and devoting himself to literary labour. He was very successful and popular, both in various journals which he conducted and in the numerous books which he wrote. His " England and Italy " has boon translated into almost every language of Europe; this was followed by the "Annals of British History" from 1788 ; by a History of the Seven Years' War ; a History of Queen Elizabeth, the Conspiracy of Fiesco, the Life of Sixtus V., History of the Buccaneers, and a history of Gus- tavus Vasa of Sweden. Archenholz likewise translated Orme's History into German, but in this undertaking he was not very successful; and for twenty years before his death lie was mainly engaged in political writing in his capa- city of editor of the " Minerva," a journal which he'eommenced in 1792 and continued till 1312, and the patrcs of which are a most valuable re- cord of the occurrences of the time. d. near Hamburg, in 1812, in his 67th year. Archer, Sir Simon, arch'-cr, an antiquary of the sixteenth century, who prepared a large col- lection of papers connected with the local his- tory of Warwickshire, which were afterwards OF BIOGRAPHY. Archer made use of by Sir William Dugdale, of whom Sir Simon Archer was the friend and patron when Sir William was first beginning his re- searches. Sir Simon was born in 1531 ; knighted by James I. in 162-1. The date of his death is not known. Archer, Thomas, an English architect of the eighteenth century, was a pupil of Sir John Vanbrugh, and erected several churches and other edifices which show considerable taste and skill, but the style of some of which — such as the church of St. John the Evangelist at West- minster—has been a good deal criticised un- favourably. ARcniAS, A. Licinius, arlc'-e-as, a native of Antioch, where he was born in the latter part of the second century b.c, afterwards settled in Rome, where he had as pupils Lucius and Marcus Lucullus, Cicero, and the greater part of the most distinguished youth of the " Eternal city." He possessed considerable talents as a poet, and w« o^iinf 1 "* as » tenehpr of eloquence and rhetoric. When advanced in life, his right to the citizenship of Rome being questioned, Cicero delivered an oration in his behalf. The date of his death is not ascertained, but he was living in 61 n.c. Archxtas, ark-i'-tas, of Tarentum, the eighth occupant of the chair of Pythagoras, was the master of Plato. He was a man of great and varied learning, and also of some mechanical genius: one invention attributed to him — namely, an automaton wluch was made to fly by means of air enclosed within it — would imply that Archytas was acquainted with gas, and thai Hiis device was the forerunner of the modern balloon. Arco, Alonzo del, ar'-l-o, a deaf and dumb Spanish artist, who acquired considerable repu- tation as a painter of historical pieces and por- traits, b. 1625; ». 1700. Arco, Nicolas, Count of, a Latin poet of the sixteenth century, the son of Count Odcric, "privy councillor to the Emperor Maxi- milian, was a native of Arco in the Tyrol, where he was born in 1479. He was learned in all the ancient languages, and could speak most modern ones with fluency. He lived on terms of intimaev with all the eminent men of his time, and dicci about 1546, his Latin poems having been given to the world in the same year, and reprinted at Padua in 1739. Arcon, Jean Clauded', dar'-l-awng, a French military engineer, who planned the floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, when commanded by General Elliot, on the 13th of September, 1782. He afterwards served in the French army at the time of the Revolution, and took a part in the conquest of Holland, b. in Franche Comte, 1733 ; d. near Auteuil, 1800. Aecon s, Caesar d', dar'-kaicm/, a French advo- cate who composed some works on the laws which govern the tides, on longitude, on the Apocalypse, apostolic traditions, A:c. d. in 1681. Arcy, Patrick d", darsu, an author, and soldier of fortune, was descended from an ancient family of Galway, in Ireland, where he was born in 1725. He received his education in France, in the armies of which country he served during several campaigns in Flanders and Germany, besides being present in the expedition sent to the assistance of Prince Charles in 1740, when he was taken prisoner, but released by the English Government. His principal works are —"An Essay on Artillery;" " Oa the Theory 79 Ardieini and Practice of Artillery ;" "On the Theory of the Moon ;" "On a New Theory of Artillery," &c. He died in 1779, and Condorcet pronounced his eulogy. Arden, Edward, ar'-den, a scion of an old Warwickshire family, and the ward and son-in- law of Sir George Throckmorton of Congleton, who was concerned in a plot against Queen Elizabeth, for which he was executed in Smith- field in 1583. b. at Parkhall, Warwickshire, 1531. Arden, Richard Pepper, first Lord Alvanley, was the second son of John Arden of Bredbury, Stockport, at which place he was born in 1745. After receiving the basis of his education at the Manchester grammar-school, he in 1763 entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a gentleman commoner. He here received the prize for de- clamation, was 12th wrangler in 1766, and was shortly afterwards elected a Fellow of his college. While resident at Cambridge, he revised the statutes of Trinity College; and having entered himself at the Middle Temple was called to the bar 1769 ; he practised in the Court of Chancery, went the northern circuit, and was appointed recorder of Macclesfield even before he had acquired any name at the bar. He gradually though slowly rose into notice, was appointed a Welsh judge, and in 1780 obtained his silk gown. Mr. Arden was appointed Solicitor-gene- ral under the Shclburne Ministry, in 1782 ; and, in February of the following year, was elected member of parliament for the borough of New- town, Isle of Wight. In defending the Govern- ment from the attacks of Fox and Lord North, then acting in concert, Mr. Arden showed him- self capable of doing good service, but had but a brief opportunity at that time of proving his capacity for official life, as, along with the Ministry, lie resigned, after being in office little more than a month. He now took an active part in opposition, exerting himself to defeat Fox's India Bill; and when Pitt was called to power, Arder. resumed his office of Solicitor-general. He was madeAttorney-general in 1784; Master of the Rolls in 1788, on Lord Kenyon's removal to the King's Bench, which office he continued to hold till 1801, when he succeeded Lord Eldon as Chief-justice of the Common Pleas, and was raised to the peerage by "he title of Baron Alvanley of Alvanley, Cheshire. He married in 1784, Anne Dorothea, daughter of Richard Wilbraham Bootle, Esq., and sister of Lord Skclmersdale, by whom he had three sons and foul daughters. He was not distinguished as an orator, though he was an effective and occasionally a vigorous speaker; he also ac- quitted himself creditably on the bench, and was very popular in society, being of an amiable disposition though of somewhat hasty temper. He was much esteemed by both Pitt and Byron, whose friendship he enjoyed for several years. d. 1804. Ardf.r^, John, ar'-dcrn, an eminent English surgeon of the 14th century, who was the means of superseding the use of the cautery in cases of fistula, as practised by Albucasis, and introduced incision in its stead. ' He wrote in Latin seveial works on surgery, that on fistula having bee i translated into English and published in 1588: he also invented a syringe for the administration of clysters, which were scarcely known in this country in his day ; and is considered as the earliest to introduce into England a rational system of practice in surgery. Audici^i, Louis, arde-chc'-ite, a native oC THE DICTIONARY Arduinua Padua, where he was born in 1739, is distinguished for his writings on agriculture, of which he was a professor, as colleague to his father, in his native city. When Napoleon offered a prize for a substitute for the sugar-cane, Ardicini pointed out that an abundant supply of sugar might be extracted from the holcus-capor. d. 1833. His principal works are — " Elements of Agricul- ture;" "On Bees;" "Cultivation of Dye Plants ;" " On Technical Terms in Agriculture." &c. AitDUiirrs, ar-doo'-e-nus, Marquis of Ivrea, elected by the Italians king of Italy, on the death of Utho III., in 1002, at the same time that the Germans elected the duke of Bavaria, who under the title of Henry II. claimed all the rights enjoyed by the Othos in Italy. Arduinus, finding himself unable to maintain his preten- sions, took the monastic habit in the year 1015, and died within the year. Arendt, Martin Frederick, ai J -end^ a Danish antiquary, as distinguished for his eccentricity as for his learning, which was immense ; but as he kept no record of his acquisitions, all the vast stores he had accumulated pensned with him. He was in the habit of travelling on foot all over the north, and of taking up his quarters wherever he happened to find it convenient, without consulting the wishes or circumstances of his hosts. This led to several awkward dilemmas — he having on one occasion been smoked out of a house, and on another forcibly ejected. In later years he came to Paris, and from thence journeyed in his old fashion into Spain, Germany, Italy, again to the north, and in 1824, when on a visit to Italy, he was arrested on suspicion of being an emissary of the Ger- man carbonari, a suspicion which the Runic and other inscriptions he had about him, together with the resemblance of his name to that of Arndt, author of the " Spirit of the Age," so far confirmed that he was detained in prison at Naples till his death. While in Paris, Arendt was taken care of by Malte-Brun, who wished him to settle down and arrange the stores of learning he had collected; but such was the restless and rambling disposition of the man, that he soon set off again, preferring to roam in search of knowledge and live on alms, to enioying quiet and ease. b. at Altona, 1769; d. 1824. Abb Fbodi, or Abius Polyhistob, as he is called in Latin, ar'-frod, a native of Iceland, was the first who reduced the history of his country to writing, making use of the tra- ditionary materials which were handed down from generation to generation in Iceland with great care ; he also wrote from personal obser- vation of important events, for, having been born in 1068, within about 60 years of the intro- duction of Christianity, he was almost contem- porary with occurrences of the greatest moment. He was a relative of Rollo, who led the North- men into France ; and Saemuud, the author of the older " Edda," was his schoolfellow, both in boyhood and in youth, they having studied together at Cologne for three years. Are was the author of a large and compendious history of the kings of Norway, England, and Denmark, which unfortunately is lost; but a shorter one, cither un outline or an abridgment of the other, is in existence, and has been several times printed— once at the Sheldonian press, Oxford, with a paraphrase, notes, &c, by Wormius, afterwards bishop of Zealand. Are likewise wrote a gram- mar, and, in conjunction with Thoialde, master of | 80 Aresas Runes, arranged and fixed the letters of the Danish alphabet. He is also said to have com- posed a work on Runic literature. Abeit/s, ar-ai'-e-tu, of Alexandria, a Stoic phi- losopher, and one of the preceptors of Octavius Ca:sar, who treated him with great favour, called him his friend, and, on capturing the city of Alexandria, publicly declared that he spared it from pillage partly because it was the birthplace of Areius. Abelhus, ar-el'-e-us, a Roman painter of celebrity who flourished shortly before the reign of Augustus. His pictures were ordered by the senate to be removed from the temples, because the goddesses were portraits of the most beautiful courtezans of the day, and this circumstance, it was considered, desecrated the sacred places. Abesibebq, Leopold Philippe Charles Joseph d', dar'-em-berg, governor of Hainault, and duke of Aershot and Croi, was born in 1690, at Mons. His father, who was killed at Peterwardein, was captain-general of the em- peror's guards, and these circumstances opened a ready way to a military career for Leopold, who entered the army young, was wounded at Malplaquet,, and by his services and courage raised himself to the highest honours. During the campaign of 1716-17, he was major-general of the emperor's armies in Hungary; was wounded at the siege of Tcmesvar; contributed materially to gaining the battle of Belgrade, where he commanded the right wing ; was made governor of Rome in 1719; served m the cam- paign on the Rhine under prince Eugene in 1733 ; was made field-marshal and commander- in-chief in the Low Countries in 1743 ; and was wounded at Dettingen in 1747. He was dis- tinguished for his patronage of letters as well as for his military achievements, d. 1754. Arembebg, Auguste Mnrie Raymond d', prince of, long known as Count de la Marck, was grandson of the above, and was born in 1753. He commanded a German regiment in the French service, and did duty with it in India. On his return to France, he embraced the ideas of the Revolution, became the friend of. Mirabeau, who appointed him one of his execu- tors ; he was a member of the States-general and of the National Assembly, but becoming dis- gusted with the revolutionary party, he went over to the Court, which he assisted in its negotiations with Mirabeau. He subsequently left France, and joined the Austrian army as major-general, but was never employed in military service, being transferred to the depart- ment of diplomacy. In 1814, on the establish- ment of the kingdom of Holland and Belgium, he became a lieutenant-general of the army of the new monarch, an office he continued to hold till the Belgian revolution of 1830, when he re- tired, and died in 1833. Arena, Joseph and Earthelemi, ar-ai -na, na- tives of Corsica, who were accused of conspiring against Napoleon, for which Joseph and some others were condemned to death. Barthclemi always denied the charge made against him— that of attempting to stab Bonaparte while dis- solving the Council of Five Hundred, of which he was a member, on the 18th Brumaire. d. in obscurity in 1829. Aresas, ar-re-sai, a Pythagorean philosopher of Lucania, who wrote a Treatise on the Nature of Man, only one small fragment of which has been preserved- AUBEF, DANIEL FRANCIS ESPRIT. AYTOUN, PkOFESSOR. BACON', FRANCIS, LORD. BAKER, SIR SAMUEL, Plate IV OF BIOGRAPHY. Areskin Abeskmt, or Ebskine, Robert, er'-tkin, a native of Scotland, who, after studying at Oxford, and taking the degree of M.D., went to Russia, and became the principal physician to Peter the Great, who held Mm in high estimation as well for his eminent professional abilities as the ex- cellence of his disposition and the agreeableness of his manners. Russia was indebted to him for the introduction of many excellent measures for promoting the study of the various branches of the healing art, and rescuing its practice from the hands of ignorance and incompetence. Abetxcs, ar-ai'-te-ug, of Cappadocia, a dis- tinguished physician of antiquity, but of whose life so little is known that the period when he lived is uncertain, though supposed to be the first century a.d. He has left several works on medical subjects, which are of great excellence, and excite keen regret that others which he mentions as having been written by him are lost. Those of his writings which are extant have been reprinted in many parts of Europe, and translated into several languages, and have afforded a subject for notes, commen- taries, and dissertations to not a few learned members of the profession — the edition by Boerhaave, published in 1735, being deemed the best. Abetino, Pietro, a'-rai-te'-no, an Italian man of letters, called by his literary admirers the " Divine," and by his political, the " Scourge of Princes." His fame rests upon nothing either great or worthy ,he having led amost disreputable life, and written still more disreputable verses, although he was patronized by Francis I. of France, by some of the Medici family, and cor- responded with Titian, Tasso, and Michael An- gelo. b. at Arezzo, 1492; D. at Venice, 1557. Abetino, Spinello, a celebrated Italian painter, who executed several works in fresco and distemper for the monasteries of San Miniato and Monte Oliveto, near Florence, and San Bernardo, at Arezzo. b. at Arezzo, 1316 ; d. about 1400. — He has been esteemed equal to Giotto in design, and his superior in execution. Abetius, Benedict, ar-ai'she-us, a distin- guished divine and botanist, was born at Berne in the early part of the sixteenth century, be- came a teacher of theology, and preacher in connexion with the reformed religionists at Marburg, and died at Berne in 1574. As a bo- tanist, his skill was held in high regard; he discovered and catalogued about forty new Alpine plants. Aektusi, Csesare, ar-ai-too'-se, an Italian artist who attained a good eminence as a por- trait painter, but whose vanity cost him the friendship of his best patron, the Duke of Fer- rara. The duke had employed him to execute the portrait of a lady who could not be induced to sit, but whose likeness he wished to possess. The artist successfully executed the portrait by stealth, but was so pleased with his work that he showed it to some friends, contrary to the express wish of the duke ; and the secret get- ting wind, the lady and the patron were alike exasperated, and poor Arctusi was at first con- demned to death, but ultimately banished from Fcrrara. He so closely imitated Correggio that pictures by him have been mistaken for those of that master. Flourished in the beginning of the 17th century. Abezzo, Cardinal, ar-aid'-jo, who after being sent on a mission to Russia with the view of ef- fecting a reconciliation between the Roman and 81 Argenson the Greek Churches, which project broke down in consequence of the death of the emperor Paul, was consulted by Napoleon as to certain designs which the latter entertained against the sovereignty of the Pope. Arezzo turned the in- formation thus communicated to the advantage of the pope, and consequently fell under the displeasure ot Napoleon, who had him arrested at Florence and confined for a time in Corsica. He was made a cardinal in 1815, vice-chancellor of the church in 1830, and died in 1833. He was a native of Tuscany, having been born at. Orbitello, in 1756. Abfe, ar'-fai, the name of two celebrated silversmiths of Spain, who designed and exe- cuted some of the most splendid tabernacles of the Spanish cathedrals. Lived in the 16th century. Argamd, Aime", ar'-giind, a native of Switzer- land, who invented the kind of lamp which bears his name. b. at Geneva, 1782; D. 1803. Abgelandeb, Frederick William Augustus, ar-je-lan'-der, an eminent modern astronomer, who superintended, for five years, the observa- tory at Abo, Finland. On its being destroyed by fire in 1828, he undertook the erection of an- other at Helsingfors. In 1837 he was appointed professor of astronomy at Bonn University, b. 1799.— He has written on his peculiar science with great success, d. 1875. Akgensola, ar-jen'-so-la, two brothers of which name — Lupercio and Bartholomew — were distinguished in the literary history of Spain. Lupercio was a dramatist, poet, and historian : in the latter capacity he filled the office of his- toriographer of Aragon, in which he was suc- ceeded by his brother Bartholomew, who was eminent as a writer in history, poetry, and theo- logy. Lupercio was born 1565, and" died 1613 ; Bartholomew lived from 1566 till 1631. Abgentbe, Bertrand d\ dar-jorg-tre, a French historian, who wrote a history of Brittany, together with an account of the cus- toms of that province, and other works. Ho was seneschal of Rennes, in which office he succeeded his father. His collected works were published at Paris between 1603 and 1612. b, 1519; n. 1590. Abgentbe, Charles Duplessis d', bishop of Tulle, and author of several theological and other works, was born near Yitre, in the year 1673, and died in 1740. AuGHUN-KiiAN.ar'-i/ooH-fctfH, a Mogul Khan of Persia, who greatly favoured the Christians and Jews, his principal minister for many years having been a physician belonging to the latter people. Arghuu at one time intended to have led an army into Arabia to overturn the Mohammedan religion and convert the Kaaba at Mecca into a Christian church, but an attack of illness and the murder of his Jewish minister prevented the execution of the project. He was thanked j by Pope Nicholas IV. for the favour he showed the Christians, but was detested as a tyrant by the Mohammedans, d. soon after the murder of his minister, Saad-ed-Daulah, 1290 a.d. Augknson, Mark Rene' le Voyer, marqois d\ darzh' -en-song, an Italian who in the reign of Louis XIV. was appointed lieutenant-general of the police in Paris, and was the first to in- troduce lettres-de-cachet in the police. In 1719 he was made chancellor, in the room ot d'Auguessau, but the year following he was deprived of all his places, e. at Venice, 1652; d, at Paris. 1721.. G THE DICTIONARY Argoli ABGOLi.Giovanni, ar'-go-le, an Italian poet, re- markable for the precocity of his genius, he having published a poem on the silkworm before he was fifteen years of age, and within two years another entitled " Endymion," in twelve cantos, which he wrote in seven months, and which was very popular. He subsequently studied law, and was a teacher of literature at Bologna. d. 1609 ; d. about 1660. Abcyle, Campbells, lords of, ar'-gyle. This family traces its descent from an individual of their name, who, in the 12th century, inter- married with the daughter of a Highland chief, and had for her dowry the lordship of Loch Awe, in Argyleshire. From that time the family has, more or less, taken a distinguished part in public affairs and several of its members have risen to hist^ical celebrity. The most remark- able of these are the following:— Akgtle, Archibald Campbell, marquis of, who was amongst the most zealous and the bravest of the partisans of the cause of the Covenanters. lie took arms against King Charles L, and in 1644 commanded the army sent against Montrose, whom he proclaimed a traitor, and for whose head he offered a reward of £20,000. He subsequently took the leading part in the Scottish installation of Charles II., on whose head, on 1st January, 1651, he placed the crown at Scone, previous to the battle of Worcester. He afterwards submitted to Crom- well, and sat in the parliament of his son Richard as member for Aberdeensliirc. For these acts he was, at the Restoration, indicted for high treason, convicted, and beheaded in Edinburgh, 16C1. b. 1598. Abgjtle, Archibald, earl of, son of the above, was a resolute and brave adherent of the royal cause, and so well known for the staunchness of liis loyalty that he was excepted by Cromwell from the general pardon which he granted in 1654. In 1632 he was inducted for treason, and condemned to suffer death, on account of his opposition to the measures of the duke of York ; but he made his escape from prison, disguised as a page, in the train of his step-daughter, Lady Sophia Lindsay, and fled to Holland. Returning, however, in the April of 1635, he made a descent into Argyleshire at the head of a considerable force, but was made prisoner. On the 30th of June of the same year, on a single day's notice, he was executed at Edin- burgh on his former sentence. Aegyle, John, second duke of, was the grand- son of the above, whose father was created a ■iuke by William III. The subject of our notice iistinguished himself equally as a statesman :nd a soldier. In 1705 he was created an Eng- ish peer by the titles of Baron Chatham and Sari of Greenwich, for his efforts in furthering .lie union of Scotland and England. As a brigadier-general he fought at the famous battle of Kamilies, and greatly distinguished '.iinself at Oudenarde and Malplaquet, as well us at the sieges of Ostend, Meenen, Lisle, Ghent, and Tournay. On the accession of the Hano- verian family to the throne, he was appointed commander-in-chief of all the king's forces in Scotland, and in 1715 displayed great energy and decision in suppressing the rebellion in Scot- land, popularly known in the north as "Mar's rising." He held several offices, of which he was deprived by Sir Robert Walpolc, but to which lie was again restored on the fall of that minister, u, 1078 ; v., without issue, 1713, 63 Arion With his death his English titles became extinct. Abgyle, George John Douglas Campbell, eighth duke of, early in life took an active part in the controversies rasing between religious parties in Scotland, and in a pamphlet recom- mended the abolition of lay patronage in the church. Although going a great way with the views of Dr. Chalmers, in reference to "the spiritual independence of the church," he could not go so far as to leave the Establishment and become an absolute adherent to the Free Church movement. At this period he held the title of Marquis of Lorn, but in 1847 he succeeded to the dukedom, on the demise of his father. In 1852 he held the office of Lord Privy Seal under the government of the earl of Aberdeen, and under the premiership of Lord Palmerston he continued to hold it till November, 1855, when he exchanged it for the office of Postmaster- general ; but, however ardently he pursues cer- tain political questions, he never forgets to bestow much of his time upon literary and scientific studies. In 1857 he went out of office, but in 1859 he again became Lord Privy Seal, and in 1S60 Postmaster-general. In 1S66 he published an ably written work, entitled " The Reign of Law." b. 1823. Abgybop0lo, John, ar-jyr-op'-u-lo, a learned Greek, who was driven from Constantinople on its capture by Mahomet II. in 1453, and settling in Italy, contributed largely to the revival of Greek learning in the West. Cosmo de Medici appointed him professor of Greek at Florence, where he had for pupils Lorenzo and Pietro de Medici, together with Politiano and Acciaioli. lie afterwards removed to Rome, where he died some time after 1478, though the date is uncer- tain. Arias Montanfs, Benedictus, ar-e'-as mori- tan-us, a learned Spaniard, who first distin- guished himself at the Council of Trent, and was afterwards employed by Philip II. to superintend the Polyglott Bible printed at Antwerp, which occupied him from 15t>3 to 1572. He had been educated at Alcala, and to the languages printed there, he added a Chaldee or Syriac version of the Scriptures, with a Latin translation. He was afterwards prosecuted on a charge of having falsified the sacred text to please the Jews, but acquitted, and appointed by Philip to superintend the library of the Escurial. He was born in 1527; and died in Seville in 1593. He was also dis- tinguished by his ardent desire to retire to the hermitage he had constructed on the top of a rock near Aracina, in which desire he was disappointed; and for the great Polyglott ver- sion of the Bible which he published at Ant- werp. Akion', a-ri-on, an ancient musician, who in- vented the dithyrambic measure, and became rich by his professional skill. There is a romantic story to the effect that when he was returning from Sicily and Italy to Corinth, he was plun- dered by the crew of the slvp, who ordered him to jump overboard; and all that he could obtain by his prayers was permission to play a tune before death. This he did so divinely as to charm a dolphin from the deeps, on the back of which he was carried safe to Corinth, and the ship arriving there shortly after, the sailors were convicted, punished with death, and Arion's property restored to him. Flourished in the 7th century b.c. OF BIOGRAPHY. Ariosti Abiosti, a'-re-os'-te, an Italian dramatic com- poser, who wrote several operas, the most popu- lar of which was " Coriolano,"which is supposed to have been parodied by Gay in the "Beggar's Opera." He was one of the three composers whose services were engaged for the establish- ment of the Royal Academy of Music in London in 1720. The others were Bononcini and Handel; but the reputation of Ariosti seems to have been based upon a slight foundation, as in a few years he fell into neglect, b. at Bologna. — We can find no record as to what became of this composer, who gave lessons to Handel, and by whom, in conjunction with Bononcini and his pupil, the well-known opera of " Muzio Scaevola" was composed. Abiosto, Ludovico, or Lewis, a-re-os'-fo, an 'talian poet, patronized by the cardinal d'Este, ay whose interest he obtained several employ- ments. He entered into the service of Alfonso, duke of Ferrara, who appointed him governor of Garfagnana. His most famous piece is en- titled " Orlando Furioso." He also wrote some comedies, which were performed in the hall of Ferrara, before the duke and his court, b. at Keggio, in Lombardy, 1474 . d. at Ferrara, 1533. — Ariosto is considered among the best of Italian satirists, and he was one of the first writers of regular comedy in Italy. His "Orlando Furioso" has teen translated into most continental lan- guages, and the best in English is that by Mr. S. Rose. Abistagobas, tir-is-tag'-or-cu, who, appointed povernor of Miletus by Darius, nevertheless in- duced the Ionians to revolt, and subsequently joined with the Athenians in a war against his old master, but was worsted and retired to Thrace, where he was destroyed with his whole army while besieging a place near Amphipolis. Abistaxdeb of ielmissus, ar-is-tan'-der, a celebrated soothsayer who was in the service of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great, over the latter of whom he exercised immense influence, and whom he prevented from killing himself in remorse for the murder of Clitus. He also turned his powers of divination to account politically by giving favourable inter- pretations of events so as to inspirit the soldiers and adherents of Alexander. Abistabchus, a-ris-tar'-kus, a Grecian philo- sopher, reputed to have been the first who as- serted the rotation of the earth upon its axis, and its motion round the sun. He is also said to have invented sun dials, b. at Samos. Lived 230 B.C. — Another, celebrated for his critical powers. He criticised Homer with such severity, that all severe critics since his time have been denominated " Aristarchi." He also criticised Tindar and other poets. Ahisteas, n-nV-^e-as, an officer under Ptolemy riiiladelphus, who is said to have been a Jew by birth, and to have had a principal share in getting the Hebrew scriptures translated into Greek, which version is called the Septuagiut. Abisteas of Proconnessus, a Greek poet, who is said by Herodotus to have lived more than once — indeed, to have had the power of dissolving and renewing the association of body and spirit at his will. ARisiiDES,«» , -?8-/£'-<7ee«,acelebratcd Athenian, who rose to the first offices in the state, and dis- charged them with such integrity as to obtain the surname of "The Just," At Marathon he dis- tfciguishcd himself by his bravery, and though he had charge of the spoils, took nothing for Aristodemua himself. On one occasion he was sitting as one of a jury to try a cause, when the plaintiff, with the hope of biassing the court in his favour, re- counted the wrongs the defendant had done to Aristides, on which the latter stopped him with the remark — " State what he has done to you. I am here to decide your cause, not my own." Tho party of Themistocles at length prevailed against him, and he was banished by ostra- cism. He was afterwards recalled, however, at the suggestion of Themistocles himself, and con- tributed largely to gaining the battle of Salamis. d., in poverty, about 467 B.C. — The Athenians bestowed a magnificent funeral on him, and gave his son Lysimachus an estate andpension, besides giving his daughters portions from the state funds. — There were several other Greeks of this name, who were more or less distinguished : — 1. Aristides of Thebes, a painter, who was contem- porary with Apelles, and lived about 340 b.c. 2. Aristides of Miletus, who appears to have been the first writer of fictitious tales, but of whose life and ago we know nothing. 3. Aristides Quintilianus, author of a .reatise on music, who is supposed to have lived anterior to Ptolemy, the author of the Harmonics, and subsequently to the time of Cicero. 4. Aristides the sophist, who flourished in the 2nd century b.c. There are fifty-four orations by him still extant, besides some others which are lost. Aristippus, ar-u-tip'-us, of Cyrene, the dis- ciple of Socrates, and founder of the Cyrenaie sect. His maxim was, that pleasure is the chief good of man ; and thus differed widely from the doctrines of his master. He flourished about 400 b.c. — His daughter Arete was famous for her wisdom and beauty. Abisto, ar-is'-to, the name of several worthies of antiquity, sortie of whom were philosophers, some poets, some artists, some politicians ; while one is only distinguished by the circumstance of being the father of Plato — in itself, perhaps, distinction enough. Abistobplus I. and II., ar-is-tob'-u-lus, kings of the Jews, who reigned in the 1st century b.c. Abisiocles, ar-is-to'-clees. There were several Grecian philosophers, poets, rhetoricians, and artists of this name; but none whom it is neces- sary to particularize. Aristodemus, ar-it-tod'-e-mus, tyrant of Cu- moe, was at first so effiminate in manner and appearance as to be called the " Soft," MalaJcos, but who in after-life gained a very different re- putation. After having done good service to the state, he conceived a grudge against the patri- cians, the leaders amongst whom he destroyed, and assumed the sole power himself. After ex- ercising power for fourteen years, he was killed in an insurrection of the sons of those whom he had murdered or banished. According to Plu- tarch, he compelled the youths of Cuma; to dress like maidens, and the maidens like youths ; and it was a reproach of Xenocrite, a girl of whom Aristodemus was enamoured, but who did not return his affection, that there was only one man in Cuma;, which roused the youth to kill and free the city of the tyrant, about 490 b.c. There were many men who bore this name, the most noted of whom was elected king by the Messe- nians 731 b.c. In obedience to the Delphic oracle, he sacrificed his own daughter to the gods in order to obtain success for the arms of his country ; but on being defeated, killed himst If in remorse. Aristodemus of Miletus was the prince of couitly flatterers, for whou commissioned to G 2 THE DICTIONARY Aristocrates convey to Antigonus intelligence of a great vic- tory gained by nis lieutenant over Ptolemy, he fulfilled his mission in such a way as to make it appear that such events as defeating Ptolemy, taking Cyprus, and capturing 16,800 prisoners, were matters of every-day occurrence under the auspices of Antigonus. Ahistocbates, ar-is-to'-kra-teeg, a king of Aradia, who was stoned to death by his subjects about 700 b.c, for having violated a priestess of Diana. His grandson of the same name took a bribe from the Lacedaemonians, and allowed the Mcssenians to be defeated, and on attempting to repeat the treachery on a subsequent occasion, was discovered and stoned to death like his grandfather, about 667 b.c. Abistogiton andllABMODirs, ii-ris-logi'-ion, har-mo'-de-us, two celebrated friends, of Athens, who.by their joint etlbrts.delivered their country from the tyranny of the Pisistratida;, 510 b.c. Abistomenes, ur-is-tom'-e-nees, a celebrated Greek, the hero of Messenia, descended from the kings of that country. He defeated the Spartans in a great battle, for which his country- men would have made him king, but he was content with the title of general. Lived in the 7th century b.c. ». at Rhodes, where he was buried with great pomp. Abistophanes, ar-ig-tof-a-nees, a celebrated Greek play-writer, the son of Philip of Rhodes. He wrote fifty-four comedies, of which only eleven have come down to us. He lived in the time of Socrates, Demosthenes, Euripides, and lashed the vices of his age with a masterly hand. The wit and excellence of his comedies are well- known, but his attack upon Socrates is justly censured. Aristophanes has been called the prince of the ancient comedy, as Menander is of the new. The "Clouds" is the comedy in which Socrates is ridiculed, b. in the island of ^Egina. Flourished -100 b.c. — Also a celebrated grammarian who flourished at Byzantium in the time of Ptolemy, who placed him over the library at Alexandria, to which he contributed several works now lost. Flourished 200 B.C. Aristotile, Alberti, ar-is-tot'-ile, a celebrated Italian architect and engineer, who, in order to make some alterations upon the Duomo of Bologna, removed the campanile, with its bells and all complete, to a distance of thirty-five feet by means of machinery. He was invited into Hungary by Mathias Corvinus, and there erected several edifices and bridges : he also visited Russia, where he built the cathedral of Moscow ind designed several others. Mahomet II. like- wise invited him to enter his service, though it is .incertain whether he did so or not, as the time and place of his death are wholly unknown. He is said to have taught the Russians to cast cannon. Flourished in the 15th century. Aristotle, ur'-is-tot'-el, the head of the Peri- patetic sect, was the son of Nicomachus, physi- cian to Amyntas, grandfather of Alexander the . 1827. Arnoldus de Villa Nova, ar-nol'-dus, (so called from the place of his birth, a small village near Montpellier,) an eminent French physician of the 13th century, and also distin- guished as a theologian, an astrologer, and an alchemist. He was the tutor of the celebrated Raymond Lully, whom he met during a journey he made into Spain. He declared that the ser- vices of a good and wise physician were more precious in the eyes of the Deity than all the works of the priest, and even than the sacrifice of the mass. For this he was persecuted by the clergy, and had to take refuge in Sicily, where he wue protected by the kings of Naples and Aragon. He ultimately perished by shipwreck in 1313, when on his way to render medical aid to Pope Clement V. b. 1240. He rendered good service to chemical science, having made several valuable discoveries in the course of his attempts to accomplish the transmutation of metals. Arnolfo diLapo, ar-nol'-fo, a distinguished Italian sculptor and architect of the 13th cen- tury, who has left several monuments of his genius in Florence and elsewhere, and gave a great impetus to architectural art, which he found in a very depreciated condition, and in which ho effected great improvements, b. at Florence in 1232 ; d. 1300. Arxott, Dr. Neil, ar'-not, a Scotch medical practitioner, greatly distinguished for his benevo- lence, and his labours in the cause of sanitary improvement. He invented the water-bed and floating mattress, which, in cases of patients en- during acute suffering, have been used with great success. He is alsothe inventor of " Arnott's rtove" and "Arnott's ventilator," which are now in almost universal use. b. near Montrose, 1788. — Dr. Arnott, as an author, has obtained great celebrity for his work entitled " Elements of Physics; or, Natural Philosophy, General and Medical, explained in plain or non-technical language." In 1854 the Koyal Society awarded him the Rumford medal, and in 1855 the jurors of the class of the Universal Exposition of Paris awarded him the great gold medal, and Napo- Arrieux leon III. presented him with the cross of the Legion of Honour, d. 1874. Arnoult, or Abnould, Sophie, ar'-noicl, a celebrated French actress, and nearly as much distinguished for her wit as for her histrionic powers. Dorat praises her in his poem, " La Declamation," and Garrick is said to have been much pleased with her acting when he saw her perform during a visit to Paris. She was born in that city, of respectable parentage, in 1714. and died in 1803. She also acquired an unenvi- able notoriety for the number of her amours and the high rank of her admirers. Arnulf, ar'-nul, an archbishop of Rheims, and natural son of Lothaire, King of France, who was deposed from his bishopric for opposing the policy of Hugh Capet, but afterwards re- stored by the Pope. He is believed to have written several works on theology and canon law, but they are all lost. d. 1021 or 1023. Arnulf, bishop of Lisieux, the friend of Henry 1 1., whom he supported with his advice and authority in his quarrel with Thomas a-Becket. Arnulf was distinguished for his magnificence, and also for learning, though few of his works remain. He resigned his bishopric, and retired to a monastery in Paris, where he died in 1185. Arpad, ar'-pad, a chief of the Magyars, and founder of the Hungarian monarchy. Having crossed the Carpathian mountains, he entered a country which was split up into petty principali- ties, consisting of numerous Slavonic tribes. These he won by presents or conquered by arms, and finally took up his abode on the island of Tsepel, in the Danube. From this place he go- verned Hungary, and bequeathed it to Zoltau, his son and successor, d. 907. Abredondo, Isidore, ar-re-don'-do, a Spanish artist, who early attained to such excellence in historical subjects as to attract the notice of Charles II. of Spain, who appointed him his chief painter, and conferred nobility upon him. B. 1653; B. 1702. Arria, ar'-e-a, the wife of Cxcina Partus, who perceiving the hesitation of her husband, the Roman consul, who was condemned by Claudius to fall upon his sword, plunged a dagger into her bosom, and drawing it out said, " My Psetus, it is not painful." The younger Pliny relates many other instances of the heroic sayings and doings of thi« lady, who appears to have been a model of Roman fortitude and de- votion. Arrian, ai J -e-an, a Greek historian, who united the character of a warrior and philoso- pher, and rose to the highest dignities in Rome. b. at Nicomedia. Lived in the 2nd century. Abriaza, Juan Bautista, ar-e-ath'-a, a Spanish poet, who takes rank among the best contem- porary writers of his country. Many of his effusions had a political leaning in favour of monarchy and legitimacy, b. at Madrid, 1770; d. 1837. — He enjoyed a pension from Ferdinand VII., and held a post in the ministry of Foreign Affairs. Arrieux, Le Chevalier d', dar'-e-oo, a distin- guished Frenchman, who travelled much in the East, where he held several important employ- ments, and contributed information on the man- ners and customs of the people of Syria and the Holy Land, which has been of great value in the elucidation of Biblical subjects, and also in pro- moting commerce with that quarter of the world. He was born near Marseilles in 1635, and died in 1702. THE DICTIONARY Arrighi Arrighi, ar-e'-je, duke of Padua, a relative of the Bonapartes, who entered the French army and served with distinction under Na- poleon, by whom he was made a general, a duke, and a peer of France. After the battle of Waterloo, he attempted to hold Calvi and es- tablish the independence of Corsica, of which he was a native, in opposition to the army of Louis XVIII., but of course failed in the effort, and was compelled to retire to Lombardy, where he died. b. 1773; d. 1853. Arrowsmith, Aaron, ar'-o-smith, an 'Eng- lish map-maker, who, from an obscure begini. ing, by diligence and industry rose to prosperity, lie executed upwards of one hundred and thirty maps. b. in Winston, Durham, 1750; d. in London, 1823. Arrowsmith, John, D.D., an eminent Puritan preacher and writer on theology, who held a prominent place and discharged many important functions during the ascendancy of the party to which he belonged. lie was a native of Gates- head, was educated at Cambridge, in which he successively held the offices of Master of St. John's College, Chancellor of the University, and finally Master of Trinity College. He was also one of the divines appointed to advise the Long Parliament on religious matters, and bore the character of a learned, pious, zealous, and sincere Christian. He was born in 1602, and died in 1659, just before the Restoration. Arsaces L.ar-sawees.founder of the Parthian monarchy. He induced his countrymen to rise against the Syrian empire, 250 B.C., on which they raised him to the throne. Arsaccs was slain in battle, after reigning 38 years.— His successors all took his name. Arsaces Tiranus, ti-rai'-mis, king of Ar- menia, who being taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, was cast into prison at Ecba- tana, where he died, 31*2 a.d. His country then became a Persian province. AT!SENius,aj'-se»'-e-««,a patriarch ol Constan- tinople of the 13th century, who excommunicated the usurping emperor Michael Pala?ologus for havingput out the eyes of theheir to the throne, John Lascaris, and though the emperor ex- hibited every sign of repentance, refused to withdraw the sentence, and in his will repeated his condemnation of the usurper's cruel conduct. Some time before his death, in 1273, he was de- posed from the patriarchate at the instance of Michael, and died in exile. He left several canons drawn from the laws of the emperors, with explanatory notes and commentaries. — There were several other Greek churchmen of the same name, the most eminent of whom was bishop of Malvasia (anciently Monembasia) in the Morea, who, having been driven into exile, contributed greatly to the revival of Greek literature in Italy, having prepared an edition of the Scholia on Euripides, which was printed in 1531 at Venice. He died in 1535, just when his friend, Pope Paul III., was about to create him a cardinal. Some others of his works were printed at Rome, Parma, and Venice. Artabanus IV., ar'-ta-bai'-mtSjihc last of the Parthian monarchs, who, in 217 a.d., escaping with great difficulty from a perfidious massacre commenced by the Romans, with Caracalla at their head, mustered an army, and engaged his foes in a battle which lasted two days ; but as the armies were preparing to renew the combat, Artabanus was informed of the death of Cara- calla : peace was then made on honourable BO Artedi terms. Artaxerxes afterwards incited his sub- jects to revolt, and in a battle in 226, Artabanr,3 was taken and put to death. Thus ended, in the 3rd century, the Parthian empire. Artavasdf.s I., ar'-ta-viis'-dees, a king oi Armenia, who succeeded his father Tigranes. He joined the Roman forces under Crassus.but deserted to the enemy, and thus the Romans were defeated and Crassus slain. He similarly betrayed Mark Antony when engaged against the Modes; but afterwards, Artavasdes fell into Antony's power, and was taken, with his wife and children, to Alexandria, where they were dragged at the triumvir's chariot-wheels in chains of gold. After the battle of Actium, Cleopatra caused his head to be struck off, and sent to the king of Media. Reigned in the 1st century b.c. Artaxerxes I., ar'-ta-zerks'-ees, surnamed Longimanus, was the third son of Xerxes, king of Persia, and having murdered his brother Darins, ascended the throne, 465 B.C. d. 425 b.c. and was succeeded by his only son, Xerxes. — This prince i3 generally supposed to have been the Ahasuerus of Scripture, who married Esther, and by whose permission Ezra restored the Jewish religion at Jerusalem. The seventy weeks of Daniel are also dated in his reign. Artaxerxes II., sumamed Mncmon, on account of his great memory, was the eldest son of Darius Nothus, and began his reign 405 b.c. His brother Cyrus formed a conspiracy against him, for which he was sentenced to death ; but, at the intercession of his mother Parysatis, the sentence was commuted to banishment to Asia Minor. Cyrus repaid this act of clemency by mustering a large army of Asiatics, and some Greek troops under Clearchus, with whom ho marched to Babylon; but, being encountered by Artaxerxes, he was defeated and slain. The Greeks, however, escaped, and reached their own country, under Xenophon. Artaxerxes died at the age of 94, 362 b.c. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) succeeded his father, the preceding monarch, 362 b.c. To pave his way to the succession, he murdered two of his brothers, and afterwards put to death all the remaining branches of the family. He succeeded in suppressing several insurrec- tions which were raised against him, and in Egypt slew the sacred bull Apis, and gave the ficph to his soldiers. For this his eunuch, Bagoas, an Egyptian, caused him to be poisoned, and after giving his carcass to cats, made knife- handles of his bones. r>. 339 b.c. Artaxerxes Bebegait, or Arbsiiir, tho first king of Persia of the race of the Sassanida?, was a shepherd's son ; but his grandfather by the mother's side being governor of a province, he was sent to tho court of King Artaban. On the death of his grandfather, he, being refused an appointment, retired to Persia proper, where, exciting the people to revolt, he defeated and slew Artaban and his son ; on which he assumed the title of" King of kings." He made vast con- quests, and administered the affairs of his king- dom with wisdom. He married the daughter of Artaban, who, attempting to poison him, was sentenced to death. The officer, however, to whom the execution of this sentence was com- mitted, concealed the queen, who was soon afterwards delivered of a son. The king dis- covering the secret, applauded the conduct of his officer, and acknowledged the child as his heir. d. 210 a.d. Akiedi, Peter, ar'-tc-de, a Swedish naturalist OP BIOGRAPHY. Artemisia between whom and Linnaeus there was such an attachment, that they made each other heirs to all their MSS. Artedi devoted himself chiefly to ichthyology, which he greatly advanced. He was drowned at Leyden in 1735 ; b. 1705. Lin- iucus published, in 1738, his . " Bibliotheca Ichthyologica " and his " Philosophia Ichthyo- logiea." Artemisia I., ar-te-mis'-e-a, queen of Caria, who assisted Xerxes in person against the Greeks, and behaved with such valour that the Athenians offered a reward for her capture, and the Spartans erected a statue to her. Lived in the 5th century b.c. AktemisiaII., queen of Caria, erected a monu- ment to her husband Mausolus, which was so magnificent that every splendid structure of the kind has since been called a mausoleum. Lived in the 4th century b.c. Artemidorus, ar-te-mid'-or-ut, a writer on dreams, palmistry, and augury, was a native of Daidia, a small town in Lydia, and lived in the time of the Antonines. He was so enamoured of the subject of fortune-telling that he not. only collected everything that had been written npon it, but spent years in trie company of strolling prophets, and collected a large quantity of matter about dreams and their interpretation, which he arranged in five books; these were first printed by Aldus in 1518, and several other editions have appeared since. Iioyle says that Artemidorus bestowed more pains on a foolish subject than most authors have devoted to the most important ones. — There were several others of this name, the only one of whom that deserves notice was a geographer of Ephesus ; of whose works, originally extending to 11 books, only a few fragments remain. Artevbmjb, Jacob and Philip van, ar'-te-vel, two famous Flemings, a father and son, dis- tinguished for their patriotism in the 14th cen- tury. Jacob, the father, was killed in a popular tumult at Ghent, where he carried on the trade of a brewer, in 1345; and his son Philip, after making himself master of Bruges in 1382, was killed in the same year, at the battle of Rosbeek. where 25,000 Flemings fell. Abteveldt, Andrew van, a Hutch marine painter, who was very successful in depicting storms, rocky shores, &c. Vandyck was a great admirer of his works, and painted his portrait as a mark of his respect for the artist. Arthur, av'-thur, a British prince, the son of Uther Pendragon, dictator of the Britons, by the wife of the duke of Cornwall. He suc- ceeded Uther in 516, and instituted the military order of the Knights of the Round Table, and introduced Christianity at York in the room of paganism. Of this celebrated personage there are many fabulous circumstances re- lated, and his life and career have furnished themes for numerous poems and romances, d. 642 A.n. Arthur, duke of Brittany, the posthumous son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, son of Henry I., by Constantia, daughter of the duke of Brittany, and declared heir by his uncle Richard I., who afterwards devised his kingdoms to his brother John. A peace, however, taking place, Arthur did homage to his uncle for the dukedom of Brittany. In another rupture between England and France, Arthur was taken prisoner by John, who caused him to be confined in the castle of Rouen, where it is supposed ho was murdered. b. 11^7. — It is upon the supposed murder of 91 Arundel this prince that the interest of Shakspeare's play of " King John " turns. Arthur, Prince of Wales, eldest son of Henry VII. king of England, and of Elizabeth of York, gave early promise of talent and capacity, and was entrusted with at least the nominal government of the country in 1501, during his father's absence in the war with the French king, Charles VIII. His early promise, however, was not destined to be realized, he having died at the castle of Ludlow in 1502. •He was buried in the cathedral church of Wor- cester, where a handsome monument to his memory still remains. His espousal to the Princess Catherine of Aragon, who was subse- quently the wife of his brother, afterwards Henry VIII., furnished a pretext for that king to divorce her in order to marry Anne Boleyn. Artigas, Fernando Jose, ar-te'-jaz, a native of Monte-Video, where he was born in 1760, after serving for some years in the Spanish army, joined that of the new republic of Buenos Ayres, and ultimately rose to be gcneral-in-chief. He was the principal instigator of the revolt of the Banda Oriental against the mother country, and contributed largely to the success of the people in securing their independence. He was also en- gaged in subsequent wars with Spain and Portu- gal, aswell as in a civil strife with Pueyrrcdon and his party, whose ambitious projects he op- posed and thwarted for some time, but was ulti- mately compelled to retire into Paraguay, where he was kindly received by his old opponent, Dr. Francia. He died in 1825 or 1826, after having played a conspicuous and honourable part in the affairs of the South American Republics for a period of fifteen years. Artois, Due d'. (See Charles X.) Artois, Jacques d', dar'-twa, an eminent Flemish landscape painter, was born at Brussels, in 1613. He was a great student of nature, in ren- dering which he was very successful. He was, however, defective in figures, and it is said that Teniers used to paint or retouch those in Artois' pictures. He was an excellent colourist, and in this respect greatly resembled Titian, although the tone of his works is sometimes too sombre, d. 1665. Aeu>"del, Sir Thomas, ar'-un-del, first Lord Arundel of Wardour, to which dignity he was raised by James I., was sprung from a family which is distinguished in English history from a remote period, and which had contracted many honourable alliances. His grandfather was married to Margaret Howard, sister of queen Catherine Howard, and was beheaded in 1552 for having, as alleged, conspired against the life of John Dudley, Duke of .Northumberland. The subject of this memoir at an early age joined the army of the emperor in Hungary, where he greatly distinguished himself in the war against the Turks, having taken with his own hand the standard of the enemy at an engagement at Gran. For this and other services the emperor Rodolph made him a count of the holy Roman empire in 1595; but queen Elizabeth refused to allow him to assume any precedence or position in virtue of his foreign honours, saying that she " did not care that her sheep should wear a stranger's marks nor dance after the whistle of any foreigner." Sir Thomas returned to Eng- land, where he lived in comparative retirement for several years, and died in 1039. The wife of his son, the second lord Arundel, gallantly de- fended Worcester castle during the civil wars. THE DICTIONARY Arundel She was the daughter of the Earl of Worcester, Edward Somerset. Arukdel, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, in the reigns of Hichard II., Henry IV, and Henry V. He was a cruel persecutor of the fol- lowers of Wickliff, and was one of the leaders in procuring the act, "De Haeretico Combu- rendo." b. 1353; b. 1413. Asaph, at '-» physic. Lived 450 a.b. Ascomus, Quintus Pedianus, as-kon'-e-us, an eminent grammarian, born at Padua, who taught eloquence in Rome in the time of Tibe- rius, had both Livy and Quintilian as pupils, and was the friend of Virgil. He is believed to have died in the reign of Nero, at the age of 75. Asdrubal, as'-dru-bul, a brother of Hannibal, defeated and killed by the Romans, 207 b.c Aselli, Caspar, as-el'-le, an eminent Italian surgeon, who discovered the system of the lacteal vessels, by means of which the nourishment, taken into the system is, after digestion, distri- buted to the various portions of the body. He taught anatomy and surgery at Pavia, and was chief surgeon of th e Italian army. b. at Cremona about 1581 ; d. at Milan in his 45th year, and, though so young, already famous over Europe. Asfeld, Bidal d', das'-feld, the name of three brothers — Alexis, Renoit, and Claude Francois — the sons of the Swedish minister at the court of Louis XIV. of France, who all rose to high rank in the French army and were ennobled for their services. The defence of Ronn, under the com- mand of Alexis, is one of the most obstinate and skilful on record. The youngest brother, Claude Francois, succeeded the Duke of Berwick, on the lattcr's death, and had the honour of measuring his strength, not unsuccessfully, with the great Prince Eugene. Asgill, John, ox -gil, a miscellaneous and political writer who lived at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century, and acquired an odd sort of notoriety. He was bred a lawyer, attained considerable reputation in his profes- sion, and acquired a large fortune, which he invested in an estate in Ireland; having taken to politics and become a member of the Irish Parliament, he got into trouble by his writings, was imprisoned in the Fleet prison, and, though ordered by Parliament te> be released, one of his books, an absurd essay on the possibility of man passing into eternal life without tasting of death, having been declared blasphemous and profane, he was expelled the House of Commons in 1707, and the book ordered to be burnt by the common hangman. In the meantime, he got into pecuniary embarrassments, and was again committed to prison, where he died in 1738. Ho continued to transact professional business and to write pamphlets during the whole period of his imprisonment, which lasted for nearly 30 years. OF BIOGRAPHY. Asgill Asgiix, Sir Charles, the son of a wealthy citizen of London, entered the army when young, and after serving through a considerable portion of the first American War, was taken with the rest of Cornwallis's army at York Town, in Virginia. A party of American royalists having, without authority, hanged a Captain Huddy of the American army, and the English having re- fused to give up the leader of the party, Wash- ington determined to retaliate upon one of the officers in his hands, and ordered lots to be cast among the unconditional prisoners. The lot fell on Asgill, then only 19, although not an uncondi- tional prisoner, and he was sent to head-quarters at Philadelphia to suffer for an offence with which he had nothing to do. Washington was disinclined to make a sacrifice of Asgill, and a delay occurred which gave time for his mother to make an appeal to Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France, who interceded with the American government, and obtained the young officer's release, who then returned to Europe, and personally thanked her Majesty for saving his life. He subsequently served in the Duke of York's expedition into Flanders in 1793 ; was raised to the rank of colonel in 1795; and in 1814 was made a general, having in the interval seen service in various quarters, and always ac- quitted himself with credit. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1788, about which time he mar- ried, but, having no children, the title became extinct at his death in 1823. Ash, John, LL.D., ash, author of a grammar and dictionary of the English language, was born in the county of Dorset, was a minister of the Baptist denomination, and was ordained to the congregation of that body at Pershore, where he continued till his death in 1779. b. 1721. Ash, John, M.D., an eminent physician of the 18th century, who, having been educated at Trinity College, Oxford, commenced practice in Birmingham, where he soon attained a pro- minent position in his profession. He after- wards removed to London, and devoted much attention to the analysis of the various mineral waters of Europe, the results of his investiga- tions into which were published. He delivered the Harveian oration in 1790, and was on terms of intimacy with Reynolds, Boswell, Windham, Dr. Burney, and other eminent men of the time, a club of whom, under Dr. Ash's presidency, met at the Blenheim Tavern, Bond Street, b. 1723 ; b. 1798. Ashbuenham, John, ash-burn' -am, a staunch supporter of Charles I., and the _only attendant, with the exception of Doctor Hudson, of that unfortunate monarch on his journey, in April, 1646, from Oxford to Newark, where the Scots army was lying, b. 1603; n. 1671. — This indi- vidual passed through many vicissitudes, yet was so tortunate as to be able to repurchase the family estates, which his father had squan- dered in dissipation. His grandson was made a peer in the time of William and Mary, and the earls of Ashburnham are now in the enjoyment of the estates winch were recovered by him. Ashbttrtoi*, Alexander Baring, Baron, ash- Inr'-ton, the second son of Sir Francis Baring, 1 iart., a London merchant of considerable wealth. In 1810, on the death of his father, he became the head of the firm of liaring Brothers and Co., and in 1812 was elected a member of Par- liament for Taunton. In 1834 he became a member of Sir Kobcrt Peel's cabinet, as president Ashmun of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint, and was created Baron Ashburton. In 1841 he proceeded to America, and amicably settled the Oregon boundary question with theUnited States, and which settlement is known by the name of the " Ashburton Treaty." He continued to support Sir Robert Peel in the House of Lords until that statesman brought forward his measure for re- pealing the corn laws. To this measure Ashbur- ton gave a decided opposition, and after it had passed into law, he intermeddled very little with politics, b. 1774; n. 1848. Ashby, Sir John, ash'-by, a British admiral oi the time of William III., who, in the Defiance, led the van of Admiral Herbert's squadron in the battle of Bantry Bay in 1689, for his con- duct in which action he was knighted and pre- sented by the king with a gold watch set with diamonds. He subsequently took part in the engagement fought by the combined fleets of England and Holland, under Lord Torrington, and that of France, between Cherbourg and the Isle of Wight, on the 30th of June, 1690, but was acquitted of all blame as to the unfortunate result of the affair. After aiding Marlborough in capturing Cork and Kinsale from the ad- herents of King James, Ashby commanded a division in the great battle of La Hogue on the 19th of May, 1692, but being unable to get into action till near the close of the engagement, the pursuit of the defeated fleet mainly fell to his share. As several of the French ships escaped to St. Malo by running through the " Race of Alderney," where it was deemed inex- pedient to follow them, a Parliamentary inquiry took place ; Ashby, however, was again exoner- ated — indeed, was complimented by the speaker of the House of Commons, and continued in commission till his death in July, 1693, at which moment his flag was flying on board the Ports- mouth, b. 1642. Ashe, Andrew, ash, a celebrated flute-player, was born at Lisburn, Antrim, in 1769, and attained to high proficiency on his favourite instrument. He was engaged at the leading theatres and musical entertainments of the day, was director of the Bath concerts for several years, and finally retired to Dublin, where he died in 1838. His wife was a favourite vocalist, and all their family were distinguished for their musical talent. AsnFiELD, Edmund, ash'-field, excelled as a painter of portraits in crayon. He was the pupil of Michael Wright in the reign of Charles II.; and the instructor of Luttrel, who ulti- mately became superior to his master. Ashley, Robert, ash'-lai, a poet and general writer who lived in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., was born at Damerham, on the eon- lines of Wells, Dorset, and Hants, was educated at Oxford, and was called to the bar by tha members of the Middle Temple, but did not long follow the legal profession, preferring to devote himself to literary pursuits. His prin- cipal works, however, are translations from the French, Italian, and Spanish. Towards the close of his life he lived in the Middle Temple, and is buried in the Temple Church. His family was of knightly rank, and from his elder brother, Sir Anthony Ashley, the Earls of Shaftesbury are descended on the female side. d. 1641. AsnifUN, Jehudi, dsh'-man, a native of Cham- plain, New York, where he was born in 1794, and after being professor of theology at Bangor, Maine, was appointed agent of the American THE DICTIONARY Ashmole Colonisation Society, and in that capacity greatly contributed to the success of the negro colony of Liberia. His health having greatly suffered by his prolonged residence in Africa, he returned to America to recruit it, but died shortly after his arrival, August 28th, 1828. Asemolb, Elias, ash'-mole, an eminent anti- quary, who, on the breaking out of the Civil War, went to Oxford and entered Brasenose College. He was for some time in the royal army, but when the king's affairs were ruiued, he settled in London, and applied himself to the study of astrology. On the restoration of Charles II. he was appointed Windsor herald, and became one of the first members of the Eoyal Society in the year 1661, a short time after he had been called to the bar. In 1672 he presented his " History of the Order of the Garter " to the king, who rewarded him with £400. In 1683 he presented the university of Oxford with his collection of curiosities, which gift was augmented at his death by the bequest of his MSS. andjlibrary. b. at Lichfield, 1617; ». in London, 1692.— He left a number of MSS., some of which were published ; viz., " The Antiquities of Berkshire;" "Miscellanies on several Curious Subjects j" and "Memoirs of his own Life." Ashwokth, Caleb, D.D. , ash'-mtrth,was the son of Richard Ashworth, pastor of a congregation of Baptists at Cloughfield, Rosendale, Lancashire, where the subject of this notice was born in 1775. He was educated for the ministry under Dr. Doddridge at Northampton, and succeeded that celebrated divine in the direction of the institution established by the Baptists for train- ing ministers of their denomination, an office which he held for twenty-three years, and 1 rought up several men who were afterwards eminent as preachers and writers on theology. Dr. Ashworth was likewise minister of a con- gregation at Daventry, published several ser- mons, one of which was on the death of Dr. Isaac Watts, and was the author of a Hebrew grammar and an introduction to the knowledge of Piane Trigonometry, d. 1775. Asinius, (is-e'-ne-us, Pollio, a Roman who took an active part in the dissensions and wars which preceded the fall of the republic, both in the field and in the forum. He was sprung from a pro- vincial family of equestrian rank, received an excellent education, and became noted for his oratorical powers at an early age ; having, before he had numbered the years which entitled him to sue for public offices, delivered many orations on national questions of importance. When 22, he impeached t'ato for having, when tribune, used undue influence to procure the re-election of Pompey and Crassus to the consulship. In the subsequent wars between Pompey and Ca?sar, he took the part of the latter, was present at the passage of the Rubicon, and was by Ca?sar intrusted with numerous commands and public offices. After the memorable " ides of March," at which time lie was proprietor in further Spain, where he was defeated by Sextus Pompey, and the rise of the Triumvirs into power, he hesitated as to his course of action, but ultimately gave in ids adhesion to the Tri- umvirate, especially attaching himself to An- tony. On being appointed consul in 40 b.c. he gave up (>uintius, his futher-in-law, to proscrip- tion. Along with Maecenas, Pollio was a prin- cipal arbiter of peace in Hie conference at Uiund.isiuin, and acewnpauicd tho reconciled ill Askew Triumvirs to Rome, where he was instilled in the consulship. In the year 39 b.c, after the meeting between young Pompey and the Trium- virs at Misenum, Asinius went into Illyria and Dalmatia as Antony's lieutenant, and for his victories over the Parthians obtained a tri- umph, though the subjugation of those tribes was not effected till the lieutenants of Augustus completed what Pollio had begun. When the final breach between Octavianus and Antony became inevitable, he separated himself from the party of the latter, whose conduct had ren- dered desperate the fortunes both of himself and his adherents. Pollio did not, however, join the opposite faction ; and when asked by Octa- vianus to accompany him to Actium, he mado the honourable reply : " My services to Antony have been too great, and his favours to me too many, for me to take part against him. I withdraw from the contest, and submit to the will of the conqueror." After the triumph of Octavianus, Pollio ceased to take part in public affairs, except in discharge of his forensic duties as an advocate; and died at his Tusculan villa in the year 4 a.d. His character, which is unim- peached, and his talents, which were great, procured him at least outward respect from Octavianus, who, under the title of Augustus, was supreme after Antony's death; but they were never friends. Asinius wrote a variety of works, consisting of tragedies, poems, epi- grams, orations, and declamations, besides a history of the civil wars of Caesar and Pompey in sixteen books, all of which have perished. He left an enduring monument, however, in the Aventine library, which he built on the site of the hail near the Temple of Liberty with a part of the wealth he had acquired in Dalmatia. Asinius was the severe critic of Cicero, Sallust, Livy, and even of Cassar, whom he charges with carelessness in the composition of the Com- mentaries, though his own style was thought by Iris contemporaries to be open to still graver charges than those of theauthors he condemned. It is a good feature in his character, that he was generally the friend and protector of the op- pressed ; and that he had patronised and en- couraged both Virgil and Horace before either Augustus or Maecenas had noticed them. — His son, A. Gallus Saloninus, after filling a variety of offices under Augustus, was arrested in 30 A.n. by order of Tiberius while dining with that emperor at Capraa, sent to a solitary cell, and confined there till death from starvation released him three years afterwards. Gallus was the husband of Vipsania Agrippina, and by her he had several sons, three of whom attained to consular rank. He was the author of some epigrams, and of a treatise in which he com- pared his father and Cicero, giving the palm of excellence to the former, which, in a son, was not unnatural. Askew, Anne, us'-Tcu, an accomplished English lady, daughter of Sir William Askew, of Kelsey, in Lincolnshire. She was married, when young, to one Mr. Kyme, much against her inclination, and on account of harsh treatment received from him, went to the court of Henry VIII. to sue for a separation, where much attention was paid her by those ladies who were attached to the Reformation. In consequence of this she was arrested, and having confessed her religious principles, was committed to Newgate. She was first racked with savage cruelty io the Tower, and then burnt in SmithfielJ, c, 1520 ; OF BIOGRAPHY. Askew d. 15 16. From her letters and other pieces pub- lished by Foxe and Strype, it appears that she was an accomplished as well as a pious woman. Askew, James, wasthe author of a heroic poem in blank verse, commemorative of the defeat of the Spanish armada, and entitled " Elizabetha Triumphans," which was published in 4to in the year 1580. Of his personal history nothing is known. Askew, Anthony, son of Dr. Adam Askew, a physician of repute at Newcastle, was educated for his father's profession, which he practised for some years in Queen 's-square, London, but never attained to any reputation in it. His dis- tinction arises from his learning and the fine library which ho collected, the catalogue of which, the BibliothecaAskewiana, is well known to book collectors. He was, if not the founder, a great promoter of the bibliomania which took its rise about his time ; and his library, which was rich in rare and fine-paper copies of valu- able books and manuscripts, some of which he kept in glass cases and* never allowed to be touched, was sold by auction after his death, the sale continuing for twenty-one days, and pro- ducing upwards of £5000, exclusjge of a large collection of MSS., which were subsequently sold separately. Books from Dr. Askew's col- lection are to be found in most important libra- ries in the kingdom, and are held in high esti- mation, b. at Kendal, Westmoreland, in 1722 ; d. in London, 1774, Asmai, aa'-mai, a celebrated Arabian scholar and author who flourished in the golden age of Mohammedan literature under the Abbasside dynasty at Bagdad. Al- Asmai composed a great variety of works, but the one by which he is best known is the famous " Romance of Antar," of which he was the author or compiler, which has still a high reputation in the East, and of which Sir W. Jones says that "it contains everything; is lofty, varied, and eloquent in composition, and deserves to be ranked among the most finished epics." The period of the poem i3 the time anterior to Mohammed, and the manners, customs, and usages of the Arab tribes — their wars, forays, feastings, single combats, courtesy, chivalry, and generosity — are its themes, which are all described with a fine loftiness of language, and minuteness of detail thoroughly Homeric, and entitle its author (or authors) to take rank with the marvellous old blind Grecian. Lived about.790. \sMONxrs, or Asamonams" a Levite, who was the founder of the Asmomean family, or family of the Maccabees, which ruled over Judea from 160 B.C. to 37. He is supposed to have lived just after the time of Alexander the Great. The name means a " rich man " or " prince." Aspasia, us-pai'-se-a, a Grecian courtesan, celebrated for her beauty and her talents. She was so eminent for her skill in philosophy and rhetoric, that the greatest men of the age, in- cluding even Socrates, did not scruple to visit her house. Pericles having divorced his wife, rj arried Aspasia. b. at Miletus. Lived in the 5th century B.C. AspEn.Joha (or Hans), as' -pair, a Swiss artist, who was so good at painting portraits as to be deemed little inferior to Holbein, b. at Zurich in 1499; died poor in 1571. Aspertini, Amico, us-pair-te'-ve, an eminent historical painter of Bologna, who painted many fine pictures for the cathedral of San Martino, iu his native city, as well as many paintings iu Astbury fresco, which he executed on the facades of many of the Bolognese palaces. He is said to have been able to use both hands with equal facility, b. 14SG ; d. 1552. AspiNWALi.,William,((« / -|)t'n-waZZ,anAmerican physician, who, after taking his degree at Cam- bridge in 1764, graduated in medicine at Phila- delphia in 176S, and subsequently became a surgeon in the revolutionary army during the war of independence. He was distinguished for his success in inoculation, for the warmth with which he adopted and advocated vaccination, and for tne many small-pox hospitals which h* established in America, b. at Brookline, Mass., in 1743; D. 1823. Assabotii, Ottavio Giovanni Battista, a'-sa- rot-te, an ecclesiastic, who first instituted schools for the deaf and dumb in Italy, b. at Genoa, 1753; d. 1829. Asselyn, John, as-sel'-in, a Flemish land- scape painter, who made Claude Lorraine his model in landscape, and Bamboccio in other respects. He was nicknamed Crabbetje from a crook in his hand and fingers, which gave hist hold of the pallet an awkward air. He is brig-lit and clear in Ms colouring, firm in his touch, and his figures are well drawnand judiciously grouped. His pictures have always been held in high esteem, which they merit, b. at Diepen, 1610; d. at Amsterdam 1G60. Asseb, or Assekius Menevensis, tis'-er, bishop of Sherborne, was a native of Wales, and a monk of St. David's. It is said that it was in accordance with his advice that Alfred contri- buted so greatly to the foundation of the uni- versity of Oxford. (See Alfked). Ingratitude to that prime, by whom he was created a bishop, Asser wrote his life, which was pub- lished by Wise, at Oxford, in 1722. r>. about 910. Asseketo, Giovaeehino, as-ai-rai'-to, a Ge- noese artist, the pupil of Andrea Ansaldi, under whom he made so much progress that when only 16 years of age, he executed a pic- ture of St. Anthony's Temptation for the monks of the order; and subsequently painted many altar-pieces for religious houses in Genoa. b. 1600 ; d. 1649.— His son Giuseppe painted iu the same style and line of art as his father, but died young. Assnuii, a-shur, a "step" or "pace," the second son of Shem, and the founder of the Assyrian empire. Ast, Georg Anton Friedrich, oust, a distin- guished German scholar.and professor of ancient literature at Landshut and Munich. He wrote numerous works on philosophy aud philology, and edited an edition of the Dialogues of Plato. B. 177S; D. 1841. Asta, Andrea dell', asta, a Neapolitan who, after studying the best masters at Rome, espe- cially Raphael, returned to his native city, where he acquired great fame as a painter of religious subjects, b. 1633; d. 1721. Astbury, J., iist'-bur-e. The early history of this individual is quite unknown; but, by feigning weakness of intellect, be got himself introduced to the potteries of the Messrs. EI is, at Bradwel!, near Burslcm, and thus obtained many of their secrets in the r.rt of making pottery. He subsequently established himself at Shelton, where ho was the first to make use of Bidcford pipe-clay for lining culi- nary vessels. He made many other improve- ments in his crt, and realized a considerable fortune, iu about libo; j>. 1713. THE DICTIONARY Astell Astelt,, Mary, at'-tel, the daughter of ft merchant at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, became dis- tinguished for the efforts she made to improve the social and intellectual condition of the female sex. With this view, she published several works, the first of which was entitled "A Serious Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement of their great Interests," which was issued in two parts, but printed as a whole in 1697. She subsequently published " Letters concerning the Love of God;" a " Defence of the Female Sex ;" " Reflections on Marriage," and some others. She was a firm, but not bigoted, adherent of the Church of England, and was held in high regard by many divines and other eminent persons of her time; one biographer saying that she had " a piercing wit, a solid judgment, a tenacious memory," and that she was " a great ornament to her sex and country." She was born at Newcastle in 1668, whence she removed, when 20 years of age, to London, where and in the vicinity she subse- quently lived. Her death took place in May, 1731 ; she was buried in Chelsea churchyard. Aster, an'-ter, a dexterous archer of Amphi- polis, who offered his services to Philip, king of Macedonia. Upon being slighted, he retired into the city which Philip was besieging, and aimed an arrow, on which was written, " For Philip's right eye." It struck the king's eye, and put it out; and Philip, to return the pleasantry, threw back the same arrow, with these words, "If Philip takes the town, Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. Astle, Thomas, Zs'-tel, an English antiquary, the son of a farmer in Staffordshire, who in 1770 was appointed to manage the printing of the ancient records of parliament. In 1775 he became chief clerk in the Record Office in the Tower, and on the decease of Sir John Shelley, succeeded to the office of keeper of the records. d. 1803. — Many papers by him are in the volumes of the " Archaeologia;" besides which he wrote "' The Origin and Progress of Writing, as well Hieroglyphic as Elementary," first printed in 1784, 4to, and again in 1803. Astley, John, ast'-lai, a portrait painter, who was born at Wem, Shropshire, early in the 18th century. He was not distinguished for his works, but was eminently so for his good fortune. In early life he was extremely poor, so much so, that he once, while a fellow student of Sir J. Reynolds at Rome, had to make a back to his waistcoat out of one of his own sketches. After returning to England, how- ever, he tried his fortunes in Dublin, and was so successful that in three years he saved 3000Z. He then returned to London, and on his way captivated a wealthy widow named Daniel, who married him, and not only left him her own per- sonal property, but the reversion of an estate worth 50. 373.— The creed of St. Athanasius is supposed to have been compiled by an African bishop in the 5th century. Ata, Hakin-lien, d'-tu, a famous impostor who lived in the reign of the caliph Mehedy, and who is the original of Moore's veiled prophet of Khorassan. Atha had lost an eye, and, to con- ceal the defect, wore a veil, or mask of gold, and hence was named Mokanna, the veil or helmet wearer. He promulgated the doctrine of a succession of incarnations of the Deity in human form, and asserted that the last and greatest of these had occurred in his own person. lie soon gained many followers, who distin- guished themselves by wearing white garments, and established himself in a castle in Transoxiana. 1 lere he lived some time, deceiving his adherents into the belief of his power to work miracles by producing phenomena which they could not understand, but which his skill in chemistry and other sciences easily enabled him to do. At length the caliph sent an army against him, and finding that he could no longer resist, Mokanna poisoned all his attendants, and then threw himself into a caldron of corrosive liquid, in order that, by the total destruction of his body, it might be believed that he had been super- naturally removed from the earth. A lock of his hair, however, and the statements of women who had escaped destruction with the rest of his attendants, frustrated his object, though many of his followers long believed that he had ascended to heaven and would revisit the earth. Ata-Melik, Ala-Eddin Al Jowaini, a fr.tuouc Persian statesman and historian who flourished in the 13th century, and was tne author ot a " History of the Conquest of the World," giving an account of the foundation of the Mogul empire by Genghis Khan, and of the wars of the successors of that conqueror, together with the history of Persia, Khorassan, and Mezenderan. He lived at the court of the governor of Kho- rassan, who entrusted the government to him during his own absence in Persia, and accom- panied the sultan Hulaku in an expedition against the Ishmalians or Assassins, the library of whose princes was given up to Ata-Melik, and by him destroyed. He was subsequen'ly governor of Bagdad, and did much to improve the con- dition of the country, especially by cutting a canal from the Euphrates to the Mosque of Kufa, thereby rendering fertile a tract of country which had previously been waste and barren. After administering the government vitb success for some years, he was accused 97 Atkyns of peculation, condemned to pay an enormous fine, scourged naked round the walls of Bagdad, and thrown into prison, where he died of a disorder of the brain about 1232, a.d. Atiieling, Edgar, ath'-e-ling, son of Edward, and grandson of Edmund Ironside, king of England, was educated by Edward the Confessor, his great-uncle, who intended Mm for his suc- cessor. On his death, however, he was sup- planted by Harold, son of Earl Godwin ; and the success of William, duke of Normandy, at Hastings finally debarred him from the throne. He subsequently went with Baldwin II. to the crusade, and on his return was honoured by seTeral of the European sovereigns for his valour, d. at Malmesbury. Athelstait, iUk'-elsfan, king of England, was the natural son of Edward the Elder, whom he succeeded in 925. He obtained a great victory over the Danes in Northumberland, after which he reigned in tranquillity. He greatly encouraged commerce by conferring the title of thane on every merchant who had made three vovages. d. 911. Athex.bus, Srlhe-ne'-vs, a Greek grammarian, who wrote a work entitled the " Table-talk of the Sophists," published by Casaubon in 1657. b. at Naucratis, Egypt. Lived in the 3rd century. Athejtiojt, ath-ai'-ne-on, the leader, in concert with Salvius, a flute player, of a servile insur- rection in Sicily, about 101 b.c. After various vicissitudes of fortune, having several times defeated the Roman armies sent against him. he wag slain in single combat by the consul Manlius Aquilius, on which his followers were dispersed and the insurrection was quelled. Ancrss, Sir Robert, at'-kins, the son of Sir Edward Atkyns, a baron of the Exchequer, and sprung from a family which for nearly two hundred years had always a member filling a high judicial position, was born in 1621. He received the rudiments of his education at his father's house, then went to Baliol College, Oxford, and then devoted himself to the study of the law, and became a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1633 ; was created a Knight of the Bath at the coronation of Charles II. in 1661, and at the same time received the degree of M.A. from the University of Oxford. Tn April, 1672, he was admitted a serjeant-at-law, and was next day sworn a judge of the Common Pleas, in which position he showed great zeal in the punishment of persons charged with complicity in the so- called Popish Plot, in which he appears to have been a believer. He resigned his seat on the bench In 1630, in order to avoid being made an instrument for the subversion of the law by James II. He afterwards wrote an opiniov against the conduct of the government in the trial of Lord William Russell, and another in condem- nation of the prosecution of Speaker Williams for authorizing the publication of Dangerfield's account of the Popish Plot, in which he vindi- cated the privilege of parliament ; a third sub- ject which he treated ably was the right claimed by Jamis II. of dispensing with statutes — a claim which Sir Robert utterly denied, maiiy taming the constitutional principle that no one estate ot parliament can set aside the acts of all three. After the Revolution of 16S9, Atkyns wat made Chief Baron of the Exchequer, and" on the 19th of October in that year, was raised to the dignity of Speaker of the House of Lords, which ho continued to hold till 1002. He resigned his THE DICTIONARY Atkyns seat in the exchequer In October, 1691, and re- tired to his country seat in Gloucestershire, where he died in 1709. His writings on legal subjects are numerous and valuable. Atkyns, Sir Robert, F.R.S., the son of the preceding, born at Hadley, Barnet, on August 26, 1016, distinguished himself as a writer on topography and kindred subjects, having com- posed a work illustrative of the history and antiquities of Gloucestershire, which was pub- lished after his death, and is now very scarce. d. November 29, 1711. Attar, Ferideddin, af-ar, a Persian poet and historian of the 13th century, was the son of a spice merchant of Nishapur, from which cir- cumstance he obtained his surname. Ferideddin followed his father's occupation for some time, but afterwards abandoning it, devoted himself to a life of seclusion and study, and to the compo- sition of a variety of works, the most remark- able of which is called the " Counsels of Attar," and which has been printed both in England and France. He likewise collected materials for a history of Mohammedan saints, which contains much useful biographical matter. There is an affecting story told re- garding his death. When the troops of Genghis Khan entered Persia, Attar became the caritive of a Tartar soldier, who, when about to slay him, was offered 1000 pieces of silver by a comrade to spare his life. " Accept not such a sum," said the poet ; " there are those who will buy me at a higher price." Some time after- wards, the soldier was offered a sack of straw for his captive, who advised him to accept the offer, as it was as much as he was worth; whereupon the Tartar slew him in a tit of dis- appointment. He was born in 1119, and was, it is said, 111 years of age at his death. Atteebukt, Francis, ut'-er-bur'-e, an English prelate, who, after studying at Westminster school, was in 1681 elected to Christchurch, Oxford. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A., and, in the same year, vindicated the character oi Luther against Obadiah Walker. He had for a pupil the Hon. Charles Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, whom he assisted in his controversy with Uentley. In 1691 he came to London, where his eloquence brought him into notice. He became chaplain to William and Mary, lec- turer of St. Bride's, and preacher at the Bride- well chapel. In 1700 he engaged in a dispute with Dr. "Wake on the rights of Convocation, and was presented with his doctor's degree by the university of Oxford; the same year he was installed archdeacon of Totnes. In 1704 he was promoted to the deanery of Carlisle, and in 1707, Bishop Trelawney appointed him canon residentiary of Exeter. In 1709 he had a dispute with Hoadly on passive obedience. In 1710 he Assisted Dr. Sacheverel in drawing up his del'euce, for which the doctor left him a legacy. The same year he was chosen prolo- cutor of the lower house of Convocation. In 1712 he was made dean of Christchurch, and in the year following promoted to the bishopric of Rochester and the deanery of Westminster. The death of Queen Anne put a stop to further advancement. On the breaking out of the re- bellion in Scotland, he and Bishop Smalridge refused to sign the declaration of the bishops ; besides which, Atterbury drew up some violent protests in the House of Lords. In 1722 he was apprehended on suspicion of being engaged in a pljt to brill? in the Pretender, for which he was Attirighausen committed to the Tower. Before his trial, he raised a difficulty as to whether he should ap- pear in person or by counsel. This point pro- duced a warm debate in the upper house. It was, however, ultimately decided that a bishop is not a peer of the realm, but only a lord of parliament, and that, therefore, the honour of the peerage could not be touched by his being tried before the Commons. He was then ba- nished for life, and left the kingdom in June, 1723. b. at Milton, in Buckinghamshire, 1662; d. at Paris, 1732. His remains were brought to England, and interred in Westminster Abbey. Bishop Atterbury was a man of great learning and brilliant talents, and as a speaker, a preacher, and a writer, has had few equals. Atticus, at-i-kus, Titus Pomponius, a Homan knight, who was descended from an ancient family, and whose manners were so affable that he preserved the good-will of opposite parties in times of the greatest dissensions. Whilst as- sisting Marius the younger in his schemes of ambition, he preserved the friendship of his ad- versary Sylla. In the contest between Caesar and Pompey, he maintained the friendship of both these generals, as well as that of Brutus and of Antony. Notwithstanding, likewise, the contentions between Antony and Augustus, he enjoyed the esteem of both. He was greatly beloved by Cicero, and effected a reconciliation between him and Hortensius. Atticus never attempted to aggrandise himself, and to his moderation may be attributed the tranquillity and influence he enjoyed. His daughter was married to Agrippa. b. 109 b.c. ; starved him- self to death at the age of 77, 32 b.c. Attila, at'-i-la, king of the Huns, who ascended the throne with his brother Bleda in 430, and afterwards caused his associate to be assassinated. He obliged Theodosius II. to sue for peace, and laid him under tribute. In the reign of Valcntinian, he invaded the Roman empire with an army of 500,000 men, laying waste many of its provinces. He entered Gaul at the head of a numerous army, and committed great ravages. The imperialists, however, at- tacked him at Chalons, and after a bloody con- test forced him to retreat. Having devastated the greater part of Italy, he retired, on condi- tion that Valentinian should pay liim a large sum of money. Soon after his return home he mar- ried a beautiful maiden, and died the same night by the bursting of a blood-vessel (453), and with him expired the empire of the Huus. — Attila rejoiced in the name of the " Scourge of God," and, expressing a wish to extend his conquests over the whole world, often gratified his barbar- ous pride by dragging captive kings in his train. His body, deposited in a golden coffin, eased in another of silver and a third of iron, was buried in the midst of a large plain ; and, like that of Alaric, Ins grave was filled with the most mag- nificent spoils obtained by conquest and war. After the ceremony, the barbarous Huns, de- sirous of concealing the tomb of their monarch, slaughtered all those captives who had dug the grave. ATTiNGHACSEy, Werner Freyherr von, at- inij-lioos-en, one of the founders of Swiss freedom, and whose name Schiller has rendered immortal by making him one of the prominent figures in his play of " William Tell." Atting- hausen, like his ancestors before, and his de- scendants since, was landamman of the men of Uri, and was sent as ambassador to endeavour OF BIOGRAPHY. Attiret to conciliate Albert of Austria, but failed, and took a foremost part in the league organised by Tell, and which resulted in the overthrow of Austrian domination and the establishment of the independence of Switzerland. Attiret, Jean Denys, at'-e-rai, a French painter, attached to the Jesuit mission at Pekin, who, after completing his studies at Rome, went to China, and obtained the favour of the emperor Kien-Lung, to whom he had presented a picture of the Adoration of the Kings. The "celestial" monarch, however, disliking oil-colours, chiefly employed him in water-colour painting. He made drawings of many Chinese processions, festivals, and other public ceremonials, which heightened his repu- tation with the sovereign, who created him a mandarin, but he refused that high dignity. Amongst others of Ms works was a portrait of the emperor, surrounding whom were intro- duced many of his distinguished officers, some of whom had to travel 2400 miles merely to fet their likenesses taken, b. at Dole, in 'ranche-Comte, 1702 ; n. at Pekin, 1768. Aiwkll, Hugh, aif-wel, an actor of some eminence, and a contemporary of Shake- speare, but it does not appear that he played in any of that great dramatist's works, though it is certain that he sustained prominent parts in some of those of Ben Jonson. He died of consumption, Sept. 25, 1021, and had an " elegy" composed upon him by William Kow- ley, a fellow-actor and dramatic poet, the ori- ginal MS. of which is in the possession of the Society of Antiquarians. Attwood, George, at'-icood, an eminent lecturer on mathematics and philosophy, who look a distinguished degree at Cambridge, where he completed his education. He invented an apparatus for showing the uniform action of the force of gravity at the earth's surface, and was the author of a work on rectilinear and rotatory motion, and numerous papers in the Philosophical Transactions and other learned publications. He enjoyed the friendship and esteem of Pitt, who made him his private financial secretary, and bestowed upon him a pension of £500 a year. It is believed that many of Pitt's financial schemes were sug- gested, and the details elaborated, by Attwood. «. 1715 ; d. 1S07. Attwood, Thomas, an eminent musical com- poser, who, for the coronation of George IV., produced " The King shall rejoice," and for that of William IV., " O Lord, grant the King a long life," both of which are deservedly esteemed. He also composed a number of glees and songs of great merit, n. 1767; d. in Lon- don, 1838. — At the time of his death Attwood was composer to the Chapels Royal, and organist of St. Paul's, and was buried in the Taults of the cathedral, under the organ which he was in the habit of playing. Aubee, Daniel Francis Esprit, o'-bair, a mo- dern French musical composer, the son of a printseller, in which trade he was initiated, but did not long pursue. His abilities were ori- ginally displayed in the composition of small pieces ; but he soon became known by more important productions, although his first operas, "LeSi'-jour Militairc" and "Lc Testa- ment et les Billets-doux," were net at all suc- cessful. " La Bergcre Chatelaine," however, produced in Paris in 1820, was a complete suc- cetses and after that he rose gradually in public Aubry favour, discovering a marvellous facility of composition, and writing about forty operas ia the same number of years, b. at Caen, 1782.— Auber's style is light and graceful, and amongst his best-known works are — "Fra Diavolo," " Le Cheval de Bronze," " Le Domino Noir," " Les Diamans de la Couronnc," " L'Enfant Prodigue," and " Muette de Portici," better known as " Masaniello." He composed a march for the inauguration of the International Exhi- bition of 1862, which, with pieces composed by Meyerbeer and Bennett, for the same occasion, was performed with great success on the open- ing day. n. 1871. Aubigne', Theodore Agrippa d', do-been'-yai, a celebrated French soldier and historian, greatly esteemed by Henry IV., who was desirous of ad- vancing his fortunes. Having, however, lost the royal favour by his frankness and bluntness, he retired to Geneva, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits, b. 1550 ; D. 1630. — His chief work is the " Universal History," 1550 — 1601, which was condemned by the parliament of Paris. His son, Constant d' Aubigne, was father of the celebrated Madame de Maintenon. Aubigne, Mekle r»\ (See D'Aubigne.) Aubin, Gabriel Jacques de St., o -bit, a French painter and engraver, who excelled in historical subjects, b. 1721; d. 1770. — His two brothers, Augustus and Charles Germain, were also good artists— especially the first. They too were en- gravers. Aubrey, John, aw'-bre, an English antiquary, who, in 1616, was entered of the Middle Temple, but did not continue the study of the law ; and his means, which had been ample, began gradually to decline. He was one of the first members of the Royal Society ; but, being re- duced to poverty, was supported at the close of his life by Lady Long, of Drayeot, in Wiltshire. b. at Easton Piers, Wiltshire, 162G ; d. at Drayeot, 1700. — His works are : — 1. " Miscella- nies, on Apparitions, Magic, Charms, &c," 1696, and 1721 8vo. 2. " A Perambulation of the County of Surrey," 1719, 5 vols. Svo. Besides .which he left several curious MSS. to the mu- seum at Oxford, some of which were subsequently printed. Aubrey, Dr. William, an eminent civilian of the time of Queen Elizabeth, who employed him in many public affairs, held him in great respect, called him her " little doctor," and made him a master in Chancery and master of Requests, &c. He was one of the commissioners for the trial of Mary Queen of Scots, whose life he endeavoured earnestly to save, a circumstance which was re- membered by her son when he came to the crown of England, and James would have made him lord-keeper had not death, in 1595, prevented it. The King, however, knighted two of his sons. B. 1529. He was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. Aubriot, Hugh, o'-bre-o, mayor of Paris, who built the Bastille, in 1369, it being intended as a fortification against the English. Being accused of heresy, he was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment within the very building he had raised. In 1381 he was released by the Ai aillotins, a mob of insurgents who had risen against taxa- tion, and named him as their chief; but, quitting them, he retired into Burgundy, where ne died in 1382. Besides building the Bastille, Aubriot designed and improved many public etiiiiccs, bridges, and canals in Paris. Aubry, Celeste, o'-bre, a French opeift-danrci who. ia the revolutionary times of 37C3. was H 2 THE DICTIONARY Aubry de Montdidier from the rare beauty of her form, chosen to personify the Goddess of Reason in those cere- monies by which it was thought to supersede Christian worship. Aubryde MoNTDiDiER,o-'6re dai'mong-did'-e- ai, a French soldier, supposed to have been assas- sinated by his comrade, Richard de Macaire, in 1371. He is the hero of many dramatic com- positions, founded on the details of the discovery of his murderer. Aubry's faithful dog persisted in pursuing and harassing Macaire; and this coming to the ears of King Charles V., he ordered a combat to be tried between them. In this singular battle the dog was the victor ; and he lias been celebrated ever since in the plays as the "Dog of Montargis," and the " Dog of Aubry, or the Forest of Bondy." Aubby de la Bouchardebie, Claude Charles, Count, boo-sshar'-dai-re, an able French artillery officer, who, entering the army at an early age, was present at all the great battles on the Rhine from 1792 to 1790. He afterwards joined Na- poleon's army of Italy, and had the charge of artillery during the perilous crossing of the Alps. Subsequently he served in St. Domingo ; and, returning to France, performed great en- gineering feats with the army, and was present at the battle of Essling, where he was severely wounded. He accompanied Napoleon in the expedition to Russia, having the command of the artillery of the second division of the army, and greatly distinguished himself at Smolensko, Polotsk, and lieresina. At Lutzen and Bautzen, also, in 1813, he displayed much skill and bravery; and finally at Lcipsic received his death-wound, n. 1773; d. 1813. Aubusson, Peter d', do-boos' -awn; d. at Paris, 1703.— Claude, nephew of Gerard, became famous f»r painting ornaments, lie was appointed king's painter, b. at Lyons, 1658 ; i>. 1734. Audubon, John James, aw'-doo-bon, a dis- tinguished American naturalist, whose father was the first to inspire him with that love of natural objects with which his pursuits were to be afterwards so prominently associated. The study of birds especially became a passion with him ; and, in order that he might become a good draughtsman, Ins father sent him to Paris, at the age of 14, and placed him in the studio of the celebrated David. He applied himself so diligently to study, that when he returned to his native country, in his 17th year, he had become a skilful artist: and his father gave him a farm on the banks of the Schuylkill, ilere, ornithological studies employed a great deal more of his time than farming employ- ments. He married, and continued to explore the American forests in search of new specimens of the feathered tribes to enlarge his collections : these: excursions were prolonged to nearly 15 consecutive years. Having removed to Louis- ville, he met Wilson, the celebrated Scotch orni- thologist, whose conversation added still more '.o Audubon's ardour in his favourite pursuits. La 1810, with his wife and child, he set out on an expedition down the Ohio ; next went through Florida : and so continued, as long as he lived, to extend his knowledge of American birds. He visited England twice, and was everywhere re- ceived with the attention and distinction due to so truthful a naturalist. He became a fellow of the Zoological and Linuxan societies of Lon- don ; of the Natural History Society of Paris, and of numerous other societies of smaller note. His book on American ornithology is the largest and grandest that ha3 ever been published. B. in Louisiana, 1780; n. at Mhmiesland, near New York, 1851. AUENURUGGER, Or AVENBKUGGEIt, Leopold, on'-en-lroog'-er, an eminent German physician, the inventor of percussion as a means'of dis- covering diseases of the chest, b. at Gratz, in Styria, 1722; d. at Vienna, 1809.— Percussion was little practised in England till 1824, when the work of Auenbrugger, with Corvisart's com- mentaries, was translated by Dr. John Forbes, alter wheh it came more into pra-tiee. Ai'gle, Edmund, ozh'-ai. a French Jesuit, 101 Augustine who is said to have converted 40,000 Protestants to the Roman communion by the force of his arguments, b. 1515 ; d. 1591. Auger, Louis Simon, a French journalist, man of letters, and critic, was made a member of the Institute on its reconstitution in 1816, was ap- pointed perpetual secretary of the Academie Francaise on the dismissal of Raynouard ; and amongst many other works, wrote a very excel- lent commentary on Moliere; but his numerous public appointments having made him many enemies, he was constantly engaged in literary warfare. Without any apparent reason, he, on the 2nd of January, 1829, committed suicide by throwing himself into the Seine, b. 1772. Augereau, Pierre Francois Charles, ozh'-e-ro, duke of Castiglione, and marshal of France, entered the French carabiniers at 17, but sub- sequently became a soldier in the Neapolitan service. Having obtained his discharge in 1792, he volunteered into the revolutionary army of his country, and so rapidly distinguished himself, that when Napoleon invaded Italy, he considered Augereau one of his most daring and successful officers. At the bridge of Lodi he headed his brigade, and carried it in the face of the batteries of the enemy; he captured Bologna, and gave Lugo up to pillage and massacre, on account of the stout resistance which its inhabitants made to his arms. At Castiglione, Augereau covered himself with glory, and had the title of duke conferred on him. At Areola he particularly distinguished himself, and had his bravery rewarded and acknowledged by the Directory. The coup d'etat of the 18th Fructidor, planned by Barras, was intrusted to his execution, and carried out with perfect success. For this service he had the com- mand of the army on the German frontier given him; but on account of the violence of his revolutionary principles, he was deprived of it and removed to Perpignan. When Napoleon returned from Egypt he was in Paris, but was slighted by that great general. In the campaign of M arcngo he had the command of a division, and in 1805 was created a marshal. In 1806 he fought at Jena, and at Eylau commanded the left of the French. In this great battle he was suffering from a wound and from fever ; but ho had himself tied upon his horse, and remained to the last on the field. In 1809 and 1810 ho commanded in Spain. In 1812, when Napoleon set out for Russia, he was left behind to form a corps of reserve at Berlin. In 1814 he was ap- pointed to defend the south-east of Franco against the Austrians, but gave way before superior numbers. This irritated Napoleon, who viewed his conduct as approaching to treachery. On the fall of Napoleon, Augereau made his peace with the Bourbons, and was created a peer. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, Augereau offered him his services, but they were not ac- cepted, and after Waterloo he sat on the council which condemned Marshal Ney. Soon al'tef this his own life terminated, b. in Paris, 1 757 ; d. 1816. Augusti, Christian J. W., aw-gua'-te, a dis- tinguished German theologian, who rose to the highest academical honours, b. at Esehenberg 1771; D. 1811. Augustine, St., aw-gus'-tin, one of the fathers of the Christian church, who, although he had all the advantages of a good education, squandered much of his time in debauchery. In 371 bis father sent him to Carthago, where THE DICTIONARY Augustine he became a convert to the Manichseans, and taught rhetoric with great reputation, but still continued his licentious course of life, notwith- standing the great efforts his mother made to reclaim him. Wearied with his African life, Augustine removed to Rome, where he taught rhetoric with great applause, and was appointed its professor at Milan. Here the sermons of St. Ambrose effected his conversion; and, re- nouncing his heretical opinions, he was baptized in 387. The next year he returned to Africa, and was ordained a priest. He was at first the coadjutor of Valerius, bishop of Hippo, and af- terwards his successor. b. at Tagaste, in Africa, 354; d. 430. — His writings have always been held in veneration by the Roman Catholic Church ; and from them was constructed that system commonly designated scholastic divinity. Augustine, or Austin, St., the first arch- bishop of Canterbury, was a Roman monk, sent, about 506, by Gregory I., with forty others, to preach the gospel in England. On landing in Thanet, they informed King Ethel- bert of their purpose, when the king assigned them Canterbury for their residence, with per- mission to exercise their function. The monarch himself embraced Christianity, but never attempted to bring over his subjects by force. Augustine was consecrated, at Aries, archbishop and metropolitan of the church, and fixed his seat at Canterbury. He now endea- voured to convert the Welsh bishops to his tenets, but met with great opposition from them, and died without accomplishing his ob- ject about the year 605. Augustinus vox Olmutz, aw-gvs-ie'-noo»fon ol'-mootz, a scholar and author of Moravia, who largely contributed to the revival of learning in that country. His works are very numerous, and embrace a great variety of topics. His family name was Krescmbrot, but he was always known as Olmutz, from the place of his birth, rt. about 1170; d. suddenly 11th May, 1513. The early reformer, Van Hutten, was one of his nume- rous literary and personal friends. Augustulus, or Romulus Augustus, aw- giut'-tu-lm rom'-u-lus, the last of the Roman emperors in the West, was the son of Orestes, who, having deposed Julius Kepos, refused the throne for himself, but in 47G placed his son upon it. Shortly after, Odoaeer, king of the Hcruli, invaded Italy, slew Orestes, and deprived the young emperor of his dignity. He was, however, suffered to live a private life in Cam- pania, and had a pension of WOO pieces of gold annually allowed him. With him ended the lioman empire in the West. Augustus, OdAviiNUS Cjesab, aw-gus'-tus ok-tui -ve-ai'-nus se'-tar, second emperor of Komc, was son of Octavius, a senator, and Accia, or Atia, who was the sister of Julius Caesar. He was born during the consulship of Cicero, and was adopted by his uncle, Julius Ciesar, the greatest part of whose fortune he inherited. At the age of twenty he was made consul, and though his youth and inexperience were ridiculed by his enemies, yet he rose by his prudence and valour, and made war against '.hem on pretence of avenging the death of his uncle. He fought, with success, at the sieges of Mutina and Pcrusia, the battle of Philippi, in Sicily, and at the battle of Actinni. The first and last were against M. Antony, the second against L. Antony, the brother "of the triumvir; the third was against firutus and X02 Augustus Cassius, and the fourth against Sextus Pompey, the son of Pompey the Great. He united his forces with those of Antony at the battle of Philippi ; but had he not been supported by the activity of his colleague, he would have been totally defeated in that engagement. In his triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, he ob- tained the western parts of the Roman empire, and, like his two colleagues, he, more firmly to establish his power, proscribed his enemies and cut them off. The triumvirate lasted ten years. He had given his sister Octavia in marriage to Antony, to cement their alliance; but Antony deserted her for the fascinations of Cleopatra. Augustus immediately took up arms, osten- sibly to avenge the wrongs of his sister, but, perhaps, rather from a desire to remove a man whose existence and power kept him in continual alarm. Both parties met at Aetium, 31 B.C., to decide the question of empire. Antony was supported by all the strength of the East, and Augustus by Italy. Cleopatra fled from the battle with sixty ships ; an event which ruined the interest of Antony, who followed her into Egypt. The conqueror soon after pursued them, besieged Alexandria, and honoured with a magnificent funeral the unfortunate Antony and the celebrated queen, whom the fear of being led in the victor's triumph at Rome had driven to commit suicide. (See Antony.) Augustus having established peace all over the world, closed the gates of the temple of Janus, in the same year which saw the birth of our Saviour. He was twice resolved to lay down the supreme power, immediately after the victory obtained over Antony, on account of his failing health; but his two faithful friends, Maecenas and Agrippa, dissu tded him, and observed that he would leave the empire the prey of the most powerful, and expose himself to the greatest dangers, b. at Rome, 63 B.C.; r>. at Nola, 14 a.d. after reigning 41 years. — He was an active ruler, and consulted the good of the Romans with the most anxious care. He visited ail the provinces except Africa and Sardinia, and his consummate prudence and experience gave rise to many salutary laws. He is, however, accused of licentiousness ; but the goodness of Iris heart, the fidelity of his friendship, and the many ex- cellent qualities which the poets whom he pa- tronized have, perhaps truly, celebrated, made some amends for his natural infirmities. He was ambitious of being thought handsome, and, as he was publicly reported to be the son of Apollo, he wished his flatterers to represent him with the figure and attributes of that god. He distinguished himself by his learning, was a master of the Greek language, and wrote some tragedies, besides memoirs of his life and other works, none of which are extant. He married four times, but he was unhappy in his matri- monial connexions, and his only daughter, Julia, disgraced herself and her father by the debauchery and licentiousness of her manners. He recommended at liis death his adopted son, Tiberius, as his successor. Virgil wrote his scarcely-surpassed epic poem, the jEncid, at the desire of August; s, whom he represented under the character of ./Eneas. The name of Au- gustus was afterwards given to succccuing Roman emperors. Augustus, elector of Saxony, reigned in general peace, and was, by some, esteemed a prince so wise as to be called the Justinian of Saxony. He greatly embellished Dresden, aud OF BIOGRAPHY. Augustus built the splendid palace of Augustenburg. b. 1526 ; D. 1586. Augustus Frederick I., king of Poland and elector of Saxony. To the former dignity he was elected in 1697, out of many compe- titors. He formed a strict alliance with Peter the Great against Sweden and Turkey ; aiid from this time may be dated the origin of Russian influence in Poland. In his wars with Sweden he may be said to have been unsuccessful, although his troops gained some victories ; and at length, completely defeated at Clissow, 1702, he was forced by Charles XII. to. abandon his claim to the Polish throne. The Swedish monarch, however, being beaten by Peter at Pultowa, Augustus was reinstated, and con- tinued in possession of his kingdom, which, however, had fallen into a state of great dis- organization, from which it never recovered. B. at Dresden, 1670; d. 1733. — His habits were luxurious and licentious, and one of his many natural children was the famous Marshal Saxe. Augustus Frederick II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland, was the son of Augustus I. He was an indolent, idle, and pleasure- seeking prince, and his politics were entirely dependent on Russia. His daughter Maria Josepha was married to the Dauphin of France, from which alliance sprung Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. n. at Dresden, 1696 ; d. 1763. Augustus Frederick, prince of Great Bri- tain and Ireland, and duke of Sussex, was the sixth son and the ninth child of George III. He was a benevolent, unostentatious prince, taking a deep interest in those questions which had for their object the amelioration of the social condition of the people, promoting political reform, and giving his hearty support to the abolition of the slave-trade. He was twice married ; first to Lady Augusta Murray, second daughter of the earl of Dunmore, Scot- land, which marriage was subsequently set aside; and secondly, to Lady Cecilia Letltia Buggin (widow of Sir George Buggin), who was created Duchess of Inverness, b. at Buckingham Palace, 1773; d. at Kensington Palace, 1813. Aulus Gf.llius, aic'-Ins jeV-e-n*, a Greek grammarian, whose " Noctes Attica;," or Attic Slights, has gone through a variety of editions, and been translated into English by Mr. Beloe. Lived in the 2nd century, from the time of Trajan to that of Marcus Aurolius. Aumale, Charles do Lorraine, due d', do'-male, one of the leaders of the Catholic party in Paris, after the assassination of the Duke of Guise, in 1588. He was sentenced to be broken on the wheel for high treason by the parliament of Paris, which sentence was carried out in effigy in July, 1595. d. at Brussels, 1631. Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis, due d', fourth son of Louis Philippe, king oi'the French, early entered the army, and served in Africa under the duke of Orleans and Generals Bugoaud and Paraguay d'Hilliers. Weakened by fever, he returned to Paris in 1811; and here an unsuc- cessful attempt was made to shoot him. Re- joining the forces in Algeria, he gained some considerable successes, and in 1817 was appointed governor-general, and in that capacity received the submission of Abd-el-Kader. The news of the revolution in Paris, of February, 1848, reached him in Algeria, and in the following month, embarking with his brother, he sailed JOS Aurungzebe for England to join there the other members ol his family, b. 1822. Aumont John d', Ao'-mavcng, count of Chii- teauroux, a French general, who displayed great abilities, and was made by Henry III. marshal of France. Henry IV. appointed him governor of Champagne, and afterwards of Brittany. He was shot at the siege of Camper, near Kcnnes, 1595. b. 1522.— He had served six monarchs, — Francis I., Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV. Aunot, or Aulnot, Marie Catherine, countess of, o'-noi, a French authoress, who, at the close of the 17th century, was a distinguished orna- ment of the French Court, and contributed largely to the light literature of her day. She is principally known through the success of her " Fairy Tales," which were imitations of a style of composition introduced in France by Charles Perrault, and which achieved an amount of popularity equal to those of her master. The titles of her stories will, to some extent, indicate their character. Some of these are, " The White Cat," "The Yellow Dwarf," "The Fair One with the Golden Locks," "Cherry and Fair Star; " several of which have formed the basis of successful spectacles and pantomimes, and other extravaganzas, b. 1G50; d. 1705. — This lady left four daughters behind her, one of whom, Madame de Here, inherited talents similar to those by which her parent was distin- guished. Aubelian, Lucius Domitius, aw-re'-le-an, a Roman emperor, was the son of a peasant in Pannonia. He displayed such skill and valour as a soldier, that Valerian, having raised him to very high rank in the army, at last invested him with the consulate. On the death of Claudius II., in 270, who recommended him as his suc- cessor, he ascended the imperial throne. He delivered Italy from the barbarians, defeated Tctricus, who had assumed the title of emperor in Gaul, and conquered Zenobia, queen of Pal- myra, a.d. 273. After these victories, he en- tered Rome in triumph, and next turned his attention to the improvement of the city, and to the reformation of public manners. On his march against Persia, he was assassinated by his mutinous troops, a.d. 275. b. i Jout 212 a.d. Aurelius Victor, Sextus, a Roman historian, who, though born of mean parents, in Africa, raised himself by his talents to distinction. In 361 Julian made him prefect of Pannonia Se- cunda, and in 373 he was chosen consul with Valentinian. Lived in the 4th century.— His Roman history has been several times printed, and is considered both faithful and minute. Aurungzebe, avi-rung-zeeb 1 , emperor of Hin- dostan, known as the Great Mogul, was the youngest son of Shah Jchan, of the dynasty of Timur, and early in his youth affected religious sanctity; but, inlG58, hcandhisbrothei Murad seized Agra, and made their father prisoner. Soon afterwards he put Murad and another brother, Dara, to death, and, ultimately, in 1658, he dethroned his aged father, who died in 1605. Aurungzebe greatly enlarged his dominions, and became so formidable that all the eastern princes sent him ambassadors. His latter days were embittered by jealousy of the ambitious vicwa of his soiis, and ho constantly resided in his camp, which was prodigiously large, and resem- bled a populous city. b. 1618; d. at Ahmed- nuggur, 1707. By his will, Aurungzebe divided Ills possessions among his sons. He was the last THE DICTIONARY Ausonius of the energetic sovereigns who eat on the Mogul throne during the 17th century. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, aw-so'-ne-ui,%cm of a physician at Bordeaux, who became a teacher of grammar and rhetoric, and also a writer of Latin poems, at that place. His fame reached Rome, and Valentinian, the emperor, appointed him tutor to his son Gratian. In 379 he was raised to the consular dignity. He diea about the year 395. His poems, though unequal, have great merit. Austen, William, aws'-ten, an English metal- founder of considerable celebrity, who had a- share in constructing the tomb of Iiichard de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, to be seen in St. Mary's church, Warwick, Lived in the 15th century. Austen, Jane, the authoress of several po- pular novels, which have appeared in ditrerent editions. All her portraitures delineate cha- racters of every-day English life, and are marked by no very strong traits either morally or intellectually. The chief of her productions are "Sense and Sensibility;" " Pride and Pre- judice;" "Mansfield Park;" "Emma;" and " Persuasion." b. at Steventon, Hampshire, 1775; d. at Winchester, 1S17. AuvERGNE.Theophilus de la Tour d', do'-vern, a distinguished French soldier and scholar, who, entering the service early, distinguished himself by his military bearing and by his devotion to study. He was present in many actions during the American war, and was oifered a pension by the king of Spain, which, however, he refused. The French revolution found him a captain, and he was one of the first who volunteered to defend the territory of France against its enemies, without any wish for promotion; and it was only as captain of the longest standing that he accepted the command of all the grenadier com- panies, called the Infernal Column. In every conflict he was ever foremost, and he introduced more generally the bayonet into the French army. He was taken prisoner by the English, and after regaining his liberty, resumed his career by replacing a simple conscript, the son of an old and fecbie friend. He served in many battles under Ilonaparte, who offered him higher rank, but which he refused, and was declared by Xapoleon "the first grenadier of the French republic." b. 1743 ; d. at the battle of Oberhauscn, 1SOO. — He is the author of a French-Celtic dictionary, a Glossary of forty-five languages, and other philological works of merit. The following anecdote is told of him : — A person connected with the government was boasting of his influence, and desired to know what he could do for Auvergne, whose clothes were in a deplorable condition. "What do you wish to have, the command of a battalion, or a regiment? You have only to speak." "Oh no!" said La Tour, " I only want a pair of shoes." Auzout, Adrian, o'-zoo, a French mathema- tician, who is said to have invented the micro- meter, which is still in use amongst astronomers to measure the apparent diameter of celestial bodies, and his treatise on which was printed in 1667. b. at Rouen; t>. 1091.— He was the first who thought of applying the telescope to the astronomical quadrant. Avai.os, Ferdinand Francis d', da'-va-los, marquis of Pcscara, a Neapolitan who served with great distinction in the army of Charles V., and in 1512 \v;is taken prisoner at the battle of Kacenna. He beguiled the hours of captivity 104 Avila by writing a " Dialogue on Love," which he dedicated to his wife, the beautiful and accom- plished Vittoria Colonna. On being released, he again entered into active service, and con* tributcd greatly to the gaining of the battle of Vicenza over Alviano and the Venetian forces. Subsequently he took Milan, gave up Como to pillage, and in 1522, in the campaign against the French, assisted in relieving Padua, and was present at Lodi and Pizzighettone, as well as at the reduction of Cremona. In 1524 he played a foremost part in the battle of Pavia, which was so disastrous to Francis I., and his conduct to the captive king showed much magnanimity. He revealed to Charles V. a plot of the Italians to drive out the Spaniards, and soon after died. b. about 1493 ; r>. at Milan, 1525. Avanzi, Jacopo, av-an'-je, an eminent Ita- lian painter of the 14th century, who was held in high esteem in his time. He was called " Dalle Madonne," because he seldom nainted any other subject but the Virgin Mary. Avanzi, Simon, called "Simone dai Croce- fissi," or Simon of the Crucifixions, because the death of our Saviour was his favourite subject. He was contemporary with and a friend of the preceding. — There was also a Giuseppe Avanzi who painted historical subjects, and was a native of Ferrara. b. about 1615; d. 1663. Avellino, Giulio, av-el-e'-no, a native of Mes- sina, where he was born about 1645, and in his landscapes somewhat resembles Salvator l'osa, of whom he is supposed to have been a pupil. 1 1 o passed most of his life in Ferrara, where his talents were held in high estimation, d. 1700. Averdy, Clement Charles de 1", la-vnir-de', a French statesman and finance minister under Louis XV. He was counsellor of Parliament: but through his propositions for reform lost position, and in 1764 received his dismissal. He retired to his estate, where he employed him- self in agricultural pursuits, but was guillotined in 1793 on an absurd charge, b. at Paris, 1723. Avebeoes, or Ibn Koschd, a-ver-o'-es, an Arabian philosopher and physician, who suc- ceeded his father in the chief magistracy of Cordova, the capital of the Moorish possessions in Spain. He was afterwards made chief judge in Morocco, and having appointed deputies there, he returned to Spain. The freedom of his opinions, however, gave offence to the more zealous Mussulmans, and he was degraded from his office and thrown into prison ; but on doing penance, and making a recanta- tion, he was released, d. at Morocco, 1198. The admiration of Avcrroes for Aristotle was almost enthusiastic, and his commentaries on that philosopher's works procured him the name of the "Commentator." He also wrote a treatise on the art of physic, an epitome of Ptolemy's "Almagest," and a treatise on astro- logy. Avesbuky, Robert of, avis-lur'-e, an English historian who wrote the history of the reign of Edward III. as far as 1356. d. 1360.— This per- sonage styles himself registrarof the archbishop of Canterbury's court. The principal excellence of his work consists in the accuracy of its dates, and the simplicity with which he works his facts into a plain narrative. Avila, Louis d', dnxf-e-la, a Spanish historian and commander of the order of Alcantara. He wrote the history of the war carried on by Charles V. against the German Protestants, and " Memoirs of the War in Africa." Lived in the OP BIOGRAVHY. Avila 16th century.— Charles deemedhimself fortunate in having such an able chronicler of the re- markable events by which his reign was charac- terized.— There are others of this name men- tioned in Spanish history. Avila, Sancho d", a Spanish commander who nerved under the duke of Alva and Eequesens in the Netherlands, and equalled the ferocious Alva in his atrocities. He defeated Louis of Nassau, and gave up Antwerp to what is called the " Spanish fury." He was killed at the siege of Maestricht, 1579. Avisok, Charles, atf-i-son, a celebrated musi- cal composer, a pupil of Geminiani, author of an " Essay on Musical Expression," and several sets of concertos, b. about 1710; d. at New- castle-on-Tyne, 1770. Axtel, Daniel, akn'-tel, a colonel in the par- liamentary army during the civil war, who was originally a grocer, but becoming a follower of the Puritans, was persuaded to engage against the king. He had the principal charge of Charles I. on his trial, and behaved with sin- gular brutality. He accompanied Cromwell to Ireland, where his courage procured him the governorship of Kilkenny. In 1659 he returned to England-, to prevent, if possible, the restora- tion of Charles II. In 1660 he was seized by the royalists, tried for high treason, and exe- cuted. Ayala, Pedro Lopez d', a-ya'-la, the most popular of Spanish chroniclers, and a great favourite of Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, as well as of his three successors, Don Henry of Trastamare, Don John I., and Henry III. He was made prisoner at the battle of Najera, in 1307, brought to England, where he was cast into a dark dungeon, and fettered with chains. His sorrows and sufferings in this state of " durance vile" are described in his poems. He was set at liberty after the payment of a large ransom; and returning to Castile, was again actively engaged in the service of the crown. b. 1332; d. at Calahorra, 1407.— He was the contemporary of Froissart, and his chronicle embraces that period of history when Spain was most nearly connected with the political nation of France and England. It is wanting in the picturesque chivalric painting of Frois- sart, but is deemed honest and trustworthy. Atesha, ai-e'-ska, wife of Mohammed, and daughter of Abu-Beker, one of the first and warmest supporters of the Prophet. Though she bore her husband no children, yet he loved her better than his other wives ; and in his last illness had himself conveyed to her house, where he died in her arms. She opposed the succession of Ali, and levied an army against him. After a severe contest she was taken pri- soner, but was treated by the conqueror with great lenity, d. 677. Ayliffe, John, ail-if, an English jurist who left many works on civil and canon law, but of whose personal history little is known. Flou- rished in the first half of the 18th century. Aylher, John, ail-mer, an English prelate, who was tutor to Lady Jane Grey. In 1553 he was made archdeacon of Stow, in Lincolnshire, and exerted himself strenuously against popery. On the accession of Mary he was forced to leave the country, but found a quiet retreat amidst the beautiful scenery of Zurich. Whilst here he answered a pamphlet published by the cele- brated John Knox against government by women. When Queen Elizabeth came to the 105 Ayscough. throne, he returned to his native country ; and in 1576 was made bishop of London. He was a very diligent prelate, and active against the Puritans, for which he has been severely cen- sured by their writers ; but it is said that he was learned in the languages, a deep divine, and a ready disputant, b. in Norfolk, 1521; d. at Fulham, 1594. — An instance of the humour with which this prelate roused an inattentive audi- ence whilst preaching, is given by Wood. " When his auditory grew dull and inattentive, he would, with some pretty and unexpected conceit, move them to attention. Among the rest was — He read a long text in Hebrew ; whereupon all seemed to listen what would come alter such strange words, as if they had taken it for some conjuration ; but he showed their folly that, when he spake English whereby they might be instructed and edifieo, they neglected and hearkened not to it ; and now when he read Hebrew, which they understood no word of, they seemed careful and attentive." Something of this sort might be advantageously practised by some of our modern divines when they find their audiences becoming inapprccia- tive of their discourses. Ayloffe, Sir Joseph, Bart., a\-lof, of Fram- field, in Sussex, an eminent antiquary, and fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian societies. In 1 730 he was appointed secretary to the commissioners for building Westminster bridge, and became one of the keepers of the documents in the State Paper-office, b. at Framfield, Sussex, 1703; d. 1781.— Sir Joseph was called the Montfaucon of England, and his wide and accurate know- ledge of our municipal rights and national an- tiquities, and the agreeable manner in which he communicated what he knew to his friends and the public, made his death be sincerely regretted by all who had the pleasure of his acquaint- ance. He printed in 1772 calendars of the an- cient charters, &e. in the Tower of London. He also edited editions of " Leland's Collecta- nea," in 9 vols., Hearnc's "Liber Niger," and " Curious Discourses," besides other works. There are many curious papers of Ids in the " Archa?ologia." Ayuar, or Aimjb, James, ai'-mar, a French impostor, who gained considerable wealth at the close of the 17th century by pretending to have a divining-rod, whereby he could discover hidden treasure. The fraud being detected, he returned to his former obscurity ; but it gave occasion for DeVallemont's learned book on the powers of the divining-rod. b. at St. Vcran, Dauphine, 1662. A yscough, Samuel, ais'-ko(r\f, an industrious compiler, who from being the servant of a miller, obtained a situation in the British Mu- seum, where his abilities began to be respecte.l and his salary increased, till he was appointed assistant-librarian. Entering into orders, bo obtained the curacy of St. Giles-in-thc-Fieli:s, and in 1790 was appointed to preach the Fair- child lecture on Whit-Tuesday, at Shoreditch church, before the Royal Society, which ho continued to do till 1804. B. at Nottingham, 1745 ; d. at the British Museum, 1S04. This person seems to have been gifted with the power of labouring at the driest of all occu- pations — that of index-making. He assisted in the regulation of the records in the Tower, and compiled a catalogue of the MSS. in the British Museum ; an h»dex to 56 vol*, of the " Grntle- muu's Magazine," to the " Monthly Review," THE DICTIONARY Ayscue the " British Critic," to Shakespeare, and other works. He was also the author of " Remarks on the Letters of an American Farmer." Not long before his death, the Lord Chancellor gave him the living of Cudham, in Kent. In refe- rence to the "American Farmer," Charles Lamb, in 1805, thus writes in a letter :— " Oh, tell Hazlitt not to forget to send me the 'American Farmer.' I dare say it is not so good a book as he fancies; but a book's a book." Aysctje, Sir George, ais'-l-u, a brave admiral, descended from an aucient family in Lincoln- shire, and knighted by Charles I. He early de- clared for the Commonwealth, and distinguished himself greatly in the wars against the Dutch. In 1651 he and Admiral Blake reduced the Scilly Isles, and afterwards, proceeding to the West Indies, Sir George effected the conquest of Bar- badoes and other islands. After the Restora- tion, he was appointed rear-admiral of the Blue, and in 1666 he hoisted his flag on board the Royal Prince, the finest ship then in the world. He was engaged in the great fight with the Dutch, in 1605, which lasted four days; but, on the third day, striking on the Galloper Shoal, his crew forced him to yield to the enemy. After remaining in Holland a prisoner for some time, he was permitted to return to England, where he spent the remainder of his days in so complete retirement that the period of his death is unrecorded. AYiojf,orATiouy,o£'-, a GTcek lyrio poet, nephew of the elder Simonides. His compositions were hymns, dithyrambic poems, odes in celebration of the Pythian victors, amatory poems, &c, all of which are now lost, except about twenty pieces, n. in the island of Cos ; flourished 423 B.C. This was the last of the nine lyric poets, and Horace is said to have imitated him in several of his poems, particu- larly in the fifteenth ode of the first book. Bach, John Sebastian, bnk, an eminent Ger- man composer, who, in 1703, became musician to the duke of Saxe-Weimar, and obtained in 1718 a victory at Dresden, over Marc-hand, a famous French organist, who fled, rather than endure the certainty of a defeat. He is said to have been equal to Handel in performing on the organ. His compositions display the highest excellence ; and Ms strains may be heard in all the religious edifices in the world, b. at Kiscnach, 1685; d. at Leipsic, 1750. His sons Charles and John were also celebrated as per- formers and composers; and so fertile in musi- cal talent were the Bach family, that fifty-nine members of it have been mentioned as emi- nent musicians. Bachet.ifk, Nicholas, ba-shel'-e-ai,a French sculptor and architect, was a pupil of Michael Angclo. He ornamented the churches of his native city, Toulouse, with his productions, d, 1554. — There were others of this name. Bachmax, John, biik'-man, a distinguished American naturalist, and the assistant of Audu- bon in the preparation of his great work on ornithology, n. near New York, 1790. Baciccio, John Baptist Guuli, ba-chitch'-e-o. OF BIOGRAPHY". Back a celebrated Italian painter, who excelled in portraits and scriptural subjects, b. at Genoa, 1639; D. 1709. Back, Sir George, bak, a distinguished voyager and explorer in the Arctic regions. In 1318 he accompanied Sir John Franklin in his northern voyage, and in 1819 and in 1825 he was with the same navigator in the Arctic Seas. In 1833 he undertook an overland journey in search of Captain Ross. On this occasion he descended Back Biver till he reached the Polar Sea, and then traced the coasts as far as Bathurst Inlet. In 1335 he was made a captain, and in 1836 examined the coasts between Cape Turn- again and Regent Inlet. In 1837 he received the gold medal of the Geographical Society for his exertions to promote geographical science, while, about two years after, he was knighted, and presented with the gold medal of the Geo- graphical Society of Paris, and a service of plate from the promoters of the Arctic Land Expedition, lie attained rear-admiral's rank in 1857, but has not of late been in active service. B.at Stockport, 179C; d. 1878. —He has written two works on the subject of his explorations. JMcker, James, ba'-ker, a Dutch historical painter of great merit, b. at Antwerp in 1530 ; b. 1560. — Of this family there were others who were painters, among whom may be mentioned — Backer, Jacob, a Dutch portrait and his- torical painter, whose works are held in great esteem, b. at Harlingen, 1608; d. 1651. Backhouse, William, bak'-hous, an astro- loger and alchemist, who was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, but left it without a degree, and settled on his estate in Berkshire, where he devoted himself to his favourite studies, b. in Berkshire; D. in 1662. — He published "The Pleasant Fountain of Knowledge," a transla- tion from the French ; " The Complaint of Nature;" "The Golden Fleece," &c. He was also the inventor of an instrument called the way-wiser. Elias Ashmole was his pupil, and used to call him father. Backhutsen, or Bakiiuysen, Ludolph, bak- hoi'-gen, an eminent Dutch painter, whose favourite subjects were shipping and sea-pieces. n. at Kmbden, 1631; d. at Amsterdam, 1709. — He was accustomed, when a storm arose, to embark in a small boat, and going out to sea, would watch, with the greatest interest, the play of the waves and breakers as they lashed the sides of the rolling vessels. This study of nature enabled him to give to his productions the admirable truthfulness which distinguishes them. Bacon, Roger, bai'-kon, an eminent English monk, scholar, and philosopher, was educated at Oxford, under the auspices of Robert Grostete, bishop of Lincoln, who, throughout his life, con- tinued his greatest patron. Bacon was also encou- raged and instructed in learning by Edmund Rich, archbishop of Canterbury, William Sher- wood, chancellor of Lincoln and an excellent mathematician, and Richard Fishacre, an able professor at Oxford and Paris. The last-men- tioned university being at that time greatly frequented by students, Bacon went thither, and studied with so much diligence and success as to obtain the degree of D.D. On quitting France he returned to Oxford, and about the same time entered into the order of St. Francis. He now devoted himself principally to chemistry, natural philosophy, and mathematics ; and so luden; was he in their pursuit, that he spent 100 Bacon hi the course of twenty years £2000 upon them ; which, taking into consideV, the time in which he lived, was no contemptible sum. The discoveries he made, and the fame he obtained, excited the envy and malice of the monks. It was reported, and believed, that he had recourse to the agency of evil spirits, and that all his knowledge consisted in his profound skill as a magician. In consequence of this, he was forbidden to read lectures in the university, and was even confined to his cell, without being allowed to see his friends, or to have a proper supply of food. The bigoted conduct of the monks seems only to have extended his reputa- tion; for, while he was suffering from their persecution, he received a letter from the car- dinal bishop of Sabina, the pope's legate in England, requesting a copy of his works, which Bacon at first declined ; but when that prelate was raised to the papal chair by the name of Clement IV., he collected his writings into a volume, entitled " Opus Majus,"or the " Greater Work," and sent it to his holiness, who promised him his protection. On the death, however, of that pope, he was exposed to new and more severe persecutions. His works were prohibited, and he was sentenced to close imprisonment, in which he remained above ten years. On being released, he retired to Oxford, where he died. b. atllchcster,1214; ». 1292.— Hallam says that the mind of Roger Bacon was strangely com- pounded of almost prophetic gleams of the future course of science, and the best prin- ciples of the inductive philosophy, with a more than usual credulity in the superstition of his own times. However this may be, he was cer- tainly possessed of one of the most compre- hensive minds of any man of his time. Bishop Bale mentions above eighty treatises written by him, of which he had himself seen nearly forty ; and Dr. Jebb, the learned editor of his " Opus Mirjus," classes his writings under the heads of grammar, mathematics, physics, optics, geo- graphy, astronomy, chronology, chemistry, magic, medicine, logic, metaphysics, ethics, theology, philology, and miscellanies. His chemical tracts are in the " Thesaurus Chemi- cus," printed at Frankfort, in 8vo, 1620. His treatise on the "Means of avoiding the Infirmi- ties of Old Age" was first printed at Oxford in 1590; and an English translation of it, by Dr. Browne, appeared in 1683. Several pieces of his yet remain in MS. Bacon was a deep mathe- matician, and from some of his MSS. it ap- pears that he had a knowledge of the nature of convex and concave glasses ; and some consider him as the inventor of the telescope. He has, besides, the credit of having been the inventor of the air-pump, the diving-bell, the camera obscura, and of gunpowder, the composition of which is expressly mentioned in his treatise " L>e Nullitate Magi*." Dr. Friend thinks that since the days of Archimedes, the world has not seen a greater genius. His acquaintance with astronomy and geography was very extensive and accurate. He detected the errors in tha calendar, and suggested the reformation in it which was, long afterwards, adopted by Gregory XIII., and was, on the whole, according to Gerard Joannes, a man of such vast learning, that England, nay, the world beside, had not, in this respect, his equal or his second; yet cither through the envy or the ignorance of the age in which he lived, he was stigmatized as a ma- gician. THE DICTIONARY Bacon Bacon, Robert, an Englishman, born about 1198, has been supposed, though on but slight grounds, to have been a brother of Roger Bacon. He studied at Oxford, and afterwards at Paris, was an assiduous and acceptable preacher, and left many works in theology, which were held in high esteem at the time. d. 1248. Bacon, Sir Nicholas, lord keeper of the great seal, studied at Bene't (now Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge, whence ho removed to Gray's Inn, where he became so eminent in the law, that he was appointed attorney in the Court of Wards. After this, on the dissolution of the monastery of St. Edmund's Bury, he ob- tained from Henry VIII. possession of various manors in Suffolk. Having become a Protes- tant, he was on that account excluded from all employment during the reign of Mary; but, on the accession of Elizabeth, he was made a privy councillor and keeper of the great seal. In every political change his prudence seems to havepre- servsd him from danger, whilst he made it his study never to entangle himself with any party. When the queen came to visit him at his new house at Redgrave, she observed, alluding to his corpulence, that he had built liis house too little for him. ".Not so, madam," answered he;. " but your majesty has made me too big for my house." b. at Chislehurst, 1510; d. 1579.— He was twice married: by his first wife he had three sons and three daughters; and by his second he had two sons, Anthony and Francis, the future Lord Chancellor of England. He was a learned and wise rather than a great man. " I have come to the lord keeper," says Putten- ham, "and found him sitting in his gallery alone, with the works of Quintilian before him. Indeed, he was a most eloquent man, of rare learning and wisdom, as ever I knew England to breed." His great son has, as it seems to us, thus correctly drawn his character : — " He was a plain man, direct and constant, without all finesse and doubleness, and one that was of a mind that a man in his private proceedings and estate, and in the proceedings of state, should rest upon the soundness and strength of his own courses, and not upon practice to circumvent others." Bacon, Anne, the second daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, the wile of Sir Nicholas Bacon, and the mother of the great Sir Francis Bacon, liaron Verulam. She had considerable literary talents and was well skilled in both the Latin and Italian languages, from both of which she translated some works. She also corresponded in Greek, and Beza dedicated his " Meditations" to her; but it is on account of her having been the mother of the illustrious Chancellor of England, rather than on account of any distinguished talents of her own, that she is here noticed, b. 1528; d. 1000. Bacon, Francis, Lord, the illustrious philoso- pher and eminent statesman, was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his second wife ; and, whilst yet a mere boy, gave such indications of future eminence, that Queen Elizabeth used to call him her "young lord keeper." He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he discovered I he futility of the Peripatetic or Aristotelian philosophy, which then prevailed. At the age of sixteen lie went to France in the suite of Sir Armas Paulet, ambassador to that court. During his residence there he wrote his work on the state of Furopc, which displayed great observa- tion, though he w;v8 then but nineteen years of no Bacon age. On his return to England he entered Gray's Inn ; and at the age of twenty-eight was appointed one of the queen's counsellors ; but, from his attachment to the earl of Essex, who was at enmity with Cecil, Bacon lost those ad- vantages at court which he might otherwise have reaped. That generous but unfortunate earl, however, feeling the value of his attach- ment, presented him with an estate, and showed him many acts of kindness, all of which, we grieve to say, were repaid with ingratitude, which, however, has been endeavoured to be palliated from considerations of the position in which he was placed. It was his conduct towards the fallen earl, considered in connexion with his wisdom, learning, and other great qualities, which evoked his portrait by a great poet in the following line : — "The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." In 1592 he was chosen member of parliament for Middlesex, and had the courage to oppose several arbitrary measures of the court ; for which he incurred the Queen's displeasure. At this period he was, as through life, in possession of the friendship of rare Ben Jonson, who has be- queathed to us a graphic sketch of his oratorical powers. " No man ever spoke more neatly, more pressly, more weightily, or suffered less empti- ness, less idleness, in what he uttered. No member of his speech but consisted of his own graces. His hearers could not cough or look aside from him without loss The fear of every man that heard him was lest he should make an end." Ben, however, had a noble admiration of the intellectual qualities of the chancellor. On the accession of James I. he obtained the honour of knighthood, and in 1604 was appointed one of the king's counsel, with a pension. The next year he published a great work, entitled " The Advancement and Profi- ciency of Learning," for which he was made solicitor-general. About this time he married a daughter of Mr. Bamham, a rich alderman of London. In 1611 he was appointed judge of the Marshalsea court, and obtained the place of re- gistrar of the Star Chamber, the reversion of which had been granted him twenty years before. In 1613 he was made attorney-general, and in 1616 sworn a privy councillor. At this time he contracted a close intimacy with the king's favourite, George Villicrs, duke of Buck- ingham, to whom he wrote an admirable letter of advice. In 1617 1)5 was made lord keeper of the great seal ; and in January, 1618, was in- vested with the high chancellorship of Great Britain, aud created a peer by the title of Baron Verulam. He was next made viscount of St. Albans. In 1620 he gave to the world the greatest of all his works, entitled the "Novum Organum," which was immediately hailed with the warmest expressions of admiration by the greatest minds of Europe, and which is " tho central pile of that edifice of philosophy on which the world has bestowed his name." Ho had now reached the zenith of his glory, when he was accused in parliament of bribery and corruption in his high office. This heavy charge was admitted by himself. " I do plainly and ingenuously confess that I am guilty of cor- ruption, and do renounce all defence." There is something humiliating, but, at the same time, extremely touching, in the fall of this great man. The confession of guilt, though made by him- self, could hardly be believed. A committee, therefore, was scut by the Lords to inquire if OF BIOGRAPHY. Bacon he really had made such a confession, and if it had been signed by him. " My lords, it is my act, my hand, my heart : I beseech your lord- ships to be merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to pay a fine of £40,000, to be im- prisoned during the king's pleasure, and for ever rendered incapable of holding any public office. In a short time, however, he was restored to liberty, had his fine remitted, and was sum- moned to the first parliament of Charles I. It must not be omitted that the greatest part of the blame attaches to his servants ; and of this he was sensible; for, during his trial, as he passed through the room where his domestics were sitting, they all rose up at his entrance, on which he said— "Sit down, my masters; your rise hath been my fall." After this dis- grace he wont into retirement, where he devoted himself to his studies, b. in London, 1561 ; d. 1626. — His remains were interred in St. Michael's church, at St. Albans, where his secretary erected a monument to his memory. His writings arc an inestimable treasure of sound wisdom, and he has justly been called the father of experimental philosophy. In closing this sketch, we cannot help quoting the few pathetic lines written of him by rare Ken Jonson, his faithful friend in adversity as well as in prosperity. " My conceit of his person was never increased towards him by his place or honours ; but I have and do reverence him for the greatness that was only proper to himself, in that he seemed to me ever by his worth one of the greatest men and most worthy of admiration that had been in many ages. In his adversity I ever prayed that God would give him strength, for greatness he could not want." {See Life, by W. Hepworth Dixon ; and " Letters and Life of Francis Bacon," by James Spedding.) Bacon, Nathaniel, half-brother to the chancel- lor, had a taste for landscape-painting, in which he attained considerable excellence, d. 1615. Bacon, Anthony, fourth son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, and eldest full brother of Lord Bacon, was born in 1558, and educated at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, along with his brother Francis. He was throughout life of infirm health, but was endowed with a considerable share of the intellectual power which distinguished this re- markable family. He attained to considerable property in Herefordshire and Middlesex, on the death of his father ; but he appears to have been of extravagant habits, for we find his mother writing in very severe terms as to the continual demands for money which he made upon her. In 1579 he went upon the continent, where he remained for several years, and was very useful to the Cecils by the important information he ' ransmitted to them. He also corresponded with Walsingham.and was the friend of the celebrated Beza, in whose house he lodged at Bourges, in Berri, His attachment to the reformed faith exposed him to considerable annoyance, so much so as to induce the Parliament of Bor- deaux to decree that he was worthy of the rack as a shclterer and favourer of the Huguenots. Ucturning to England in 1591, he took up his residence in Gray's Inn along with his brother Francis, but subsequently attached himself to tho Karl of Ksscx, in whose house ho had apartments a-signcd him, and resided there for some time; indeed, it is believed he did so till tho fall and s ibsequcnt execution of the earl. When Anthony Bacon died has not been ascertained; but a ( ompilation of his papers was published by Bacon Birch, under the title of " Memoirs of the Kcign of Queen Elizabeth." Bacon, Nathaniel, third son of Edward Bacon, of Shribland, Suffolk, and grandson o£ Lord-Keeper Bacon, was educated for the bar, and in 1643 was chosen recorder of Ipswich ; in 1657 he became a master of requests; was elected member for Cambridge in the Long Parliament ; was an admiralty judge ; and represented Ips- wich in the Parliaments of 1654, 1656, and 1658. He was also recorder of St. Edmund's Bury, and a bencher of Gray's Inn. Bacon was "a sturdy republican, and took an active part in the stirring events of his time; he likewise de- voted a part of his attention to antiquarian pur- suits, and wrote an account of Ipswich, from the time of the heptarchy to the reign of Charles I., which, although never published, is said to show much research and learning. He is be- lieved to have been the author of a treatise en- titled " An Historical Discourse of the Unifor- mity of the Government of England," which was published in two parts, the first in 1647, and the second in 1652. Selden is said to have also been concerned in the composition of this work, with which the name of tho Virginian rebel, Bacon, has likewise been associated, but with little probability of truth. Bacon was twice married — first, to Elizabeth Maidstone; and second, to Susan Holloway. After his death, which occurred in 16G0, the corporation of Ips- wich voted a gratuity to his widow, in conside- ration of his antiquarian and other labours in connexion with the borough. Bacon, General Nathaniel, a native of Eng- land, who, after becoming a member of one of the inns of court in London, emigrated to Vir- ginia, where he made himself so conspicuous by his opposition to the governor, Berkeley, that he acquired tho cognomen of " The Rebel." A quarrel having occurred between the settlers and the natives, the former chose Bacon their general, and, disregarding the orders of the governor, who refused him a commission, he put himself at the head of a party of colonists, and marched against the Indians, whom ho defeated, and destroyed their maga- zine. He was shortly after, in May, 1676, pro- claimed a rebel, was surprised at Jamestown, put in irons, and tried before the governor and council, but acquitted. He was now promised a commission for the Indian war, but as the governor refused to sign it, Bacon raised a force of 500 men, and compelled the governor to grant tho commission. He then entered vigorously on the war with the Indians, and was prosecuting it with success when he was again proclaimed a rebel, on which he turned his arms against the governor, whom he once more defeated, subsequently burnt Jamestown, and was pre- paring to follow up the advantage, when he was seized with a sickness which terminated his life, Oct. 1, 167G. Bacon was very popular in the colony of Virginia, and had he lived, and suc- cess continued to crown his conduct, might possibly have proved the deliverer of the country, and anticipated the great revolution ultimately accomplished by Washington a hundred years later. Bacon, John, an English sculptor, at first was bound apprentice to a manufacturer of china at Lambeth, where he was employed in painting on porcelain. Here ho became so ex- pert in modelling shepherds, shepherdesses, and ether ornamental figures, that in less than two THE DICTIONARY Badajoz years he formed all the models for the manufac- tory. While here, he had an opportunity of observing the models of different sculptors, which were sent to the pottery to be burnt ; and by them he was inspired with a strong inclina- tion for his future profession. He immediately began to apply himself with unremitting dili- gence, and his progress was so rapid that he obtained nine of the first premiums from the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. The earliest of these was in 1758, for a figure of Peace, when he was only eighteen years of age. During his apprenticeship he formed a design of making statues in artificial stone or cement, which has since been brought to great perfec- tion. About 1763 he began to work in marble ; and having invented an instrument for trans- ferring the form of the model to the marble, he saved a great deal of time, and brought his instrument to be adopted by other sculptors. In 17C9 he obtained from the Royal Academy the first gold medal given by that society, and the year following he was chosen an associate. The reputation acquired by the exhibition of his statue of M ars induced Dr. Markham, archbishop of York, to employ him in making a bust of George III. for the hall of Christ Church, Ox- ford. While modelling this bust, the king asked him " if he had ever been out of the kingdom ;" and on being answered in the negative, " I am glad of it," said his majesty ; " you will be the greater honour to it." Bacon's execution of this bust gained him the royal patronage, and he was employed in forming another for the uni- versity of Gottingen. In 1777 he was engaged to prepare a model of a monument to be erected in Guy's Hospital to the memory of the founder, which occasioned him to be employed in the execution of Lord Chatham's monument in Guildhall. The year following he became a Royal Academician, and completed a beautiful monument to the memory of Mrs. Draper, in Bristol Cathedral. His other works are too numerous to be specified ; suffice it to mention the monument of Lord Chatham in Westminster Abbey, and Howard's and Dr. Johnson's in St. Paul's Cathedral, b. in Southwark, 1740; d. 1799. — He was of an estimable private character, and ordered the following inscription, which he wrote himself, to be placed on his tombstone : " What I was as an artist seemed to me of some importance while I lived ; but what I really was as a believer in Christ Jesus, is the only thing of importance to me now." He wrote the article "Sculpture" in Rees's Cyclopaedia. Badajoz, Juan de, had-a-joth, a native of the Spanish city of the same name, attained to con- siderable eminence as an architect. He flourished in the 16th century, and was distinguished for the profusion of carving and sculpture which he introduced into the works executed by him, several of which still remain in Leon and Cas- tile. In 1512 he was one of a committee of nine architects appointed to consult as to the erec- tion of a new cathedral at Salamanca. The dates of his birth and death are unknown, but from an inscription on the church and monas- tery of Exlonga, near Leon, he appears to have been living in 15-15. Badalocciiio, Sisto Rosa, bd -da-lolcV -e-o, an Dalian painter and engraver, held in consider- able estimation, especially as a draughtsman. His works are to be found in Bologna, Modena, and Parma, b. 1531; n. 16-17. Badcock, Samuel, bad'-kok, an English divine, na Baden best known by his critiques, in the " Monthly Review," on Madan's " Thelypthora," Dr. Priestley's "History of the Corruptions of Christianity," &c. ; and by the considerable share which he had in Dr. White's L'ampton Lectures. He was a man of great liveliness, taste, and learning, b. at South Multon, 1747; d. 1738. Badby, John, bad'-be, an artificer, and among the first victims of the persecution of the Lol- lards under Henry IV. Although unlettered, he had a dispute with Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, as to the Real Presence in the con- secrated wafer, and, refusing to be convinced, was condemned to be burnt at Smithfield, in 1409. The Prince of Wales, afterwards the celebrated Henry V., was present, and urged Badby to recant, offering him both a pardon and a pension, but the martyr was firm, and the sentence was carried into execution. Baddeley, Robert, bad'-lee, a low come- dian of considerable repute, who was long con- nected with the Drury Lane company. He died in 1794, and bequeathed his cottage at Hampton to the managers of the Theatrical Fund, on condition that four of the pensioners of the fund should be elected to occupy it, who " did not ob- ject to live sociably together "—a proviso which would seem to imply that harmony was not a special characteristic of the histrionic profession in his time. Baddeley, Sophia, wife of the preceding, an actress of much celebrity in genteel comedy, was the daughter of the sergeant-trumpeter to George II. She appeared at Drury Lane in 1761 ; and so pleased the king in the part of Fanny, in the Clandestine Marriage," that he ordered her portrait to be painted by Zolfany. She likewise sung at Ranelagh and Vauxhall, where she was paid the then handsome salary of twelve guineas a week. She eloped with* Baddeley before their marriage, soon separated from him, lived a very dissipated and disre- putable life, and ultimately died in great desti- tution at Edinburgh. B. 1745; D. 1801. Baden, dukes of, baa'-den, a very old German family, which still enjoys the grand-ducal titles and dignity, took its rise from Gottfried, duke of the Allemans, about a.d. 700, and members of which have from time to time taken part in the wars and politics of Germany and Italy ever since. The most prominent individuals of this family were — 1. Herman II., who in 1130 first took the title of Margrave of Baden, and was thus the immediate founder of the race. 2. Frederic I., son of Herman VI. and Gertrude, daughter of Leopold the Glorious, duke of Austria and Styria, by whom he was left an infant, and having been deprived of his mother's inheritance, he took refuge at the court of Louis the Severe of Bavaria, from which he went to take part in the war between Naples and Charles of Anjou. He was present in the battle of Tagliacozzo, August 23, 1268, in which Charles was victorious, and Frederic was shortly afterwards taken prisoner and beheaded — a cir- cumstance which opened the way to the house of Hapsburg attaining to the imperial dignity. 3. Philip I., who took an active part in tlio Information in Germany, having assisted in the Iiict of Worms in 1521, and in that of Spire in 1526. He died in 1533. 4. Louis-William I., who was regarded as one of the greatest ge- nerals of his age, was born at Paris, 1055, and commenced his military career hi the armies of OP BIOGRAPHY. Baden Badiua fbe enwire in 1674, under Monteeuculli. He succeeded to the AJargravate of Baden in 1677 ; and in 1683 took part in the war against the Turks, in which he had as compatriots John Sobieski of Poland, Charles of Lorraine, and Kugcnc of Savoy ; he helped to deliver Vienna from the Moslems, and took a prominent part in the numerous battles and sieges which have made the war memorable in history. He, on the death of Sobieski, competed unsuccessfully for the crown of Poland, and held a high com- mand in the German army at the commence- ment of the war of the Spanish succession, and was opposed, not without credit, to the great Marshal Villars. On the junction of the armies of Prince Eugene and Marlborough with bis own in 1704, he was virtually set aside from command, his tactics and skill being in every respect inferior to those of the two great warriors named. He died on the 4th of January, 1707; and as he had totally neglected his own terri- tory to engage in the quarrels of others, he left his lands in a miserable condition, from which it was many years ere they recovered. As a warrior, however, he was a man of much mark and great experience, having passed through 26 campaigns, 25 sieges, and commanded in 13 battles. Vadeit, Dr. Richard, ba'-den, the founder of Clare Hall, Cambridge, who, in 1326, was chan- cellor of Cambridge. In the same year he laid the foundation of a building to which he gave the name of University Hall ; which, being burnt down, was rebuilt about the year 1342 by Elizabeth, countess of Clare, who named it Clare Hall. Lived in the 14th century. Badens, Francis, ba'-denst, a skilful Dutch historical and portrait painter, b. at Antwerp, 1571; d. 1603. — His warm colouring procured him the surname of the " Italian." Badia t Lkblich, Domingo, baif-e-a e lehlik, better known as Ali Bey, was born in Bis- cay, in 176P. Conceiving the project of found- ing an European colony between Morocco and Algiers, he first obtained the sanction of the Spanish court, and resided for some time in Paris and London, collecting information and funds. He then assumed the Mussulman garb, proceeded to Tangier, where he proclaimed himself the son of a Syrian prince, and so com- pletely deceived the Mohammedans that he was everywhere received with much distinction as a true son of Islam. So far did he carry this de- ception, that he was feted by the emperor of Morocco, and on making the pilgrimage to Mecca, was allowed to sweep and perfume the Kaaba after the seherif. After travelling over a good deal of Africa, and all Syria, Egypt, &c., in the latter of which he met Chateaubriand, who pronounced him " the most polished Turk in existence, and a worthy descendant of Saladin," he returned to Europe," where he found the king of Spain in the hands of Bonaparte, in whose service he embarked, and held the prefectship in several Spanish provinces subject to king Joseph. On the fall of Bonaparte, he managed to recommend himself to Louis XVIII., who en- couraged him to pursue his plan of the African settlement, and funds were provided for a new journey. He was still to keep up his character of Mussulman, and to revisit Mecca, and then proceed to Africa tocarry out his original scheme, lint he was never destined to do either, having been cut off by dysentery, in August, 1818, while accompanying the great caravan from Syria to 113 Mecca. Whether his plan of a colony of Euro- peans in Africa, which, as he represented, would have been the centre of commerce and civiliza- tion on that continent, and also a check upon Mohammedanism there, was practical or not, it is certain that his travels have thrown immense light on the condition and habits of the nume- rous peoples he visited ; and his whole career entitles him to be regarded as one of the most extraordinary men who ever existed. Badia, Tommaso, baw'-de-a, a cardinal, who figured in the Reformation controversy began by Luther, taking part against the reformer, but with more moderation than many othera. Paul III. appointed him one of the members who formed the congregation of Worms, held preparatory to the Council of Trent, and ha had the largest share in drawing up the memorial there agreed to, urging the reform of abuses which had crept into the church, but which, although printed by order of the Pope, was not then allowed to be circulated. For his services on this occasion he was, in June, 1542, created a cardinal, but died a few years after, on the 6th of September, 1547. liad'ia left several works behind him, which have never been printed, although constantly referred to by his bio- graphers, b. at Modena, about 1483, and edu- cated by the Dominicans, whose habit he took on becoming of age. Badilb, ba'-de-lai, Antony, an Italian painter, whose portraits were far more natural and life- like in appearance than those of the earlier masters. He was the uncle and first instructor of Paul Veronese, b. at Verona, 1480; d. 1560. Baiiily, bad'-e-le, an eminent naval com- mander in the time of Cromwell, who, with a much inferior fleet, fought a desperate action | with the Dutch under Van Galen, oil' the Isle of Elba, in 1652, and although nominally defeated, he did so much damage to the Hollanders, as to leave them only a barren victory. He subse- quently took part, along with Commodore Appleton, in another action with the same Dutch fleet, after both parties had quietly re- paired damages in the same neutral port ; but of what finally became of him nothing is known. His early career is also involved in obscurity ; but his gallantry in the battle referred to ea- titlcs Ins name to preservation. Badius, Josse, bad'-e-oos, a distinguished scholar and printer, was a native of a village called Asche or Assen, in the vicinity of Brus- sels, and was hence called Asccnsius. He was a complete master of Greek and Roman liters- tare, which he taught for some time at Lyons, and then became corrector of the press to John Trechsel, whose daughter he married. He sub- sequently established a printing press in Paris, from which were issued some good editions of the Latin classics, and many excellent works, some of which were of Radius's own composi- tion. He had three daughters, all of whom were married to printers. One of these was the wife of Robert Estienne, one of the family of famous French printers of that name. b. 1462 ; p. 1535. Badius, Conrad, son of the above, was still more eminent both as a scholar and a printer. The earliest editions printed by him that are known bear date 1546. Having embraced the reformed doctrines, he removed from Paris to Geneva in about 1549, and there, in conjunction with his brother-in-law Estienne, he printed a great variety of works, which are alike valu- able for their accuracy, beaut'-, and the prei'ai«i I THE DICTIONARY Badoara end introductions which Badins wrote to them. He enjoyed the friendship of both Calvin and Bcza. b. 1510; b. about 1500, but the date of his death is uncertain. Badoaeo, bawd-o''ii-ro r a, distinguished noble family of Venice, which produced in the 16th century several eminent poets, senators, and orators, the most remarkable of whom were— 1. Lauro, poet, b. 1546; b. 1593. 2. Daniele, se- nator, n. 1584. 3. Pietro, a famous advocate, and natural son of Daniele, b. 1591. 4. Fredc- rico, statesman, and founder of the Academy Delia Fartna, at Venice, b. 1618; d. 1593. 6. Giacomo, dramatic poet, whose plays were represented at the San Giovanni theatre, and several of which have been published, and are still popular. Lived in the 17th century. Baeli, Francesco, law-ai'-le, a distinguished Sicilian poet and mathematician, who, to im- prove himself in knowledge, travelled all over Europe, and finally settled in Sicily ; he contri- buted a variety of works to the "Bibliotica Sieiliana" of Montignore. b. at Melazzo, in 1G39; the date of his death is uncertain, but he lived into the 18th century. Baeksteat, bar'-slrat, a Dutch painter, who excelled in sea-pieces and fish. His works are highly estimated. Lived in the 17th century. Baert, Baron Alexander Balthazar Francis dc Paul de, hair, a French senator and author, was born at Dunkirk, in 1750. In 1791, lie was a member of the Legislative Assembly ; but quitted France after the events of Aug. 10, 1 792, and retired, first, to the United States, and then to England, where he resided for several years. He subsequently returned to France, and, among other works, wrote an account of Great liiitain and her possessions, which is considered by the French as an excellent account of Eng- land, although in reality but an abridgment of previous works on the geography, constitu- tion, &c., of Great Britain. On the faith of this work, he was regarded as a great authority on English affairs, and was often consulted by Napoleon I, upon them. n. in 1825. Baffin, William, baf-in, an English naviga- tor, of whose early life little or nothing is known. In 1G12 he made a voyage to the north- west, of which he wrote an account, and which was the first in which a method was adopted by Baffin of determining the longitude at sea by observations made upon the heavenly bodies. In 1613 he made a voyage to Green- land, and in 1615 made another with Bylot, and in the following year acted as pilot to the same commander, and discovered the large sea which bears his name. In 1621 he joined the British expedition which, acting in concert with the Persians, was to eject the Portuguese from the Persian Gulf, where, at the siege of Kismis, a small fort near Ormuz, he was killed, b. loSi; ». 1622. Bage, Robert, boje, a writer of novels which were popular in their day, was brought up as a paper maker at Darley, near Derby ; but, being unsuccessful in business, took to novel- writing to divert his mind from brooding on his difficulties. His works arc — "Barham Downs," " The Fair Syrian," " Mount Heneth," and "James Wallace." He died at Tamworth, on Sept. 1, 1801. His life was written by Sir Wal- ter Scott, which shows that his reputation was not insignificant. Bagford, John, bag'-ford, an antiquary and collector of rare books, print3, &c., was a native 11* Baglivi of London, and devoted much of his time to col- lecting materials for the elucidation of points in its history. He was an uneducated man, wrote little — indeed, could not have done so, from want of education ; but his collections have been of great service to others. He intended to have written a history of printing, but the prospectus wasall that ever appeared of it. H is collections are in the British Museum, and are both curious and valuable. He was bred a shoemaker, but afterwards obtained employment in buying rare books, &c, for booksellers and other collectors, one of whom was the earl of Oxford, b. about 1657. D. 1716. Baggesejt, Emmanuel or Jens, baj-e'sen, a clever writer, both in Danish and German, was a native of Corsoer, in the island of Zealand, where he was born on February 15, 1704. He was educated at Copenhagen, and when 20 years of age produced his first work, called " Comic Tales," which display much liveliness of ima- gination, together with satiric humour, which last quality, however, he said was not natural to him, though it marks nearly all his works. He was of a very restless disposition, and spent a large part of his lite in wandering from place to place. In one of his journeys he became ac- quainted with the daughter of the poet Haller, and married her. He was afterwards appointed professor, first at Copenhagen, and afterwards at Kiel ; but neither of these positions did he long retain. His first wife died in 1797, and in the following year he married a second time, the name of the lady being Fanny Reibaz. His restless disposition involved him in debts and difficulty, and even conducted him to prison in France. He became an enthusiastic admirer of the first revolution, and remained in Prance from 1798 till 1810, when he again set off on his journeying?, and finally died at Hamburg, Oct. 3, 1826. His works are, besides the "Comic Tales," already mentioned — " Danish Ballads and Poems," an opera called " Holger Danske," " Labyrinthen, or Wanderings of a Poet," being an account of one of his journeys ; an epic idyl, entitled •' Parthenais, oder Alpenrcise;" "Adam and Eve," a comic poem, notwithstanding the nature of its subject ; and a volume of corre- spondence. Some of these works were published by his sons after Ms death. He was considered equally successful in writing German as his na- tive language, Danish. Baglione, Giovanni, biwg-le-o'-nai, a Roman artist, who enjoyed considerable reputation and patronage as a painter in oil and fresco, but is now better known for his " Lives " of his con- temporaries than for his pictures. He was patronized by popes Sixtus V. and Paul V., and was elected principal of the Academy of St. Luke, in 1618. His works are to be seen in Rome, Naples, and Mantua; he was especially excellent in colour and light and 6hade. The date of his death is not known, but must have been subsequent to 1642. His book of " Lives," which contains 81 memoirs, and is written in an easy, simple, and pleasing style, was pub- lished at Rome, in 1642, again in 1649 ; and at Naples, in 1733, with some additions by G. B. Passnri. n. at Rome, about 1573. Baglivi, George, latcg-le'-ve, a distinguished physician, born at Ragusa, lC69,who,after study- ing at Salerno and Padua, became a professor at Sapienza, and was mainly instrumental in restoring the ancient principles of medicine— fhoro of experience and observation of ua- OF BIOGRAPHY. Bagration (urc. He died at the early age of 38, in March, 1707, his zeal for science having induced him to overwork himself, and so shorten his career. Had he lived, he would probably have rendered still greater services to medicine. The works he left are consulted even to this time. Bagbitioit, Peter Ivanovitch, Prince, 6a- ijrai-the-on, a celebrated Russian general, who commenced his military career under Potemkin, and in 1794 served under Suwarov in Poland, where he greatly distinguished himself. In 1799, in Italy, under the same leader, he proved himself so able a soldier, that Suwarov called him his " right ami." He took Brescia and Tor- tona, and defeated a French division under Mo- rcau near Marengo. At the taking of Turin, in the actions of Trcbbia and the Adda, at the taking of Alessandria and of Serebasso, and at the battle of Novi, he added to his former repu- tation. In 1805 he commanded the vanguard of the allied Austrian and Russian army, under Kutusoff, and in that capacity displayed great abilities. He was present at the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and Friedland, and at each showed his skill and courage. In 1S07 he served in the campaign in Finland; and, gaining con- siderable successes, was mainly instrumental in detaching from Sweden a large portion of Finland. He afterwards had the command of the Russian army in Turkey; and in 1812, when Napoleon invaded Russia, was appointed to the western army, and made a masterly retreat on Smolensko, where he joined his forces with those of Barclay de Tolly. After the battle there, he commanded the left wing at Borodin*, whtwe he was struck by a shell, of which wound he shortly after died. " b. in Georgia, 17G5 ; d. 1812. Bailey, or Baley, Walter, bai'-le, a native of Portsham, Dorset, where li6 was born in 1529, an eminent physician, who was successively Fellow, Proctor, and Regius Professor at New College, Oxford. He was also physician to Queen Elizabeth, by whom, as well as by the courtiers generally, he was highly esteemed. He left several works on medicine, particularly on the treatment of diseases of the eye. d. 1592. Bailet, Peter, author of several humo- rous poems, and editor of a periodical entitled " The Museum," was the son of a solicitor at Nantwich, Cheshire, and after being educated at Rugby and Merton College, Oxford, entered himself at the Temple with the view of studying for the bar. He gave more attention, however, to literature than to law. He wrote " Sketches from St. George's-in-the-Fields," " Idwal," a poem founded on occurrences connected with the conquest of Wales ; a Greek poem, published in the "Classical Journal;" and a poem, in the Spenserian stanza, published anonymously, culled "A Queen's Appeal." He died suddenly, January 25, 1823. Bailet, Philip James, is a member of the bar, and the son of the proprietor of the JS'ottincjham Mercury. He is known in the lite- rary world as the author of "Festus," the "Angel World," the "Mystic," the "Age," &c. " Festus" is his greatest work ; and although it was finished when the author was little more than twenty years of age, it contains some beau- tiful passages, notwithstanding the peculiarity of many of the sentiments with which it is dis- figured, b. 1816. Bailli, Roche, laHy)-ye, better known as "La Kiviere," wag first physician to Henry IV., and 115 Bail lie pretended to great skill in astrology. He was a great admirer of Paracelsus, and wrote a sum- mary of his doctrine, d. 1605. Baillie, Robert, bai'-le, a Scotch divine, who after taking his degree of M.A. in the Glasgow University, received episcopal orders, and became regent of philosophy. During the civil war he joined the Covenanters, and went to London to exhibit charges against Archbishop Laud. lie was one of the commissioners sent by the Gene- ral Assembly of Scotland to Charles II. at tha Hague. At the Restoration he was made prirj. cipal of his college, and might have had & bishopric if he would have conformed. B.April 30, 1602; d. 1662. His letters, and journal of his transactions in England, were published at Edinburgh, in 2 vols. 8vo, 1775. Baillie, Edward, a distinguished officer of marines, was, in almost all parts of the world, present with his corps, both in land and sea service, during the wars with Napoleon from 1796 up to 1814. He rose to the rank of lieu- tenant-colonel, and was much esteemed as a brave, skilful, and able officer, as well as an amiable gentleman, n. 1778, of Irish parents ; died near Pembroke, in Oct. 1S3G. Baillie, John, a distinguished British officer, Persian scholar, professor of .Mohammedan law, director of the East India Company, and administrator of Indian affairs, who served for many years in India in almost all capacities, civil and military, and was especially useful to the settlement of Bundelcund, the Governor- General declaring that the British authority there "was alone preserved by his fortitude, ability, and influence." He rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and after his return to Eng- land was member of Parliament for Hcydon from 1820 to 1830, and for the Inverness burglis from 1830 till his death in 1833. b. 1772. Baillie, Joanna, a distinguished writer in an ago when good authors were not scarce. Her mother was Dorothea Hunter, a sister of the celebrated anatomists John and Wm. Hnntcy. The greater part of her life was passed at Ilamp- stead, where she always lived in retirement, and, for some years before her death, in strict seclu- sion. Though not in the habit of receiving company, nearly all the great authors of her age had, at one time or another, been her guests. Sir Walter Scott passed many delightful hours witli her, and in 1806 she spent some weeks in his house at Edinburgh. She is best known by her plays, which were written with a view of delineating the strongest passions of the mind, and to each of which she devoted a whole tragedy or comedy. The canon by which she was regulated in the production of these effu- sions is thus set forth in the preparatory dis- course to her dramas in 1798: — " Let one single trait of the human heart, oae expression of passion, genuine and true to nature, bo intro- duced, and it will stand forth alone, in the boldness of reality ; whilst the false and un- natural around it fades away on every side, like the rising exhalation of the morning." n. at Bothwell, 1762 ; d. at Hampstead, 1851, in her 89th year. — Joanna Baillie was esteemed "the Lady Bountiful" among the poor of the neigh- bourhood in which she lived, and up to the last retained the full possession of her faculties. Baillie, Matthew, M.D., the brother of Joanna, became eminent in the pursuit o? medical science. He enjoyed tho advantage oi studying under his uncle, William Hunter, and I 3 THE DICTIONARY Bailly became one of the most distinguished anatomists and pathologists of his day. In 1810 he was made physician to George III., and was offered a baronetcy, which he declined. He wrote seve- ral works in connexion with his profession. b. at Bothwell, 1761 ; d. on his estate in Glouces- tershire, 1828. — A monument has been erected to Dr. Baillie in Westminster Abbey. When Sir W. Scott heard of his death, he wrote to his sister Joanna, " We have, indeed, to mourn such a man as, since medicine was first esteemed a useful and honoured science, has rarely occurred to grace its annals, and who will be lamented as long as any one lives who has experienced the advantage of his professional skill and the affectionate kindness by which it was accom- panied." Bailly, John Sylvain, bai(V)-ye, an eminent French astronomer, who at an early age evinced a strong inclination for scientific pursuits, which was encouraged by his friends. When young, he communicated some valuable papers to the Koyal Academy, and in 1766 published a work on the satellites of Jupiter. In 1768 he pub- lished an eloge of Leibnitz, for which he received a gold medal from the Academy of Berlin. This was followed by the eloges of Charles V., La- caille, and Comeille, which, with the former, were printed together. In 1775 appeared the first portion of his "History of Astronomy," the concluding volume of which was published in 1787. Besides these works, he published several historical disquisitions and astronomical obser- vations. In 1764 he was elected a member of the French Academy, and entering eagerly into the political discussions of his native country, uas chosen president of the first National Assembly. In June, 1789, he presided at that meeting of the deputies at the Tennis-court when all took oath not to dissolve until they had prepared a new constitution for France. In the following month he was made mayor of Paris, but soon lost his popularity, owing to the kindly sentiments which he expressed towards the royal family, and his enforcing obedience to i he laws. Inconsequence of this, he resigned lus office in 1791, and sought that philosophical retirement for which he was so much more suited. In the sanguinary period which fol- lowed, he was apprehended, and after a sum- mary process, condemned to be guillotined, b. at Paris, 1736; suffered, 1793.— When on the scaffold, the dsmeanour of this philosopher is said to have been perfectly tranquil. " You tremble, Bailly," said one of his enemies to him. " My friend, it Is with cold," was the calm reply. Although there is much eloquent writing in Bailly's astronomical works, yet they are not always to be received as essentially correct, as lie appears sometimes to deal in surmises and speculations, rather than in ascertained and calculated facts. Bailly, Edmond Louis Barthelemy, a pro- fessor at the college of Juilly, who afterwards became a member of the National Convention, took an active share in its proceedings on the moderate side, and mainly contributed to the revolution of the 18th Brumaire, which gave the chief power to Napoleon, by whom Bailly wai appointed prefect of the Lot. He was subse- quently deprived of his office, and lived in retire- ment till his death in 1819. n. 1760. Bailly, David, a Dutch painter, studied in Holland and Italy, and attained considerable eminence in portraits. In 1613 he settled at 116 Baius Leyden, where he died. b. at Leyden about 1584; d. 1638. Baily, Edward Hodges, R.A., hai'-le, an eminent sculptor, who began his career as an artist by producing small portrait busts in wax. Obtaining an introduction to Flaxman, he was admitted into the studio of that distinguished man. At the same time he entered as a student at the Boyal Academy, where, in 1809, he ob- tained a silver medal, and in 1811 a gold medal, with an income of 501. The first work which fixed his popularity and placed him amongst the best sculptors of England, was his " Eve at the Fountain," which is now in the Bristol Library Institution. Many of the statues of late years erected in London and the provinces are by him ; and there is scarcely an exhibition of the Koyal Academy that is not adorned by some of his embodied poetical conceptions. Some of his happiest efforts have appeared in these; amongst which may be named his " Her- cules casting Hylas into the Sea," "the Sleep- ing Nymph," " Eve listening to the Voice," "Helena," "Psyche," "Maternal Love," and "The Girl preparing for the Bath." Amongst his latest productions is " The Graces Seated," which is considered one of his best performances. b. at Bristol, 1788. — Although he made large sums of money during the earlier portion of his life, yet in 1859 the public discovered with astonishment that he was but indifferently pro- vided for. d. 1867. Baily, Francis, the son of a banker, and himself a stockbroker up to his 51st year, when he began with ardour to cultivate the science o'f astronomy, which he unremittingly pursued throughout the rest of his life. He was one of the founders of the Astronomical Society, and not only distinguished himself by his industry, but by the many works which he produced upon his favourite science, b. at Newbury, 1774; v. 1844. " Baily's beads," a peculiar "appearance sometimes visible during the period of an eclipse, take their name from this astronomer. Bainbbidge, John, bain'-bridj, a physician and astronomer, who, after taking his degrees at Cambridge, and keeping a school at Ashby-de- la-Zouch, settled in London, where he gained so great a reputation for his mathematical knowledge, that Sir Henry Saville appointed him his first astronomical professor at Oxford. n. at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 15S2; d. at Oxford, 1643. — He published several astronomical works, and also left some mathematical MSS. Baird, Sir David, baini, an intrepid general, who, in 1799, led the storming party which took Seringapatam. For his bravery on this occasion he received the thanks of the Parlia- ment and of the East India Company. This was the great exploit of his life, although he shared in the glory of Corunna under Sir John Moore. On the death of that distinguished officer he became commander-in-chief, but could not take full advantage of the position, from his arm being so dreadfully shattered that it had to bo amputated at the shoulder. For his gallant con- duct, however, he again received the thanks of Parliament, and was created a baronet. His mi- litary career was both l»ng and active, having served in various parts of the globe, b. at Ncwbyth, in Scotland, 1757; d. 1829. Baius, Michael, bai'-us, a divine, who became professor of divinity in the uiMvcrsityof fiOuvain, which appointed him its deputy at the Council of Trent. His partiality for Augustine, however, OF BIOGRAPHY. Bajazet brought upon him the charge of siding too much with Calviu ; and several of his opinions were condemned by his college and the pope. B. at Melun, 1513; v. 1589. Bajazet I., ba'-ja-zet, sultan of the Turks, •ucceeded his father, Amurath I., in 1389, and soon after put his younger brother to death. lie pushed his conquests far into Asia and Kurope, and in 1396 gained a great victory over the Christian army under Sigismund, king of Hungary. In 1402, however, he experienced a terrible defeat from the famous Timur, or Tamerlane, on the plains of Angora. Bajazet was taken prisoner. Different accounts are given of his treatment by the Persian and Turkish historians. The former assert that he was entertained in a liberal manner ; while the latter maintain that Timur shut him in an iron cage, and exposed him to the derision of the populace, d. 1403. Bajazet II., sultan of the Turks, succeeded his father, Mahomet II., in 1481. He was opposed by his brother Zizim, whom he de- feated. Zi/.im escaped to Hhodes, whence the grand master (see Aubusson) sent him to Italy, where Bajazet caused him to be assassinated. He obtained several advantages over the Vene- tians and other Christian powers. _ His son Selim rebelled against him ; but Bajazet, in- stead of punishing him, abdicated in bis favour, an act which, it is said, Selim repaid by causing him to be poisoned in 1512. Bakeb, Sir Bichard, bat-Jeer, an historical writer, who, in 1603, was knighted by James I., and, in 1620, was high-sherift" of Oxfordsire. An unfortunate marriage reduced him to poverty, and he was thrown into the Fleet prison, where he wrote several books, the chief of which is a " Chronicle of the Kings of Eng- land," which went through several editions, and was long popular with the people, n. at Sissinghurst, Kent, 1568; d. 1645. — Baker's is the chronicle from which Addison, in his " Spec- tator," makes Sir Roger de Coverley say he drew "many observations." It brings the history of England down to the death of James I.; but it is, notwithstanding the praise of the simple knight of Addison, a dry and jejune performance. Bakkr, Thomas, a mathematician and divine, who published the " Geometrical Key ; or, the Gate of Equations unlocked," 1684. The Royal Society sent him some questions, which he solved so satisfactorily that they presented him with a medal, b. at llton, in Somersetshire, 1625 ; d. 1G90. Bakeb, Henry, an eminent naturalist, who was brought up a bookseller, but which pur- suit he relinquished, and undertook the tuition of deaf and dumb persons, by which he acquired a handsome fortune. He married a daughter of Daniel Defoe, by whom he had two sons. He was chosen fellow of the Antiquarian and Royal Societies, and in 1740 obtained from the latter the gold medal for his microscopical experiments on saline particles, n. in London, 1698; d. 1774. He published the "Microscope made Easy," 8vo, 1742 ; and " Employment for the Jlicroscope," 8vo, 1764. He also wrote original poems, serious and humorous, published in bvo, 1725. He left 100/.. to the Royal Society for an anatomical or chemical lecture, which is called the Bakerian lecture. ISakkk, David Erskinc, eldest son of the above, waa adopted by an uncle who was a silk- 117 Bake well throwster in Spitaltields, and whom he suc- ceeded in the busiuess. Being fond of theatrical entertainments, however, he squandered his property and joined some strolling companies. Little is known of his history, but he is sup- posed to have died about 1770. He was the author of " A Companion to the Playhouse," 1764; since considerably improved and en- larged under the title of "Biographia Dra- matica." Bakeb, Thomas, an antiquary and divine of the beginning of the 18th century, who, for refusing to take the oaths to the new governmen t after the revolution of 1688, was deprived of the rectory of Long Newton, in the diocese of Durham. He then retired to Cambridge, where ho had a scholarship, of which, however, he was subsequently deprived ; and devoted himself to study. He does not appear to have published any work of consequence, except one entitled " Reflections on Learning," which was often reprinted ; but he kept up an extensive cor- respondence with the most eminent scholars and authors of liis time, many of whom he aided by his learning and researches in the prosecutioii of their labours. Acknowledgments of these ob- ligations are to be found in the works of Dr. Walker, Burnet, Dr. John Smith (editor oi Bede), Dr. Knight (Life of Erasmus), Dr. Richardson (Lives of the English Bishops), Ames (History of English Translations of the Bible), and others. Baker also left large col- lections of valuable MSS., transcriptions, &c, which have been of great service to students of ecclesiastical antiquities and cognate subjects ever since. The Harleian manuscripts in the British Museum contain many volumes of his collections, which he gave to the Earl of Oxford, from whose heirs the MSS. were purchased by the government. Baker was born in the parish of Lanchester, Durham, 1656; d. July 2, 1740, aged 83. Bakeb, John, a distinguished British admiral of the end of the 17th and early part of the 18th century, served under Admiral Hopson in the attack onVigo.and subsequently acted under Sir Cloudesley Shovel and Sir George Rooke. With the latter officer he was present at the capture of Gibraltar, and in the battle oft'Malaga with the French fleet, where he was wounded. D. at Port Mahon, 1716. Bakeb, Sir Samuel White, an African tra- veller of the present century, who discovered the lake Albert Xyanza, in 1S04, one of the great equatorial reservoirs that supply the river Nile. In the journey that resulted in this discovery he was accompanied by his wife. He has written various interesting accounts of his travels. He was knighted in 1»66. b. June 8, 1821. Bakf.weli,, Robert, lake'-weU, a celebrated agriculturist, who turned his attention to the improvement of the breed of cattle, for which purpose he travelled over England, and into Ireland and Holland. His endeavours were so successful that the Dishley sheep were so much distinguished above all others, that he let one of his rams for 400 guineas, and another for 800 guineas, for a single season. The race of Dishley sheep were known by the fineness of their bone and flesh, the lightness of the offal, dis- position to quietness, and consequently to ma- ture and fatten with less food than oilier sheep of equal weight. He also greatly improved the breed of black cattle, the descendants of his stock being still distinguished as the new Lekcs- THE DICTIONARY Baki tershire breed of " loug-horned." u. at Dishley, 1726; D. 1795. Baki (properly Abd-ol-Baki), baV-e, the most eminent of Ottoman lyric poets, flourished in the reign of Soliman the Magnificent, which is usually reckoned the Augustan age of Moham- medan literature. At an early age Baki was not only patronized by the Sultan Soliman, but on presenting to that monarch his first work, was hailed by him in an ode of his own com- position as the first of his country's poets. Baki has been pronounced the prince of Turkish lyrical versifiers, and by the critics of his country is ranked with llafiz in the Persian and Moien- abbi in the Arabic languages. His elegy on the death of Soliman is esteemed the most per- fect gem of Turkish poesy. He adopted his native language for his compositions in prefer- ence to the Persian and Arabic, which were the usual vehicles of poetry in Turkey; and his con- tinued popularity has acquired for him the ap- pellation of the "Durrabla." He died April 7, In the year 1(500, of mortification at being a second time disappointed of being made grand mufti. Balassi, Mario, ba-las'-ie, an Italian histori- cal and portrait painter, whose best works are his picture of " St. Francis," and " The Miracle of St. Nicholas of Tolentino." b. at Florence, 1604: d. 1607. Balbe, bawl'-bai, a distinguished Italian fa- mily of Quiers, in the little state of Piedmont, many members of which played prominent parts in the affairs of the Italian Republics in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries. The army which defeated the Emperor Barbarossa at Lignnno, in 1176, was commanded by members of this family. The family became reduced in the middle of the loth century, and its head removed to Avignon, and founded a house dis- tinguished in French annals. His name was Gilles de Barton; and from him the celebrated Crillon was descended. Balbi, Caspar, bat-be, who, as a dealer in precious stones, left Aleppo, in 1579, on a journey to the Indies, and did not return till 1588. On his return he published an account of his jour- ney. He visited Ormuz, Goa, Cochin, and i'egu, and describes what he saw with considerable spirit, and, it is believed, with accuracy. Lived in the 16th century. Balbi, Adrien, a Venetian, who at an early period of his life was appointed professor of geography and natural philosophy in his native town, but, in 1820, went to Portugal. Here, in 1822, he published his " Statistical Essay on the Kingdom of Portugal." This publication having procured him considerable fame, he settled in Paris, where in 1326,hepublished his celebrated " Ethnographical Atlas," which was the first work to make the French acquainted with the researches of Adelung and other German philo- logists. This work raised him high in the estimation of the learned and the public gene- rally, and under the administration of Martignac he was placed in easy circumstances by the French government, lie subsequently gave to the w«rld an " Abridgment of Geography," on a new plan, which has been translated into most of the European languages. In 1832 he quitted Paris for Padua, where he resided until his death, n. at Venice, 1782; d. 1848. IUi.bis, Giovanni Battista, bawl'-be, a distin- guished botanist, was born in Piedmont, in 1765, 113 Balderic and educated at Turin. He filled the post of professor of botany and keeper of the Botanical Gardens at Turin, but was obliged to quit it in 1814, and retired to Pavia. He subsequently occupied a similar position in Lyons, which, in 1830, he resigned, and returned to his native country, and died there in 1831. His writ- ings are very voluminous, and are highly esteemed. Balbijtus, Decimus Cselius, bal-bi'-nui, a Ro- man senator, who was elected emperor in con- junction with Maximus in 237, after the death of M. Antonins Gordianus and his son in Africa. Assassinated 238. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, vas'-ho noon'-yais bal-bo'-a, a Castilian, was one of the first who visited the West Indies, where he gained im. mense riches. He settled on the coast of Darien, and built a town. In 1513 he crossed the isthmus, and returned next year with a pro- digious quantity of wealth. H e sent an account of his discovery to Spain, and the king appointed Pedrarias d'Avila governor of Darien, who on his arrival was astonished to see Balboa in a cotton jacket, with sandals made of hemp on his feet, and dwelling in a thatched hut. The governor, notwithstanding that he had given Balboahis daughter in marriage, wasjealousof his abilities, and caused him to be beheaded in 1517. Balbo, Count Cesare, bawl'-bo, an Italian politician, author, journalist, and advocate of Romanism, was born in Piedmont, in 1789; was in early life employed by Napoleon I. ; and after Waterloo was secretary of the Sardinian Legation in London. For the last thirty years of his life he devoted himself to authorship, and published various works, including a " History of Italy," " The Hopes of Italy," &c. A spirit of rigid and exclusive Romanism pervades aU his writings, d. 1853. Balcanqual, Walter, lal'-lcan-qual, a learned Scotch divine, who attended James I. to Eng- land, and became chaplain to the king, master of the Savoy, and representative of the Church of Scotland at the Synod of Dordt. In 1624 he was made dean of Kochester; and in 1639 dean of Durham. He suffered severely in the rebel- lion, d. at Chirk Castle, in Denbighshire, in 1645. —He wrote the " Declaration of King Charles I. concerning the late Tumults in Scotland," folio, 1630; "Epistles concerning the Synod of Dordt," in John Hales's " Golden Remains," and some sermons. Balchen, John, bal'-ehen, an English admiral, who, entering early into the navy, rose to the command of a ship, and distinguished himself by his bravery in the Mediterranean, under Sir George Byng. In 1734 he was made an admiral ; and in 1743 was appointed governor of Green- wich Hospital. He soon after went with a squadron to relieve Sir Charles Hardy, who, with a large fleet of transports, was blockaded in the Tagus. Having accomplished this ser- vice, he sailed for England ; but encountering a violent storm, his sliip, the Victory, wa3 lost on the Caskets, near Jersey, and every one on board perished, October 3, 1744. A monument in Westminster Abbey commemorates tliis me- lancholy event, b. 1669. Balbeeic, or Baudey, bal'-de-rik, a French historian, who became bishop of Dol, in Brit- tany, and was at the council of Clermont. He wrote a history of the crusade to the year 1001). d. 1130,— There was another b'suop, a contciu- OP BIOGRAPHY. Baldi porary, of the same name, who wrote a chronicle of the towns of Arras and Cambray. d. 1097. Baldi, Bernard, bawl'-de, a learned Italian, who studied at Padua, and afterwards became mathematician to the duke of Guastalla. b. at Urbino, 1553 ; d. 1G17. — He translated into Italian several works of the ancient mathema- ticians, and wrote some good poems in that language. He was also the author of several 1 philological works, and commenced a "Universal Historical Geography." His "Lives of Mathema- ticians" was printed in 1707. Baldi, Lazaro, an historical painter, a native of Tuscany, and the disciple of Pietro da Cortona. He was employed by Alexander VII. to paint for the palace of the Quirinal a " David killing Goliath." Many of his pictures are to be seen in the churches at Rome. B.1623orl624; d.1703. Baldini, Baccio, bawl-de'-ne, a Florentine en- graver, who is said to have been taught the art by Finiguerra, who, according to the Italians, was its inventor, but whose instructions were ill carried out by bis pupil. His works, there- fore, have no value further than such as arises from their being specimens of the first efforts of one of the earliest Italian engravers, b. at Florence, 1436 ; d. 1515. Baldini, John Anthony, a learned Italian nobleman, who was employed as ambassador at various courts in Europe, and attended the con- gress at Utrecht. B.atPlacentia, 1651; d. 1725. Baldinucci, Philip, bawl'-de-noo-tcke, an Italian artist and biographer, who passed an industrious life, working both with the pencil and the pen. b. at Florence, 1624 ; d. 1696. — He wrote, 1. " The General History of Painters," C vols. 2. " A Vocabulary of Designs." 3. " An Account of the Progress of Engraving on Copper." Baldccci, Francis, laicl-dooteh'-e, an Italian poet of the 17th century, who was very successful in the Anacreontic styleof composition, but whose improvidence, debauchery, and folly kept him in continual trouble. He at one time served as a common soldier, at another lived a sort of semi- beggar's life in Rome, and became notorious for the impudence with which he intruded him- self into the houses and at the tables of the great. So reckless and ill-tempered did he become, that he was thrust out of doors by every one, and had to obtain a living by many shifts, not always very reputable. He finally took orders, became attached to the household of Pompeo Colonna, prince of Gallicano, but died in the hospital of S. Giovanni Laterano, in 1613. His poems were numerous, have often been reprinted, and are esteemed the best Italian specimens of the Anacreontic style. Balduccio, Giovanni, bawl-dootcli'-e-o, an emi- nent sculptor of the Pisan school. He was bom at the close of the 13th century, and attained a high reputation, though his statues have a hard, still', and exaggerated air about them. His works are to be seen in Lucca, and especially in Milan, n. about 1318. Baldock, bal'-doJc, Ralph de, Bishop of Lon- den, whom, in 1307, King Edward I. appointed lord high chancellor, d. 1313. He wrote a history of British affairs, which Leland had seen, though it is now lost.— There was at ihe same time one Robert de Baldock, a divine, who was in great favour with Edward II., whose misfortunes he shared, and died in Newgate. Baldung, Hans, bat-doony, called also Hans Qmn, a distinguished old German painter and J 19 Baldwin wood-engraver. He was intimate with Albert Diirer, and as a painter was considered little in- ferior to his great friend. His heads arc the best points in his works, b. in Suabia, about 1470 ; d. 1545. Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem, haW-win, was the son of Eustace, count of Bouillon, and accom- panied hisbrotherGodfrey of Bouillon into Pales- tine, where he gained the sovereignty of the state of Edessa. He succeeded his brother on the throne of Jerusalem in 1100, and for eighteen years waged war against the Turks, the Arabs, the Persians, and the Saracens. He took many towns, and secured for the Christians the coast of Syria, from the Gulf of Issus to the confines of Egypt, d. at Laris, in the desert, 1118, and was buried on Mount Calvary. In the first canto of the " Gerusalemme " of Tasso, the poet has depicted the character of this monarch, as well as that of his brother Godfrey. Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, the cousin of the above, was crowned in 1118, after Eustace, brother of Baldwin I., had renounced all claim to the vacant throne. In 1120 he gained a great vietory over the Saracens, but in 1124 he was taken prisoner by them, and was ransomed only by giving up the city of Tyre. In 1131 he abdicated in favour of Ins son-in-law, Foulques of Anjou, and retired to a monastery, where he died in the same year. The military and religious order of the Templars, for the defence of the Holy Land, was instituted in the reign of this monarch. Baldwin III. was the son of Foulques of Anjou, whom he succeeded in 1142, under the guardianship of his mother. He took Ascalon and other places ; but under his reign the Chris- tians lost Edessa. b. 1130; d. at Antioch, 1162. He was succeeded by liis brother, Aniauri 1. (See AiiAUEi.) Baldwin IV., the son of Amauri, succeeded to the throne of Jerusalem on the death of his father, in 1173 ; but being a leper, Raymond, count of Tripoli, governed the kingdom for him. He afterwards resigned the crown to his nephew, Baldwin V. d. 1185. In the year following, his successor died of poison, supposed to have been administered by his mother in order that hei second husband, Guy de Lusignan, might enjoy the throne. — Soon after this event the Christians lost Jerusalem, which, in 1187, was taken by ■ Saladin. Baldwin I., emperor of Constantinople, to which position he was chosen in preference to Boniface of Monferrat, who competed with him for the dignity on the capture of the city by the Latins during the 4th crusade, and was crowned in St. Sophia on the 16th of May, 1204. He was previously count of Flanders and liainault. He was successful in his wars with the Mohamme- dans, but having offended the king of the Bul- garians, that prince, aided by a revolt of the Greeks, made war upon the empire, and in a skirmish, where he imprudently attacked a superior force with a mere, handful of knights, Baldwin was defeated and taken prisoner. His subsequent history is unknown, but he is be- lieved to have died shortly after his captivity, aged 32. He was a brave warrior, and just and moderate as a ruler. Taken prisoner 1205. Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople, wab 'he son of Peter de Courtenay, count of Aui-rre, by the sister of the above emperor. He succeeded his brother Robert in the em- pire of the Lest, in 1228, being only eleven years THE DICTIONARY Baldwin of age. In 1261 Constantinople was taken by Michael Palaiologus, and Baldwin escaped by sea to Italy, where he died in 1273.— With him terminated the dynasty of the Latin emperorg of Constantinople. Baldwin I., count of Flanders, called Bras- de-fer, on account, as some writers say, of his immense strength, and, according to others, because of his being always in armour, was the son of Odoacer, whom he succeeded as Grand Forester in 837. On the death of Louis 1c Debonnaire, king of France, Baldwin espoused the cause of Lothaire, in opposition to Charles the Bald and Louis of Bavaria, his brothers, and took part in the battle of Fontenai, and the other events of the war which ensued. In 857 he waylaid and abducted Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, and widow of Ethelwolf, king of England, on her way home to her father. Charles sent his son, Louis the Stammerer, with an army to punish this outrage, but Baldwin defeated him in the battle of Arras, and having hanged several barons who were prisoners, he was excommunicated by the pope. In order to get the ban removed, he went to Rome, sub- mitted to the censures of the holy father, who received him into favour, and arranged his reconciliation with Charles, who consented to his marriage with Judith, raised Flanders into a county with enlarged limits, and confirmed Baldwin in the government on condition of pay- ing homage to the crown of France. Baldwin, with the aid of Charles, afterwards built the castles of Bruges and Ghent, as a defence against the Normans under Hastings. He died at Arras, in 877 or 879. He is celebrated by Longfellow in his poem of the " Belfry of Bruges," as " mighty Baldwin Bras-de-fer." He left two sons, one of whom succeeded him as Baldwin II.; the other, Kaoul, was count of Cambrai. — Baldwin II. was married to a daughter of Alfred the Great, king of England. — There were six other counts of Flan- ders of the same name, whose history, however, exhibits only a succession of wars and quarrels with neighbouring princes. Baldwin, Thomas, a distinguished English prelate, who, although sprung from obscure parentage, rose to be abbot of Ford, Devonshire, bishop of Worcester, and finally archbishop of Canterbury. He was of a mild disposition, sober, and modest. Some of these characteristics so greatly swayed him as he rose to power, that the pope is said to have described him as a fervent monk, a cold abbot, a lazy bishop, and a remiss archbishop. He founded the archi- episeopal parish of Lambeth, and subsequently preached the crusade with great success, and even accompanied Richard I. to the Holy Land, where he died during the siege of Ptolemais in 1191, having been of essential service to the army from the influence his powerful exhorta- tions had upon the soldiers. Some of his theolo- gical writings have been printed in the Bihlio- tlicca Cistcrciensis, and show him to have had a good knowledge of the subject. Baldwin, or Baldwtn, William, a school- master and divine, who pursued the occupation of printing in order to promote the Reformation. He is said to have written some comedies; at all events, he was "engaged in the reigns of Edward VI. and Philip and Mary, if not earlier, in preparing theatrical entertainments for the Court." His name, however, is most endeared to the lovers of literature by his having been one of the authors and editors of "The Min'our 120 Balfe for Magistrates," which " occupies the annals of English poetry from Surrey to Spenser." d. about 156-1. Bale, John, bail, an English divine, who, from a Carmelite monk, became a zealous Pro- testant and writer against popery. On the death of his patron, Lord Cromwell.he went to Holland, but returned to England on the ac- cession of Edward VI., and obtained a living in , Hampshire. In 1552 he was appointed to the bishopric of Ossory, in Ireland, where he laboured in reforming his diocese with su'-h zeal that his life was threatened by the priests. On the accession of Mary, he retired to Bale, in Switzerland, where he remained till Elizabeth ascended the throne, when he returned to Eng- land, and became a prebend of Canterbury, n. at Cove, in Suffolk, 1495; d. 1563, and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. — He wrote several works, the best of which is entitled " An Account of the Lives of Eminent Writers of Britain." BAi.ECHor, Jean Jaques, bal'-ghoo, a French engraver, who was expelled from the Academy of Painters for surreptitiously selling first-proof impressions of his print of Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony and king of Poland, contrary to the orders of the dauphiness. n. at Aries, 1715; d. 1765. His engravings are held in high estimation. Balen, Henry Van, ba'-len, an historical and portrait painter, whose best works are" St. John Preaching in the Desert," and the " Judgment of Paris." B. at Antwerp, 1560: D. 1632.— His son, John Van Balen, distinguished himself as a painter of history and landscapes. Bales, Peter, bails, a celebrated penman, who excelled not only in elegant writing, but in miniature penmanship, and was employed by Walsingham in imitating the handwriting of conspirators whose letters he had intercepted, n. 1547 : d. 1610. He published, in 1590, the " Writing Master," in three parts ; the first teaching swift writing; the second, true writ- ing; the third, fair writing; and as a proof of his attainments in penmanship, we are told that he wrote out the Bible in shorthand so small that it could be inclosed in the shell of an Eng- lish walnut. Balestra, Antony, batc-lais'-ira, an eminent historical painter, who, in 1691, gained the prize of merit given by the Academy of St. Luke. b. at Verona, 1666: d. 1740. His pro- ductions were numerous, and many of his works are to be seen in the Venetian states. Balfe, Michael William, balf, a pleasing and popular composer, was born in Dublin in 1808, and early exhibited the love of music which was an inherent element in his nature. His first public performance of note was as a violin player in the oratorios at Drury-lane in 1823 or 1821. In 1824 he appeared upon the stage, but an unfortunate accident at the Theatre Royal, Norwich, had an unfavourable influence on his career. He afterwards went to Italy ; and ap> peared with success, in 1827, at Paris, in the " Barber of Seville." He continued a career of general good fortune on the continent till ISMS, when he returned to London, and appeared In several of his own compositions. In 1839 he became lessee of the English Opera House, but the speculation did not succeed, and Mr. Balfe relinquished the managerial chair, and re- sumed the composer's pen. His career since has been a uniform success. His principal OF BIOGRAPHY. Balfour Baliol compositions are: "The Siege of Rochelle," " The Jewess," " The Maid of Artois," in which Malibran appeared with great eclat, and which in six nights realized £5090 lis., being an ave- rage of £355 per night; "Catherine Grey;" "Falstaff;" "Joan of Arc;" "Kiolanthe;" "The Bohemian Girl;" "The Daughter of St. Mark," which ran more than 100 consecutive nights; "The Enchantress;" "The Bond- man;" "L'Etoile de Seville;" "The Maid of Honour;" " Elfrida ;" " The Rose of Castile," " Satanella," " Bianca," &c. d. 1870. Balfour, Sir James, bal'-foor, lord president of the Court of Session in Scotland, and the re- puted author of " Practicks of the Law," rose to eminence as a privy councillor and judge, and was with Mary queen of Scots at Holyrood on the night of the assassination of Kizzio. He was shortly afterwards knighted by the queen, and subsequently attached himself to the for- tunes of Bothwell, joining in the conspiracy against Darnley. He prepared the house in the Kirk of Field for the atrocious murder of that unfortunate nobleman, and was, in the despatch of the earl of Lennox, charged with being an accomplice in that crime. He seems to have changed sides with every party in power. After being concerned in nearly all the stormy in- trigues of the times, now fleeing from his country to save his head, and now returning to become an accuser, a prosecutor, and condemnor of others, he died in 1583. Balfour, Sir James, a Scottish antiquarian and poet, was born towards the end of the 10th century, being sprung from an ancient family of Fifeshire. He wrote poetry both in Latin and in the native Scottish dialect; was the friend and assistant of Dugdale and Segar in their researches into ecclesiastical antiquities, on which subject he published some papers having reference to Scotland ; was the friend of Sir Bobert Aytoun and the Earl of Stirling, both poets ; and, tlirough the influence of the Karl of I Kinnoul, chancellor of Scotland, was appointed Lyon king-at-arms. In 1033 he was created a baronet, and had the lands of Kinnaird, in Fife, conferred upon him. He joined in opposing the introduction of the liturgy into the Scottish church, and wrote an account of the riots which took place in connexion with the attempt to do so. Being, however, strongly attached to mo- narchical principles, he was deprived of his iffice by Cromwell, and retired to the country, vhere be pursued his studies. He died in 1057, having been four times married, and leaving issue. He wrote the Annals of Scotland, from Fergus I. to diaries, which were published in 1S25 from the original MS. in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, in which a great many Other MSS. by him remain. Balfour, James, an advocate of the Scottish bar, who wrote two philosophical dissertations against the speculations of David Hume. These performances exhibited so much candour and pood-feeling, that the philosopher whose opi- nions he had attacked, wrote to him sentiments expressive of his esteem, and, at the same time, requested the pleasure of his friendship. In 1751 he became professor of moral philosophy in Edinburgh; and in 1761 was appointed to the chair of public law* n. 1703; d. at Pilrig, 1795. — His life was a comment on the amiable philo- sophy which he laboured to teach. Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., F.R.S.E., pro- fessor of botany in the university of Edinburgh, 131 having previously occupied the same chair in the university of Glasgow, in which he succeeded Sir William Jackson Hooker. He has written much on botanical science, and deservedly stands high in public estimation, b. at Edinburgh; 1808. Balfour, Francis, a native of Edinburgh, where he was educated for the medical profes- sion, and afterwards went to India, where he attained a distinguished reputation. He pub- lished several works intended to show the in- fluence the moon exercises in diseases, espe- cially fevers, the crises in which, he conceived, could be explained by the revolutions of that orb, and that the treatment should be regulated accordingly. Lived about 1750— 1800. Balfour, Alexander, a Scottish author, was born at Monikie, Forfarshire, in March, 1707, of poor parents. Commencing life as a handloom weaver, he raised himself to a good position as a manufacturer; but being ruined by the panic of 1815, took to literature as a means of helping to obtain a living, and published novels, tales, poetry, and contributions to the periodical lite- rature of the day. In 1827, Mr. Canning gave him a donation of £100 from the treasury, in acknowledgment of his literary merits and his necessities, he having long suffered from para- lysis. He died in September, 1829. Balgut, Thomas, bal'-gi, an eminent divine, who became prebendary of Winchester, and archdeacon of that diocese, and refused the bishopric of Gloucester, b. 1716; d. 1795. — A collection of his sermons and charges has been printed in one volume, 8vo. Baliol, or Balliol, Sir John de, bai'-le-ol, founder of a college called by his name at Oxford, and governor of Carlisle in 1218. On the marriage of Margaret, daughter of Henry III., to Alexander III., king of Scotland, the guardianship of the royal pair, as well as of the kingdom, was committed to Baliol and Bos of Werke; but in about three years they were charged with abusing their trust, and Henry 111. marched towards Scotland to punish them. However, by paying a large sum into the royal treasury, Baliol made his peace. In 1203 he laid the foundation of Baliol College, Oxford, which was completed by his widow. In the contest be- tween Henry III. and the barons under Simon deMontfort.Baliolsided with the king; for which the barons seized his lands, b. at Barnard Castle, Durham ; d. 1209. Baliol, John de, son of the above, who, being at the head of the English interest in Scotland, laid claim, on the death of Queen Margaret (known as the Maiden of Norway), to the vacant throne, by virtue of his descent from David, earl of Huntingdon, brother to William the Lion, king of Scotland. His principal competitor for the crown was Bobert Bruce, who was also de- scended from that nobleman, being the son of Isabella, his second daughter, while Baliol was the grandson of Margaret, his eldest daughter. Edward I. being appointed arbitrator, declared in favour of Baliol, who did homage to him for the kingdom, November 20, 1292. But he did not hold the sceptre long; for, remonstrating against the power assumed by Edward over Sc-otland, he was summoned to his tribunal as a vassal. Baliol, provoked at this, concluded a treaty with France, the consequence of which was a war with England. The battle of Dunbar decided the fate of Baliol, who surrendered his crown into the hands of Edward, who sent him awl liis sou to England, where they were com THE DICTIONARY Ball niitted to the Tower. At the intercession of the pope they were released, and delivered to his legate in 1299, when Baliol retired to his estates in Normandy, where he lived in retirement throughout the remainder of his life. d. 1314. — His son Edward afterwards set up a claim to the kingdom of Scotland, invaded and recovered it ; but kept it only a short time, and dying not long afterwards without issue, the family became extinct, d. 1363. Ball, John, ball, a Kentish preacher, who, in 1381, took part in the insurrection of Wat Tyler. To 100,000 of the insurgents on Blackheath he preached a sermon from these lines, which he took for his text : — When Adam delved and Eve span, Where was then the gentleman? He, with Jack Straw and 1500 others, was hanged, July 2, 1331. Ball, John, an English divine of the 17th century, who, after being educated at Oxford, where he took his degree of B.A. in 1608, asso- ciated himself with the Puritans, ultimately settled as curate of Whitmore, in Staffordshire, where he kept a school to eke out his miserable pittance of £20 a-year, and there he died, leav- ing behind liim a high reputation for simplicity, purity, guilelessness, piety, and learning. Seve- ral treatises which he wrote were long used as family text-books among the sect to which he belonged, one of which, called a " Short Trea- tise containing all the Principal Grounds of the Christian Religion," was fourteen times printed before 1632; his "Treatise on Faith" passed through many editions, and other works of his were equally popular. Baxter, Fuller, and others speak of him in highly eulogistic terms. D.Oct. 20, 1640. Ball, Thomas, another Puritan divine of the same period, was educated at Cambridge, and settled as a minister in Northampton, where he died, June, 1659, leaving, like the above a repu- tation for learning, piety, and sincerity. It lias been supposed that John and Thomas Ball were related ; but this is uncertain. Ball, Sir Alexander John, a British naval officer who served with great distinction in the first American war, and alter wards in the Medi- terranean under Nelson. At the battle of the Nile he commanded the Alexander, and it is said that to a peculiar combustible thrown from this ship, the explosion of the French man-of-war L'Orient is to be attributed. He subsequently was engaged in besieging the French garrison at Malta, but with the most inadequate means, both in men and supplies The French, however, were at last compelled to surrender, and in 1800 Malta was occupied by the British, who have ever since retained it. Sir Alexander was made governor of the island, where he died in 1809, on the very day he was appointed rear-admiral of the Bed. He was buried close to the remains of Sir Ralph Abcr- cromby, and a splendid monument was erected to his memory. — He entered the naval service at an early age, choosing a sailor's life, it is said, in consequence of the impression he received from reading " Robinson Crusoe." Bai.lantyne, James, bal'-an-tine, a printer of Edinburgh, at whoso press the novels of Sir WalterScott were printed. He at one time edited a newspaper called the "Kelso Mail," and for many years conducted the " Edinburgh Weekly Journal." n. at Kelso ; n. 1S33. — His younger brother, John, was established as a publish*' \u Ballesteros Edinburgh by Sir WalterScott, in 1805; but the concern did not flourish, and is alleged by Lock- hart to have been the main cause of the difficul- ties which weighed on Sir Walter's latter d;\.\s. Both brothers had much to do with the affairs of the great novelist, b. 1776; d. 1821. Ballass, George, lal'-ard, a learned anti- quarian and Saxon scholar, who, born in humble circumstances, was assisted to an edu- cation at Oxford, where he became one of the beadles, and made extensive collections of MSS., extracts, &c, which have often been used by historical and biographical students. They are in the Bodleian Library. He published "Me- moirs of English Ladies who have been distin* guished in Literature, Science, and Art," and asserts that England can claim more such females than any other country of Europe. He died comparatively young, in 1755. Ballahd, Admiral Samuel James, a distin- guished officer, who, entering the navy in 1776, took part in most of the prominent actions fought by the fleets under Keppel, Rodney, Howe, and other commanders. He also per- formed eminent service while in command of small squadrons and single vessels. While in command of the Pearl, from 1796 till 1802, he captured, retook, or destroyed nearly eighty ships, and on all occasions was prominent for daring and intrepidity, which were almost always successful. He does not appear ever to have been associated with Nelson. He was made rear-admiral in 1814, and died at Exmouth, on Oct. 9, 1829. b. at Portsmouth, of a family originally Dutch. Ballahd, Volant Vashon, another eminent naval officer, who greatly distinguished himself in the service of his country, especially in the East and West Indies, in the latter of which he, while in command of the Blonde, under the orders of the above officer, was one of two cap- tains who succeeded in destroying two French frigates at Ance la Barque, ' together with a powerful battery under which they had taken shelter. For this and other services he was warmly thanked by both the naval and military commanders engaged in the blockade of Guade- loupe in 1809. He was promoted to rear-admiral's rank in 1825, and when he died, in 1833, was a commander of the Hath. b. 1774. Ballenden, or Bellendeit, Dr. John, Inl'- in-deu, a clever Scottish poet and historian, who translated Boethius's "History of Scotland," and was highly commended for his poetical talents by Sir David Lyndesay. Opposing the Reformation, he was under the necessity of re- tiring to Rome, where he died in the year 1550. He held several high positions in the church before the introduction of the reformed doc- trines, and was a doctor of the Sorbonne and member of other learned societies. Several of his poems are still extant. Ballestebos, Don Francisco, ba'-lau-tair'-os, a Spanish commander during the Peninsular war. On the invasion of the French, he, with his regiment and the troops of Castanos and Blake, had frequent sanguinary encounters with the enemy in the south of Spain. The regency of Cadiz afterwards made him lieutenant- general, and gave him the command of the army of Andalusia, where he wasj>pposed to the most famous of Napoleon's marshals, Soult, Mortier, &c. ; and when defeated, always adroitly made his escape. On the landing of" the British, the chief command of tlje combined armies ww OF BIOGRAPHY. Ballexerd given to the duke of Wellington. This irieasuro Ballesteros resolutely opposed, and was, in con- sequence, banished to Ceuta, but was afterwards permitted to return to the army. When Ferdi- nand was restored, he was made minister of war, but soon after lost his office, and was sent to Valladolid. In 1820 we find him again com- mander of the Spanish forces, and compelled to yield to the superior strength of the French, when a convention was signed at Granada. Subsequently Ferdinand annulled the constitu- tion, and dismissed all the civil and military functionaries, when Ballcsteros retired to Paris, where he died, 1832. b. at Brea, Aragon, 1770. Ballexebd, James, bat-ex-erd, a citizen of Geneva, who wrote a book on the physical edu- cation of children, which obtained the prize given by a society in Holland. He was also the author of a dissertation on this question, What are the principal causes of the deaths of so many children? b. 1726; d. 1774. Ballix, Claude, bal-d, a French artist, who, at the age of nineteen, made four silver basins, on which were represented the four ages of the world, which were purchased by Cardinal Richelieu, who employed liallin to make four vases after the antique, to match them. He also executed several handsome pieces for Louis XIV. On the death of Varin, he was made director of the mint foV casts and medals, b. 1615: D. 1678. Ballois, Louis Joseph Philippe, bal-waw, made himself eminent by his cultivation of the study of statistics at a time when little atten- tion was given to the subject. He, in 1802, commenced the " Annales de Statistique," and was one of the founders of the Societe de Statistique. He died in 1803, having scarcely reached his 25th year. • Balhaves, Henry, bal'-naves, of Halhill, a poet, and a prominent member of the Reformed party in Scotland in the 16th century. He sntl'ered along with his coadjutors in the early part of the struggle, and on the triumph of his party, was, in 1563, made a lord of session. He left some theological works, such as a "Treatise of Justification," "The Confessions of Faith," . 1561. Many of the works of this artist are to be seen in the churches and palaces of Florence. He was made a cavalier by Clement VII., and also by Charles V. Baner, Johann von, bai-ner, sprung from an ancient family of Sweden, was one of the most distinguished lieutenants ofGustavus Adolphus, and though his education had been very defec- tive, his great talents and industry enabled him to remedy that defect. He particularly distin- guished himself against Pappenheim's cavalry in the battle of Breitenf'eld, where he acquired the title of " The Lion of Sweden." He was charged with the pursuit of Tilly's defeated army, and finally drove Pappenhcim out of Lower Saxony. He was afterwards present in the battles near Donauwerth, before Ingold- stadt, and at Nuremberg, in the latter of which he was wounded in the arm; and commanded the troops in Bavaria when Gustavus marchet/ to Saxony. The death of the king so affected him, that he wished to be dismissed from the army, but this was refused; and in 1033 he was named field-marshal, with the command of the army of Silesia; and during the subsequent portions of the Thirty Years' War played a con- spicuous part, having measured swords with Wallenstein, Piccolomini, and other imperial generals of note. Baner took and retook several important fortresses on the Anx. made incursions into Bohemia, Saxony, &c. ; and in 1634, con- nived the bold idea' of taking prisoners the THE DICTIONARY Banier crowned heads assembled together in Regens- hurg; owing, however, to the tardy action of his colleagues, the attempt failed, and Baner was compelled to make a retreat from Bohemia, in the midst of snow and harassed by the troops of Piccolomini. Baner was now so enfeebled by illness, that he could scarcely keep his seat on horseback, and, on reaching Lower Saxony, was utterly exhausted, and died in 1641. Baji-jkh, Anthony, ba'-ne-ai, a French writer, who, after studying at Paris, became tutor to the sons of M. de Metz. He wrote an historiei.1 explanation of the fables of antiquity, which was afterwards published under the title of " Mytho- logy ; or, the Fables explained by History." b. 1673 ; d. 1741. He had a hand in Picart's "Religious Ceremonies," and other esteemed rnrks. An English translation of his " Mytho- logy" was printed in 1741, in 4 vols. 8vo. Banim, John, bai-nim, an Irish author of a number of popular novels, among which may be particularly noticed the first and second series of the "Tales of the O'Hara Family," which, on their appearance, were immediately recognised as works of genius. He was also the author of the celebrated tragedy of " Damon and Pythias." The greatest defect, perhaps, in his writings is a degree of overstrained excitement, which he generally produces by calling to his aid the ope- rations of the worst and darkest passions of human nature. B. 1800; ». near Kilkenny, 1843. * Banister, John, ban'-is-ter, a distinguished botanist and student of natural history, who, born in England, emigrated to Virginia, and wrote several works on the botany and natural history of that country, and on the natural pro- ductions of Jamaica, ic. Bay published a cata- logue of the plants observed in Virginia by Banister, in the first volume of his " History of riants ;" and a plant was named Banisteria in honour of him, by Br. Houston, of which about twenty-four species are enumerated. He made a collection of Virginian plants, which was bought by Sir Hans Sloruie. r>. about 1680. Bannister, John, an eminent English come- dian, was born in London, in 1760, and after an honourable career, relinquished the stage in 1815, and retired into private life, enjoying the esteem and affection of all who knew him till lus death, in 1836. Bankes, Sir John, banks, lord chief-justice of the Common Pleas in the time of Charles I., was bora atKcswick, Cumberland, in 1589. His first public employment was that of attorney- general to the prince of Wales ; in 1630, he be- came Lent reader at Gray's-inn, and in the following year treasurer of that society. In 1034, he succeeded Noy as attorney-general, on which occasion he was knighted. At the be- ginning of the troubles between Charles and the Parliament, he adhered to the king, but was ■o well-esteemed by the Parliament, that in their proposals to Charles, in 1641, they requested that Bankes might be continued in his office. Having, however, declared the conduct of the parliamentary generals, Essex, Manchester, and Waller, treasonous, the Parliament voted him a I traitor, and ordered Corfc Castle, his seat in the j Isle of Purbeck, to be besieged. His lady, how- ever, gallantly defended the castle, though she had at first but five men in it, and never more than forty, till the siege was raised by the earl of Carnarvon, Aug. 4, 1613. Sir John, who had been made chief justice of the Common Pleas, 126 Banks died on Dec. 28, 1644. Lord Strafford wrote of him — " Bankes hatli been commended that he exceeds Bacon in eloquence, Ellesmere in judg- ment, and Noy in law." He was buried at Christ Church, Oxford. Bankes, Henry, a descendant of the above, was long a distinguished member of Parlia- ment, first for the borough of Corfe Castle, and afterwards for Dorsetshire. He had a seat in the House from 1780 to 1830, and was of rigid conservative principles, but great personal in- dependence. He was more remarkable, how- ever, for his fine scholarship than his political achievements, and will be mentioned with esteem for his " Constitutional History of Greece," pub- lished in 1818, when the party warfare of his time is forgotten. He was born about 1757, and died 1835. Banks, John, an English play-writer, origin- ally a lawyer ; but, getting weary of the courts of Themis, he quitted them, and became a fol- lower of Thespis. He produced several pieces which were once popular, particularly the "Unhappy Favourite; or, the Earl of Kssex." When he died is uncertain; his remains were deposited in the church of St. James, Westmin- ster. Lived at the end of the 17th century. Banks, Sir Joseph, a distinguished naturalist, who.in 1760, entercdas a gentleman commoner at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1764 he came into possession of his paternal fortune, and in 1766 was chosen a member of the Royal Society. In the same year he made a voyage to Newfound- land for the purpose of collecting plants, and in the following winter returned by way of Lisbon. He now made the acquaintance of Dr. Solander, a Swedish gentleman, who had been a pupil of Linnoeus, and who had recently been appointed assistant librarian to the British Museum. In 1763, he and Dr. Solander, as naturalists to the expedition, accompanied Captain Cook on a voy- age to the South Seas, the ostensible object being to observe the transit of the planet Venus over the disc of the sun. He remained four months on the island of Otaheitc, and after being absent nearly three years, returned to England with a large collection of specimens illustrative of natural history. He afterwards made a voyage to Iceland with his friend I);'. Solander, during which they examined the He- brides, and were the first to discover the colum- nar stratification of the rocks surrounding tho caves of Staffa, an account of which was pub- lished in the same year, 1772, by Mr. Pennant, in his " Tour in Scotland." A large addition to his various botanical collections was the result of this voyage. In 1777 he was elected presi- dent of the Boyal Society, which position he held till the timeof his death. n.atWestminster,1743 ; D. 1820.— Sir Joseph Banks bequeathed his books and botanical collections to the British Museum. Banks, Thomas, one of the best sculptors of Great Britain. By his thirty-third year his style was formed, and he competed, among many rivals, for the gold prize offered by the Royal Academy in 1770, and carried it away. His designs at tyvis period were principally illustra- tive of classical history, and they discovered so much fertility of invention in the different modes in which the same subjects wero treated, that the members of tho Royal Academy deter- mined to send him to Rome at the expense of that institution. Accordingly in 1772 he set out for the " Eternal city," where he placed himself under Capizoldi, a distinguished professor, Ua OP BIOGRAPHY. Barmatyne was, however, though much admired, little en- couraged; and after spending seven years in Eome, he returned to England, only to meet with disappointment. He was now in his 49th year, and setting out for Russia, ho received from the Empress Catherine an acknowledgment of his merits. She purchased a subject of his, called " Psyche with the Butterfly," and placed it in a temple expressly built for it in her gardens. He soon again visited his native country, when his "Mourning Achilles," now in the hall of the British Institution, fixed him prominently and permanently in the eye of the public. He was now kept in constant employment throughout the remainder of his days. b. at Lambeth, 1735; d. 1805. Bannatyne, Gcorge,bun'-a-tine, the compiler of the celebrated MS. entitled "Corpus Poeti-' cum Seotorum," or, Body of Scotch poetry, now in the Advocates' Library in Edinburgh. Of this work Allan Uamsay exhibited specimens in his " Evergreen ;" but little or nothing is known of its compiler. In his diary, Sir Walter Scott remarks, " Thought upon an introduction to the notices which have been recovered of George Bannatyne. They are very jejune." Vet it is^ a satisfaction to know that this great benefactor' to the literature of Scotland had a prosperous life, and enjoyed the pleasures of domestic society, and, in a time peculiarly perilous, lived unmolested, and died in quiet, b. 1515 ; d. 1607. It was upon his name that the " Banna- tyne Club " was founded in 1823, by Sir Walter Seott, over the meetings of which he presided from its institution till 1831. Originally this asso- ciation consisted only of 31 members ; but as it rose in fame, many persons of rank and literary distinction were desirous of being connected with it; and, in 1828, the number was increased to 100. Bannatyne, Sir William, an eminent Scottish lawyer, judge, and man of letters, was born in January, 1743. He rose rapidly in his profession, and enjoyed besides a high reputation for his contributions to the "Mirror," " Lounger," &c. He was raised to the bench in 1799, which he occupied till his resignation in 1823, when he was succeeded by the famous John Clerk, Lord Eldin. He was one of the founders of the High- land Society, and had for his friends all the most distinguished men of his time, such as Blair, Mackenzie, Erskinc, Craig, Abererombie, and Cullen. He died in Ayrshire, on the 21st of November, 183 1. Bankekt, Joseph van Tappcn, and Adrien, lan'-kairt, father and son, two distinguished Hutch admirals, who took a prominent part in the wars of Holland with Spain, France, Eng- land, and Portugal, in conjunction with the Van Tromps, the De Ruyters, and Rein. Joseph died of apoplexy on his return with the prizes he had taken after defeating the Portuguese fleet in the Brazils, in the year 1010. Adrien died at Middleburg, in 1684. They were sprung from an obscure family oi'Flessingen, Joseph having entered the navy as a common sailor, and raised himself to the rankof admiral of theDutch fleets. There was a John liankert killed in battle with the English in June, 1605, who is supposed to have been a near relative of the above. Banquo, or liANCno, ban'-qno, a Scotch gene- ral of royal extraction, who obtained several victories over the Highlanders and the Danes, in the reign of Duncan I. He tarnished his plory by aiding Macbeth in a conspiracy Bar-ante t>y a la against that monarch ; but was afterwards put to death by the usurper. — Shakspeare's tragedy of "Macbeth" is founded upon these events. Baptists, John Baptist Monnoyer, bap'-teest, a distinguished French painter in the depart- ment of fruits and flowers. He adorned the palaces of Versailles, Meudon, Marly, and Trianon. He visited England at the invitation of Lord Montague, and for nearly 20 years lived in this country, enjoying uninterrupted patron- age from the great, b. at Lisle, 1635; r>. 1099. Baptiste, John Gaspar, bap'-tist, a Dutch painter, who came to England during the civil wars, and was much engaged by Sir Peter Lely in painting hi< iraperies and backgrounds, b. at Antwerp ; n, '691, _ Baptisti .v, Jdin Baptiste Stuck, bawp-tes- len, an Itaran musician, who first introduced the violoncello into France. He' was, besides, a good composer, b. at Florence about 1677; d. 1755. Bakad-eus, also called Zanzalus Jacobus, bd -rd-de'-un, a monk who revived the sect of the Monophysites, who maintained that there is but one nature in Christ. His party made him bishop of Edessa. He died in 588, and from him the sect took the name of Jacobites. Bakaguay d'Hilliers, Louis, bar'-a-gai deel-yair, a French general of the revolu- tionary period, who served under Bonaparte in Italy, Hungary, the Tyrol, Egypt, Spain, and Russia. After the capture of Malta, he was sent home with the news of the event, but was captured by the English. Napoleon made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and colonel-general of dragoons, twice appointed him governor of Venice, and gave him the command of a division of the grand army in the Russian expedition of 1812, but in the retreat from Moscow he was nearly surrounded, and a part of his division having been obliged to surrender, Bonaparte deprived him of his com- mand, and ordered him home for trial by court- martial. He, however, died in Berlin, in Decem- ber, 1812, on the way, and thus did not live to see the downfall of the mighty genius whose for- tunes he had so long followed, n. 1764. Baraguay d'Hilliers, a French marshal, who, in his eighteenth year, lost his left hand at the battle of Lcipsic. Under Louis Philippe he served in Algiers; in 1849, under Louis Na- poleon, was sent on a temporary mission to the pope; and in 1854, during the war with Russia, he commanded a force of 10,000 men, sent to the Baltic to co-operate with the allied French and English fleets in their attack on Bomarsund. He subsequently received the baton of a mar- shal of France, served in the campaign in Italy in 1859, and was entrusted with the command of one of the grand military districts into which Napoleon III. divided the empire, b. Sept. 0, 1795. D . 1S78. Barante, Amahle Guillaume Prosper, Baron de Brugiere, ba-rant', the son of a French barrister, served in several offices in the time of Napoleon I., whose fall did not aflcct Barante's fortunes unfavourably. He became, under Louis XVIII., councillor of state, and secretary for the home department. In 1819 he was nominated a peer of France. After the revo- lution of July, 1830, he resided at the court of Sardinia, in the capacity of ambassador, and in 1835 occupied a similar position at the court of Itussia. After the revolution of 1848 ho retired from public life, residing in Auvergno, THE DICTIONARY Baratier Barbarous d. at Iiiom, 1782. — Notwithstanding a strict integrity in exercising his political functions, Barante was able to devote much of his time and talents to literature. His most important work is his " History of tho Dukes of Bur- gundy," which placed him amongst the first of the French historians of the day. He besides wrote a " History of the National Convention," in six volumes, and various other works. Others of this family were writers. Babatiee, Johann Philip, ba-ra'-te-er, an ex- traordinary German youth, who at five years of age understood Greek, Latin, German, and French. He afterwards studied Hebrew; and at nine years of age was able to translate any part of the Scriptures into Latin, and made a dictionary of the most difficult Hebrew and Chaldaic words, studying with avidity the works of the Jewish writers. In 1731 he wrote a letter to M. le 3Iaitre on a new edition of the Bible, Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Rabbinical, which is inserted in the " Bibliotheque Germanique." In his thirteenth year he published the " Travels of Benjamin of Tudela," translated from the Hcl rcw into French. In 1734 the margrave of Anspaeh gave him a pension of 50 florins a year and the use of his library. The year following he submitted to the Royal Society a plan for finding the longitude, which, however, proved to he an old exploded scheme. He was the same year admitted a member of the Academy at ilerlin, and created M.A. by the university of Halle, b. at Schwabach, near Nuremberg, in 1721 ; d. at Halle, in 1740— Besides the above, he wrote critical dissertations upon points of ecclesiastical history, and a treatise against the Socinians, called "Anti-Artemonius," yet at his death lie wanted four months of being twenty years of age. Babbacen a, Felisberto Caldeira, marquis de Brant, bar'-ba-sai-na, a Brazilian statesman and soldier, who served with distinction in the Portuguese navy and army. He was chosen by Hon Pedro, the prince-regent (afterwards emperor), to negotiate with Portugal, the mother-country, the independence of Brazil ; and, by the mediation of England and Austria, a treaty was signed at Rio Janeiro, on August 27, 1«23, which secured the separation of the two crowns of Portugal and Brazil. He was after- wards employed to accompany the young queen of Portugal to Europe, and subsequently became finance minister of Brazil, and by his talents contributed greatly to the progress of his country. He was the first to introduce from Europe the steam-engine and steamboat, b. at babora, 1772 ; x>. at Rio Janeiro, 1842. Bahbaxegbe, Baron Joseph, bar-ban-ai'-jer, one of Napoleon's generals, was born in 1772, ;it Pontac, in the department of the Lower Py- renees. In 1801, he had attained the rank of captain of brigade ; as colonel of the 48th Regiment, he distinguished himself in the campaign of Austerlitz; in 180'J he was created general of brigade, and was conspicuous in the battles of Katisbon and Wagram. In the ex- pedition to the North in 1812, he held the posts of governor of Borrisov and Smolensko, was wounded in tke retreat at Krasnoi, and took re- fuge with the remnants of his division in Stettin, which he defended with gallantry till compelled to surrender. Louis XVIII. took him into favour on his return to France; but on the escape of Napoleon from Elba, Barbanegre igaiu 'oiiied him, and held Huningen against 12a the allies till August 27, 1816. He died at Paris in 1830. — His brother, Jean Barbanegre, was also a distinguished officer in the armies of Napoleon, and fell at the battle of Jena. Bakbadilix), Alphonso Jerome de Salas, bar'- ba-deel'-yo, a Spanish dramatic writer, who, besides several comedies, also wrote the "Adven- tures of Hon Hiego de Noche," 1624, 8vo. b. at Madrid about 1580; d. 1630. Babbabo, Francis, batcr'-baw-ro, a learned Ve- netian, who was governor of several places, but distinguished chiefly on account of his oratorical powers and literary works, particularly his translations of some of Plutarch's Lives, lie wrote " De Re Uxoria," " On the Choice of a Wife, and the Duties of Women," printed at Paris, in 1515, and which were afterward trans- lated into various languages. Besides these, a collection of his letters was printed in 1743. b. 1398; d. 1454. Babbabo, Ermolao, grandson of the above, gave lectures on the Greek language gratui- tously. The emperor Frederick, to whom he went ambassador, conferred on him the honour of knighthood, and Pope Innocent VIII. made him patriarch of Aquileia, for accepting which dignity the Venetians expelled him their re- public. He then went to Rome, where ho resided during the remaining years of his life. b. 1454 ; d. 1495. He translated the Rhetoric of Aristotle, and other works ; and published critical elucidations of Pliny. Babbabossa, Horush, bar'-ba-ros'-sa, a fa- mous pirate, who from being the son of a potter, rose by his skill, cunning, and bravery, t* lay the foundation of the Turkish dominion in Algiers. After having acquired immense •,- ,alth by piracy, he was called in to assist the Alge- rines against the Spaniards, when he took possession of the throne, and had himself pro- claimed Horush, sultan of Algiers. He next defeated the king of Tunis, and having taken the capital, caused himself to be proclaimed king. After this he marched to Tlcmsen, the inhabitants of which put to death their own monarch, and opened their gates to Horush. The heir to the kingdom of Tlcmsen, however, applied for assistance to the marquis de Co- mares, governor of Oran, who besieged Bar- barossa in the citadel, and reduced him to the greatest distress. He escaped thence by a sub- terraneous passage, but was overtaken, with a small number of Turks, on the banks of the river Maileh, where he fell, with his followers, after making a desperate defence, b. at Mity- lene, about 1474; slain 1518. — It is said that the name of Barbarossa was given to this ad- venturer by the Christian sailors, on account of the colour of his beard, which was red. Babbabossa, Khair Eddin, "the good of the faith," succeeded his brother in the kingdom of Algiers, and became commander of the naval forces of Solyman II., the Turkish sultan, in 1333. He made himself master of Tunis, but was driven from it by Charles V., in 1536. After this hvho appointed him to visit the college of All Souls in 1541, to correct certain abuses in the habits of the members which had incurred the censure of the archbishop. Barber also assisted in the preparation of the treatises famous under the title of the "King's Book," the "Necessary Doctrine," and "Erudition of a Christian Man," which it was proposed to substitute for the Bible in the hands of the bulk of the laity. Barber afterwards joined in a conspiracy to effect the downfall of Cranmer, but, on its failure, was forgiven and reinstated in favour by the gene- rous primate. He was educated at Oxford, and died at Wrotham in 1549. Baeberini, Francis, baicr-bai-rv'-ne, a Roman 129 Bavbie du Bocage cardinal, nephew of Maffeo Barberini, Pope Urban VIII., ani legate in France and Spain. He was the lathe- of the poor, and the patron of the learned, d. 1679.— His brother Anthony was also a cardinal ; but on the election of In- nocent X., who was the enemy of his family, he retired to France, where he was made arch- bishop of Rheims, and died there, in 1671. — Taddeo Barberini, another member of this family, and general of the Pontifical troops under Urban VIII., was a turbulent and am- bitious man, who caused much commotion among the surrounding states. On the disgrace of the family, he retired to France, but was allowed to retain his principality of Palestrina. Babbes, Armand, bar'-bai, a French revolu- tionist, whose first attempt against the then existing government of Louis Philippe was in 1834, when he was arrested. Again, in 1835, he was included in those who were suspected of being privy to Fiesehi's plot, and was liberated only to be once more brought before the authori- ties, and sentenced to a year's imprisonment for secretly manufacturing gunpowder. Again, in 1839, he was concerned in an overt act of rebel- lion, and was condemned to death, but was, at the last moment, pardoned by the king. The revolution of February, 1843, set him free, the 12th regiment made him their colonel, and the department of the Aude returned him as & member of the Constituent Assembly. But, the same year, he was found guilty of an at- tempt to overturn the government, and cor demned to imprisonment for life in the prison of Belleisle-en-Mer. He was released in 1854, when he went into voluntary exile, b. ar. Pointe-u-Pitre, 1810. Baebetbac, John, bar'-bai-rak, an eminent French professor of law and history, first at. Lausanne, and afterwards at Groningen. lie translated into French Puffendorf s " Law of Nature and Nations," his treatise on the " Duties of Man," and Grotius's book of the " Rights of War and Peace," with learned notes of his own. He also wrote a treatise on the " Morality of the Fathers," and another on " Gaming," the argument of which is to establish the proposi- tion that games of chance of any kind are not, in themselves, immoral. Besides these, he pro- duced other essays upon historical and juridical subjects, b. at Beziers, 1074 ; n. at Groningen, 1744. Baebie iff Bocage, Jean Denis, bar'-bai doo- bo'-kaje, a learned French geographer, who was long connected with the geographical depart- ments of the Bibliotheque du Roi before the Revolution, and of the foreign office after- wards, for which he constructed a variety of valuable maps. He was also associated with the Count de Choiseul-Goufiler, the Abbe Barthc- lemy, and the Baron de Sainte-Croix, and others, in various works connected with geography, voyages, &c. He became member of the Institute in 1806, professor of geography at the Sorbonne in 1809, a special chair having been created for him ; was decorated with the order of the Legion of Honour in 1814, became dean of the faculty of letters in 1815, and, in 1821, member of the Academical Council of Paris. He was a member of most of the learned societies of Europe, and one of the founders of the Paris Geographical Society, of which he was twice president, n. April 28, 1760, at Paris ; d. Dec. 28, 1825. — His son, Alexandre Francois, suc- ceeded him in his chair, and held the ottiec of K THE DICTIONARY Barbier d'Aueour secretary to the Geographical and Antiquarian Societies of Paris ; but close study impaired his health, and he died in 1835, in his 37th year. He left a Dictionary of Biblical GeogTaphy, and several memoirs. The dictionary was published in 1834. b. at Paris, Sept. 14, 1798. Babbieb d'Aucoub, John, bar'-be-ai do'- koor, a counsellor in the Parliament of Paris, and tutor to the son of the famous Colbert. In 1683 he became a member of the French Academy, On the death of his patron he re- turned to the bar. b. at Langres, in 1641 ; v. at Paris, 1694. He wrote several pieces against the Jesuits. Babbiebi, John Francis, bawr'-be-air'-e, sur- named Guebcino, a noted historical painter, who studied under the Caraeci, but followed the manner of Caravaggio. His taste was natural, but not always elegant, b. in 1592; d. in 1666. — His brother Paulo Antonio excelled in painting still life and animals, d. in 1640. Babbopb, John, bar'-boor, a Scotch divine, who became archdeacon of Aberdeen, and one of the earliest and best of Scottish poets and historians. King David Bruce made him his chaplain, and sent him on several embassies. He wrote in verse " The Life and Actions of King Robert Bruce," undertaken, it is supposed by Dr. Henry, at the request of David II., the ion of the celebrated monarch. This, however, lias been deemed doubtful, although the high character of the work has never been ques- tioned. Warton, in his " History of English Poetry," speaking of Barbour and Henry the Minstrel, says, " I cannot pass over two Scotch poets of this period" (the middle of the 14th century), " who have adorned the English lan- guage by a strain of versification, expression, and poetical imagery far superior to their age, and who, consequently, deserve to be mentioned in a general review of the progress of our national poetry." Although a Scotchman, Bar- bour figures as a student among the eminent names that adorn the scroll of Oxford, d. in 1395.— The metrical chronicle of " The Bruce" embraces the period between 1306 and 1329. Barclay, Alexander, bar'-klai, a writer who, according to some, was a native of Scotland, but who others maintain was an Englishman. How- everthis maybe, we findthathe travelled through most parts of Europe, and on his return became a monk at Ely; but on the dissolution of his mo- nastery he obtained a living in Somersetshire, and afterwards in Essex, d. 1552. Barclay was one of the first refinersof our language by his produc- tions, which are chiefly translations from foreign writers. He rendered into English that curious book entitled " Navis'Stultlfera ; or, the Ship of Fools," and to which he added much original matter. This book was first printed by Pynson in 1509, a copy of which edition is very rare, and is worth about £100. Barclay also wrote some eclogues, which Warton says were the first that appeared in the English language ; and were like those of Petrarch and Virgil, that is, of the moral and satirical kind, and containing few touches of rural description and bucolic imagery. Babclat, William, a native of Aberdeen- shire, where he was bom in 15i6, who in early life was attached to the court of Mary Queen of Scots, but being disappointed in his hopes of preferment, emigrated to France in 1673, and in 1573 became professor of common law in the newly-established university of Pont- 130 Barclay a-Mousson, of which Edmund Hay, his uncle, was the first rector. In 1600 he published a book advocating despotic principles ; and in 1603, having resigned his chair in consequence of a quarrel with the Jesuits, he came to England, hoping to obtain the favour of James I. ; in this, however, he was disappointed, and in 1605 was appointed professor of civil law at Angers, where he died. He wrote a work against Bel- larmin on the supremacy of the Pope, as well as several other learned works, some of which were subsequently translated into English. Barclay, John, a son of the above, was educated in France, and on the death of bis father visited London, where he lived ten years. b. at Pont-a-Mousson, 1582; d. at Rome, 1021. — He wrote several ingenious works ; the chief of which are, " Euphormio," a satire in Latin, and a romance entitled "Argenis." This last has been translated into several languages, and is an evidence of the fleeting nature of literary popularity. " It absolutely distresses me," says Coleridge, "when I reflect that this work, ad- mired as it has been by great men of all ages, and lately by the poet Cowper, should be utterly unknown to the general reader." It was of this Barclay that the learned Grotius said, "A Scot by blood, and French by birth, this man At Rome speaks Latin as no Roman can." Barclay, David, born at Kirktown-hill, and sprung from an ancient Scottish family, was one of the earliest members of the body called Quakers. He passed some years in the army of Sweden, where he attained the rank of major ; he afterwards returned to Scotland, and during the government of Cromwell was one of the Scottish representatives in the English parlia- ment, in the proceedings of which he took an active part. After the Restoration, he was im- prisoned in Edinburgh Castle, somewhat un- fairly, as he had been an adherent of the Royalist party in early life, and had a command in the king's army. It was during this confinement that, about 1670, he embraced the doctrines of the Friends, b. 1610; D. 1686. Barclay, Robert, son of the preceding, who walked in his father's footsteps In so far as he embraced the tenets held by the Society of Friends. At an early age he was sent to Paris, to be under the care of his uncle, who was Erincipal of the Scots college. He there em- raced the Romish religion, on which his father sent for him home, and having himself become a convert to the opinions of the Quakers, he persuaded his son to do the same. In 1760 he published a defence of his new religion, at Aber- deen ; and in 1675 printed a catechetical dis- course, or system of faith, according to the opinions of his sect. But his greatest work is, " An Apology for the true Christian Divinity, as the same is held forth and preached by the people called, in scorn, Quakers," printed in Latin, at Amsterdam, in 1676, and translated into English in 1678. He not only benefited his party by his writings, but travelled through various countries, particularly Germany and Holland, to obtain converts. He spent the latter part of his life on his paternal estate of Ury, in Kincardineshire, Scotland, b. at Gor- donstown, Morayshire, 1648 : d. at Ury, 1690. Barclay, John, a Scotch divine and founder of the sect called Bereans or Barclayans, studied under Dr. Archibald Campbell, gome of whose semi-heretical notions he Imbibed, and of whore OF BIOGfeAPH^. Barclay de Tolly he was a zealous partisan when prosecuted in the Scotch ecclesiastical courts. Barclay was afterwards assistant minister of Errol, in Perth- shire, and at Fettercairn, in Forfarshire ; but in 1772, having been refused a certificate by the church courts, he left the Scotch church, and became pastor of a congregation in New- castle ; in the following year he established himself in Edinburgh, where he continued three years, and afterwards preached in London, Bristol, and other towns. He died in Edin- burgh July 29, 1793. He was a keen and able, though somewhat violent and dogmatic, controversialist. He printed an edition of Ins works in three volumes. The sect he founded has since almost if not altogether died out. Barclay de Tolly, bar-klai-dai-tol-le, a Rus- sian general, who, in the German and Polish cam- paigns of 1806-7, was made a field-marshal. Ho subsequently became commander-in-chief.headcd the Russians at the battle of Leipsic, and in 1815 led them into France. Besides his military commands, he at one period held the post of minister of war, and had the title of prince con- ferred on him. d. 1818. Barcochebas, or Barcochab, bar'-Tco-Tcc- bos, the ' son of a star,' a famous impostor among the Jews, who pretended to be the star predicted by Balaam. He gained many followers, who overran Judoea, putting numbers of Romans to the sword. He was at last defeated and slain by Julius Severus, who, in revenge for the atroci- ties perpetrated by Barcochebas and his par- tisans, committed a dreadful massacre on the Jewish nation, a.d. 134. Barebone, Praise God, bair'-bone, a Puritan, who was by trade a leatherseller, and who be- came, in 1653, one of the most active members of Cromwell's parliament, which was named alter him. When General Monk came to Lon- don to restore the king, this man appeared at the head of a formidable rabble, and presented a petition to parliament for the exclusion of the king and the royal family. Monk, in conse- quence, wrote a letter of complaint to the house for encouraging the furious zealot and his ad- herents. Lived in the middle of the 17th cen- tury. — It is said that there were three brothers •if this family, each of whom had a sentence for his name ; viz., " Praise God Barebone ;" "Christ came into the world to save Barebone;" and "If Christ had not died, thou hadst been damned, Barebone." The parent of this hopeful family could scarcely have carried his fanaticism further in christening his children. Babbitts, Thierry, La-rents', a Dutch painter of history and portraits, who studied in the school of Titian, with whom he continued seve- ral years, b. at Amsterdam, 1531; d. 1592. Barere be Vieuzac, Bertrand, bar'-air vcu- rjfcj a noted member of the "Committee of PuVic Safety" during the French revolution. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., whom he styled Louis the Traitor. In the troubles of the revolution, he acquired, from his llowcry style, when speaking or writing of the acts of the republicans, the name of the " Anacrcon of the Guillotine." An intimate associate of Robe- spierre, he yet retained some influence after the latter's death ; and he was made, by Bonaparte, editor of a paper to declaim against the English, and became attached to the police. On the fall of Napoleon he returned to Belgium, but in 1830 returned to Paris, where he died. b. at Tarbes, 1755 ; d, 1841,— Barere was one of the 131 Bareuth most violent of the revolutionists, although ac- tuated by no high principle, and was for a con- siderable period the main organ of the Committee of Public Safety, and in that capacity proposed most of the measures which characterize the Reign of Terror. As a specimen of the senti- ments Barere was in the habit of uttering, we may quote the remark he made in reply to Bris- sot, when the question of the king's trial was being discussed, that "The tree of liberty could never sprout but when watered with the blood of tyrants." Altogether, he may be said to havo been the most pliant, and at the same time the most blood-stained, of all the actors in the hor- rors of the great revolution. BARETTr, Joseph, baw-rait'-e, an ingenious Italian writer, and the son of an architect at Turin, of the early part of whose life little is known, except that he was a great traveller. In 1750 he visited England, and soon acquired a knowledge of the language, which he after- wards wrote with facility and correctness. About 1753 he became acquainted with Dr. Johnson, by whose means he was introduced as a teacher of Italian into the family of Mr. Thrale. In 1760 he returned to Italy, and began to publish at Venice a periodical work entitled " Frusta Literaria," but on account of the free- dom of its sentiments, found it expedient to quit that country, and once more visited Eng- land. In 1769 he was tried at the Old Bailey for killing a man who had assaulted him in the Haymarket, and was acquitted. Next year he published his " Travels through France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy," 4 vols. 8vo. On the esta- blishment of the Royal Academy, he was ap- pointed its foreign secretary, and during Lord North's administration obtained a pension. b. 1716 : d. 1789. — He was a talented, pleasant, and charitable man. Besides the above, he wrote "A Dissertation on Italian Poetry;" "An Introduction to the Italian Language;" "The Italian Library," 8vo ; "A Dictionary, English and Italian," 2 vols. 4to ; " A Grammar of the Italian Language," 8vo ; "An Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy," 2 vols. 8vo; " An Introduction to the most Useful European Languages," 8vo ; "A Dictionary, English and Spanish," 4to ; by which, and his Italian Dic- tionary, he is best known. BARnAM, Rev. Richard Harris, bar'-ham, rector of St. Augustine aud St. Faith, in Lon- don, known to the world by his literary name of Thomas Ingoklsby. His " Ingoklsby Le- gends" were iirst contributed to "Bentley's Miscellany," and afterwards collected into vo- lumes. For many years he was a contributor to " Blackwood's Magazine," the " Literary Gazette," and other periodicals; and was the author of the popular novel entitled " My Cousin Nicholas." b. at Canterbury, 1788; d. 1845. Bareuth or Bareitii, ba'-root, Fredcrica Sophia Wilnelmina, margravine of, was the daughter of Frederic William I. of Prussia, and sister of Frederic II., called the Great, between her and whom a most tender ail'ection subsisted, they having both suffered much cruelty from their father. She was in early youth proposed as the bride of the heirs to the English, Danish, Swedish, and Polish crowns, but finally gave her hand to the Prince of Bareuth; and on the death of her father-in-law became margra- vine. She cultivated literature with much suc- cess, had Voltaire for an admirer and friend, exercised great influence over her brother Fre- K 2 THE DICTIONARY Baring deric, and died in 1758, on the day on which Frederic was defeated at Hochkirchen. Her me- moirs, written in French, were published after her death, and have gone through several edi- tions, b. at Potsdam in 1709; d. Oct. 14, 1758. Baring, Sir Francis Thornhill, bair'-ing, a member of the great Baring family, created baron Northbrooke, January 4, 1866, was born in 1790, and educated at Oxford. He was called to the bar in 1823, and for many years repre- sented Portsmouth in Parliament. He was a lord of the treasury from 1830 to June, 1834; secretary of the treasury from June to November, 1834, and again from 1835 to 1839; from 1839 to 1841 he was chancellor of the exchequer ; and from January, 1849, till March, 1852, first lord of the admiralty. He was a whig in politics, but was more valued as a reliable man of business than as an orator or politician, b. Sept. 6, 1866. Barker, Edmund Henry, bmr'-ker, a contri- butor to the "Classical Journal" for twenty years, and a laborious Greek scholar. His mag- num opus, or great work, as it might be called, is an edition of Stephens's " Thesaurus Lingua; Gra?ca?," which comprises no fewer than 11,752 double-columned pages. Its principal value consists in its size and the comprehensiveness of its grasp, rather than in its merit. He was the editor of numerous other classical works, and for some time was the amanuensis of Dr. Parr. n. at Hollym, in Yorkshire, in 1788 ; d. in London, 1839. Barker, Robert, was an Irishman, and the inventor and patentee of panoramas. Amongst his most popular panoramas were the battles of Aboukir and Trafalgar. He was himself origi- ginally a painter, and in the production of his pictures was assisted by B. U. Beinagle, B.A., from whose sketches a great number of his foreign views were painted. ' b. at Kells, Heath, in 1739; B. in London, 1806. Barker, Thomas, a successful artist, who established himself at Bath, and whose principal objects of study were rustic figures and land- scapes. His " Woodman" is a well-known work of art, and has been almost universally popula- rized by its reproduction on signboards, earthen- ware, tobacco-boxes, and almost every article upon which a design could be printed or painted. b. near Pontypool, in Monmouthshire, 1769; b. in Bath, 1847. BARKHAir, John, bjirh'-ham, an English anti- quary, who was made dean of Bocking, in Essex. b. at Exeter, 1572 ; d. at Bocking, in Essex, 1642. — He bequeathed medals and coins to archbishop Laud, who added them to the col- lection which he had given to the university of Oxford; and he is said to have been the sole author of the "Display of Heraldry," which goes under the name of Guillim. Barkok, Malek-al-Dhaber Abu-said, lar'-lcok, a Circassian by birth, who having been sold in early youth as a slave, was enrolled in the ranks of the Mamelukes, and gradually rose till he attained the chief command of the army of Egypt, and finally made himself sultan, founding the liorgite or Circassian dynasty. In character he was brave and politic, but unscrupulous ; and some acts exhibiting the latter quality embroiled him with Tamerlane. He reigned over Egypt for seventeen years, and died in 1399 a.b. (a.h. 802), in his 60th year, and was succeeded by his son Faradj, in whose reign the destruction of the Mameluke power was consummated. BARLAAii, bawr'-lawm, alearned Italian monk, 132 Barlow who was nearly the last who wrote in Greek upon his favourite study of mathematics, d. about 1348. Barl^eus, Caspar, bar'-le-oos,"fL Dutch poet and theologian, born at Antwerp, 1584, who wrote mostly in Latin, and, becoming involved iu the rancorous religious disputes of his time, was driven from his professorship at Leyden, but became professor of philosophy at Amster- dam in 1631. He wrote a vast deal — so much so, that it was said that nearly every event of mo- ment which occurred in his time was celebrated by him. His poems appeared at Leyden in 1631, and were afterwards reprinted, with additions, at Amsterdam, in 1635. He is said to have died from the effects of the religious persecution lie endured, which had induced in him various forms of monomania, b. 1618. Barletta, Gabriel, baicr-lait-ta, a Domini- can monk and an extraordinary preacher, whose sermons exhibit such a mixture of religious and comic expressions, sublime and vulgar ideas, the serious and the ridiculous, and, what is more remarkable, the whole are written in such a barbarous language, compounded of Greek, Latin, and Italian, as to have rendered them among the most extraordinary productions in literature. So great, however, was his fame with his contemporaries, that it elicited the proverb, Nescit prcedicare qui nescit barlettare. Lived in the 15th century. — His sermons have passed through more than twenty editions; the best is that of Venice, in 1577, 2 vols. 8vo. Barlow, Thomas, bar'-lo, a distinguished English divine and prelate of the 17th century, was born at Orton, Westmoreland, in 1607, and educated at Appleby and Oxford. In 1657 he was chosen provost of his college, was afterwards made a D.D., professor of divinity, archdeacon of Oxford, and, in 1675, bishop of Lincoln, where he succeeded the celebrated Fuller, b. Oct. 8, 1691, leaving a great many works, chiefly in contro- versial and casuistical divinity, in the latter of which he was thought greatly to excel. He bequeathed his books to the Bodleian Library and Queen's College, Oxford. Barlow, Francis, an English painter, who studied under Shepherd, the portrait-painter, n. in Lincolnshire, 1626; b. 1702. — His prin- cipal excellence lay in painting beasts, birds, and fish, which he represented with great beauty on the ceilings of the country houses of sporting noblemen and gentlemen. Barlow, Joel, an American author and diplo- matist, who, during the War of Independence, composed many patriotic songs and addresses to stimulate his countrymen in the great cause iu which they were embarked. In 17«7 he pub- lished by subscription a poem entitled the " Vision of Columbus," whilst engaged as tho conductor of a weekly newspaper in tho town of Hartford. In the following year he visited England as the agent of a company speculating in the sale of land, and united himself to that class who were then zealous in the advocacy of republican principles. After spending seven- teen years in this country and in France, he re- turned to America, and in 1S08 reproduced his "Vision of Columbus" under the new title of "The Columbiad." This performance never obtained a high popularity. He now engaged himself in collecting materials for a "History of the United States," but was interrupted by President Madison, who admired him so much as to appoint him niinittcr plenipotentiary to OP BIOGRAPHY. Barlow the court of France. Accordingly, in 1812, he once more arrived in France, and soon after- wards died. is. at Heading, Connecticut, 1755; ». on his way to Wilna, near Cracow, 1812. Barlow, Peter, aa eminent mathematician, who, although possessed of no other advantages 1 han those derived from the commonest educa- tion, rose to be mathematical master at the Koyal Academy, Woolwich, and filled the chair as its professor for forty years, till he retired in 1817. In 1825 the Royal Society awarded him their Copley medal for "various commu- nications on the subject of magnetism." For Ids able "Essay on Magnetic Attractions," published in 1820, the Board of Longitude pre- sented him with the parliamentary reward for useful discoveries in navigation, b. at Norwich, in 1776. d. 1862. Barlowe, William, another eminent mathe- matician, who, on entering into orders, was made prebendary of Winchester, and finally arch- deacon of Sarum. He was the first English writer on the properties of the loadstone, and he likewise discovered the difference between iron and steel, and their tempers, for magnetical uses. To him also we are indebted for the method of pointing magnetic needles, and of piercing and cementing loadstones, b. in Pembroke- shire ; d. 1625.— As the first English writer on the nature and properties of the magnet, and as the inventor of the compass-box as now used it sea, the name of Barlowe deserves to stand high amongst those scientific investigators who have exerted their talents for the benefit of mankind. Barxabas, St., bar'-na-bas, "son of prophecy" or of " consolation," the name given to Joses, of the tribe of Levi, who embraced the gospel, sold his estate, gave the produce to the apostles, and became an eminent evangelist. He was sent to Antioch to confirm the new disciples ; and was the companion of St. Paul. He was stoned to death by the Jews in Cyprus, b. in the island of Cyprus. Lived in the 1st century. —There is an epistle extant under his name, which was printed at Amsterdam, with notes, in 1741, by Le Clerc. Bauxaud, Nicolas, lar'-no, an alchemist of the 16th century, who practised physic, travelled a great deal, and is said to have amassed consi- derable wealth by imposing on the credulity of his contemporaries, by pretending to have dis- covered the philosopher's stone. He wrote a number of works on alchemy and kindred themes, many of which were published anony- mously or with fictitious names. He was a native of Crest, in Dauphiny ; but the dates of his birth and death are unknown. Barnard, Sir John, bar'-nard, an eminent citizen of London, whose parents belonged to the Society of Friends. In his 19th year he quitted this body, and became a member of the established church, and was first brought into notice by being appointed by those engaged in the wine trade, and to which he himself be- longed, to state before the House of Lords their objections to a bill then pending»in that house, and affecting their trade. In consequence of the ability he displayed on this occasion, he was, in 1721, nominated candidate for the city of London, and in the year following was elected. He continued to represent the city in parliament nearly forty years, and discharged that trust with a fidelity which gained for him the venera- tion of his fellow-citizens, who, in the Koyal Exchange, erected his statue, which was de- 133 Barnes stroyed in the fire of 1838. In 1732 he received the honour of knighthood from George II. In 1737 he served the office of lord mayor, in which situation he considerably reformed the police. B. at Reading, 16S5; d. at Clapham, 1764.— Sir John Barnard was a worthy magistrate, an up- right senator, a good speaker, and a religious man. Barxard, Lady Anne, the daughter of James Lindsay, fifth earl of Balcarras, and the wife of Sir Andrew Barnard, librarian to George III., is noticed here for being the authoress of the pathetic ballad entitled "Auld Robin Grav," the name of the writer of which was preserved a secret for upwards of fifty years, b. 1750 : t>. 1825. Barxard, Sir Andrew Francis, G.C.B. and G.C.H., a British general, who early entered the army, saw much active service in the West In- dies, was in 1799 engaged in the expedition to the Holder, and subsequently was present, dur- ing the peninsular war, at Barrosa (where he was severely wounded), Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, Salamanca, Vittoria, Nivelle (where he was again wounded), Orthes, and Toulouse. For his ser- vices he received many honours, and in 1815 fought and was slightly hurt at Waterloo. He stood so high in the Duke of Wellington's opinion, that, when Paris capitulated, Sir An- drew was appointed commandant of the British troops there, b. in Donegal, 1773; d. Jan. 17, 1855. Barxard, Sir Henry William, a British gene- ral, who entered the army in 1814, and served in various ranks, till, in 1854, he was appointed to the command of one of the brigades in the Crimea, and was chief of the staff under General Simpson previous to the appointment of General Windham. He afterwards had the command of the troops at Corfu, and finally was placed on the staff of the Bengal army. In June, 1857, he commanded the troop3 before Delhi at the commencement of its siege, in the place of General Reed, whose age and health unfitted him for the chief command of the Indian army, which had devolved upon him on the death of General Anson, but which he relinquished to Sir Henry Barnard. The latter, however, soon succumbed to the toils and anxieties of his position, and died of cholera, after a few hours' illness, 5th Jul)-, 1857. Barxave, Anthony, bur'-nac, one of the actors in and the victims of the French revolu- tion. He was a member of the National Assem- bly, in which he was remarkable for the vehe- mence with which he enunciated his principles and opinions. When the king was stopped at Varennes, he was deputed to conduct him and the royal family to Paris; in which mission he behaved with great respect to his illustrious captives. He was guillotined as a royalist in 1793, at the age of 32. Barnes, Juliana, barns, a lady whose accom- plishments procured her the place of prioress of Sopewell nunnery, which belonged to St. Albans. b. at Roding, Essex. Lived in the loth century. — She wrote on heraldry, hunting, and hawking, which treatises were printed at the monastery of St. Albans. Barxes, Robert, an English divine, who was chaplain to Henry VIII., by whom he was sent to Germany to confer with the divines of that country on the legality of the king's divorce. There Barnes became a Lutheran, and on his return propagated hjs new opinions with such THE DICTIONARY Harries zeal that he was arrested, and burnt at Smith- field in 1540. — He wrote a treatise on Justifica- tion, and some other books. Barnes, Barnaby, a poet of some note in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., was a son of Dr. Barnes, bishop of Durham. His productions, which were popular in their day, consisted principally of sonnets, odes, madrigals, elegies, and some pieces in imitation of the Greek poets, to which he gave Grecian titles. He was born about 1569. He is said to have been a soldier, and to have accompanied the Earl of Essex to France in 1591. In 1606 he translated Cicero's "Offices ;" in 1607, published a tragedy founded on the life of Pope Alexander VI., entitled the " Devil's Charter," after which no further men- tion of him is found, the date of his death being unknown. Barnes, Joshua, an English poet and pro- fessor of Greek at Cambridge, who, although he published a variety of works, is best known for '/lis poetical version of the Biblical story of Esther, which was printed in 1676, after having been very carefully revised and polished. It was enriched by learned notes; is written in Greek hexameters, and was accompanied by a Latin scholia. He was author of a life of Edward III.; edited editions of Euripedes, Anacreon, and Homer ; and began a poem called " Franciados," referring to the adventures of the Black Prince. He married, in 1700, a Mrs. Mason, a widow lady of Hemiugford, who wa« so great an admirer of Barnes that she offered to settle £100 a year upon him; this, however, he declined.unless accompanied with the honour of her hand, which she accordingly granted. b. 1051; d. 1712. His editions of the Grehk classics, though distinguished by much pains- taking and research, were not very successful, and are now totally forgotten. Barnes, Sir Edward, a distinguished military officer, who, after passing through the various subordinate grades, was made major-general in 1813, and commanded a brigade in the battles ot Vittoria, Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, &c. He also served in the campaign in the Netherlands, was wounded at Waterloo, and afterwards held commands in Ceylon and India. He attained the rank of lieutenant-general in 1825, was a K.C.B. and K.G.B., was decorated with several foreign orders, and was M.P. for Sudbury in two parliaments. b. 1776; d. 1838. Barnes, Albert, an American biblical com- mentator, well known as the author of " Barnes's Notes," which have gone through many editions in the United States, have been republished in England, and are so much esteemed, that a circulation of nearly half a million is said to have been reached up to 1859. b. at Home, U.S., 1798. Barnet, Curtis, bar'-net, a commodore in the British navy, who did much excellent service, es- pecially in the Indian seas, where his conduct in connexion with the defence of Madras, when be- sieged by the French, has been much com- mended. Instead of directly aiding in the defence of the British settlement, he attacked Pondicherry, and thus succeeded in drawing off the French army, which retreated from Madras, and returned by forced marches to the defence of Pondicherry. Previous to this, in 1745, he captured, in conjunction with the Earl of Northesk, their ships being the Dept- ford, of 60 guns, and the Predon, of 50, three valuable French ship?, each mounting 30 guns. Baroccio carrying 150 men, and having cargoes valued at £100,000 a piece. Barnet was eminent for his knowledge of naval law and etiquette, and was at one time famous for a controversy in which he engaged with admiral Lestoek, and for having been twice concerned in questions of breach of neutrality, by the French on one occa- sion, and by himself, it is said in retaliation, on another, b. 1740, in the prime of life, and when in a fair way to win an eminent name in British naval annals. Babneveldt, John van Olden, barn'-velt. Grand Pensionary of Holland, who rose front the position of an advoeate to the first dignitic* in the Dutch government. During the struggle of the Netherlanders with the Spaniards, he assisted, in 1573, as a volunteer, in the defence of Haarlem; and in 1575, the year following the assassination of William, prince of Orange, was sent as ambassador to England. Here he was successful in procuring military assistance from queen Elizabeth, and on his return from the embassy was made advocate-general. En- deavouring, however, to limit the power of the stadtholder, Maurice, prince of Orange, and also approving the doctrines of the Arminians, which Maurice, as a Gomarist, opposed, he made himself obnoxious to that prince, who was pos- sessed of great power, and was arrested and tried for plotting to deliver up his country to the Spanish monarch. Of this he was found guilty, and beheaded in 1619. n. at Amersfoort, 1547. — His sons, William and Bend, formed a conspiracy against Maurice, to revenge their father's death, which was discovered. William escaped, but Rene' was taken prisoner and exe- cuted. The widow of John Barneveldt having solicited the pardon of Rend, Prince Maurice ex- pressed his astonishment that she should do for her son what she had refused to do for her husband. To this she nobly replied, " I would not seek pardon for my husband, because he was innocent ; I ask it for my son, because he is guilty." (For full details of the life and labours of Barneveldt, see Motley's "Kise of the Dutch Republic") Barnet, Joshua, bar'-ne, a distinguished American seaman, who early sought the sea, and, at the commencement of the War of Indepen- dence was appointed mate of the American sloop Hornet. On board this and other vessels he soon showed his brave and seamanlikc qualities, and was very active and successful in capturing Bri- tish merchant-ships. He, however, was taken prisoner and sent to England; but escaping, made his way home, and again commenced his attacks on the British. On peace being made, he was for a short time in the French navy, but re- signed his command and engaged in commercial pursuits. In the second war between England and America, in 1812, he was appointed com- mander of the flotilla in Chesapeake Bay, and having disembarked his men to assist the land forces, was present at the engagement of Bladens- burg, where he was wounded and again taken prisoner, b. f 759 ; d. 1818. Baro, Peter, bar'-o, a French Protestant divine, who, to avoid persecution, came to Eng- land, and, in 1575, was chosen Margaret profes- sor of divinity at Cambridge ; but involving himself in disputes by opposing the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, he, in 1596, resigned his professorship, d. about 1600.— He pub- lished some polemical books in Latin. Bakoccio, or Baeozzi. latvrol'-zhe-o, or bciw- OF BIOGEAPHV. Baroche rods-e, Giacomo da Vignola, one of the most dis- tinguishedltalianarchltectsof modern times, was t he son of a Milanese gentleman, and was born at Vignola in 1507. The death of his father in reduced circumstances devolved the education of Gitcomo upon Ills mother, who, finding his taste and talents inclined him to the study of architecture, allowed him to follow the bent of his genius, and removed to Eome in order to afford her son the best opportunities of study. He first brought himself into notice by a small treatise on perspective, then little understood, and which he reduced to rule. He was then, on the formation of the Academy of Architecture at Rome, appointed director, and made a collec- tion of drawings of all the ancient edifices of the Holy City for the use of the students. He next travelled in France, and made several designs for Francis I. On his return to Italy, he composed a facade for the church of St. Peter, at Bologna, built the Solani palace at Minerbio, completed the canal of the Naviglio, and designed the ducal palace at Piacenza. He again returned to Rome, where Pope Julius III. took him into his service, and for whom he de- signed and executed the luxurious villa Giulio, outside the Porta del Popolo, the interior of which has been characterized as a masterpiece of elegant, refined, and classic beauty and luxury. His other works are — the church of St. Andrea, near the same gate; the Capo d'Opera at Caprarola, 26 miles from Rome, one of the most elegant structures in Italy, the circular staircase in which is considered to be the finest in the world ; the church of the Madonna degli Angeli, near Assissi, those of Mazzano and St. Orestes, the rustic gateway to the Farnese Gardens at Rome, and various other buildings, which lie either wholly designed or contributed to the decoration of. He succeeded Michael Angelo as the architect of St. Peter's, at Rome, and various portions of that stupendous building were executed under his care. When Philip II. of Spain was about to erect the Eseurial, the plans which had been prepared were submitted to Vignola, with a request that he would either select the best, or form a combination of all such as should be worthy the object intended. It is be- lieved that he put the whole aside, and formed a design of his own, upon which the Eseurial, which cost 5,260,570 ducats, and contains 12,000 doors and windows, was erected. Baroccio published a work on the orders of architecture, in which he reduced the proportions of the several parts to a consonant and harmonious principle, and which is still used as a textbook for the student. He died, 1573, at the age of 06, beloved and honoured for the vastness of his achievements, the originality of his genius, the integrity of his character, and the amiability and geniality of his disposition. It was his constant prayer that he should neither know poverty nor superfluity — a wish that appears to have been gratified ; for it is said that he left to his son Hyacinth, also an architect, who com- pleted some of his father's works, no other inheritance than his name, bis fame, and the example of his virtues. Bakochk, Peter Jules, ha'-rosih, a distinguished French advocate, who on the 23rd February, 1848, signed the bill of charges brought by Odillon Barrot against Guizot, for having pre- vented the reform banquet. Subsequently he became, under the government of Louis Napo- leon, minister of the interior, foreign minister, 135 B arras president of the council of state, and minister without portfolio, or one of the two " talking ministers" whose duty it is to answer in the Chambers for all departments of the govern- ment. B. at Paris. 1802. B AHOH.Hyacinthe Theodore,ia'-ron#,a French physician, who accomplished many useful re- forms in the mode of medical treatment adopted in his time. b. 1636; d. 1758. His son, of the same name, was also an eminent physician. Baroit, Michael, ba'-rong, a famous French actor, the son of a leather-merchant, who him- self was something of a performer. His proper family name, or surname, was Boy run. For nearly thirty years he played with the greatest success in Motiere's troupe, and then, ; in 1691, without any apparent reason, suddenly retired from the stage. In 1720, however, he again returned, and was received with immense enthusiasm, playing, with great success, even the most youthful parts. In September, 1729, he was compelled by old age and a severe asthma to retire from the stage, and died in the Decem- ber following, b. 1653. — Although his merit in his profession was very great, yet his vanity was equally so. This will appear from a saying of his, that " Once in a century we might see a C»sar, but that 2000 years were not sufficient to produce a Baron ;" and he was about to refuse the pension granted him by Louis XIV., be- cause the order for it was worded, " Pay to the within-named Michael Boyrun, called Baron," &c. He wrote also some plays, three volumes of Ms comedies being printed after his death. Baroni, Leonora, baw-ro'-ne,a. famous Italian singer, the daughter of the fair Adriana of Mantua, on whose beauty and accomplishments numerous panegyrics were printed. Leonora possessed eminent talents, and a volume of poems in different languages, written in her praise, was printed in 1636. She herself pro- duced several poetical pieces of merit, b. at Naples, and flourished during the 17th century. Baronius, Coesar, ba-ro'-ne-us, a learned car- dinal, who entered into the congregation of the Oratory; and, in 1583, was elected superior- general of that order, and subsequently beeama librarian of the Vatican and confessor to Cle- ment VIII., whom he would have succeeded as pope, but for the opposition of the Spanish party, b. 1533 ; d. 1607. — The fame of Baronius rests on his celebrated and laborious work, " Annales Ecclesiastics?," which was published in twelve volumes, and has been reproduced in many forms, and contains the history of the first twelve ages of the church. Barraband, Pierre Paul, bar'-ra-bawng, a ce- lebrated French painter of birds, was the son of a carpet manufacturer of Aubusson, where he was born in 1767. Removing to Paris at the age of 16, he at first painted flowers, but after- wards devoted himself to the delineation of or- nithology, and illustrated a variety of w orks on that subject; among which were an edition of Button, the " History of Insects" of Latreiile, and others. He was employed by Napoleon I. to decorate the banqueting-room at St. Cloud, and also executed some works for Joseph Bona- parte, in which he exliibitcd fine taste and skill in colour. In 1807, he was named professor at the Lyons School of Arts, but died in 1809, at the early age of 42. His pupils erected a monu- ment to his memory in the principal cemetery at Lyons. Bai'.ha*. Paid Francois Jean Nicholas, lar'-ra, THE DICTIONARY Barre one of the five members of the French Direc- tory, early entered into military life, and took part in the defence of Pondicnerry, in India, against the English, and was present at the battle of Progua, and soon after returned to France. The revolution now discovering it- self, Barras assisted at the taking of the Bastille, and afterwards of the Tuileries. In 1792 he was elected a member of the National Conven- tion, and voted for the unconditional death of Louis XVI. He was sent, in 1793, to the south of France, and commanded the left wing of the besieging army under Dugommier at Toulon, and it was here that he first met Napoleon Bona- parte, then captain of artillery. The patriotic re- putation of Barras was so well established, that he and Freron were the only representatives not denounced by the popular societies. Robes- pierre, however, was no friend of his, and often wished to arrest him : Barras, knowing this, be- came one of the principal actors of the 9th Thermidor, and put himself at the head of the troops which surrounded Robespierre at the Hotel de Ville. In 1794 he was named one of the " Committee of General Security," and be- came a great enemy to the members of the Mountain. In February, 1795, he was elected president of the Convention, and, in that capa-i city, declared Paris in a state of siege when the assembly was attacked by the populace. After- wards, when the Convention was assailed, Bona- parte, by Barras' advice, was appointed to com- mand the artillery ; and that general, on the 13th Venddmiaire (Oct. 5, K95), decisively re- pressed the sectionary movement. For his services, Barras was now named one of the Directory, and took a prominent part in the changes which that body underwent until Na- poleon's coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 8, 1799), which effectually overthrew the power of Barras and his colleagues. His life, from this date, was, generally speaking, one of re- tirement; and after living at Grosbois, Mar- seilles, and Brussels, he went to Chaillot, near Paris, where he died, 1829. b. 1755. — Napoleon said of him, " The passion with which he spoke would make one imagine he was a resolute, de- termined man : but he was not so, — he had no decided opinion on any subject connected with government." Babbe, Louis Francois Joseph de la, bar'-rai, an ingenious writer, who assisted Anselm Ban- duri in his " Imperium Orientalc," and the sollection of medals of Roman emperors from the emperor Decius, for which he had a pension given him by the Duke of Tuscany. He also published " Memoirs for the History of France and Burgundy," and several other works, b. 1688 ; d. 1733. — There are others of this name distinguished in French literature and history. Baeeelieb, bar-rel'-e-ai, a French botanist, at first a physician, but who became a Domini- can, and devoted himself to the study of botany, travelling through the south of France and Spain collecting specimens of plants. He subsequently visited Italy, and founded at Rome a botanical garden. Here he also had engraved some of the plants he had collected, and after remaining at Rome twenty-three years, returned to Paris, where he endeavoured to perfect Ins labours, with a view of publishing an account of his dis- coveries, but died there, 1673. b. 1606.— His valuable MSS. were, after his death, nearly all destroyed by fire and only a few of his copper- plates saved; thcee, however, were used by 136 Barrington Antoine de Jussieu in a work published in 1714; and Plumier, in honour of Barrelier, established the genus Sarreliera, of the order Acanthacia \. Babbett, George, bdr'-et, a landscape painter, who was self-taught, and obtained, when young, the premium of £50 offered by the Dublin Society for the best landscape in oil. In 1762 he came to London, and the year after his arri- val he gained the premium given by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., for the best landscape, b. at Dublin, 1732; d. at Padding- ton, 1784.— He was one of the first who sug- gested the foundation of the Royal Academy, of which he became a member. Baehett, William, an English topographical author, who spent more than twenty years in collecting materials for a history of his native city, Bristol, which he published in 1788. d. 1789. — He was the early patron of the gifted but eccentric Chatterton. Babeett, John, D.D., vice-provost and pro- fessor of Oriental languages in Trinity College, Dublin, was distinguished alike for his learning, his penurious habits, his eccentricities, and his utter want of worldly knowledge. It was said of him, that though he had been eating the college mutton for more than half a century, he was unable to tell a sheep from an ox when he saw them alive. His learning, however, was pro- found, and his "Inquiry into the Origin of the Constellations of the Zodiac," and other works, gained for him a wide renown. He died, Nov. 15, 1821, leaving the greater part of his pro- perty, which was considerable, to charitable uses. Barbi, or Babbt, Giraldus de. (See Gibai- dus Cambeensis.) Babbington, John Shute, Lord Viscount, bar J -ing-ton, the first Lord Barrington, was the son of Mr. Shute, a merchant : but a Mr. Bar- rington, who had married his cousin, having left him his estate, he, by act of parliament, assumed his arms and name. He wrote several works advocating the rights of Protestant dis- senters, and, in 1720, was created an Irish peer, being then member for Berwick. In 1725 he published his " Miscellanea .Sacra." He also wrote " An Essay on the Several Dispensations of God to Mankind," and other works, b. at Theobalds, Herts, 1678 ; d. in Berkshire, 1734. — It is remarkable that another gentleman, John Wildman, of Beeket, should also have left Lord Barrington a considerable estate in Berk- shire, although they were but slightly ac- quainted. BABBixGToy, "William Wildman, Viscount, eldest son of the above, played a conspicuous part in polities between 1739 (when he was cho- sen member for Berwick) and 1778, when he re- tired into private life. In 1745 he became one of the commissioners of the Admiralty ; in 1754 he was chosen to represent Plymouth, and was named master of the Great Wardrobe; in 1755 he became secretary-at-war ; in 1761, chancellor of the exchequer ; in 1762, treasurer of the navv; and in 1765, again secretary-at-war. a. 1710; D. 1793. BABBiNGToy, the Honourable Daines, fourth son of the first Lord Barrington, was brought up to the law, and in 1757 was made a Welsh judge, after which he was appointed second justice of Chester. He resigned these offices long before his death, and lived in retirement in the Temple, occupying himself principally in the study of antiquity and natural history. OF BIOGRAPHY. Barrington He wrote "Observations on the Statutes," a work wliich has frequently been reprinted, and to which, in the later editions, new matter has been added. He also wrote tracts on the possi- bility of reaching the north pole. These were intended to promote a favourite project of the author, and embodied a vast amount of tradi- tionary as well as conjectural evidence as to the possibility of finding a passage to the pole. Be- ' sides these, he contributed several papers to the Boyal and Antiquarian Societies, of both of which he was a member, and of the latter vice- president, b. 1727 ; d. in the Temple, 1800. Babbingtox, Samuel, younger brother of the above, who was, in 1778, created rear-admiral of the White, and sent to the West Indies, where his valour and prudence gained him the highest reputation; and, against a far superior force, he greatly distinguished himself by the taking of St. Lucia. In 1782 he served under Lord Howe, and bore a part in the memorable relief of Gibraltar. B. 1729 ; d. 1800. Barboccio, Frederigo, baw-rot '-che-o, an emi- nent Italian painter, who, under the patronage of Pope Pius X., assisted in embellishing the Belvedere palace at Rome. The Annunciation, in fresco, on one of the ceilings, and a picture of the Holy Virgin with the infant Saviour, were of his execution; but his finest perfor- mances arc the Presentation in the Temple, and the Visitation of the Virgin Mary to Elizabeth, which he painted for the Chicsa Nuova during the pontiticate of Gregory XIII. b. at Urbino, 1528; d. 1612. Babbos, or Db Barros, John, bar'-ros, a learned Portuguese historian, who was tutor to the sons of King Emanuel ; and when his pupil Don Juan ascended the throne as King John III., he had conferred upon him the governor- ship of St. George da Mina, on the coast of Guinea. He was subsequently recalled to Lis- bon, and appointed agent-general for the Por- tuguese colonies, in which capacity he composed his great work entitled " Asia Portugueza," and which he divided into four decades of ten books each. b. at Visea, 1496; d. near Pombal, 1570. — The style of this writer is considered a model of Portuguese prose. Babbot, Camille Hyacinthe Odillon, bar'-ro, a celebrated French statesman, who showed great talents at an early age, and acquired consider- able reputation as an advocate. After the revo- lution of 1830, in the principal transactions of which he was deeply engaged, he accompanied the dethroned dynasty to Cherbourg. Under Louis Philippe, Barrot, as a member of the Chamber of Deputies, was in opposition to (lUizot, and was ardent in agitating for reform, and attended several of the provincial banquets, the interdiction of which ultimately led to the revolution of 18-13, at the commencement of which he pleaded in vain for the establishment of the regency of the duchess of Orleans. He subsequently became, in December, 1843, presi- dent of the council; and, in September, 1819, from ill health, resigned; and, in 1852, with- drew from public affairs, b. at Villefort, 1791. Babbow, Isaac, bar'-o, an eminent mathema- tician and divine, who was first placed in the Charter-house, and afterwards removed to Foi- sted school, in Essex, whence he was entered at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1G17 he was chosen a scholar, and subscribed the engage- ment ; but repenting of what he had done, he went back and struck out his name from the 137 Barrow list. This was in strict conformity ■with the remarkable antagonistic and belligerent spirit which, up to the present period, he had fre- quently, if not usually, displayed. At school he was distinguished for his pugilistic qualities, and in the eyes of his father, who was linen- draper to Charles I., seemed such an incor- rigible boy, that in his conversation he would express himself that if it pleased Providence to remove any of his offspring, that it might be Isaac, for he could best be spared. But however high might be his combative qualities, they were by no means superior to his intellectual powers. He had been a hard student, and the writings of Bacon, Descartes, Galileo, and simi- lar philosophers were his favourites, because they were profound. In 1649 he was chosen fellow of his college, and studied physic with a view of making it his profession; but by the advice of his uncle, afterwards bishop of St. Asaph, he forsook it, and devoted himself to theology. In 1655 he went on his travels, and at Constantinople read over all the works of St. Chrysostom. During this cruise up the Mediterranean, the vessel in which he sailed was attacked by an Algerine pirate, when he assumed carnal weapons, and took his part with the rest of the crew in driving off the enemy. On his return he was episcopally or- dained, and in 1660 was chosen Greek Professor at Cambridge. In 1662 he was appointed Gresham professor of geometry; and in the year following was elected fellow of the Koyal Society. In 1064 he gave up the Gresham pro- fessorship, on being appointed Lucasian pro- fessor of mathematies at Cambridge, which chair he resigned in 1669 to his pupil, then Mr. Isaac Newton. In 1670 he was created D.D., and two years afterwards appointed master of Trinity College; on which occasion the king said that he had given it to the most learned man in England. In 1675 he served the office of vice-chancellor, at which time the life of this truly great man was drawing to a close, b. in London, 1630 ; d. 1677, in his 47th year, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. — Not only as a mathematician, but as a divine, Barrow merits to rank with the highest of England's worthies. In the former capacity, Dr. Pember- ton remarks, " He may be esteemed as having shown a compass of invention, equal, if not superior, to any of the moderns, Sir Isaac New- ton only excepted " He was the originator of the idea of what has been called the incre- mental triangle, and proved the error of his predecessors in affirming that a portion of a curve may be taken so small, that it may, in calculation, be considered as a straight "line. He was the author of many mathematical works ; amongst which we may mention his " Lectiones Mathematics!," which are esteemed perfect models of gound geometrical reason- ing. As a divine, he seems inexhaustible in argument, knowledge, and power. Bishop Heber, speaking of the three greatest religious teachers of England, Taylor, Hooker, and Bar- row, thus distinguishes them : — " Of such a triumvirate, who shall settle the pre-eminence ? The first awes most, the second convinces most, the third delights and persuades most. , . . To Barrow the praise must be assigned of the closest and clearest views, and of a taste the most controlled and chastened." If the opinion of Charles II. is worth anything on such a point, it may be mentioned that, in judging of THE DICTIONARY Barrow him ns a preacher, he said Barrpw was the most unfair he ever heard, because he ex- hausted every subject on which he discoursed. Bishop Warburton remarks that in reading him )'ou are obliged to think; and the great carl of Chatham, when, in early life, he was qualifying himself for public speaking, read Barrow's sermons again and again, till he could recite many of them from memory. Of his personal prowess and courage there are many anecdotes. Walking about the premises of a friend in the evening, he was attacked by a fierce mastiff, which being chained all day and let loose at night, set on him with great fury. The doctor caught him by the throat, and throwing him down, lay upon him; once he had a mind to kill him, but he altered his reso- lution on recollecting that this would be unjust, as the dog only had done his duty. At length his shouts were heard by some of the family, who came out and freed both from their disagreeable situation. As a proof of his wit, we are told that, being on one occasion at court, he met the witty Lord Rochester, who, by way of banter, thus accosted him : — " Doctor, I am yours to my shoe-tie." Barrow, seeing his aim, returned his salute obsequiously, with, " My lord, 1 am yours to the ground." Rochester replied, " Doctor, I am yours to the centre ;" which was followed by Barrow, with, " My lord, I am yours to the antipodes." Upon which Rochester, scorning to be foiled by a musty old piece of divinity, as he used to call him, exclaimed, " Doctor, I am yours to the lowest pit of h — 1." On which Barrow, turning on his heel, answered, " There, my lord, I leave you." Babbow, Sir John, rose from being a mathe- matical teacher at Greenwich to the post of second secretary to the Admiralty, which he discharged for forty years. His first step to advancement in public life, however, arose from his accompanying, as private secretary of Sir George Staunton, the expedition of Lord Mac- artney to China. On his return he published Lis "Travels in China," which, at the time, was considered one of the most valuable and inte- resting accounts which had appeared of the Chinese. In 1797 he accompanied Lord Macart- ney to the Cape of Good Hope in the capacity of private secretary; and on his return pub- lished a volume of his "Travels in Southern Africa." In 1814 he received from Lord Mel- ville his appointment to the second-secretaryship of the Admiralty, when his ardour in the pur- suit of geographical knowledge and scientific discovery was soon evinced by the manner in which he endeavoured to serve his country in bringing before various governments the desi- rability of prosecuting voyages to the arctic regions. These services were honourably no- ticed in various ways; and in 1835 he was created a baronet, b. near Ulverstone, 1761; d. 1818. Babbt, Robert and Philip de, lur'-e, two brothers, natives of Wales, who took an active part along with Robert Fitzstephen and Ray- mond le Grcsse in the conquest of Ireland, where they greatly distinguished themselves, and were the founders of the numerous families of that name in Cork and other counties, especially that of Barry Court, in Cork, where Philip built a castle in 1206. Flourished between 1189 and 1230. Giraldus de Barry, usually called GiraMus Cambrensis (which see), the chronicler, was another brother. Lords Duttcvant and Barry- 138 Barry- more are descended from the gallant companions of Fitzstephen. Babbt, Lodowick, was the author of a co- medy called " Ram Alley, or Merry Tricks," which for liveliness of incident, and spirit and humour in dialogue and character, is one of the best of our old English dramas. It was first printed in 1611, again in 1636, and is con- tained in Dodsley's collection of old plays. Of the author little is known with certainty, but he is believed to have been an Irish gen- tleman, Babbt, Spranger, a celebrated actor, who was bred a silversmith, which trade he aban- doned for the theatre, and made his first appear- ance in the character of Othello in 1714. In 1747 he came to England, and was engaged at Drury Lane, which he soon quitted for Covent Garden, and proved a formidable rival to Gar- rick, who was the leader of the former house. In 1758 he went to Ireland ; but his speculations in two theatres, one in Dublin and the other in Cork, proving unsuccessful, he returned to England, when he and his wife were engaged by Mr. Foote, at the Haymarket. In 1766 he accepted proposals made by Garrick, and re- moved to Drury Lane. About 1773 Barry left Drury Lane for Covent Garden ; but he did not live long after, being worn out by an hereditary gout. b. in Dublin, 1719; d. 1777. His great excellence was in tragedy. Babbt, James, an eminent lawyer, whose father, in the time of Charles I., was a repre- sentative of the city of Dublin. In 1629 he was made king's serjeant, and in 1634 one of the barons of the Exchequer, with the honour of knighthood. He was a great friend to the earl of Strafford, and, at the Restoration, was ad- vanced to the office of chief justice of the King's Bench in Ireland and the peerage, b. at Dub- lin ; d. 1673. — He wrote " The Case of Tenures upon the Commission of Defective Titles," Dublin, 1637, folio. Baert, James, a celebrated painter, who, at the age of nineteen, painted an historical picture on the legend of the baptism of the king of Cashel, which was exhibited to the Dublin Society for the Encouragement of Arts. The genius exhibited in the treatment of this subject brought him under the notice of Burke, the distinguished statesman, who introduced him to Sir Joshua Reynolds, Dr. Johnson, and other eminent men. Burke enabled him to visit Italy, where he studied with ardour. On his return, in 1775, he published " An Inquiry into the Real and Imaginary Obstructions to the Acquisition of the Arts in England," Svo., a work of considerable merit. About this time he proposed to paint gratuitously for the Society of Arts a series of pictures, illustrative of the position, that the happiness of mankind is promoted in proportion to the progress of knowledge. His oiler was accepted, but his labour was ill requited, and these great works now adorn the institution in the Adelphi. He was subsequently elected royal academician, and in 1782 was appointed professor of painting to the Royal Academy, where his lectures were greatly admired. In 1797 he was removed from his office, and soon after expelled from that institution, on account of some severe allega- tions which he made against the Academy in outvoting him upon several of his propositions for the advancement of art. n. at Cork, 1711 ; d. in London, 1800.— Mr. Barry was engaged OF BIOGRAPHY. Barry- some years in painting a large picture of Pan- dora, eighteen feet long and ten broad ; but it -.vas not finished at his death. It is, however, on his "Victors of Olympia" that his fame prin- pally rests. It forms the third of the series painted for the Society of Arts. " There is a grasp of mind in it," said Dr. Johnson when he saw it,' " you will find nowhere else ;" and the celebrated Canova, when in this country, highly commended the work. Barry, Sir David, a very distinguished phy- sician and physiologist, was a native of Ireland, having been born in the county of Roscommon, on the 12th of March, 1780. He joined the medical staff of the army in 1806, and served with distinction in the Peninsular war, at the close of which he was named staff-surgeon of the district of Braganza, and remained in Portugal till 1820, when he returned to England. He devoted himself for several years to the development of certain views he entertained re- garding the circulation of the blood, the function of absorption, and the treatment of poisoned wounds. These speculations attracted much attention, were reported on by Cuvier, Laennec, and others, and are considered to have thrown much valuable light on the points to which they refer. Dr. Barry was afterwards employed by government to investigate the fever which pre- vailed in Gibraltar in 1828; in 1831, he was •sent to St. Petersburg, along with Sir William Russell, to inquire into the character of the cholera which then appeared in Europe, and on his return was named a member of the board appointed to investigate the epidemic. In 1833, lie was one of the commission of inquiry into the health of children employed in factories; and in the following year was one of the com- missioners appointed to investigate the condi- tion of the poor, and of the public charities in Ireland. In all these inquiries he rendered valuable services, in consideration of which he was knighted by his sovereign. He rose to the rank of physician to the forces ; and died from the bursting of an aneurism in the thoracic aorta in November 1835, while engaged in arranging his papers on the Irish inquiry. Barry, Martin, a distinguished physiologist, who, having studied in the universities of Edinburgh, Paris, and Berlin, merits notice principally on account of his having devoted the greater portion of his time to the study of animal development and embryology. On these subjects ho wrote a number of treatises, and in 1S39 was the first to announce the im- portant discovery " that the segmentation of the yolk, which had been observed in batrachian reptiles, was also true of mammals." b. at Fratton, Hampsliire, 1802; d. at Beeclcs, in Suffolk, 18.35. Barry, Marie Jean, Countess du, ha> J -re, the favourite of Louis XV., was the daughter of an exciseman of the name of Vaubernier. After having passed some portion of her early life in a convent, we find her, at little more than the age of fifteen, engaged at a fashionable milliner's in Paris. Possessing a remarkably handsome per- son, which she displayed with a vulgar familiarity Of demeanour, she had already passed through several stages of vice, when she was presented to Louis XV. by Lebcl, his own valet-de- chambre. In order that she might appear at court, that licentious monarch conferred upon her the title by which she is generally known. During the reign of Louis XV, her'inllucncc Bart was all-powerful ; but when he died, in 1774, . she was shut up in a convent near Meaux. She was subsequently released by Louis XVI. ; and the residence of Luciennes, which the preceding sovereign had built for her, was restored to her with a pension. After this she lived in retire- ment and all but forgotten, till the Revolution broke out. It is gratifying to have it sometimes to record, that there are, in life, situations which will call forth, from the most depraved, virtues the most exalted. Gratitude is one of the noblest sentiments of the human mind ; and, whatever may have been the vices of the Coun- tess du Barry, she seems to have possessed this one virtue in an eminent degree. Appreciating the kindness with which she had been treated by Louis XVI., she now took the deepest inte- rest in the misfortunes of him and his family. She left her retirement, not only to mourn over, bat to endeavour to repair, the broken fortunes of royalty. Regardless of danger, she visited England in 1793, that she might dis- pose of her jewels, and, with the proceeds, assist the queen of France and her children, who were then prisoners in the Temple. On her return, in the same year, she was arrested, taken before the revolutionary tribunal of her country, and, on the charge of "being a con- spirator, and of having worn mourning in Lon- don for the death of the tyrant," was condemned and executed in November, b. at Vaucouleurs, 1746; suffered, 1793. Barry, Sir Charles, R.A., bar'-e, architect of the Houses of Parliament, whose first building which attracted attention was the Travellers' Club-house, Pall-Mall. Fifteen years later he built the Reform Club-house; and amongst other edifices of which he was the architect may be named King Edward's Grammar-school, Birmingham ; the new buildings at University College, Oxford ; and Clifden House, near Maidenhead, b. in Westminster, 1795 ; knighted, 1852; d. 1860. Bart, Jean, bart, a celebrated French naval hero, whose father was a poor fisherman, and was killed in a naval action. Bart early entered the Dutch navy, and served under Admiral De Ruyter, distinguishing himself, from time to time, by his courage and strength, in which he was superior to most of his shipmates. When, in 1672, war was declared by France against Holland, Bart quitted the Dutch service, and entered that of France. After several private enterprises, in which he greatly distinguished himself, his name became known to Louis XIV., who sent him a gold medal and chain, with the rank of lieutenant in the royal navy. He now rapidly rose, and, in 1C90, commanded a 40-giui ship in the Brest fleet under Admiral de Tour- viile, to whom he was of signal service in the action oft' Dieppe, in which the French were successful over the English and Dutch fleets. In the following year he landed on the coast of Scotland, and destroyed several villages. In 1092 he had the command of a squadron of frigates and a fire-ship, with which he destroyed 86 sail of English merchant-vessels, landed near Newcastle, where he burnt 200 houses, and returned to Dunkirk with prizes valued at 500,000 crowns. In 1694 he was sent with a squadron of six ships to convoy a fleet laden with corn. This fleet had been captured, when Bart fell in with it, by a Dutch squadron of eight men-of-war; but, though lie was much inferior in force, he rescued the prizes, took their var- THE DICTIONARY Hart as tors, and carried the whole to France. For this a patent of nobility was granted to him and his descendants. The peace of Ryswick.in 1697, put an end to the war, after which he retired to live with his family, b. at Dunkirk, 1651 ; d. 1702. — The eldest son of this brave seaman became a vice-admiral, and died in 1755. Baetas, William Sallust du, bar'-ta, a French poet, was the son of a treasurer of France, and rose to be honoured so far as to be sent by Henry IV. on several embassies. He wrote a poem, entitled "The Week of the Creation," in seven books, translated into English by Sylves- ter. The reputation of this work was so great, that it passed through thirty editions hi six years. It was translated into several languages ; and yet, although so popular on its appearance, it has long ago fallen into neglect, b. at Mont- l'ort, 1544; d. of the wounds he received at the battle of Ivry, 1590. Barth, Dr. Heinrich, hart, a celebrated African traveller, who, in early life, commenced the pursuit of travelling, with the view of ad- vancing geographical discovery. In 1815 he left Marseilles, and followed the French and Spanish shores as far as Gibraltar, passed over to Tangier, in Africa, and proceeded to Algiers, making excursions to Tunis, and other places in the interior. On his way to Cairo, he was wounded in an affray with the Arabs, and lost all his papers. He then explored Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Greece; thus nearly making the circuit of the Mediterranean. An account of these travels he published at his own expense. He afterwards accompanied Dr. Overweg and Mr. Richardson in their travels through North and Central Africa, during which they traversed more than 12,000 miles. The volume in which he gives an account of these explorations is a most valuable work. B. at Hamburg, 1821 ; d. at Berlin, 1865. Babthe, Nicholas Thomas, hart, an ingenious French writer, the author of several dramatic pieces, and a translator of Ovid's " Art of Love " in'« French verse, b. at Marseilles, 1731; d. at Paris, 1785.: Baethelemy, Jean Jacques, bar-tai'-lai-me,a, learned French writer, who received bis educa- tion first in the college of the Oratory at Mar- seilles, whence he removed to that of the Jesuits. In 1744 he visited Paris, and was no- minated associate in the care of the cabinet of medals, afterwards became secretary to the Academy of Inscriptions, and obtained the ap- pointment of keeper of the cabinet of medals. In 1754 he visited Naples, then rendered interesting to an antiquary by the discovery of the treasuresof Hereulaneum. He wished much to have a spe- cimen of the ancient writing in the Greek ma- nuscripts ; but he was told by those who had the care of the curiosities, that they could not grant his request. On this he only asked to see a manuscript page for a few minutes. It con- tained twenty-eight lines, which Barthelcmy read attentively, and, going aside, transcribed the whole, and sent the fac-siniile to the Aca- demy of Belles-lettres: — an act which many may applaud for its cleverness, but few for its honesty. In 1758 the duke do Choiseul gave liim a pension, to which he subsequently added the treasurcrship of St. Martin de Tours and the place of secretary-general to the Swiss Guards. In 1788 he published his great work, entitled "The Voyage of the Younger Anachar- tis in Greece," apon which he had been «m- 140 Barthius ployed thirty years. Of the merits of this work it is now hardly necessary to speak, yet the sketches of Grecian manners which it gives are not much to be relied on. In 1789 he was cho- sen a member of the French Academy ; and now, when he was nearly eighty years of age, he was arrested during the reign of terror, and, as an aristocrat, cast into prison. He was, how- ever, released by Danton the next day, the Ja- cobins being themselves ashamed of the atrocity of such an act. b. at Cassis, in Provence, 1716 ; d. at Paris, 1795. — Barthelemy was amember of the most distinguished foreign societies, as well as of those in his own country. He united with his profound learning, modesty, simplicity, and good-nature. Besides his "Anacharsis," he wrote a number of papers, chiefly on medals and coins, in the collection of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in the " Journal des Savans." If ever a man was weary of life, it was he ; for the French revolution had not only swept away his income of 25,000 francs a year, for which he eared little; but he had seen his oldest, dearest, and best friends first cast into prison, and thence led to perish on the scaffold. Babthez, Paul Joseph, bar'-ta!, a celebrated French physician and voluminous writer on medicine, pathology, physiology,&c.,havingbeen educated at Narbonne and Toulouse, was a pro- fessor, and afterwards chancellor, of the univer- sity at Montpellier, the school of which he. largely contributed to render famous. He after- wards removed to Paris, where he was appointed consulting physician to the king, Louis XVI., and first physician to the duke of Orleans, and where he practised with eminent success for ten years. The revolution compelled him to retire to his native town, where, although he had lost the greater part of his fortune, he practised his profession gratuitously, devoting his leisure to the philosophical speculations connected with medicine, which had always been his favourite study. On the restoration of the university, he was named honorary professor, age and infirm health precluding him from taking an active share in teaching. He published a great variety of works, the most important of which are his " Treatise on Gouty Diseases," the " New Ele- ments of the Science of Man," " New Doctrines concerning the Human Functions," &c. ; which, although they contain some fanciful specula- tions, and display an undue tendency to gene- ralise, are replete with valuable facts, and had a large influence in overthrowing many crude theories and absurd doctrines, which had pre- vailed in the French medical schools. Barthez's writings are much better known on the conti- nent than in England, where they have attracted comparatively little attention. His style is sim- ple, accurate, and excellently suited for teach- ing the sciences he treats of. b. at Montpellier, 1734; d. Oct. 15, 1806. Bammus, Gaspard de, bar'-ie-us, an erudite scholar, born at Custrin, in Brandenburg, June 22, 1587, was descended from one of the oldest families in Europe, an ancestor of his having commanded the cavalry of the emperor, in 856, in the wars with the Vandals, in the course of which he was killed. Gaspard Barthius early became such a master of languages, that while yet a boy he translated the memoirs of Comincs, and thirty romances from French, Spanish, and Italian into Latin ; besides render- ing seventeen of the Psalms into different kinds of Latin vcrcCj when only twelve years of age; OF BIOGRAPHY. Bartholdy and, before he was nineteen, published a consi- derable collection of Latin poems. Joseph Scaliger, who was anything but profuse of praise, said of him, that there was in Barthius another genius born to eternity ; and should he live, sound learning would be preserved for a time. Barthius afterwards edited editions of Virgil, Claudius, Statius, &c. ; in all of which he displayed prodigious learning, as well as ex- traordinary powers of memory, having generally quoted the passage he was commenting on from recollection. He subsequently abandoned profane for sacred studies ; and his " Sbliloquia " was «aid by Spenzel to contain thoughts well worthy of St. Augustine himself. He was twice mar- ried, and by the second wife left a son to trans- mit the ancient honours of his family, a matter about which he is said to have been extremely anxious, d. Sept. 19, 1658. Bartholdy, Jacob Solomon, bar-tol'-de, a diplomatist greatly employed by Prussia in se- cret missions, was born of Jewish parents, at Berlin, in 1779, and after studying at Halle, travelled in Greece, upon which country he wrote a book which greatly contributed to di- rect the attention of Europe to the condition of that then oppressed land. In 1805, he was bap- tized by the Protestant pastor, Keinhard ; and shortly afterwards, conceiving a violent hatred of Napoleon, he went through Germany preach- ing against him, joined the Austrian militia, and fought bravely at Ebersberg, where he was se- verely wounded. In 1813 he was appointed to a high place in the Prussian chancellery; fol- lowed the allies to Paris in 1814 ; took part in the deliberations of the Congress of Vienna ; was sent on secret missions to London and other courts; in 1815 was appointed Prussian consul-general at Rome ; afterwards filled mis- sions to Florence and Naples, and again at Home, where he devoted himself to archaeolo- gical studies, and died there in 1825. Although of a repulsive exterior, Bartholdy was a man of rare genius, and was highly esteemed by all the distinguished men of his time — Metternich, Hardenberg, Consalvi, &e. He was a great pa- tron of art, and had an extensive collection of articles of vertu, such as coloured glass, antique vases, oil-paintings, &c. He was a staunch op- ponent of revolutionary ideas, and a firm sup- porter of the doctrines of legitimacy. Bartholine, Thomas, bar-to-leen, a cele- brated physician at Copenhagen, who took his doctor's degree at Bale, in 1645. In 1647 he was appointed professor of mathematics at Co- penhagen, and in the following year obtained the anatomical chair. Whilst he held this office, he published many valuable medical and anatomical works, the most celebrated treating of the discovery of the lymphatic vessels, to which he laid claim ; but this is contested in favour of Rudbeck, a Swedish anatomist. In 1661, owing to delicate health, he resigned his professorship, and retired to the country ; but, in 1670, a fire destroying his house, with his library and manuscripts, he returned to Copen- hagen, when the king appointed him his phy- sician, and afterwards, in 1675, member of the Grand Council of Denmark, b. 1616 ; d. 1680. —lie left five sons and three daughters, most of whom were distinguished for their talents and learning. Bartholomew, bar-thoV-o-mu, archbishop of Braga, assisted at the council of Trent, where he strenuously urged the necesbitv 111 Bartoli of a reform among the clergy. He was the father of lus flock, and, in a time when the plague raged amongst them, remained at his post doing good. He subsequently resigned hia archbishopric, and retired to a monastery, the convent of Viana, which he had founded, b. at Lisbon, 1514; d. 1590. — His works are in 2 toIs. folio. Bartholomew, commonly called Akglius, an English Franciscan monk, whose family name was Glanvil, and who studied at Oxford, Paris, and Rome, was the author of a cele- brated work, entitled " De Proprietatibus Re- rum," and nineteen books treating of God and the whole circle of created things. Lived in the middle of the 14th century. Bartholomew, St., one of the twelve apos- tles. He preached the gospel in the Indies, in Ethiopia, and Lycaonia, and is said to have been flayed alive in Armenia; but this assertion does n>it seem to be well founded. Bartholomew, David Edwin, a native of Linlithgowshire, and captain in the British navy. He was impressed in 1795, and was pro- moted, for his exemplary conduct, to the petty officer's post of master's mate. In 1798 he won the patronage of Sir Home Popham, and for three years served under that officer, on the coast of India, in the Romney ; and on their re- turn, in 1803, was paid off. Failing to obtain promotion, he applied to the first lord of the Admiralty, which led to a most unwarrantable tiroeeeding on the part of that minister, who took str , • a ! Printer, who, in 1736, kept a writing-school in . at Venice, 1592. Bassantin, James, biis'-an-tin, a Scotch astronomer, who was educated first at Glasgow, and afterwards at Paris, where he became teacher of mathematics, b. about 1504; d. 1568. — On He turned liis arms against I his return to Scotland in 1002, he hud an inter- OF BIOGRAPHY. Basset Bathurst view with Robert Melvill, so chivalrously attached to Mary Stuart. It was universally believed that Bassantin had unveiled the future to Melvill, and he became celebrated as one who was thoroughly conversant with the occult sciences. Basset, Peter, bas'-et, an English historian. He was chamberlain to King Henry V., whose history he wrote, which is still extant in M8. in the Heralds' College. He lived in the 15th centurv. Basst, Laura, baw'-se, a learned Italian lady, was famed for her knowledge in philosophy, mathematics, and literature. Her singular attainments procured her, when twenty-one years of age, the title of doctor of philosophy. In 1745 she read lectures upon experimental philosophy, and continued to do so till her death. In 1738 she married Dr. Verati, and preserved an excellent character by the practice of every virtue, b. at Bologna, 1711; d. 1778. Bassompierhe, Francois, bas'-som-pe'-air, a marshal of France, celebrated for his gallantry, wit, and courage, during the reigns of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. In 1622 he was made marshal of France, and sent as ambassador to Spain; and 1625 was ambassador, first in Switzerland, and then in England. He was afterwards present at the siege of Rochelle, which surrendered Oct. 28, 1628. Taking part with the aristocracy against Cardinal Richelieu, he incurred that minister's displeasure, and was imprisoned in the Bastille twelve years* "While there he wrote his memoirs, which are full of anecdotes of his time, and a narrative of his em- bassy, b. in Lorraine, 1579 ; d. 1646. Basta, George, bas'-ta, a soldier and military writer of the 16th century, served under the duke of Parma, and distinguished himself in 1596, by provisioning the town of La Fere, which was besieged by Henry IV. Afterwards he was engaged by the emperor, to whom he rendered signal services in Hungary and Transylvania, and was made a count, b. at Rocca; b. 1007. — He wrote two works on military discipline. Bastiat, Frederick, bas'-te-a, a distinguished French economist and advocate of free trade, was born at Bayonne, June 19, 1801, and edu- cated at Saint Sever and Sorese. He subse- quently embraced commerce as an occupation, visited England about 1845, and published several works on economic subjects, the most important of which are his " Economic So- phisms," "Property and Law," "Protectionism and Communism," "Capital and Bent," " Har- monies of Economics," &e. d. Dec. 24, 1850. He was a member of the Legislative Assembly after the revolution of 1818. Bastide, Jules, ba<-teed, an eminent French politician and journalist of the republican school, was an active member of the Carbonari, and a determined opponent of the institution of monarchy after the revolution of July, 1830, and continued, though defeated on that occa- sion, to advocate his opinions with great energy cud force. He conducted the " National," in conjunction with Armand Carrel and Armand Marrast; and, later, the "Revue National," along with Buehcz. His bt:st work is on the " Religious wars in France." b. at Paris in 1800. Bastox, Robert, bas'-lorrfd monk, a prior of the convent of Carmelites at Scarborough, and poet-laureate and public orator at Oxford, flou- rished in the 14th century. When Edward II. iuvadcd Sim it land, in 1304, he took Ba.ston with 145 him, in order that he might celebrate the vic- tories to be won there, but the result of the battle of Bannockbur», where he was taken prisoner, compelled the poet to change his note, and instead of singing the triumphs of Edward, he celebrated those of Bruce. He wrote a volume of tragedies and comedies in English, and several pieces, in Latin, on the wars of Scotland, together with satires on the luxuries of the priests, sermons, &c. d. about 1310. Bastwick, John, bast-wik, an English phy- sician, who attacked the Church of England in several publications, for winch he lost his ears in the pillory, and was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in the Scilly Isles. In 1640 he was released by the Parliament, and had a re- ward of £5000 allowed him out of the arch- bishop of Canterbury's estates, b. at Writtle, Essex, 1593 ; d": about 1650. Bate, George, bait, a writer and doctor, who became principal physician to Charles I. at Ox- ford. During the civil war he resided in Lon- don, where he was highly esteemed, and in 1651 attended Cromwell. At the Restoration he was made physician to the king, and elected a fellow of the Royal Society. Dr. Bate wrote a history of the civil wars in Latin, and some tracts on physical subjects, b. at Maids Morton, Buck- inghamshire, 1608; d. in London, 1668. — Bate was charged with administering some potion to Cromwell which accelerated his death, but the accusation has never been substantiated. Bateman, William, bail' -man, bishop of Nor- wich, and a great master of civil and canon law. He founded Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in 1347, and was employed by Edward III. in many em- bassies in his long contention for the crown of France. B. at Norwich; d. at Avignon, 1355. BATEMAy, Thomas, an English physician, distinguished for his great labours in the cause of medical science, principally connected with diseases of the skin. b. at Whitby, 1778; d. 1821. — He is the author of several medical works, some of which have been translated into French and German. Bates, William, baits, an English nonconfor- mist divine, who was one of the commissioners at the Savoy conference for revising the liturgy, and was offered the deanery of Lichfield, which he refused, b. 1625; d. at Hackney, 1699. His theological works were collected and published in one volume folio, after his death. He pub- lished the " Lives of Learned and Pious Men," in one volume 4to, 1681, Latin. — Bates is con- sidered the politest writer, if not the best scholar, of the whole body of ministers who, in 1062, on the passing of the Act of Uniformity, seceded from the church, and founded what is called the Dissenting interest. Bathoei, Stephen, ba-to'-re, king of Poland, who was sovereign prince of Transylvania, end was elected to the throne of Poland in the place of Henry of Valois. He reformed many abuses, and defeated the Russians, who were "forced to cede Courland and a part of Livonia to the Poles, d. at ijrodno, 1586. Others of his family succeeded him. Batiiuhst, Allen, Earl, biilh'-tirst, an eminent statesman, who was a zealous opposer of the measures of Sir Robert Walpole. In 1742 he was admitted of the Privy Council; in 1757 was appointed treasurer to the Prince of Wales, ob- taining, at the accession of George III., a pen- sion of £2000 a year; and in 1772 was created Karl Bathurst. b. in Westminster, 16S4; t>. ncai THE DICTIONARY Bathurst Cirencester, 1775.— His son Henry was, in 1771, created Lord Apsley, and made lord chancellor, and afterwards president of the council under Lord North, n. 1714; d. 1794. Bathubst, Ralph, M.D., an uncle of Earl Bathurst, was born in 1620. He studied first for the church, but changed his career for that of medicine, and was, after the breaking out of the civil war, appointed physician to the State. At the Restoration he again abandoned physic, and resumed divinity ; was elected a fellow of Trinity College, Oxford ; entered into holy orders, was appointed chaplain to the king, dean of Wells, vice-chancellor of Oxford, and was even offered the bishopric of Bristol, by William and Mary, but this he declined. He was an accomplished philosopher, orator, poet, and wit— his powers of ridicule being so great that he used no other means of correcting the delinquents of his col- lege. Some poetical pieces by him were printed in the " Muss Anglicanaj," and are excellent of their kind. He wrote both in Latin and Eng- lish, d. 1704, aged 84. BATONi,Pompeo,ia!t>-tfo'-n«,an Italian painter, whose pieces are celebrated for their truthful- ness, character, and colouring, and of which the most admired is " Simon the Sorcerer contend- ing with St. Peter." b. at Lucca, 1708; n. at Rome, 1787. Battaglini, Mark, batc'-tal-le'-ne, bishop of Cescna, wrote a History of Councils, 1686, folio, and " Annales du Saccrdoce et de 1' Empire du XVII. Siecle," 1701 to 1711, 4 vols, folio. b. 1645 ; d. at Cesena, 1717. Baudet, Stephen, bo'-dai, a Frtnch engraver, whose chief work is a print of Adam and Eve, from a painting by Domenichino. b. at Blois, 1643; d. 1716. Bauer, Bruno, bou'-er, a modern German bib- lical critic and political writer, who at an early age commenced his theological disquisitions by reviewing Strauss' " Life of Jesus," and other works. Many of his writings contain very bold and speculative opinions, and one of them, " Christianity Unveiled," was destroyed in 1843, at Zurich, before its publication. In his " Re- view of the Epistles attributed to St. Paul," he argues that the four leading ones were not written by the apostle, but are the pro- duction of the 2nd century, b. at Eisenberg, 1809. Bauhiit, Jean and Gaspard, brothers, bou'-a, two distinguished botanists, were bom at Bile, Jean in 1541, and Gaspard in 1560. They were both educated for the medical profession, in which they attained considerable eminence; but their favourite study was botany, to the advancement of which science their researches md writings greatly contributed. Jean died in U13, and Gaspr.rd in 1624. Baumgakten, Alexander Theophilus, bourn- jar'-ten, a German philosopher, who studied at Halle, and became professor of philosophy .here, and afterwards at Frankfort on the Oder. B. at Berlin, 1714; d. at Frankfort on the Oder,1762. — Baumgarten maybe considered as the creator of the aesthetic, or of the philo- sophy of the beautiful. He wrote " Metaphy- sica," 8vo; " Ethica Philosophica," 8vo; "YEs- thetica Initia Philosophia; practical prima:." — His brother Sigismund was a distinguished divine of the Lutheran church, and professor of theology at Halle. He died in 1757. Baur, John William, bour, a painter and engraver of Strasburg, whose pictures of build- 140 Baxter ings and landscapes are very excellent, b. 1600; d. at Vienna, 1640. Baub, Frederick Wilhelm von, a Russian en- gineer-general, who engaged early in military life ; and in 1755 was in the British service, as an officer in the Hessian Artillery. In 1757 he obtained the rank of general and engineer. Frederick II. of Prussia ennobled him. In 1769 he entered into the service of Catherine II., empress of Russia, and was employed against the Turks. The empress had a high notion of his talents, and employed him in making the aqueduct of Tsarskoe-Selo, to supply Moscow with water, and in deepening the canal near St. Petersburg, at the end of which he constructed a large harbour, and other important under- takings, b. at Bieber, 1735; d. at St. Peters- burg, 1783. — Baur had for his secretary the celebrated Kotzebue, who directed in his name the German theatre at St. Petersburg. Bauteu, William, bo'-troo, member of the French Academy, and a celebrated wit. b. at Angers, 1588 ; d. at Paris, 1665. Bavius and M^vius, bai'-ve-us, me'-ve-us, two stupid and malevolent poets, in the age of Au- gustus, who attacked the superior talents of contemporary writers, and have therefore be- come immortalized by the satire and ridicule which they drew upon themselves. Baxter, Richard, bax'-ter, a celebrated non- conformist divine, who in 1638 was ordained by Bishop Thornborough, and two years later was chosen vicar of Kidderminster; but, on the breaking out of the civil war, he became suspi- cious ot the designs of the Parliament, and resolved to repair instantly to the army and use his utmost endeavours to bring back the sol- diers to the principles of loyalty to the king and submission to the Church. There was a grand sense of duty abroad in the breasts of the men of the 17th century. The moral as well as military heroism which sprung from this high sense makes us overlook, yea, almost forget, much of the violence by which many of their actions were crimsoned. Baxter, however, belonged to the church; but, so strong was the sense of duty in him, that when Cromwell was declared Protector, he bravely withstood him to the face, telling him that "the honest people of the land took their ancient monarchy to be a blessing and not an evil." His sympathies, however, being with the Parliament, he became chaplain to Colonel Whalley's regiment. Whilst officiat- ing in this capacity, he wrote his "Saint's Rest;" and was present at the taking of Bridgewater, and the sieges of Exeter, Bristol, and Worcester. Ill-health compelling him tc leave the army, he, in 1657, returned to Kidder- minster. Before his appointment to Whalley'.-- regiment, however, he had passed some time av Coventry, officiating in the ministry ; and he had even preached within hearing of the sound of cannon, when the roll of battle was passing over Edgehill. At the Restoration it was ex- pected that moderation would have pervaded the councils of the nation, and that a form oi ecclesiastical government that should reconcile all parties would be established ; but this was not the case, and the Act of Uniformity of 1662 drove Baxter from the church. He now occu- pied himself with literary composition, and his " Call to the Unconverted " was one of the fruits of this retirement. In 1672, when the (lames of religious persecution, which had run over the land, began to expire, he once mc" came OF BIOGRAPHY. Baxter forth from his retreat. He settled in London, and preached usually at Pinners' Hall and in a chapel in Fetter Lane. He now occupied himself principally with writing and preach- ing, but was frequently suspended by those rigorous enactments to which the Noncon- formists were, during the last two reigns of the Stuarts, frequently subjected. In 1682 the myrmidons of the law burst into his house whilst he was suffering from indisposition, and he was only saved from being dragged to a prison by the accidental interposition of his physician. Two years later he became one of the victims of the sanguinary Jeffreys. He was apprehended on a charge of sedition, and for being hostile to episcopacy. His trial took place in 1631-5. On this occasion Jeffreys dis- played his usual ferocity. When Baxter asked for time, " I will not give him a moment's time more to save his life. Yonder stands Dates in the pillory with him. I would say two of the greatest rogues and rascals in the kingdom stood there." When Baxter made an attempt to speak, the lord chief justice exclaimed, "Rich- ard ! Richard ! dost thou think we'll hear thee poison the court? Richard, thou art an old fellow, an old knave ; thou hast written books enough to load a cart. Hadst thou been whipped out of thy writing trade forty years ago, it had been happy." The result was a fine of 500 marks, imprisonment till paid, and bonds for good behaviour for seven years. Lord Powis, however, stepped in, got the line remit- ted, and Baxter was liberated in eighteen months. He lived for five years after this, preaching the gospel without molestation, n. in Shropshire, 1615; D. in London, 1691, and was buried in Christ Church.— The fame of this persevering, brave-spirited, and long-enduring man rests principally upon his two popular treatises, " The Saint's Everlasting Rest," and " A Call to the Unconverted." Baxter, William, nephew of the above, who was celebrated for his proficiency in the classics and his antiquarian research, was appointed master of the Mercers' School in London. Ho published a grammar of the Latin tongue in 1079; an edition of Anacreon in 1695; an edi- tion of Horace in 1710; and a "Dictionary of British Antiquities " in 1719. His " Glossary of Roman Antiquities" was not printed till 1726. B. at Lanlugan, Shropshire, 1060; d. 1723. Baxter, Andrew, an ingenious writer on metaphysics, was the son of a merchant in Old Aberdeen, where he was born in 1686 <->r 1687, and was educated at King's Col- "ege. His life was spent in the capacity of tutor to young gentlemen of rank, and among his pupils were the lords Blantyre and Gray, and other youths of good family. His leisure was occupied in metaphysical speculation?, which he embodied principally in a work called " An Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul," which went through several editions, and in which he deduces the immateriality of the soul from reason and philosophy. He travelled much on the continent, especially in Germany, and was the friend and correspondent of such opposite characters as Wilkes and Dr. Warbur- ton, bishop of Gloucester. He was much es- teemed for the uprightness, benevolence, and candour of his disposition, d. at Wlrittingham, East Lothian, in 1747. Bayard, I'ctcr, Chevalier dc, bai'-yar, the celebrated French warrior, and called "the jU7 Bayer Good Knight, without fear and without re- proach" (le Bon Chevalier, sans peur et sans reproche), had an ancestry of warriors, most of whom fell on various continental battle-fields. His father fought in many of the battles of Louis XL, his grandfather fought at Mont- Ihery, his great-grandfather at Cressy, and his great-great-grandfather at Poictiers. In accord- ance with the practice in the 15th century with those who were designed for the profession of arms, Bayard, at 13years old, was placed as a page in the house of the duke of Savoy, where he re- mained for five years. On the completion of his eighteenth year, he entered upon the actual duties of a soldier. The first battle at which he fought was that of Fornovo, in 1494, under the banner of Charles VIII. ; and the chivaliie spirit of his ancestors, it was evident, had found a fitting representative hi the young hero. Two horses were killed under him in that field ; and he himself performed feats that procured him the approbation of all who beheld him. Seve- ral years after this he was engaged in the Italian wars of Louis XII., when, on one occasion, it is said that he held a bridge over the Garigliano, single-handed, against 200 Spaniards, and en- abled the main body of the French to make good their retreat. In 1513 he fought at the famous battle of the Spurs, in Picardy, where his valour saved the whole French army from dis- grace. In this field, also, fought Henry VIII. of England, then a young man, but com- manding in person the English force. On* this occasion Bayard surrendered to an English knight, but was soon exchanged. In the battle of Marignano, fought September 13th, 1515, Bayard displayed his usual prowess; and in 1522 he defended Mezieres, a frontier town of France, against the count of Nassau, with a force of 35,000 men, assisted by a powerful ar- tillery. In 1524, whilst fighting against the Imperialists in Italy, he continued to display his usual romantic valour until he fell from his horse, wounded by a ball. In this condition he was pressed to withdraw from the field ; but answering that he never turned his back upon an enemy, desired that he might be placed with his back against a tree, that he might watch the varying fortunes of the fight ; and he there sunk under his wound, b. in Dauphiny, 1476 ; D. in battle, by the Sesia, 1524. — The marquis of Pescara, who on this occasion commanded the Spanish troops, caused the body of Bayard to be embalmed and sent to his relations. When it drew near the country of his birth, people of all ranks came forth to meet it. Bayer, Johann, bai'-er, aGerman astronomer, who, in 1603, published an excellent work, en- titled " Uranometria," being a celestial atlas, or folio charts of all the constellations. He was the first to distinguish the stars by the letters of the Greek alphabet, and according to the order of the magnitude of the stars in each constella- tion. This work was republished, with great improvements by the author, in 1627, under a new title, viz., "Cojlum StcllatumChristianum." u. at Augsburg, in Bavaria, about the year 1572; d. 1000. Bater, Gotlieb Siegfried, grandson of above, a learned philologist, who acquired a great know- ledge of the eastern languages, particularly the Chinese. In Yl'il ho was appointed librarian at Konigsberg; and in 1726 was invited to St. Petersburg, where ho was made professor of Greek and Roman antiquities. His " Musseum L 2 THE DICTIONAEY Bayle Sinicum," printed in 1730, in 2 vols. 8vo, is a very curious and learned work. n. at Konigs- berg, 1694; d. at St. Petersburg, 1738. Bayle, Peter, bail, a celebrated French writer, author of the well-known "Historical and Criti- cal Dictionary," was educated for the ministry among the Protestants ; but while attending the Jesuits' college, became a Eoman Catholic. Shortly afterwards, however, returning to his former communion, he went to Geneva, where he formed an intimacy with Basnage. He was subsequently appointed to the chair of philoso- phy at Sedan ; but when that academy was sup- pressed, in 1631, he removed to Rotterdam, and was chosen professor of philosophy and history there. In 1684 he began a literary journal en- titled " Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres," which obtained great celebrity. In 1693 he was deprived of his professorship ; and in two years afterwards appeared the first volume of his greatest work, " The Historical and Critical Dictionary," which quickly reached a second edition, b. at Carlat, in Foix, 1647 ; d. 1706. — Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote, " Thoughts on Comets," " A Criticism on Maim- bourg's History of Calvinism," "A Philosophical Comment on the words of Christ, ' Compel them to come in,' " &c. His writings, however, are generally allowed to betray no small portion of scepticism on religious subjects. Bayle, Moses, one of the leaders of the Mon- tagnards and Terrorists of the firstFreneh revo- lution, among whom he was distinguished for his violence and determination. He strongly de- fended the massacres of the 2nd of September ; was president of the Convention in 1793; was a firm friend of Robespierre, whom he had the cou- rage to defend after his fall ; and when it was proposed to prosecute Barere, Collot-d'Herbois, and others, he refused to be separated from them. He ultimately submitted to the ascendancy of Napoleon, held a small office in the police, but was always more or less connected with the restless demagogues of the period. He died in 1815 in great poverty. Bayly, Lewis, bai'-le, an eminent prelate, educated at Oxford, who was ordained bishop of Bangor, 1616, and is celebrated for his well- known work, entitled, " The Practice of Piety." B. at Carmarthen, about 1565 ; n. 1632. Baystun, Admiral Sir William Henry, G.C.B. bain'-tun, a distinguished naval officer, was the son of a gentleman who held the office of British consul at Algiers, and who, alter taking part in the capture of Martinique in 1794, of Trinidad in 1797, on all which occasions he greatly distin- guished himself, was commander of the ship Reunion when she was wrecked in the Severn, in December 7, 1796. He subsequently served in the West Indies; and in the Leviathan joined Nelson in the pursuit of the combined French and Spanish fleets, and was fortunate enough to be present in the memorable battle of Trafalgar on the 21st of October, 1805, where, after breaking the enemy's line, and being hotly engaged with several ships, among which the huge Santis.iima Trinidada was one, he came to close quarters with the Saint Augustin, and quickly compelled her to strike. In the latter part of the same year, he accompanied the ex- pedition under Admiral Murray and General Craufurd, originally intended for the reduction of Chili, but afterwards sent to the La Plata, where, although the success of the expedition was marred by the unmethodical way ia which 143 Beaton it was conducted by the commander-in-chief, General Whitelocke, the most efficient aid was given by the naval squadron. Bayntun attained the honour of a flag, August 12, 1812, was made K.C.B. in 1839, received a medal and a pen- sion of £300 a year for good service, and died at Bath, December 16, 1840, aged 75. Re ale, Mary,6erf,an English portrait-painter, who copied with great exactness the works ot Sir Peter Lely and Vandyke, b. 1631 ; d. 1697. Beaton, David, be'-ton, a cardinal, and arch- bishop of St. Andrew's, in Scotland. In 1519 he was appointed resident at the court of France, and in 1523 he obtained the rich abbey of Ar- broath. In 1528 he was made lord privy seal, and negotiated the marriage of James V. with Princess Magdalen of France, and afterwards with Princess Mary. Paul III. raised him to the cardinalate in 1538 ; about winch time he was made primate of Scotland. On the death of the king, the lords of the council sent the cardinal to prison, whence he was released, not long after, by the regent, and made chancellor. He persecuted the Protestants with great fury ; and, among others, caused the celebrated Wish- art to be burnt before his own palace, b. 1494 ; fell by the hands of assassins, 1546. Beaton, James, the uncle of the cardinal, was likewise an eminent divine and statesman. He was successively abbot of Dunfermline, bishop of Galloway, and archbishop of Glasgow and of St. Andrew's, and held the political offices of lord-treasurer, chancellor, and president of the council of regency during the absence of the duke of Albany in France, while James V. was a minor. The nobility was split up into two factions, at the head of one being Albany, the king's uncle, who had been chosen regent by the parliament of the kingdom, and at that of the other the earl of Angus, husband of the queen-mother and head of the powerful house of Douglas. Beaton espoused the inter- ests of Albany, and was the principal stay of the party, the "duke himself being a man of mild temperament, and little fitted for those turbulent times. It was customary for the adherents of each faction to enter into a bond pledging themselves to support, by every means in their power, the interests of their leaders and friends. Beaton had entered into such a compact with the noblemen of his party, and Angus, alleging that he had good reason to believe that it con- tained a plot against his life, sent his uncle, Gawin Douglas, the learned bishop of Dunkeld, to remonstrate with the archbishop and his friends. Gawin boldly charged them with the crime of intended assassination, on which Beaton protested his innocence " on his conscience," striking his breast at the same time to give force to his assertion. The blow caused the coat of mail which he wore beneath his cassock to ring. " Alas, my lord," exclaimed bishop Gawin, " I perceive your conscience is unsound. Did you not hear it clatter?" In a subsequent affray between the partisans of the rival factions, Beaton was attacked, had to take refuge at the altar, and was only saved from massacre by the interference of bishop Gawin Douglas. Beaton was an able, learned, skilful, but bold and un- scrupulous man, much better fitted for the cares of state than for the cure of souls. His whole life nearly was passed in the midst of political intrigue and turmoil, and he made him- self particularly useful to both James IV. and Jiimes V. in resisting ind curbing the over- OF BIOGRAPHY. Beaton weening pride and power of the great barons. He was determinedly opposed to the reformed doctrines in religion, which were then making way in Scotland; and several persons, among them Patrick Hamilton and Henry Forrest, suffered martyrdom at his instance. After James V. broke loose from the control of his father-in-law, and " Douglas of the stalwart hand Was exiled from his native land," Beaton was the chief counsellor of the young kiug.bywhomhe was entrusted with some of the most important affairs of state, in the conduct of which, if he was not always just and forbear- ing to his opponents, he cannot be accused of incapacity or want of zeal. He died in 1539. Beaton, James, a nephew of the cardinal, was also archbishop of Glasgow, and, under his uncle's auspices, took part in the government of the state, and in other public employments. He likewise had his share in the troubles of the time, the old feud between the Beatons and the Douglases having been handed down to him, with the addition of an equally bitter quarrel with the earl of Arran. In consequence of these disputes, and the growing influence of the adherents of the reformed doctrines, he was compelled, in 1560, to flee to Prance, where he long acted as ambassador, both of the unfortu- nate Mary and of her son James VI. He was not only a learned man himself, but a great patron and encourager of learning in others, and contributed materially to extend the Scots College in Paris, where he died in 1603. These famous churchmen were sprung from the old family of the Beatons, or Bethuncs, of Balfour, in Fifeshire, a race which has Still landed repre- sentatives in that county. Beatsou, Robert, Beet-son, author and com- piler of several useful works, among which are "A Poetical Index to the Histories of Great Britain and Ireland;" "Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain;" "Chronological Register of both Houses of Parliament, 17u6 to 1807," &c. He was in the army in early life, and for several years held the office of barrack- master at Aberdeen, from the university of which he received the degree of LL.D. b. 1742 ; D. 1318. Beattie, James, LL.D., he -te, a distinguished Scotch writer, was the son of a shopkeeper and farmer, who sent him to the University of Aber- deen, where he pursued his studies with so much success as to receive a bursary, which is equivalent to an exhibition or scholarship in the English universities. After following the pro- fession of a schoolmaster for some time, and publishing a volume of poems and other works, he, in 1771, produced the first canto of his poem called " The Minstrel," which was received with great favour, lie was now admitted to the friendship of Dr. Johnson, Garrick, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and other celebrities of the period. Previous to the appearance of " The Minstrel," he had published an " Essay on Truth," designed to stem, if possible, the tide of infidelity which the philosophic speculations of David Hume were then diffusing over the land. For this he received, in 1773, a substantial token of the royal favour in a pension of £200 a year. The second canto of " The Minstrel" appeared in 1774, and was as enthusiastically received as the first. He had now been sixteen years pro- fessor of moral philosophy and logic in Maris- chai College, Aberdeen, an appointment which 149 Beaufort he retained until a short period before his death. b. at Laurencekirk, Scotland, 1735; d. 1803.— Beattie wrote several other works, which were much thought of in his day ; but his fame rests principally on his " Minstrel," which was de- signed to trace the progress of a poetical genius, from the first dawning of fancy and reason till that period at which he may be supposed capable of appearing in the world as a minstrel. Beattie, James Hay, eldest son of the above, was a youth of great promise, being unusually pious and talented. He was a good musician, performing well on the organ and violin, and succeeded in building an organ for himself, b. at Aberdeen, 1768 ; d. November 19, 1790. Beatus Rhenanus, be-ai'-tus re-nai-nits, a learned man, whose name was Bilde, which he altered to Rhenanus, from the place of his nati- vity, Rheinach. He was a profound scholar, and was the first who published the History of Velleius Paterculus. He also edited the works of Tertullian, adding valuable notes, which he likewise did to several other classical works. d. at Strasburg, 1547. Beau, Charles le, le{r) bo, a French writer, was professor in the Royal College, and secre- tary of the Academy of Inscriptions, b. 1701; d. at Paris, 1778.— He is the author of a " His- tory of the Lower Empire," in 22 vols. 12mo, and also of "Opera Latina," 3 vols. 12mo. — A brother, John Louis le Beau, was the editor of an edition ».f Homer in Greek and Latin. Beaucaire de Peguillon, Francis, bo'-kair, a bishop of Metz, who, at the council of Trent, pleaded with great eloquence in favour of refor- mation in the church. He afterwards resigned his bishopric, went into retirement, and wrote his " Rerum Gallicarum Commentaria, ab anno 1461 ad annum 1562." b. 1514; d. 1591. Beaucxerk, Lord Aubrey, bo-clerk, son of the first duke of St. Albans, was a brave and gallant officer, who, after serving liis country with great credit for several years, was killed in the attack on liocca-Chica, where he commanded the Prince Frederick, in 1740. Beaufort, Cardinal Henry, bo'-fort, bishop of Winchester and cardinal of St. Eusebius, was an illegitimate son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the father of Henry IV., by Catherine Swynford. He assumed the guardianship of Henry VI. in opposition to Humphry, duke of Gloucester, who was the nominal head of the council of regency which took the reins of go- vernment on the death of Henry V. In 1429, after several years of determined rivalship, the cardinal succeeded in destroying the power of the duke, and had the young king crowned. Not- withstanding thi« circumstance, the hostility between them continued until the death of the duke of Gloucester, which took place on the 28th of February, 1417. The cardinal survived him only six weeks, and died, according to Shak- speare's delineation, in an agony of despair — " Lord Cardinal, if thou think'st on heaven's bliss, Hold up thy hand, make signal of thy hope. He dies, and makes no sign." His last words to those by whom his deathbed was surrounded were, " 1 pray you all to pray for me." b. about 1370; d. 1447.— lie was buried in the elegant chantry which bears his name in Winchester Cathedral. Beaufort, Margaret, countess of Richmond and Derby, was the daughter and heiress of John, duke of Somerset, and married Edmund THE DICTIONAEY Beaufort Tudor, earl of Richmond, by whom she had a son, afterwards Henry VII. Her first husband dying in 1456, she married Sir Henry Stafford, by whom she had no issue ; and on his death she became the wife of Thomas Lord Stanley, afterwards earl of Derby, b. 1441; d. 1509, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. She distin- guished herself as an authoress, and founded Christ's and St. John's CollegeSj Cambridge. Beaufobt, Francis de Vendome, duke of, the son of Ca>sar, duke of VendGme, was im- prisoned on the charge of conspiring against Cardinal Mazarin, but escaping, began a civil war, which soon ended. He was subsequently made admiral of France, and in 1665 defeated the Turkish fleet near Tunis, u. 1616; killed at the siege of Candia, 1669. Beaufoht, Louis de, a learned writer, who was chosen fellow of the Royal Society of London, and is the author of the " History of Germanicus," " Dissertations upon the Uncer- tainty of the First Five Ages of the Roman Re- public," " History of the Roman Republic ; or, Plan of the Ancient Government of Rome." b. at Maestricht, 1795. Beauhaknais, Eugene de, bo-har'-nai, was the son of Josephine, the first wife of Napoleon I., and of Vicomte Alexandre de Beauharnais, who, in his 34th year, suffered on the revolution- ary scaffold at Paris. Eugene entered the army, and under the eye of Napoleon fought in the campaigns of Italy, and also went with him to .Egypt, where he acted as his aide-de-camp. As a matter of course, he rose to rank with his years, and with the fortunes of Napoleon I., and fought in the Consular Guards at Marengo. When JSapoleon assumed the emperorship, he was created a prince, and in 1805 was appointed viceroy of the kingdom of Italy. In the follow- ing year he was adopted by Napoleon, and mar- ried to the daughter of the king of Bavaria. When, in 1809, the war between Austria and Prance broke out, he was actively engaged, being placed in command of the French and Italian army, and displayed great knowledge of his profession. He was with the emperor in the Russian campaign of 1812; and during the retreat, after Napoleon and Murat had left the army, he took the chief command. At the battle of Lutzen he commanded the left of the new army which the emperor had raised. He adhered to Napoleon so long as fortune lent a ray of hope, but, on the final ruin of his patron, he retired with his family to Bavaria, and during the remainder of his life lived principally at Munich, with the title of Prince of Leuehten- berg. b. at Paris, 1781 ; D. at Munich, 1824. Beaulieu, Sebastian Pontmilt de, bole-yu{r), a French engineer and field-marshal under Louis XIV., and the author of "Views and Plans of the Sieges and Battles of Louis XIV." p. 1674. Beauiieu, John Peter, Baron de, an Aus- trian general, who was actively engaged as an artillery officer during the Seven Years' War, and in 1792 commanded the Austrians against the forces which the French republic sent into the Netherlands, and gained several victories over them. In 1796 he was commander-in-chief in Italy, where his army was routed in several conflicts with General Bonaparte, whose fame was then beginning to dawn. n. 1725; d. 1820. Beaumarchais, Peter Augustin Caron de, bo-mar'-shai, a celebrated French writer, was the son of a clcckmaker at Paris, and apply ug 150 Beaune himself to the same trade, was the inventor of a new escapement, which brought him into notice at the French court, where he became a great favourite with the daughters of Loui < > XVI., having great musical talent, and playing exceedingly well on the flute and harp, which latter instrument he much improved. He now became acquainted with Duvcrney, the rich farmer-general, and at his death was involved in lawsuits with his heir, gaining great noto- riety from the wit, satire, and reasoning which distinguished his pleadings and memorials. He is best known to the world, however, by his being the author of several comedies, of which " The Barber of Seville" and " The Marriage of Figaro" are the best; the latter meeting with immense success, b. at Paris, 1732 ; d. 1799. Beaumont, Francis, bo'-mont, a distinguished dramatist, of whose life very little is known. His grandfather was a master of the Rolls, and his father, Francis, one of the judges of the court of Common Picas. He himself became a member of the Inner Temple, but from the shortness of his life, and the great number of his productions, it is to be presumed that he devoted very little of his time to the study of law. He tells us himself, in an epistle, that he was intimate with rare Ben Jonson, whom, with other wits of the period, he would seem to have been in the habit of meeting at the Mer- maid tavern. Here he would, no doubt, also see William Shakspeare ; but how or where he be- came acquainted with his friend Fletcher, who was ten years older than himself, we have no means of knowing. It is beautiful, in retro- spect, to contemplate the friendship of these two celebrated dramatists. Their affection for each other appears, in every respect, to have been of the closest kind ; they lived in the same house, and, it is affirmed, held their worldly goods in common; and although their geniuses would seem to have been cast in different moulds, yet how well and how sweetly do they amalgamate! "I have heard," says Aubrey, "Dr. John Erie (since bishop of Sarum), who knew them, say that Beaumont's main business was to correct the overflowings of Fletcher's wit." But be this as it may, the names of Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher will, as long as the English language shall last, be asso- ciated as two of the brightest ornaments of our dramatic literature, n. in Leicestershire, 1586 ; d. in London, 1616, being not quite thirty. — His brother, Sir John Beaumont, was also a poet of some merit, being an excellent versifier, but de- ficient in vigour and invention, u. 1582; D. 162S. Beattmowt, Jean Baptist Armand Louis Leonce Elie de, bo-matong, an eminent French geologist, who has done more, perhaps, fur the advancement of the science of geology than any man living. He succeeded Arago as secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 1853, and, as a testimony to his striking talent, was made by Napoleon III. a senator, and deco- rated with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. He has written many works on mines and mining, and geology, u. at Canon, Cal- vados, 1793. Beaune, Florimond de, lone, a French ma- thematician, who discovered a method of deter- mining the nature of curves by the properties of their triangles, b. at Blois, 1601 ; d. 1652. Beaunk, James de, baron of Samblancay, wan superintendent of the finances under Francis I n OF BIOGRAPHY. Beaurain and lent to the queen-mother a sum of 300,000 crowns, which had been sent to Lautrec to pay his troops, and for want of which the expedition to relieve Milan failed. The queen-mother bribed his secretary, Gentil, to deliver to her the receipts she had given, which being the only testimonies poor Samblancay had, he was ac- cused of having applied the money to his own use, and was handed in 1527. The fraud was afterwards discovered, and his secretary, Gentil, hanged. Bkauraiit, John de, bo'-ra, a celebrated geo- grapher at the court of Louis XV., who con- structed a number of charts, and published a topographical and military description of the campaigns of Marshal Luxembourg, from 1690 to 109L b. at Aix-en-Essart, 1696; d. 1772. J! i:\i-rkga !ib, Peter Gustave Toussaint, bo'- re-gar, a general in the service of the Confede- rate States of America, who defeated the Fede- ral army at Bull Run in 1861, and defended Charleston, South Carolina, during a siege of many months' duration against the Federal for-os. b. near New Orleans, 1813. Beapyilliebs, Francis de, bv'-vil'-e-ai, Duke of St. Aignan, a member of the French Academy, he wrote several poems, and had the direction cf the court fetes of Louis XIV; b. 1607 : d. 1687. There are other members of this family who figure in French history. Beacvois, Ambrose Maria Francis Joseph Palisot de, bo'-vtcate, a French naturalist and traveller, whose enterprising disposition led him to pursue his investigations over a great portion of W. Africa and America. During his wander- ings in the latter country, he discovered, on the banks of the Ohio, the jaws and molar teeth of the great mastodon, and from the west of Vir- ginia brought the tooth of a megalonyx. He published various works in connexion with his travels and pursuits, b. at Arras, 1752; d. at Paris, 1820. Beauzee, Nicholas, ho'-zai, a French writer and member of the academy, who wrote the arti- cles on grammar in the Encyelopedie ; and though allied with sceptics, was himself a sin- cere Christian. Beauzee once asked Diderot how they came to elect him a member of the aca- demy, as he was a Christian ? " Because," an- swered the other, " we had not a grammarian among us, and we knew you to be an honest man." He wrote a " Universal Grammar ; or, an Kxposition of the Elements of Languages ;" an " imposition of the Historical Proofs of lie- ligion," and other works, b. at Verdun, 1717; ». 17S9. Beccadelli, Antonio, baiU-kaic-dail'-e, called Antony of Palermo, and also Panormita, was professor of belles-lettres and rhetoric at Pavia, where he, in 1132, received the poetic laurel from the emperor Sigismund. Alfonso, king of Naples, created him a nobleman, and gave him several honourable employments. He wrote a book on the sayings and actions of Alfonso, king of Aragon; and a collection of his epistles and other pieces was printed at Venice in 1 153. b. at Palermo in 139 1; d. at Naples, 1471.— This man is said to have sold a farm in order to buy a copy of Livy. Beccafumi, Domenico, baik-kaic-foo'-me, ori- ginally a shepherd, became an historical painter, and studied the works of Raphael and Michael Atigelo Buonarotti. b. at Siena, 1181; d. at Siena, 1549.— His " Saint Sebastian " is one of the finest pictures in the Borghese palace. 151 Bechstein Beccabia, John Baptist, bai-katc'-re-a, a Pied montese plulosophcr, who was professor at Pa- lermo and at Rome, whence he removed to Turin. He was greatly respected by the king of Sardinia, to whose sons he was tutor, and made several discoveries in electricity, publish- ing some valuable works on that and other philosophical subjects, b. at Mondovi, 1716; d. 1781. Beccabia, Cesare Boncsana, Marchese di, a political philosopher, who wrote on monetary affairs, but whose most remarkable production was a small work on crimes and punishments, which met with the most marvellous success, having run through six editions in Italy within eighteen months ; and in the course of a fc\« years two translations were made into French, both of which passed through several editions; it was like wise translated and published in English, German, Russian, Swiss, and Greek. It received the approval of several crowned heads of Europe, and was incorporated into the laws of Russia by Catherine II., and into those of Austria by Joseph II. Beccaria afterwards filled the chair of political economy in Milan, and his lectures were published in the collection of the Italian Economists. He, however, was persecuted by the priesthood, and it was only the decided and firm conduct of Count Firmian of Milan that prevented his falling a victim to their malice. He was also one of the founders of a society called the "Caffe," which had for its object the publica- tion of essays on men and manners, and the elucidation of important questions in philoso- phy, politics, and morals, b. at Milan, 1738; where he died in 1794, of apoplexy. Becebka, Gaspard, bai-ser'-ra, a celebrated Spanish sculptor, the pupil of Michael Angelo. His principal work is a statue of the Virgin, executed by order of Queen Isabella de Valois. He also painted well in fresco, b. at Baeza, 1520; d. at Madrid, 1570. Becb>er, Johann Joachim, belc'-er, an eminent German chemist, who was appointed professor of medicine in the university of Mentz. He was of a roving disposition, residing for some time at Vienna, and assisting in a variety of manufactures ; then at Haarlem, where he in- vented a machine for throwing silk. In 1CS0 he came to England, and examined the mines in Cornwall and Scotland, and returning to Germany, he there died. b. at Spires, 1625 ; d. 1682. — His principal works are " Physica Sub- terranea," " Institutiones Chymica?," and " Theses Chymicse." Bechstein, Johann Matthew, beJc'-stine, a celebrated German ornithologist, who, intended for the church, relinquished theology for natural history; and, in 1785, was made professor of the Botanic Institute of Salzmann, at Schnep- senthal. In 1791 he proposed to the duke of Gotha to create a forest school; but, not meet- ing with success, he resolved to establish one at his own cost, at Kemnote, near VValterhauseu. He afterwards published a journal devoted to forest science, called " Diana ;" and in 1800 offered hi-sservicestothedukeofSaxe-Meiningen, who gave him the direction of a botanic aca- demy, newly founded at Dreissgaekcr. b. at Walterhausen, 1757; d. 1822. — lieehstein's whole life was spent in enriching natural history with most important observations. He published maay valuable works, of which may be named "German Natural History," " Forest Entomo- logy," "Complete Course" of Forest Science," THE DICTIONARY Beck Beda " Natural History of Cage-birds," which has been translated into English, and has passed through several editions. Beck, John, baron dc, bek, a distinguished soldier in the service of Spain, who, after begin- ning life as a shepherd, a postilion, and a pri- vate soldier, rose rapidly, till he became a general officer, was governor of Luxemburg, did eminent service in the wars in the Low Countries between 1639 and 1648, and finally, after having nearly destroyed the rear-guard of Prince Conde's army, was taken prisoner, and carried to Arras, where he died. He received a patent of nobility from the Spanish sovereign, carried his honours with great humility, never forgot what had been his origin, and was de- servedly reckoned one of the ablest soldiers of his age. The exact date of his birth is un- known, b. 1643. Becket, Thomas a, bek'-et, archbishop of Canterbury, distinguished in English history by the haughty demeanour which he displayed in his quarrels with his sovereign, King Henry II. b. in London, 1119; assassinated before the altar of the cathedral of Canterbury, 1170. — It was an expression of momentary passion which caused the death of Becket, for which King Henry was afterwards obliged, by the Pope, to do penance before his tomb, by having his royal back scourged by the monks, and passing one whole day and night fasting upon the bare stones. Two years alter his death, Becket was canonized : and his pretended miracles were so numerous that his shrine became the richest in Europe. Becket, Isaac, an early English engraver in wezzotinto, in which branch of art he attained some eminence. He was originally apprenticed to a calico printer, but afterwards devoted him- self to engraving. He worked in connexion with one Lutterell.who had stood his friend in one or two matters of difficulty into which Becket fell, and with whom he contracted an intimate friendship. Becket's early years were beset with troubles, chiefly arising from an in- veterate inclination to intrigue which charac- terized him; but having at length married a wealthy lady, he settled quietly to the practice of his art. "b. in Kent, 1653; d. about 1715. Beckford, William, bek'-ford, the only le- gitimate son of Alderman Beckford, who had t he honour of being twice lord mayor of London . lie is known by nis great wealth, which en- abled him to erect the magnificent structure called Fonthill; and by his being the author of " Vathek," and several other works. This work is an Arabian tale, which was composed at one sitting. " It took me," said he, " three days and two nights of hard labour. I never took off my clothes the whole time." It is a work of great genius, and, according to Byron, for cor- rectness of costume, beauty of description, and power ot imagination, the most sublime of all European imitations of Eastern tales, b. 1770j b. near Bath, 1844. Beckingham, Charles, beJS-inq-ham, an Eng- lish dramatic author, who wrote two plays of merit, viz., " Henry I V. of France," and "Scipio Africanus." He also wrote some poems, b. in London, 1699; b. 1730. Beckijtgton, Thomas, bcV-xng-ton, an English prelate of the 15th century. He was tutor to Henry VI., who made him secretary of State, keeper of the Privy Seal, and bishop of Bath and Wells. Beckington was a great improver 152 of his cathedral, but a still greater pluralist, as he held many benefices. He was dean of the Court of Arches, and one of the prosecutors i f the Wickliffites. There is a book by him, still in MS., in defence of the right of the English kings to the French crown, b. towards the close of the 14th century ; d. January, 1465. Beckmanw, John, btV-man, professor of phi- losophy at the university of Gottingen, known to the world by his remarkable work entitled " Contributions to the History of Inventions." This work has, in several different editions, appeared in England in a translated form. b. at Hoya, Hanover, 1739; d. at Gottingen, 1811. Beckwith, Sir George, bek'-tcith, second son of Major John Beckwith, was born in 1753, entered the army in 1771, and after serving with distinction in North America, both in a military and diplomatic capacity, was, in 1797, made governor of Bermuda; in 1804 of St. Vincent; in 1805, of Barbadoes, with the command of all the British troops in South America. In this latter capacity, in 1809, he captured Martinique from the French, anil took the firsteagle ever lost by France. For these services, he. was made K.B., and received the thanks of the House of Commons. He also took Guadaloupe shortly afterwards; and such had been the excellence of his government, that, on quitting Barbadoes in 1814, on account of ill-health, a service of plate was offered him, which he declined, and a speaker at a farewell dinner declared his the most "unsullied administration our annals can boast." The local legislature sent him £ 2500 worth of plate after his departure, notwith- standing his own objections. After his return to England, Beckwith was appointed to the command of the troops in Ireland, which office he held from 1816 to 1820, during which time not a single outrage occurred — a rare state of things at that time. His health broke down under his long and arduous services in different climates, and he died on the 20th of March, 1823, leaving a reputation for talents, zeal, and integrity seldom equalled. Becqueiied, Antoine Ca?sar, bek'-ai-rel, a dis- tinguished French physicist, to whom wc are indebted for several discoveries in electro- chemistry, especially the method of electric coloration on gold, silver, and copper, now generally adopted in the arts. b. at Chatillon- sur-Loing, 1788. Beda, or Bebe, beed, the Venerable, an ancient English writer, whose fame for learn- ing was so great, that Pope Sergius wrote to his abbot to send him to Pome ; but Bede de- clined the honour. He devoted the wholo of his life to writing his "Ecclesiastical His. tory" and other works, and to instructing the young monks, b. at Wearmouth, Durham, 672; b. 735. — An English council directed his works to be publicly read in churches. Beda, Noel, bai-da, a turbulent doctor of the Sorbonnc, Paris, who opposed the study of lan- guages in the university of Paris on the ground that they tended to introduce heresies; attacked, calumniated, and mutilated and falsified the works of Erasmus, who, in replying to Beda, accused him of publishing 181 lies, 310 calum- nies, and 47 blasphemies — charges to which he only replied by further falsification and abuse. He succeeded, however, in getting the works of Erasmus condemned by the Sorbonne. Beda took an active part in opposition to the divorce of Henry VIII., and made a violent attempt to OF BIOGRAPHY. Beddoes pcrveit the decision of the Sorbonne on the question by tearing the record of the votes from the hand of the beadle, and substituting another list of his own. He was twice banished for his mutinous and turbulent conduct, and on being recalled, and still continuing incorrigible, he was compelled to make a public apology for slandering the king, Francis I., and for other offences, and was exiled to the Abbey of Mount St. Michael, where he died in 1537. His writings are barbarous, abusive, coarse, and devoid of critical skill and taste ; and but for the influence his violent and domineering conduct gave him, ne would never have attained to any pro- minence, or have merited notice by posterity. Beddoes, Thomas, bed'-does, an eminentEng- lish physician, chemist, anatomist, geologist, botanist, controversialist, and even poet, was born at Shiffnall, Shropshire, April 13, 1760, being descended of an ancient Welsh family. He was the intimate friend of Dr. Darwin, and was either the correspondent or the personal friend of all the eminent scientific men of his time. His writings are numerous, principally on pneumatic chemistry, which, amid his multi- farious pursuits, was his favourite theme. He held the chemical lectureship at Oxford, and is said to have so successfully imitated Dr. Dar- win's style in the poem on the " Economy of Vegetation," as to have imposed some poetry of his own on a company of connoisseurs as that of Darwin, and subsequently avowed the manu- script lines as his, to the confusion of the critics. ». at Clifton, Nov. 24, 1808. Sir Humphry Davy says he was " a very remarkable man, more admirably fitted to promote inquiry than to conduct it ; he had talents which would have exalted him to the pinnacle of philosophical eminence, if they had been applied with dis- cretion." Bedford, John, duke of, bed'-ford, was the third son of Henry IV. of England, and one of the greatest commanders ever opposed to the French. By the will of Henry V. he became regent of France, and well sustained the glory of his country in the whole of the struggle which raged in that kingdom throughout his career. He laid siege to Orleans, which, on account of the supernatural awe which his troops entertained for Joan of Arc, he was com- pelled to raise ; but was subsequently one of the principal instruments in bringing that ex- traordinary maid to the stake, b. 1390; d. at Eouen, 1135. Bedford, Arthur, an English divine, who wrote several works, the principal of which are against stage plays and vocal music, espe- cially condemning the immoral character of many of the dramatic productions of his day. b. ItiGS; D. 1745. His other works are chiefly on controverted points of divinity. Bedloe, William, Captain, bed'-lo, an infa- mous informer, who gave evidence respecting the murder of Sir Edmundbury Godfrey, and for his perjury received a reward of £500. ». 16a0. Bedwell, William, beet-well, a distinguished divine and topographical writer, who was en- gaged on the revised translation of the Scrip- tures, published in the reign of James I. lie was vicar of Tottenham, in the church of which place he was buried; and the epitaph on his tomb, which still remains, says he was "one of King James' translators of the Bible, and for the eastern tongues was at learned a man as 153 Beer most who lived in these modern times." b. 1562- d. 1632. ' Beeches, Lyman, D.D., be'-cher, studied di- vinity under President Dwight, in Vale College, United States, and in 179S was chosen pa.«tor of a church at East Hampton. He subsequently became pastor of a church in Boston, and took an active part, in opposition to Dr. Chan- ning and others, in a controversy which occurred among members of a number of the churches of New England in 1826. In 1832 he became president of the Lane Theological Semi- nary at Cincinnati ; but since 1842 be has resided principally at Boston, b. at New Haven, Con- necticut, 1775. d. 1863.— He wrote many theo- logical works, sermons, and treatises on tem- perance, and was father of Mrs. Beecher Stowe . Beechbr, Henry Ward, son of the above, studied theology under his father, at Line Se- minary, and in 1847 became pastor of the Ply mouth church, in Brooklyn, New York. As a preacher, he is said to have the largest uniform congregation in the United States, b. at Lich- field, Connecticut, 1813. — He is th« author of several works, which have for their object the promotion of the religious welfare of the com- munity, and a novel called " Norwood." Beecheb, Harriet. (Set Stowe.) Bbechet, Sir William, R.A., be'-che, a cele- brated English portrait painter, who, although originally articled to a conveyancer, pursued his art with such ardour that lie became por- trait painter to the queen of George III. He painted the portraits of most of the celebrated characters of his time, became a Royal Acade- mician, and received the honour of knighthood. b. at Burford, in Oxfordshire, 1753; d. atllamp- stead, 1839. BEECHET.FredericWilliam.son of the above, early entered the navy, and in 1818 accompanied Franklin as a lieutenant in his voyage in search of the north-west passage. Being possessed of considerable artistic talent, he made drawings of many of the natural objects which came under his observation in this expedition, and for which he was rewarded by a parliamentary grant of £200. In 1843 he published a narrative of the voyage. In the following year he accom- panied Sir Edward Parry to the Polar seas, and ia 1S21 was commissioned, with his brother, to examine the coasts of N. Africa to the east of Tripoli. On his return from this service he received the command of the Blossom, with orders to penetrate the Polar Sea by the Pacific Ocean and Behring's Strait, while Franklin was to make the attempt overland by North America. This expedition occupied two years and a half. In 1827 he received the rank of post-captain, and being afterwards unemployed for some time, devoted himself to writing accounts of the various expeditions in which he had been en- gaged. Between 1829 and 1839 he was employed in surveying the coasts of S. America and Ire- land, and in 1854 was created rear-admiral of the blue. b. in London, 1796; d. 1856. Beek, David, boke, a Dutch artist, and a pupil of Vuntirek, was much esteemed by Charles I. of England, and subsequently was appointed portrait painter to Queen Christina, of Sweden, who commissioned him to paint the sovereigns of Europe for her gallery, b. at Delft, 1021; d. at the Hague, 1656. Bheb, Michael, beer, brother of Meyerbeer, the composer, a German dramatic author, was bom at Berlin ia 1300, and wrote a variety of the dictionary Beethoven plays, which much resemble Schiller in style, but are too rhetorical and subjective. His plays were not very successful in representation, though his language is pure and elevated, and much reflection is displayed in the management of his plots. The titles of the tragedies are, ''The Brides of Aragon;" "Clytemnestra;" " The Paria ;" and " Struensee." The two last are the best known. r>. 1833, at Munich. Beethoven, Ludwig von, bait'-ho-ven, a cele- brated musical composer, and the pupil of Haydn. In his thirteenth year he was capable of playing extemporaneous fantasias, which were the ad- miration of the most accomplished musicians of his time. About 1791 he composed his opera of " Leonore," better known in England by the name of "Fidelio," which, however, had not much success. He continued, however, to com- pose in every style of music, bequeathing to posterity a noble monument of his industry and genius in his many brilliant compositions, b. at Bonn, 1770; d. at Vienna. 1827.— In 1845 a sta- tue was erected to his memory in his native town, and inaugurated in the presence of the queen of England. Begabelli, -Antony, bai'-gaw-rai'4e, an emi- nent modeller in clay, was born at Modcna about 1498, and died 1565, after having filled the churches ofhis native town with statues, groups, &c, besides many which he executed for Parma, Mantua, and other towns. Michael Angelo said of Begarelli's works, "If this clay were only to become marble, woe betide the ancient sta- tues " — high praise when coming from such a man. Begeyx, Abraham, be'-gine, a Dutch painter, who executed some fine landscapes for the royal palaces, and several good pictures, which are at the Hague. Lived between 1630 and 1700. Begon, Michael, bai-gaicng, a magistrate of the French West India Islands, who collected a noble library, and a cabinet of antiquities and curiosities. He also caused to be engraved por- traits of the illustrious men of the 17th century, and collected memoirs of their lives, n. at Blois, 1638; d. at Rochefort, 1710. In his ho- nour the order of plants Begonia was so named. Behem, Martin, be-hem, a German geographer and navigator, who accompanied Diego Cam, a celebrated Portuguese navigator, in his voy- age of discovery along the west coast of Africa, in the year 1184. John II. of Portugal con- ferred on him the honour of knighthood. He made a curious globe, which is still in exist- ence at Nuremberg, and several maps and charts. B. at Nuremberg, 1436; d. at Lisbon, 1506. Behn, Aphra, ben, an English authoress, who at Surinam became acquainted with Prince (Jroonoko, whose story she afterwards pub- lished. In 1666 she was at Antwerp, where, it is said, she was employed as a spy by the Eng- lish government, and discovered the design of the Dutch to ascend the Thames and burn the English fleet. This intelligence she communi- cated to the English court; but it was treated with contempt. She subsequently returned to London, and devoted herself to pleasure and the muses, writing several plays, histories, and novels, which evince a lively but licentious imagination, b. at Canterbury ; d. in London, 1689. Beiibing, \1tus, beer'-ing, a Dane, who, en- tering the naval service of Russia, was subse- quently, by the empress Catharine, promoted to the command of various expeditious fitted out 154 Belgrado for the purposes of geographical discovery. Behring Strait derives its name from him, although it is believed that he never reached it; and he was the founder of a settlement at Pe- tropaulovski. Shipwrecked on Behring Island, where he died, 1741. Beich, Joachim Francis, bike, a German painter and engraver, who excelled in painting landscapes and battles, b. at Havensburg, 1666; D. at Munich, 1743. Beinaschi, or Benaschi, John Baptistc, bai-natcs'-ke, an historical painter, was a native of Piedmont, whose principal works are cupolas, ceilincrs, &c.; and are to be seen in the churches of Naples, b. at Turin, 1636; d. about 1690.— He was so little able to bear criticism, that he would assault, sword in hand, those who disco- vered faults in his works. Beithab, or Aben Beithab, Abdallah-bcn- Ahmed, bi'-thar, an African botanist and phy- sician, who wrote a work treating of all sub- stances, animal, vegetable, and mineral, used in pharmacy, which is considered to be the best treatise of the time on medicine and botany. B.in Africa, about 1390; d. at Cairo, 1248. Rexker, Balthasar, bek'-er, a Dutch divine, who published a book entitled " The World Be- witched ;" in which he opposed the popular superstitions respecting witchcraft, incantations, &c. ; and which was a great thing to attempt in those days. This work has been translated into French, English, and Italian, b. in Friesland, 1634; d. 1698. Bel, Matthias, bel, an Hungarian divine, the author of" Apparatus ad Historiam Hungarian" and "Notitia Hungarian novse Historico-gco- graphia," for which Charles VI. made him impe- rial historiographer, b. at Orsova, 1684; d. 1719. — His son Charles Andrew was librarian and professor of philosophy and poetry to the Lcip- sic university. Belcheb, Sir Edward, K.C.B., F.R.S., and F.G.S., bel'-cher, hydrographer, and one of the most scientific naval officers of the day, was born in 1799. After serving several years in the navy, which he entered as a first-class volunteer in 1812, Mr. Belcher was, in 1825, appointed assistant- surveyor to Captain Beechey, in his voyage to Behring's Straits. He was promoted to tlic rank of commander in 1829; and from November, 1836, to August, 1842, wUs employed in the Sulphur surveying vessel, and made a voyage round the world, of which he has published a "Narrative;" in 1811 he explored and sounded the various inlets to the Canton river, and contributed materially to the success of the war in China under Sir Hugh Gough. In 1843 he was knighted; and in 1852 to 1854 was in command of a searching expedition for Sir John Franklin. He was compelled to aban- don his ships, for which he was tried by a court- martial, but acquitted. Belesis, bel-e-sis, a Chaldean, who raised Arsaccs to the throne of Media, for which he was rewarded with the government of Babylon, 820 B.C. When Sardanapalus, with his gold and silver, was burnt in his palace, Belesis was permitted to take away the ashes, and extracted immense treasures. Lived in the 9th century b.c. Belgrado, James, bail-graio'-do, an Italian Jesuit, who was an eminent mathematician, antiquary, and poet. b. at Udine, 1704; d. 1789. — His works are principally in Latin, and in his eighty-first year he published a book filled with new views on Egyptian architecture. OF BIOGRAPHY. Belidor Belidor, Bernard Forest de, bel'-e-dor, a continental engineer, professor of the French school of artillery at La Fere, well known by his " Dictionnaire Portatif de l'lngenicur," and his " Course of Mathematics, Hydraulic^, and Arch'tecture," for engineering and artillery officers. This work rapidly passed through many editions, and Belidor's fame brought around him military men of all countries and high rank to gain instruction. B. in Catalonia, 1693 ; D. at Paris, 1761. — He made numerous experiments on, and entered deeply into, the powers of gunpowder ; and discovered that it was erroneous to suppose that the greater the charge the further the bullet would be carried ; and he proved that nearly one-half of the pow- der used at that time was wasted. Beling, Richard, be'-lhig, an Irish writer, who was concerned in the rebellion of 1641, and was appointed ambassador from the council of Kilkenny to the pope in 1645. On his return, he went over to the marquis of Ormond, through whose intercession at the Restoration he reco- vered his estates, b. at Belingstown, Dublin, 1613 ; D. Dublin, 1677. Belisarius, bel'-i-sai'-re-us, a Roman general in the emperor Justinian's reign, who ended the war in which that prince was engaged with the Persians. In 533 he took Carthage, and made prisoner Gelimer, king of the Vandals. He was next isent against the Goths, in Italy ; and ar- riving on the coasts of Sicily, he took Catania, Syracuse, Palermo, and other places. He then pro- ceeded to Naples, which he captured, and then inarched to Rome. After this he conquered Vitiges, king of the Goths, and sent him to Constantinople, at the same time refusing the crown, which was offered him. For these great exploits he was appointed sole consul in 535, and was regarded as the saviour of the empire ; medals are still extant which bear this inscrip- tion, jBelisurius gloria Romanorum. He was soon obliged to go into the East against Chos- roes I., king of Persia; and, having succeeded, he returned to Italy, whence he expelled the Huns in 558. In 563 Belisarius was accused of participating in a conspiracy against the empe- ror, who imprisoned him, and confiscated his estates, to which, however, he was shortly re- stored. The tradition that he was deprived of his eyes is not authentic, b. at Germania, in Illyria, about 505 ; d. 565. — Belisarius married, 527, Antonina, an actress of abandoned charac- ter, who exercised, great influence over him, and doubtless was the cause of the worst passages of his life. - Bell, Dr. Andrew, bel , a clergyman of the Church of England, who introduced the Madras system of education, was born at St. Andrews, Scotland, in 1753. In 1789 he was chaplain of Fort St. George, and minister of St. Mary's, at Madras, and there, in superintending the Military Orphan School, he adopted those ar- rangements, borrowed from the practice of the native schools, which were afterwards intro- duced into England, and have since become very generally adopted, especially in the National Schools. The system consists of forming the school into classes, and appointing the more advanced scholars to teach the younger; and the result is that each pupil has a tutor, and each tutor a pupil — and the merit claimed for the system is, that both the class of tutors and of pupils learn faster than they would under other systems. Joseph Lancaster is often said Bella to be the introducer of this system into Eng- land : but the merit is, we believe, due to Dr. Bell. He was rewarded for his exertions by a prebend's stall in Westminster Abbey, and the mastership of Sherburn Hospital, Durham. He amassed a large fortune, £120,000 of which he left for the establishment of schools to be taught upon the Madras system, and for other charitable purposes. He died at Cheltenham, June 27, 1832; his remains being brought to London, and interred in Westminster Abbey, with all the marks of distinction which his worth so well merited. Bell, George Joseph, a Scottish advocate and writer on law and jurisprudence, was born near Edinburgh, March 26, 1770. Among other works, he published, in an enlarged form, one entitled " Commentaries on the Laws of Scot- land, and on the Principles of Mercantile Juris- prudence, considered in relation to Bankruptcy, Competitions of Creditors, and Imprisonment for Debt," which was long a standard work on Scottish law, being held next in estimation to Erskine's " Institutes," and is even now, al- though the alterations in the law of bankruptcy in that country has made much of it obsolete, still considered an authority on all points of the old law not now repealed, d. 23rd Sept. 1843. Bell, Henry, bel, was the first person who ap- plied steam successfully to the purposes of navi- gation in Europe. In 1812 he launched a small steam-vessel, which he called the Comet, on the river Clyde, to be propelled with a steam-engine of his own construction; and so successful was his experiment, that it encouraged others of greater means to undertake similar enterprises. b. in Linlithgowshire, Scotland, 1767; d. at Helensburgh, on the Clyde, 1830. Bell, Sir Charles, one of the»most distin- guished anatomists of modern times, and the discoverer of the arrangement and operation of the nervous system, which places him on an equality with Harvey, the discoverer of the cir- culation of the blood, b. at Edinburgh, 1774; n. at Hallow Park, the seat of Mrs. Holland, on his way to London, 1842. Bell, John, an eminent modern sculptor, who has executed many beautiful and graceful figures ; among which may be noticed his " Una and the Lion," his " Babes in the Wood," his " Dorothea," and his " Cliild's own Attitude," which is now the property of the queen. He has also sculptured some of the historical statues for the new Houses of Parliament; such as Falkland, Shakspeare, and some others, b. in Norfolk, 1812. Bell, Thomas, an eminent naturalist, who, conjointly with Kirby and McLeay, originated the Zoological Club of the Linnosan Society, b. at Poole, 1792. Bellarmin, Robert, bel'-ar-meen, a Roman cardinal, who, at the ago of eighteen, joined the society of Jesuits. In. 1599 he was made a cardinal, and in 1601 archbishop of Capua. b. in Tuscany, 1542; d. at Rome, 1621. — His writings are numerous, but chiefly polemical, and have acquired a great reputation. He w:.s one of the most virtuous members of the con- clave, and was accustomed to say that " one ounce of peace was worth a pound of victory." His works were published at Cologne in seven volumes folio, in 1617. Bella, Stefano Delia, bail-aw, a distinguished Kalian etcher in copper, was originally appren- ticed to a goldsmith of Florence, but afterwards THE DICTIONARY Bellegarde devoted himself to the arts, and selected etching as his special walk. He was patronized hy the Medici family, who sent him to Rome to pursue his studies, and there he laid the foundation of his future fame by several views of that city, etched in a very superior manner. He afterwards accompanied the Florentine embassy to Paris, where he acquired great fame by his works. Ho subsequently returned to Florence, and wai appointed drawing-master to Prince Cosmo, afterwards Cosmo III., which office he held till his death, in 1664. b. at Florence, 1610. Bellegabdb, Gabriel du Pac, bail'-a-gard, a learned French critic and historian, who was a canon at Lyons, but subsequently joined the Port Royal party, and retired to the seminary of RKynswik, near Utrecht, where he occupied himself with studies and compositions, chiefly connected with ecclesiastical history. His great work is an edition of the works of Arnauld, one of the founders of the Port Royal School, whk h was published at Lausanne, in 1782, in 45 vols., having occupied four years in printing. Belle- garde intended to have executed a similar work for Nicole, the colleague and friend of Arnauld, but he died in 1789. b. 1717. Bellay, Joachim du, bel'-ai, a French poet, surnamed "The French Ovid," was celebrated for his odes, both in French and Latin, b. at Lire 1 , near Angers, 1524; d. at Paris, 1560. — Forty-seven sonnets of his on the "Antiquities nf If ome " were, in 1611, translated into Eng- lish verse. Bklle, Alexis Simon, bel, a French portrait- painter, who was a disciple of Francis de Troy. is. 1674; D. 1734. Belleatt, bail'-lo, a French poet, one of the seven poets known as " La Pleiade Francaise," and whose pastorals are held in great esteem, b. at Nogent le Rotrou, 1528 ; d. at Paris, 1577. Bellenden, Dr. John. (See Ballenden.) Bellenden, William, bel'-en-den, a native of Scotland, and an eminent scholar, especially in Ciceronic literature, having composed several works on the life and orations of the great Roman orator. Three of Ids works were reprinted in Lon- don, in 1787, by Dr. Parr, who accompanied them with a preface, in which he held up Burke, Fox, and Lord North as the three great luminaries of British politics and oratory — an idea derived from an essay by bellenden, in which Cicero, Seneca, and Pliny were so distinguished among the ancients. Lived in the 17th century. Bellin, Jacques Nicholas, bel'-la, a French marine geographer, who was a member of the Royal Society of London, and published the " Hydrographie Francaise," containing maps of all the seaboard in the world then known, and several other valuable geographical works. B. at Paris, 1703 ; D. at Versailles, 1772. Bellini, or Bellijt, Gentile, bail-le'-ne, a Venetian artist, who was employed by the republic in painting pictures for the council- hall. It is said that, while at Constantinople, he was engaged by Mahomet II. to paint the Beheading of St. John the Baptist. The sultan, who was a connoisseur, pronounced the work inaccurate, and ordered a slave to be beheaded ki his presence, to prove that the skin of the Baptist's neck was faultily portrayed. This sight eo shocked the painter, that he took the earliest opportunity to return to his own cduntry. b. 1421 ; d. 1501. Bellini, John, brother of the above, who, along with him, is generally held to be the 156 Beloe founder of the Venetian school of painting which afterwards produced Giorgione and Titian, b. 1426 ; d. 1516.— In 1819, at Lebruu's sale, a half-length figure of the " Virgin holding the Infant Jesus," by John Bellini, was sold for £4000, and the " Virgin at her Throne," once in the Louvre, but restored to the ohurch of St. Zacharias, in Naples, is estimated to be worth £8000.— James, the father of these two painters, was likewise an artist of merit. Bellini, Vincenzo, a distinguished musical composer, who in his youth discovered so much genius as to induce the inhabitants of the town of Catania to send him to Naples to study at their expense. In his twenty-third year, he produced his first opera, which was performed within the walls of the Conservatorio at Naples, and contained sufficient indications of the originality of his genius to raise high expec- tations in those who heard it. In 1831 he produced, at Milan, "La Sonnambula" and " Norma," both of which were received with the utmost enthusiasm. In 1833 appeared his " Beatrice di Tenda," which was heavy ; and in 1834 came forth his " I Puritani," which is one of his most brilliant efforts. Shortly after this he was taken ill, and ended his short career in a few days. b. at Catania, in Sicily, in 1802; d. at Pateaux, near Paris, 1835, aged 33. Bellman, Charles Michael, bell' -man, one of the most popular and national poets of Sweden, was born at Stockholm in 1741, and began his lite- rary career by some serious effusions, which tone speedily gave way to a very different style. He devoted himself to the delineation of the domestic and social life of his countrymen, and his descriptions are so natural and happy as to have obtained for him the title of the "Literary Teniers of the North." He appears to have been to the Swedes what Burns was to the Scots, though with less of power, elevation, and senti- ment, but a larger share of fun and jollity. Many of his pieces were the spontaneous 'effu- sions of his rather boisterous festive hours, and such lyrical improvisations were not only enthusiastically welcomed at the moment, but are still chanted by the firesides and at all social gatherings of the Swedish peasantry. Gusta'vus III. was an admirer of Bellman, and appointed him to the post of secretary of the national lottery. He died in 1795. Several posthumous editions of his writings, especially his songs, were published. His compositions all breathe a spirit of gay, merry carelessness, and it is said that his own character was pre- cisely such as his verses depict — enjoying the passing hour, and careless of the next. Beloe, William, be'-lo, an eminent scholar and critic, and a pupil of the celebrated Br. Samuel Parr, was born at Norwich in 1756, and edu- cated at Cambridge. He entered the church, in which he held several preferments, though not of any great pecuniary value. His chief occu- pations were literary, and his publications numerous, being mainly of a classical and critical character. He was also, however, en gaged in periodical writing, and was, along with archdeacon Narcs, the founder and joint editor of the " British Critic," which he also conducted as sole editor. He was at one time a warm admirer of the French revolution, but subsequently went over to the other side, in consequence of which he suffered a good deal of abuse from some of his former friends. He died in 1817, leaving behind the reputation of OF BIOGRAPHY. Bellot having been an amiable, religious, and accom- plished man. Bkllot, Joseph Bene*, bail'-lo, a lieutenant in the French navy, who volunteered to accom- pany the expedition sent out in 1851, under Captain Kennedy, to search for Sir John Frank- lin. He volunteered in another expedition, under Captain Inglefield, in 1853, and was un- fortunately drowned, August 18, off Cape Bowden. b. at Paris, 1826. Bellot, Peter Lawrence Buirette de, bail-loi', a French dramatist, who was for some time an advocate, but quitted the law for the stage, and went to Russia, where he acted as a comedian with considerable success. Returning to Franco in 1758, he brought out his tragedy of " Titus," which was followed by the " siege of Calais," and other pieces. B.at St. Flour, 1727; D. 1775. Bbllucci, Anthony, bail-loof-che, an Italian painter of the modern Venetian school, whose chef-d'oeuvre is the ceiling at Buckingham House, b. at Pieve di Soligo, 1654 ; d. 1726. Below, Peter, bail'-awng, a distinguished French naturalist, who travelled into Palestine, Greece, and Arabia, and formed during his travels a valuable collection, enriched natu- ral history with a number of entirely original observations, and also examined the ruins and antiquities of the countries he visited. For his numerous works Henry II. gave him a pension in 1556. He was assassinated in the Bois de Boulogne in 1564. b. 1517. — The result of his travels he communicated to the world, in his " Observations of many Singular and Memorable Things found in Greece, Asia, Juda;a, Egypt, Arabia, &c," which has been translated into Latin and German. BELsnAM, Thomas.JeZ'-sAam, aSocinian divine of some eminence, succeeded Dr. Priestley as minister of the congregation at Hackney in 1794, where he continued till 1805, when he removed to a chapel in Essex -street, London, where he officiated till 1826, when old age and infirmity compelled him to retire, b. at Bed- ford, in 1750; d. at Hampstead, 1829. Belsham was the son of a Presbyterian minister, and began life as pastor of a congregation of that body at Worcester in 1778; but resigned in 1 789, on embracing the doctrines of Dr. Priestley, lie published a great many works in nearly all departments of metaphysics and theology, a large proportion of which are controversial, and had a principal share in the preparation of what was entitled an " improved " translation of the New Testament, published by the Unitarian Society. Belsham, William, younger brother of the above, distinguished himself as a political and historical writer. Besides essays on all the lead- ing topics of the day, he composed a History of Great Britain from the Revolution of 1638 to the Peace of Amiens, 1802, first published in sepa- rate divisions, and afterwards combined into one work. He was a decided Whig in politics, and was intimate with many of the leaders of that party, b. 1752 ; d. 1828. Belsunce, Henry Francis Xavier de, bail'- loom, a French prelate, who, in 1720, while a pestilence raged in Marseilles, of which he was bishop, went into every infected district carrying spiritual and temporal aid to the sick and dy- ing, putting to Bhame the inactivity and selfish cowardice of the civil authorities, and display- ing a perfect picture of Christian charity, self- abnegation, and holy zeal. It has been truly said, that in the conduct of Belsunce, and of Charles 157 Bembo Borromeo, at Milan, on a like occasion, the world has had set before it examples of the purest and holiest devotion of which humanity is capable. He, happily, passed safely through the risks to which he exposed himself; the contagion spared him, and he lived to give a further proof of dis- interestedness, by declining several rich prefer- ments which were offered, and remained in Marseilles, endeared to him for the labours and trials he had borne for its sake. Pope, in his " Essay on Man," has made a fine allusion to Belsunce's exemption from the contagion that was immolating multitudes all around him : — *' Why drew Marseilles' good bishop purer breath, When Nature sicken'd, and each gale was death?" Unhappily, his later years were not blessed with the repose which his devotion so well merited. He was a zealous opponent of the Jansenists, and his persecution of the sect involved him in a contest with the civil authorities, and at his death Marseilles was a prey to confusion and bitterness, b. 1671; d. 1755. Belzoni, Giovanni, bail-dso'-ne, a distin- guished traveller, whose Egyptian explorations have been of great value to those whe> are en- gaged in the study of antiquities. He caused to be transported from Egypt the colossal bust now in the British Museum, and was the first to open the great temple of Abousambul, which is cut in the side of an Egyptian mountain. In 1817 he commenced his excavations at Karnak, and opened th. splendid tomb in the Beban-el-Mo- louk, or Valley of the Tombs of the Kings. He also opened numerous other sepulchres, and in all that he did, not only displayed great ingenuity, but much perseverance, under labours and diffi- culties of the most discouraging kind. In 1818 he visited the shores of the Red Sea, and dis- covered the ruins of the ancient Berenice, and visited the emerald-mines of Mount Zabarah. After an absence of five years, he returned to England, and published an account of his opera- tions. In 1823 he set out for Africa, with the view of exploring part of that country. Arriving at the Bight of Benin, he was well received by the king of the country, and prepared to set out on a journey to Houssa, when he was attacked by dysentery, which carried him off. b. at Padua about 1774; d. at Gato, in Benin, 1823. Bem, Joseph, bem, a brave general,. who first served in the army under Marshal Davoust, and subsequently under Macdonald, at the siege of Hamburg. In 1819 he was made a captain, and became professor of a school of artillery estab- lished at Warsaw. In 1830 he took part in the Polish insurrection, and after the defeat of the patriotic army, fled into France. On the com- mencement of the revolution of 1848, he tried to organize an insurrection at Vienna, and after- wards attached himself to the Hungarian cause. In 1849 he fought at the battle of Temesvar, in which the Hungarians were defeated. Seeking refuge in Turkey, he subsequently became a Mussulman, and was raised by Abdul-JIedjid to the disnity of a pasha. B. in Galicia, 1795; d. at Aleppo, 1S50. Bcmbo, I'eter, baim'-bo, a cardinal and poet, who, in 1513, was appointed by Leo X.'his secre- tary, and made bishop of Bergamo by Paul III. He was also a favourite of the celebrated Lucre- zia Borgia when residing at Venice. His prin- cipal works are the "History of Venice;" " Letters," containing anecdotes of the a^e; and THE DICTIONARY Benbow a "Treatise on the Nature of Love." b. at Venice, 1470 ; B. 1547. Behbow, John, ben'-bo, a brave English ad- miral, who early entered the merchant service, and in 1680 commanded a ship in the Mediterra- nean trade, with which he beat off a Sallee rover. The gallantry of this action being reported to Charles II. of Spain, he invited the captain to court, and presented him with a letter of recom- mendation to King James II., who gave him an appointment in the navy. William III. dis- patched him to the West Indies to protect the British colonies, and on his return he had great respect paid to him; he was advanced to the rank of vice-admiral, and after a brief period, during which he was sent to blockade Dunkirk, he was once more, in 1701, dispatched to the West Indies. Shortly subsequent to his arrival there, he fell in with the French admiral Du Casse, near St. Martha, on the Spanish coast, when a skirmishing action com- menced, which continued three or four days ; in the last day the admiral was singly engaged with the French, his other ships having fallen astern. Though a chain-shot had shattered his leg, he would not be removed from the quarter- deck, buf continued the fight till morning, when the French bore away. The admiral made sig- nal for his ships to follow; but his orders were disobeyed. In consequence of this, he was obliged to return to Jamaica, and on his arrival ordered those officers who had behaved so ill to be confined, and, on their return to England, they were brought to trial by court-martial, when the most culpable of them suffered accord- ing to their deserts, b. 1650; d. from the effects of his wound, 1702. Bendish, Bridget, ben'-disfi, is worthy of notice here, as being the daughter of General Ireton, and granddaughter of Oliver Cromwell. Her husband's name was Thomas Bendish. d. about 1727. Benedetto da Majako, bai'-nai-det'-o, a distinguished Florentine, who, as well as his brother Julian, excelled in both sculpture and architecture. He was the architect of the cele- brated Strozzi palace at Florence, which, begun by him in 1450, was finished by Simon Palajola about 1500. b. at Florence, 1444; d. in his native town, 1493. Benedict, ben'-e-dikt, a famous English ab- bot, who made frequent tours to Borne, and took to England several artists, eminent in ar- chitecture, painting, and music. He founded the monastery at Wearmouth in 674, and that of Jarrow in 682. b. in Northumberland; d. in 699. Benedict, St., founder of the religious order of the Benedictines, and who retired at an early age to Subiaeo, 40 miles from Borne. He was followed by a number of persons, who adopted the rules he established, and in a short time he had twelve monasteries under his direction. About 523 he withdrew to Monte Casino, where he founded a monastery, which became the pro- totype of all the institutions of that kind in western Europe, b. at Nursia, 480 ; d. 542 or 543. Benfdict, a name adopted by a great num- ber of the Koman pontiffs, among whom the most distinguished were : — Benedict VIII., who obtained the tiara in 1012. He crowned the emperor Henry II. and his wife in the church of St. Peter, on which occasion the pope presented the emperor with 168 Bennet an apple of gold, surrounded with two circles of precious stones crossed, aud surmounted with a cross of gold. This pope united the character of the warrior with that of the ecclesiastic, and defeated the Saracens and Greeks, who invaded his territories, d. 1024. Benedict XII. was the son of a baker, and became doctor of the university of Paris, and cardinal priest. In 1334 he was elected to the papal chair, on the death of John XXII. On this occasion he said to the cardinals, " You have chosen an ass." He corrected several abuses in the Church, d. at Avignon, 1342. Benedict XIII. was born at Rome in 1649, of an illustrious family, and took the religious habit among the Dominicans at Venice. In 1671 he was made cardinal, and, in 1685, became arch- bishop of Benevento, where, in 1688, his palace was shattered by an earthquake, and the cardinal narrowly escaped with his life. In 1724 he was chosen pope; and the year after he called a council at Rome, in which the bull TJnigenitut was confirmed, d. 1730. Benedict XIV. was born at Bologna in 1675, of the noble family of Lambertini. In 1728 he received a cardinal's hat ; and in 1731 was nomi- nated archbishop of Bologna. On the death of Clement XII., the cardinals were a long timo deliberating on the choice of a successor. Lam- bertini, by way of quickening them, said, " Why do you waste your time in discussions ? If you wish for a saint, elect Gotti ; a politician, choose Aldrovandus ; a good companion, take me." This sally pleased them so much that they elected him at once. He reformed abuses, introduced good regulations, cultivated letters, encouraged men of learning, and was a patron of the fino arts. d. 1758. His works make 6 vols, folio. Benedict, Jules, a modern German pianist and musical composer. He studied under Hum- mel and Weber, and in 1824, on the recommen- dation of the latter, was appointed musical director of the theatre of the Carthusians at j Vienna. At the San Carlo of Naples he produced his first compositions, and was subsequently very favourably ;known as an admirable per- former on the piano in most of the large cities in southern Europe, and finally settled in Lon- I don. He was with Jenny Lind in the United | States, during her remarkably successful engage- ment there under the auspices of Barnum. b. at Stuttgart, 1805. The principal of his works j arc, " I Portoghesi a Goa," " Un Anno ed un jGiorno," "The Gipsy's Warning," "The Lily ' of Killarney," &c. b. at Stuttgart, 1804. Benezet, Ajitouy, ben'-e-zet, an American philanthropist, who, at an early age, removed with his family from London to Philadelphia, where they became Quakers. He devoted his life to acts of charity, the negroes being espe- cially the objects of his care. He published various tracts on Guinea and the slave trade, an account of the Soeiety of Friends, &c. b. in London, in the year 1713; d. 1784. — A fine eulogium was pronounced over his remains by an American officer. " I would rather," said he, " be Antony Benezet in that coffin, than George Washington with all his fame." Bennet, Henry, ben'-et, earl of Arlington, a statesman, who served iu the royal army during the civil war, and after the Restoration made one of the ministry known by the name of the Cabal, which word was formed from the initials of the noblemen who composed it ; viz. —Clifford, Asliley, Buckingham, Arlington OF BIOGRAPHY. Bennett Lauderdale. In 1672 he was created an earl, end afterwards invested with the order of the Garter, and appointed Lord Chamberlain, b. at Arlington, 1618 ; d. 1635. Bennett, William Cox, a modern English song- writer, whose poems of childhood and other home subjects have deservedly attained cele- brity. His first volume of " Poems " was pub- lished 1847; "War Songs," 1857; "Queen Eleanor's Vengeance and other Poems," 1858 ; " Songs by a Song-writer," and " Baby May " and other Poems on Infants," both in 1859. b. at Greenwich, 1820. — His verses have a large number of readers as well in America as in England. Bennett, William Sterndale, an eminent composer and pianist, was born in 1816 at Sheffield, where his father was organist of the principal church. He was brought up by his grandfather, John Bennett, one ot the lay clerks of the choir of Cambridge University, by whom he was entered, when eight years of age, as a chorister of King's College, and is now professor of music in the university where he thus early began hi» career. After studying in London, lie spent several years in Germany, where his compositions were very favourably received, and where he formed an intimate friendship with Mendelssohn, which had a most beneficial influence on the career of the young composer. He subsequently fixed his residence in London, was appointed professor of music at Cambridge in 1856, and has published a great variety of pieces of high merit. Indeed, Professor Ben- nett has gained a European reputation, and, as a performer, has done credit to the English school. His works include overtures to the '• Naiades," " Parisina," the " Wild Nymphe," the " Merry Wives of Windsor," with coneertas, sonatas, songs, duets, pianoforte pieces, &c, &c. He composed a cantata for the inauguration of the International Exhibition of 1862, to which Tennyson wrote words, and which, with marches composed by Aubcr and Meyerbeer, was per- formed on the opening day. d. 1875. Benseeade, Isaac do, bain'-se-rad', a French poet, whose wit and political talents introduced him to the court of Louis XIV., where he ob- tained the patronage of Cardinal Kichelieu. His writings consist principally of sonnets and dramas, b. at Lyons la Foret, 1612; d. at Paris, 1691. Bknsiet, Thomas, bens'-le, a distinguished English printer of the beginning of the present century, who, among other improvements he made in typography, was connected with the early attempts to introduce machine-printing, jphich was first applied witli success to the fxeeution of the Timet in 1814, and has since received immense developments and improve- ments. Bentham, Jeremy, ben'-fham, the son of an attorney, and remarkable from his earliest years for the fascination which books had over him. In his fifth year he was named by his family the "philosopher ;" and in his fourteenth was ad- mitted to Queen's College, Oxford, where he soon distinguished himself among his fellow- students. He studied for the law, but aban- doned that profession, in disgust at the exorbi- tant and unjust charges which he beheld made upon suitors, and from other corruptions by ivhich he saw the machinery of the law upheld. After visiting France three different times pre- vious to the breaking out of the great Eevolu- 159 Bentinck tion, he became acquainted with M. Dumonl, the Swiss librarian of the marquis of Lans- downe, then residing at Bowood. This gentle- man greatly assisted him in the improving and the polishing of his compositions before they were given to the world. The biography of such a person as Bentham can contain little more than the record of his writings and opi- nions. The sum of his existence was the im- provement of legislation and jurisprudence. The leading principle of his philosophy is, that the end of all human actions and morality is happiness. Finding, in a pamphlet of Dr. Priestley, the phrase, " the greatest happiness of the greatest number," he saw delineated, for the first time, " a plain as well as a true stan- dard of whatever is right or wrong, useful, useless, or mischievous in human conduct, whe- ther in the field of morals or politics." From tliis his whole life took its direction, and he laboured long and continually for what he con- ceived to be the happiness of his species, b. in London, Feb. 15, 1748; d. in Westminster, 1832. — The principal works of this distinguished ju- dicial philosopher are his " Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation," a " Frag- ment on Government," a " Book of Fallacies," the " Rationale of Judicial Evidence," the " Plan of a Judicial Establishment," and his " Panopticon," a work on prison discipline. He produced many other books, and, in the words of Sir James Mackintosh, "has done more than any other writer to rouse the spirit of juridical reformation, which is now gradu- ally examining every part of law; and, when further progress is facilitated by digesting the present laws, will doubtless proceed to the improvement of all. Greater praise it is given to few to earn." Bentinck, William, ben'-tinlc, the first carl of Portland, was a page to William Prince of Orange (afterwards William III.), to whom he endeared himself by a singular act of devotion. The prince being ill of the small-pox, it was deemed necessary that he should receive the natural warmth of a young person in the same bed with him. Bentinck, though he never had had the distemper, immediately proposed him- self for this hazardous service, lie subse- quently suffered severely from the disease, but recovered, and his master ever afterwards es- teemed him as one of his greatest friends. Ho accompanied William to England, and, on the prince's accession to the English crown, he was created earl of Portland, and was employed in several high offices, military and civil, and at- tended his master on his death-bed. n. in Hol- land, 1648 ; d. in London, 1709, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Bentinck, Lord William Charles Cavendish, the second son of the third duke of Portland, entered the army, and, after serving in Flan- ders, Kussia, and Egypt, attained to high rank, and, in 1803, became taovernor of Madras. Here the singularity of his reforms in reference to the beards, moustaches, and turbans of the sepoys led, hi 1805, to the mutiny at Vellore, which caused him to be recalled. On his return he received several diplomatic appointments, filled some military commands witli indifferent success, and ultimately, under the government of Canning, was appointed to the governor- generalship of India. There again his reform- ing spirit led to much dissatisfaction among the soldiery, lie, however, effected the abc- THE DICTIONARY Bentinck lition of suttee, or the practice of widow-burn- ing, whicli, on December 14th, 1829, was declared illegal. He also obtained the liberty for Eng- lishmen to settle in India, although belonging to neither the military nor the civil service ; sys- tematically favoured the native population, and extended the liberty of the press. He also an- nexed the territory of the rajah of Coorg to the British possessions. In 1835 his health began to fail, when he resigned his office, and left Calcutta in the month of March of the same year. The native population regretted his de- parture, and erected an equestrian statue to commemorate his administration. After his arrival in England he became, in 1836, M.P. for Glasgow, for which city he sat until a few days before he died, when he resigned, b. 1774; D. at Paris, 1839. Bentinck, Lord William George Frederick Cavendish, was the third son of William Henry, fourth duke of Portland. This nobleman is best known as Lord George Bentinck, and entered the army, but quitted the profession of arms to take a part in the polities of his country. In 1826 he became private secretary to his uncle, George Canning, who was then secretary for foreign affairs. In 1827 he was returned to the House of Commons for the borough of King's Lynn, for which he sat till the close of his life. Up to 1846 he may be said to have been an ardent supporter of Sir Robert Peel ; but when, in that year, that states- man repealed the corn-laws, he became one of his greatest opponents, u. 1802 ; d. 1848. — Lord George threw great ardour and energy into all that he undertook; and, with Mr. Dis- raeli for his ally, was one of the strongest op- ponents of free trade. He was passionately fond of horseracing, and was wont to say that " the winning of the Derby was the blue ribbon of the turf."— (See "Life," by Disraeli.) Bentivoglio, Guy, 6a»i'-/e-Eo£ / -/e-o,aeardinal, was sent as nuncio to Flanders by Paul V., to endeavour to bring it again under the papal authority ; and here it was he wrote his histori- cal work on the insurrection of Flanders against the Spaniards, and the subsequent wars of the duke of Alva and the Hollanders. In 1616 Bentivoglio was sent as nuncio to France, and in 1621 was made a cardinal, and afterwards be- came the confidant of Urban VIII., whom it was supposed he would have succeeded as pope but for his death, b. at Ferrara, 1579 ; d. 1614. Bentivoglio, Hercules, an Italian poet, whose satires are considered next in merit to those of Ariosto. B. at Bologna, 1506; D. at Venice, 1573. Bentley, Richard, bent'-le, a celebrated di- vine and critic, who, from Wakefield school, was sent, at the age of fifteen, to St. John's College, Cambridge. Thence he removed to Oxford, where he took the degree of M.A., and, in 1691, published a Latin epistle to Dr. Mill, containing critical observations on the Chronology of John Malala. He was the first appointed to preach the lecture founded by Mr. Boyle, on which occa- sion he delivered eight admirable discourses in confutation of atheism. In 1093 he was ap- pointed keeper of the royal library. In 1097 commenced his famous controversy with the Honourable Mr. Boyle on the genuineness of the epistles of Phalaris, in which much personal abuse passed on both sides ; but, though some of the greatest wits of the age were on the side of Boyle, posterity has detgrmined the case m 100 Beranger favour of Bentley. About this time he was pre- sented to the mastership of Trinity College, Cambridge, with which he held the archdeaconry of Ely ; but, in consequence of some encroach- ments made by him on the college for his own emolument, a charge was laid against him, which never came to a determination. He afterwards became regius professor of divinity, when, hav- ing exacted an exorbitant fee from persons who were admitted to the degree of D.D. by mandate, he was suspended in the vice-chancellor's court. This arbitrary decree was subsequently reversed by the court of King's Bench, and the doctor was restored to his privileges, b. at Oulton, in Yorkshire, in 1661; r>. 1742.— Dr. Bentley is advantageously known as a critic by his editions of Horace, Terence, and Phaedrus, his unrival- led epistle to Mill, and his splendid dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris. These last esta- blished his reputation throughout Europe as a critic of the very highest order of excellence. Bentley, Sir John, a brave English admiral, who, having served under Matthews, Anson, Hawke, and Boscawen, with much distinction, was knighted for his gallant conduct, having been present in every affair which could be dig- nified with the name of a battle from the action under Admiral M atthews, in 1744, to the defeat by Sir Edward Hawke of the last naval armament attempted by France during the war. While cap- tain of the Barjleur, in 1756, he was one of the court-martial which tried the unfortunate ad- miral Byng. In 1763 he was appointed rear- admiral of the White, and after attaining the rank of vice-admiral, he died, Dec. 14, 1772. Benvenuto Cellini. (See Cellini.) Benyowbky, ben'-e-ous'-ke, Count Mauritius Augustus de, an Hungarian adventurer, who in 1768 joined the confederacy of the Poles against the Russians. Falling into the hands of the latter, he was exiled to Kamtchatka; but, gaining the good offices of the governor, Nilof, he was made preceptor to his children, which gave him favourable opportunities of maturing a plan of escape. Afterwards, ac- companied by eighty-five exiles, his compa- nions, he quitted Kamtchatka, and, in 1771, sailed to Formosa, and afterwards to Macao, where the greater part of his comrades died. On his return to France, he was commissioned to found a colony in Madagascar, and in 177 I landed there, but, through endeavouring to make conquests in the island, he offended the natives, who destroyed the settlement, and compelled him to quit the country in 1779. In 1783 he sought assistance from England and America for another expedition to Madagascar, and landed there in 1785. At the commence- ment of hostilities against the French lie was mortally wounded. Benyowsky wrote his me- moirs and an account of his travels, b. at Verbowna, 1741; fell, 1786. Berangee, Pierre Jean de, lai'-rawnzV-ai, a French poet, who, from being first a tailor, be- came a printer, and then a writer of poetry. His first performances were by no means pro- pitious to his fame or his fortunes; and when Napoleon I. was in Kgypt, Heranger entertained the idea of proceeding to that country and real- izing a dream of riches and glory with which he had been haunted. This, however, circum- stances prevented; and, in 1803, when suffering from great indigence, he sent some of his poems to Lucien Bonaparte, who subsequently assigned him an : neomc as a membtr of the Institute. OP BIOGRAPHY. Berehett He now continued to write, became an editor, and, in 1809, was appointed a clerk in the secre- tary^ department in the Academy. By this time he had written many songs, and had be- come popular. His eii'usions had spread far and wide; and as many of them were pointed satires against the governments which succeeded the fall of Napoleon, he was, in 1821, discharged from his office, and subsequently, up to 1830, was twice fined and imprisoned. In the revolution of that year, he says, " he was treated with as one of the great powers ;" but he remained free and independent. After the revolution he was elected a representative of the department of the Seine, in the Constituent Assembly, but soon resigned the honour which the admiration of his country had forced upon him. In his re- tirement he continued to chant and employ him- self with a biography of his contemporaries, but did not publish so freely as he had formerly done. n. at Paris, 1780; d. in Paris, July 17, 1837. — His funeral, on the day after his death, was attended by an immense concourse, who assembled to pay their last tribute of respect to the remains of one of the greatest of the n& tional poets of France. P>EBcnETT, Peter, bair'-shai, a French histo- rical painter and engraver, who paiuted the ceiling of the chapel in Trinity College, Oxford. B. 1659; D. 1720. Bkrengabia, wife of Richard Cceur de Lion. (See Richard I.) Berengabius, Jacobus, bai'-rain-ga'-re-us, an eminent anatomist of Carpi, was the first to dis- cover the peculiar curative qualities of mercury, and used it with great effect. Lived in the first half of the 16th century.— He amassed great wealth, which he bequeathed to the duke of Ferrara. BEKEXGBBorBEBBNGABir/s, bai'-rainzh'-ai, a conspicuous controversialist of the 11th century, was the contemporary and rival of the great Lan- franc, master of the seminary of Bee, and after- wards archbishop of Canterbury under the Con- queror and Rufus. Berenger was unequal in ability and learning to Lanfrane, and feeling his inferiority, took to somewhat heretical opinions in order to obtain, as is alleged, that distinction from novelty which he could not gain by his talent. This involved him in difficulties, and he was several times tried and condemned for unsoundness of faith. In consequence of his controversies with Lanfrane and others, on the cucharistic presence, it is believed the church of Rome was first induced formally to adopt the doctrine ot transubstantiation. h. at St. Cosmc, near Tours, Jan. 6, 1088, aged 90. Berenice, ber'-e-ni-ce, daughter of Agrippa the Elder, king of the Jews. She was married to Herod, her uncle, after whose death she became the wife of Ptolemy, king of Cilicia ; but she afterwards left her husband, and lived, until she went to Rome, with her brother Agrippa. Titus fell in lore with her, and would have de- clared her empress, but for fear of the Roman people, b. 28. — Berenice forms the subject of one of Racine's tragedies. Berenicius, Paul Peter, btr'-e-nis'-e-ut, a Dutch poet and adventurer, who was conjec- tured to be an expelled Jesuit, and got his live- lihood by sweeping chimneys and grinding knives. It is reported that he would turn into extempore verses what was said to him in prose; translate the gazettes from Flemish into Greek or Latin vcr.-c, standing on one foot; that 161 Bergman modern and ancient languages were quite fa- miliar to him; and that he knew by heart Horace, Virgil, Homer, Aristophanes, and se- veral parts of Cicero and Pliny. Ho was suffocated in a bog, into which he fell while in a state of intoxication. The " Gcorgarehonisma- chia" is attributed to him. Lived about the middle of the 17th century. Bebesfobd, William Carr, Viscount, ber'-es- ford, was the natural son of the first Marquis of Waterford, and early entered the army. Ha served in Nova Scotia, at Toulon, and several other places, when, in 1808, he went to Portugal with the British forces, and organized the Por- tuguese army. On May 4th, 1811, he invested Badajoz, and on the 16th defeated Marshal Soult at Albuera. In 1812, he was wounded at Sala- manca ; and, under Wellington, had command of a division at Vittoria and Bayonne, where he greatly distinguished himself. On the 10th of April, 1814, he carried the heights of Toulouse, and was created a British peer, with the title of Baron Beresford. In 1814 and 1815 he was at Brazil ; and on his return resumed the com- mand of the army of Portugal, but in a few years resigned it. In 1823 he was made Vis- count Beresford; in 1828 was appointed master- general of the ordnance ; and, at the time of his death, was governor of the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and also governor of Jersey, b. 1768; d. at Bedgebury Park, Kent, 1854. Berettini, Peter, surnamed Peteb of Cob- tona, bai'-rai-te'-ne, an eminent Tuscan painter, remarkable for the boldness of his conceptions. He decorated many chapels at Rome, as also the Barberini Palace; then went to Florence, where he painted the ceiling of the Pitti Palace. His style, however, is described as loose, and as having tended to corrupt the taste of his age. B. at Cortona, 1596 : D. 1669. Bebg, Mathias van den, bairg, a Flemish painter, who became a pupil of Rubens. He excelled chiefly as a skilful copyist, being de- fective in composition, b. 1615; d. 1647. Bergen, Dirk van den, bair'-jen, a celebrated landscape and animal painter, who was a pupil of Vanderveldt. b. at Haarlem, about 1610; l>. 1689. Bebghem, Nicholas, bairg'-hem, a Dutch painter, celebrated for his landscapes, into which he introduced architpctural ruins, and groups of figures and cat'ue so admirably ar- ranged that they appeared directly copied from nature. Some of his compositions are in the Dulwich Gallery. His drawings and etchings are also very beautiful, and are eagerly sought after, b. at Haarlem, 1624; d. 1683. Bergiiier, Nicholas, bair-ge-ai, a French historian, who wrote a " History of the Great Roads of the Roman Empire." This work is of great utility to the student of ancient geo- graphy, and the best edition is that of 1736, published at Brussels, b. at Rheirn*, 1567; d. at Grignan, 1623. Bergler, Joseph, bairg'-ler, an eminent his- torical painter, and director of the Academy of Prague, where he trained several distinguished artists. His principal works are altar-pieces for the churches in Prague and the neighbour- hood, n. at Salzburg in 1703; d. at Prague in 1829. He was especially distinguished as a generally effective colourist. Bergman, Torbern Orlof, bairg'-man, a cele- brated Swedish chemist, was educated at Upsal, M THE DICTIONARY Berkeley where he devoted himself to medicine and the sciences connected with it. Here he gained the friendship of Linnaeus, to whom he communi- cated a collection of nondescript insects, to one of which Linnseus gave the name of Bergman. In 1761 he was appointed professor of mathe- matics and natural philosophy at Upsal, and we find his name in the list of those who observed the transit of Venus,, in 1761. In 1767 he ob- tained the chemical professorship. We are indebted to him for the knowledge of the nature of fixed air, and for a number of chemical dis- coveries. He was knighted by the king of Sweden, and received a pension of 150 rix-dol- lars ; and his wife, at his death, received a pension of 200 rix-dollars, on condition of giving up his library and apparatus to the Royal So- ciety of Upsala. His works were published in 6 vols., under the title of " Opuscula Physica et Chemica." b. at Catherinberg, 1735; d. at Medevi,1784. Berkeley, George, earl of, berV-le, descended from Bobert Fitzharding, of the royal house of Denmark, was one of the privy council to Charles II., and bestowed on Sion College a valuable library. He was the author of an ex- cellent little book, entitled " Historical Applica- tions and Occasional Meditations upon Several Subjects, written by a Person of Honour," 12nio, 1670. d. 1698. Berkeley, Sir William, of the same family, was vice-admiral of the white, and led the van in the desperate engagement with the Dutch, June 1, 1606. He steered into the midst of the enemy's fleet, where he was overpowered by numbers, was mortally wounded, and at the close of the action was found dead in his cabin, covered with blood. Berkeley, John, Lord Berkeley of Stratton, a distinguished British admiral, who, in concert with Sir Cloudesley Shovel, Admiral Russel, and Vice-Admiral Aylmer, undertook various expe- ditions against the coast of France between the years 1688 and 1696, several of which— such as those at Brest and Dunkirk — were unfortunate in their results, while others were eminently successful. He died of pleurisy and fever in 1696, aged 34, after having been eight years an admiral — an almost solitary instance of anyone attaining so high a rank at so early an age in the British service. He owed his promotion, however, not to favouritism, but to the general confidence in his ability, integrity, and pa- triotism. Berkeley, George, a celebrated divine, who was educated first at Kilkenny, and next at Trinity College, Dublin, of which he was chosen fellow in 1707. The same year he published "Arithmetica absque Algebra aut Euclide de- monstrata." In 1 709 he published his " Theory of Vision," which was the first attempt that ever was made to distinguish the immediate and natural objects of sight from the conclusions we have been accustomed from infaney to draw from them. In 1710 appeared the "Principles of Human Knowledge," and in 1713 the " Dia- logues between Hylas and Philonous ;" the ob- ject of both being to disprove the common notion of the existence of matter, and to esta- blish the hypothesis that material objects have no other existence than in the mind. However singular his opinions were, there was so much \)eauty in his writings that the greatest men— nmongst others Steele and Swift — courted his friendship. For the former he wrote several 362 • Berkley- papers in the " Guardian," and through him became intimate with Pope. Swift recom- mended him to the earl of Peterborough, who took him abroad as his chaplain. In 1714 he returned to England, but set out again for the continent, with a son of Dr. Ashe, bishop of Clogher, and continued on his travels four years. He returned in 1721, and became chap- lain to the duke of Grafton, lord-lieutenant of Ireland. At this time ho took his degree of D.D., and a fortufte was bequeathed to him by a lady of Dublin. In 1724 he was promoted to the deanery of Derry, and the year following he printed a proposal for converting the American Indians, by erecting a college in the Bermudas. His mind was so intent on this project that he obtained a grant of £10,000 from the Commons, and set sail for America, where he resided nearly two years : but the scheme failed, owing to the minister having applied the money to other purposes. In 1732 he published the "Minute Philosopher," in 2 vols. 8vo, which is a masterly attack on infidelity. The next year he was made bishop of Cloyne, and about this time published the "Analyst," in which he endeavoured to prove that the mathematicians admitted mysteries, and even falsities in science, particularly in- stancing the doctrine of fluxions. He was answered by several writers, to whom he replied in 1739, in " A Defence of Freethinking in Ma- thematics." In 1736 he published the "Queries," addressed to magistrates, occasioned by the licentiousness of the times ; and in 1744 his book on the virtues of tar-water made its appearance. b. at Kilcrin, in Ireland, 1684; d. at Oxford in 1753, and was buried in Christ-church, where there is a monument to his memory. — Pope as- cribed, no less justly than beautifully, to Berke- ley, "every virtue under heaven." But Pope was not the only one who admired and loved the good bishop of Cloyne. Bishop Atterbury says, " So much understanding, so much inno- cence, and such humility, I did not think had been the portion of any but angels, till I saw this gentleman." He, of all mankind, died possessed of " That which should accompany old age, As honour,love,obedience,troops of friends." Beeken, or BiiHQUEN, bair'-lce/i, a Fleming, who, in 1476, discovered the art of cutting and polishing the diamond by means of a wheel and diamond-powder, d. at the commencement of the 15th century. Bebkenhout, John, bair'-ken-hout, a phy- sician and naturalist, who was descended from a Dutch family, and intended for the mercan- tile profession, which he quitted, and entered first into the military service of Prussia, and next into that of England. In 1760 he went to Edinburgh, and studied physic, but took his doctor's degree at Ley den in 1765. While at Edinburgh he published his " Clavis Anglica Lingua? Botanicse," a book of considerable merit, In 1778 he attended the British commissioners to America, and on his return obtained a pen- sion, and resided for the remainder of his life at Isleworth. b. at Leeds, 1730; r. 1791. bERKHEYDEN, Job, bairk-hi-den, a Dutch painter, who excelled in portraits and land- scapes, b. at Haarlem, 1628 ; d. 1698. — His brother Gerard, also a painter, was famed for his architectural designs, b.1645; d. 1693. Berkley, Sir William, berk'-le, governor of Virginia, was born of an ancient family near London, and educated at Merton College. OF BIOGRAPHY. Berlioz Oxford, of which he became fellow. In 1641 he was named governor of Virginia; and, during the civil war, took the side of the king, Virginia being the last of the colonies to acknowledge the authority of Cromwell. In 1651 he was compelled to submit to the rule of the Com- monwealth ; but, on the death of Governor Mat- thews, who had been appointed by Cromwell, he resumed the government, on condition that the people would submit to the king's authority. This was agreed to, and Charles II. was accord- ingly proclaimed in Virginia before his restora- tion to the throne took place in England, d. 1677. Governor Berkley had local as well as national difficulties to contend with, the most harassing of which were his quarrels with Gen- eral Nathaniel Bacon, the "rebel" (whom see). Berlioz, Hector, bair'-le-oz, an eminent French musician, whose father was a physician, and who was forced to study for the medical profession greatly against his inclinations. When he reached his twentieth year, he was sent to Paris to finish his studies ; but there the natural bent of his genius prevailed over every other consideration. He quitted the lectures of the faculty and entered the Conservatoire de Musique, and in 1830 gained the first prize of the Conservatoire by his cantata of " Sardana- palus." He then went to Italy, where he studied for eighteen months, when he returned and produced his overture to "King Lear." He now gradually rose in fame, and is the author of a great many works, although public opinion is divided as to his merits as a com- poser. As a conductor of concerts, however, he has attained considerable eminence in England, Germany, and Russia., b. at Cote- St.-Andre, department of Isere, 1803. n. 1869. Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules Marshal. (See Charles XIV. of Sweden.) Bernard of Menthon, St , bair'-nard, founder of the monasteries of the Great and Little St. Bernard in the Alps, was born at Annecy, in 923, and died in 1003, after having established, and himself superintended for several years, these most benevolent institutions, the monks of which have ever since continued to fulfil the aims of their excellent founder — that of rescuing lost travellers in the snows of the Alps, a task in which they are greatly aided by the celebrated St. Bernard race of dogs. Bernard of Thuringia, a hermit, who, at the close of the 10th century, announced that the end of the world was approaching. A tuial eclipse of the sun happening at that time, many people hid themselves in caves ; but the return of light dispelled their fears ; the hermit retired to his cell, and the world resumed its tran- quillity, although confidence was not entirely re- stored till the end of the 11th century. Bernard, St., the founder of the order of Bernardines, one of the most distinguished saints of the Romish calendar, was educated at the university of Paris, which in his time was one of the most celebrated seats of learning in Europe, and, at the age of 22, entered the Cis- tercian monastery of Citeaux, near Dijon, in- ducing upwards of thirty of his companions to accompany him in his retirement. By his rigor- ous practice of the austerities of the order (the strictest in France), Bernard so recommended himself, that he was chosen, in 1115, head of the colony which founded the abbey of Clair- vaut. His celebrity was so great, that, in 1128, he was employed to draw up the statutes of the 163 Bernard order of the Templars ; and his influence pre- vailed so far at the courts of both France and England as to induce them to acknowledge, contrary to justice, Innocent II. as legitimate pope, m opposition to Anaclete. In 1146 he persuaded the king of France, and other sove- reigns, to enter on a crusade, and was offered the command of the army, which, however, he re- fused. He was canonized by Alexander III. in 1174. b. at Fontaines, 1091 ; d. at Claimrax, 1153. — His works were published in Paris in 4 vols, by Gaume, in 1835-40. Bernard, Claude, surnamed "Poor Bernard," was the eldest son of a distinguished French magistrate, in the time of Henry IV., and after a youth spent in dissipation, took orders and con- secrated his life to aiding the poor, the sick, and the criminal. For twenty years he exercised his charity at the hospitals in Paris, devoting his heritage of £20,000 to the use of the unfor- tunate, b. at Dijon, 1588; d. at Paris, 1641. Bernard, duke of Saxe-Weimar, a celebrated general, who was one of the principal supports of the Protestant cause in Germany during the Thirty-years War. His first essay in arms was made" under the king of Bohemia, and when nineteen years of age he distinguished himself at the battle of Wimpfen.' He afterwards served under Gustavus Adolphus, gaining several ad- vantages over Wallensteiu, and aiding in the taking of Wurtsburg and Mannheim. On the death of Gustavus, at the battle of Lutzen, 1632, he took the command of the army, and followed up the victory. In 1634, however, he was beaten in the decisive battle of Nordlingen, which was gained by the Imperialists. From that time he allied himself closely to Franco, which had joined the Protestant league, and succoured and retook several towns — amongst others, Mayence, in 1635, and effected an ad- mirable retreat into Lorraine. Subsequently, in 1636, he supported the movements of Conde in Burgundy, and in 1638 took Rheinfeld, Fri- bourg, and Brisach. In the midst of his suc- cesses he died, some say by poison, near Neu- bourg on the Rhine, 1639. b. at Weimar, 1604. Bernard, Richard, a Puritan divine, and scholar, was the first to translate Terence into English, and also wrote several original works, such as " The Faithful Shepherd," " Look Be- yond Luther," "Thesaurus Biblicus," &c. He wa3 educated at Cambridge, and was vicar of Worksop, in Notts, and subsequently rector of Batcombe, Somerset, where he died in 1011 ; b. 1566. Bernard, Samuel, a French painter and en- graver, who was a pupil of Vouet and professor in the Royal Academy at Paris. He excelled in miniatures and paintings in water colours. Ilia son, the celebrated banker, Samuel Bernard, rendered valuable services to the government of Louis XIV. and XV. b. at Paris, 1615; d. there, 1687. Bernard, J. Frederick, a learned Dutch wri- ter and publisher, who established himself at Amsterdam in 1711. Ho is the author of a number of works, of which the most important are a "Collection of Voyages to the North," " Religious Customs and Ceremonies of all Na- tions," and "Ancient and Modern Supersti- tions." d. 1752. Bernard, Catherine, a celebrated French authoress, who composed many novels, poems, and two tragedies, " Brutus" and " Laodamia," the former of which was much esteemed. Shs m a THE DICTIONARY Bernard was admitted a member of the Acad^mie des Iiicovrati at Padua, and obtained the poetical prizes many times at the French Academy, and at the Floral Games at Toulouse. She was the friend of Fontenelle. B. at Eouen, 1662 ; d. at Paris, 1712. Bernard, James, a French divine, who was educated at Geneva, after which he became minister of the church of Vinsobres ; but when the persecution commenced, he retired to Switz- erland till the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and then went to Holland, where he established a school for fine arts, philosophy, and mathe- matics. He wrote an historical and political account of the 8tate.of Europe, and succeeded Lc Clerc in the management of the "Biblio- theque Universelle." In 1693 he continued the " Nouvclles de la Republique des Lettres. In 1 705 he was chosen one of the ministers of the Walloon church at Leyden, and professor of philosophy and mathematics in that university. B. at Nions, 1C58 ; d. 1718. Bernard, Edward, a learned astronomer and philologer, who, in 1669, was appointed de- puty to Sir Christopher Wren in the Savilian professorship of astronomy, and, in 1673, suc- ceeded that great man. In 1681 he took his degree of D.D. ; and, in 1691, was presented to the rectory of lirightwell, in Berkshire, b. near Towcester, 1638 ; d. at Oxford, 1697.— -Bernard is celebrated for his knowledge of the Eastern languages and mathematics, and for the labour he expended in searching for and collecting MSS. for the reprints of the old mathematicians which rendered the Oxford press famous at that period. His works are very numerous. Bernard, Peter Joseph, called by Voltaire, Gentil-Bernard ("pleasant"), showed, at an early age, a great taste for poesy, and though at first only an attorney's clerk, afterwards be- came secretary to Marshal Coigny, who had the command of the army of Italy. After the mar- shal's death, he obtained a lucrative appoint- ment, and was now able to indulge his poetic tendencies. He wrote an opera, " Castor and Pollux," which had a great success ; " The Art of Loving," and a number of odes, songs, &c. His works were collected and reprinted in 1803. b. at Grenoble, 1710; d. at Paris, 1775.— In 1771, Gentil-Bemard, having been guilty of an excess, entirely lost his memory, and for four years was in a state of imbecility. Bernardes, Diego, bair-nar'-dais, a Portu- guese poet, who especially succeeded in the idyl, and is regarded as the Theocritus of Por- tugal. He called a collection of his eclogues " Lyma," from the name of the stream on the banks of which he composed his verses, b. about 1540; D. 1596. Bernard, Charles de, a French novelist, who wrote many novels and romances of a pleasing character from 1838 to 1847. His best works are " The Yellow Kose," and " Gerfaud." He belonged to a distinguished French family. b. at Besancon, 1804 ; n. at Sablonville, 1850. Bernardin, St., hair-nawr'-den, of Siena, an I^Jian monk, whose courage and charity were conspicuous during the plague which ravaged Siena in 1400. In 1404 he entered the order of Franciscans, and was sent to the Holy Land. On his return to Italy he founded above 300 monasteries. He was much respected by the emperor Sigismund, and his eloquence had the most beneficial effect on all classes in Italy. h. at Massa-Carrara, 1380; d. at Aquila, 1414. 161 Bernini Bernazzano, bair-nawd-dsa'-iio, an Italian naintcr of the lflth century, who excelled in landscape, fruit, flowers, and animals, d. 1536. Berners, John Bourchier, Lord, ber'-ners, a favourite of Henry VIII., who employed him in several capacities, and gave him the appoint- ment of governor of Calais, where he re- mained until his death, b. about 1474; d. 1532. —He was the author of several productions ; but his greatest work is his translation of Froissart's " Chronicles," which was undertaken by the king's command. Berners, Juliana. (See Barnes, Juliana.) Bernetti, Thomas, ber-net'-ti, a cardinal and Italian statesman, born at Fermo in 1779 ; was minister of war under Pius VII. in 1816. He was created a cardinal in 1827. After the accession of Gregory XVI. he offended the Austrian government by persuading the pope to enrol troops for the defence of the state, instead of depending as formerly on Austrian soldiers. On quitting office in 1836, Gregory made him vice-chancellor of the Romish church. When Pius IX. became pope, he laboured ear- nestly to bring about the reforms that were so much needed at the Papal court, and when the pope left Rome in 1848, and retired to Gaeta, he returned to Fermo, where he died, 1852. Bernia, or Berni, Francis, bair'-ne-aw, an Italian poet and canon of Florence, who is famous for his witty and satirical piei cs, and has given his name to that class of writing in Italy. He was attached to Alexander and Hip- politus de Medici, who had quarrelled, and is supposed to have been poisoned by the former. d. 1536. — He is called the Scarron of the Italians. Bernier, Francois, lair'-ne-ai, a French tra- | veller and physician, whose account of his j travels was much appreciated, as he visited | countries before unknown to Europeans, and | threw considerable light on the state of India ; up to the time of Aurungzebe, at whose court | he resided twelve years, during eight of which | he held the appointment of physician to the emoeror. b. at Angers, about 1625; d. 1638. Bernini, or Bernin, bair-ne'-ne, Giovanni Lorenzo, a Florentine sculptor and architect, exercised his profession chiefly at Kome, where he produced his most famous works; amongst which may be mentioned " The Confession of'St. Peter," the Barberini Palace, and the front of the College de Propaganda Fide. He executed also three busts of Charles I. of England from a picture by Vandyek, on viewing which ho is said to have observed, that it was " the most un- fortunate face he ever beheld." At the age of 68 he visited Paris, at the pressing invitation of Louis XIV., and lis progress to that city was one continuous ovation. He was received by Louis as a man whose presence honoured France; but when he saw the front of tho Louvre, then being erected under Claude Per- rault, Bernini said " that a country which hnd architects oi that stamp had no need of him." While at Paris he executed a bust of Louis XIV., and on his return to Rome an equestrian statue of the same monarch, which was placed at Ver- sailles. At 80 years of ape he executed a statue of Christ, and presented it to Queen Christir.a of Sweden, who, however, declined it, saying she was not rich enough to pay for it as it de- served; he, however, bequeathed it to her by his will. Bernini was also a painter, and left about OP BIOGRAPHY. Bernis 150 pictures, b. at Naples, 159S; d. at Kome, 16S0. Bebnis, Francis Joachim dePierres de,bair'-ne, a French cardinal and archbishop of Albi, who was indebted to the marchioness de Pompadour for his preferments in church and state. After having been employed as ambassador to dif- ferent courts, he was made minister of foreign affairs, and obtained a cardinal's hat. But the ill success of the French arms, and the derange- ment of the finances, occasioned his disgrace and temporary banishment from court. In 1 7 r i he was recalled, and nominated archbishop of Albi. He afterwards was appointed ambas- sador to the pope, and had a considerable share in procuring the destruction of the Jesuits. He had the additional title of Protector of the French Church at Home, where he lived in splendour and hospitality till the Revolution disordered his finances, on which he obtained a pension from the court of Spain. He wrote some works, consisting principally of poems. B. at St. Marcel, 1715 ; n. at Rome, 1794. Berjjottilli, James, bair'-noo-eel'-e, a famous mathematician, who was destined for the He- formed church, but whose inclination led him to the study of mathematics, which he pursued privately and without any assistance but from books. In 1G76 he set out on his travels, and at Geneva devised a method of teaching a blind girl to write. He wrote a treatise on the comet which appeared in 1080, and soon after went to Holland, where he studied the new philosophy. He returned to Bale in 1682, and read lectures on experimental philosophy and mechanics. About 1684, Leibnitz published, in the " Acta Eruditorum" at Leipsic, some essays on his new calculus differentialis, but without discovering the method. Bernouilli, however, and his brother, discovered the secret, and were highly praised by Leibnitz. His works were printed at Geneva, 1744. b. at Bale, 1654; d. 1705. Bebnouilli, John, brother of the above, whose labours in the sciences he shared, was in 1695 appointed professor of mathematics at Groningen, and on the death of James he re- turned to Bale, where he succeeded him in the professorship of mathematics. In 1714 he pub- lished a treatise on the management of ships ; and in 1730 his memoir on the elliptical figure of the planets gained the prize of the Academy of Sciences. His writings were published at Geneva in 1742. b. at Bale, 1667; d. 1748.— John Bernouilli left two sons, Daniel and John, and a nephew Nicholas, who were all cele- brated for their mathematical acquirements. Bernstorff, John Hartwig Ernest, Count of lairn'-storf, a celebrated Danish statesman, who in 1750 became prime minister of Denmark under Frederic V., in which office he distin- guished himself as the patron of manufactures, commerce, and art. Under Christian VII. he was created a count, but was deprived of the offices he held at the instigation of Struensee; at whose death, however, he was reinstated. He emancipated the peasants on his estates, who in gratitude raised a monument to his memory, b. at Hanover, 1712; d. at Hamburg, 1772. Bebnstokff, Andrew Peter, Count of, nephew of the preceding, was educated at Leipsic and G^ttingen, and after travelling through Europe, became gentleman of the chamber to the king of Denmark. He was created count in 17(17, »nd in 1769 was appointed prime minister, 165 Berry when he ceded to Russia the Gottorp part of Holstein for Oldenburg and Delmcnhorst. He introduced a new system of finance, and pre- pared the abolition of villenage in Schleswig and Holstein ; he was also warmly opposed to any restriction of the liberty of the press, and his death was considered a public calamitv. B. 1735; D. 1797. Bebsstobff, Christian Gunthcr, son of the above, was appointed minister of foreign affairs in 1797, after his father's death ; but his conduct did not contribute to maintain the reputation of the family name. His obstinacy in persisting in arming Danish neutral merchant ships brought his country into collision with England, and led to the attack on Copenhagen. He was sub- sequently ambassador at Vienna and Berlin ; and finally renounced his country, and .joined the Prussian ministry in 1818, as chief foreign minister, and distinguished himself by his deter- mined opposition to the introduction of consti- tutional government in Germany, b. 1769; d. 1835. BEBNULr, or Beornwulph, bair-nulf, a king of Mercia, who, in 821, usurped the govern- ment on the death of Ceolwulf. He only held power for about a year, having been killed by the East Anglians in their efforts to throw off the Mercian yoke. Beboaldo, Filippo, bair , -o-awl'-do,Qor.sU\erci\ one of the greatest literary characters of his age, was born at Bologna in 1453, of a noble and opulent family. He was carefully educated, and became prolessor of belles lettrcs in the univer- sity of his native town. He wrote numerous works in elegant Latin, which extended to 40 volumes, n. 1505. Burquin, Arnauld, lair-kH, a French writer, who first distinguished himself by his idyls, which are full of sensibility and' sweetness, but whose principal work is his "Ami des Enfans" (The Children's Friend), which the French Academy declared to be the most useful book that had been published during the year. He translated from the English, "Sandford and Merton," and several other interesting and wholesome books for youth, b. at Bordeaux, 1749: D. at Paris, 1791. Berk, Frederick, hair, an eminent French musician, who at the age of sixteen, became bandmaster of a r< giment of the lino, was professor of the clarionet at the Conservatoire at Paris, and a member of the Legion of Honour. He wrote 500 original pieces of mili- tary instrumental music, besides several arrange- ments and solos, especially for the clarionet, which are highly esteemed as some of the finest music for that instrument in existence, b. ;it Mannheim in 1794; d. 1838. Bebet, or Berbi, bair-re, the title born h .' several princes of the royal family of France, at various periods of the history of that country. none of whom, however, were particularly dis- tinguished for either ability or virtue. Two of the dukes of Berry — John, son of John II. of France, and Charles, son of Charles VII.— took part, from ambitious and selfish motives, in the wars which desolated France in the 13th and 14th centuries, and generally known as the wars of the Burgundians and Armagnaes, and those between Charles the Bold of Burgundy and the crafty Louis XI. Bebet, Sir John, ber'-e, an English naval commander, who first distinguished himself at the battle of Southwold Bay, for which he was THE DICTIONARY Berry knighted. In 1682 he commanded the Glou- cester frigate, in which James, duke of York, was proceeding to Scotland ; and when that vessel was wrecked at the mouth of the Hum- ber, he, by his presence of mind, saved the prince, with many about him. On the prince of Orange's approach, in 1698, Sir John Berry became sole commander of the fleet; but on William I II.'s accession to the throne, he attached himself to his government, and so retained his appointments and influence. He was poisoned while paying off a king's ship. b. in Devonshire, 1635 ; d. at Portsmouth, 1691. Bebby, Caroline Ferdinande Lonise, Duchess de, bair-re', the daughter of Ferdinand I., king of Naples -and Sicily, was married to the Duke de Berry, the second son of Charles X. The duke was assassinated on a Sunday, whilst hand- ing the duchess to a carriage as she came out of the opera-house. She passed through a variety of troubles, and in 18*), after the second French revolution, accompanied Charles X. to Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh. In 1832 a movement in La Vendue took place in her favour. She was under hiding in Nantes, when, being betrayed by a converted Jew, she was found in a small hole behind a stove, where she had been inclosed for sixteen hours, and was carried to the castle of Blaye. In 1833 she was released, having m:uricd a son of the prince of Luechesi-Palli, with whom she retired to Sicily, b. at Naples, 179S. Berrykb, Pierre Antoiue, bair'-re-ai, a dis- tinguished French advocate and pleader, who, in 1815, assisted in the defence of the generals who followed Napoleon I. to Waterloo. From that period he rose to great eminence as a defender of order and an asserter of the liberties of his country. He unsuccessfully defended Louis Napoleon on his trial for landing at Boulogne, and in 1858 was engaged for the defence of the count de Montalembert, when that nobleman was proceeded against by the French government for certain alleged libellous expressions contained in his celebrated article in the " Correspondant " newspaper, " A Debate in the English Parliament on India." 31. Bcrryer was a legitimist in politics — or rather had a chi- valrous respect for the race of the ancient kings of France; but has all through life been distinguished for the moderateness of his views and his opposition to tyranny and despotic rule. In 1830, he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies by the Haute Loire, and was the ornament, but never the tool, of his party. He did not follow the Bourbons into exile after the revolution of 1830, but remained in France to act as a centre for the action of the friends of the dynasty. Since the coup d'etat of the 2nd of December, 1851, which placed all but despotic power in the hands of Louis Napoleon, M. Berryer has taken little part in politics, except- ing to use hi 1 * influence to effect a reconciliation of the two branches of the French Bourbons. He was elected amemberof the French Academy in 1855, and in his inauguration address made certain allusions which were offensive to the government, and the publication of the oration was suppressed. The interdict, however, was removed within twenty-four hours. In 1800-61, he was engaged in the famous Patterson- I'ona- parte cause; and on the anniversary of his fiftieth year at the bar, was entertained at a splendid banquet by his confreres of all shades of opinion, b. in Paris, 1790; d. 1868. 166 Berwick Bebtaut, John, bair'-to, a French bishop and poet, whose first essays charmed the court of Henry III. He was mainly instrumental, with the cardinal of Penon, in the conversion of Henry IV., who gave him the rich abbey of Aunay, and he was named chief chaplain to 3Iarie de Medici on her marriage with the French monarch. In 1606 he was made bishop of Seez. His poems were printed at Paris in 1620 ; and besides these he wrote several theolo- gical pieces, b. at Caen, 1552 ; d. 1611. Bekthier, Alexander, bair'-te-ai, one of the marshals of Napoleon 1., prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, and vice-constable of France. He first served in the American War of Independ- ence, under Lafayette, and at the commence- ment of the French revolution was made a general. He behaved with great bravery in La Vendee, and was at the head of Napoleon's staff in Italy, Egypt, and Germany. Indeed, he occupied the first place in the confidence of the emperor, and was with him in all his expeditions. In 1814 he submitted to the new regime and was created a peer ; but when the emperor escaped from Elba, he retired to his family at Bamberg, where he shortly afterwards com- mitted suicide by throwing' himself from the third story of his palace, b. 1753 ; d. 1815. Berthollet, Claude Louis, bair'-tol-ai, one of the most eminent chemists of his day, who, with Lavoisier, Fourcroy, and Guyton de Mor- veau, planned a new chemical nomenclature, wh'ch, with all its drawbacks, was found of csscni/.sl service tochemical science. He accom- panied Napoleon I. in his Egyptian expedition; and on his return became a senator and an officer of the Legion of Honour. On the fall of the emperor, however, he was among the first to desert him; and Louis XVIII. conferred on him the title of count. His greatest work is " Essai de Statique Chimique ;" but he wrote a great number of memoirs and other scientific essays, b. at Talloire, in Savoy, 1748; d. 1822. Bertics, Peter, bair'-te-oos, a Flemish geo- grapher, who became professor of philosophy at Leyden, which office he lost for being an Arminian. He then went to Paris, joined the Komish church, and was made cosmographcr to Louis XIII., and professor of mathematics. b. at Baveren, 1565; d. 1629. — His best works are "Theatrum Geographiie Veteris," and an "Introduction to Universal Geography." Bkbwick, James Fitz-James, duke of and marshal, ber'-ik, was the illegitimate son of James II. of England, by Arabella Churchill, sister of the celebrated John Churchill, duke of 3Iarlborough. Berwick was educated in France, joined the imperial army, and fought undor the duke of Lorraine in Hungary. He was created duke of Berwick by his father in 1687; and on the expulsion of James from England, accom- panied him into exile. He was present at the battle of the Boyne, and in 1690 was named commander-in-chief of his father's Irish army. He subsequently joined the French army, at- tempted in 1696 to excite an insurrection in England, and is said to have been cognizant of Barkly's plot to assassinate William III. He afterwards distinguished himself in sup- pressing the religious wars in the south of France, gained high reputation in the war of the Spanish succession, defeating, in 1706, the carl of Stanhope at Almanza, thereby seating Philip V. on the Spanish throne. He was created a Spanish grandee for his services, was OF BIOGRAPHY. Beraelius made duke of Liria and Xerica; and was from that time reckoned one of the ablest generals of the day, the French government entrusting him with a variety of important commands, in all of which he acquitted himself with ability. He was killed by a cannon-ball on the 12th of June, 1731, before the walls of Philipsburg, on the Rhine, the siege of which had been under- taken by his advice. The duke of Berwick was twice married : first, in 1695, to a daughter of the Earl of Clanriearde ; and, second, to a lady named Bulkeley, in 1699. From the first mar- riage the dukes of Liria, in Spain,are descended; from the second sprung the dukes of Fitz- Janies in France, u. at Moulins, 1670. Bekzelics, Jons Jacob, ber-ze'-le-us, a dis- tinguished Swedish chemist, whose powers as an analyst were considered perfect. He rose to the highest honours in his native country, and, in 1838, the Royal Society of London awarded him the Copley medal. He was a member of almost all the learned societies in the world ; and at his death the members of the scientific societies of his native country wore mourning for two months out of respect for his memory b. at Wasersunda, Fast Gothland, 1779 ; d. at Stockholm, 1848. Bessbl, Frederick William, be»'-$el, an emi- nent Prussian astronomer, who, in 1810, becan.e director of an observatory erected by the kinj, of Prussia at Konigsberg. Here he pursued his labours uninterruptedly, and in 1818 produced his " Fundamenta Astronomioe," a work which struck the greatest philosophers with amaze- ment, and placed his reputation on the highest pinnacle of scientific renown. He produced many other works, and was elected a member of the most celebrated learned societies of the world, b. at Minden, 1784 ; d. 1846. Bessieres, Jean Baptiste, be$'-ie-air, one of the marshals of Napoleon I., and created by that emperor duke of Istria. He distinguished himself in many memorable battles, and at Marengo led the final charge which decided the fate of the day. He defeated Kutusoff at Olmutz, and at Jena, Friedland, and Eylau displayed the most consummate skill in handling his troops. For his conduct in the Peninsula, he was, in 1809, made duke of Istria, and at the battle of Eslingen, in Germany, he worsted the division of the Austrian general Hohenzollern. In the Russian expedition, he was commander of the cavalry of the Guard, and in 1813 commanded the whole of the French army in Germany. On the morning before the battle of Lutzen, Bes- sieres fell, struck by a bullet in the breast, and for some time his death was kept a secret from the army. b. at Preissac, near Cahors, 1768 ; killed 1813. Bessus, bes'-us, a Persian satrap of Bactria, who at first aided Darius against Alexander of Macedonia, but when the affairs of the Persian monarch became desperate, Bessus put him to death, and assumed the title of king ; but he fell into the hands of Alexander two years after, was given up to the successor of Darius, and put to death with much cruelty. Betakcos, Domingo dc, be-tan'-so, a Spanish missionary, wht>, after having spent some years as a hermit in a cave on the island of Poma, near Naples, went to South America on a mis- sion to the natives, and there spent a large portion of his life, displaying throughout a simplicity and purity of life somewhat unusual with the Spanish clergy of the period. It was 167 Bethlen at his instigation that Pope Paul III. issued the bull forbidding the persecution of the native Mexicans, on the ground that they really were of the same blood as the Spaniards, and that their destruction was not at all necessary to the glory of St. James and the spread of Chris- tianity. Betancos returned to Spain in July, 1549, and died a month afterwards. Betham, Sir William, beth'-am, an eminent antiquary and genealogist, was made Deputy Keeper of Records at Dublin in 1802, and about eight years after, became Ulster king-of-arms. He spent his life in abstracting, arranging, and indexing the documents, &c, which had come under his observation. He amassed several hundreds of volumes of valuable infor- mation of this description, together with a large collection of rare and precious MSS. In 1826-7, he published a work, entitled " Irish Anti- quarian Researches j" in 183-1, " The Origin and History of the Constitution of England, and of the Early Parliaments of Ireland •*' and the " Gaol and Crime ;" in 1842, " Etruria Celtiea " appeared, in which he maintained the identity of the Hiberno-Celtic, Etruscan, and Phoenician languages, b. at Stradbroke, Suffolk, in 1779; d. suddenly near Dublin, from an affection of the heart, October 26, 1853. Bethencourt, John de, bai'-ten-koor, a Nor- man baron, who was chamberlain to Charles VI., king of France, and being ruined in the war with England, sought to repair his fortunes in foreign countries, and made a descent from Spain on the Canary Isles, in 1402. Not having sufficient force, however, he returned, and obtained reinforcements from Henry III. of Castile, with which he was successful, and be- came governor of the islands as a fief of Spain. He converted the greater portion of the Canaries to Christianity, the native king of the islands being baptized under the name of Louis. In the year 1406 he returned to Normandy, where he passed the remainder of his days. d. 1425. Bethell, Sir Richard, Lord Westbury, beth- el, an eminent English lawyer, was born at Bradford, Wiltshire, in 1800, his father being Dr. Bethell, a physician of Bristol, and de- scended from an ancient Welsh family. Bethell was called to the bar by the Middle Temple benchers in 1823; was made Q.C.in 1840; was returned to Parliament for Aylesbury in 1852 ; in 1853 was appointed solicitor-general ; in 1856, attorney-general ; and in 1851 was selected by Lord Palmcrston to succeed Lord Campbell as Lord High Chancellor, when he was raised to the house of Peers by the title of Baron West- bury. His lordship is especially famous as a chancery lawyer, is an earnest advocate of law reform, an able debater, and had the chief share in accomplishing' the change in the law which led to the establishment of the Court of Pro- bate and Matrimonial Causes, presided over by Sir Crcsswell Cresswell. His latest achieve- ment is the reform of the bankruptcy laws, which he several times proposed, and only succeeded in passing in a modified form. Bethlen, Gabriel, Prince of Transylvania, baith-len, one of the most distinguished men of his time, as well for high character, enlightened views and firmness, as for ability. He was a stanch friend of toleration in religion, which he allowed to all sects in his state ; and deter- minedly resisted the persecuting tendencies of Ferdinand II. of Germany, whom he defeated in many battles, and compelled to sign treaties THE DICTIONARY Bethuno securing toleration in Hungary and elsewhere, Bethlen was elected king of the Hungarians in 1620, but declined to be crowned, satisfied with securing freedom to the country under the treaty of Nikoloburg, concluded in 1621. He never lost a battle, was a mediator between the Emperor and the Turks, and when he died in 1629, left Transylvania in a high state of prosperity, b. 1580. Bethuhe, Alexander and John, beth'-une, two brothers born in the humblest rank of life in Fifeshire, Scotland, who lived in a rude cot- tage built by themselves, received no education save what they taught themselves, struggled hard with poverty through life, but are famous in death by their joint literary productions, such as the " Tales and Sketches of the Scottish Peasantry," *' Practical Economy," poems, songs, &c, which they wrote in common, and which were published in two volumes. Alexander was born in 1804, and died in 1843 ; John was born in 1810, and died in his 30th year. Bktis, be'-tis, governor of Gaza, for Darius, which city he courageously defended against Alexander the Great, who, after taking it, put him to death, and dragged his corpse at his chariot wheels, b.c. 332. Betterton, Thomas, bet-er-ton, an English Tragedian, born in the month of August, 1635, in Tothill-street, Westminster, being the son of an under-cook in the household of Charles I. He, however, received a good education, conceived a liking for the stage, was brought out by Sir William Davenant, and attained to the reputa- tion of being the best actor of his day. He was especially famous for his rendering of Shak- speare, Ms Othello, Hamlet, Macbeth, Hotspur, and Brutus being deemed perfection. In 1695, he opened a theatre of his own, but failed in secur- ing success, although Congreve wrote for him ; and he died in reduced circumstances in 1710. Beust, Frederick Ferdinand, Baron von, boost, an eminent statesman, born at Dresden, Janu- ary 13, 1809. After serving as secretary of the Saxon legation at Berlin and Paris, and holding various diplomat ic post s at Munich and London , he became minister of foreign affairs for Saxony in 1849, and in 1853, minister of the interior. He was the representative of the Germanic Dict,at the Conference of London in 1861. At the close of the war between Prussia and Aus- tria in 1866, he transferred his services to the latter, becoming minister of foreign affairs, and, in 1867, president of the council. He has in- augurated judicious reforms in the government of Austria and Hungary, and has shown himself a sincere promoter of civil and religious liberty. Beveridge, William, bev'-er-idj, an eminent bishop and theological writer, who at the age of eighteen wrote a treatise on the excellence and use of the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, and Samaritan tongues, with a Syriac grammar. In 1660 he was ordained, and soon after presented to the vicarage of Ealing, in Middlesex, which he resigned on being chosen rector of St. Peter's, Cornhill. His earnestness and diligence were so unwearied, that he was called " the restorer and reviver of primitive piety;" and his parish was referred to as a model of Christian re- gularity and order. He was successively pre- bendary of St. Paul's, archdeacon of Colchester, and prebendary of Canterbury. In 1704 he was preferred to the see of St. Asaph, in which he behaved &i an apostolical prelate. His works, which are very numerous, and are highly 168 Beza esteemed, were published complete in 9 volumes 8vo, in 1824. b. at Barrow, in Leicestershire, 1638; d. at Westminster in 1703 . Beverley, John of, beo'-er-le, an English ecclesiastic, who was one of the first scholars of his age and tutor to the Venerable Bcde. lie embraced the monastic life, and became abbot of St. Hilda, till Alfred, king of Northumber- land, made him bishop of Hexham, whence, in 687, he was translated to York, which see ho held for upwards of thirty-three years. In 7ol'ue founded a college for secular priests at Beverley. b. at Harpham" York ; d. at Beverley, 721. So highly was he venerated, that when William the Conqueror ravaged the north, he ordered that the town of Beverley should be spared for his sake. Beverningk, Jerome va.i, bai-vair-neenk, a Dutch statesman, who was one of the most skilful diplomatists of his day, and obtained the cognomen of the "Pacificator." He concluded the peace between England and Holland in 1654 ; and was successfully employed in various other negotiations, the chief of which was the treaty of Nimeguen, in 1678. He was, besides, a celebrated botanist, and on account of his scientific acquirements, was named curator of the University of Lcyden. b. at Tergau, 1614 ; d. at Leyden, 1690. Bewick, Thomas, bu'-iJc, an English artist, who, from his spirited illustrations of his " His- tory of Quadrupeds," imparted the first impulse to the art of wood-engraving, which has now attained to such a high state of perfection. He, in conjunction with his brother, illustrated nu- merous other works, and deservedly rose to considerable celebrity, b. at Cherryburn, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in 1753; d. 1828. Beyle, Marie Henri, baile, a French no- velist, poet, and publicist, was born at Gren- oble in 1783, and died at Paris in 1812. He published his early works anonymously, and practised much mystification to conceal his name. One of his books was reviewed and praised in the " Edinburgh Review," an extract being given to justify the commendation, which passage was subsequently discovered to have been taken from the pages of the Review itself. Besides literature, Beyle was engaged in almost every conceivable occupation — he was a farmer, a merchant, a diplomatic agent, a confidential instrument of Napoleon I., a consul, a writer of public documents, was in the army, in the civil service — "everything by turns, and nothing long." Beza, Theodore, bai'-za, a learned divine, and one of the chief reformers of his age, was edu- cated for the bar at Orleans, and there, alter a youth of dissipation, imbibed the principles of the Reformed religion, retired to Geneva, and shortly after was appointed to the Greek pro- fessorship at Lausanne. After residing there about ten years, he became assistant to Calvin in the church and university of Geneva, which had just been founded. Some time afterwards he went to Navarre by desire of the king, to assist at a conference held with the Catholic di- vines, where he displayed his eloquence to great advantage, converting to Protestantism " King Henry of Navarre." In the war between the Ca- tholics and the Huguenots, he accompanied the prince of Cond6, and was present at the battle of Dreux. In 1563 he returned to Geneva, and in the following year, on the death of Calvin, was every- where regarded as the head of the reformers. OF BIOGRAPHY. Bezout In 1571 he went to France, and presided at the synod of Rochelle, where all the churches of the reformed religion were represented; and he ceased not till his death to work most zealously towards the propagation of his doctrines, b. at Vezelai, Burgundy, 1519; d. 1605. — The prin- cipal works of Beza are a " Translation of the Psalms of David into French Verse," a " His- tory of the French Reformed Churches," and a new translation of the New Testament. A Greek MS. of the New Testament which once belonged to Beza is now in the University library at Cambridge. Bezout, Stephen, bai-zoo(t), a French mathe- matician, who was a member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1763 he was appointed by M. de Choiseul examiner of the marines and the pupils of the artillery corps. lie wrote a course of mathematics for the use of the navy, with a treatise on navigation ; another course of ma- thematics for the corps of artillery, a general theory of algebraic equations, and other es- teemed works, b. at Nemours, 1730; d. in lc Gatinais, 1783. Bianchi, Francesco Ferrari, be-awn'-ke, an Italian painter, whose works are not of much importance ; but he is worthy of notice as being the reputed master of Correggio. b. at Mo- dena, 1117; d. 1510. Bianchi, Peter, an Italian painter, who was celebrated for the comprehensiveness of his style; painting with equal facility historical subjects, landscapes, portraits, sea-pieces, and animals, as well in oil as distemper, n. at Home, 169-1; r>. 1740. There are other Italians of this name, which signifies "white." Bianchini, Francis, be-awn-lce'-ne, an Italian astronomer and antiquary, who at an early age went to Home, where he enjoyed the favour of Pope Alexander VIII. and his successors, being employed in several important scientific mis- sions. He was Alexander's librarian, and was secretary of a commission charged with the re- form of the calendar. He also erected a dial on a very large scale in the church of St. Mary of the Angels, drew a meridian line through Italy, improved many astronomical instruments, and discovered the spots on the planet Venus. His principal works are "Universal History," in Italian, and " Observations circa Planetam Veneris." b. at Verona, 1662; ». at Rome, 1729. Biaed, Peter, be'-ar, a French sculptor and architect, who executed many excellent pieces, the chief of which is the equestrian statue of Henry IV., placed over the grand entrance to the Hotel de Ville, Paris, b. at Paris, 1559; d. 1609. Biard, Anguste Francois, a distinguished French artist, whose paintings of "Crossing the Line" and " The Slave Trade " have made him as well known in England as in France. In 1832 his picture of a " Family of Mendicants" gained him the prize of a gold medal at the Paris Exliibition. He has exercised his genius on a vast number of subjects, and has attained very high celebrity, b. at Lyons, 1800. Bias, it"-d», one of the seven wise men of Greece, who devoted himself to the study of philosophy, and practised what he learnt. He took an active part in public affairs, and made good use of the ample fortune he possessed. After the defeat of Croesus, liias recommended the lonians to settle in Sardinia ; hut they would not listen to him, and were subsequently subju- 169 Bickersteth gated by the generals of Cyrus. The inhabitants of Pricne, his native town, alone resolved to leave, and take their household goods with them ; and, seeing that Bias was unencumbered, asked "why he was not saving something?" to which he replied, " All my goods I carry with me." b. at Priene, about 570 b. c. Bibbiena, Bernard, beeb'-be-ai'-naw, a Roman cardinal, who entered into the service of the Medici family, and was made cardinal by Leo X., who employed him on several important missions. Aspiring to the papacy, he is said to have excited the pope's jealousy, and is supposed to have been poisoned. Bibbiena wrote a famous comedy called " Calandra," which is still in re- pute among the Italians, b. at Bibbiena, 1170; d. 1520. Bibbiena, Ferdinando Galli, a very skilful Italian painter and architect, one of the most eminent artists of his day. He introduced a new form in the building of theatres, and was the inventor of theatrical decorations. He went to Barcelona, on the marriage of the archduke of Austria, to superintend the fetes, and was named by him, when emperor, superintendent of the court fetes at Vienna. He wrote on architecture, perspective, and theatrical decoration, b. at Bologna, 1657; d. blind, 1745. Bibliander, Theodore, beeb'-le-an'-dtr, a Protestant divine, whose real name was Iluch- mann, and who became professor of divinity at Zurich, after Zwingle's death. He published a translation of the Koran, with a life of Moham- med, and commentaries on the Scriptures, b. at Bisehoffzell, 1504; d. at Zurich, of the plague, 1564. BiBULtrs, Marcus Calpurnius, bib'-u-lus, con- sul of Rome at the same time with Ca?sar. Op- posing at first the agrarian measures proposed by his colleague, he saw that his resistance was useless, and took no further part in the public affairs. The wits of Rome were accustomed to designate that period as the year of the consu- late of Caius and Julius Ca;sar, alluding to Cicsar's two names. ». about 40 B.C. Bickerstaff, Isaac, bik , -er-staf,thc author of a number ot light comedies and musical pieces, produced under the management of Garrick. His " Love in a Village" and his " Maid of the Mill" for a long time held possession of the stage, b. in Ireland, 1735; d. on the continent in obscurity. BicnAT, Marie Francois Xavier, be'-sha, a celebrated French physiologist, who, at the age of 29, was appointed physician to the Hotel- Hieu at Paris. He, at the same time, was engaged in the duties of a professorship, and, surrounded by pupils, still pursued laborious anatomical researches, and published some great works. His health failed, however, under these numerous occupations, and he died in 1802. b. at Thoirette, near Uourg, 1771. — A statue was erected to his memory at llourg. Bickersteth, Edward, bik'-er-stelh, a clergy- man of the evangelical section of the Church of England, many years secretary to the Church Missionary Society, was originally a lawyer, but in 1815 obtaining priest's and deacon's orders from the bishop of Norwich, went to Africa as a missionary ; he returned to England the following year, and was at once appointed mis- sion secretary. This office he held for fifteen years, when he retired to the rectory of Walton, Herts, where he died after several weeks' illness on the 28th of February 1850. b. at Kirkbv- THE DICTIONARY Bickersteth Ijonsdale, Westmoreland, in 1786. Mr. Bicker- Bteth published a vast number of works on re- ligious subjects, and was held in great respect by the church generally, but especially by the particular section of it to which it belonged. Bickersteth, Henry .baronLangdaleof Lang- dale, was born at Kirkby-Lonsdale, in 1783, waa called to the bar in 1811, became king's counsel and bencher of the Inner Temple in 1827, and was treasurer of the society in 1836. In the latter year he succeeded Lord Cottenham as master of the rolls, and was called to the H ouse of Peers and made a privy councillor. He devoted much attention to the reform of the court of Chancery, his exertions in connexion with which so impaired his hcnlth, that he was unable to accept the otfer of the chancellorship made to him on the resignation of Lord Cottenham in 1850. r>. at Tunbridge Wells in 1851, having continued to discharge his official duties to with- in a month of his death. Biddle, John, bid'-el, usually denominated " The father of English Unitarianism," because he revived the system of belief so called, was bom in Gloucestershire in 1615, studied at Ox- ford, was admitted to orders, and appointed master of the free school of St. Mary Crypt, Glou- cester. His heretical opinions, however, getting him into trouble with the magistrates, he was committed to gaol, tried before a committee of the House of Commons at Westminster, and con- tinued in confinement for five years ; a paper of his called "Twelve Arguments," published in his defence, having been ordered to be burnt by the common hangman. His death even was demanded, but this Cromwell refused to allow. At length, in 1651, he was discharged, and esta- blished a society of his adherents in London, where he published a number of pieces from time to time, till 1655, when he got into fresh trouble, and was banished to the Scilly islands, where he remained five years. After the Re- storation he was less mildly treated than under Cromwell's sway, for he was fined and committed to prison, where he died in five weeks, on the 22nd of September, 1662. Bidloo, Godfrey, beed'-loo, a celebrated anato- mist, who was successively professor of anatomy at the Hague and at Leyden, and afterwards be- came physician to William III. His writings are numerous, but his best work is a folio volume of anatomical plates published in 1CS5. B. at Amsterdam, 1619; d. at Leyden, 1713. Biela, William, Baron von, bee-ai'-Ia, a PJus- sian nobleman, born at Stolberg, March 19, 1782. He entered the Austrian service, and acquired some reputation as an astronomer, discovering, in 1 826, the comet which bears his name. d. 1856. Biezelixgen, beez' -ling-en, Christian Jans van, a Dutch portrait-painter, whose portrait of William prince of Orange, the opponent of Philip II. of Spain, after his assassination, was considered a better likeness than any taken during his lifetime. B. at Delft, 1558; d. 1600. BiGifON, Jerome, been'-yatcng, a French writer and statesman, who became preceptor to the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. At the age of ten years he wrote a description of the Holy Land, and at fourteen an account of the prin- cipal antiquities of Rome. When only thirty- one years old, he was made advocate-general in the grand council, and, some time after, the king appointed him counsellor of state, and advocate- general in the parliament. The next year he was made king's librarian. His learning 170 Bink was said to be so great, that there was no branch of human knowledge in which he was not pro- foundly versed, b. at Paris, 1589 ; d. 1656. Biluerdtk, Willem, beet-dair-dike, one of the most eminent litterateurs of Holland. His works embrace poetry, prose, and translations from the Greek classics, b. at Amsterdam, 1756; b. at Haarlem, 1831. Eillauxt, Augustus Adolphus Marie, beel'- oult, a French politician, who, in Louis Philippe's reign, at first supported the policy of M. Thiers, but afterwards opposed that minister, and also M. Guizot. At the revolution of 184S he joined the Socialist party, and subsequently attached himself to thelortunes of Louis Napoleon. After the coup-d'etat of December 2, 1851, he was made president of the legislative body, and en the institution, in 1861, of " speaking ministers," or ministers without portfolios, he was ap- pointed, with M. Baroche for a colleague, to answer for the government in the chambers on all questions, b. at Vannes, 1805; r>. 1863. Billingsley, Sir Henry, bil'-lings-le, an emi- nent mathematician, who was educated at Ox- ford; after which he was bound apprentice to a haberdasher in London. He acquired a large fortune, and became successively sheriff, alder- man, and in 1596 lord mayor, when he was knighted. He received into his house White- head, an expelled friar, from whom he learned mathematics, in which he became remarkably skilled. Sir Henry was the first who published Euclid's Elements in English, with annotations drawn from the MSS. of his master. This was in 1570. d. 1606. Bilsoit, Thomas, bit-son, a learned prelate, who was educated at Winchester School, cf which he afterwards became master, prebendary of the cathedral there, and warden of the college. In 1585 he published a treatise on the " Difference between Christian Subjection and Unchristian Rebellion," dedicated to Queen Elizabeth ; and in 1593 another, on the " Perpetual Government of Christ's Church," one of the most able trea- tises in favour of episcopacy ever written. In 1596 he was made bishop of Worcester, and the following year was translated to Winchester. In 1604 he published a famous book, on "Christ's Descent into Hell; " and in the same year was one of the managers at the Hampton-court con- ference. He had also a share in the authorized translation of the Bible, b. at Winchester, 1536 ; d. at Westminster, 1616. Bingham, Joseph, bhig'-ham, a learned divine, who was elected a fellow of University College, Oxford, in 1689, and became one of the college tutors. In 1695 he delivered a sermon on the doctrine of the Trinity, which raised such a party against him, that ho was compelled to resign his fellowship and retire to the rectory of Headboume-worthy, in Hampshire, to which he was presented by Dr. Radciifi'e, the most celebrated physician of his day. Here he began the "Origines Ecclesiastical," which was com- pleted in 1772, in 10 vols. 8vo. and 2 vols, folio, and which is one of the most celebrated eccle- siastical works in the English language. In 1712 Bishop Trelawny gave him the rectory of Ha- vant, near Portsmouth, b. at Wakefield, 1663; D. at Headboume-worthy, 1723. Bink, Jacob, benk, a famous old German en- graver and painter, who was ranked among what were called the "little masters," was born at Cologne, about 3500, and lived some time in Nuremberg, and has hence been thought by OF P.TOGJJAPHY.. Bion some to have been a native of that city. He was a pupil, as is believed, of Albert Diirer, and engraved a vast number of plates, but as he seldom put his name in full to his works, but only his initials, J. B., which were likewise those uf several other artists of his time, it is difficult to fix definitely whether many pieces attributed to him are really his or not. ». about 1530 or 15G3. Bion, bi'-on, a Greek bucolic poet, who was a contemporary of Theocritus and Mosehus. He wrote some idyls, which are nurked by great taste, and which have been translated into several languages, b. at Smyrna. Flourished in the 3rd century B.C. Bion, a philosopher and sophist of Borysthe- nes, in Scythia, who rendered himself famous for his knowledge of poetry, music, and philo- sophy. D. 241 B.C. Biot, Jean Baptiste, be'-o, an eminent mathe- matician and natural philosopher of France, whose researches in connexion with the po- larization of light, procured him the award of the Rumford medal by the Royal Society of London in 1810. He was an extensive contri- butor to science, and a member of several of the leading learned societies of Europe, b. at Paris, 1774; d. 1362. Birague, Rene de, be'-ratcg, a Milanese of a noble family, who entered the French service, and became a favourite of Henry II., who gave him the government of the Lyonnais. Birague soon became a confidant of Catherine of Medici, and, under Charles IX., one of the principal in- stigators of the massacre of St. Bartholomew. By this monarch he was naturalized, and, in 1570, was appointed keeper of the seals, and, in 1573, chancellor. He entered into all the lollies and vices of the court of Henry III., and intro- duced the fashion of keeping the breed of small Maltese and Lyonuese dogs. On becoming a widower he took orders, and was made bishop of Lavaur, and then cardinal. He restored and magnificently endowed the church of St. Cathe- rine du Val des Ecoliers, at Paris, and erected close by a monumental fountain. Indeed, so lavish was he, that at his death, his only daughter was supported by alms. r». 1583. — He was a time-serving and unprincipled character. Biragce, Clement, a Spanish engraver, who Invented the art of engraving on diamonds. The first work he executed of this kind was a portrait of Don Carlos, son of Philip II. ; and he also engraved on a diamond the amis of Spain, to serve as a seal for that prince. Lived in the second half of the 16th century. Birch, Thomas, birch, an English divine, who was indefatigable in literary pursuits, and has left many valuable historical and biographical * works. He was designed by his parents, who were Quakers, for business ; but, at his earnest desire, was permitted to indulge his taste for literature. In 1730 he was ordained in the es- tablished Church, and was introduced to Lord Chancellor Hardwicke, to whom he principally owed his advancement. He was a fellow and secretary of the Royal Society, and a trustee of the liritish Museum, to which institution he bequeathed his library and MSS., and £500 towards increasing the stipends of the three assistant librarians. His principal work was " The General Dictionary, Historical and Criti- cal," in 10 volumes, which included a transla- tion of Baylc's; and, besides this, he wrote levcral other biographical and historical works. 171 Birger de Bielbd b. in London, 1705: d. by a fall from his horse, 1766. Birde, William, bird, an English musician, who was attached to the chapel royal of Ed- ward VI.; and, in the reign of Elizabeth, was organist of the queen's chapel. His composi- tions are numerous and ex:ellcnt, he being one of the principal contributors to Queen Eliza- beth's "Virginal Book," and the celebrated canon, " Nod. Nobis, Domine" is also generally ascribed to him. b. 1543; d. 1623. Bird, Edward, R.A., bird, an artist, who con- fined himself chiefly to comic subjects, but pro- duced many historical and religious pieces be- sides. He became historical painter to the Princess Charlotte of Wales, b. at Wolver- hampton, 1772; d. in Bristol, 1819 — His "Vil- lage Politicians" is a well-known picture. Bird, John, a famous mathematical instru- ment maker of the last century, was a native of the county of Durham, brought up to be a cloth- weaver. He subsequently turned his attention to making clock-dials, and gradually extended his operations, till he became one of the most eminent scientific mechanicians of his time. He constructed quadrants for Greenwich, Oxford, the Ecole Militaire at Paris, and various other places. He introduced great improvements in the method of dividing astronomical instru- ments, and in the construction of mural quad- rants, for which the commissioners of longitude gave him £500 on condition of his instructing an apprentice, and freely disclosing the methods he used. d. March 31, 1776, aged 67. Bird, Dr. Robert Montgomery, an American novelist, was born in 1803, and educated at Philadelphia. He first appeared as a writer of tragedies, and published the "Gladiator," "Ora- loosa," and " The Broker of Bogota." He then turned to romance, and in 1834 appeared "Cala- var, the Knight of the Conquest," a Mexican story; followed in rapid succession by "The Infidel, or the Fall of Mexico;" the " Hawks of Hawks' Hollow," "Nick of the Woods," "Peter Pilgrim," and " The Adventures of Robin Day," which appeared in 1839, after which Dr. Bird abandoned literature, and took to farming on an extensive scale. Biren, John Ernest, be'-ra, duke of Courland, was descended from a mean family in that country, and repaired in 1714 to St. Petersburg, where he ingratiated himself into the good graces of Anna, duchess-dowager of Courland, who made him her favourite; and, when she became empress of Russia, intrusted to him the administration of the kingdom. His conduct was arbitrary and cruel. Several noble families were reduced to ruin, and more than 20,000 persons were exiled by him to Siberia. In 1737 the empress compelled the nobles to choose him duke of Courland, where he governed in the like despotic manner. On the death of the empress he assumed the regency, by virtue of her will; but, in 1740, a conspiracy was formed against him by Marshal Munich, and ho was condemned to death, which sentence was changed to banish- ment. Peter III. recalled him, and Catherine II. restored him to his former dignity. In 1763 IJiren re-entered Mitau; and, profiting by the lessons of misfortune he had experienced, go- verned for the remainder of his life with mild- ness and justice, b. 1690; d. 1772. Birger de Bielbo, ber'-jcr-dui-beel'-bo, re- gent of Sweden, who married I ngeborg, daughter of King Eric le Begue, In 1236 he saved Lubeck, THE DICTIONARY Biringoccio which was besieged by the Danes, and subse- quently brought over to Christianity the inhabi- tants of Finland, whose incursions had desolated Sweden. At the death of Eric IX. he was named regent, and governed well and wisely till his death, in 1266. b. 1210.— It was he who founded the city of Stockholm. Uibinooccio, or Biringticci, Vannuccio, be'- ren-goi-che-o, an Italian mathematician, who was the first of his countrymen who wrote on the art of casting cannon, making gunpowder, and fireworks. His work, entitled " Pyrotech- nia," was printed at Venice, in 1540, 4to. Lived in the first half of the 16th century. Biekbeck, George, M.D., birk-bek, one of the greatest friends of the working classes of Eng- land, and an active promoter of every profes- sional or scientific pursuit which had for its aim public utility. In 1799 he became a lec- turer on natural and experimental philosophy in the Andersonian Institution of Glasgow. In 1804 he relinquished his professorship, and went to London, where he settled, and rapidly rose into eminence as a physician. He was the ori- ginator of the mechanics' institutions, and in 1823 presided at a meeting which had for its object the founding of the "London Mechanics' Institution." On the 15th December of the same year, he was elected president of that ins itu- tion, an office which he held to the time of his death, b. at Settle, in Yorkshire, 1776; d. in London, 1341. Bikkknheab, Sir Joh~ hirk'-en-hed, a poli- tical writer, who, in the civil war, conducted, in favour of the court, a periodical work, called "Mercurius Aulicus," and also wrote a number of pamphlets against the parliamentarians, when these were in power, for which he was several times imprisoned. At the Restoration he was knighted, and made master of requests ; and was a member of the Royal Society, b. at Northwich, Cheshire, 1615 ; d. at Westminster, 1679. Birow, Armand de Gontaut, baron de, be- rawing 1 , a celebrated French general, who was for some time page to Queen Margaret of Na- varre; and, afterwards entering the army, sig- nalized himself in the wars of Piedmont, under Marshal Brissac. He displayed great courage and prudence in the civil war, being present with the Catholic army at the battles of Dreux, St. Denis, and Moncontour, although he secretly favoured tlieHuguenot party, and saved several of his friends in the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew, in 1572. In 1577 he was made a marshal of France, and was dispatched by Henry III. to the Low Countries to succour the duke of Alen- con, but was defeated by the Duke of Parma. On the death of Henry III. he was one of the first to recognise Henry IV., and rendered great services to that prince at the battle of Arques and the attack on Paris, b. in Pe>igord, 1524; d. 1592, at the siege of Epernay, in Champagne. Biron, Charles de Gontaut, due de, son of th.3 above, was admiral and marshal of France, and is noted for the friendship which Henry IV. entertained fur him, and for his treason towards that monarch. He made his first essays in war under his father, and covered himself with glory at the battles of Arques and Ivry, and at the sieges of Paris and Rouen. The king loaded him with honours, and saved his life at the fight of Fontaine Francaise, and sent him am- bassador to England. Notwithstanding, how- ever, all these favours, Biron, swollen with 17 a Blaekburne pride, ambition, and avarice, entered into a conspiracy with Spain and Savoy against his sovereign ; and the plot being revealed by Lafin, who had been its instigator, he was beheaded. Henry endeavoured to make him avow his crime, with the view of pardoning him, but was unsuccessful in his magnanimous attempt. b. 1562; suffered 1602. Biscaino, Bartholomew, bes-kai'-no, an Ita- lian painter and engraver, the best of whose works are in the Dresden Gallery ; viz., the "Adoration of the Magi," the "Circumcision," and the " Woman taken in Adultery." b. at Genoa, 1632; d. 1657. Bischop, John van, bees'-kop, a Dutch de- signer and engraver, who, although following the profession of an advocate, executed a great number of prints, the most considerable of which is a set of plates for the " Paradigmata Gra- phices variorum Artificum." b. at the Hague, 1646 ; d. at Amsterdam, 16S6. Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, bish'-op, one of the best of our English musical composers, who re- ceived his musical tuition under Signor Bianehi ; and in the course of nearly twenty years, during which he was connected with Drury-lane or Covent-garden theatres, produced upwards of seventy operas, ballets, and musical entertain- ments. Many of his songs and glees are the most beautiful effusions in English melody, and by their qualities of animation, grace, and pa- thos, will, probably, long continue to please the ear. He relinquished composing for the stage in 1826, and in 1848 was elected professor of music at Oxford University, b. in London, 1780; d. 1855. — We may mention, as among his best works, "Guy Mannering," "The Slave," " The Virgin of the Sun," " The Barber of Se- ville," and " The Marriage of Figaro." Many of his arrangements are also extremely beautiful. BiSMABK-ScncENnAUSEN, Otto Edward Leo- pold, Count de, bees'-mark shem'-hou-seyi, a Prussian statesman, who, after spending many years in the diplomatic service of his country, became minister of foreign affairs in 180*2. After the aggressive war which Prussia and Austria carried on jointly against Denmark in 1861, Bismark, who had long wished to render Prussia supreme in Germany, found a pretext of declaring war against Austria, and after a campaign of seven weeks, in 1806, compelled that power to submit to exclusion from all par- ticipation in German affairs. In this war Bis- mark added Hanover and other independent states to Prussia, and raised his country to a po- sition to cope single-handed with France, b .181 1. Black, Joseph, blak, an eminent Scotch che- mist, who, in 1765, succeeded Dr. Cullen in the chemical chair at Edinburgh. He was the • author of several chemical works, and was the discoverer of latent heat, on which subject he issued a pamphlet ; but his researches princi- pally appeared in the " Philosophical Transac- tions of London," and in the "Memoirs of the Royal Society of Edinburgh." James Watt, the great improver of the steam-engine, was greatly indebted to the knowledge of Dr. Black, b. at Bordeaux, of Scotch parents, 1728 ; d. at Edin- burgh, 1799. Blackboubn, William, Milk-boom, an English architect, who obtained considerable reputation by his plans for the erection of penitentiary- houses and prisons, b. at Southwark, 1750; r>, 1790. Blacks ubkb, Francis, blak'-bum, an English OF BIOGRAPHY. Blaoklock divine, archdeacon of Cleveland, who wrote in favour of religious liberty, and was desirous of removing subscriptions to the Articles of the Church, and remodelling the liturgy so as to embrace every description of Protestant against the Papists. He leaned so much towards the dissenters, that the congregation of Dr. Chand- ler, on his death, invited him to become their minister, but he declined. His principal work is " The Confessional," which first brought him into notice, and a complete edition of his works was published in 1805, 7 vols. 8vo. b. at Kieh- mond, Yorkshire, 1705; d. 1787. Blacklock, Thomas, blak-lok, a Scotch di- vine and poet, was the son of a mason, and lost his sight by the small-pox in his infancy. In 1740 he was deprived of his father, who had been particularly attentive to his education; and Dr. Stephenson, a physician of Edinburgh, then placed him at the university, where he made considerable progress in the classics and sciences. In 1762 the earl of Selkirk procured for him a presentation to the church of Kirk- cudbright : but the appointment was violently opposed by the congregation on account of his blindness and the too great elevation and re- finement of his preaching. After two years' litigation, he resigned, and retired to Edin- burgh on a small annuity. His poems were pub- lished in 1754. b. at Annan, 1721; d. at Edin- burgh, 1791. — Dr. Blacklock was a friend of the poet Burns, some of whose poetical epistles are addressed to him. Blackstone, Sir William, blalc'-stone, a learned English judge, who, in 1738, was en- tered at Pembroke College, Oxford, and at the age of 20 composed a treatise on the elements of architecture. He also cultivated poetry, and obtained Mr. Benson's prize medal for the best verses on Milton. These pursuits, however, were abandoned for the study of the law, when he composed his well-known effusion, called " The Lawyer's Farewell to his Muse." In 1740 he was entered at the Middle Temple, and in 1743 chosen fellow of All-souls College. In 1749 he was appointed recorder of Wallingford, in Berkshire, and in the following year became LL.D., and published an " Essay on Collateral Consanguinity," occasioned by the exclusive claim to fellowships made by the founder's kin- dred at All-souls. In 1758 he printed " Con- siderations on Copyholders;" and the same year was appointed Vinerian professor of the common law, his lectures in which capacity gave rise to his celebrated "Commentaries." In 1759 he published " Reflections on the Opinions of Messrs. Pratt, Moreton, and Wilbraham," re- lating to Lord Lichfield's disqualification ; his lordship being then candidate for the chancel- lorship. The same year appeared his edition of " The Great Charter, and Charter of the Forest." Of this work it has been said that there is not a sentence in the composition that is not necessary to the whole, and that should not be perused. In 1701 he was made king's counsel, and chosen member of parliament for fliudon in Wilts. The same year he vacated h's feliowsliip by marriage, and was appointed principal of New-inn Hall. In 1763 he was ap- pointed solicitor-general to the queen, and bencher of the Middle Temple. In the next year appeared the first volume of his " Com- mentaries," which was followed by three others. Jt is upon these that his fame now principally vests; and, although opinion is divided as to 173 Blair the correctness and depth of the matter they contain, the beauty, precision, and elegance of their style have called forth universal admira- tion. In 1766 he reiigned his places at Oxford ; and in 176S was chosen member for Westbury, in Wiltshire. In 1770 he became one of the judges in the court of King's Bench, whence he removed to the Common Pleas. He now fixed his residence in London, and attended to the duties of his office with great application, until overtaken by death, b. in London, 1723; d. 1780. — The fundamental error in the " Com- mentaries" is thus pointed out by Jeremy Bentham. "There are two characters," says he, " one or other of which every man who finds anything to say on the subject of law may be said to take upon him, — that of the expositor, and that of the censor. To the province of the expositor it belongs to explain to us what he supposes the law is ; to that of the censor, to observe to us what he thinks it ought to be. Of these two perfectly distinguishable functions, the former alone is that which it fell necessarily within our author's province to discharge." Blackstone, however, makes use of both these functions throughout his work, and hence the confusion. His productions have found several translators on the continent. Blackwood, Sir Henry, blak'-wood, a brave British admiral, who entered the navy in his eleventh year, and was present at the engage- ment off the Dogger Bank. When hostilities began with the French in 1793, he was made first-lieutenant in the Inducible man-of-war; and when " the glorious 1st of June" of 1794 arrived, he fought with such gallantry that he was promoted to the rank of commander. In 1798 he became captain of the Brilliant, of twenty-eight guns ; and oft' the island of Tene- ritfe, defeated two French frigates, each of them nearly double his strength. He continued to be actively engaged till he was appointed to the Penelop°, of thirty-six guns, serving under Lords Keith and Nelson, Sir Sidney Smith, and other distinguished commanders. At Tra- falgar he was captain of the Euryalus, and was present at the death of the heroic Nelson, whose last words to him were, " God bless you, Black- wood, I shall never see you more." In 1806 he was appointed to the command of the Ajax, of eighty guns, which, on the night of the 14th of February, 1807, took fire, and went down, carrying half of her crew along with her. Sir Henry was saved with the greatest difficulty. He now com- manded the Warxpite, and continued through- out the war to be constantly employed against the enemy. In 1814 he was made captain of the fleet, and was deputed to convey to this country the allied sovereigns. On this occasion he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and made a baronet. In 1819 he became com- mander-in-chief of the naval forces in India, and in 1827 was elevated to the command at Chat- ham. B. 1770 ; D. 1832. Bladen, Martin, blai'-den, a lieutenant-colo- nel under the duke of Marlborough, to whom he dedicated a translation of " Caesar's Com- mentaries." He sat in five parliaments, and in 1715 was made comptroller of the Mint, and in 1717 commissioner of trade and plantations. d. 174$. — Besides translating the "Commenta- ries," he \v>as the author of " Orpheus and Fury- dice," a masque; and " Solon," a tragi-comedy. Blair, Robert, blair, an ingenious Scotch poet, and the minister of Athelstancford, i-.' THE DICTIONARY Blair East Lothian, Scotland. He is known to fame as being the author of " The Grave," in which is the often-quoted sentiment of "Angels' visits, few and far between." b. at Edinburgh, 1699; r. 1746. Blair, John, a learned Scotch chronologist, who, in 1754, published his " Chronological Tables," folio, which were well received, and reached a second edition in 176S. He subse- quently was appointed mathematical tutor to the duke of York, and in consequence obtained several church preferments, the principal of which was a prebend of Westminster, b. at Edinburgh ; d. 1782. — Sir Henry Ellis, principal librarian in the British Museum, edited an edi- tion of the Chronology of this author in 1844. Blair, Hugh, an eminent Scotch divine, was the son of a merchant of Edinburgh, where he received his education. While yet a student, he formed a comprehensive scheme of chrono- logical tables for his own use, which being com- municated to liis learned relative John Blair, mentioued above, were improved and extended by the latter into a work of great labour and value. In 1739 he took the degree of M.A., and in 1741 was licensed to preach. The year fol- lowing he was ordained to the parish of Coles- sie in Fife, and then to the charge of the Canon- gate church at Edinburgh, where he officiated till 1758, when he was removed to the High Church, which was the most important ecclesi- astical charge in Scotland. The university of St. Andrew's conferred on him, in 1757, the de> gree of D.D., and in 1759 he began a course of lectures ou rhetoric and belles-lettres, which were so much applauded, that in 1762 George III. endowed a professorship for him at Edin- burgh, with a salary of £70 a year. In 1763 he wrote a dissertation on the poems of Ossian, in which he urged many ingenious observations in behalf of their authenticity. In 1777 a vo- lume of his sermons appeared, which attained so rapid a sale as to induce the author to pub- lish another volume in 1779, which was as well received as the former : and these were subse- quently followed by three volumes more. In 1780 he obtained a pension from the crown of £200 a year; and three years afterwards he quitted his professorship through infirmities; but his salary was continued to him for life, and an addition of £100 a year was made to his pension. At that time he published his lec- tures, which have had an immense circulation, and, as has been the case with his sennons, have been translated into various languages. B. at Edinburgh, 1718 ; r. 1800. Blake, Kobert, blaik, one of England's most skilful and intrepid naval and military comman- ders, was educated at Oxford, where, in 1617, he took the degree of B.A. In 1640 he represented Bridgewater in parliament, and at the beginning of the civil war took part with the Parliamenta- rians, and served under Colonel Fiennes at Bris- tol, when that town was taken by Prince Rupert. He afterwards assisted in taking Taunton by surprise, of which place he was made gover- nor, and in 1645 defended it against Goring with such bravery for two successive sieges, that he was publicly thanked and rewarded by Parlia- ment. In 1619 he was appointed commander of the fleet in conjunction with Deane and Popham; and soon afterwards sailed in search of Prince Rupert, whose fleet he blockaded in Kinsalc harbour. The prince afterwards es- caping to Lisbon, he was there followed by I 174 Blake Blake, who demanded leave of the king of Portugal to attack him, and, being refused, he took several of the Portuguese snips coming home from Brazil laden with treasure. During his absence Prince Rupert made sail to the Mediterranean, whither he was followed by Blake, who attacked him in the harbour of Malaga, and destroyed nearly the whole of his fleet. After this he returned to England with several prizes, again receiving the thanks of Parliament, by whom he was also made warden of the Cinque Ports. Soon after this he re- duced the Scilly Isles, Guernsey, and Jersey, for which he was again thanked by the House, and appointed one of the council of state. On the prospect of a war with the Dutch in 1652, he was appointed sole admiral of the fleet, and was attacked in the Downs by Van Tromp, who had 45 sail, whilst Blake had only 23. He fought, however, with such determination that the Dutch admiral was glad to retreat. In the November following, Van Tromp sailed into the Downs, with above 80 ships of war, and off the Goodwin sands, on the 29th of that month, an obstinate battle was fought between him and Blake, who had only half his force, and who was compelled to run with his shattered ships into the Thames. It was on this occasion that Van Tromp passed through the English Channel with a broom at his maintop, signify- ing that he had swept the sea of the English ships. In February, 1653, Blake was enabled to put to sea with 80 men of war, and oft' Cape la Hogue fell in with the Dutch, who had an equal number and 300 merchantmen under convoy. A most bloody engagement ensued, which lasted three days, and in which the Dutch lost 11 men of war and 30 merchant vessels, whilst the English lost only one ship. In June following the fleets of the belligerent admirals fought again off the Foreland ; and the Dutch, sustaining a severe defeat, barely saved themselves by taking refuge in the shallow waters of Calais. In 1654 Blake sailed into the Medi- terranean, where he demolished the castle of Tmiis because the dey refused to deliver up the English whom he held as captives. In 1656, a fleet under Blake was sent to blockade Cadiz, when some of the ships under his command in- tercepted and took some Spanish vessels laden with treasure. Blake having received informa- tion that more treasure ships lay at Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe, sailed thither, and notwithstand- ing the strength of the place, boldly went in, burnt the ships, and came out with compara- tively little loss, whilst the slaughter of the Spaniards was immense. For this he again received the thanks of Parliament, and was presented with a diamond ring worth £500. He soon afterwards returned to his station at Cadiz, but his ill health inspired him with a strong desire to return to England; and ac- cordingly he set sail for his native land, but died as his ship was entering Plymouth har- bour, August 17, 1657. His body was interred in Henry the Seventh's chapel, Westminster Abbey, whence it was removed at the Restora- tion, and buried in St. Margaret's churchyard. b. at Bridgewater, 1598. (See "Life," by \V. H. Dixon.) Blake, William, an extraordinary man, who was both a poet and an artist, and who declared his mission on earth to be, not gathering gold, "but to make glorious shapes, and express godlike sentiments." in his poetry the ideas OF EIOGKAPHY. Blanc are generally elevated and noble, the senti- ments benevolent and pure, though the versifi- cation is often inharmonious. He illustrated his own poems, both the verses and the pictures being etched on copper. His drawings are sometimes of a singularly mystic character, and there is little doubt that there was a vein of chronic insanity in his mind, for lie ultimately came to regard his imaginings as a species of spiritual realities. He illustrated Young's "Night Thoughts," Chaucer's "Canterbury Pilgrims," Blair's " Grave," and other works. Flaxinan and Blake were warm friends, and Charles Lamb considered him "one of the most extraordinary persons of the age." b, in London, 1757; D. 1827. Blanc, Louis, blong, a talented French po- litical and historical writer, who, in 1839, estab- lished a paper in Paris, called " La Revue de Progres," intended to be the organ of certain democratic and communistic sections then in existence in France. In 1840 his work on the " Organization of Labour " appeared, advocating the doctrine that men should labour for the community, rather than for themselves, and that they should be remunerated in accordance with their wants by a central government under a chosen administration. These principles en- joyed an ephemeral popularity even in England, which, however, was soon at an end. After the revolution of 1848 he was elected a member of the provisional government, and was princi- pally instrumental in abolishing the punish- ment of death for political offences. In the same year he was compelled to leave his coun- try, when lie took refuge in London, b. at Madrid, 1S12. — Louis Blanc has written a "His- tory of the Ten Years," 1S30-40; and "History of the French Revolution." He has likewise delivered lectures in London and elsewhere, on certain historical and soeial phenomena, and writes on English affairs in the "Temps," and other French journals and periodicals. Blanchabd, Laman, bUnch'-ard, a various and frequent contributor to English periodical literature. His first work was entitled the " Lyric Offering," which was published in 182S, and in 1831 he became editor of the " New Month! Magazine." He was afterwards editor of the " True Sun " newspaper, and was subse- quently on the staff of several other papers, and at his death assisted in conducting the " Ex- aminer." b. at Great Yarmouth, 1803. Put an end to his life in London, 1815. Blanchakb, Jacques, blong-sliar, a French anist, who attained to great perfection as a colo- rist, and has hence been called the Titian of France, but whose death at the early age of SS frustrated the hopes entertained of him, was born at Paris in 1600, and died in 163;*. The majority of his works are on religious sub- jects, and of small size, though with the figures of life dimensions. Blanche of Castile, blansh, queen of France, was the daughter of Alphonso IX., king of Cas- tile, and in 1200 married Louis VIII. of France, by whom she had nine sons and two daughters. On the death of her husband in 1220, she became regent, her son Louis (afterwards Louis IX.) being only twelve years old. In this position, aided by Cardinal Romain, she acted with firmness and prudence, and defeated several attempts made against her and the government. The educiition of the young king she sedulously promoted, and he was early 176 Blessington married to the daughter of the count of Pro- vence. During the expedition of St. Louis to the Holy Land, she also governed the kingdom with great discretion; but the news of his defeat and imprisonment so affected her spirits, that she died in 1252. b. 1181.— Blanche was equally noted for her beauty as her wisdom. Thibaut, count of Champagne, was greatly enamo'ired of her, and sang her charms in his verses. Bland, Rev. Robert, bland, an eminent scholar and poet, was born at London, in 1779. He studied at Cambridge, was an assistant muster at Harrow, and afterwards curate of Kenilworth. He published two vols, of original poems, en- titled " Edwy and Elgiva," " The Four Slaves of Cythera," and was the author of a work on the " Elements of Latin Hexameters and Penta- meters," which has gone through several editions. He is best known, perhaps, for his translations and commentaries on the Greek minor poets, some of which he executed in con- junction with Mr. Merivale, and which have been several times reprinted, n. 1825. Bleddyn, bled'-in, an ancient British prince, who reigned, with his brother Rygwallon, in North Wales, till 1068, when he 'ruled alone. Fell in battle in 1073. Bleddyn was an active prince, and framed a code of good laws. Bleddyn, a British bard, many of whose pieces are in the WelshArchseology. — Flourished in the 13th century. Bleeck, Peter van, bleeJc, an eminent painter, who executed the celebrated picture of Johnson and Griffin, two famous comedians, in the characters of Ananias and Tribulation, in the " Alchymist." b. 1700; d. in London, 1?64. Bless, Henry, bless, an historical and land- scape painter, whose pieces are called owl- pictures, because he placed that bird as a mark. b. in Bovine, near Dinant, 1480 ; d. 1550. Blessington, Marguerite, countess of, lles'- ain/j-ton, was the third daughter of a Mr. Edmund Power, whose fortunes were entirely dissipated by reckless extravagance. She, in her 15th year, was married to a Captain Farmer, with whom she led a very unhappy life, and whose house she left. Subsequently, he, in a state of intoxication, fell from a window in the King's Bench prison, and was killed. Four months after this event she married the earl of Blessington, and after passing a few years in the enjoyment of every luxury, she and her husband in 1822 set out on a continental tour, which was prolonged to the death of the earl, which took place in 1829. In 1827 Count D'Orsay had married a daughter of Lord Bles- sington, by his first wife; but this marriage proving unhappy, they separated, and he, after the death of the earl, continued to live with Lady lilessington during the remainder of her life. After the decease of the earl, she came to London, where, for twenty years, her salons were as popular as those of Holland House, and were the resort of all the celebrated men of the day. To support her expenditure, she entered upon a career of authorship, which knew little relaxa- tion throughout the remainder of her life. She wrote "Conversations with Lord Byron," seve- ral novels, an endless number of tales and sketches; edited Heath's "Book of Beauty," " the Keepsake," " Gems of Beauty ;" and also contributed to the columns of the Daily Netaa, and those of the Surtday Times. With all this industry, however, she eoidd not support her THE DICTIONARY Bligh extravagance, and in 1849, the costly furniture of Gore House had to be sold. Count D'Orsay, in the hope of getting employment under Louis Napoleon, went to Paris, where he died in 1852. The countess had followed him in April, 1819, and shortly afterwards suddenly expired, n. near Clonmel, Ireland, 1789 ; D. at Paris, 1849. Bligh, William, bli, a seaman, who, when a lieutenant, was appointed to the command of the ship Bounty, in which he made a voyage to Otaheite for the purpose of obtaining bread-fruit 1>lants and others, to be transported to the slands of the West Indies. A mutiny took place on board his ship, when he and eighteen others were cast adrift in an open boat, in which, after sailing upwards of 3500 miles, they arrived at the island of Timor without having lost a man. Bligh subsequently reached England, and narrated the history of his adven- tures, when he was again sent out to the South Seas, and carried out the object of his original mission. In 1806 he was appointed governor of New South Wales, but the wildness of his conduct and the severity of his measures caused him to be arrested by order of the civil and military officers of the colony, which ended his government, b. J753; d. 1817. — The mutiny of the Bounty was made use of by Lord Byron for some of the passages in his poem of" The Island." (For an account of the fate of the mutineers of the Bounty, see Adams, John.) Bloch, Mark Eleazer, blok, a German natura- list, who practised medicine at Berlin, and was a member of the Society of the Curiosities of Nature. He wrote a "Natural History of Fishes," with 432 plates, which has been trans- lated into French, and forms 12 vols, folio. It is one of the finest works of its kind. b. at Anspach, 1723; d. at Berlin, 1799. Blcemart, blo'-mart, a family of Flemish painters and engravers, of whom the best known is Cornelius. He went to Paris in 1G30, and executed the engravings for the "Temple of the Muses." He afterwards went to Rome, and was the head of the school which produced the Natalis, Kousselet, &c. Bloufield, blom'-feeld, Charles James, bishop of London, was the son of a school- master, and received his university education at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was distin- guished by his classical, critical, and philologi- cal abilities. In 1824 he was raised from the rectory of St. Botolph, Bishopsgate, to the epis- copal bench as bishop of Chester ; and, in 1828, succeeded liishop Howley as bishop of London. From that time he exerted himself to extend the influence of the Church, and in the discus- sion of all ecclesiastical subjects took a promi- nent part in the House of Lords, b. at Bury St. Edmunds, 1786; d. 1857.— He edited, with commentaries, an edition of the tragedies of vEsehylus. Blondel, blon-del', a favourite minstrel of Richard I., Co ur-de-Lion, who, on being made prisoner and thrown into a German dungeon, on his return from the Crusades, was accidentally discovered by Blondel singing, beneath the walls of his prison, the first part of a lay of their joint composition. Lived in the 12th century. Blood, Colonel Thomas, blud, originally an officer in Cromwell's army, and who has ren- dered himself famous by his extraordinary ex- ploits. One of these was"the seizing of the duke of Ormond, with an intent to hang him at Ty- burn ; from which fate his grace was delivered 17« Blucher by his servants. A second was the stealing of the crown and other regalia from the Tower. In this daring enterprise he was taken disguised as a clergyman. Charles II. caused him to be brought before him ; and in his presence, Blood confessed that he had once formed a design against his life, but that the sight of his ma- jesty awed him so greatly, that he desisted from its execution. The king granted him a pardon, and gave him a pension of £500 a year for life ; but for what reasou, or upon what prin- ciple of justice, history has never yet explained. D. 1680. Bloomfield, Robert, bloom' -feeld, was the son of a tailor, and himself a shoemaker, in which position he was when he composed "the Farmer's Boy," a beautiful didactic poem, in which the scenes of rustic labour are truthfully described. He was patronized by Capel Lofft, Esq., who brought out his poem in 1800. The admiration which it excited is attested by the fact of 26,000 copies having been sold in three years. He wrote several other effusions, but his first was the best. b. at Honington, Suffolk, 1766; d. at Shefford, Bedfordshire, 1823. Blount, Charles, blount, lord Mountjoy and earl of Devonshire, was the second son of James Lord Mountjoy. His person and accomplish- ments attracted the notice of Queen Elizabeth, who conferred on him the honour of knight- hood; and some of our readers will remember the manner in which he is introduced, among the courtiers of that queen, in Sir Walter Scott's " K enilworth." In 1594 he was made governor of Portsmouth, and succeeded his brother in the peerage, assembling some troops, with which he served in the Netherlands and in Brittany; but the queen was displeased at his absence, and ordered him to remain at court. She made him knight of the Garter in 1597, and gave him a military appointment in Ireland, where he suppressed a rebellion. In 1603 he returned to England, bringing with him Tyrone, the rebel chieftain. Subsequently, James I. created him earl of Devonshire, and made him master of the ordnance. Towards the close of his life he fell into disgrace, by marrying the divorced Lady Rich, daughter of Essex, b. 1563; D. 1606. Bltjcher, Field-Marshal Lebrecht von, bloo'-ker, a distinguished Prussian general, whose bravery and boldness procured him the sobriquet of "Marshal Forward." In his four- teenth year he entered the Swedish service as an ensign, and fought against the Prussians in the Seven Years' War. He was made a pri- soner, when he was persuaded to enter the Prussian service, in which he was afterwards to become so distinguished. He soon rose to a senior captaincy, but, taking disgust at the 6ystem which promoted an inferior officer to merit over him, he requested permission to re- tire, which was granted by his eccentric sove- reign, Frederick the Great. He now became a farmer in Silesia, where, by industry, he accu- mulated a good estate, upon which he seemed likely to settle for life, as he had already passed fifteen years in getting it together. In 1786, however, Frederick-William succeeded to the throne of Prussia, when Ulucher was courteously recalled to the army, invested with the rank of major in his old regiment of Black Hussars, and began to serve against the French. In 1789 he received the order of Merit; and, in 1793-4, fought at the battles of Orcbies, Luxem- CAMPBELL, COLIN, LORD CLYDE. CAVOUR, COUNT CAMILLE DI. CERVANTES DE SAAVEDRA. CHARLES V. (OF GERMANY ) Pl.u e VII OF BIOGRAPHY. Blumenbach bourg, Oppenheim, Frankenstein, Kirchveiller, and Edesheim. In 1802 he possessed himself of Erfurt and Muhlhausen ; and, in the same year, after the battle of Jena, made a successful re- treat before Soult, Murat, and Bernadotte, and although ultimately forced to capitulate, only did £0 in consequence, as stated in writing, of being " without ammunition and provisions." Being now a prisoner to the French, he was exchanged for General Victor ; and, in 1813, was again in the field, at the head of a combined force of Prussians and Russians. At the battles of Lut- zen, Bautzen, and Haynau, he greatly distin- guished himself, and received, in acknowledg- ment, the order of St. George from the emperor Alexander of Russia. Jn 1813 he held the un- divided command of 60,000 men, with whom he defeated Marshals Ney, Macdonald, Sebastiani, and Lauriston, and contributed greatly to the victorious results of the battle of Leipzic. In 1814 he took possession of .Nancy ; and, at Brienne, withstood a determined attack from Napoleon I. In the same year he entered Paris, and would have taken a dreadful revenge upon its inhabitants, had he not been restrained by Wellington and the other generals. He now wore on his breast the insignia of all the illustrious orders of Europe, and the king of Prussia created a new one in his especial honour. Its symbol was a cross of iron, as the sign of his invincible coursfe. At this time Blucher visited England, where he had the academical degree of D.C.L. conferred on him by the Uni- versity of Oxford. After this he returned to his country, and retired to his Silesian estate. In 1815, however, the escape of Napoleon from Elba summoned him once more to the battle- field, and he took command of the Prussian army in Belgium. He was defeated, with great loss, at Ligny, on the 16th of June, where his horse was shot under him, and he him- self lay, covered by the animal, until several regiments of French cuirassiers had passed over him. He was reported dead to Napoleon; but le vieux diable, ("the old devil,") Napoleon's name for him, appeared at the close of the bat- tle of Waterloo, and inflicted a terrific slaughter upon the flying French. After this crowning triumph, he once more retired to his chateau in Silesia, where his sovereign visited him in his latest moments. " I knev I shall die," said the veteran ; " I am not sorry for it, seeing that I am now no longer of any use." b. at Rostock, on the Baltic, 1712; b. at Kriblowitz, Silesia, 1819. Blumexbach, Johann Friedrich, bloo'-mcn- bak, a distinguished German anatomist and physiologist, who in 1775 published a work on the " Varieties of the Human Race," which fixed his fame. In 1776 he became extraordinary professor of medicine in the university of Got- tingen; and from that time devoted himself to the promotion of the sciences connected with medicine, anatomy, and physiology. He pub- lished numerous works, and in 1812 was ap- pointed secretary to the Royal Society of Sciences .it Gottingen. In 1816 he was made physician to the kings of Great Britain and Holland ; and in 1821 a knight commander of the Guclphic order. In 1831 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, b. at Gotha, 1752; d. 1810. Boadicea, bo'-a-dis'-e-n, or bo-a-di-ae'-a, an ancient British queen, the wife of Prasutagus, king of the Iccni, who, for the security of his 177 Boccold family, made the Roman emperor co-heir with his daughters. On this, the Roman officers took possession of his palace, gave the prin- cesses up to the brutality of the soldiers, and scourged the queen in public. Boadicea, roused to revenge, assembled her countrymen and stormed Camalodunum (the present Colchester), and put its garrison to the sword. Subsequently Suetonius Paulinus defeated the Britons, and Boadicea either fell among the slain or poisoned herself after her defeat, a.d. 61. Boccaccio, John, bok-kat-che-o, a celebrated Italian writer, the son of a Florentine merchant, and who, when young, became intimate with the poet Petrarch. He resided a long time at Na- ples, where he fell in love with the natural daughter of the king, and where the sight of the tomb of Virgil determined his future voca- tion. His "La Teseide," written in octave- syllabic measure, was the first chivalrous poem in the I talian language. Chaucer borrowed from it his " Knight's Tale," to which. Dryden gave a new name, and re-cast it as " Palamon and Ar- cite." He wrote several other poems ; but the work upon which his fame rests is the " Deca- merone," consisting of one hundred talcs, ten of which are supposed to be told in the after- noons often successive days, by a party of three young men and seven young women. The sto- ries chiefly consist of love-intrigues, and are of a licentious character, b. at Paris, 1313; b. at Ccrtaldo, in Tuscany, 1375. — Boccaccio and Petrarch were the revivers of classical learning in Italy, and the former may justly be considered as the father of Italian prose in its purer state ; for, although he is chiefly known as an admir- able story-teller, yet he, at the same time, was a learned man, and wrote several treatises on classical subjects, and was the first to introduce into Italy copies of the Iliad and Odyssey. Of Boccaccio's works many editions and trans- lations have been published. Boccage, Maria Anne Lepage du, bo'-kaje, a French poetess, who at the age of 16 married Peter Joseph du Boccage. At an early period she displayed a taste for poetry, and acquired the friendship of several eminent literary cha- racters; amongst whom were Voltaire, Heinault, and Montesquieu. In 1746 she obtained a prize from the academy at Houen ; and contended for another given by the French Academy for a culogium on Louis XV. ; but on this occasion succumbed to Marmontel. She published a po«m entitled " Paradis Terrestre," taken from Milton, and translated the "Death of Abel." b. at Rouen, 1710 ; d. 1802. BoccHiutiNi, bok-lcai-re'-ne, a musical com- poser, who excelled in symphonies, in which be was the precursor of Haydn. The king of Spain attached him to his court, and he settled at Madrid, b. at Lucca, 1710: d. 1806.— Conti- nental critics say that his compositions arc ot so religious a kind, that if the Almighty wished to listen to mundane music, He would choose Boccherini's. Boccold, John, hoV-kohl, commonly called John of Leydeit, li'-den, a fanatic tailor ol that city, who associated himself with Mathias, a baker of Haarlem. They, at the head of a rabble of Anabaptists, made themselves master! of the city of Munster. Here, however, they were besieged by the bishop, and Mathias bcin;; slain in u stdly, Boccold succeeded him, assum- ing the regal and prophetic character. He sot up a government modelled according to a por- N THE DIGTiONAftY Bochart version of scriptural declarations, and called liimself king of Sion. Heallowed a plurality of wives, and took fourteen to himself; one of whom he put to death for questioning his di- vine authority. The city being taken, Boccold was hanged, in the year 1536. b. about the close of the 15th century. Bochart, Samuel, bok'-ar, a celebrated Ori- ental scholar, a minister at Caen, Normandy. He was versed in most of the Eastern languages, — Hebrew, Syriae, Chaldean, Arabic, Ethiopian, &( . Christina of Sweden wishing to see him, ho in 1652 went to Stockholm, where he was received with great honours. On his return to Caen he died suddenly, whilst arguing against Huet in the academy there. He is the author of many works ; of which the principal are, " Sacred Geography," " History of the Animals of Scripture," "An Account of the Minerals, Plants, and Precious Stones of the Bible." B.at Rouen, 1599 ; r>. 1667. Bock, Jerome, bok, called also Lb Bouc, a German naturalist, one of the fathers of botany, being the first who attempted a natural classifi- cation of plants, and to seek under their modern names those mentioned in the Bible, b. at Hcidelbach, 1493 ; d. at Hornbach, 1554. Bodlby, Sir Thomas, bod-te, the patron of the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and from whom it derives its name, was, in 1564, chosen fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and served the offices of public orator and proctor. He was subse- quently employed by Queen Elizabeth in several embassies; but, in 1597, falling into disgrace, he determined to retire from public life, and the same year began to restore the University Li- brary of Oxford. That noble f ;bric was almost who' 1 )' rebuilt by him, and furnished with a grc t number of books collected at consider- able expense, and at his death he bequeathed nearly his whole property for its support and augmentation. By this means the Bodleian Library has come to be the first of its kind in the world. On the accession of James I., Bodley received the honour of knighthood, u. at Exeter in 1544 : d. at Oxford in 1612, and was buried in the chapel of Merton College. Boece, or Boethius, Hector, bo-e'-fhe-ns, a Scotch historian, who, on the foundation of King's College, Aberdeen, by Bishop William Elphinstone, was made the first principal. In gratitude for this honour, he, on the decftli of that prelate, wrote his life, with an account of his predecessors in that see. But his greatest work is the " History of Scotland," in Latin, which is written in an elegant style, although full of legendary tales and perverted facts, n. at Dundee in 1465; r>. 1536, and was buried near the tomb of Bishop Elphinstone, in the chapel cf his college. Boerhaave, Herman, boor'-haf, a celebrated physician, who was educated at the university of Leyden, with a view to the ministry, and in 1639 took his degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Jn two discourses he had refuted the doctrines of Epicurus and Spinosa, by which he raised ids character for piety and learning. Subse- quently, however, a report spread that he had becomo a disciple of Spinosa, and which, al- though untrue, determined him to renounce the ministry, and adopt medicine for his profession. In 1701 he read lectures upon the institutes of physic; and in 1709 was appointed professor of medicine and botany. In 1715 he was chosen jftotor of the universitv, and displaved so much 17? Boileau spirit against Cartcsianism, as to rouse the re- sentment of the friends of that system against him, particularly a theological professor at, Franeker, who charged Boerhaave with being a deist ; for which the furious divine was obliged, by his own university, to make an apology. In 1718 he was nominated professor of chemistry, a science which he greatly improved. In 1730 he was again made rector of the university of Leyden, in addition to the offices which he al- ready held. His fame had now spread over the world. He was chosen a member of the Aca- demy of Sciences at Paris, and of the Royal Society of London ; and a Chinese mandarin is said to have written him a letter with this di- rection, " To the illustrious Boerhaave, physi- cian, in Europe." b. at Voorhout, near Ley- den, 1663 ; d. in 1738. — Boerhaave was the most distinguished physician of his age, and wrote a great many works upon those sciences in close connexion with his profession. He excelled as an illustrative experimentalist, and it is said that he had such unwearied patience, that he performed one experiment 300 and an- other 877 times. Boethius, or BoETius,Anicius Manlius Tor- quatus Severinus, bo-e'-the-us, a Roman philo- sopher, who was descended from a patrician family, and who in 510 was advanced to the consulship. He was a profound scholar, and well versed in mathematical learning. He defended the Catholic faith against the Arians, and for his zeal in defence of Albinus, a senator, Theodoric, king of Italy, sent him prisoner to the tower of Pavia, where he wrote his immor- tal book, entitled " Consolation of Philosophy," which has passed through numerous editions, and was translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, b. at Rome, 455 ; beheaded in prison, in Pavia, 526. In 996 Otho III. erected to his memory, in the church of St. Augustine, in Pavia, a monument, which existed till the last century, whin the church was destroyed. Bohemond, or iiOEMO>'D, Mark, bo-ke'-mond, the first prince of Antioch, who, in 1081, accom- panied his father, Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia, in his attempt on the Eastern empire. On the return of Guiscard to Italy, he left the command to his son, who defeated the emperor Alexis in two battles. On his father's death in 1085 he became prince of Tarentum ; but, de- siring to increase his dominions, took part in the first crusade. In 1093 he captured Antioch, of which he was made prince by the Crusaders, and established there a little kingdom, which existed nearly 200 years. He afterwards took Laodicea, but was himself made prisoner. On gaining his liberty, he returned to Greece with a large army, but met with little success. r>. 1111. — Six princes of his name succeeded him in the sovereignty of Antioch, the last, Bolie- mond VII., being dethroned in 1268. Boiledieu, Francis Adrien, bwoild'-yu(r), a French composer, who was made professur at the Conservatory, and subsequently quitted Paris for St. Petersburg, where the emperor Alexander appointed him master of the chapel. In 1812 he returned to Paris. His principal works are, " The Caliph of Bagdad," " La Dame Blanche," "La Famille Suisse," "Ma Tante Aurore," "Jean de Paris," . 1857. Bonaparte, Eliza, eldest daughter of tha above, was married in 1797 to Felix Baeioechi, a Corsican soldier of good birth. She was after- wards made a princess of Piombino and Lucca, and subsequently grand duchess of Tuscany. In all these positions Eliza had the chief power, her husband being simply her first subject and aide-de-camp. b. 1777; d. at Trieste, 1820. — She left one child, Napoleon Eliza. (See Ba- cioccni.) Bonaparte, Louis, the fourth son of the above, accompanied Napoleon in his expedi- tions to Italy and Egypt, was employed by the emperor in several capacities, and, in 1806, was proclaimed king of Holland. For four years ha reigned over the Dutch ; and although but a viceroy of his brother, yet his good and ad- mirable qualities endeared him greatly to tin" OF BIOGRAPHY. Bonaparte people. In 1814 he retired to Rorne ; and after- wards, under the name of count de St. Leu, to Florence, b. 1773 ; d. at Leghorn, 1816. — Louis was fond of study and retirement, and it was only in obedience to the stronger mind of Napoleon that he undertook the burdens of administration and government. In 1802 he married Hortense Beauharnais, daughter of Josephine; but this marriage, although his wife was a most beautiful and accomplished woman, proved exceedingly unhappy, and they feparated in 1810. Their first son, Napoleon Charles, whom the emperor fondly loved and adopted, died in 1807. Their second son, Charles Napoleon, died at Forli, in 1831, fighting for Italian independence. Their third son, Louis Napoleon, born in 1808, was elected president of the French republic, 1818, and emperor of the French, 1852. (See Hobtense.) Bonapabte, Marie Pauline, the second daughter of the above, was first married to General Leclerc, whom she accompanied to St. Domingo, where she displayed the greatest courage. Leclerc dying in the isle of Tortuga, Pauline returned to France, and Napoleon mar- ried her in 1803 to Prince Camillo Borghese, duke of Guastalla, a wealthy Italian noble. This union, unlike the first, was not a happy one. b. 1780; d. 1825. — Pauline was of u haughty but kind disposition, and possessed strong prejudices. She was never favourably inclined to Maria Louisa, and Napoleon exiled her from court in consequence of a public affront to that empress. After the emperor's downfall, however, Pauline thought no more of his resentment, but sent him some magnificent and valuable diamonds, the only offering she had in her power to make. She left no children. Bonapabte, Caroline, the third daughter of the above, married in 1800 Joachim Murat, grand duke of Berg, who was proclaimed in 1803 king of Naples. On the death of her husband in 1815, she retired to Italy, where she lived with the title of countess of Lipona. n. 1732; d. 1839.— She left one child, Lueien Na- poleon Murat, better known as Prince Murat. B. 1S03. Bonapabte, Jerome, the fifth and youngest son of the above, after serving in the navy in the West Indies, and performing missions in the service of France, married, in the United States, a Miss Patterson, daughter of a rich Baltimore merchant. This Marriage was afterwards dis- solved, ?nd Jerome, by Napoleon's desire, mar- ried, in 1807, the Princess Catherine of Wurtem- burg, and in a few days after became king of Westphalia, which dignity he held till 1813. Alter the fall of Napoleon, he resided in Italy for some time, with the title of prince de Mont- fort. When, under Louis Napoleon, the for- tunes of the Bonaparte family were again in the ascendant, Jerome returned to Paris, and was appointed president of the state council. b. 1731; d. 1860. — He had by his second wife the Princess Mathilde, b. 1820, who was mar- ried in 1811 to Prince Demidoff, and Prince Napoleon-Joseph-Charles-Paul, b. 1822, and known as Prince Napoleon. In 1861, M. Bona- parte Patterson, grandson of Prince Jerome by .Miss Patterson, instituted a suit in the French courts to have the validity of their marriage de- clared, which, after being heard for several days, was decided against the American branch of the family. Bonaparte, Prince Louis Lueien, second son 181 Boniface of Lueien Bonaparte, is distinguished for his devotion to scientific and philological pursuits, and has written several works on chemistry, in French and Italian, and in 1857 published the " Bonaparte Polyglot," being the parable of the sower, from St. Matthew, in seventy-two Euro- pean languages and dialects. He is likewise a proficient in that singular language, the Basque, of which he has published a grammar. Under Napoleon III. he was made a senator, b. at Momgrove, Worcestershire, 1813. Bo napabte, Prince Napoleon-Joseph-Charles- Paul, son of Je'rome Bonaparte and Princess Ca- therine of Wurtemburg, was, on the recall of the Bonaparte family from their long exile, elected to the Constituent Assemby, and became one of the leaders of the extreme republican party. He subsequently, however, retired from this course, and attached himself to his cousin, Na- poleon III. In 1854 he h^d a command in the expedition of the allies against Sebastopol, and fought at the battle of the Alma. In 1858 he was appointed minister of Algeria, but shortly after- wards resigned this post. In 1859 he married the Princess Clothilde, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, and in the Italian campaign of that year, had the com- mand of the French reserve in the centre and south of the Peninsula, b. at Trieste 1822. Bone, Henry, R.A., Ion, the most eminent enamel-painter of his age, having carried the art to a pitch of perfection never before at- tained, was the son of a chair-maker, at Truro, where he was born in 1755. He was apprenticed to a china-manufacturer, at Bristol, where he obtained the first rudiments of the art which he afterwards practised with so much success. He removed to London, and at first painted enamels for jewellers and watchmakers, but afterwards confined his attention to miniature painting, many of his portraits being enamelled. He also executed several works in enamel from classical themes; was elected an academician in 1811, and was successively enamel-painter to George III., George IV., and William IV. d. 1831. His son, 11. P. Bone, held the office of enamel-painter to her majesty Queen Victoria. Bonhecr, Rosa, bon-hur, a French artist, distinguished as a painter of animal and still life. Her father, being himself an artist, di- rected her studies and taught her to copy nature ; and with this view he frequently took her into the country, where she could see it in all its aspects, and at the same time copy the living creation as she beheld it moving in its freest and most careless conditions, or in a statu of labour. Her " Labourage Xivernais" (plough- ing in the snow) fixed her reputation, and her " Horse Fair," which was exhibited in 1855, at the French Exhibition in London, excited uni- versal admiration. Her whole family are more or less artistic in their tastes, and she has both brothers and sisters who have acquired distinc- tion in the paths of sculpture and painting, b. at Bordeaux, 1822. Boniface, St. bon'-i-face, a saint of the Ro- man calendar, and a native of England, who wa» sent by Gregory II. to convert the Germans. Gregory HI. made him an archbishop, b. i« Devonshire, 680; slain by some peasants io Friesland, in 755. His letters were printed in 1616. Boniface I., pope and saint, succeeded Zozi- mus in 118, and was maintained in the pontifical THE DIOTIONAKY Boniface chair by the emperor Honorius, against his rival Eulalius. D. 422. Boniface II. succeeded Felix IV. in 530. He was born at Borne, his father being a Goth. He compelled the bishops in a council to allow him to nominate his successor, and accordingly he named Vigil ; but another council disavowed the proceedings of the first, u. 532. Boniface HI. succeeded Sabinianus in 607, and died shortly after his election ; but he obtained from the emperor Phocas the acknow- ledgment that the see of Rome was supreme over all other churches. Boniface IV. was the son of a physician, and came to the tiara in 607. He converted the Pantheon into a church, d. 615. Boniface V. was a Neapolitan, and suc- ceeded Adeodatus in 617. He endeavoured to convert the natives of Britain to Christianity, and confirmed the right of sanctuary in churches. Bt 626. Boniface VI. came to the chair on the death of Formosus, in 896, but held it only fifteen days ; for, being elected by a popular faction, he was deposed. Boniface VII., whose surname was Francon, assumed the chair after murderinsr Benedict VI. in 974. He was driven out of Rome, but re- turned in 935, and caused the reigning pope, John XIV. to be murdered in prison. He was killed a few months after. Boniface VIII., in 1291, terrified his prede- cessor Celestine into a resignation, by threaten- ing him, by night, with eternal damnation if he did not quit the pontifical chair. The credulous pope, thinking this a supernatural voice, obeyed the command next day, and the crafty cardinal was elected. He commenced his pontificate by imprisoning his predecessor, arid laying Den- mark under an interdict. He also behaved in a haughty manner towards the Colonnas, a distin- guished Roman family, who protested against his election, and called a council to examine the charge. Boniface excommunicated them as heretics, and preached a crusade against them. He incited the princes of Germany to revolt against Albert of Austria : and also issued a bull, in which he asserted that God had set him over kings and kingdoms. Philip the Fair caused this bull to be burnt at Paris ; on which Boniface laid France under an interdict. Philip appealed to a general council, and sent his army into Italy, which took Boniface prisoner. The pon- tiff's behaviour on this occasion was bold enough; for, putting on the tiara, and taking the keys and the crosier in his hands, he said, " I am a pope, and a pope 1 will die." d. at Rome a few months afterwards, in 1303. He wrote several works. His persecuting tendencies are alluded to by Dante in the 27th chapter of the " Inferno." b. about 1228. Boniface IX. was a Neapolitan by birth, and of a noble family. He was made cardinal in 1381, and pope in 1339. d. 1404. Bonington, Richard Parkes, bori-ing-ton, an English artist of considerable promise, was born near Nottingham, in 1801, and after studying in Paris, visited Venice, and painted many excel- lent views of that picturesque city. He re- turned to England, and died of decline in Sept., 1828, at the early age of 27. Mr. Bonington had prepared sketches for several other pictures of Italian, and especially Venetian scenery, but was not permitted time to work tliem out. lie painted, chiefly in water colours, marine and 3 B'i Bononcini river views; his style is simple, picturesque, and free from conventionalisms. Bonnes, Edmund, bou'-ner, who rose to ba an English prelate, w^s educated at Oxford, and afterwards entered into the service of Wolsey, who bestowed upon him several bene- fices. Henry VIII., to whom he was chaplain, sent him to Rome to get the sentence of divorce from Katherine of Aragon confirmed ; and here his behaviour was so bold, that the pope threatened to throw him into a caldron of boiling lead. In 153S he was nominated bishop of Hereford, being then ambassador at Paris ; but, before his consecration, he was translated to the see of London. Hitherto he had pro- fessed a zeal for the Reformed doctrines, but now that Henry was dead, and Edward VI. reigning in his stead, he scrupled to take the oath of supremacy, for which he was sent to prison ; but on making his submission, was released. His negligence, however, in comply- ing with the laws, occasioned him a second imprisonment, and the loss of his bishopric. On the accession of Mary, he was restored to his episcopal functions, when he deprived the mar- ried priests in his diocese, set up the mass in St. Paul's, and, through the whole of this reign, evinced a most sanguinary spirit, bringing num- bers of Protestants to the stake. When Queen Elizabeth came to the throne, however, retri- butive justice fell upon his head, and he was sent to the Marshalsea prison, where he was con- fined during the remainder of his life. His body was interred in St. George's churchyard, Southwark. b. at Hanley, Worcestershire, at the close of the 15th century; r>. in prison, 1569. Bonnet, Charles, bon'-nai, a Swiss naturalist, whose studies were chiefly directed to the elu- cidation of the conditions of insect life. b. at Geneva, 1720; d. 1793. Bonneval, Claude Alexander, count de, bon'- ne-vul, a French military adventurer, who, after serving in the army and navy of his own coun- try, transferred his allegiance to Austria, and subsequently became a Mussulman. In Turkey he attained high distinction; and, under the title of Achmet Pasha, introduced European tactics, and taught the Turks the management of artillery, b. 1675 ; d. in Turkey, 1747. Bonnivaed, Francis de, hon'-ne-var, Byron's " Prisoner of Chiilon," whose liberal opinions induced him to adopt the republic of Geneva as the most agreeable government for him to live under. For his defence of the rights of the republic against Charles III., duke of Savoy, he was twice imprisoned, the first time at Grolce, where he was immured for two years ; and the second in the castle of Chiilon, on Lake Geneva, where he remained six years, b. at Seyssel, in the department of theAin, 1490; d. at Geneva, 1570. — lionnivard wrote a history of Geneva, bequeathed his ecclesiastical possessions to the state, an4 to the town his books, which were the foundation of its public library. The shud- dering picture which Byron has drawn of the sufferings of the two brothers of Bonnivard while chained to the stone columns in the dun- geon of Chiilon, has no foundation in truth. "The eldest of the three" was the only one o( his kindred confined there. Bononcini, Giovanni, bon'-on-che'-ne, a'musi- cal composer, who, in conjunction with Handel and Ariosti, was engaged for the establishment of the Royal Academy of Music in London. His compositions were deficient in vigour! but OF BIOGRAPHY. Bonpland were marked by much grace and tenderness. E. at Bologna about 1660; d. about 1760. BoifPLAND, Aime, bonp'-land, a superior bota- nist and the companion of Humboldt in his South-American exploration s. In 1801 ho be- came superintendent of the gardens of the empress Josephine atMalmaison.and when she died, in 1814, he resigned his situation. In 1816 he once more visited S. America, and, after encountering considerable dangers, finally set- tled in the neighbourhood of San Borja, a small town on the banks of the Uruguay, in Brazil, where he continued to reside till his death, u. at La Roehelle, 1773; d. 1858. Boone, Daniel, boon, a colonel in the United States service, and one of the earliest settlers in Kentucky, where he signalized himself by his many daring exploits against the Red Indians, and also by his extensive surveys and explora- tions of that state. In 1799 he removed to Upper Louisiana, then belonging to the Spaniards, and was named by them comman- dant of a district there. B. in Virginia, U.S., 1735; d. in Missouri, 1822. Boone was one of t lie most successful of the enterprising Ameri- can pioneers of the 18th century, and may be said to have explored, defended, and aided in the settlement of the country from the Alleghany Mountains to the frontier of Mis- souri. Booth, Barton, booth, an English actor, who, at the age of 17, entered Into a strolling com- pany, and whose reputation became so great that Betteiton engaged him. 'When Addison's "Cato" was to be acted, he was selected to perform the principal part, and sustained it so well that one night a subscription of fifty guineas was collected in the boxes and sent to him. He afterwards became manager of the house, and continued to perform nearly to his death, b. in Lancashire, probably at Warring- ton, 1681 ; d. 1733. Booth, Sir Felix, the owner of a large distil- lery, distinguished far the great liberality he showed, when sheriff of London in 1829, in paying all the expenses, amounting to f'17,000, of Captain Boss's second expedition to the Arctic regions, and whose name will always be honourably connected with the history of mari- time discovery. Ho was knighted by William IV., and received the thanks of Parliament, b. 1755; B. at Brighton, 1850. Bobda, John Charles, bor'-da, a French mathematician, who early entered the navy, and was employed on a voyage of discovery along the coasts of Europe and Africa, with a view of improving navigation and geography. The re- sult of this expedition was published in two vols. 4to, 1778. In the American war he served under D'Estaing, with the rank of rear-admiral. Before this he had introduced uniformity into the architecture of the French ships of war. He contributed numerous papers to the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, chiefly relating to the construction of vessels, and to hydraulics. In 1787 he published the " Description and Use of the Circle of Reflection," in which he recom- mended the employment of the specular circles invented by Tobias Mayer. He also invented many instruments now used in surveys by trian- gulation. One of his last labours was the accurate determination of the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds at Paris, b. at Dax, 1733 ; d. at Paris, 1799. To this mathematician and Coulomb is ascribed the rise of the correct views 1S3 Borgia of experimental philosophy for which the French have since become distinguished. Bokde, John Benjamin de la, bord, a French writer, who was valet to Louis XV., and on the death of that monarch was appointed farmer-general. He employed his leisure hours in studying music and the belles-lettres. His collection of airs, in 4 vols. 8vo, and essays on music, ancient and modem, in 4 vols. 4to, are proofs of his skill in the first, and in the second he distinguished himself by the " Memoirs of Coucy," 2 vols. 8vo, "An Essay on Ancient and Modern Music," "An Account of Saugnier's Voyages on the Coast of Africa," " Letters upon Switzerland," "History of the South Sea," and other works. B. at Paris, 1731; guillotined, 1791. Bordeaux, Henry-Charles- Ferdinand-Mario Dieudonne^ d'Artois, Due de, boor'-do, the son of Charles Ferdinand, due de Berri, who was assassinated in 1820. On the dethronement of Charles X. of France, his son the dauphin, Louis Antoine, renounced his claim to the throne in favour of this prince; but he left Franco with the royal family in August, 1830. Louis Philippe then ascended the throne, and the due de Bordeaux took the title of comte de Chambord. The French legitimists desig- nate him as Henry V. He was married, in 181(1, to Maria Teresa, daughter of the ex-duke of Modena. Being childless he is the last of the elder branch of the Bourbon family, b. 1820. Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, bo-rai'-le, an eminent Italian professor of mathematics and medicine, who discovered and translated the lost books of Apollonius Pergasus, wrote the first theory of Jupiter's satellites, and endea- Toured to apply mathematics to medicine. In 1656 ho was called to a professor's chair at Pisa, where he lectured with great success, and wrote much in connection with the sciences he pursued. Being supposed to have favoured a revolt of the Messinians, amongst whom he had gone to live, he was invited by Queen Christina of Sweden to Rome, where she then was. Thither he immediately went, and lived under her patronage until his death, b. at Naples, 1608 ; r>. at Rome, 1679.— The work "De Motu Animalium" is that upon which the medical reputation of Borelli depends. BoEGnESE, Camillo, bor-gai'-zai, a scion of an ancient Italian family, amongst whom have been several cardinals, and other members who have played distinguished parts in the public affairs of Italy, mariied the widow of General Leclerc, Marie Pauline Bonaparte, the sister of Napoleon I. In 1805 he was created a prince of the French empire, and, with the title of duke of Guastalla, became governor- general of the departments beyond the Alps, which embraced those former Italian states, and which were now annexed to France. Sub- sequently to the fall of the emperor, he fixed his abode at Florence, where, in a palatial structure, he lived in princely splendour. He had another residence at Rome, which he adorned with costly works of art. b. 1775; r>. 1832. Rorgia, C;esar, bor-'je-a, a profligate son of Pope Alexander VI., on whose accession he was made archbishop of Valenza and cardinal ; but being jealous of his brother John, who wa* most in favour, he contrived to have him drowned. He also dispatched a number of other persons, to gratify his avarice and re- venge. Having renounced his cardinalship, ho THE DICTIONARY Borgia was made duke of Valentinois by Louis XII. of France, with whom he entered into a league for the conquest of the Milanese. On the death of his father, he was sent prisoner to Spain, but made his escape, and died fighting as a volun- teer in the service of his brother-in-law, the king of Navarre, under the walls of Pampeluna, in 1507. Borgia, Lucretia, sister of the above, has been represented as equally profligate with her brother; a charge which is hardly credible, when we consider the characters of those who have been her panegyrists. Among these are the names of Ariosto, Strozzi, Tibaldio, and several historians, who could not all have concurred in commending an embodiment of wickedness. She was thrice married, and left several sons, which may be considered as an- other argument greatly in her favour, d. at Ferrara, 1523. (See Roscoe's " History of Italy," &c.) Boblase, William, bor'-lais, an ingenious an- tiquary, who in 1720 entered into orders, and two years afterwards obtained the rectory of Ludgvan, and afterwards that of St. Just, in Cornwall. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society ; and, having presented a variety of fossils and pieces of antiquity to the uni- versity of Oxford, received the thanks of that learned body, and the degree of LL.D. He also gave many curious ores and fossils to.the poet Pope for his grotto at Twickenham, b. at St. Just, Cornwall, 1696; d. 1772.— He wrote an essay on Cornish crystals, in the "Philo- sophical Transactions," "Antiquities of the County of Cornwall," folio, two editions ; " Ob- servations on the Scilly Islands," 4to; and " The Natural History of Cornwall," folio ; all of them valuable. Uobromeo, Frederick, bor-ro'-mai-o, cardinal and archbishop of Milan, who founded the Am- brosiaa Library at Milan, b. at Milan in 1564; b. in 1631. His writings are all theological. Borromeo, Charles, cousin of the above, also a cardinal and archbishop of Milan, renowned for his piety and learning. He drew up the famous "Catechism of Trent," and was one of the most influential prelates who attended the Council of Trent, b. 1533; d. 1584. Bokromini. Francis, bor-ro-me'-ne, an emi- nent architect, who, it was said, was driven mad by the reputation of Bernini, another ar- chitect, and slabbed himself. Ho built the church of La Sapienza at Rome, the college of the Propaganda, and several other elegant struc- tures, b. in the district of Como, 1599; d. J 667. jjoebow, George, bor-ro, an English author, whose singular spirit of adventure led him iiito the society of the gypsies, not only of England and Ireland, but those of the Spanish peninsula. Many of the scenes through which lie has passed are supposed to be given in his works, " The Zincali," " The Bible in Spain," " Lavengro," and " Romany Rye," B. at East Dereham, in Norfolk, 1803. Boscawejt, Edward, bos-ko'-en, a distin- sniished English admiral, was the second son of Hugh, Viscount Falmouth. He early entered the navy, and was, in 1740, made captain of the Shorekam. He particularly distinguished him- self at the taking of Porto Bello and the siege of Carthagcna. On his return to England, he married the daughter of William Glanville, Esq., and was chosen M.P. for Truro, in Corn- 191 Bossuet wall. In 1744 he was mado captain of the Dreadnought, of 60 guns, and soon after took the Medea, commanded by Captain Hoquart, the first French ship of war captured that year. In 1747 he distinguished himself under Anson, and was in an engagement with the French fleet off Cape Finisterre, where he was wounded in the shoulder by a musket-ball, and when Hoquait again became his prisoner. The same year he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and commander of the land and sea forces em- ployed in an expedition to the East Indies. On his arrival he laid siege to Pondicherry, but was obliged to quit it on account of the mon- soon ; and the manner in which he effected his retreat added to his fame. He soon afterwards took Madras, and peace being concluded, re- turned to England, where he was appointed one of the lords commissioners of the Admi- ralty. In 1755 he sailed to intercept a French squadron bound to North America, of which he took two ships, and Hoqnart became his pri- soner a third time. For this service he received the thanks of the House of Commons. In 1758 he took Cape Breton and Louisburg, in con- junction with General Amherst. The year fol- lowing he commanded in the Mediterranean, and while lying at Gibraltar, hearing that the French admiral, M. de la Clue, had passed the Straits, he refitted his ships, and came up with the French fleet, of which he took three ships and burnt two others in Lagos Bay. He once more received the thanks of Parliament, and had an annual pension of £3000 conferred upon him. In 1760 he was appointed general of the ma- rines, with a salary of £3000 a year, which he retained until his death, b. in Cornwall, 1711 ; D. at Hatchfield Park, near Guildford, 1761. — It was of this admiral that Lord Chatham said, when he proposed expeditions to other commanders, he heard nothing but difficulties; but when he applied to him, these were either set aside or expedients suggested to remove them. Bosquet, Marshal, bos'-lcai, a French com- mander, who, in 1829, entered the Polytechnic School, and, in 1833, became a sub-lieutenant in the artillery. In 1835 he went with his regi- ment to Algeria, where he began to distinguish himself. Between 1836 and 1848 he had passed through the successive ranks of captain, chef- de-bataillon, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel, when, in that year, he was appointed by the republican government general of brigade. In 1854 the emperor Napoleon 111. raised him to the rank of general of division, and enrolled him in the stall' of the army of Marshal St. Ar- naud. He was with the French army in the Crimea, where he greatly distinguished himself, and was wounded in the assault on the Malakoif tower at the siege of Sebastopol. He was made a marshal of France, and in 1859 appointed to a command in the war against Austria. He died February 3, 1861. B. at Pau, in 1810. Bossuet, James, bos -soo-ai, a celebrated French preacher, who, in 1669, was made bishop of Condom, at which time he was also appointed tutor to the dauphin, for whom he composed his " Discourse on Universal History," which was printed in 1681. It was from this work that Voltaire conceived his opinion of Bossuct's great eloquence. It is divided into three parts and Mr. Charles Butler, a critic, says that it scarcely contains a sentence in which there is not some noun or verb conveying an image, or OF BIOGRAPHY. Boston. suggesting a sentiment of the noblest kind. The same year he was made bishop of Meaux. In 1697 he was appointed counsellor of state. Bos- suet distinguished himself as a controversialist against the Protestants, and his " Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church upon Matters of Controversy " was written with so much talent and ingenuity as to draw many persons over to popery. It was translated into several languages, and procured for the author the thanks of the pope. Several able Protestants attacked the bishop, who encountered them with great spirit, b. at Dijon, 1627; B. at Paris, 1701. — His funeral orations are.no doubt, splen- did, affecting, and eloquent : but their style is by far too dramatic to suit the tastes of those who view the occasions which call them forth, as being better adapted for an humble expres- sion of sorrow, than for a pompous display of sentiment. Boston, Thomas, bos-ton, a Scottish divine of the early part of the 18th century, whose works are eminently popular with the religious com- munity in his native country, was born in Dunse, Berwickshire, in 1676, and was pastor of the parish of Ettrick during the greatest portion of his life. He was a very voluminous writer, but liis " Fourfold State " is the best known of his works, and is universally read and esteemed by the author's countrymen, and, indeed, by the religious world generally, both in Britain and America, d. May 20, 1732. ISoswkll, James, bos'-irel, the biographer of Dr. Johnson, was the son of Alexander Boswell, of Auehinleck, one of the Scottish justices of session. lie was educated at the school and university of Edinburgh, and early distinguished himself by his love of poetry and the belles-lettres. Being, however, rather addicted to pleasure, and wish- ing to enter into the army, his father, who de- sisned him for his own profession, would not allow him to adopt a military life. At his re- quest he went to London, where he contracted an intimacy with Dr. Johnson and other men of literary eminence. Thence he went to Utrecht and studied the civil law : after which he tra- velled through Germany and Switzerland. In the latter country he was introduced to Rous- seau, and at Ferney visited Voltaire. He next went to Italy, and passed over to Corsica, where, by means of an introductory letter which he received from Bousseau, he formed an intimacy with General Paoli. On his return he published an account of Corsica. About this time he was admitted an advocate at the Scotch bar, and distinguished himself in the famous Douglas cause against the Hamilton family, who laid claim to the property of the last duke of Douglas, in opposition to Mr. Archibald Douglas, the legitimacy of whose birth was disputed. The indolence of his disposition, however, coupled with his fondness for pleasure, were powerful Impediments to his advancement in the legal profession; accordingly, he made little progress as a votary oi Themis. In 1773 he accompanied l)r. Johnson in a tour through the Highlands and the western isles of Scotland, of which tour he wrote an entertaining account, published in 1781. On the death of his father he removed to London, and was admitted at the English bar, but never attained any considerable practice. By the influence of Lord Lonsdale, however, he was chosen recorder of Carlisle. In 179;) he published a book of high value in biographical literature,— "The Memoire of Dr. Johnson," in 1» Bothwell 2 vols. 4to. It is upon this admirable work that the fame of Boswell as an author rests. It has received the eomniendationof the highest autho- rities, has given gratification to thousands upon thousands of readers, and presents us with the best portrait of a great man that has ever been painted, b. at Edinburgh, 1740; d. 1795.— It may be considered a somewhat curious fact, that during the more than twenty years of acquaint- ance which subsisted between Dr. Johnson and Boswell, they had been in each other's company not more than 276 days. This period embraces their tour to the Hebrides, when they were to- gether from the 18th of August to the 22nd of November, 1773. Out of this period one of the most entertaining books that has ever been written was produced, — a book which is the richest storehouse of wit and wisdom of which any language can boast. The great merit of Boswell's " Life of Johnson" consists in this, that the author has recorded the sayings and doings of the great moralist and lexicographer without the slightest varnish or suppression, and this notwithstanding that Boswell himself frequently figures as the subject of Johnson's pungently satirical remarks. He had an intense admira- tion of his " illustrious friend," as he is never tired of designating his patron, and seems to have taken as marks of favour observations made to him by the doctor, which, in themselves, are anything but complimentary. Indeed, as has been well remarked, Boswell's great work proves him to have been at once the best biographer and the meanest or most obtuse man that ever lived. The work, besides the two editions superintended by the author, has been many times reprinted. Boswoeth, Joseph, D.D., F.E.S., &c, bos'- wurth, an eminent Anglo-Saxon scholar and phi- lologist, who was reared for the church, in which he officiated for several years, both in Eng- land and Scotland ; but whose declining health forced him to resign his duties. In 1823 he published his " Elements of Anglo-Saxon Gram* mar," which brought him into correspondence and acquaintance with some of the leading Anglo-Saxon scholars of the day. In 183S his "Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language" appeared, of which another edition, in a more compendious form, was published in ISIS. After that period he occupied himself in trans- lating several Anglo-Saxon works, and in pre- paring for publication the Anglo-Saxon and the Gothic gospels in parallel columns, b. in Derbyshire, 17SS. Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl, both'-tceU, remarkable in the history of Scotland in con- nection with JMary, queen of Scots, and his supposed share in the murder of Henry Darnley, her husband. When that un'ortunate prince was blown up in the house where he slept, in the vicinity of Holyrood palace, suspicion leA strongly upon Bothwell and the queen. Both- well was tried and acquitted. After this, lie seized Mary near Edinburgh, and carried her prisoner to Dunbar Castle, where he first endea- voured, by soothing speeches and protestations of love, to prevail on her to marry him. That she did so at last is certain ; but it is said, and seemingly with justice, that she was forced to it by the worst advantages being taken of her. During these iniquitous proceedings, Bothwell procured a divorce from liis former wife. Mary soon after created him earl of Orkney. Hut :i confederacy among the lords being formed THE DICTIONARY Botta against him, he retired to the Orkneys, and thence to Denmark, where he died in prison, it is said confessing his own guilt and the queen's innocence of the king's murder, r. in the castle of Malmoe, in 1576. — This is the historical personage chosen by Professor Aytoun for the hero of his poem of " Bothwell." (See Aytoun.) Botta, Carlo Guiseppe, bot'-ta, an Italian, who studied medicine at the university of Turin, and in 1786 took a doctor's degree. He wrote several historical works, and received a pension, with the honour of knighthood, from I harles Albert, king of Sardinia. He wrote a " History of Italy," and a continuation of Guieciardini's history from 1530 down to 1789; upon the merits of which public opinion is divided. He was also the author of a " History of American Independence," which has been highly spoken of in the United States, b. at San Giorgio, Piedmont, 1766; d. at Paris, 1S37. Botta, Paul Emile, son of the above, became French consul at Mosul, and early distinguished himself as a naturalist. After spending some years in Egypt, and making a journey through a portion of Arabia, he settled at Mosul, and in 1843 disentombed an Assyrian palace in the mound of Khorsabad, 14 jriiles from the seat of his consulship. This was before the discoveries made by Mr. Layard ; so that M. Botta may be considered the first who led the way in the dis- covery of Assyrian remains, b. at Paris, about 1800. Boufflebs, Louis Francois de, loqf-Jlai, a marshal of K ranee, who early in life entered the army, and in 10()9 became colonel of a regiment of dragoons, and distinguished himself in several actions under the gallant Turenne. hi 1708, after the battle of Oudenarde, he defended Lisle against Prince Eugene, for which he was created a peer. At the battle of Malplaquet, he effected his retreat without losing any of his artillery or soldiers. This was his last public achievement, b. 1644; d. at Fontainebleau, 1711.— When William III. took Namur, he kept Boufflers prisoner, contrary to the terms of the capitulation. The marshal asking the reason of this conduct, was told it was on account of the French having kept the garrison of Dixmude: " Then," said he, "mine ought to be detained rather than myself." " Sir," it was replied, " you are of more value than 10,000 men." Bouillon, Godfrey, due de, bool-lnwng, one of the leaders in the first Crusade. He took Antioch and Jerusalem, of which the Christian soldiery proclaimed him the first Latin king. He, how- ever, rejected the title, and contented himself with that of *' Defender and Baron of the Holy Sepulchre." In 1099 he defeated the sultan of Egypt at Ascalon. b. about 1060; d. 1100.— The glowing eulogy of Tasso preserves the memory of this warrior fresh in the minds of the lovers of historical romance. Boulton, Matthew, bole'-ton, an inventor and improver in the mechanical arts. In 1760 he entered into communication with Watt, the improver of the steam-engine ; after which the Soho works, near Birmingham, became fa- mous for the mechanical skill displayed in the construction of steam-engines. His coining- machinery was a triumph of its kind, and he, in conjunction with his partner, Watt, greatly contributed to give an impetus to British in- dustry. B. at Birmingham, 1723; d. 1809.— itoulton was of a generous aud ardent dispoei- Bourrieniie tion, and is said to have expended £47,000 in experiments on the steam-engine, before Watt had so far perfected it as to bring any return of profit. Bou-Maza, boo'-ma-za, an Arab chief, whose real name was Si Mahomet ben Abdallah. Like Abd-el-Kader, he acquired in early life a saintly reputation, and, declaring himself invulnerable, promised heaven and riches to all who assisted in the expulsion of the French from Africa. In 1845, in connection with Abd-el-Kader, he ob- tained several advantages over the generals of France, but wns subsequently, in 1846, defeated by Colonel (afterwards Marshal) St. Arnaud. Ultimately, on 10th January, 1847, General Herbillon completely routed his forces, and he surrendered in the following April to St. Arnaud. Brought to France, he had a handsome residence assigned to him in Paris, with a pension of 15,000 francs. In 1854 he quitted the French soil, commanded, during the Russian war, a body of Bashi-Bazouks, and was made a colonel in the Turkish service, b. about 1820.— (See Abd-el-Kader.) Bourbon, Charles, duke of, constable of France, boor'-bawr.g, was the son of Gilbert, count of Montpensier, and distinguished him- self at the famous battle of Marignano, in 1515, but soon after fell into disgrace, through the enmity of the mother of Francis I., whose ad- vances he had chosen to reject. On this he asso- ciated with Charles V. and the king of England against his sovereign. The plot, however, was discovered, and he escaped into Italy, where he became lieutenant - general to the emperor Charles, and afterwards his commander-in-chief. b. 1489; killed in an assault upon Rome, 1527. Boubchier, Thomas, boor'-nheer, an arch- bishop of Canterbury, who is said to have intro- duced the art of printing into England in 1464, by bringing over a compositor from Haarlem at his own expense. A more probable version of the story is, that he assisted Caxton in establish- ing his printing press at Westminster, d. I486. Boubdeilles, Peter de. (See Brantome.) Boubmont, Louis Auguste Victor de Chaisne, Marshal Count de, boor'-muisng, a French general, who, at the age of 15, entered the army, and, under the empire of Napoleon I., rose to be one of his marshals. On the fall of the emperor, he attached himself to the Bour- bons, and in 1830 was appointed to the c. mmand of the army which was to reduce Algeria under the power of France. In a few weeks he won this extensive colony, but was superseded in his command by General Clauzel, who charged him with having appropriated to his own purposes the treasure taken in one of the captured towns. After this he retired from public life, living in exile in Germany, Holland, and Kngland, as his inclination led him. On the accession of Louis Philippe he was permitted to return to France, when he took up his residence in the castle of Bourmont, in Anjou, where he lived in strict retirement to the time of Ins death, b. at Paris, 1773; d. 1846. Bourne, Vincent, born, an English poet, usher of Westminster School, whoso effusions show a classical taste and a fertile imagination. b. about 1696; d. 1747. Bourrienne, Louis Antoine Fauvelet de, boor -re-en, in his ninth year entered the military school at IJricnne, where he became acquainted with the future emperor, Napoleon I., of France. From beinjr schoolfellows they became ac- OF BIOGRAPHY. Bowdich quaintances, and from acquaintances friends, l.'ourrienne was being educated for the French artillery, but was forced to relinquish the military profession when he found that he could not hold a commission in the French army unless he could give proofs of being of noble lineage. Directing his ambition into another channel, in his twentieth year he was attached to the embassy of the Marquis de Noailles, ambassador of Louis XVI. at the court of the emperor Joseph of Austria. In 1792 L'ourrienne returned to Paris, after two yearr.' study of international law at Warsaw, and a short stay at the Polish court of King Poniatowski. Napoleon was in Paris at this time, and the friendship of the two schoolfellows was renewed. The fortunes of neither of them were very bright, and they used to share the purses of each other, and wander about the streets of Paris without employment. It was at this period that they be- held, on the 20th of June, the attack which was made by the people on the Tuileries, and which is so spiritedly described in Bourrienne's " Life of Napoleon;" but on the fall of the Bourbons and the rise of Napoleon, Bourrienne became his private secretary, a post which he held from 1796 to 1802, when he was dismissed for some scandal in connection with the house of Coulon, the army contractors. In 1805 he was appointed charge d'aifaires of France for the circle of Lower Saxony, in which office he was charged with peculation, and forced to refund a million of francs. He was now a ruined man. On the fall of Napoleon he attached himself to the Bour- bon dynasty, held for a short time the office of commissary of police in Paris, and became a deputy for the department of Yonne in the re- presentative chamber. In 1828 he was com- pelled to seek refuge in Belgium from his credi- tors, where he commenced writing his Memoirs of the emperor. This work was published in ten volumes in the course of 1829-30, and created an immense sensation. This was the greatest act of his life. The revolution of 1830 unsettled his reason, when he was put into an hospital for the insane in Caen, Normandy, where he ended his days. b. at Sens, 1769; d. 1834. Bowdich, Thomas Edward, bou'-ditck, an English traveller who formed one of the explor- ing band who have helped to render the con- tinent of Africa known to their countrymen by their explorations and writings. He was the son of a Bristol merchant, and was for a short time a partner in his father's house. In 1814, however, he embarked for Cape-Coast Castle, where his uncle, Mr. Hope Smith, was governor of the settlements belonging to the African Company. Returning to England in 1816, he was appointed the chief of a mission to the king of the Ashantces. The embassy was quite suc- cessful, mainly through the energy and talents of young Bowdich ; and in 1819 he published an account of it, under the title of "A Mission to Ashantee." He then went to Paris, where ha resided about eighteen months, engaged in the study of natural science. In 1822, after having published several works, by which he made some money, he undertook another voy- age to Africa, with the view of exploring that continent. He reached, with his wile, the mouth of the Gambia, and there, being seized with fever, died, Januarv 10, 1821. t.. at Bristol, 1790.— After his death, Mrs. Bowdich published several works, from materials collected by her husband in his various travels, 197 Bowring Bowditch, Nathaniel, bou'-ditch, an Ameri- can writer on navigation and physical and mathematical science, born at Salem, Massa- chusetts, in 1773, was the son of a cooper, and himself a sailor, in a humble position. He educated himself, learning Latin in order that, he might read the " Principia " of Newton. Besides many contributions to scientific period- icals and the transactions of learned societies, he published a translation of Laplace's "Me- caniquc Celeste," with a commentary, which is deemed of considerable value. He latterly held a lucrative situation in connection with fire and life assurance associations in his native place and Boston, and died in March. 1838. Bowles, Beverend William Lisle, boles, was educated at Oxford, and received several pre- ferments in the Church, and, in 1828, be- came canon residentiary of Salisbury Cathedral. He is distinguished in the annals of literature, not only by a great many excellent publications but by the " Pope and Bowles controversy," which lasted from 1819 to 1828. This con- troversy originated in a proposition which Mr. Bowles thus laid down in his " Essay on the Poetical Character of Pope:" — "All images drawn from what is beautiful or sublime in nature are more beautiful and sublime than images drawn from art, and are therefore more poetical; and in like manner, the passions of the human heart, which belong to nature in general, are, per se, more adapted to the higher species of poetry than those which are derived from incidental and transient manners." Both Byron and Campbell entered the lists against him. The proposition of Mr. Bowles, however, in our opinion, is sound, b. at King's Sutton- Northamptonshire, 1762 ; d. at Salisbury, in 1850. Bowles published, among other works. a collection of sonnets, and is satirized by Byron in the " English Bards and Scotch Re- viewers." Bowbiitg, Sir John, bou'-ring, a various and voluminous writer, who has distinguished him- self in the paths of philology, polities, poetry, and as a translator and reviewer. His know- ledge of the principal European languages i3 not only extensive but accurate, which is proved by the translations he has, from time to time, given to the world, of the poetry of different nations. These comprise " Specimens of the Russian Poets," " Batavian Anthology," " Spe- cimens of the Polish Poets," "Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain," " Specimens of the Poetry of the Magyars," and "Christian An- thology." In 1825 he was appointed to the editorship of the " Westminster Review," in which the exposition of the principles of Jeremy Bentham received a large share of his attention. In 1331-5 he was sent as a com- missioner to France, to report on the actual state of commerce between that country and Great Britain. He also visited Switzerland, Italy, and Syria, studying their commercial re- lations, and reporting upon them to Parliament. In 1835 he became a member of the House of Commons, in which he sat till 1837. In 1841 he was again elected, and kept his seat till 1849. Between 1838 and 1839 he produced a complete edition of the works of Jeremy Bentham, edited by himself, and published at Edinburgh, in 11 volumes. In 1S49 he was appointed British consul at Hong-Kong, and superintendent of trade in China. In 1853 he returned to Lon- don, and published his "Decimal System." aiid 1HE DICTIONARY Bowyer in 1851 was knighted and appointed governor of Hong-Kong, and her Majesty's Plenipoten- tiary in China. In 1855 he undertook a special mission to Siam, and concluded a treaty of commerce with that country. In 1859 he retired from the diplomatic service on a pension, but still acts as Envoy from the Hawaiian govern- ment to the different European courts. He rontributed occasionally to the periodical lite- rature of the day. b. at Exeter, 1792 ; d. 1672. Bowyek, William, bo'-yer, the most learned English printer of whom we have any account. Both his father and grandfather were printers; so that the noble art may be said to have be- come hereditary in his family. In 1716 he was admitted a sizar of St. John's College, Cam- bridge, where he remained till 1722. From this period he commenced contributing to various learned works in the way of corrections, anno- tations, prefaces, &c, whilst, at the same time, he superintended his printing business. In 1763 his celebrated edition of the Greek Testa- ment, with conjectural emendations, appeared. This work has been much commended and been translated into German. It is, however, as an erudite and critically accurate printer that Bowyer is celebrated, b. 1699; d. 1777. Boyd, Kobert, Lord, boid, a Scotch noble- man, was the son of Sir Thomas Boyd, of Kil- marnock, who was killed in 1439, in revenge for having murdered Lord Darnley. The son ac- quired great popularity with King James II. and the people. The former created him a peer by the title of Lord Boyd of Kilmarnock. On the death of that monarch, in 1460, he was appointed justiciary of the kingdom and one of the lords of the regency during the minority of James III. He and his family engrossed almost all the public offices to themselves, and went so far as to carry off the young king from Linlithgow to Edinburgh, where Lord Boyd got himself declared sole regent. He also effected a marriage between the king's sister and his son, afterwards Karl of Arran. In 1469 the king, at the instigation of some of his nobles, called a parliament to examine into the con- duct of Boyd, who fled to England, d. at Aln- wick, 1470.— The earl of Arran was divorced from his wife, and died in exile at Antwerp, in 1474. The unfortunate Lord Kilmarnock, who suffered in 1476, was a descendant of this house. Boydeix, John, loi-del, an ingenious artist, and magistrate of London, was brought up a land-surveyor under his father ; but seeing some landscapes which greatly pleased him, ho apprenticed himself to an engraver. In 1746 he published some small landscapes for the use of learners, and the encouragement be received induced him to persevere in engravingand pub- lishing. He also sought out English artists, to whom he was a liberal patron, particularly to Woolett. But Mr. Boydell did not confine him- self to prints. He had the honour to establish an English school of historical painting, which received the name of the Shakspeare Gallery. He also presented to the corporation of London some fine pictures for the council chamber in Guildhall. In 1791 he was made lord mayor. By the French revolution, and the consequent war, this worthy man experienced such losses as to be under the necessity of procuring an act of parliament for the disposal of the Shakspeare Gallery, and his pictures and prints, byway of lottery, b. 1719; d. 1804. * 189 Bozzaris Boybb, Abel, bwoi-yai, a French lexicogra- pher and grammarian, who quitted his country on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. He went to Geneva, and afterwards visited England, where he taught the French language and com- piled a French and English grammar and dic- tionary, which have gone through numerous editions, b. at Castres, 1664; d. in England, 1729. Boylb, Robert, boil, a learned writer and phi- losopher, the seventh son of Richard, earl of Cork. He early devoted himself to the study of natural science ; was frequently present at Oxford, where a philosophical society was held, which afterwards became the famous Koyal So- ciety, of which he was one of the earliest mem- bers. In 1654 he fixed his residence at this town, for the sake of enjoying the company of his learned friends. Here he remained tfcl 1668, applying himself principally to experimental philosophy, and contriving a more perfect air- pump than that which had hitherto been in use. Natural philosophy, however, was not Uie only subject which engaged his attention at this period of his life. He cultivated an acquaint- ance with the learned languages, and devoted so much time to the study of theology and sacred criticism, that, at the restoration of Charles II., he was pressed to enter into orders, with a view of being raised to the episcopacy. A natural diffidence, however, induced him to decline this and every other offer of preferment. Whilst labouring incessantly in the cause of science, he did not neglect the duties of the Christian philanthropist, and particularly ex- erted himself in advancing designs of charity and schemes of improvement. As a director of the East India Company, he was the principal instrument in procuring their charter; for which he only required, as a return, that they would do something towards propagating Chris- tianity in their settlements. With this view ho caused to be printed at Oxford 500 copies of the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, in the Malay tongue. He was also at Hie expense of print- ing in Arabic, Grotius's " De Veritate," etc. In 1680 he declined the honour of the presidency of the Royal Society. Three years afterwards he was engaged in promoting the propagation of the gospel among the Indians of North America. Two years before his death he was obliged to have recourse to an advertisement to prevent the intrusion of visitors, and thus gained time to perfect some important works, particularly in the department of chemistry, b. at Lismoie, in Ireland, 1626; d. in London, 1691, a week after his sister, Lady Ranelagh, with whom he had resided since 16S8. — By his will he founded an annual lecture at St. Paul's, on the principal truths of natural and revealed religion. It is said that, from imitating the stammering of other children, he, when young, contracted the habit, which afterwards proved incurable. Bozzakis, Marco, boz-za'-ris, the Leonidas of modern Greece, was a Souliote, who distin- guished himself by his devotion to his country in defending it against the Turks. He fell in the August of 1823, in a night attack upon a body of Albanians, who were advancing with the view of taking Missolonghi, which he had successfully defended for a considerable time. b. about the close of the 18th century, among the mountains of Epirus ; fell near KerpcnisL 20th August, 1823, This Greek hero was buried OF BIOGRAPHY. Braccio in Missolonghi with every mark of honour, and the Greek executive government issued a decree in which they styled him the Leonidas of modern Ureece. Bbaccio, Fortebracci, brawt-che-o, called also Braccio da Montone, from the name of his estate, was a native of Perugia, from which he was expelled by the people along with the other nobles of the city, in 1393. He then became a captain of condottiere, rose to a prominent rank among military leaders of the time, took a leading part in the wars in Italy during the first portion of the 15th century, made himself prince of Perugia, which he had reduced to sub- jection, and was finally defeated near Aquillaby Count Caldora, on the 2nd of June, 1424, and died three days afterwards from wounds re- ceived in the battle, b. 136S. BuACCiOLiifi, Francis, braivt'-cTie-o-le-ne, an Italian poet, whose poem, entitled " La CiOtC Racquistrata," published in 1605, is esteemed next to Tasso's " Jerusalem." b. at Pistoja, 1560; D. 1645. Bradley, James, brad'-le, an eminent astro- nomer, who entered the Church, but, in 1721, be- coming Savilian professor of astronomy at Ox- ford, he resigned his livings. In 1741 he suc- ceeded Dr. H alley as astronomer royal, and, at the same time, the university of Oxford pre- sented him with the degree of D.D. In the fifth year of his office he addressed a letter to the earl of Macclesfield, on the apparent motion of the fixed stars, for which he received the gold medal of the Koyal Society. In 1748 he obtained a grant of £1000 to procure instru- ments for the Greenwich observatory, and sub- sequently obtained a yearly pension of £250. b. at Sherborne, in Gloucestershire, 1692; d. at Chalford, 1762, and was buried in Minehin- hampton. — liradley was a careful observer, and Newton gave him the character of being the best astronomer in Europe. He discovered the laws of aberration and of nutation. He left behind him, in MS., a vast number of valuable astronomical observations, which were subse- quently published, and which are computed at about 60,000 in number. Bhadshaw, John, brad'-shaw, a noted English lawyer, who was named "President of the High Court of Justice," which sat in judgment orr Charles I. For discharging the duties of this office, the Parliament rewarded him with landed property worth £4,000 a year, and various offices, b. in Cheshire, 15S6 ; d. 1659. At the Restoration, his body, after being hung at Tyburn with the bodies of Cromwell and Ireton, was buried under the gallows. He is usually designated in history "Bradshaw the Regi- cide." Brady, Nicholas, bvai'-de, a divine and poet, who is well known by his version of the Psalms of David, which he executed in conjunction with Mr. Tate, and which is now generally used in churches, b. at Bandon, Ireland, 1659 ; d. rector of Richmond, in the county of Surrey, 1726. Braganza, House of, bra-gan'-sa, dates from the commencement of the loth century, and is now represented in the reigning dynasty of the kingdom of Portugal. Itsoriginatorwas a natural son of King John I., named Alfonso, who was by his father created duke of Braganza and lord of Guimaraeus. He married Beatrix, daughter and heiress of the count of Barcellos and Ourem, from which union sprang the dukes of Bra- ls» Bramaii ganca. The present line ascended the Portu- guese throne in 1640, when that people revolted against the yoke of Spain, and when the then duke of Braganca was proclaimed, and assumed the title of John IV. From that period the crown has continued in the same line. The royal family of Brazil belong to this house. liitAiiE, Tyeho, bra, a famous astronomer, was descended from a noble Swedish family, settled at Knudstorp, in Denmark, where he studied philosophy and rhetoric, with a view of making the law his profession. The solar eclipse, however, which happened whilst he was at the university of Copenhagen, in 1560, directed his attention to astronomy, which he considered as a divine study, and to which he applied himself with the greatest assiduity. In 1565 he returned home, and in a quarrel with a Danish nobleman lost his nose, which he supplied with an artificial one made of jrold, so naturally formed and painted, that the defect was hardly to be perceived. About this time he ardently entered upon the study of chemistry, in hopes of finding the philosopher's stone. After this he travelled for some years, and, on his return to Denmark, resided with his uncle, who furnished him with the means of making celestial observations ; and here it was that, in 1572, he discovered a new star in the constella- tion Cassiopea. Shortly afterwards he incurred the displeasure of his relations by a marriage which was deemed imprudent on account of the humbleness of the connexion; and the quarrel was so great, that the king was obliged to in- terfere to effect a reconciliation. At the com- mand of his sovereign, Frederick II., he was somewhat reluctantly, on account of his rank, made to read lectures on astronomy at Copen- hagen. The king, however, was so delighted with the pursuits of Brahe, that he gave him the isle of Hven or Hoen, where he laid the foundation of an observatory, to which he gave the name of Uraniberg, or the City of the Heavens. Besides this he had an observatory sunk in the ground, to which he gave the name of Stclberg, or the City of the Stars. The king added to the donation a pension and some lucrative places. In this situation Brahe re- mained about twenty years; but on the death of the king he lost his pension, and in 1596, in the time of Christian IV., was driven from his country by the united influences of ignorance, envy, and detraction. The emperor Rudolph II. pressed him to come to his dominions, and in 1601 he settled at Prague, with a pension of 3000 ducats. In 1600 he had been joined by the celebrated Kepler, and these illustrious men pursued their studies together until the death of Tycho. b. at Knudstorp, in Denmark, in 1546; d. at Prague, 1601. — He was a man of great genius, but superstitious, being addicted to judicial astrology and attentive to omens. His works show him to have been an accurate observer. The " Rudolphine Tables" and the " Historia Cielestis" are the best of his produc- tions. Bhamah, Joseph, bra' -ma, the son of a York- shire farmer, who, from being a carpenter and joiner, went to London, and adopted the pro- fession of engineer and machinist. In 1781 ho patented the lock which goes by his name, and which is considered one of the most ingenious that has ever been invented. He also mado numerous improvements in pumps, fire-engines, water-cocks, and the hydraulic; press, liis in- THE DICTIONARY Bramante d'Urbino vcntions in connexion with this last he pa- tented in 1796. His whole life was devoted to mechanical improvements, and his last patent was obtained for discovering a mode of prevent- ing dry-rot in timber, by covering it with a thin coating of Parker's Roman cement, b. at Stain- borough, in Yorkshire, 1749; n.in 1814. Bbamante D'Ubbino, Lazarus, brwa'-matcn- tai, a celebrated Italian architect, who executed several great works for the popes Alexander VI. and Julius II. His fame, however, rests on his being the architect of St. Peter's, at Rome, of which magnificent cathedral he drew the plans, laid the foundations in 1513, but did not live to see it completed, leaving the execution of it at his death to Michael Angelo Buonarotti. b. at Castle Durante, in the duchy of Ufbino, in 1444; b. at Rome, 1514. Bean, Iran, the son of Llyr, and father of Caradog, or Caractacus, king of Britain, is classed with Prydain and Dynwall, as having consolidated the form of elective monarchy in Britain. When his son was delivered up to the Romans, Bran and his family were carried to Rome, where they embraced the Christian reli- gion, and at their return introduced it among their countrymen, d. about 80 a.d. Brandon, Charles. (See Suffolk, Duke of.) Brandt, Sebastian, brant, a German poet, who wrote a number of works, the most cele- brated of which is " The Ship of Fools," a bur- lesque poem, in which he satirizes the writings of his age. It met with great success, and found translators in several countries, b. at Strasburg, 1458 ; d. 1521. (See Barclay, Alex- ander.) Bkandt, a Hamburg chemist, who in 1G69 accidentally discovered phosphorus, whilst making experiments with urine in search of gold. He received a pension from the elector of Hanover, d. about 1692. Brantome, Lord Abbot of, bran'-tome, the name given 1o Peter dc Bourdcilles. He was a licentious French writer, who, in fifteen volumes, has given us lively pictures of the times in which he lived, and is distinguished for his vivid descriptions of beauty, courtesy, and knightly prowess, b. at Perigord, 1527; J>. at Richemont, 1614. Bbasidas, bras' -i-dds, a Spartan general, who distinguished himself in the Peloponnesian war, and in 424 B.C. made himself master of Amphi- polis. He was wounded in a combat with C'leon, the Athenian general, who was endea- vouring to retake this place, and r>. 422 B.C. Bravo Murixlo, Don Juan, bra'-vo moo- reel'-yo, a modern Spanish statesman, who has been an active participator in the numerous re- cent changes in the government of his country, lie held office in 1836 under the Isturitz minis- try, and in 1840, being compromised in a con- spiracy formed against the regent Espartero, was obliged to take refuge in France for three years. In 1847 he was minister of justice under the duke of Sotomayor, and afterwards served under Narvaez, as minister of commerce, public works, and finance. When that minister re- ■ v signed, in 1850, Bravo Murillo remained at 3 the head of affairs; but .just as he seemed all- 'i powerful, he, in 1853, lost the favour of the queen, and fell. He has tilled various diplo- matic posts since 1856. b. 1803. Brat, Sir Reginald, brai, an eminent states- man, who assisted in placing Henry VII. upon the throne, and with whom he was in great 190 Breitkopf favour. Besides being a politician, he seems to have possessed a genius for architecture, as Henry the Seventh's chapel at Westminster was built under his direction, d. 1503, and was buried at Windsor. Brat, Thomas, an English divine, who, after being in Virginia, U.S., for some time, returned to England, and formed the scheme of esta- blishing parochial libraries. He laboured with great zeal in his favourite object of propagating the gospel among the Indians and negroes, and went to America several times to promote it. In 1696 he took the degree of D.D., and in 1706 accepted the living of St. Botolph, Aldgate. b. in Shropshire, 1656; d. 1730. He wrote " Catechetical Lectures," " Bibliotheca Paro- chialis," and some other religious pieces. Bray, Mrs. Anne Eliza, brai, an authoress, is the daughter of John Kempe, Esq., and was mar- ried, in 1818, to Charles Stothard, son of the eminent painter, who, having been accidentally killed in 1821, his widow was married, in 1823, to the Rev. Edward Atkins Bray, vicar of Ta- vistock. Mrs. Bray's works include " Memoirs" of her first husband, published in 1823 ; " De Foix," a romance, which appeared in 1826, fol- lowed by tales entitled "The White Hoods," " The Protestant," " Fitz of Fitzford," " The Talba, or the Moor of Portugal," "Warligh," "Trelawney of Trelawue," "Trials of the Heart," " Henry de Pomeroy," "Courtenay of Walreddon," &c. &c, to which must be added, in a different walk, " The Mountains and Lakes of Switzerland," and a "Life of Thomas Stoth- ard, R.A.," beautifully illustrated ; together with a sketch entitled "Handel : his Life, Personal and Professional, with some Thoughts on Music;" and a variety of other works. In 1857 Mrs. Bray was left a widow for the second time, and in 1859 published "Poetical Remains of Mr. Bray, with a Memoir;" and, in 1860, a selection from his sermons. Brederodb, Henry, Count, brai -dai-rod, a Dutch patriot, who joined with the counts Eg- mont and Horn in opposing the tyranny of Cardinal Granvellc, the Spanish governor of the Netherlands. In 1566 he presented to Margaret of Parma, who had succeeded Granvelle, the famous "Request," which gave rise to the in- surrection of the " Gueux" or " Beggars." Un- der the grinding oppression of the Duke of Alva's administration in the Low Countries, he retired to Germany, b. 1532; n. 1568. Bregtjkt, Abraham Louis, brai -cjoo-ai, a celebrated French clock and watch mechanician, who, at an early age, went to Paris, and first perfected those continually-going watches which wind themselves. Afterwards, he invented for watches repeating movements and escapements of all kinds, of a delicacy and precision before unknown. Breguet was a member of the Insti- tute, and of other learned societies ; and greatly enriched and extended the science of horology. b. in Switzerland, his parents being French Protestant refugees; d. at Paris, 1823. The briquet chain takes its name from him. — His grandson, Louis, was one of the first scientific men in France to apply himself to the study of the electric telegraph, and to recognise its im- mense advantages, b. 1717. Breitkopf, John Gottlieb Emmanuel, brite/- kopf, an ingenious German printer and letter- founder, who considerably improved the shape of printing types. He also devised a method of priming music, maps, aud charts with typed, OF BIOGRAPHY. Bremer b. at Leipsic, 1719; d. 1794.— He is the author of a treatise on the " Origin of Printing 1 ," and others on the " History of Playing-cards," the " Invention of Paper made from Linen," and the " Invention of Engraving on Wood in Europe." Bremer, Fredrika, bre'-mer, an eminent Swedish novelist, known to English readers by her novels of "Neighbours," "The President's Daughter," "Life in Dalecarlia," and several other works, mostly translated by Mrs. Mary Howitt. b. at Abo, in Finland, 1802 ; d. 1865. Brexnus, hren'-nut, a general of the Gauls, vho invaded Italy, 332, b.c, defeated the Ro- mans at the river Allia, and entered their city without opposition. The Romans fled into the Capitol, and left the whole city in the possession of their enemies. The Gauls climbed the Tar- peian rock in the night, and the Capitol would have been taken, had not the Romans been awakened by tho cackling of the sacred geese which were kert in the temple of Juno, and incited by the example of Manlius, afterwards surnamed Capitolinus, immediately repelled the enemy. Camillus, who was in banishment, marched to the relief of his country, and so totally destroyed the Gauls, that scarcely one remained to tell the news of their fate. Brewster, Sir David, broo'-tter, a distin- guished experimental philosopher, whose dis- coveries in reference to the properties cf light have led to great improvements in tho illumi- nation of lighthouses. In 1815 he received the Copley medal for his paper on the " Polarization of Light by Reflection," and in the following year, for his discoveries in physics, received from the Institute of France 1500 francs, which was the half of their prize. In 1816 he invented the kaleidoscope, in 1818 received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society, and in 1830 was presented with the medal of the Royal Society for his further researches on the properties of light. In the same year, with Davy, Herschel, and Babbage, he originated the British Associa- tion, thje first meeting of which was held at York, in 1831. He was now knighted by Wil- liam IV., and decorated with the Hanoverian Guelphic order. In 1841 he became principal of St. Leonard's College, at St. Andrew's. In 1849 he was elected president of the British As- sociation, and the same year had the high honour of being chosen, in the place of Berzelius, one of the eight foreign associates of the French Aca- demy of Sciences. He is also member of the Royal Academies of Prussia, Austria, Rus- sia, Sweden, and Denmark ; and in 1859 was unanimously chosen principal of the university of Edinburgh. He has received many other honours and decorations from almost all parts of the world. His writings on scientific sub- jects are very numerous, including the "Me- moirs of the Life and Writings of Sir Isaac Newton," "The Martyrs of Science," "Letters on Natural Magic," "More Worlds than One," &c, and for twenty-two years he edited the "Edinburgh Encyclopaedia." Of the "Edin- burgh Philosophical Journal," he was also one of the editors, as well as of the "Edinburgh Journal of Science." B. at Jedburgh, 1781 ; d. 1808. Sir David has been twice married ; first, to a daughter of the celebrated M'Pherson, the translator or author of Ossian's poems ; and second, to Jane, daughter of the late Thomas Purnell, Esq., Scarborough. The question as to whether or not he was the discoverer of the itereorcope has given rise to considerable con- 181 Briggs troversy, that honour being also claimed by Professor Wheatstone. Bridgewateb, Francis Egcrton, duke of, bridj' -water, was the youngest son of Scroop, fourth earl, and first duke, of Bridgcwater, and succeeded to the title in 1748, on tho death of his brother. He has been styled the " Father of British Inland Navigation," being mainly instrumental in the cutting of the first navi- gable canal in England. This was from Salford, near Manchester, to Worsley, and succeeded so well, that another was executed to pass from the river Worsley, over the Irwell, to Manches- ter. This canal begins at Worsley Mill, about seven miles from Manchester, and has an aque- duct over the river Irwell, where the canal runs thirty-nine feet above the river, and where the barges pass on the canal, and the vessels in the river sail under them. This aqueduct begins at Barton Bridge, three miles from Worsley, and is carried two hundred yards over a valley. The duke afterwards extended his canal to the Mer- sey. He spent prodigious sums upon these projects, to accomplish which he lived on the simplest fare, and with scarcely a servant to attend him. By them, however, ho ultimately realized an immense fortune, b. 1736; d. 1803. (See Brindlet.) BRiDGEWATER,earl of, Francis Henry Egcrton, eighth earl of Bridgcwater, ninth Viscount Brackley, and Baron Ellesmere, was the younger son of John, Lord Bishop of Durham, by Lady A. S. Grey, daughter of the Duke of Kent, chamberlain to Queen Anne. He was a person of learning, and published an edition of the "Hippolytus" of Euripides, with scholia, various readings, and copious notes in Latin. He is noticed here chiefly on account of bequeathing £8000 to be applied to the publication of one thousand copies of a work "On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as Manifested in the Creation, &c." This bequest elicited a series of separate works, known as the " Bridge- water Treatises," written by some of the most distinguished religious and scientific men of the time. The earl also bequeathed £12,000 to tho British Museum, the annual income of which was to be applied to the purchase of MSS., and the taking proper care of them for the use of the public, b. 1758 ; d. in Paris, 1829.— In his latter years this earl fell into singular eccentri- cities; among which was a great partiality for canine company, which he carried so far as to dress some of his favourite dogs in the garments of men, and have them at table to dine with him. Brienne, John de, bre'-en, was elected king of Jerusalem in 1210. The emperor Frederick II. married his daughter, having the kingdom of Jerusalem as a dowry. Brienne was afterwards elected emperor of Constantinople, which he defended with great bravery against the Greeks and Bulgarians. On one occasion, says Gibbon, he made a sally at the head of his cavalry, and out of forty-eight squadrons of the enemy, n<> more than three escaped from the edge of his invincible sword, n. 1237. — A contemporary poet affirms that the deeds of valour which this hero performed outshone those of Hector, Ajax, Roland, Uggier, and Judas Maccabrcus. His reign is given at length by Du Cange, in the third book of his " History of Constantinople." His avarice, however, disgraced his other quali- ties, and hastened the ruin of the empire. Briggs, Henry, brigs, an English mathemaf i- cian, who, in 1596, was appointed Gresham rca- THE DICTIONARY Briggs der in geometry, which he resigned in 1615, on being made Savilian professor at Oxford, b. it Warleywood, near Halifax, Yorkshire, 1556 ; d. at Oxford, 1630.— He was the first improver of logarithms, after Napier, the original inven- tor, whom he visited twice, and each time re- sided with, in Scotland. He published, in 1624, a work of stupendous labour, entitled " Arith- metica Logarjthmica," containing logarithms of 30,000 natural numbers. He also wrote some other valuable books on mathematical sub- jects. Briggs, Henry Pcrronct, B.A., an eminent English painter, both in history and portraits. The principal of his historical works are " The First Interview between the Spaniards and Peruvians," and "The Ancient Britons in- structed by the Romans in the Mechanical Arts." Among his portraits are, Mrs. Siddons, Mrs. Opie, Reverend Sydney Smith, and the Duke of Wellington, b. 1793; d. in London, 1844. — One of his composition -pictures is "Othello relating his Adventures to Desde- mona." Beigjiam, Nicholas, hrig'-ham, a lawyer and poet, who deserves to be noticed, if for nothing more than his'admirationof Chaucer, the father of English poetry. He caused the remains of that poet to be removed to the south transept of Westminster Abbey, where he erected a monument to his memory, b. in Oxfordshire ; b. 1559. — He wrote " Memoirs of Eminent Per- sons," " Memoirs by Way of Diary," " Miscel- laneous Poems." Bbight, the Bight Honourable John, brite,n manufacturer of Rochdale, in Lancashire, who became an active member of an association called the Anti Corn- Law League, when it was formed in 1838, and, in conjunction with Mr. Cobden, proved himself one of the warmest ad- vocates of the repeal of the corn laws. In 1843 lie unsuccessfully contested the representation of the city of Durham ; but in the next election which took place, he was returned for that city, and sat for it till 1847, when he was elected member for Manchester. In 1854 he formed one of the deputation who made a journey to Bussia for the purpose of persuading the Em- peror Nicholas to adopt a peace policy, his ad- vocacy of which for a time impaired his popu- larity, and, in 1857, he lost his seat for the cotton city. In 1858 he was returned member for Birmingham, and again in the general elec- tions of 1859, 1865, and 1868. In the year last named, when Mr. Gladstone came into power, lie accepted office for the first time as President of the Board of Trade, He has always pro- fessed a warm admiration for American insti- tutions, b. 1311. Bbil, Paul, bril, a famous landscape pain- ter, was born at Antwerp in 1556, went to Borne during the pontificate of Gregory XIII., and soon acquired a great reputation there for excellence in his particular department of art. He introduced figures from ancient mythology into many of his works, and it is said that Annibale Caracci sometimes painted these figures for him. Bril's masterpiece is con- sidered to be a large landscape in fresco, in the Sala Clementina, in the Vatican, which was executed in 1602 for Pope Clement VIII.; this picture was sixty-eight feet long, and of con- siderable height, d. at Bome, 1622.— His bro- ther Matthew was also a landscape painter of Borne merit, but not equal to Paul, He, how- 192 Brissot ever, died at the early age of 34, when his powers were not fully developed. Bbindlet, James, briM(t-U, an eminent engi- neer, who, after serving his apprenticeship to the trade of a millwright, and discovering his skill in the erection of several mills, was em- ployed by the duke of Bridgewater on his, famous canal from Worsley to Manchester, which he afterwards extended to the Mersey. He was next employed to construct a canal from the Grand Trunk, near Haywood, Staffordshire, to the river Severn, near Bewdlej, by which mc;>us Bristol obtained a communication with Liver- pool. In consequence of the success of his undertakings, his reputation stood very high, and he was engaged in a variety of similar plant" in different parts of the kingdom. B. at Thorn- sett, Derbyshire, 1716; d. at Turnhurst, Staf- fordshire, 1772. {See Bbidgewateb.) Brinvilliebs, Maria Margaret, marchioness of, bra-veel'-e-ai, a notorious poisoner. In 1651 she was married to the marquis, and formed an improper attachment to St. Croix, a young cavalry officer. The latter was imprisoned in the Bastile, and there learnt from Exili, an Italian, the composition of poisons, which art he afterwards taught to his mistress. They then commenced a series of poisonings, the first victim being the marquis's father, then his two brothers and his sister, with a view to the ulti- mate possession of their fortunes. These crimes were not discovered until the death of St. Croix, in 1672, when there were found on him somo papers which cast suspicion on themarchiones3. She fled, but was arrested at Liege, brought to Paris, and executed, 1676. Brissot, John Peter, brees'-so, one ofthe leading men in the French revolution, the son of a pastry-cook, and bred to the law, which ho never followed. An acquaintance with English books gave him a turn tor politics ; when, i r a time, he settled at Boulogne, and editej the " Courrier de l'Europe." On the suppression of this journal, he went to Paris, where he soon afterwards published his "Theory of Criminal Laws," 2 vols. 8vo. He began, also, a book entitled, " A Philosophical Library of Criminal Laws," and wrote a volume on "Truth; or, Meditations on the Means of reaching Truth in all Branches of Human Knowledge." About this time he married Mademoiselle Dupont, who was employed as reader to the daughter of the duke of Orleans. Finding little encourage- ment in France, however, he went to London, where he conducted a periodical journal called " Universal Correspondence on all that concerns the Happiness of Men in Society." This jour- nal was designed to disseminate in France such political principles as were based on reason. It therefore gave offence to the French govern- ment, and was seized and suppressed. On his return to Paris, in 1784, he was sent to the Bastile on the charge of having assisted in the publica- tion of a libel; but obtained his release by the interest of the duke of Orleans, whose ambitious projects on the government he laboured, by his talents, to advance. His political pamphleteer- ing activity forced him to flee from France, when he went to Holland, and thence to Ame- rica. After a time he again returned to France, and became a warm advocate of republican principles during the revolutionary period. By his exertions he created a party called Brisso- tincs, or Girondists, from the members of the department of Giroudc, uf which it chiefly con- OF BlOGHAPfiY. Britannicus sisted. He was, however, adverse to the execu- tion of the king, which he proposed to be de- ferred till the perfection of the constitution. The ascension of Robespierre to power was the signal for the downfall of Brissot and his party, lie and they were denounced and arrested, to expiate upon the scaffold their principles and opinions, b. near Chartres, 1754; guillotined, with twenty other Girondists, October 31, 1793. Britannicus, bri-tan'-i-kus, son of the em- peror Claudius, by his third wife, Messalina. His original name was Tiberius Claudius Ger- manicus, which was subsequently changed to Britannicus, from the conquests which were made in Britain, b. 42 j poisoned by Nero in his fourteenth year. Bbitton', John, brif-ton, an architectural, antiquarian, and topographical writer, who, from being an humble compiler of street song-books, rose to attempt greater things, and succeeded in producing a large number of valuable illustrated works, which, at the time of their publication, had the effect, in no small degree, of exciting the public interest in reference to our national antiquities, b. near Chippenham, Wiltshire, 1771 ; D. 1857. Bbocklksby, Richard, broV-elt-be, a physi- cian, who settled in London, acquired conside- rable wealth, and became acquainted with Dr. Johnson. When the proposal for the increase of the pension of that great man failed, he ge- nerously offered him £100 a year for life, which the doctor declined to accept. He next urged him to live with him, that he might have him continually under his care, and finally became " his physician in ordinary, and saw him almost every day." To Mr. Burke he bequeathed in his will £1000 ; but finding that the affairs of the great statesman were embarrassed, he gave it to him in his lifetime, b. at Minehead, in Somersetshire, 1722; d. 1797. Apart from the pecuniary benevolence of such a man as liroek- lesby, it is impossible not to admire the goodness and humanity with which his whole disposition seems to have been imbued. " You write to me," says Dr. Johnson, a few months before his own death — "you write to me with a zeal that ani- mates, and a tenderness that melts me." In presenting Burke with the £1000, he enhances its value a hundred-fold by the kind and hand- some manner in which it is done. " That you may long live," he says, " for talent, an orna- ment to human kind, and for your country, your friends, and family, the same happy man in prosperity, as you have ever approved yourself whilst withdrawn from the sunshine of a court; this, with much more (if anything can be better), is the fervent wish of, my dear Burke, your sincere and ever affectionate, humble ser- vant, Richabd Brocklesby." He published an essay on the " Mortality of Horned Cattle," 8vo, 1746 ; " Economical and Medical Obser- vations from 1733 to 1763, tending to the Im- provement of Medical Hospitals," 8vo, 1764; and some papers in the Philosophical Transac- tions. Bhodebip, William John, brod'-e-rip, was for thirty-four years a police magistrate in the me- tropolis, but is noticed here on account of his merits as a naturalist. He is the author of by fir the largest number of papers in the zoolo- gical department of the " Penny Cyclopaedia," as well as of wori.s entitled " Zoological Recrea- tions," "Leaves from the Note-book of a Natu- ralist," and numerous papers in the " Quarterly ISM Bronte Review." He had a splendid collection of shells, which have been purchased by the British Museum, b. at Bristol, 1787; d. at Rich- mond, 1859. Bbodib, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart., bro'-de, an eminent physician, whose practice is most extensive. In 1811 he was presented, by the Royal Society, with the Copley medal, for his papers on physiology; and in 1814 produced his " Experiments and Observations on the In- fluence of the Nerves of the Eighth Pair on the Secretions of the Stomach." His professional progress has been gradual, but sure ; and, ir 1832, he was appointed sergeant-surgeon to the queen. In 1834 he was created a baronet ; and in 1850 received the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford. He is a member of several scientific societies, and has produced various other works connected with his profession, b. at Wintcrslow, Wiltshire, 1783 ; d. 1862.— His eldest son, Mr. Benjamin Collins Brodie, M.A., F.R.S., is professor of botany in the university of Oxford. Bboglie, Victor Maurice, Count de, br6-le-ai, a French general, was born of a good family at Quercy, served with glory in the wars of Louis XIV., and was made a marshal of France, d. 1727.— His son Francis-Marie was also a mar- shal of France, and distinguished himself greatly in Italy, in the campaigns of 1733 and 1734.— His son, the celebrated Marshal de Brog- lie, commanded with great glory in the Seven Years' War. He quitted France in 1794, and, after residing in England some time, went to Russia, where he obtained a military rank equal to that which he had held in France. — His son Claude Victor, prince of Broglie, became active on the side of the popular party at the com- mencement of the French Revolution, and was made marechal-de-eamp. Guillotined 1794. Bhome, Adam de, brume, an English divine, who founded Oriei College, Oxford. Lived in the 14th century. Bbomlky, William, brom'-le, an eminent English line engraver, was born ir the Isle of Wight, in 1/69, and was held in high esteem by Sir Thomas Lawrence, Stothard, Fnseli, and Flaxman. ». 1842. — His son John war. also an engraver, but in mezzotint, in which style he had few equals, b. 1795; d. 1839, before his father. His principal works are — tho " Trial of Lord William Russell," and of " Queen Caroline," after Hayter ; " Lady Jane Grey re- fusing the Crown," after G. It. Leslie ; "Monks Preaching at Seville," after 0. Lewis; "The Duke of Atholl Hunting in Glen Tilt," after Landseer; and " The Reform Banquet," after Haydon. _ BKOKii', Charlotte, bront-e, was the daugh- ter of the Reverend Patrick Bronte, curate of Haworth, in Yorkshire. She married her fa- ther's curate, the Rev. Arthur Bell Nicholls, and, with her two sisters, under the assumed names of Currer, Acton, and Ellis Bell, became widely known to the readers of light literature. Charlotte, as an authoress, was the most success- ful of the three, and, by the production of her " Jane Eyre," " Shirley," and " Villette," ac- quired a large reputation, b. 1816; d. a year after her marriage, 1855. — Anne wrote the "Tenant of Wildfield Hall," and, in conjunction with her sister Emily, "Wuthering Heights," and " Agnes Grey." She died, 1843 ; and Emily, in 1819. — The three sisters also produced, in 1810, a volume of poems. O THE DICTIONARY Brooke Brooke, Sir James, brook, rajah of Sarawak, an enterprising Englishman, who early entered the Indian army, and served in the Burmese war. He was severely wounded at Rungpoor, and soon after quitted tho service. Qxx the death of his father, who had been in the East India Company's civil service, ho found himself possessed of a large fortune. Having in 1830 made a voyage to the Malay archipelago, he, in 1835, purchased a yacht of 140 tons, and, getting together an expert crew, set sail for the East, with the avowed purpose of destroying the Malay pirates. Landing at Sarawak, a province in theN.E. of Borneo, he gained the affection of Muda Hassim, uncle of the sultan of the island, and having assisted in suppressing a rebellion of the Dyaks, he received the title of rajah of Sarawak, — a title reluctantly confirmed in 1841 by the Bornean sultan. He now devoted all his energies to the extinction of piracy, in which he was very successful. But the sultan having caused Muda Hassim, and other sup- porters of the English, to be massacred, Sir James, with the assistance of Admiral Coch- rane, led an expedition against the capital, de- feated the sultan's army, and obtained the cession to England of the island of Labuan, destined by its position to become an important commercial station. On his return to Great Britain, in 1847, the rajah was received with great honours, obtaining the decoration of the Bath, and the title of governor of Labuan, with a salary of £2000 a year. He went back to the East, and came, in 1851, a second time to England, to defend himself against the fierce ittack made in the House of Commons upon (lis pirate-killing propensities. The charges against him were not proved. In February, 1857, at Sarawak, an insurrection of the Chinese population broke out, threatening destruction to all the European settlers, who were obliged to fly ; but the outbreak was put down shortly after by Sir James and a body of Dyaks, In 1853 he returned to England, and remained there until 1861, when he again visited Borneo. Short- ly after this, an acknowledgment of the inde- pendence of Sarawak was obtained from the British government, and a consul appointed there. During the closing years of his life, Sir James Brooke resided at Burrator, in Devon, where he died, June 11, 1SG3 ; b. at Bandel, in Bengal, 1303. — He was succeeded by his nephev, Charles, who only survived him a few months. Brooke, Henry, an Irish author, who, after a poetical effort on " Universal Beauty," which gained the approbation of Pope, produced his " Gustavus Vasa," which the government would not permit to be acted, on account of the boldness of its language. This opposition in- creased his fame, and the play had a great sale. The prince of Wales became his friend ; but though every prospect of advancement was pre- sented to him, he relinquished all and returned to his native country of Ireland, where he con- tinued the remainder of his days in privacy. He wrote some piece?; for tho Irish stage, which were successful, and the novels known as the " Fool of Quality," and " Juliet Grenville." n. at Rantavan, Ireland, 1700; n. in Dublin, 17S3. Brooks, Shirley, brooks, a modern English author, who at lirst studied for the bar, but relinquished the law to write dramatic pieces and tales, which were received with favour. In 1854 lie visited, for the "Morning Chronicle" newspaper, Southern Russia, Turkey, and Egynt. 194 Brougham His letters were afterwards collected and pub- lished in one volume, b. 1815. d. 1874. Broome, William, broom, an English poet, who was employed by Pope in writing notes on the " Iliad," and translating part of the " Odyssey," for which he received £500 and one hundred copies. Afterwards, however, Pope gave him a place in the " Dunciad." In 1728 he was created LL.D., and obtained the rectory of Pulham, in Norfolk, and the vicarage of Eye, in Suffolk, b. in Cheshire; d. 1745.— To Broome Dr. Johnson gives the credit of producing smooth and mel- lifluous lines, and a diction select and elegant. Buoscni, Carlo, bros'-ke. (See Farinelli.) Brougham, Henry, Lord, broo'-ham, or bro'- ham, received his education at the High School and university of his native city of Edinburgh, early distinguishing himself by his mathemati- cal studies. He was designed for the legal pro- fession ; but, previous to his settling down as a practitioner, he travelled for some time on the continent, storing his mind with such useful knowledge as came within the scope of his ob- servation. On his return he was admitted a member of the Edinburgh Society of Advocates; and, having made the acquaintance of Horner, Jeffrey, and several other talented young men, a "Speculative Society" was formed, in which Brougham soon distinguished himself as an extemporaneous debater. In 1802 the " Edin- burgh Review " was started, and Brougham, after the third number, was admitted as a con- tributor to its pages. He was at this period only twenty-three years of age ; but was fresh and vigorous in his intellect, hale and healthful in his body, and greatly ambitious of literary fame. He had for his coadjutors Horner and Brown, the metaphysician, neither of whom was more than twenty-four, Jeffrey, who was twenty- nine, Sydney Smith, who was thirty-one, and Allen, who was the oldest, yet not more than thirty-two. Brougham, however, was the largest and most versatile contributor ; and although the pay was only £10 a sheet, it was soon more than doubled. Whilst he was devoting his ener- gies to the "Review," he was also writing " An Enquiry into the Colonial Policy of the Euro- pean Powers," which in 1803 was published in Edinburgh in two volumes, and was considered a remarkable work for so young a man to pro- duce. Finding the practice of the Scottish bar but a limited field for such ambition as his, he went to London, where, in 1807, we find him qualifying himself for the English bar. In 1S08 he began to practise as an English barrister at the court of King's Bench, and on the northern circuit. Here he soon became distinguished by his eloquence; and, as an ally of the Whig party, was returned for Camelford to the House of Commons, by the Earl of Darlington, who was the pu! ron of the borough. His maiden speech was delivered on the 5th of March, 1810; and although not remarkable for any quality beyond its general ability and appropriateness, still it was sufficiently striking to fix attention upon the man as likely to prove an able auxiliary to his party. He soon became accustomed to the new arena into which his abilities had called him. He measured the men with whom he had to contend. He took his stand upon the con- sciousness of the strength and variety of his own intellectual attainments. When he spoke, he delivered himself with a daring vehemence, and an unexampled fluency. Theic was no hesitation, no confusion, no timidity in hid OF BIOGRAPHY. Broughton utterance. On rolled the stream of his elo- quence, strong from conviction, vehement from passion, and burning with invective as the occa- sion demanded. He soon stood all but alone in the house, Canning being the only one, in the opposition lists, that dared to oppose him. From 1812 to 1816 he was out of parliament, but in that year was returned for Winchelsea, again nnder the patronage of the earl of Darlington. The splendour and versatility of his talents were now universally acknowledged, when, in 1820, he was called upon to undertake the de- fence of Queen Caroline against her husband, George IV.; and this trial greatly increased his popularity. In 1830 he became lord-chancellor, under the administration of Earl Grey. In 1834 a change of ministry took place, Sir Robert Peel having come into office. In the following year another change occurred, when Lord Mel- bourne became premier, and Lord John Russell home secretary. From this government Lord Brougham was excluded.but upon what grounds has never been clearly ascertained. From that time his defection, if it can be so called, from the Whigs dates. As an ex-chancellor, he has lived upon his pension of £5000 a year, but by no means the life of an idler, or of one who is weary of well-doing in the affairs of his country. Throughout his whole career he has been on the side of reform, and into whatever question he has entered, he has pursued it with an ardour and a perseverance which could only have been sustained by the most powerful con- viction of its necessity. In 1821 he took a pro- minent part with Dr. Birkbeck in the establish- ment of literary and scientific institutions throughout the country, and was the principal founder of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. He has been the unwearied advo- cate of slave emancipation, and has strenuously laboured in the cause of popular education. Amid the multifarious and exciting duties which devolve upon the legal politician and statesman, he has ever remembered the sweets of literature and the pleasures of science, pursuing them both with the fervour of a devotee. In 1858 his speech at the inauguration of a monument to the me- mory of Newton, in Lincolnshire, was a master- piece of its kind; and at the meeting of the Bri- tish Association, in the sr.me year, he delivered an address, which showed how well he was fitted todigest masses of materials into succinct forms, and to make subservient to his purposes every kind of knowledge, to the acquirement of which a ling and industrious life enabled him to de- vote himself. He has also been active as a law reformer, and during the last few years has chiefly directed his attention to the promotion of social science, in connexion with the associ- ation bearing that name. Lord Brougham was married, in 1819, to Mary Anne, daughter of 'lhomas Eden, deputy - auditor of Greenwich Hospital, and niece of Lords Auckland and Henley, by whom he had one daughter, who died young. The peerage reverts to Mr. Wil- lism "Brougham and his heirs male. 2. at Edin- burgh, 1773. d. at Cannes, May 7, 1SG8. BitoconTOX, Lord. (Sec lIonnorsE.) Bkown, Robert, broun, the founder of the sect called Brownists, was descended of a good family, and educated at Cambridge. Having formed, about 1530, a religious society at Nor- wich, he was imprisoned, but by means of treasurer Burleigh, to whom he was related, he obtained his liberty. After a life of difficulties, 105 Brown on account of religious principle and zeal, he ended his days at Northampton gaol, where he had been imprisoned for an assault, u. 15-, Dr. John, a clergyman and author, was born at Rothbury, 'in Northumberland, in 1715, of Scottish parents. He took his degree at Cambridge with reputation, and while living at Carlisle on a minor canonry and lectureship, acted bravely as a volunteer against the rebels in 1715. In 1746 he was invited by the Empress of Russia to go to St. Petersburg and organize a system of education ; but ill health prevented his accepting the invitation. He mainly de- voted himself to literature, and produced several volumes of poems, essays, and plays; but the state of his health and other vexations brought on a fit of insanity, and in Sept. 1766 he cut his throat, and thus miserably perished by his own hand. Bisowit, Lancelot, a landscape gardener and architect, styled by Bepton "the immortal Brown," but more commonly designated " Ca- pability Brown," from his constantly talking of the capabilities of landscapes for purposes of ornamental gardening, was originally a kitchen gardener, but raised himself to be the great authority on landscape eardenin? r>f bis day, as well as ota tat; improvement ot grounds, ar.d on fam.'y architecture. In early life he was engaged by Lord Cobliam on the grounds at Stowe, alter which he was similarly employed by other persons of distinction. He was high sheriff ol Huntingdonshire in 1770, and was universally respected for integrity, intelligence, and amiability of demeanour. It has been said of him, that " he not only realized a handsome fortune, but he graced lus acquired position of a gentleman by the manners and feelings of one." His taste in gardening has since been questioned ; but the buildings erected by him, which are principally country mansions, are allowed to be models of comfort and conveni- ence, n. in Northumberland, 1715; d. 1783. Beow>-, Thomas, M.D., one of the most dis- tinguished of modern metaphysicians, who studied in Edinburgh, and who, in 1806, entered into co-partnership with Dr. Gregory. Dr.gald Stewart, professor of moral philosophy, being indisposed in the winter of 1808-9, engaged Dr. Brown to read lectures for him in his class. In this capacity his success was so complete that, in 1810, he was induced to resign his practice, and accept the appointment of colleague to Dugald Stewart in the chair of moral philo- sophy, in the university of Edinburgh, n. at Kirkmabrcck, Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland, 1778; d. at Brompton, London, whither he had removed for his health, 1820. — His lectures on the I'hilosophv of the Human Mind were pub- lished after his decease, and they have been pronounced masterpieces of their kind. His style is certainly the most captivating that has ever been employed to convey a knowledge of philosophy, lie was the author of several poems which arenow forgotten, and one of the voung O 3 THE DICTIONARY Brown men whose talents contributed to the popu- larity and establishment of the " Edinburgh Eeview." (See Brougham.) Brows', Captain Sir Samuel, R.N., a naval officer, who rose to the rank of commander, but in 1842 accepted a retired captaincy. He de- voted much of his time to civil engineering 1 , and may be regarded as the first to introduce the use of chain-cables and suspension-bridges. Telford adopted his principle in constructing -the Menai Bridge. In 182 L Captain Brown constructed the Trinity suspension pier at New- haven, near Edinburgh, and subsequently seve- ral other bridges and piers, especially the one at Brighton. He was knighted in 1835. b. in London, 1776 ; d. 1852. Brows, Kobert, D.C.L., P.R.S., an eminent botanist, was the son of a Scottish Episcopalian clergyman, and educated for the medical pro- fession, accompanying, in 1795, a Scotch fen- cil)lc regiment to Ireland. His peculiar aptitude for botanical study had, however, already de- veloped itself; and on his friend Sir Joseph Banks's recommendation, he threw up his com- mission, and, in 1801, embarked as naturalist in the expedition under Captain Flinders, for the survey of the Australian coasts. Thence he returned to England, in 1805, bringing with him nearly 4000 species of plants, a large pro- portion of which were entirely new to science, and also an inexhaustible store of new ideas in relation to the characters, distribution, and affinities of the singular vegetation which dis- tinguishes the great continent of Australia from every other botanical region. To work out these ideas, both in relation to the plants of New Holland and in their comparison with those of other parts of the world, with won- derful sagacity, with the utmost minuteness of detail, and, at the same time, with the most comprehensive generalization, was the labour of many succeeding years. His memoirs on Asclepiadea; and Proteaeese, his " Prodromus Flora? Nova; Hollandia;," vol. i., published in 1810, and his "General Remarks, Geographical and Systematical, on the Botany of Terra Australis," published in 1814, revealed to the scientific world how great a master in botanical science had arisen among us. The natural system of Jussieu, with important modifica- tions, was adopted by him, and led to its general substitution in place of the Linnrcan method. Honours were showered on him from all lands. His illustrious friend Alexander von Humboldt justly called him " Botanicorum facile Princeps ;" and after the death of Dryan- dcr, in 1810, he received the charge of the noble library and splendid collections of Sir Joseph Banks, who bequeathed to him their enjoyment for lite. In 1827 these were, with his assent, transferred to the British Museum, where he became keeper of the botanical department, re ceiving also a pension of £200 per annum, in recognition of his distinguished merits, b. at Montrose, Dec. 21, 1773; d. in London, June 10, 135S. — Robert Brown was a truthful, amiable, and humorous companion, and possessed of an uprightness of judgment which rendered him an invaluable counsellor. He was for several years president of the Linnsean Society, and was succeeded, as a keeper of the botanical de- partment in the British Museum, by his friend and associate, John J. Bennett. Brown, John, D.D., an eminent Scottish divine, and professor of exegetieal divinity to 190 Browne the United Presbyterian Church in Scotland, was born at Whitburn, Linlithgowshire, in 1784. He was a superior Biblical critic, and published a great many works, principally in exposition of the Scriptures. Among his best works are his " Expository Lectures on the First Epistle of Peter," and "The Law of Christ respecting Civil Obedience." He also published "Dis- courses and Sayings of Our Lord Jesus Christ," an " Exposition of the Epistle to the Ephesians," "Discourses suited to the Lord's Supper," and other theological works, besides a controversial work on the voluntary church, question. He held a very high position in the religious body to which he belonged, and was universally esteemed for his amiable character, and extensive and accurate learning, d. Oc- tober 13, 1858. — His son, John Brown, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.S.E., &c., is also well known in the literary world, but his labours are in a different field from those of his father. He has written largely on professional and other sub- jects, and has published two volumes of essays under the title of " Hora; Subsecivu;," besides contributing to the " North British Review," a religious publication called " Good Words," the " Scotsman " newspaper, and other periodicals. He has written a good deal on " Our Dogs," and, as has been very justly remarked, " has done for them with his pen what Landsecr has with his brush." b. 1810. Brown, General Sir George, entered the army in 1806 as an ensign in the 43rd regi- ment of foot. In 1807 he was a lieutenant, and took part in the bombardment of Copenhagen. He served throughout the whole of the Penin- sular war, from 1808 to 1814, durinjr which he was wounded at Talavera, and led the forlorn hope at the storming of Badajoz. He was, in 1814, made a lieutenant-colonel, and served in the short American war. Rising through the various ranks of his profession, he was made a lieutenant-general in 1851, and in 1854 com- manded the light division, which distinguished itself at the battle of the Alma, in the Crimea. On November 5, 1854, he was severely wounded at Inkermann, and was obliged to relinquish his command, and retire for a time to Malta. In the following year he returned to his com- mand, and was created a Knight Commander of the Bath. He had the command-in-chief of the storming party which was unsuccessful in the first attack on the Redan at Sebastopol, and shortly afterwards returned to England. In 1856 he was gazetted " General in the army for dis- tinguished service in the field." In 18CU-5 he was commander of the forces in Ireland, is. near Elgin, Scotland, 1790; D. August 27, 1865. Bbowtte, Sir Thomas, an eminent physi- cian, who having taken his degrees in arts, went to Leyden, where he became an M.D., and in 1642 published his famous book, the " Religio Medici," which excited uncommon attention at home and abroad. In 1636 he settled at Norwich as a physician, ond acquired a goo I practice. In 1646 appeared bis book on " Vulgar Errors," in fb>'_ Charles II. honoured him with knighthood in 1671. b. in London, 1605; b. at Norwich, 1682. — His works were printed in one volume, folio, after his death, and Dr. Johnson wrote his lire. Browne, William, an English minor poet, was born of a good family at Tavistock, Devon- shire, in 1590. He was tutor to Robert Dormer, the "handsome" carl of Carnarvon, and was OF BIOGRAPHY. Browne sfterwards attached to the family of the earl of Pembroke. His works consist principally of eclogues, pastorals, &c. ; he was especially happy In describing rural scenery, but his narratives are dull and heavy. His works, in three vo- lumes, were published in a complete form in 1772, and included bis " Masque of the Inner Temple," which had previously remained in MS. His death is believed to have occurred in 1645, and it is said he had acquired wealth sufficient to purchase an estate. Browne, Sir William, an English physician, T.ho left a sum for two prize medals, to be given annually at Cambridge for the best odes ; and wrote several ingenious poems, miscellaneous tracts, speeches, and a work entitled "Opus- cula." He also translated Dr. Gregory's " Ele- ments of Catoptrics and Dioptrics," from Latin into English, with additions, b. 1692 ; D. 1774. BROWNiNG.Kobert, Jro*elf to pleasure and the muses ; and, amongst other performances, produced the " Maid of the Uaks," " lion Ton," the " Heiress," and the "Lord of the Manor," which had their day of success upon the stage. D. 1792. Buegoyne, Sir John Fox, who, entering tho army as one of the corps of Royal Engineers, was, in 1800, made a licu'enant, and, in 1805, n captain. In 1845 he received the appointment of inspector-general of fortifications in England, and in 1851 attained the rank of lieutenant- general, and the next year was made a K.C.B. When theCrimcanWar began in liol.he was sent to Turkey, and was chief of the engineering de- partment of the British army in the Crimea until replaced by Sir Harry Jones in 1855. On his return he was created a baronet, and promoted to the rank of general. In 1852 he was made a G.C.B., and, in 1365, was appointed Constable •>f the Tower of London. In 1867 he was made afl'.'ld-marshal. n. 17S2; d. 1871. I'CRKii, Edmund, burk, an illustrious writer and statesman, whose father was an attorney, and who received his education under Abraham ^luckleton, a Quaker, at Ball) tore, near Carlow. His first performance, which brought him \)\o- ciincntly into notice, was ttie essay on the ■' Sublime and Beautiful," published in 1757. This philosophical piece of criticism, written in a line and elegant style, procured the author a great reputation, and the esteem of the first literary characters of the age; the principal of whom was Dr. Johnson, who s:iys, ''it is an Burke example of true criticism;" although a critic equally acute has dissented from the theory it seeks to establish. In 1758 he suggested to Mr. Dodsley.the bookseller, the plan of the "Annual Register," the historical part of which he wrote for several years. In 1761 he went to Ireland as the companion of his friend Mr. Hamilton, secretary to the carl of Halifax, then lord-lieu- tenant. On his return, he was made private secretary to the marquis of Rockingham, first lord of the Treasury, who, in 1766, brought him into Parliament for Wendover. He subsequently was returned for Maltcn, in Yorkshire; and gained great popularity by his introduction of a bill for a reform in the national expenditure, on which he bestowed prodigious labour, but it was unsuccessful. He was a warm opponent of the measures of the governments of Lord Gren- ville and Lord North in reference to the Ame- rican colonics, and, had his advice and that of his liberal friends been followed, the se- cession of the United States from the British crown would long have been delayed, if not altogether prevented. Some of his finest speeches were delivered in the course of the de- bates on this subject. When matters had gone too far to permit of the retention of the colonies, Burke advocated the recognition of their inde- pendence long before the course of events ne- cessitated that measure. When tho marquis of Rockingham returned to power, on the resigna- tion of Lord North, in 1782, Mr. Uurke obtained the post of paymaster-general of the forces, and a seat in the privy council ; but on the death of his patron in the same year, Lord Shelburne became first lord of the Treasury, and Mr. Burke, with several of his friends, resigned their places. The principal acts of his political life after this were the share he took in the im- peachment of Warren Hastings for his mal-ad- ministration in India; his opposition to Mr. Pitt's design of forming a limited regency on the king's illness, in 17c>8 ; and the strong part he took against the authors and defenders of the French revolution. In the house he avowed his detestation of the revolutionists with such force that a separation between him and Mr. Fox, and many more of his old friends, took place. In 1790 he published his famous "Ke- ilections on the Revolution in France," which attracted great attention, and produced a sur- prising eiFeet upon the public mind. After this, he published a variety of pamphlets in support of the positions he had taken up. His zeal on this occasion, as well as his extraordinary talents, recommended him to the royal favour, and he obtained a pension, which gave room for those who had been galled by his arguments to re- proach him; and some illiberal animadversions were made upon him in the senate, which drew from him that admirable defence, his " Letter to a noble Lord" (Earl Fitzwilliam), in which he retaliates upon a celebrated duke (duke of Bedford) in a strain of keen irony and dignified remonstrance. Mr. Burke withdrew from Par- liament in 1794, leaving his seat for Malton to his son, an accomplished young man, who died shortly after. This melancholy event hastened his own end, as it left him alone, with none " to meet his enemies in the gate." b. in Dublin, 1728 : d. at Beaconsfield, 1797. — Mr. Burke was an amiable man, and a faithful friend, charitable and pious, lie had a fine taste for the arts, and was fond of gardening and architecture. Dr. Juliuson considered him the greatest man ia THE DICTIONARY Burke England, and Fox declared that he was indebted to him for all the fame he possessed. Gibbon said that he admired his eloquence, approved his politics, adored his chivalry, and almost for- jrave his reverence for church establishments. " That great master of eloquence, Edmund Burke !" eiclaims Lord Macaulay, " in aptitude of comprehension and richness of imagination, •uperior to every orator, ancient or modern." ik-RKE, Robert O'Hara, was the leader of an exploring party, three of whom, in ISfiO, crossed, for the first time, the entire Australian conti- nent from Victoria to the Gulf of Carpentaria, and discovered that the interior, instead of being an arid and barren waste, as had previously been believed, was a well-watered and fertile country, and who, along with two of his com- panions, named Gray and Wills, perished of starvation on their return. Mr. Burke was born in the county of Galway, Ireland, and was in the fortieth year of his age when he died. He was partly educated at home, and afterwards, for the higher studies, in Belgium. Subse- quently he entered the Radetzky regiment of Hungarian hussars, in the Austrian service. Here he displayed great assiduity in military studies, soon came to be regarded as a most efficient cavalry officer, and at an early period obtained a captaincy. Afterwards, we hear of him as holding a command in the Irish mounted constabulary, when he was for some time sta- tioned in Dublin. He subsequently emigrated to Australia, where he arrived in 1853, and held the position of inspector of the colonial police of Victoria, in which he remained, with a short interval, during which he returned to England with the hope of obtaining a commission in the army engaged in the Crimean war, till he un- dertook the duty of conducting the exploring party into the interior of Australia. The party started on the 10th of August, 1860, came in sight of the sea or the Carpentarian Gulf on about the 11th of February; and on the return inarch, some months later, Mr. Burke and his two unfortunate companions perished from ex- haustion in the wilderness — King, the survivor, being ultimately relieved, and conveyed to Melbourne, d. 1861. Burke, Sir John Bernard, genealogist, and anthor of "Burke's Peerage," "The Landed Gentry," "Family Romance," " Vicissitudes of Great ir'amilies," and other works of a similar character, was born in London in 1815, and was educated for the bar. He was appointed Ulster- King-at-arms in 1853, is knight attendant of the order of St. Patrick, and was knighted in 1851. Sir Bernard is a great authority on all subjects connected with genealogy, heraldry, and antiquities. Burleigh, William Cecil, Lord, bur'-le, a secretary of state under Edward VI. and Eliza- beth, and grand treasurer of England. In 1588 parliament was assembled, and, by his advice, a plan of religious reform was laid before it.. In this he had a considerable share ; and he also took the greatest part in the establishment of the Thirty-nine Articles of faith, which form the basis of the Reformed religion. To him is also due the regulation of the coinage, which had been altered since Henry VIII. 's time. He was rreated Baron Burleigh in 1571, and in 15S8 concluded an advantageous treaty with the Netherlands, b. in Lincolnshire, 1520; ». 1598. — ITis son, Robert Cecil, minister under Elizabeth and James I., was scut to the court 204 Burnet of Henry IV. of France to negotiate a treaty of peace with Spain. He is said to have had a share in the death of the earl of Essex, and was loaded with honours by James I., who created him mar- quis of Salisbury, b. about 1565; d. 1612. Burn, Richard, burn, an English divine, and celebrated law-writer, who, on taking orders, obtained the vicarage of Orton, in his native county, and became a justice of the peace. This circumstance led him to form a digest of the common law necessary to be known by ma- gistrates. This work was published at first in 2 vols. 8vo ; but its success was such, that every new edition received considerable additions ; so that " Burn's Justice" became a standard book. He also compiled the " Ecclesiastical Law," a book of merit, for which he was made chancellor of Carlisle. Dr. Burn likewise wrote part of the history of his native county. He was born at Winton, Westmoreland, 1720 ; d. at his vicarage, 1785. — His only son, John Burn, was bred to the law, which he did not follow, though calcu- lated to shine in it, as appears from the addi- tions made by him to his father's " Justice ol the Peace." d. 1802. Burnes, Sir Alexander, limn, a Scotch officer, who served with distinction in India, and sur- veyed the mouths of the Indus and mapped the lower parts of its course. He made a journey by Balk and Bokhara across central India, full of peril, for which he received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society, and the royal premium of fifty guineas. The French Geographical Society also awarded him their silver medal. These honours were conferred during a visit to this country in 1833-4. In 1835 he again embarked for India, and having been engaged in several missions of importance, was knighted in 1838. In 1839 he was ap- pointed political resident at Cabul, which office he held until the breaking out of the insurrec- tion in that city, when, with his brother Charles and some others, he was slain, b. at Montrose, 1805 ; murdered at Cabul, 1841. Burnet, Gilbert, bur 1 -net, an eminent divine, who, in 1964, went to Holland, where he studied the Hebrew language, and on his return was ordained and presented to the living of Saltoun. He subsequently became bishop of Salisbury, and is known principally by his "History oi the Reformation," and by that of " His own Times." b. at Edinburgh, 1013; d. 1715. He was interred in the church cf St. James, Clerk- enwell. Besides the above, he published an excellent treatise on "Pastoral Care," and se- veral sermons. The " History of his own. Times" appeared in 1724, and is very enter- taining, though far from being impartial. The bishop possessed many virtues, although some- what vain and credulous. Burnet, John, a Scotch engraver and writer on art, who was a student with Wilkie in the Trustees' Academy at Edinburgh, and was fir;>t brought into notice by the excellent manner in which he engraved his friend's picture of the " Jew's Harp." His next work was the "Blind Fiddler," which -vas followed by "The Rent-day," "The Rabbil -a. the Wall," "The Chelsea Pensioners," and several others. The writings of Mr. Burnet are, a " Practical Trea- tise on Painting," "Hints on Composition," "On Light and Shade," "On Colour," and several other more elaborate works, which are illustrated by numerous engravings, drawn and OF BIOGRAPHY. Burnett executed by himself, b. at Fisherrow, near Edinburgh, 1784 ; D. in London, April 29, 1863. Burnett, James. (See Monboddo, Lord.) Burnett, Gilbert Thomas, author of the " Outlines of Botany," published in 1833, and a distinguished lecturer on that science, was born in Marylebone, on the loth of April, 1800. He was originally educated for the medical profes- sion, but adopted the study of botany, of which he was professor at several metropolitan insti- tutions, and was a most fluent, graceful, and successful lecturer. ». 1835, of pulmonary con- sumption. Buknet, Charles, bur'-ne, Mus. Doc, com- menced his musical studies at Chester, under Mr. Baker, who was organist of the cathedral of that city. His talents were further developed under the instructions of the celebrated Dr. Arne, in conjunction with whom he subse- quently composed the music of three pieces for the theatre of Drury Lane. These were en- titled " Alfred," " Robin Hood," and " Queen Mab." He brought forward some other pieces on the stage, and, in 1769, received the degree of Doctor of Music from Oxford university. In 1770 he travelled on the continent to procure materials for his " General History of Music," which appeared in 4 volumes, between 1776 and 1789. He wrote several other works, and con- tributed most of the musical articles to Rees's Cyclopaedia, for which he received £1000. In 1806 he was granted a pension of £300 a-year, and in 1810 was elected a member of the Insti- tute of France, n. at Shrewsbury, 1726; d. at Chelsea College, 1814. Bubnet, Frances. (See D'Arblay, Madame.) Burns, Robert, burns, the national Poet of Scotland, was the son of a small farmer settled in Ayrshire. Ho received a common education, during the progress of which he was employed in rustic labour. By application, however, he added to his mental acquirements some know- ledge of the French language and of mathe- matics, besides cultivating an acquaintance with a few of the English poets. On the death of his father, he went into partnership with his brother Gilbert in a small farm, in which he was unsuccessful. An illicit amour at the same time rendered his circumstances still more per- plexing, and he was about to emigrate to the West Indies, when the publication of a volume of his poems was suggested to him. This ap- peared in 1786, at Kilmarnock, and had a won- derful success. The poems were in the popular language of his country, and on subjects familiar to the common people. Dr. Blacklock, of Edin- burgh, was charmed with the genius exhibited in them, and invited Burns to that city. His reception there was triumphant, and a new edi- tion of his poems produced him £500. He then commenced again as a farmer, and obtained a place in the excise, before which, however, he married the young woman whose affections he had won, and whose personal charms he has celebrated in the beautiful song entitled " lionnie Jean." The union of his occu- pations as excise-oflicer and farmer, however, only served to embarrass him, and at last he settled in Dumfries as an exciseman only. Here his habits of conviviality arc alleged to have led him too frequently into excesses, as unworthy of his great genius as they were destructive of that independent manli- ness of character which he had ever endea- voured to cultivate, maintain, and advocate. 205 Burton He still continued to write, however, and kept up his correspondence with numerous friends and admirers. Many of his letters are as remarkable for the vigour of their style of composition as for the originality of the sentiments which they contain, b. in the parish of Alloway, near Ayr, 1759; D.1796. — Byron, whose genius and history in many points have a striking resemblance to those of Hums, declares that the Scottish poet was the " very first of his art." An edition of his poems and letters appeared in 1800, in 4 vols. 8vo, under the management of Dr. Cvirrie, of Liverpool, which produced above £1000 for the benefit of hie family. The works of Burns have been many times reprinted, and are universally read in Scotland, and wherever Scotchmen are to be found. Indeed, there is not a cottage in his native land in which Burns's poems do not find a place beside the family Bible; and scarcely a Scotch "lassie" who does not lighten her daily labours by singing his songs. Monuments to his memory also exist in many parts of the country — on the banks of the Boon, Ayrshire, at Edinburgh, Dumfries, Glasgow, and several other places. Bukritt, Elihu, bur'-rit, an American lin- guist, whose father was a village shoemaker, and he himself a blacksmith. He had a great facility, however, in the acquirement of lan- guages, and whilst serving his apprenticeship to his trade, he laboured at self-instruction, and made considerable progress in the Latin and French languages. When his term of ap- prenticeship had expired, he had six months' education at the school of his brother, where he made further advancement in these lan- guages, and also gained some knowledge of the mathematics. On returning to his trade he assiduously pursued his studies, and made him- self acquainted with the Hebrew, Greek, Syriac, Spanish, Bohemian, Polish, and Danish lan- guages. In 1842 he translated some of the Icelandic Sasas, and contributed to the " Ame- rican Eclectic Review" translations from the Samaritan, Arabic, and Hebrew. In 1843 he commenced the study of the Persian, Turkish, and Ethiopic languages, and, in the following year, started a newspaper called the " Chris- tian Citizen." Since then he has edited several journals, and lectured throughout Europe and America, endeavouring to form a " League of Universal Brotherhood," and establish an ocean penny postage. He has also produced several works advocating these schemes, and others of a kindred nature, b. at New Britain, Connec- ticut, United States, 1811. i>. 1879. Burton, Robert, bur'-ton, an English writer, who became a student of Christ-church, and was presented first to the vicarage of St. Thomas's, Oxford, and next to the rectory of Segrave, in Leicestershire. Here he wrote his " Anatomy of Melancholy," a work which those who have not read may felicitate themselves in having yet an intellectual feast in store for them. It is the only book that ever took Dr. Johnson two hours out of his bed before he wished to rise. It supplied Sterne with much of his wit, and Byron declares "it is the most amusing and instructive medley of quotations and classical anecdotes he ever perused." b. at Lindley, Leicestershire, 1570; d. at Oxford, in 1640. Burton was a believer in astrology, and it is said that ho predicted he would die on or about the day when that event occurred. THE DICTIONARY Bunton Burton, John Hill, an historian, biographer, and writer on law, political economy, &c, was bora at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1809, and was educated for the Scottish bar, but scarcely ever practised. He wrote extensively in the " West- minster" and " Edinburgh Reviews," " Black- wood's Magazine," &c. ; and is the author of "Life and Correspondence of David Hume," " Lives of Simon Lord Lovat, and Duncan Forbes of Culloden," " Political and Social Economy," " A Manual of the Laws of Scotland," " The Scottish Bankruptcy Laws," " Introduction to the Works of Jeremy IJentham," a "History of Scotland from the Revolution to the Extinction of the Last Jacobite Insurrection ;" and is en- gaged upon an elaborate " History of Scotland from the Earliest Period to the Revolution of IOCS." His last published work, which ap- peared in 1862, is entitled " The Book Hunter," and gives an interesting and amusing picture of the race of book-collectors which existed early In the present century. Burton, Richard Francis, an officer of the In- dian army, skilled in languages, who has tra- velled through a great part of Arabia and Africa, having accompanied Captain Speke in the jour- ney in which that officer discovered the equa- torial African lake, Victoria Nyanza. In 1861 he was appointed consul at Fernando Po ; and, in 1861, undertook a mission to the King of Da- homey. In 1867 he was appointed to a consul- ship in Brazil, and has explored a great part of the interior of that country, b. in Ireland, 1821. — Captain Burton has written accounts of his various travels and missions. Buscfietto, da Dulichio, boss-ket-to, a Greek architect, who built the cathedral at Pisa, where he died, and had a monument erected to his memory. Lived in the 11th century. Bute, John Stuart, Earl of, bate, an English statesman, who was indebted for the honours which were showered upon him rather to the dignity of his manners than the splendour of his talents. " Bute is a fine showy man," said Frederick, Prince of Wales, who died in 1751, " and would make an excellent ambassador in any court where there is no business." On the accession of George III., in 1760, however, he became a privy councillor and groom of the stole. In the following year he was made a secretary of state. In 1762 he became first lord of the Treasury, and was made a knight of the Garter. After effecting the termination of the war by the peace of Paris, he resigned in 1763; so that his administration did not last a year; yet he had managed to render himself so unpo- pular in that time, that he thus wrote to a friend, stating his reason for drawing his reign of power so soon to a close : — " Single in a cabinet of my own forming, no soul in the House of Lords to support me except two peers (Lords Denbigh and Pomfret), both the secretaries of state silent, and the lord chief justice, whom I brought myself into office, voting for me, yet speaking against me,— the ground I tread upon is so hollow, that I am afraid of not only falling myself, but of involving my royal master in my ruin. It ia time for rue to retire." b. 1713; ». in Loudon, 1702. Builee, Samuel, but'-ler, a celebrated Eng- lish poet, who for some time resided with Sir Samuel Luke, in Bedfordshire, a gentleman very zealous in behalf of the Covenant and puritanical principles. Here he became ae- ouaiuted with the characters of the leading 206 Byng men of that party, and formed the plan of his famous poem " Hudibras," the principal person of which was, unquestionably, Sir Samuel. The idea of this inimitable production, which gives so faithful a picture of the cant and hypocrisy of his times, was taken generally from "Don Quixote;" but the humour and the poetry are wholly Butler's; and in these he stands un- rivalled. After the Restoration, Butler became secretary to the earl of Carberry, who appointed him steward of the court held art Ludlow Castle. About this time also he married Mrs. Herbert, a lady of family but whose fortune was lost to him by being invested in bad securities. It is said that, although Butler lived in good society he was suffered to die in extreme indigence. b. at Strcnsham, Worcestershire, 1612; d. in London, 1680, and was buried in St. Paul's church, Covent Garden. In 1721, Alderman Barber, the printer, erected a monument to his memory in Westminster Abbey. Butler, Joseph, a learned prelate, who, in 1736, was made clerk of the closet to Queen Caroline, who delighted much in his conver- sation. Two years afterwards he was preferred to the bishopric of Bristol, and, in a short time, was made dean of St. Paul's, on which he re- signed the rectory of Stanhope. In 1716 lie was appointed clerk of the closet to the king, and, in 1750, elevated to the see of Durham, b. at Wantage, Berkshire, 1692 ; d. at Bath, 1752.— The great work of Butler is entitled " The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature." This treatise is a masterpiece of reasoning, — clear, profound, simple, yet grand. Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, lax'-ton, the distinguished advocate of the abolition of slavery, was born on the 1st of April, 1786, at Earls Colne, Essex, the residence of his father, Thomas Fowell Buxton, who died while his family were all young. The future philan- thropist was educated by Dr. Charles Burney, brother of Madame D'Arblay, at Greenwich, and afterwards at the university of Dublin. He entered Parliament in 1318, for Weymouth, and took a leading part in the debates of the House of Commons on prison discipline, the abolition of lotteries, and the amelioration of the criminal code. In 1823, Mr. Buxton introduced a motion condemning slavery as " repugnant to the prin- ciples of the British constitution and Christi- anity," and in 1833, took a prominent position in the debates on the motion of Mr. Stanley (now Earl of Derby) for the abolition of slavery. In 1837 he lost his seat for Weymouth, having represented the borough for twenty years ; and would never afterwards allow himself to be put in nomination for that or any other place, lie was made a baronet in 1840; and died in 1815, leaving behind him the reputation of having been one of the principal promoters of tho abolition of slavery in the British colonies, as well as that of a most benevolent and generous man. Ho was tall and commanding in person, and had a singularly fine and pleasing expression of countenance. He was a member of the great brewing firm of Truman, llanbury, and Buxton, and immensely rich. Byng, George, bing, Viscount Torrington, and a brave English admiral, entered the navy early in life, and after passing through different ranks of his profession, was, in 1703, made a rear-admiral. In 1715, George I. created him a baronet. In 1717, an invasion being intended OF BIOGRAPHY, Byng by Sweden, in favour of the Pretender, he was sent into the Baltic, where he remained till that project was abandoned. In 1718 he was appointed commander-in-chief in the Mediter- ranean, where he defeated the Spanish fleet, ofT Sicily, For this victory he had the honour to receive letters of thanks from George I., the emperor Charles, and the queen of Denmark. It was owing to his exertions that Sicily was saved from the Spaniards, and he displayed as much skill as a politician and negotiator as he did valour and prudence as a commander. In 1721 he was created Viscount Torrington, and knight of the Bath. Hewasafterwardsappointed first lord of the Admiralty, which office lie held till his death, b. in Kent, 1663 ; d. 1733. Byng, John, an English admiral, son of the above. He served under his father in most of his expeditions, and was always esteemed a good seaman and brave man. He was sent in 1756 to relieve Minorca, then besieged by the French, under the Marquis de la Galissoniere ; but after a partial action he was forced to bear away, and the place was taken. On this account the public clamour rose high against the ministry, who had not supplied him with a properly-manned fleet, but who, in order to gave themselves, threw a great part of the blame upon Byng, and caused him to be tried by a court-martial. He was sentenced to be shot, though the court recommended him to mercy, which, however, was not granted, and ho suf- fered with great fortitude at Portsmouth, March 1-1, 1757. i). in Kent, 1704. Byrom, John, bi'-rom, an English poet, who wrote the beautiful pastoral to Phoebe in the " Spectator," and the letters in the same work signed "John Shadow." He supported himself chiefly by teaching shorthand, of which he wrote an improved system. In 1724 ho was elected fellow of the Royal Society, b. at Kersal, near Manchester, 1601 ; d. at Manches- ter, 1763. Byron, the Hon. John, bi'-ron, a distinguished British admiral, and the grandfather of the illustrious poet, sailed round the world in the years 1761, 1765, and 1766, and encountered some severe storms off the coast of Patagonia. In 1769 he was appointed governor of New- foundland, and in 1778 commanded the fleet destined to serve in the West Indies, b. 1723 ; ». in London, 1786. — It is in allusion to the sufferings of this seaman in his enterprises, that the poet thus sings in the second canto of his "Bon Juan" : — " ■ His sufferings were comparative To those related in my grandad's narrative." Byron, George Gordon, Lord, was the only child of Captain John Byron, of the Guards, and Miss Catherine Gordon, of Gight, in Aberdeen- shire. It was in the reign of Henry VIII., on the dissolution of the monasteries, that the church and priory of Newstead, with the lands adjoining, were conferred upon one of his an- cestors. The fortunate recipient was "Sir John Byron the Little, with the great board." The poet was weakly proud of his ancestry, and said that lie would rather be the descendant of those Byrons who accompanied William the Conqueror into England than the author of "Childe Harold" and "Manfred." Such is the extent ol human folly in its admiration of titles conferred without intellectual distinction ! In 1807 ho published his "Hours of Idleness," a volume ot'juvenile effusions, which were severely 207 Cabanis criticized in the "Edinburgh Review." Two years later appeared his reply, with the title of " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers," a satire, which obtained immediate celebrity, although its merit is far inferior to the efforts of both Dryden and Pope in the same path. Byron afterwards calls it himself " a miserable record of misplaced anger and indiscriminate acrimony," and did all he could to suppress it. He now went to the continent, and, in 1812, gave the world the fruits of his travels in the first two cantos of "Childe Harold's Pilgrim- age." The effect of this poem was electric, and "Childe Harold" became the theme of every tongue. InlSlohe married MissAnne Isabella, the only daughter of Sir Ralph Milbank, with whom he received £10,000. Dissipation on his part, and, perhaps, an utter absence of congeni- ality of feeling and sentiment between them, soon parted the poet and his young wife. She returned to her father's in the January of 1816. Ada, afterwards countess of Lovelace, was the only offspring of this unhapy union. In April, 1816, Byron left his country with the avowed intention of never seeing it again. After travel- ling through a great portion of the continent, he took up his abode in Venice, then at Pisa, and then passed a short time in Genoa. Mean- while his pen was in continual exercise. Writing had become such a habit with him, that he could not be idle : and the activity as well as the splendour of his genius was such, that nothing could restrain the strength and magni- ficence of its flight. During this period he pro- duced " The Corsair," " The Giaour," " The Siege of Corinth," "The Bride of Abydos," "Parisina," " Beppo," "Mazcppa," "Manfred," " Cain ; a Mystery," " The Lament of Tasso," cantos III. and IV. of "Childe Harold," and many more effusions, as remarkable for the beaaty of their diction as the originality by which they are all more or less characterized. He also continued to issue cantos of his " Don Juan," which, notwithstanding its moral de- fects, is the most wonderful of all his poems. At th? end of December, 1323, he sailed for Cephalonia, to take part with the Greeks in the cause of their independence. He reached Mis- solonghi on January 10, 1824. On February 15, he was seized with a convulsive fit, which rendered him both senseless and speechless for some time. On April 9 he got wet, took cold, and fevered, on the 11th he got worse, on tho 14th he was in danger, and on the 19th he died. " So sinks the day-star in his ocean bed." Byron was only thirty-six years and three months old. b. in Holies-street, Cavendish- square, London, 1788; d. at Missolonghi, 182>. Cabanis, Pierre-Jean-Georges, lca-ba'-ne, a French philosopher, physician, litterateur, anil politician, was born at Cosnac in 1757. His education was somewhat desultory, and although ho selected medicine as his profession, he never practiced it as an art, devoting himself rather to investigations into the theories and principles of medicine. At the beginning of the French revolution, he attached himself to Mirabeau, with whom he was on intimate terms, and whom he aided in carrying out his doctrines. He was aLo tho friend of Coudorcet, to whom THE DICTIONARY - Cabarrus on the night of his arrest, he administered, at Ills own request, poison, in order to save him from the scaffold. A collection of Condorcet's works was made by him, and he afterwards be- came the husband of Marshal Grouchy's sister Charlotte, the sister-in-law of Condorcet. During the Reign of Terror, Cabanis attached himself to one of the Parisian hospitals, where he had opportunities of serving, and often of gaving, the victims of the proscri ption. He was named professor in the central school of health in 1795, in 1796 was elected a member of the Institute, and in 1798 was a representative of the people in the Council of Five Hundred. His health, however, which had always been delicate, broke down ; he had several attacks of apoplexy, one of which carried him off in May, 1808, in his 52nd year. His writings are very numerous, and on a variety of subjects ; but it is by his medical works, and especially the " Traite du Physique et du Morale de 1' Homme " that he is best known, and which has run through several editions. In early life, Cabanis enjoyed the friendship of Madame Helvetius, and at her house mctTurgot, Diderot, D'Alem- bert, Condillac, &c. Cababbus, Francisco, Count de, kab'-ar-roo, an eminent Spanish financier, began life as a merchant, was afterwards director of a bank, was employed in the public service by Charles III. and IV., and, finally, was appointed min- ister of finance under Joseph Bonaparte, which office he held till his death, b. 1752 ; d. 1810. Cabbl, Adrian van der, ka'-bail, an eminent Dutch painter, whose landscapes and cattle are held in high estimation, b. at Ryswiek, 1631 ; D. 1698. CABESTAif, or Cabestaijtg, 'William de, £a'- bes-ta, a Provencal poet, whose fate was re- markable. He served the wife of Raymond de Rousillon, and became so great a favourite of that lady as to excite the jealousy of her hus- band, who killed him, and tore out his heart. The barbarian caused this signal of his cruelty to be dressed and served up to his wife. After she had eaten it, he informed her what it was, ou which she died of grief and horror. Lived in the 12th and the 13th century. — This shock- ing incident has frequently been made the sub- ject of ballads and legendary tales. Cabet, Etienne, ka'-bai, a leader of the French Communists, was trained to the bar, but failing to obtain sufficient practice, adopted the pro- fession of a litterateur, and for several years conducted " The Journal of Jurisprudence." His ultra-democratic principles, however, led him into difficulties, and in 183-1 he was con- demned to two years' imprisonment for some strictures upon the conduct of the king. In 1842 he published his " Voyage en Icarie," in which he unfolded his socialist views, and found many to embrace them. He obtained a grant of land m Texas, and in 1847 a goodly number of his followers embarked for this land of pro- mise, which their own fervid imaginations had too fondly pictured to themselves. It was soon found, however, that the new Canaan was not filled with milk and honey, and they were com- pelled to quit the country. They wandered through the United States, and hearing of the city of Nauvoo, which had been abandoned by the Mormons, on the banks of the Mississippi, Cabet took possession of it. In 1850 he re- turned to Paris, but Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat of Dec. 2, 1802, caused bun to again re- 208 Cabrera pair to America, b. at Dijon, 1788; d. at St. Louis, Missouri, 1856. Cabochb, Simon, kdb'-oozh, one of the chief* of the butchers of Paris during their adherence to the duke of Burgundy, in the wars between him and the Armagnacs, in the beginning of the 15th century. Caboche is believed to have perished when the power of the butchers was destroyed through the agency of William Cirasse, a carpenter. Cabot, Sebastian, kab'-ot, a celebrated navi- gator, whose father was likewise a navigator and a mathematician, and with whom, before he was twenty, he made several voyages. In 1497 Newfoundland is said to have been discovered, and the coasts of Labrador and Florida visited by the Cabots. In 1512 Sebastian entered the service of Ferdinand of Spain, and was planning a voyage by the north-west passage to Asia in 1515, which was cut short by Ferdinand's death in 1516. He commanded an expedition to La- brador sent out by Henry VIII. in 1517, which was a failure ; then re-entered the Spanish ser- vice, and explored the coasts of Brazil and La Plata, holding a commission as pilot-major of Spain till 1543, when he returned toEngland, and, as some say, settled in his native city. Kdwird VI., to whom he was introduced by the duke of Somerset, the lord protector, delighted in his conversation, and allowed him a pension of £166 13s. 4d., as grand pilot of England. A new company, called Merchant Adventurers, had been formed, and Sebastian was placed at. the head of it. By his means a voyage was made to the north in 1552, and a trade com- menced with Russia, which gave rise to the Russian Company, b. at Bristol, 1477 ; d. 1557. — In " Hackluyt's Collection " are his instruc- tions for the direction of a voyage to Cathay. He was the first who noticed the variation of the compass, and wrote "Nartgazione nello Parti Settentrionali," Venice, 1583, folio. Cabral, orCABBBBA, Pedro Alvares, ka'-bral, a Portuguese navigator, who, in 1500, com- manded the fleet sent to the East Indies by Emanuel, king of Portugal. In this voyage he accidentally discovered Brazil, being driven by a storm on its coast, where he landed, and called the spot Santa Cruz. Thence he crossed to the coast of Africa, and afterwards proceeded to Calicut, where he engaged in a war with the Zamorin, whom he forced to comply with his terms. In 1501 he returned to Portugal richly laden, after which his history ceases to have any interest, d. about 1526. Cabbeha, Don Uamon, ka-brair'-a, one of tho most prominent Carlist leaders in the recent history of Spain, first became known to fame in 1834. In that year he concerted measures with Don Carlos for the promotion of his cause, to advance which he committed cruelties to a degree far beyond such as we have been accus- tomed to see exercised by the most stern of partisan chiefs. The opposite party, or the upholders of Queen Christina, were incensed to ungovernable wrath against him ; and as they were unable to lay their hands on him, they seized his mother, and sentenced her to be shot. The sentence was carried into effect, when Cabrera commanded the wives of thirty officers to be massacred, and the war became one of the most atrocious kind. He continued it with success for several years. The political changes which subsequently took place drove- him, in 1840, to seek refuge in France; but in 1848 be OF BIOGRAPHY. Cabrillo Cadoudal returned to recommence the war in Spain. In 1849 he was forced to fly to France again, after which he came to England, where he married, and removed to Naples. The last time he was publicly he j .rd of was as having instigated an attempt at insurrection made by General Orte- ga, in April, I860, but which was entirely abor- tive, b. at Tortosa, 1810. Cabbtt.lo, Juan Rodriguez, kub'-ril-lo, a Por- tuguese navigator, who, while in the service of Spain, discovered the islands of Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Beruardo. D. on the last named island about 1513. Caccia, Guglielmo, hawt '-che-a, a celebrated Piedmontese artist, and the best painter of his time, in fresco. His finest efforts in fresco are shown in the church of San t' Antonio Abate, at Milan, and in San Paolo, at Novara. In San Gaudenzio, at Novara, is to be seen his " De- scent from the Cross," which is considered his master-piece, in oil. b. at Montabone, near Casale, in 1568: d. 1625. — Caccia was usually called Moncalvo, from the place where he re- si. led. lie had two daughters, who excelled in painting, the elder of whom, Orsola, was the founder of the Conscrvatorio delle Orseline, or Ursulincs, in Moncalvo. Her paintings are marked with a flower. Those of F'rancesca, the younger daughter, were indicated by a bird. CaccinI, Giulio, kawt'-che-ne, an Italian mu- sician, one of the earliest composers who intro- duced a musical element into the drama, b. at Rome about 1510 ; died about 1610. Cade, John, kaid, an Irishman, commonly called " Jack Cade," who, in 1 150, headed an insurrection in Kent, and on the 17th of June, with many followers, encamped at Blackhcath. He assumed the name of Mortimer, and gave out that he was the rightful heir to the throne, pretending that he was a bastard relation of the duke of York. He defeated a detachment of the kings forces which had been brought against him at Sevenoaks, and re-encamped on lilaekheath. On the 1st of July he entered Lon- don, and with his sword struck the old London stone and exclaimed, "Now is Mortimer lord of this city." His followers, on the third day after his entrance, began to plunder the city, and he himself, it is said, robbed the very house in which lie had dined. Measures were now taken to expel the rebels, and a pardon offered to those who would return to their homes. This had the desired effect. The followers of Cade melted away, and he fled on horseback to Lewes, in Sussex. Here he was killed by one Alexander Iden, on the 11th of July, and his head trans- ported to Londjn, and stuck upon the old bridge. —Lived in the 15th century. For a humorous scene suggested by the adventure of " Jack Cade," we refer the reader to the second scene in Act 4, of the Second Part of Shakspeare's " King Henry VI." Cadell, \S'illiam, kai'-del, an eminent London bookseller and publisher, was born at Bristol, in 1742, afterwards became partner of Mr. Andrew Millar, of London, whom he succeeded as solo partner in 1767. He was associated with Strahan, the printer, and produced works by Johnson, Hume, Robinson, Warbuiton, Ulackstonc, Gfbbon, and other eminent authors. b. 1802. Cadmus, hXd'-mus, son of Agcnor, king of Phoenicia, is believed to have been the first to Introduce the use of letters into Greece from l'liank-ia. d. about 1432 u.c, 209 Cadmus, the Milesian, was the first Grecian who wrote history in prose. He composed the history of Ionia, which is lost. Lived in the 6th century b.c. Cadoc, commonly called the Wise, kai'-dok, a bard, and the first who collected the British proverbs together. There are some churches dedicated to him in South Wales. Flourished in the 6th century. Cadogan, William, ka-dug'-an, the first earl of Cadogan, was trained to a military life, and rose, by merit, to the rank of brigadier-general, in which capacity he greatly distinguished him. self at the battle of Blenheim, fought 1704. lie took part in most of the battles in which the duke of Marlborough gained his renown ; and succeeded that great general as commander-in- chief, and master of the ordnance, d. 1726. Cadogan, HenryPa British military officer, who gained great distinction in the Peninsular war. He was lieutenant-colonel of the 71st light infantry, which he mainly raised in Glas- gow, and the greater part of whom, when enlisted, were little more than boys. At the head of this regiment he took part in most of the leading engagements in the Spanish cam- paigns of Wellington. He carried the heights of La Puebla, in the battle of Vittoria, with his own regiment and a battalion of general Walker's brigade, but was mortally wounded in the charge, and died before the conclusion of the engagement, which he continued to watch with the utmost enthusiasm mitil the moment of his death. He was highly commended by Lord Wellington fo* his conduct on this occa- sion, and a monument, portraying the scene of his death, was erected to his memory in St. Paul's, at the public expense. Colonel Cadogan was the first who introduced the game of cricket into Scotland, at which he was in the h; bit of playing with his young soldiers, with the view of rendering them active and agile in their movements. His was a daring, fiery, and intrepid spirit, and he hail the happy knack of inspiriting his men by some pithy allusion to scenes or circumstances familiar to them at home. It is told of him, for instance, that being on one occasion like to be worsted in an attack on the French posted in a Spanish town, the main street of which bore a resemblance to the great east-end thoroughfare of Glasgow, he called upon his men to " drive the villains down the Gallowgate" — an allusion to their native haunt, most of the 71st having been born in the street named or its neighbourhood. The effect was electrical : with a cheer, they charged, and, at the point of the bayonet, carried all be- fore them. Cadamosto, Luigi, kaw-da-moa'-to, aVenetian navigator, engaged in the service of the king of Portugal. In 1455 he sailed to the Canary Islands, and thence to the coast of Africa, where, it is said, he discovered the Cape Verd Islands, b. 1432 ; d. at Venice, 1480. He left au account of his voyages, which was afterwards published. Cadoudal, Georges, ka-doo'-dal, a distin- guished Chouan chief, who, after vainly endea- vouring to restore the Bourbons, made his peace, in 1800, with general Brune, dispersed his troops, and went to London. Having de- clared a strong personal hatred to the First Consul of France, ho was accused by the French government of being the planner of the internal machine with which the assassination of General THE DICTIONARY Cadwaladyr Bonaparte was attempted. About the same time the count d'Artois, afterwards Charles X., gave him, with his own hand, the cordon rouge, in the lung's name. In 1802 he united himself with Pichegxu to over- throw the French government, and, in the following year, made his way secretly to Paris, where he lay concealed for six months, waiting the denouement of events that would enable him to carry out his design. Meanwhile, tie police of Paris were on his track, and on the 4th of March, 1804, he was taken in a cabriolet near the Luxembourg. In the struggle which ens ued at his capture, he wounded one man and killed another, b. 1771, near Auray, Lower LSrittany; d. on the seallbld, 1804. The char- acter of this resolute chief was highly estimated by Napoleon I. "In m hands," said he, " Cadoudul would have done great things." Cadwaladyk, kad-tcal'-a-dir, son of Cad- wallon ab Cadvan, succeeded to the nominal sovereignty of Britain in 600 ; but, disheartened with the progress of the Saxons, he went to Rome in 686, wherehe died in 703. With him ceased the title of king of the Britons. Cadwaladtb Cksail, a Welsh poet, many of whose pieces yet remain in manuscript. There was another of the same name and age, whose works are to be met with, but unpublished. Both flourished in the 16th century. Cadwaixon, kad-wal'-lon, prince of North Wales, who, being defeated by Edwin, king of Northumberland, went to Ireland in 620, and remained there several years. On his return he assumed the title of king of the Britons, which he supported through a series of years of con- tinual warfare against the Saxons. He was a §reat patron of the bards, and in his youth had een admitted among them. He died in CC0, and was succeeded by his son, Cadwaladyr. Cadwgan, kad'-gan,son ofBleddyn abCynvyn, became prince of a part of Powys in 1073, and, for some time, had part of South Wales. In 1107 he gave a banquet at Aberteivi, which almost ruined him, on account of his son Owain being captivated with the charms of Nest, the wife of Gerald, whom he carried off. In consequence of this, both he and his father were obliged to fly to Ireland. He returned the year after, but was assassinated by bis nephew in 1110. CiEciLius, or Cecilius, Statius, se-sil'-e-us, a Roman slave, who yet was a poet, and writer of comedies. lie is, indeed, called by Cicero the first of comic poets; and he is also mentioned with commendation by Varro, Horace, and others. He is said to have written about forty dramas, of which, however, only a few lines have been preserved in quotations, d. about 163 B.C. CAKDiioy, teed'-mon, the reputed father of English song, and the first metrical author in jur vernacular language. His composition is a Mud of religions hymn, celebrating the praises of the Creator, ainl is preserved in the transla- tion of Bede by Alfred. Besides this there is a long Saxon poem /"tributed to him, but upon doubtful authority. It is supposed to be a later production, and was published by the Society of Antiquaries, in Svo, 1832. It consists of a para- phrase of some parts of the Scriptures. Flou- rished in the 7th century, and died about 680. Caesatjpinus, Andreas, se-sal'pe-noos, a dis- tinguished Italian naturalist, who is said to have been the first to hint at the circulation of the Wood, His favourite btucLy, however, was bo- 210 Caesar tany, on which he wrote extensively. He had an excellently-arranged herbarium, which is still preserved in the museum of natural his- tory at Florence, b. at Arezzo, 1519; d. 1603. C&SAB, Cuius Julius, se-zar, was descended from the Julian family, and lost his father when young. He married the daughter of Cornelius Cinna, and was designed for the office of high priest to Jupiter, but was deprived of it by Sylla, who was Cinna's inveterate enemy. Syila car- ried his revenge so far as to confiscate the pro- perty of Cffisar, and even issued a proscription against him, when he retired from the capital and went to reside with Nicomedes, king of Bithynia. On the death of Sylla he was recalled to Home, when he distinguished himself as an orator in impeaching Dolabella for misgovern- ment in the affairs of Greece. He now joined the party of Marius, and united with Cicero in promoting the Manilian law, which gained him the friendship of Pompey. The first dignity he obtained was that of military tribune, after which he served the offices of quaestor and aedile. In these offices his profusion procured him great popularity, but at the sacrifice of his fortune, which was much embarrassed by them. On the death of his wife Cornelia, he married Pompeia, from whom he obtained a divorce, on account of her receiving Clo- dius into her house at the time of celebrat- ing the rites of the Bona Dea. He did not, however, prosecute Clodius; and when asked why he had dismissed Pompeia, his answer was, that "Caesar's wife should be above suspicion." On the expiration of his praitorship he was appointed governor of the farther Spain, where ho realized sufficient pro- perty to pay Ins debts, which are said to have amounted to a million and a half sterling. He now formed the "first triumvirate" with Pompey and Crassus; the former of whom married hi daughter Julia, and ho himself married Cal- purnia, daughter of L. Calpurnius Piso, and shortly afterwards set out for Gaul. Here he distinguished himself as a military commander, and, in the fourth year of his government, crossed over to Britain, but did little more than reconnoitre the coast. On his next expe- dition he entered the Thames, and ravaged a great part of the country, taking several of the inhabitants as hostages. Having completely reduced Gaul to thecon'Htion of a Roman pro- vince, and acquired prodisrious wealth, Pompey became jealous of Lin. and the senate deprived him of his government this being considered by him as a declaration of war, he crossed the Rubicon, a small river which parted Cisalpine Gaul from Italy, with a determination of re- venging himself upon his enemies. His army was zealously attached to him, and success attended hirr. everywhere on his march. Rome was filled with fear and confusion. Pompey and the magistrates withdrew on his approach, when Cassar entered the metropolis without his troops, in an affected style of moderation ; yet he seized the public treasury, which enabled him to complete the subjugation of the people. The civil war which had begun, now raged with fury throughout the empire. Ca?sar, however, by himself or his lieutenants, was everywhere triumphant, except in his blockade of Dyrra- ehium, where Pompey gained an advantage, and whence he retired to Macedonia, followed by that general, whom he defeated on the plains of Pkarsalia, He next embarked for Alexandria, OP BIOGEAPHY. Caesarius where the head of Pompey being brought to him, he burst into tears, and caused it to be solemnly interred. Here he entered into a war with Ptolemy, in which the famous Alexandrian library, containing 400,000 volumes, was acci- dentally destroyed. This war was attended with various success, but Caesar's good fortune pre- vailed ; the Egyptians were defeated, and Pto- lemy was drowned. On the news of the death of Pompey, the Roman senate proclaimed Cssar consul for five years, and created him dictator; thus placing the executive power in his hands. He next conquered Phamaces, the son of Mithri- dates the Great, in Asia Minor ; on which occa- sion he wrote his well-known laconic letter, "Veni.vidi.vici," — "I came, I saw, 1 conquered." After settling the affairs of Greece, he proceeded to Rome, where he showed his clemency, by pardoning all who had conspired against him in his absence. He next made an expedition into Africa, inthecourse of which heflieplayed his usual address in quelling a mu iny widen had broken out in his favourite legion. In thi~ war he defeated Scipio.Labienus, and Juba, and drove Cato to the extremity of putting himself to death at "CJtica. On hU return to Rome he behaved with great liberality to the people, and enacted several good iaws. Among other re- forms which he introduced was that of the calendar, which bears the name of the Julian calendar. The two sons of Pompey having excited a revolt in Spain,Caesar marched against them, and after a bloody battle succeeded in completing the subjugation of that country. His return to Rome was crowned with a tri- umph. He now assumed the imperial dignity, which roused the jealousy of several of his friends, who joined with the republicans in a conspiracy against his life. It is recorded of him, that a soothsayer bade him beware of the ides of March, and that his wife, Calpurnia, was so apprehensive that danger awaited him, as to dissuade him from going to meet the senate. The remonstrances, however, ofDecimus Brutus, one of the conspirators, overruled his reluctance, and Ca;sar went to the senate-house, where he was assassinated, 43 B.C. b. 100 B.C. — Thus fell Julius C'scsar, one of the greatest men of anti- quity. His talents were of the first order ; and he might have shone as an orator if he had de- voted himself to that profession, as Cicero him- self acknowledges. His literary powers appear to great advantage in his Commentaries, written in the true spirit of historical dignity and faith- fulness. Some of his epistles are extant among those of Cicero. Caesabius, se-za'-re-us, a celebrated French bishop, who, in 472, was appointed to the see of Aries, and was distinguished by his labours to restore the discipline of the clergy, his efforts to accomplish which led to his being charged with treachery to the king, and also to his tempo- rary banishment. He presided over several councils, the most remarkable of which was held at Orange, in 529, when Pelagianism was formally condemned. Several of his homilies are preserved among the sermons of St. Augus- tine, and in Baluze's "Bibliotheca Patrum." b. 470; D. 514. Caffa, Melehior, kau-f-fa, an able sculptor and designer. He adorned many churches at Rome with his works, which occasioned him to be compared to the celebrated Bernini, b. at Malta, 1031 ; r>. at Rome, 16S7. Cajfiaux, Philip Joseph, kaf-fe-o, a Bene- 211 Cagnoli dictine of the congregation of St. Maur, who wrote, in conjunction with Grenier, the " His- tory of Pieardy;" and an essay towards a "His- tory of Music," 4to; but his principal work is the " Genealogical Treasure," full of curious re- searches, b. at Valenciennes, 1712; ». at St. Germain des Pres, 1777. Cagliabi. (See Vebonese, Paul.) Cagliostbo, AraJ'-ye-o*-rro, a famous impostor, whose real name was Joseph Balsamo ; but he assumed tl>o name of Cagliostro, besides other aliases. He left his native country and went to Rome, where he married a young woman as full of deception as himself. His first adven- ture was the cheating a goldsmith of Palermo out of a considerable sum, under the pretence of discovering to him some hidden treasure. On this occasion he was obliged to quit Sicily. At Messina he became acquainted with a Greek, named Althotas, who pretended to a knowledge of chemistry. With him he visited the Archi- pelago and Egypt, and, on their return, touched at Malta, where they worked in the laboratory of the grand master, Pinto. Here Althotas died, and Balsamo, going to Naples, assumed the title of Marquis Pellegrini. He now visited some other countries of Europe, and, in France, called himself the Count deCagliostro ; but being implicated with the Cardinal Kohan in the affair of the diamond necklace purchased for theQuecn Marie Antoinette, he was sent to the Bastille. In England he met with greater success, pre- tending to wonderful skill in medicine, and to a knowledge of the occult sciences. At last he returned to Italy, and was seized at Rome, where he was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and died in the castle of St. Leon, near Rome, 1795. b. at Palermo, 1743. — Balsamo's decep- tions were mostly played upon the opulent and noble, whose credulity he excited by pretentions the most extravagant, and, in several cas'^s, the most impious. Cagnola, Luigi, Marquis, Jcawn-yo'-la, an emi- nent Italian architect, who was intended for the profession of the law, but whose tastes led him to devote himself to quite an opposite kind of study. In 1812 he was engaged by the govern- ment of Milan to check the progressive ruin of the sixteen Corinthian columns which form the chief remains of the ancient baths of Maxi- mian. Previous to this, however, he had sig- nalized himself by several designs. In 1807 the first stone was laid of the Arco della Pace, a beautiful and lofty bridge, built of white mar- ble, to celebrate the marriage of the viceroy, Eu- gene Beauharnais, with the Princess Amelia of Uavaria, in 1806. Political changes put a stop, for some time, to the progress of this work ; but it was finally completed by Francis 1. of Austria. With the exception of the Arc do l'Etoile at Paris, it is the most magnificent structure of the kind of which modern times can boast. A great many other works, evincing a high order of genius and taste, were executed by Cairnola, who also held some official p^st in the civil government at Milan, b. at Milan, 17G2; D. 1833. Cagnoli, Antonio, kamn-yo'-le, a distinguished Italian astronomer and philosopher, was horn at Zante in 1743, where his father held an office under the republic of Verona. Cagnoli was at first attached to the diplomatic service of his eountrv, but devoting himself to astronomy, he erected an observatory, first in the house where he resided in Paris, and afterwards at Vferohik pa THE DICTIONARY Cahusac When the French took that town in 1797, his observatory was seriously damaged; but for this he was indemnified by Napoleon, and set- tled in Modena, where he filled the chair of mathematics in the military sohool. d. at Ve- rona in 1816. He wrote several valuable works, the most important of which is a treatise on " Plain and Spherical Trigonometry," which was first published in Paris in J 786, and again in 1808. He likewise published " Meteorologi- cal Observations," and several papers in the Transactions of the Italian Society, one of which, on the farm of the earth, is deserving of attention. Cahusac, Louis de, Tca-hoo' ->ak, a French writer, who, in 1736, produced his tragedy of " Pharamond," which obtained great success. He was made secretary to the count de Cler- mont, b. at Montauban, 1700; d. at Paris, 1759. Caii,, John Francis, Tcail, a clever French mechanician and engineer, whose factories on the Quai de Billy, Paris, and at Chaillot, Va- lenciennes, Douai, Brussels, and Amsterdam, have acquired a world-wide celebrity for the excellence of the motive machinery constructed in them. M. Cail is the manufacturer of all the machines used in the various Dutch colo- nies for the purification of the sugar grown therein, and the locomotive engines used on many of the French and Hutch railways, b. at Douai about 1804. Caillb. (See La Caille, Nicholas Louis de.) Caillemont, kail'-mont, an olficer who came to England with William ill., and served with distinction in Ireland under Schomberg. He made an attack on Charlemont fort, then con- sidered impregnable, but which he so damaged that it was surrendered shortly afterwards. Fell in the battle of the Boyne, 1090, almost at the same moment as the duke of Schomberg. Caillet, Guillaume, kail'-lai, nick-named "Jacques Bonhomme," the leader of the Jacque- rie, or peasant insurgents, who, in 1358, mad- dened by want and degradation, rose upon the nobles in the south of France, whose castles they stormed, and committed the most terrible excesses. Troops were sent against them from Bohemia and the Low Countries, and they were finally destroyed by Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, who took prisoner Caillet, the " King of the Jacquerie," as he was called, crowned him with a red-hot iron trivet, and then beheaded him. d. 1359. Cailliaud, Frederick, kail-lc-o, a celebrated French geologist, who spent a considerable portion of his time in travelling. After visiting Holland, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Sicily, he passed into Egypt, and, under the auspices of Mehemet Ali, explored a portion of the Nile. Travelling from Edfouto the Bed Sea, he found on Mount Zabarah, the emerald-mines which had been worked in the reigns of the Ptole- mies, and was enabled, by his own exertions, to transmit to the pasha ten pounds weight of the precious stones which he found in the vast ex- cavations of the mountain. He visited Thebes, and returned to Paris in 1819 ; but, before the close of the same year, he once more set out lor Egypt, to prosecute his travels. He now visited the remains of the temple of Ammon, other oases in the desert, and subsequently dis- covered Assour, above the confluence of the Tacca/.ze with the Nile. In 1822 he returned to Paris, and afterwards took up his residence 212 Caius in Nantes. The results of his travels and dis- coveries have been given to the world in various volumes, b. at Nantes, 1787. Caied, James, kaird, an able writer on agri- culture, author of " High Farming," " English Agriculture," &c, was born at Stranraer, in the year 1816, and educated in Edinburgh. He first came into notice by his writings in the " Times " newspaper, when engaged as " agri- cultural commissioner " by that paper. In 1857 he was elected to the House of Commons for the borough of Dartmouth ; and subsequently for Stirling. He is considered a very high authority on all matters connected with tho theory and practice of agriculture. Caied, Rev. John, M.A., an eloquent and extremely popular preacher of the Church of Scotland, was born in Greenock in 18?3, his father being an engineer in that town. He was educated in Glasgow, and settled as minister at Newton-on-Ayr, in 1845; was removed to Lady Yester's church, Edinburgh, the fame year; from thence he was translated to the parish of Errol, Perthshire, in 1850 ; and is now one of the ministers of Glasgow. In 1855 he hap- pened to preach before tbe Queen and the late Prince Consort, and the sermon so struck there illustrious persons, that her Majesty ordered it to be printed, whicn vas done under the title of "Religion in Common Life," and produced a very great impression. Mr. Caird enjoys the reputation of being perhaps the most eloquent preacher in the kingdom. Caiens, Rev. John, D.D., kairns, a distin- guished minister of the Uniied Presbyterian Church in Scotland, was born of humble but res- pectable parents, and owes his present position entirely to his talents and unwearied industry. After having passed the usual period of train- ing, he was ordained minister of the Golden Square congregation, Berwick, in the year 1815. Here he has ever since remained, notwith- standing that tempting offers have from time to time been made to him by other congregations. He some years since received the degree of D.D., and is justly regarded as one of the brightest ornaments, not merely of his own denomination, but of the ministerial body of Scotland generally. Dr. Cairns is a voluminous author, the most prominent of his works being, "Translation of Elijah," "German Philosophy and Christian Ethics," " Infallibility of the Bible," several sermons, "Lives of the late Dr. John Brown of Edinburgh, of Dr. Henderson of Galashiels, of Dr. George Wilson," &c. He has also contri- buted valuable papers to the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," "Maemillan'sMagazine," the "Bri- tish Quarterly Review," and other leading peri- odicals, b. in the parish of Ayton, Berwickshire, August 23, 1818. Cairns, the Rt. Hon. Hugh M'Calmont, Lord, a lawyer of brilliant talent and great debating power, was born at Cultra, in the county of Down, Ireland, in 1819. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and after keeping his terms at the MiddleTemple, was called to the bar in 1844. He represented Belfast from 1852 to 1866, having served as solicitor-general under Lord Derby in 1858, when he was knighted. On Lord Derby's return to power in 1866 he became attorney-general, and in 1867 he was made lord-chancellor, and raised to the peerage as Baron Cairns of Garmovle. Caius, or Kay, John, kai'-us, a physician, who was educated at Gonville-hall, Cambridge, but OF BIOGRAPHY. Calaniy took his degTee of M.D. at Padua, in 1541, where he was Greek lecturer and reader in physic. On his return to England, he was ap- pointed physician to Edward VI., and continued to serve Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth in the same capacity, b. at Norwich, 1510; d. at Cambridge, 1573. He left his estate for erect- ing Gonville-hall into a college, now called Gonvillc and Caius, and wrote the " History of Cambridge," and some medical works, which do ionour to his learning. Calamy, Edmund, kat-am-e, a celebrated Nonconformist divine, was a native of London, where he was born in 1600. After studying at Cambridge, he was domestic chaplain to the bishop of Ely and vicar of Swattham Prior, Cambridgeshire. He afterwards held a lecture- ship at Bury St. Edmunds for ten years. On the publication of Bishop Wren's articles he declared his protest, and left the diocese. He subsequently joined the Presbyterian party, and in 1639 was chosen pastor of a congrega- tion in Aldermanbury, London, where he long enjoyed gTeat popularity as a preacher. He took an active part in the Restoration, being one of the deputation which went to Holland to congratulate Charles II., and was appointed one of the king's chaplain's, an office which he held till the passing of the act of uniformity compelled him to resign. He died in 1666. Calamy was reckoned an accomplished theolo- gian, and published several sermons and con- troversial papers, besides being one of the au- thors of an answer to Bishop Hall's " Divine Eight of Episcopacy." Several of his sons and grandsons were likewise divines, and, with the exception of his son Benjamin, who succeeded him in St. Mary's, Aldermanbury, were all at- tached to the Nonconformist party. Calanus, ka-lai'-nus, a celebrated Indian phi- losopher, one of the sect of the Gymnosophists. He followed Alexander in his Indian expedition, and having fallen ill in his 83rd year, ordered a pile to be raised, upon which he mounted, decked with flowers and garlands, in the pre- sence of the whole Macedonian army. An offi- cer asking him if he had nothing to say to Alexander, " No," answered he, " I shall meet him again in three months in Babylon." Alex- ander died within the time. b. about 406 B.C. ; d. 323 B.C. Calas, John, ka'-la, a Protestant merchant of Toulouse, who was accused, in 1761, of strangling his eldest son, Mark Antony, on ac- count of his having secretly embraced the Roman Catholic religion. The young man was of an impatient and gloomy disposition, and in a fit of melancholy had hanged himself. His unfortunate father was put to the torture to make him confess, and finally, without any evi- dence, was broken on the wheel, declaring his innocence to the last. The widow and children found a friend in the philosopher Voltaire, and, through his talent and energy, the proceedings were considered in the council in 1765, when Calas was pronounced innocent, b. 1693; suf- fered 1762. Calcagnini, Celio, kaicl'-kan-ye'-ne, a learned Italian, who served in the imperial army some time, and was employed in several embassies and other honourable commissions. At last he became professor of belles-lettres at Ferrara, and wrote several work3, particularly on the Koman antiquities, which show great erudition. He also asserted the motion of the earth, be- 213 Calder fore Copernicus published his system, b. at Ferrara, 1479; d. 1541. Calcab, John van, kal'-kar, an eminent pain- ter, a disciple of Titian. His pictures are hardly to be distinguished from those of that master. b. at Calcar, Prussia, 1499; d. at Naples, 1546. The portraits in Vasari's "Lives of Painters and Sculptors " are by him. Calceolabi katcl'-se'-o-law-re, a famous Ita- lian apothecary and botanist, who flourished about themiddle of the 16th century, was a native of Verona, and wrote some works on his favourite science, which were published in Venice under the title of " Iter Baldi Montis." The beauti- ful flower known as the calceolaria was so named in honour of him. Caldaba, Antonio, kal'-da-ra, a musician, who after acquiring some fame as a composer in Italy, went to Austria, where he wrote and brought out a vast number of operas, 63 at least, some of which were set to poems of Zeno and Metastasio. On the failure of his "Temis- tocle," he was very greatly disgusted, wrote no more for the stage, resigned an appointment he held at the imperial court, and hastened to Italy, where he died in his native city of Venice in 1763. b. 1678. Calderaki, Ottone, kawl-dai-ra'-re, a noble- man and eminent architect of Vicenza, which he has enriched with many handsome edifices in the Palladian style, but who has been strangely neglected, few writers giving him credit for the works he has executed. He was born in 1730, and died in 1803. — His style is characterized by by simplicity and elegance ; and he possessed a true knowledge of the principles on which Grseeo-Italian architecture depends. One writer calls him the " immortal Calderari," and others have characterized him as the " Palladio of the eighteenth century ;" but still his merits have not been so universally acknowledged, at least in England, as they deserve. Calderon de la Barca, Don Pedro, kat-dai- rone, a celebrated Spanish soldier, priest, and dramatic writer, who wrote his first piece at the age of fourteen. He was a private soldier at twenty-five, but continued to write dramas with great success. Philip IV. recognizing his great talents, called him to the court, bestowed on him his patronage, and provided the necessary funds for the representation of his plays. He subsequently entered the church, and became canon of Toledo. His plays were printed at Madrid, in 9 vols. 4to, in 1639. b. at Madrid, 1600; D. 1681. Calder, Sir Robert, Jcal'-der, a British admi- ral, who is principally known from his inde- cisive and unfortunate action with the Franco- Spanish fleet under Villeneuve, off Cape r in- isterre. Calder was the son of Sir James Calder, of Minster, Morayshire, N.B., and was born in Park-place, London, on the 2nd of July, 1745. He entered the navy at the age of fourteen, and after passing through the subordinate grades, was made post-captain in August, 1780. In 1796, Sir John Jervis appointed Calder to the post of captain of the fleet then under his com- mand, and in that capacity he was present in the famous battle of St. Vincent, on February 14, 1797, which procured for Jervis the title of earl of St. Vincent. Calder carried home the despatches, and was knighted by George III., March 3, 1797; in the following year was madu a baronet, and, in 17d9, was promoted to t ho rank of rear-admiral. In 1301 Calder followed THE DICTIONARY Caled, or Khaled the French fleet under Gantheaume to the West Indies, but did not succeed in overtaking it. After commanding for some time the squadron blockading the Port of Ferrol, he was ordered to the westward of Cape Finisterre to inter- cept Villeneuve's fleet of French and Spanish ships on its return from the West Indies ; and, on the 22nd of July, 1805, the enemy's fleet, consisting of twenty ships of the line, a fifty- gun ship, and seven frigates, was descried on the lee bow. Calder's force consisted of only fifteen ships of the line and two frigates; but he had the weather gage (although this has been denied), and the difference in force was not such as would have influenced the majority of Bri- tish admirals at the time. An engagement ensued, under a bad system of tactics on Calder's part, which lasted till 9 p.m., and resulted in the capture of only two of the enemy's ships. Cal- der declined to renew the action next day, though he might have done so, thereby allowing the enemy to retire unmolested, and on his re- turn to England was tried by court-martial, and severely reprimanded for want of judg- ment, though he was acquitted of cowardice or disaffection. Great dissatisfaction was felt by the public at Sir Robert's conduct; but after a time a reaction set in, he was thought not to have been so much to blame, popular feeling was soothed by Nelson's great victory at Trafal- gar, and in 1810 Sir Robert Calder was again employed as port-admiral at Plymouth, a com- mand which he retained for three years. ». 1818, at the age of 71. Caled, or Khaled, Jcai'-led, one of the brav- est of Mohammed's captains. He had at first taken part against him, and had contributed to the victory of Ohud, where the prophet had been defeated. In 630, however (the 8th year of the Hegira), he embraced the new religion, and was chiefly instrumental in the conquest of Syria, Mohammed conferring on him the title of the Sword of God. d. 642. Calentius, Elisius, kaic-Ien'-she-ns, an Italian writer, who was tutor to the son of Ferdinand II., king of Naples, b. in Apulia, about 1450; d. 1503. — He is known to fame by his poem of " The Battle between the Frogs and Mice," in imitation of Homer, which was printed in 1738, at Rouen. Calepixo, or da CALEno, Ambrose, Tcaw'-lai- pe'-no, a learned Italian, descended from a noble family. He embraced the monastic habit of the Augustines, and spent all his life in the compilation of a dictionary of the Latin, Italian, and other languages. The first edition of this appeared in 1503, and became very famous ; and, after passing through a great number of editions, swelled, in 1681, to two volumes folio. V. at Bergamo, 1435; n. blind in 1511. Calhoun, John Caldwell, kal'-hoon, a distin- fruished American statesman, who, during a period of forty years, rendered faithful services to the Union, in the various capacities of repre- sentative, secretary of war, vice-president, and senator, b. in Abbeville district, South Caro- lina, 1782 ; d. at Washington, 1850.— The works of this statesman were published in 1853-4, in 6 vols. 8vo. Calidasa, Tca'-Je-da'-sa, a much-admired Indian poet,. Tradition pronounces him one of the nine gems who Mved in the court oi King "Vicramaditya. He wrote several poems, which display a remarkable genius. His " Sacun- tola " was translated by Sir William Jones, and 214 Callcott was the first work which made his name known to Europeans. It is doubtful when this poet lived, some placing him a century before and others a century after the Christian era. Caligula, C., Jca-lig'-u-la, a Roman emperor, who received this surname from his wearing in the camp the caliga, a kind of buskin in use among the common soldiers. He was the son cf Germanicus, by Agrippina, and grandson to Tiberius. During the first eight months of his reign, Rome was governed with mildness;^ but he soon displayed his true character, and be- came proud, wanton, and cruel. He built a temple to himself, and ordered an effigy of his head to be placed on the imagesof the gods, while he wished to imitate the thunders and powers of Jupiter. The statues of sj great men were re- moved, and he appeared in public places in the most indecent manner, encouraged roguery, himself committed the worst of crimes, and established public places of prostitution. He often amused himself with putting innocent people to death, and attempted to famish Rome by a monopoly of corn. He was pleased with the greatest disasters which befell his subjects, and often wished the Romans had but one head, that he might strike it off at a blow. Wild beasts were constantly fed in his palace with human victims ; and, as if to insult the feelings and the dignity of fallen Rome, a favourite horse was made high priest and consul, and kept in marble apartments, adorned with the most valuable trappings and pearls which the Roman empire could furnish. In consequence of his numerous acts of tyranny, a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was murdered, 41 a.d. b. 12 a.d. — It has been said that Cali- gula wrote a treatise on rhetoric ; but his esti- mate of learning maybe rather obtained from his attempts to destroy "the writings of Homer and Virgil. Calippus, hl-lip'-pus, a mathematician of Cyzieus, famous for having corrected the cycle or period of nineteen years, invented by Mcton, for the purpose of showing the correspondence in point of *ume between the revolutions of the sun and moon, and which is sometimes called the Calippic period. Lived 330 B.C. Calixtus I., l-ii-lix'-tus, pope and saint, suc- ceeded Zephvrinus in 218, and suffered martyr- dom in 222. Calixtus II. was the son of the count of Burgundy, and became archbishop of Vienna in 1083, and pope in 1119. d. 1124. Calixtus III. was a native of Xativa, in Spain, and elected pope in 1455. d. 1453.— His character was respectable for learning, modera- tion, and piety. Callcott, Sir Augustus Wall, R.A., Ml'-cot, an eminent landscape-painter, and brother of the illustrious musical composer. In 1810 he was elected a member of the Royal Academy, and, for his diploma picture, presented a fine painting called "Morning." He subsequently produced "Evening," "Italy," "The Ferry," " Returning from Market," " Waiting for the Passage-Boat," and several others, which are generally known from their having been en- graved. He also executed several marine sub- jects, and, in 1833, exhibited his beautiful picture called " Harvest in the Highlands," which was engraved by Wilmore for the sub- scribers to the'Art Union for 1S50. In 1S37 ho ixhibied "Raffaele and the FiTnarina," and, m 1810, " Milton dictating to his daughters," OP BIOGRAPHY. Callcott This was a failure. Indeed, Callcott was not calculated to excel in figure-painting, of which, perhaps, he himself was fully aware, as he allowed Sir E. Landseer to paint the figures in his " Harvest in the Highlands." Inlandscape, however, he was great; and, by his friends, has been called the English Claude, b. at Kensington, 1779; d. in the same place, 1844. He was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1837. Callcott, John Wall, one of the most distin- |uished composers in the British school of music. In 1785, when only nineteen years of age, he carried oif three out of the four gold medals ottered as prizes by the Catch Club. Among his compositions in this competitorship, was his fine piece, " Oh, sovereign of the willing soul !" In 1790 he became musical doctor of Oxford; and, in 1805, produced his "Musical Grammar." Subsequently, his mind gave way under excess of study, and the excitement which musical composition often creates; not, how- ever, until he had produced an immense number of original and highly-esteemed works, b. at Kensington, 1766; d. 1821.— He left many MS. volumes, intended as materials for a compre- hensive musical dictionary. Callicbatidas, kal'-li-kriif-i-das, a Spartan general, who succeeded Lysander in the com- mand of the Lacedaemonian fleet. He took Methymna, and blockaded Conon, in Mitylene, but was conquered and killed the same vear by the Athenians, at Arginusa;. Lived in the 5th century B.C., and died 406 B.C. Callimachus, kill-Iim'-ii-kus, a Greek poet and historian, who had the charge of the library of Ptolemy Philadelphia. He was tutor of Apollonius, the author of the " Argonautica." b. at Cyrene, and flourished in the 3rd cen- tury B.C., dying about 210 B.C. Callimachus, an architect, who invented the capital so much admired in the Corinthian trder of Grecian architecture. The occasion of the discovery is said to have been thus : — A plant of acanthus being placed upon the tomb of a Corinthian lady, spread its leaves over the basket in so graceful a manner, that the archi- tect adopted it as a suitable ornament for his pillars. Lived in the 6th century B.C. Callinicus, kdl-lin'-i-kus, an ancient archi- tect, who invented the Greek fire, and commu- nicated his secret to the emperor Constantino III., Pogonatus, who used it to bum the Sara- cen fleet at Cyzicus, in 673. b. at Heliopolis, Egypt. — The knowledge of this composition was afterwards lost; but a Frenchman, in Louis XV.'s reign, again discovered it ; and the king, in 1756, bought the secret, in order to bury so frightful a knowledge in oblivion. Callin us, kal-li'-nus, an orator of Ephesns, the author of some admirable elegiac poetry. Flourished about the 7th century B.C. CALLiSTnExi;s, kul-lh'-the-neen, a Greek phi- losopher, disciple and relative of Aristotle, v;ho followed Alexander in his Asiatic expedi- tion. He refused to acknowledge the alitged divinity of this hero, and even had the misfor- tune to* displease him by his railleries, lie was afterwards accused of conspiracy, and confined, it is said, in an iron cage. Put to death at Cariat;c, in Baetriana, 328 b. c b. 305 B.C. — None of his writings are extant. Cali.istbatus, kal-ix'-tra-tus, a Roman jurist, one of those ot whose writings Justinian made use hi compiling his "Digest." Lived in the reign 216 Calonne of Septimus Severus, who died a.d. 211, and of his son Antoninus. CALLOT,Jaeques,fcaZ'-/o,a celebrated draughts- man, painter, and engraver. He learnt his art at Rome, whither he went against the wishes of his family, who were noble. He acquired a great reputation, and his engravings are highly valued, b. at Nancy, 1593; d. at Florence, 1635.— After the taking of his birthplace by Louis XII., in 1633, he refused to commemorate the event with his graver. Callot's works show his great genius in the representation of popular and grotesque subjects, and in caricaturing tin. vices and follies of mankind. Calmet, Augustin, Ml' -met (Fr. Jcal'-mai), a learned and laborious French Benedictine, who wrote a "Literary Commentary upon all the Books of the Scripture," 23 vols. 4to; a " His- tory of the Old and New Testament," 4 vols. 4to; an "Historical, Critical, and Chronologi- cal Dictionary of the Bible;" a "Universal History," 15 vols. 4to ; and other learned works. b. in Lorraine, 1672; d. abbot of Senonci, 1757. Calmo, Andrea, katct-mo,& clever but some- what indecent dramatist, whose plays — ol which he wrote five, besides other pieces — had a great success in Venice, which they owed very much to the skilful and humorous use of various dialects, and not a little to the loose morals which pervaded them. b. 1510; d. 1571. Calogeba, Angclo, kawl'-o-jair'-a, a Benedic- tine monk, who made a catalogue of the pro- ceedings of all the learned societies of Italy, which was of great service to historical and other writers. He also translated " Telema- chus;" was a very learned man, and his cor- respondence with the literati of the time is very voluminous, and contains much useful informa- tion. Lived as a kind of hermit in an island between Venice and Murano, in the convent of St. Michael, b. at Padua, 1699; d. 1763. Calojiabde, Francisco Tadeo, kal'-o-mar'-dai, the leading Spanish minister for ten years under Ferdinand VII., studied for the law, and, through his mariage with the daughter of Bel- tran, physician to Godoy, the favourite of Fer- dinand, he was immediately brought into pro- minent notice. He has the blame of most of the tyrannical measures which passed in Spain between ls23 and 1333, although, no doubt, many of them belong to Ferdinand, whose ma- lignant passions stimulated him to the adoption of absolutist principles in their sternest form. On the expected death of Ferdinand, he paid his court to Don Carlos; but his attentions were too precipitate, and he was forced to flee his country in disgrace. He made his escape in disguise to France, but returned to Spain on the death of the king. He then ofl'ered his services to Don Carlos, but they were rejected, when he returned to France, where he passed the remainder of Ids life, principally at Toulouse. b. at Villel, in Lower Aragon, 1775; d. at Toulouse, 1S42. Caloxxe, Charles Alexander de, ka'-lon, n. French statesman, who, in 17s3, became comp- troller general of the finances, and found not a single crown in the treasury. In this office he continued till 1787. During this period he maintained the public credit with a punctuality till then unknown in the payments of ihe royal treasury, though he found it drained to iho lowest ebb. He laboured with unwearied assi- duity to restore the equipoisj betwe n the THE DICTIONARY Calpurnia annual income and expenditure, and to provide a supply for the emergencies of the state, with- out increasing the burthens of the people. For this purpose he advised the king to revive the ancient usage of convening national assemblies of the " notables," to whom he proposed the bold project of suppressing the pecuniary pri- vileges and exemptions of the nobility, clergy, and magistracy. This measure alarmed those powerful bodies, and M. de Calonne found it necessary to rcVre to England, where he wrote two elegant defences of himself,— his " l.'cquete au Roi," and " Response a l'Ecrit de M. Necker." He subsequently returned to Paris, but did not long survive that event, b. at Douay, 1734 ; d. at Paris, 1802. — Besides the above, he wrote several other works; among which was his essay entitled " De l'Etat de la France present et a venir," 1790,8vo, in which he predicted the disasters which afterwards befell his unhappy country. Calpurnia, Ml-ptir'-w-a, a daughter of L. Piso, and the last wife of Julius Caesar. The night previous to her husband's murder, she dreamed that the roof of her house had fallen, and that he had been stabbed in her arms. On that account she attempted, but in vain, to de- tain him at home. Lived in the first century B.C.— It is to Calpurnia that Shakspeare makes Osar say, when she would dissuade him from going to the Capitol, — " Cowards die many times before their deaths ; The valiant never taste of death but once." Calvart, Denis, kal'-var, a Flemish painter, who opened a school for artists at Bologna, where he had amongst his pupils Guido, Al- bano, and Domenichino. b. at Antwerp, 1555 ; D. at Bologna, 1619. Calvert, Sir George, the first Lord Baltimore, kal'-vcrt, the secretary of Robert Cecil, minister of James I., and, in 1619, secretary of state. He became a Roman Catholic in 1624, and soon after was created Baron Baltimore on resigning office. He visited America in 1628, and on his return obtained a grant of land, and founded the colony of Maryland shortly before his death in 1032. B. about 1582. Calvi, Fortunato, kawl'-ve, a native of Padua, where he was born in 1818, was educated at the military college of Gratz, and then entered the Austrian army, in which he was an officer at the outbreak of the revolution of 1848. Being imbued with republican opinions, he at once resigned, went to Venice, engaged in the service of that republic as a colonel, and took an active share in the siege. On the fall of Venice, he escaped. In 1853, he undertook to head a re- volt organized by Mazzini in Cadore, but was betrayed by a Tyrolese guide, carried a prisoner to Mant ua, where he was tried before a tribunal whose legality was questionable, condemned to be hanged, and, on the 4th of July, 1855, suffered wit u calmness and dignity. On being told that he might have a pardon it he would throw him- self on the emperor's clemency, he answered — "No; my love of life is not so intense as my hatred of the Austrians : do your worst." Calvix, John, knl'-vin, an eminent reformer, the founder of the religious sect called Cal- vinists, was educated at Paris, under Corderius, with a view to the church. Two benefices were procured for him, but he had become dissatisfied with the tenets of the Church of Rome, and changed his opinions with respect to the eccle- Eiabtical state. He was now induced to study 216 Cambaceres the law, in which he made considerable pro- gress; but his open avowal of the Protestant faith rendered his stay in France dangerous, and he retired to Bile, where he published, in 1535, his " Institutes of the Christian Reli- gion," to which he prefixed an elegant dedica- tion to Francis I. This work rendered his name famous, and was translated into several lan- guages. In the following year he settled at Geneva, as minister and professor of divinity, having Farel for his colleague. Both he and Farel, however, were in a short time compelled to leave Geneva, for refusing to administer the sacrament indiscriminately to the people. Calvin now went to Strasbu- ft -, where he offi- ciated in a French church of his own establish- ment, and was also chosen professor of divinity. The divines of this town appointed him their 1 deputy at the Diet of Worms. In the meantime, the citizens of Geneva requested his return to their city, and after repeated solicitations, he, in 1541, complied, and resided there, actively en- gaged both as a writer and a preacher, until his death, b. atNoyon, Picardy, 1509; d. 1564. — The moral disposition of Calvin was estimable, and whatever may be thought of the creed he professed and promulgated, there can be no doubt as to the greatness of his character. Of his unparalleled industry, Dr. Hoyle says, — " It may be the truest object of admiration, how one lean, worn, spent, and wearied body could hold out. He read, every week of the year through, three divinity lectures ; every other week, over and above, he preached every day ; so that (as Erasmus said ot'Chrysostom), '1 know not whe- ther more to admire his constancy, or theirs that heard him.' Some have reckoned his yearly lectures to be 186, and his yearly sermons 280. Every Thursday he sat in the presbytery ; every Friday, when the ministers met to consult upon difficult texts, he made as good as a lecture. Besides all this, there was scarce a day that exercised him not in answering, either by word of mouth or writing, the doubts and questions of different churches and pastors, yea, some- times more at once, so that he might say with Paul, ' the care of all churches lieth upon me.' Scarcely a year wherein, over and above all these former employments, some great volume in folio, or other, came not forth." His works were published in 9 vols. fol.,atAmsterdam,1671. Calvisitjs, Sethus, kul-vis'-e-us, a learned chronologer, whose principal work is the " Opus Chronologicum," the last edition of which was that of Frankfort, in 1685. Scaliger speaks highly of it. b. in Thuringia, 1556; i>. 1615. Cambaceres, Jean Jacques, kum-bas'-a-rai, came prominently into notice during the first great revolution in France. He commenced life as a lawyer, and by his talents succeeded in attracting the notice of the Convention, who employed him in various official situations. Jn the discussion on the conduct of Louis X.VT. he declared the monarch guilty, but disputed tha authority of the Convention to judge him; lie, therefore, voted only for his provisionary arrest, and his death in case of a hostile invasion. The management of foreign affairs was for some time committed to his hands, and when Na- poleon was made First Consul, Cambaceres was chosen Second. When Bonaparte rose to the throne, Cambaceres became a great lavourite, and had several honours conferred upon him. Subsequently he was created duke of Parma, and appointed to the presidency of the Chamber OF BIOGRAPHY. Camber t of Peers. Devotedly attached to Napoleon, he adhered to him throughout his reign. On his final fall, lie was banished from France, but was afterwards permitted to return to Paris, b. at Montpellier, 1753; d. at Paris, 1824. Cambert, Robert, kam'-bair, a French musi- cian, who was the first to exhibit operas in France ; but being rivalled by Lulli, he went, in 1672, to England, where he became master of the king's band. b. 1623 : o. 1677. Cambiaso, Luca, katem'-be-a'-go, sometimes called Luchettoof Genoa, a distinguished Italian painter in fresco and oil. After becoming emi- nent in Genoa, he went to Spain, where he was commissioned by Philip II. to paint for the Es- curial ; accordingly, he executed several works, among which is an immense fresco of Paradise, crowded with figures, on the ceiling of the choir of the church of San Lorenzo. This, however, is considered both stiff and formal in its execu- tion. He also painted in oil, for the Escurial, "John the Baptist preaching in the Wilder- ness," which is esteemed as the best of his Spanish works. The best of his Genoese works are "The Martyrdom of St. George," in the church of San Giorgio ; and " The Kape of the Sabines," at Terralba, near Genoa, b. near Genoa, 1527; D. at the Escurial, Spain, 15S5. Cambis-Vellebon, Joseph Louis Dominic, Marquis de, kam'-be-vel'-le-raicnq, a learned French nobleman, who diligently collected a library, which was among the largest and most select in his country. He published — 1. A Cata- logue Raisonne of the MSS. in his cabinet, 2 vols. 8vo, a curious work ; 2. " Memoires historiqucs de la Vie de Roger de Saint-Lary de Beliegarde," 17C7, 12mo; and gathered mate- rials lor a history of his native province. B. at AvUnon, 1706; D. 1772. Cambisi, Giovanni Giuseppe, kawm-be'-ne, a musical composer, was born at Leghorn, in 1716, and early showed a deep attachment to music, his favourite instrument being the vio- lin, on which, however, he was not very great as a performer, but his extensive knowledge of music made him a valuable assistant in con- certed pieces. He wrote a vast number of pieces for instrumental performance, besides a great many operas, ballets, &c. A singular incident occurred to him when young, which Doing somewhat similar to that introduced by Byron in "Don Juan," may, perhaps, have sug- gested the story of the kidnapping and sale of the musical troupe which the poet narrates. Cambinihad formed an attachment with a young Vidy of Leghorn, but who, like himself, was re- siding in Naples, and they were on their way nome to be married, when captured by a corsair, carried to Barbary, and sold as slaves. Cambini was purchased by a Venetian merchant, who gave him his liberty, but what became of the lady does not appear. He died in the hospital of liiceae about 1826. Cambray, Baptiste, kam-brai, a peasant of France, who was the inventor of the linen fabric called cambric, but of whose history nothing is known. Cambridge, George Wm. Frederick Charles, Duke of, kaim'-bridj, first cousin to Queen Victoria, early entcredthe army.and in 1»37 was a colonel of infantry, and successively commanded a regiment of dragoons and the Scots Fusiliers. In 1»52 he was appointed inspector-general of the irmy, and in 1854 became lieutenant-general, with the command of a division, witb which he 217 Camerariua proceeded to the Crimea. He fought at th< battles of Alma and Inkermann, and in 185.' returned to England. On the death of Lord Hardinge, in 1856, he became commander-in- chief of the British forces. In 1857 he was presented by the citizens of London with a sword of honour, accompanied with the freedom of the city. b. at Hanover, 1819. Cambtses, kiim-bi'-sees, king of Persia, was the son of Cyrus the Great, whom he succeeded 529 B.C. He conquered the Egyptians, killed their god Apis, and plundered "their temples. Cambyses afterwards sent an army of 50,000 men to destroy the temple of Jupiter Amnion ; but they were lost in the deserts of Libya. In his Ethiopian war he was not more successful, a horrible famine reducing his soldiers to live on one another. He died of a small wound he had given himself with his sword as he mounted on horseback, 521 B.C. — All historians represent this monarch as a furious tyrant; he caused his brother Smerdis to be killed, and also his sister Meroe and her husband. Camden, William, kiim'-den, a learned anti- quary, who, in 1586, published, in elegant Latin, "The History of the Ancient Inhabitants of Britain; their Origin, Manners, and Laws." A third edition of this work appeared in 1590, at which time the author had a prebend in Salis- bury Cathe iral, but without being in orders. In 1593 he became head master of Westminster School, and, next year, published an enlarged edition of his " Britannia." In 1597 he printed his Greek Grammar for the use of Westminster School, and, the same year, was made Claren- cieux king-at-arms. Three years later his " Ca- talogue of the Monuments in Westminster Abbey" appeared, and also a new impression of his " Britannia." In 1603 he published at Frank- fort " A Collection of our Ancient Historians," in Latin ; and, in the following year, his " .Re- mains concerning Britain," in 4to. In 1615 he printed his " Annals of Queen Elizabeth." b. in London, 1551; D.at Chiselhurst, in Kent, 1623, his remains being interred in Westminster Abbey. — He founded a history professorship at Oxford, and bequeathed all his books and papers to Sir Robert Cotton. Camden, Charles Pratt, carl of, was a younger son of Sir John Pratt, chief justice of the court of King's Bench in the reign of George I. He was trained to the law, and, in 17^8, was called to the bar. For several years he had little suc- cess ; but, in 1752, he was engaged as junior counsel in defence of Owen, a bookseller, who had been prosecuted by the attorney-general for publishing a libel upon the House of Commons. In this case he greatly contributed to the success of his client in gaining a favourable verdict. From that time Ins fortune and fame were fixed. In 1757 he was made attorney-general, and, almost immediately, was returned member or parliament forDownton, a borough.now disfran- chised, in Wiltshire. In 1701 he was raised to the bench as lord chief justice; and, in 1765, was created a peer, w'th the title of Baron Camden, of Camden Pla 'C, in the county of Kent. On the breaking up of the Rockingham administration, in 17uo, he became lord chan- cellor. It was as a judge in the court of Chan- cery, however, that he earned the praise of his countrymen. Only one of bis decisions was reversed, and that reversal, Lord Eldon said, was probably wrong, b. 1714; d. 1791. Cajierabius, Joachim, kdm'-e-rair'-e-ut, a THE DICTIONARY Cameron Campanella learned German writer, who embraced the doc- trines of the Reformation, and formed a friend- ship with Melancthon, whose life he wrote. On the establishment of a college at Nurem- berg, he was made professor of belles-lettres, and afterwards removed to Leipsic to superin- tend the university of that city. He aided Me- lancthon in drawing up the famous " Confession of Augsburg," wrote some good books, and translated a great number of the Greek authors. D. at Bamberg, 1500; D.'at Leipsic, 1574. — His jon Joachim devoted himself chiefly to medi- cine end botany, on which last subject he wrote Borne pieces, b. 1534; d. at Nuremberg, 1598. Caxikkok, Rev. Richard, kam'-er-on, the founder of a sect known in the religious his- tory of Scotland as the Camcronians, wa3 one of the boldest opponents of the measures of Charles II., and, with twenty others, in 1630, entered armed into the town of Sanquhar, Dum- friesshire, and at the market ci'oss renounced his allegiance, and pronounced Charles a tyrant and a traitor to the civil and religious "prin- ciples of the people. His party kept in arms for a month in the hill districts of Ayrshire and Nithsdale; but in a skirmish with the king's troops they were defeated at Airdsmoss, where Cameron was slain. Fell July 20, 1680.— A monument marks the spot where this event oc- curred. Cambrox, Sir Evan, chief of the Scottish clan of that name, and lord of Lochiel, was re- markable for his personal prowess and high sense of honour and integrity. He took part with the Stuarts against the government of William III., and joined the famous Graham of Claverhouse, under whom he fought at Killie- crankie, where Graham was killed, and to Cameron's judicious counsels and calmness the completeness of the victory on that occasion was mainly due. He afterwards submitted to the government, and died in retirement in 1719. He is styled by Maeaulay the "Ulysses of the Highlands." — His grandson, Donald, who suc- ceeded him in the chieftainship of the clan, was regarded as the beau-ideal of a Highland chief, and was called the " gentle Lochiel," by which title he is still affectionately remembered in the Highlands. On the landing of Prince Charles Edward, in 1745, Lochiel was the first to join his standard, and he took a leading part in the rebellion till the suppression of thj revolt, after the fatal battle of Culloden, where he was severely wounded. He captured the city of Edinburgh without losing a single life; and his clan mainly contributed to the gaining of the battle of Prestonpans. After the defeat at Cul- loden he escaped along with the prince to France, where he was appointed to the com- mand of a regiment in the French service, and where he died in 1743. — His brother, Dr. Archi- bald Cameron, who had also escaped to France, returned in 1753, when he was captured, tried, and executed, being the last who suffered for the unhappy affair of 1745-46. Cameron, John, a learned biblical scholar, was a native of Scotland, having been born in Glasgow in 15S0, but who spent the greater part of his life in France. He was an admirable Greek scholar, being able to speak that lan- fruage as fluently as the learned men of his time could Latin. In 1622 he was appointed Iirofessorof the Glasgow university, but did not ong retain the otlice, having retired to France the following year. He became professjr of 218 divinity at Montauban in 1624, but having made enemies by opposing the civil war, he was assaulted and desperately wounded, by an un- known assassin, and after lingering for some time, died of the injuries he had received in 1625. He wrote "Theological Lectures," which, with a memoir of the author, were published in 1626. He was a man of a restless and obstinate dis- position, very pugnacious, and more showy and disputatious than solid in his attainments. Cameron, Charles Duncan, an officer of the British army, who was appointed consul for Abyssinia in 1S60. He was put in irons by Theo- dore, the emperor of that country, in 1862, and kept aclose prisoner until he was released by the expeditionary force under Sir Robert, now Lord Napier, in 1868. His great sufferings having rendered him a cripple for life, he was awarded a pension of £350 per annum, b. 1827. Camillas, Marcus Furius, ka-mit-his, an illustrious Roman, who obtained four triumphs, and was five times dictator. This great man whose virtues were equal to his talents, was prosecuted on a charge of peculation, on which he went into voluntary banishment. While he was absent, Brennus, at the head of an army of Gauls, took Rome, and besieged the senate in the Capitol. Camillas, forgetting his wrongs, flew to the relief of his country, defeated tiie barbarian, and was created dictator, i>. of the plague, 365 B.C. Camoeks, Lewis, kam'-o-ens, the most cele- brated poet of Portugal, who entered the army, and served with great reputation in Africa against the Moors. Soon after his return to Portugal, he engaged in an expedition to the East Indies, where he wrote a great part of his famous poem entitled the " Lusiad." On his passage home he suffered shipwreck, but pre- served the MS. of his poem, which was pub- lished in 1569. B. at Lisbon, 1525; D. 1579. — The people at Macao are still proud of showing a cave where Camoens amused himself in writ- ing his " Lusiad." It has been translated into English both by Sir Richard Fanshaw and Mr. Mickle. Camott, General, ka'-moo, a military com- mander, who, at the head of the voltigeurs of the French Guard, distinguished himself at the battle cf Magenta, against the Austrians, June 4, 1859. B. 1792. Campan, Madam, kam'-ponq, in her fifteenth year was appointed reader to the daughters of Louis XV. of France, and in 1770 married, and became first 1 dy of the bedchamber to Marie Antoinette, the dauphiness. With this princess she remained till the Revolution parted them, when she opened a boarding-school at St. Ger- maine-en-Laye. She subsequently became superintendent of the establishment at Eeouen, founded by Napoleon I. for the daughters and sisters of the officers of the Legion of Honour. This establishment was, after the Restoration, suppressed, when she retired to Mantes, where she passed the remainder of her days, enjoying a reputation for many virtues and accomplish- ments, b. 1752 ; i>. at Mantes, 1822. — She wrote " Memoirs of the Private Life of Marie Antoi- nette," and " Historical Anecdotes of the Reigns of Louis XV. and XVI." Campanella, Thomas, kam -paic-nail'-la, an Italian philosopher, and a monk of the Domini- can order. Hiss.-iL-ai- ty enabled him to discover the falsity of the "scholastic" system, when he formed one of his own, which attracted atten- OF BIOGIiAPHT. Campano lion, and procured him many enemies. In 1599 he was seized at Naples, and committed to prison on suspicion of being engaged in a conspiracy against the Spaniards, who were then masters of his country. He was impri- soned 27 years, and was several times tortured, five times brought to trial, and finally sent to Borne at the request of the pope. In 1634 he went from Italy to France, where Cardinal Richelieu allowed him a pension, b. at Stilo, Calabria, 1568 ; d. at Paris, 1639. His principal works are "Prodromus Philosophias Instau- randje," " Exordium Metaphysical Novse," " De Sensu Rerum et Magia," and " De Monarchic Hispanica Discursus." Campano, John Antonio, kam-paw'-no, a learned Italian, who was originally a shepherd- boy. In this capacity he attracted the notice of a priest, who took him home, and gave him a liberal education. Acquiring considerable knowledge of the Greek language, he subsequently became professor of rhetoric at Perugia. Pius II. made him a bishop, and sent him to the congress at Ratisbon. Sixtus IV. appointed him governor of Citta da Castello; but Campano, having resisted an arbitrary act of his against the in- habitants, incurred the pope's displeasure ; on which he withdrew to his bishopric of Terrano, where he died. b. in Campania, 1429 ; d. 1477. — He wrote the history of Fortebracci Braccio, a famous commander ; several moral and political treatises, letters, orations, and Latin poems ; all of which were published together in 1707 and 1734, at Leipsic. Campanus, John, kam-pai-nus, of Novara, sometimes called Novarese Campano, an Italian mathematician, the first translator of Euclid from the Arabic, flourished about the 13th cen- tury; some authorities say before this. Al- though his works, which consisted of writings on astronomy and geometry principally, are long exploded, yet he deserves praise, as one of those studious men who, though few, laboured zealously at the exact sciences, and did their best to extend the knowledge of them. Campbell, John, Lord, kam'-bel, was the second son of the Rev. Dr. George Campbell, minister of Cupar, Fifeshire. He received his education at the university of St. Andrew's, and in 1800 was entered a student at Lincoln's Inn, London. In 1606 he was called to the bar, and in 1827 became a beneher. In 1830 he was elected member of parliament for Stafford, and in 1832 was appointed solicitor-general. In 1834 he was attoi ney-general, and in 1841 became lord chancellor of Ireland, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron Campbell. The same year he resigned the Irish chancellorship, and in 1846 became chancellor of the duchy of Lan- caster. In 1850 he attained the position due to his industry, and became lord chief justice of the court of Queen's Bench, with a salary of JE8000 a year. In June, 1859, he was appointed, under the Palmerston administration, lord ehancellor. As a member of parliament he represented, first, Stafford, then Dudley, and then Edinburgh ; for which he sat till 1841. In 1846 he produced his " Lives of the Lord Chancellors, &c.," and in 1849 the " Lives of the Chief Justices," — works which, in a literary point of view, added to his reputation, b. near Cupar, Scotland, 1779 ; d. 1861. Campbell, John, an ingenious Scotch writer, who in his tilth year was brought to Windsor, aud never alter vUited his native country. He 219 Campbell was designed for the law, but renounced that profession on the expiration of his clerkship, and devoted himself to literature, Hi? first performance was the "Military History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough," in 2 vols, folio, published in 17-W. This work was well received, and occasioned the author to beemployed in writing the " Universal History," of which the cosmogony is known to be his, While he was engaged in this work, he pub lished several books, the principal of whicl was the "Lives, of the Admirals," 4 vols. K«o; a performance of great merit. In 1743 he pub- lished a curious tract, entitled " Hermippus redivivus ; or, the Sage's Triumph over Old Age and the Grave." The year following appeared his improved edition of Harris's collection of Voyages and Travels, 2 vols, folio. He next engaged in that great undertaking the " Bio- graphia Britannica," which began to be pub- lished in numbers in 1745, and was completed in seven volumes folio. In 1750 he published his "Present State of Europe," which went through six editions ; and in 1754, the university of Glasgow conferred onhim the degree of LL.D. He wrote a vindication of the peace in 1763, for which he was appointed king's agent for the province of Georgia. His greatest work, in the composition of which he spent many years, is his " Political Survey of Britain," which ap- peared in 2 vols. 4to, 1774, and abounds in speculative projects and political schemes. He wrote, besides, a great number of pamphlets and anonymous books, and contributed to a variety of compilations. B. at Edinburgh, 1708 ; d. 1775. Campbell, Rev. George, an eminent Scotch divine, who in 1759 was appointed principal of Marischal College, Aberdeen. In 1763 he an- swered Hume's "Essay on Miracles;" and subse- quently had the degree of D.D. conferred on him by King's College, Aberdeen. In 1771 he was appointed professor of divinity, and in 1776 published his " Philosophy of Rhetoric," which, with the exception of Whateley's, is, perhaps, the ablest work on the subject. Campbell un- doubtedly possessed ahighly philosophical mind, of great depth, acuteness, and critical power. He wrote several other works of a theological kind. b. at Aberdeen, 1719; d. 1796.— Some years previous to his death he had resigned his professorship, when King George III. granted him a pension of £300 a year. Campbell, Thomas, one of the most chaste of modern poets, was the youngest of a family consisting of ten sons and daughters. After passing through the university of Glasgow, in which he excelled as a Greek scholar, he went to Edinburgh, where, in 1799, ho published his " Pleasures of Hope," which Byron, who ought to be a judge, pronounced to be "one of the most beautiful didactic poems in the language." It, however, has some of the faults of a juvenile performance, notwithstanding the splendour of its diction, and the fervour with which it is throughout imbued. The profits arising from this performance enabled him to visit the con- tinent. During this tour he had a view from a distance of the battle of Hohenlindcn, which he afterwards celebrated in his epic poem of that name. On his return to Edinburgh ho continued to write, but in 1803 removed to London, where he began to pursue literature as a profession. In 1806 he received from the Fox ministry a pension of £200 a year, which THE DICTIONARY Campbell he enjoyed for life. In 1809 he published his "Gertrude of Wyoming," which Lord Jeffrey pronounced "a polished and pathetic poem in the old style of English pathos and poetry." It is unquestionably superior to the " Pleasures of Hope" in purity of diction, and, in every other quality, its equal. In 1820 he became the editor of the " New Monthly Magazine," which post he held till 1830. In 1824 appeared his "Theodoric," a poem of great sweetness, though deficient in power. In 1831 he estab- lished the " Metropolitan Magazine," which he managed only a short time. In 1S42 he pub- lished his " Pilgrim of Glencoe," which did not raise his poetical character above the point it already had attained. During his intervals of repose from severer duties, he occasionally pro- duced smaller effusions, which, from their strength and beauty, have long kept possession of the popular mind. His lyrics are, perhaps, the noblest bursts of poetical feeling, fervour, and enthusiasm, that have ever flashed from any poet. b. at Glasgow, 1777 ; b. at Boulogne, 1844. — Campbell also wrote several prose bio- graphies and other works. He was elected twice to the lord rectorship of Glasgow University, and took an active part in forming the London University, now University College, which he indeed claimed the merit of originating. His body rests in Westminster Abbey, where, near the centre of the Poets' Corner, there is a marble statue of him by Marshall. Campbell, Rev. John, a Scotch clergyman, who took an active part iti almost every Chris- tian work. In 1804 he was appointed pastor of the Independent church at Kingsland, and greatly assisted in the formation of the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1812 he made a voyage to Africa, for the purpose of visiting the stations of the London Missionary Society, and returned in 1814. He revisited that country in 1818-21. Of these voyages he published ac- counts, and founded the " Youth's Magazine," of which he acted as editor for eighteen years. He also published numerous works of a reli- gious tendency, b. at Edinburgh, 1766 ; d. 1840. Campbell, Sir Alexander, a lieutenant-gene- ral in the British army, who aided in the defence of Gibraltar, and assisted in the de- struction of the enemy's floating batteries. After serving abroad nearly twenty years, prin- cipally in the East, where he was present at the siege of Seringapatam, and all the grand con- flicts from 1793 to 1S0S, he returned in the latter year to England. Shortly afterwards he went to the Peninsula, where, in 1809, at the battle of Talavera, he commanded the right wing, and was dangerously wounded. Recovering from this, he again joined the army, and fought at Busaco and other places. The last appointment he received was commander-in-chief of Madras. b. in Perthshire, 1759; d. at Fort St. George, 1824. Campbell, Lords of Argyle. (See Abgyle, Lords of.) Campbell, Sir Colin, Baron Clyde, of Luck- now, G.C.B., and Knight of the Order of the Star of India, &c, was born in Glasgow, and entered the army in 1808. He served with dis- tinction in the Peninsular war, under Sir John Moore and the Duke of Wellington. He led the storming party at the siege of St. Sebastian, for which lie received the silver medal; was in the expedition to the United States in 1814 and 220 Campbell 1815 : in 1843 he commanded the 9Sth regi- ment at the attack on Chusan in China, for his conduct on which occasion he was mentioned with commendation in the despatches; in the campaign in the Punjaub, in 1848-49, he acted as brigadier-general, and defeated the Sikhs at Ramnuggur, on the 22nd of November, 1848, and on other occasions did good service during the same war, especially at Chillianwallah and Goojerat, in the former of which battles he was wounded. On the breaking out of the war with Russia in 1854, he was appointed to the com- mandof the Highlanders, which, with theGuards' brigade, made up the first division of the army, and was commanded by the duke of Cambridge. In the battle of the Alma, Sir Colin and his Highlanders acted a conspicuous part, and con- tributed materially to the success of the day ; and when the Knglish and French armies took up their position before Sebastopol, to Sir Colin and the 93rd Highlanders, and some other troops, was assigned the task of guarding the approaches to the harbour of Balaklava, through which the British obtained their sun- plies. The Russians made an attempt to force this position on the 25th of October, in great force, and having seized some redoubts garri- soned by Turkish troops, whom they easily drove in, advanced upon the position held by the 93rd Highlanders. A strong body of ca- valry was ordered by the Russians to charge ; Sir Colin drew up the Highlanders in line, in- stead of in squares, as is usual when infantry are to repulse a cavalry charge, and two deadly volleys were poured into the Russian horse, which re- coiled, scattered and defeated. The daring manoeuvre which opposed the " thin red line " to the charge of cavalry, and the result which justified it, were the theme of conversation by the entire western armies for some time after- wards. Sir Colin was not again called into active conflict with the enemy during the war, for, though after the unsuccessful attack on the Redan, on the 8th of Sept. 1855, Sir Colin was told that he must take it with his Highlanders before morning, and had made all his arrange- ments for the assault; ere morning came the Russians had evacuated it, and retired into the town of Sebastopol, from which they wero shortly afterwards dislodged. On his return to England, Sir Colin was appointed inspector- general of infantry ; and on the breaking out of the rebellion in India, in 1857, was appointed to the command of the troops in that country. He immediately proceeded to his post, and took such wise and able measures as speedily led to the suppression of the rebellion, the capture of Lueknow, the last and most important stronghold of the rebels, having been accom- plished by the army under Sir Colin's im- mediate command. In this gallant enterprise many officers won immortal fame, and the army generally displayed the most undaunted bravery. Sir Colin remained in India for some time after the suppression of the rebellion, assisting Lord Canning in the settlement of the country. For his services in India on this occasion, he was thanked by both Houses of Parliament, was raised to "the House of Peers by the title of Baron Clyde, and has the high distinction of being considered not only the most popular, but also the most able and experienced general in the British army. d. 1863. Campbell, Sir Archibald, Bnrt., G.C.B., a British officer, who served with distinction OF BTOGEAPHY. Campbell throughout the wars in Mysore and with Tippoo Sultan, from 1788 to 1801, when he re- turned to England, and iri 1808 went to Portu- gal, and did good service under both Moore and Wellington, having been present at most of the great battles and sieges in the Peninsula, till the conclusion of the war. After this he com- manded a division of the Portuguese army for a year or two. In 1820 he went to India, and was entrusted with the command of the Bri- tish troops in the Burmese war, and captured Rangoon on the 10th of May, 1823, in twenty minutes after the landing of the troops. A num- ber of severe engagements followed, in all of which the Burmese were defeated, and peace was dictated by the British. For these services Sir Archibald received the thanks of Parlia- ment, and a pension of £1000 a year. He re- turned to England in 1829, and was created a baronet in 1831. In 1839 he was appointed to command the forces in Bombay, but ill health shortly afterwards compelled him to resign, d. in Edinburgh, in 18-13. — Sir John Campbell, the son of the above, was also an officer in the British army, and fell at Sebastopol, in the first attack on the Redan, June 18, 1855. He held the rank of general, was a brave and gallant officer, and universally and deservedly esteemed in the army. b. 1807. Campbell, Sir Neil, an officer in the British army, who, after serving with distinction in the West Indies and in the Peninsula, was, in 1813, attached as British commissioner to the Russian army, and in that capacity accompanied it to Paris, in 1814. In April of that year he was appointed to attend Napoleon to Elba, and it was during his temporary absence that the emperor escaped on the 26th of February, 1815. Sir Neil was appointed to prosecute Park's dis- coveries in Africa, towards the close of 1815; and in 1826, was named governor of Sierra Leone, to the noxious climate of which he fell a victim on the 14th of August, 1827. b. about 1770. Cajipeggio, Lorenzo,fc<2M;m-/;a!/'-«-0,a cardinal, who was originally a professor of civil law at Bologna, and had married ; but losing his wife, entered the church, and was made a bishop. Leo X. created him a cardinal while he was nuncio at the imperial court. In 1519 he was sent legate to England, to collect the tithes for the war against the Turks ; and, while there, he was nominated bishop of Salisbury. In 1521 he was sent into Germany, as the delegate of the pope, to oppose the progress of Lutheran- ism, in which he met with no success. The subject of the separation between Henry VIII. and Katharine of Aragon brought him once more to England ; but lie was so unsuc- cessful in his mission, that he incurred the blame of all parties. He was recalled in 1529, and the pope sent him again to Germany, where he attended the diet of Augsburg, b. at Bologna, 1474; d. at Eome, 1539. He was a learned man, and the friend of Erasmus and other eminent scholars. Some of his letters are in a collection printed at Bale, in 1550. — He had a brother, called Thomas, who was also a bishop. He published several works on the canon law, and died in 1564. Camper, Peter, ktim'-per, an eminent German physician and naturalist, who studied under lioerhaavc, Muschenbroek, Gravesande, and other great men in Leyden university. Having loit his parents at the age of tweuty-six, he 221 Campo-Basso visited England, France, and Germany, where he cultivated the acquaintance of men of letters. At Berlin he met with a flattering reception from Frederick the Great. To the study of medicine he united that of many other sciences, and cultivated a taste for the fine arts. Ho designed, painted, and modelled with exact- ness and elegance ; but he excelled in the study of philosophy and natural history. His works on these subjects were published in a collected form at Paris, in 3 vols, with plates, in 1803, under the title, " Ouvres qui ont pour Objet l'Histoire Naturelle, la Physiologie et l'Ana- tomie comparee." He pointed out the difference of the facial angle in man and beast, b. at Leyden, 1722; d. 1789. Camphutsen , ~Dirk,kamp-koo'-sen, an eminent painter, whose landscapes and moonlight-pieces are extremely beautiful. B. at Gorcum, 1586 ; B. 1626. Campi, kaicm'-pe, a distinguished family of Italian painters, who flourished in Cremona in the 16th century. Their names were— Giulio, the master of the others, Antonio, Vincenzio, and Bernardino. Antonio was an architect as well as a painter; and the whole family were distinguished for eminent talent in conception and care in execution. They exercised a large influence on the character of art in their day, the period during which they laboured em- bracing little short of a hundred years. Campian, Edmund, kam'-pe-an, an ingenious and learned writer in defence of the Papacy, was born in London, in 1540. He was educated at Oxford, went abroad, and being admitted into the order of Jesuits, he taught philosophy in a newly-founded college of the order at Prague. He came to England in 1580, and having attracted by his writings the attention of Walsingham, was apprehended in Berkshire, and brought to the Tower of London with a placard on his hat, bearing the inscription, " Edward Cam pian, a most pernicious Jesuit." Charged with being concerned in a plot against the life of Queen Elizabeth, he was condemned for high treason, and hanged at Tyburn, De- cember 1, 1581. He was author of a history of Ireland, which country he had visited in 156S, besides other books, which have obtained for him the reputation of an able writer, but a zealous and determined vindicator of the papal cause. Campistkon, Jean Galbcrt de, kam-pees'- trawng, a French poet, who, at an early age, went to Paris, and there was fortunate enough to acquire the friendship, and receive the advice of, the poet Racine. Through him he became secretary to the duke of Vcndome. His plays possess many beauties, and are formed on the model of those of Racine, n. at Toulouse, 1656: d. 1723. — He also wrote some operas, of which the best known is " Acis and Galatea." Campo-Basso, Nicholas, kam'-po-baw-so, a fa- mous leader of Italian mercenaries, at the end of the loth century, and still more notorious for treachery and unfaithfulness. In the contest for the Neapolitan throne, he at first supported the house of Anjou, but afterwards went over to their opponent, Charles the Bold of Bur- gundy, whom, in turn, he deserted during the siege of Nancy, in 1477, having joined Fen and, duke of Loraine, who had gone to raise the siege, just before the armies engaged in battle. The consequence was, that the Bur- I gmidiuus were totally defeated, aud Charles THE DICTIONARY Camus himself slain. The body was found next day stripped, it is believed by Campo-Basso and his followers. Camus, Francois Joseph de, Jcai'-moos, an emi- nent and ingenious French mechanician, was born of a noble family in Loraine, in 1672, and was admitted a member of the Academy of Science in 1716. He made many curious inven- tions in connexion with clocks, astronomical in- struments, &c. He came to Fngland in the hope of obtaining advantage from his inven- tions — a pursuit in which he had previously tailed in Holland — but was still unfortunate, and died in great poverty, in 1732. His most im- portant work is a " Treatise on Moving Forces for the Practice of Arts and Trades, with a de- scription of twenty-three new and useful Ma- chines," which was published in Paris in 1722. Canal, or Canaletto (incorrectly Canaletti), Antonio, kawn'-al-ait'-to, a famous Italian artist, was born in 1697, at Venice, where his father was a scene painter at the theatre. He assisted his father for some years, then went to Rome, where he made many sketches of that city and its environs ; his principal works, however, relate to his native town, of which he minted a vast number of views. He spent about two years in England, and made a drawing of the interior of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, which is distinguished by all his peculiar excel- lences in perspective and accuracy of detail. His works are very numerous, and may be found in almost every gallery in Furope, though it is probable that many pieces attri- buted to him are spurious, the productions of his pupils and imitutors. He was remarkable lor the accuracy of bis details in drawing and for the harmony of his colours; and to obtain the former result he is said to have made use of the camera obscura. b. 1768. Canblish, Robert Smith, D.D., Mn'-dluk, one of the most eminent ministers of the Free Church of Scotland, was educated for the ministry of the established Church, and held the parochial charge of St. George's Church, Edinburgh. At the disruption of the Establishment in 1843, Dr. Candlish took a leading part, and assisted, with other eminent clergymen, to form the Free Church. He after- wards became the pastor of Free St. George's, in the Lothian-road, Edinburgh. He published numerous pamphlets and sermons, besides an "Exposition of the liook of Genesis," " Exami- nation of Mr. Maurice's Theological Essays," etc., etc. InlSCl he was made moderator of the Free Church Assembly. B. 1807 ; b. 1873. Canga Aeguelles, Jose ,kan'-ga ar-gau-yais, a Spanish author and statesman. In 1823 he became an exile in England, where he produced a " Dictionary of Finance," and " Observations on the History of the Peninsular War." These are his most important works, although he is the writer of several others. After passing seven years in London, he suddenly became an apologist for the measures of Ferdinand, and was permitted to return to his country, lie subsequently became a member of the Cortes for the third time. b. in the Asturias, 1770; n. 1843. Cange, Charles du Fresno du. (See Dc- CANGE.) Cangiago, or Cambist, Ludovico, iau'-je- Aw'-go, a Genoese painter, who executed some ad- mirable works in Italy raid Spain, b. 1027 j D. 1533. Cano Canning, the Right Honourable George, hm'-ning, was, on the paternal side, of Irish ex- traction. His father came to London, entered himself of the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar. Meeting with little practice, he aban- doned the law for literature, but being unable to maintain himself in this new vocation, be- came a wine-merchant, in which capacity he failed, and died of a broken heart. His mother became an actress, and married an actor. He also dying, she was now married to a Mr. Hunn, a linen-draper of Exeter, and lived long enough to see her son attain the eminence to which hi3 distinguished abilities entitled him. George was educated first at Hyde Abbey School, Win- chester, then at Eton, and then at Oxford, where he was recognized as a high-class man. He then entered Lincoln's Inn, to follow the law as a profession, but being introduced by Mr. Pitt to the House of Commons, he abandoned the bar, and devoted himself wholly to the study of politics. This was in 1793. In 1796 he was appointed under secretary of state, and in 1800 received a fortune of £100,000 by his marriage with Joanna, the daughter of General Scott. In 1804 he was appointed treasurer of the navy ; and in 1807, a year after the death of Pitt, he was appointed, for the second time, secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1S09 he fought a duel with Lord Castlereagh; and in 1812 be- came member for Liverpool, which again elected him in 1814, 1818, and 1820. In 1816 he became president of the Board of Control, and in 1822 was named governor-general of India, and was about to embark for that country, when Lord Castlereagh, then Marquis of Londonderry, committed suicide. This circumstance led to Mr. Canning's relinquishing his appointment, and again accepting that of secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1827 he became premier, the great object of a long and arduous poli- tical life. The last time he spoke in parliament, was on the 29th of June, 1827. b. in London, 1770; d. at the villa of the duke of Devonshire, Chiswick, 1827. — Mr. Canning had great orato- rical ability, with considerable poetical power, and much brilliancy of wit. He was a firm supporter of the cause of Catholic emancipation, and the main promoter of the independence of Greece. Canning, Charles John, Earl, was the second Eon of the Right Honourable George Canning, and on the death of his mother, in 1837, became Viscount Canning. In 1841 he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs, and under Sir Robert Peel became commissioner of woods and forests, and afterwards postmaster-general. In 1856 he succeeded Lord Dalhousie as gove- nor-general of India, which appointment he held throughout the whole of'th.' mutiny of the sepoys of 1857, 1858, and part of 1859. For hi» conduct during this trying period he was, in 1859, created an earl. b. lS12.-He returned to England in 1802, being succeeded in lii'liu by Lord Elgin, and died a few days alter his arrival, on June lith, 1862. Cano, Alonzo, ka'-no, is called the Michael Angelo of Spain, from the greatness of his talents in painting, statuary, and architecture. He studied architecture under his father, sculpture under Pacheeo of Seville, and painting under Juan del Castillo. His two colossal statues of St. Peter and St. Paul were considered very fine, and many foreign artists came to copy them, He was soon taken notice of by Philip 1"V„ and OF BIOGRAPHY. Cano treated first royal architect, king's painter, and instructor to the prince Don Balthazar Carlos. He adorned the palaces and churches with ele- gant pieces, both in sculpture and painting; but a singular misfortune occurred while he was in the full career of glory. Coming home one evening, he found his house robbed, his wife mur- dered, and his Italian man-servant fled. Not- withstanding the strong presumption against this man, the magistrates fastened their suspi- cion on Cano, who was known to be of a jealous temper. Fearful of the consequences he fled ; but afterwards returned to Madrid, where he was racked to extort confession. He endured the torture without uttering a word to criminate himself, when the king caused him to be de- livered, and took him again into favour. After this he entered the church as an asylum from further prosecution, but still continued his pro- fessional pursuits. In his last moments, when the priest held up to him a crucifix wretchedly executed, he told him to take it away, for it was so badly done that he could not bear the sight of it. b. at Granada, 1600 ; d. 1676. Cajjo, John Sebastian del, the first seaman who sailed round the globe. He accompanied Magellan to the East Indies, and, after the death of that famous navigator, sailed to the isles of Suuda, and doubled, alter many attempts, the Cape of Good Hope. He returned to Spain in 1322, after a voyage of more than three years, b. in Biscay; i>. 1526. — There was also a Diego Cano, or Cain, a Portuguese navigator, who, in 1-134, discovered the kingdom of Congo. Canonica, Luigi della, kaw'-non-e-lca, an Italian architect, the contemporary of Cagnola, executed many important public and private works in Milan, among the principal of which are the amphitheatre, a vast structure of 8u0 by 400 feet ; the interior of the Orsini palace ; the Casa Canonica, and the Re and Carcano theatres. He also built theatres at Brescia and Mantua, and designed one for Parma, which was erected from his plans after his death, which took place in 1S34. He left a considerable for- tune, and made several munificent bequests for the promotion of general and artistic education. B. 1762. Canova, Antonio, Tcaw-no'-va, the eminent Italian sculptor, who, at fourteen years of age, was received into the studio of Bernardi Torretti at Venice, and subsequently into that of Ferrari. His first imaginative group was "Orpheus and Kurydice;" his next, " Daedalus and Icarus," which immediately brought him prominently into notice. Through the interest of Faliero, a senator of Venice, he was enabled to exhibit this work among the leading artists of Rome; and their judgment was so satisfac- tory that it stimulated him to higher efforts in his beautiful art. He returned to Venice for a short time, but afterwards went back to Rome, with a pension of 300 ducats, settled by his own government upon him for three years. He now produced his "Theseus and the Minotaur," and gave such strong evidences of a graceful yet simple talent, that he was chosen to execute the monument of Ganganelli (Pope Clement XIV.), for the church of the SS. Apostoli at Home. This exquisite performance was exhi- bited in 1787, and at once raised him to the highest rank in his profession. He next exe- cuted Rezzonico's (Clement XIII.) monument, which, if possible, surpassed the other. This vorii -s in St. Peter s, at liJirc, Ha lame being 22-3 Cantacuzeno now established, he employed himself in the production of imaginative subjects. His genius was classical, yet in the highest degree pure and natural. "The Graces," "Cupid and Psyche," "Endymion," "Statues of Nymphs," "Hercu- les hurling Lycas from the Rock," are all evidences of originality, as well as of that refined and exalted taste, by which he was dis- tinguished. Besides such works, he executed n large number of monumental groups, as well as portrait statues ; among which we may mention his Napoleon I., and Letitia, the mother of that emperor. After his fame may be said to have travelled to the ends of the earth, he visited England,' where he was highly gratified with his reception. The object of this visit was chiefly to see the Elgin marbles, the sight of which, he said, was sufficient to recompense him for his journey from Rome. On his return to Rome he received a patent of nobility, with the title of marquis of Isehia, which he never assumed, but, to the last, had his cards engraved with plain Antonio Canova. b. at Possagno, a village in the Venetian territory, 1757; d. at Venice, 1S23. Cankoiiert, Francois Certain, l-an'-ro-hair, a French marshal, who was educated at the mili- tary school of St. Cyr, and, in 182S, entered the army as a sub-lieutenant. In 1S35 he ac- companied his regiment to Algeria, and took part in the expedition to Mascara in the fol- lowing year under Marshal Clausel. In 1837 he, on entering the breach at the storming of Constantine, was severely wounded, and after- wards received the decoration of the Legion of Honour. In 1847 he became lieutenant-colonel, and was soon afterwards appointed to the com- mand of a regiment of Zouaves, In 1850 he was made a brigadier-general, in 1852 aide-de- camp to Napoleon III., and, in 1853, a general of division. In 1854 he had the command of the first division of the army of the Crimea, under Marshal St. Arnaud; and, at the battle of the Alma, was slightly wounded by the splinter of a shell. On the death of St. Arnaud, he at- tained to the chief command ; but the rising star of Bosquet burned with greater brilliancy in the eyes of the French. On the 5th of November he was wounded at Inkermann, and had his horse shot under him. The siege of Sebastopol, however, languished ; dissatisfaction with the leaders of the allied army began to be expressed ; and Canrobert, in 1855, resigned the command. He did not, however, leave the Crimea, but resumed the leadership of his old division, and continued to serve with his usual zeal under the orders of Marshal Pelissier, who had sue* ceeded him. If this was done voluntarily, we cannot sufficiently admire the excellent temper which could submit to what most men, in his position, would have felt to be a galling humi- liation. Ill health compelled him to quit the Crimea and return to Paris, where, on the birth of an heir to the imperial throne, in 1856, ho was created a marshal. In 1859 he was ap- pointed to the command of a division destined to operate against the Austrians in Piedmont; and at the battle of Magenta, fought on the 4th of June, sharcdin the honours of that field with General MacMahon. n. at Saint Cere" (Lot) 1S01). Cantacuzkne, John V., lean' -ta-koo' seen, em- peror of the East, was a distinguished officer in the service of the emperor Androuicus the elder, under whom, and his grandson Androuicus the younger, he held high cilice. In consequence THE DICTIONARY Cantarini of intrigues against him in the court after the death of the latter, Cantacuzcne was elected emperor by the troops under his command, assumed the purple, and was crowned at Adri- anople in 1341. It was five years, however, before he was able to enter Constantinople, when a compromise was effected, and he was recognised as joint emperor with John Pateo- logus. Hut this arrangement did not last ; new wars broke out ; in 1354 he was compelled to abdicate, and retired to a monastery. He then assumed the name of Josephus Christodialus, and wrote a " History of the Byzantine Empire from 1320 to 1360, " which is ranked as one of the " Byzantine Histories," and also a vindica- tion of Christianity against Jews and Moham- medans. He is said to have lived for more than 100 years, but the date of his death is unascer- tained, b. about 1295. — There were two or three subsequent emperors of the same name, who derived, or affected to derive, their descent and claims from the above, but of whom nothing remarkable is recorded. CiNTAmjrr, Simon, kan'-tatc-re'-ne, called the " Pezarese," a disciple ofGuido, whose paintings are often taken for those of his master, b. 16i2 ; d. at Verona, 1648. Cantemik, Demetrius, leant' -e-mir, a Molda- vian prince, of Tartar extraction. Early in life he served the grand seignior, who appointed him governor of Moldavia, which he surrendered to Peter the Great, and obtained from him the title of prince, b. 1673; d. 1723. He wrote a " History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire," in Latin; "The System of the Moham- medan Religion;" "The Present State of Mol- davia," &c. Cantemie, Antioehus, son of the preceding, was educated at St. Petersburg. He was raised to several important offices, and sent ambassador to Paris and London, b. 1709; d. 1741.— He wrote poems in the Russian language, and translated Anacreofi and other authors. Canton, John, lean -ton, an experimental philosopher, who, after obtaining a common education, was apprenticed to the trade of broadcloth-weaving. His leisure hours were devoted to mathematical studies, in which he succeeded so well as to make a dial upon stone, which not only gave the hour of the day, but the rising of the sun, his place in the ecliptic, and other particulars. This was fixed against the front of his father's house, and so pleased many gentlemen of the neighbourhood, that he found, by access to their libraries, great helps in his favourite pursuits. In 1739 he went to London, and was engaged as assistant to Mr. Watkins, master of an academy in Spitalfields, whom he afterwards succeeded. About 1740 he made some discoveries in electricity, ana in 1700 presented to the Royal Society a method of making artificial magnets, for which he was elected a member, and received the gold medal. In 1751 he was honoured with the degree of M.A. by the University of Aberdeen, and chosen one of the council of the Royal Society. His communications to that learned body, upon astronomical and philosophical subjects, were numerous and important, but he never pub- lished any separate work. u. at Stroud, Glou- cestershire, 1718; d. 1772. CANTU.Cesare, Jcatc?i'-too, an Italian historian, whose liberal opinions drew upon him, in 1835, thevengeance of theAustriangovernment, which condemned him to a year's imprisonment. 224 Capeflgus His principal work is his M Storia Universale," which was published at Milan, and extends to 36 vols. 8vo. It has passed through several editions, and has also been translated into French. He has written several other works ; among which we may notice his " Reformation in Italy, and its Antecedents," his latest work, published in 1867. In poetry and poetic criti- cism he has, likewise, exercised his pen. n. at llrivio, near Milan, 1805. Canute, or Kn ut, Icun'-ute, " the Great," king of Denmark and England, succeeded his father Sweyn in the former kingdom about the year 1014. Coming to England at the commence- ment of his reign in Denmark, he landed on the southern coast, where he committed dreadful ravages. Edmund Ironside, however, opposed him with such bravery that Canute agreed to divide the kingdom between them. On the murder of Edmund by Edric, in 1017, Canute obtained the whole kingdom, in an assembly of the states, conciliating the people by his espousal of Ethelred's widow. He then put to death Edrieand several of the English nobility who had basely deserted their sovereign. He likewise levied heavy taxes, particularly on the inhabitants of London, but distributed justice with an even hand, and showed no partiality to the Danes in preference to the English. The king of Sweden having attacked Denmark, he embarked on an expedition against him, and slew the Swedish monarch in battle. Great now as was his power, he did not suffer it to inflate him with vanity. He returned to England, where it is said some of his flatterers praised him beyond the limits of even parasitical adula- tion. Shocked at the extravagance of his cour- tiers, whilst at Southamption, he caused a chair to be placed on the seashore. In this he seated himself, and commanding the waves not to approach nearer, calmly awaiteuhis mandate to be obeyed. The heedless tide, however, rolled nearer, until it touched his royal feet. " See." said he to his flatterers, " how regardless of my power are these waves;" and bade them re- member that no one should be called sovereign but the Great Being whom the waters and the winds alike obey. He subsequently made a pilgrimage to Rome, and on his return founded the monasteries of St. Rennet, at Holme, and St. Edmund's Bury. d. 1035. Canute 111. (See Hardicanute.) Canute IV., called the Pious, king of Den- mark, succeeded his brother Harold in IOmo. He undertook an expedition to England, which failed. He made such extraordinary grants of laud to the Church, that it excited his subjects to rise against him, and he was slain in a tumult, 1087. On this account he was canonized by Pope Alexander III. in 1164. There were some other princes of the same name, but their history contains nothing of importance. Capefigue, Baptiste Honore Rjymond, leap- feeg, a French historian and periodical writer, who studied for the law; but becoming a con- tributor to the newspapers in Paris, adopted literature as a profession. For a time he was editor of the " Quotidiennc," and subsequently devoted the energies of his pen to the columns of most of the Parisian leading papers ; besides writing for the " lievue des Deux Mondes." Whilst supporting himself by this means, he also was labouring in the mine of history, and lias produced upwards of one hundred volumes, most of which have relation to some period in CHARLES I. (OF ENGLAND.) CHARLES II. (OF ENGLAND.) CONDE, PRINCE DE. COLLINGWOOD, ADMIRAL. OF BIOGRAPHY. Cap el the annals of his own country, b. at Marseilles, 1802. Capel, Arthur, Lord, kai'-pel, an English nobleman, who, in the parliament of 1640, voted for the attainder of the carl of Strafford, a mea- sure which he afterwards sincerely repented. Finding that the Parliament went farther against the king than he wished, he began to oppose their violent measures, for which he was created Lord Capel of Hadham. In the war which followed, his zeal in the royal cause in- duced the Parliament to confiscate his estates. In 1648 he, with the earl of Norwich and Sir Charles Lucas, defended Colchester against the Parliament forces, but was obliged at last to surrender, upon promise of quarter. He was, however, committed to the Tower, whence he made his escape, but being soon taken, was tried and executed, March 9, 1649. Capeli,, Edward, an editor of Shakspeare, who obtained the place of deputy-inspector of plays, with a salary of £200 a year. He spent 20 years on his edition of Shakspeare; but his comments are rather suggestive than solid. His style is obscure, pedantic, and crippled ; so much so that it drew from Dr. Johnson the re- mark that " the man should have come to me, and I would have endowed his purpose with words; as it is, he doth gabble monstrously." He wrote and edited other works, but with as little ability as he did those of Shakspeare. b. near Bury St. Edmund's, 1713 ; d. 1781. Capellen, Goderd Alexander Gerard Philip, Baron Van der, ka-pel'-len, governor-general of the Dutch East Indies, was, in 1809, appointed minister of internal affairs under King Louis Bonaparte, with whom, in 1811, he went to his retreat at Gratz, in Styria. On the emancipation of Holland from the French yoke, Capellen was, in 1814, made governor-general of the Dutch East Indies ; but he did not set out for the scene of his administration till after the battle of Waterloo, when he proceeded to Java. In 1826 he was recalled in disgrace, notwithstand- ing the many excellent reforms which he effected among the people he had been sent to govern. For a long time the prejudice against him was great; but justice, though tardy, came at last and vindicated his conduct in the eyes of his countrymen. He rose once more into favour, and was appointed ambassador to England on the occasion of the coronation of Queen Victoria. b. at Utrecht, 1778 ; d. at his seat at Vollenhoven, 1848. Capelt.0, Bianca, kaw-pel'-lo, a Venetian lady, who, from the mistress became the wife of Francis, son of the grand duke Cosmo de Medici. She possessed considerable talents for intrigue, and deceived her lover, who was de- sirous of offspring, by pretending that she ■ad had a child born her. She and her husband iied within a few days of each other, in 1587, lot without strong suspicion of being poisoned liy the cardinal Ferdinand, brother of Francis. b. at Venice, about 1542. Capet, Hugues, Ica'-pai, the founder of the Capet dynasty of French princes, of whom very little is known. He is said to have been of plebeian origin, and to have usurped the throne in 9-47. b. about 939 ; d. 996.— On the accession oi i he house of Bourbon, the name of Capet was either given to them or taken by them, and all the processes in the trial of Louis XVI. were made against Louis Capet. Capo h'Istkia, Count of, ka'-po-dees'-lre-a, a Caraccioll Greek, who began life as a student of medicir.c, but who entered the service of Russia, and was attached to the embassy at Vienna. In 1813 ho became the plenipotentiary of Russia to Swit> zerland, and gained the favour of the Swiss by advocating the restoration of all the territory which the French had taken from them, and the re-establishment of Helvetian independence. In 1814 he was ;33; and the beautiful airiness of his eSusijfcs places him equal, if not superior, to Waller. Cabew, Richard, an English topographer, known by his " Survey of Cornwall," printed first in 1602, 4to, again in 1723, and lastly in 1769. Of this county he was, in 1586, appointed high sheriff, b. at Anthony, Cornwall, 1555; d. 1620. Carew, Bampfylde Moore, "king of the beg- gars," an Englishman of roving habits, was the son of a clergyman. He became acquainted with some gipsies located in the neighbourhood of his native town, and was so fascinated by the romantic carelessness of their mode of life, that he abandoned his friends and linked himself to the fortunes of this strange people. The exploits into which his adoption of their wandering ha- bits led him, have been related with a kind of incredible wonder. He would impose upon the same company three or four times a day under different disguises, and with new tales of dis- tress. Sometimes he was a distressed clergy- man, ruined because he could not take the oaths; at others, a Quaker, who had met with severe losses in trade. Now a shipwrecked mariner; and the same day, a blacksmith, whose house and family had perished by fire. Proteus would hardly seem to have been a greater adept in the variety of his changes, and he had a method of enticing away people's dogs, for which he was twice transported from Exeter to America, but made his escape. On one of these occasions he travelled from Virginia through the woods, and swam across the Delaware upon a horse, with only a handkerchief for a bridle. ' He was a man of strong memory and pleasing address, and could assume the manners of a gentleman with as much ease as those of any other cha- racter. The fraternity to which he belonged elected him their king; and he remained faith- ful to them to the last. b. at Biekley, Devon- shire, 1693 ; d. about 1770. Cabev, Henry, kair'-e, an eminent English musician, who wrote and composed several ex- cellent songs, pastorals, &c, mostly of a comie character, the best of which is "Sally in our Alley." He was likewise the author of a number of farces, some poems, &c. ; and a claim was set up by his son that he had composed the national anthem. This pretension, however, was absurd, as the anthem is known to be a much older pro- duction, d. suddenly, October 4, 1743; some say he committed suicide, but this is doubtful, as the newspapers of the time make no mention of the fact, although they record the suddenness of his death. — His son, George Savillc Carey, inherited a considerable share of his father's talent, and had an intense passion for the stage, on which, however, he was not successful, lie wrote and delivered lectures, and was the author of some farces, sketches, &c. He was by profes- sion a printer: but his restless and unsettled dis- position prevented his succeeding in business; he was always in difficulties, and died in poverty in ly(>7, aged 61, having been born on the day his 1 father died, A daughter of G. 8, Carey was the Qa THE DICTIONARY Carey mother of the celebrated tragedian, Edmund Kean. Caret, William, a distinguished English ori- entalist, who, in 1793, went to India for the purpose of disseminating the principles of Chris- tianity. His labours were originally mostly con- fined to Bengal, and, in 1801, he became pro- fessor of Sanscrit in Calcutta. He acquired a great facility in many of the eastern dialects, and published of them several grammars and dictionaries, which have been the means of greatly extending the knowledge of the Oriental languages, b. at Paulersbury, Northampton- shire, 1761 ; d. at Serampore, 1834. Carey, Alice, an American authoress, who has acquired a wide popularity by her contribu- tions to light literature. In 1850, in conjunc- l.ion with her sister, she published a volume of poems, which were much admired, and in the following year appeared her romance of " Clover- nook," which immediately brought her promi- nently into notice. Her next work was "Hagar," which was followed by several other perform- ances, by no means inferior to their predeces- sors, b. near Cincinnati, in Ohio, 1822. — Her sister Phcebe is believed to be joint-authoress of several of Miss Carey's works. Caxissimi, Jacques, kaw-rees'-te-me, a clever Italian composer, who, at the beginning of the 17th century, effected a great reformation in the modern music of Italy. In 1619 he was appointed master of the pontifical chapel, and introduced into the church instrumental ac- companiments. He composed masses, orato- rios, motets, and cantatas, of which the most remarkable are " Jephtha's Sacrifice " and " Solomon's Judgment." b. at Marino, near Borne, about 1604; d. 1674. Cabled, Kmilie, kar-len', a Swedish novelist, .vhose works have procured for her both an English and an American reputation. She is the authoress of a great many novels, most of them, if not all, illustrative of Swedish scenery and character. Her best known in England is " The Rose of Tistelon," which appeared in an English dress in 1844, and which has been fol- lowed by several other performances in the same manner, and with various success. The rapidity with which her productions have succeeded each other has, by some, been considered to have a damaging effect on her reputation; but to this opinion we demur. Even a bare enumera- tion of the titles of her performances, however, would occupy a considerable space, b. at Stromstad, Bohusland, 1807. Cakleton, Sir Guy, karl'-ton, a British gene- ral, who distinguished himself during the Ame- rican war of independence as commander of the British troops in Canada, was sprung from an ancient family in the north of England, which afterwards removed to Ireland, and was born at Strabane, Tyrone, in 1724. He entered theGuards a» a subaltern, and continued in that corps till 1748, when he obtained the lieutenant-colonelcy of the 72nd Regiment; and, in 1758, accompa- nied General Amherst to America, and distin- guished liimself at the siege of Quebec hi the following year. He acted as brigadier-general at the siegeot'Bellisle.wherehe was wounded; in 1762 he attained the rank of colonel in the army, and was present at the siege of the Moro Castle, Ha- vannah, soon after, when he was again wounded. He attained the rank of major-general in 1772, and in the succeeding year was named governor of Quebec. \V hen the American war broke out in 228 Carli 1775, he had full scope for the display of hii abilities. The American congress resolved on the invasion of Canada, on which service they sent General Montgomery, who pushed the war with such vigour, that he captured the fort of St. John's, compelled Carleton to evacuate Mon- treal, and proceeded to invest Quebec. Here Sir Guy determined to make a stand, and on being summoned by Montgomery and Arnold to surrender, treating the demand with contempt, refusing to hold any communication whatever with the so-called rebels. The American lead< rs made an attempt to take Quebec by assault, but failed in the attempt Montgomery was killed, and Arnold was under the necessity of abandon- ing the siege. Carleton was now, from having received reinforcements from Europe, in a posi- tion to act on the offensive, and pushed on to Lake Champlain, when a naval engagement took place on the 11th of October, which, although not decisive, induced Arnold to retreat to Crown Point, where he was overtaken by Carleton, defeated, and forced to evacuate Ca- nada. General Carleton was made a knight of the Bath in July, 1776, and in the followingyear had organized an expedition to co-operate with the principal British force advancing from New York ; but the chief command having been con- ferred on General Burgoyne, Sir Guy resigned in disgust, and after aiding Burgoyne to take the field in an efficient manner, returned to England. In August, 1777, he was made lieut.-general, and in 1781 succeeded Sir Henry Clinton as com- mander-in-chief in America, which position he held to the conclusion of the war, and superin- tended the final evacuation of New York in 1783. He was once more appointed governor of the British North American colonies in 1786; and was next year raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Dorchester. After continuing in America for several years, ably discharging the duties of his extensive governorship, he finally returned to England, and died in 1808 ; his grandson succeeding to his titles and estates. Carleton, William, an Irish romance-writer of considerable genius and power. The first work which fixed the attention of the public upon him was his "Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry," which was published in 1832, and received by the general public with great favour. This was followed by several other works, which fully sustained the reputa- tion he had already received, as one of the happiest delineators of Irish character. In 1840 appeared his " Fawn of Spring Vale;" in 1845," Valentine M'Clutchy;" and in 1847, the " Black Prophet," in which some of the appalling features connected with the famine of 1846 are graphically depicted. These were fol- lowed by " Rody the Rover," the " Tithe Proc- tor," "The Clarionet," and "Willy Reilly," which came out in 1855. For his services t. 1795. — Carli wrote many works on archeology and OF BIOGRAPHY. Carlingford Carlyle other subjects ; among which we may mention his " History of Die Coins and Currency," and on "The Institution of the Mint of Italy." Carlinqford, Theobald Taal'e, carl of, Tear 1 - ling-ford, took an active share in the affairs of Ireland during the civil war, was proscribed by Cromwell, but afterwards reinstated at the Re- storation, and in June, 1662, was created carl of Carlinjj ford, with a grant of £4000 a year. d. 1677. Carlisle, Sir Anthony, kar'-lUe, an eminent surgeon, who, after finishing his studies in York, where, for some time, he had received in- structions from Mr. Green, the founder of the hospital in that city, went to London, and, in 1793, was appointed surgeon to Westminster Hospital. He now rose rapidly in his profes- sion, and became surgeon extraordinary to George IV. when Prince Regent, who knighted him on the first lev(5e he held after his accession to the throne. In 1808 he became professor of anatomy in the Royal Academy, an appoint- ment which he held for sixteen years. His con- tributions to medical literature were varied and extensive. He was the first to point out the fact that water might be decomposed by the galvanic battery, b. near Durham, 1768; d. in London, 18-40. Carlisle, Frederick Howard, fifth earl of, distinguished both as a statesman and a poet, was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, having been appointed to that office in 1780, and was for several years a leader, both in the debates and in gay and fashionable life. He was one of Lord Byron's guardians, and his poetical repu- tation suffered severely from the onslaught made upon him in the " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers," for which, however, Byron made an atonement in the fourth canto of *' Childc Harold." Lord Carlisle, besides fugi- tive pieces, was author of two tragedies, " The Father's Revenge," and "Bellamere." He was born in 1748; and died in 1826. Carlisle, George William Frederick Howard, earl of, formerly well known as Viscount Mor- peth, was born in 1802. After being engaged in the public service in the diplomatic branch for some years, he was chosen to represent Yorkshire in Parliament, was Irish secretary for several years, then chief commissioner of woods and forests, and in 1859 was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, where he enjoyed a high degree of personal popularity. He was a cul tivat ed and refined gentleman, had an honor- able reputation as a scholar, a man of letters, a traveller, and, as an orator, took a leading and respectable part in the debates in the House of Commons while a member of that assembly. The Carlisle family is a branch of the old and honourable race who for many centuries have been earls and dukes of Norfolk, d. 1861. Carloman, kar'-lo-man, the eldest son of Charles Martel, whom he succeeded as king of Austrasia in 741. He and his brother Pepin united in defending their dominions against the encroachments of their neighbours, and de- feated the Germans in 743. Carloman then entered Saxony, took its duke prisoner, and after several successful expeditions, became a monk of the order of St. Benedict. He assem- bled a famous council in 742, the acts of which bear his name. Lived in the 8th century. — There were three others of the same name; the first was the younger brother of Charlemagne, with whom he had some contention about the kingdom, but, on his death, in 771, left him in 229 full possession. — The second was the son of Louis II., whom he succeeded in 879, in con- junction with his brother Louis III. On the death of the latter he was declared sole kins: of France, and was killed while hunting, by a wild boar, in 884. — The third Carloman was the fourth son of Charles the Bald, a turbulent priest, who was accused of conspiring against the king, and had his eyes put out. d. about 876. Carlos, Don, kar'-los, son of Philip II., king of Spain, was deformed in his person, and su perverse in his temper, that he endeavoured to kill his tutor for gently reproving him. A match was negotiated between him and the Princess Elizabeth of France, but Philip, be- coming a widower, married her himself. He was then desirous of marrying his cousin, Anne of Austria; but being crossed by his father, he endeavoured to excite discontent among the nobles. For this he was arrested, and con- demned to death. Shortly afterwards he was found dead in prison, not without suspicions of violence, b. 1545 ; d. 1568. Carlos, Don, Count de Molina, was the second son of Charles IV. of Spain. He was e iucated by Catholic priests, and was little heard of until the accession of his brother, Fer- dinand VII., when he was sent to meet Bona- parte, who had announced his intention of pay- ing a visit to the Spanish sovereign in his own dominions. Don Carlos, however, was made a prisoner^ and his brother Ferdinand was soon compelled to abdicate all claims to the Spanish kingdom, in .favour of his ally, the emperor of the French. ' Both the brothers were kept pri- soners till 1812, when they were restored to liberty, and Ferdinand once more ascended the Spanish throne. Don Carlos now plotted, in con- junction with the absolutist party, against his brother, and in 1825 shared in an insurrectionary movement in Catalonia. In 1830 a daughter, Isabella, was born to Ferdinand, and she was declared heir to the throne of Spain by the Cortes, which set aside the Salic law in her fa- vour. In 1833, however, this law was restored by Ferdinand, when so ill as to be in expectation of death, and from an apprehension of the evils which would arise to his people from the exclu- sion of Don Carlos from the throne. He.howevcr, recovered, when the evidences that were to secure the succession of Don Carlos W(re destroyed, and Isabella, on the death of her father, as- cended the throne. A civil war now commenced between the Carlists and the adherents of Isa- bella. For five years the country was desolated by the most savage cruelties that ever marked the progress of a civil conflict. It terminated in favour of Isabella, and, in 1839, Don Carlos took refuse in France. In 1845 he formally re- linquished his claim to the crown, and in 1847 went to live at Trieste, where he spent the re- mainder of his days. b. 1788; d. 1855. Carlyle, Alexander, D.D., kar'-lile, a well- known Scottish clergyman of the established church, in the politics of which he espoused the views of the moderate party, of which he was long a leader. He was minister of Inveresk, near Edinburgh ; and was distinguished for his singularly imposing personal appearance, his resemblance to the Jupiter Tonans in the capi- tol at Rome having procured him the title o) "Jupiter CarlyH" He left a volume of" Me- moirs of his Own Time" in MS., which has re- cently been published, and is extremely inter- esting. B.1721; B. 1805- THE DICTIONARY Carlyle Carnot Carltle, Thomas, a writer of great power and originality, who, after passing through the university of Edinburgh, with a view to enter- ing the Scottish Church, abandoned that in- tention, and prepared to devote himself to a literary life. In 1823 he was tutor to Charles Dul- ler, who became distinguished in the political history of his country ; and whilst acting in that capacity, he occupied his leisure in trans- lating from the German. The works which he produced between his 26th and 32nd years were " A Life of Schiller," " Legendrc's Geometry," to which he prefixed an Essay on Proportion ; the " Wilhelm Meistcr" of Goethe, and " Speci- mens of German Romance," all of which were received with approbation by those who were best qualified to judge of the difficulties with which he had to contend, in imbuing his trans- lations with the true spirit of the originals which he had chosen to render into an English dress. He had now made himself well known in the world of letters, and became a contributor to the " Edinburgh Review," in which he wrote many masterly critical articles. Among these may be noticed his " Essay on Burns" and on " German Literature." In 1833-4 appeared his "Sartor Besartus" in "Fraser's Magazine." From that time he commanded a large circle of admirers, and afterwards produced many works of sterling merit. In 1837 he delivered a course of lectures on "German Literature" in Willis's Booms, in London, which he followed up by lecturing on other subjects, down to 1840, when he lectured on " Heroes, Hero- Worship, and the Heroic in History." This, we believe, was the most popular of his courses. In 1845 appeared " Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches," which added considerably to his reputation. In 1850 he published the "Latter- Day Pam- phlets," which were more remarkable for the singularity of their style than the soundness of their doctrines. In 1851 appeared his "Life of John Sterling." His latest work is a "History of the Life and Times of Frederick the Great. He was elected Bector of Edinburgh University in 1865. b. near Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, Bcotland, 1795. Cabmagnoia, Francesco, kawr'-ma-no-la, a celebrated Italian general, who, having begun life as a swineherd, enlisted as a private soldier in the army of Philip Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, and having exhibited high military qua- lities, was raised by the duke to the dignity of commander-in-chief of his forces, a promotion which he amply justified, for he secured several important victories, and added largely to the duke's territory. Besides recovering Lom- bardy, Carmagnola won Brescia, Bergamo, Piacenza, and other cities, to the dominion of Visconti, who in return created him duke of Cajfelnovo, and loaded him with riches and favour. Becoming jealous, however, of the very greatness he had created, Philip, in 142 t, deprived Carmagnola of his command, refused to listen to a defence, and confiscated his estates. The indignant soldier repaired to Venice, ofTered his services to the senate, by whom they were accepted. Carmagnola led an army against his old master, whom he repeatedly defeated, de- prived him of the provinces he had previously gained for him, and in 1428 compelled him to sue for peace. A new war broke out between Philip and the Venetians in 1131, when Car- magnola was again placed in command of the troops of the republic; but not being so suc- 230 cessful as formerly, he was suspected of treachery, invited to Venice to confer with the senate, re- ceived with great distinction, and then arrested, charged with treason, tortured, and beheaded on the 5th of May, 1432. B.in Piedmont about 1390. Carmichakl, Bichard, M.B.I.A., kar-mi'-kel, a very eminent surgeon in Dublin, where he was born in 1779, his father being Mr. Hugh Carmichael, solicitor, of that city. Having gra- duated in the school of the Irish College of Sur- geons, Mr. Carmichael served for some time in the Wexford militia, and then settled as a practitioner in Dublin, where he soon became distinguished for his attention to cancerous diseases, his position as surgeon to St. George's Hospital giving him peculiar opportunities of studying that class of maladies. In 1310 he published a paper on scrofula, and in the same year was appointed one of the surgeons to the Lock Hospital, his observations in which led him to issue a work on the use and abuse of mercury, which has greatly influenced the use of that mineral ever since. In 1826 he founded the Bichmond, since called the Carmichael Medical School, his coadjutors in the work being Dr. Bobcrt Adams and Mr. M'Dowall. Mr. Carmichael published altogether thirty-one different works, mostly on scrofula, cancer, and other skin diseases. He held many important official appointments, was a member of the Me- dical Academy of France, and of other learned bodies; and left by his will many bequests to the medical institutions of his native city. He was drowned on the 8th of June, 1849, while endeavouring to cross the Strand, a rapid stream near Dublin, on horseback. Carnarvon, the Bt.Hon.Henrylloward Moly- neux Herbert, Earl of, kar-nar' -von, a rising statesman of sound Conservative prineiples,who became HighSteward of theUniversity of Oxford in 1859,in which year he served underLordDerby as under-secretary of state for the Colonies. In June,1866, he again took office underLord Derby as secretary of state for the Colonies, but re- signed in 1867, disapproving of the Befonn BUI introduced by Mr. Disraeli, b. 1831. Carnot, Lazare Nicholas Marguerite, kar'-no, a French engineer, who entered the army in 1771, and became war minister to Napoleon I. As a member of the Convention, he voted for the death of the king, and in 1793 became a member of the Committee of Public Safety. The most successful period of the republic, in a military sense, was during the time that he had the organization of its military ail'airs. It was accordingly said of him that he had " organized victory." In J 797 he was forced into exile, from being suspected of having become favourable to royalty; but on Napoleon becoming first, consul, he was recalled. He was then appointed minister of war, but was deprived of that office, with all his other posts, for voting against the consulate for life. After the Bussian campaign, he again offered his services to Napoleon, and received the command of Antwerp, which he kept till the abdication of 1814. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, he was once more ap- pointed minister of war, but on the fall of the emperor, he retired, first to Warsaw and then to Magdeburg, where he passed the remainder of his days. b. at Nolay, in Burgundy, 1753; d. at Magdeburg, 1823. As a writer, Carnot is favourably known by his " Essai sur les Ma- chines en General;" hi? "Geometry of PosU tion," and several othet scientific treatises.— OF BIOGRAPHY. Carolan His son, Hippolite Carnot, was minister of Public Instruction in the republic of 1843, in which capacity lie issued a circular recommend- ing that the departments should send only un- educated rustics to represent them.in the cham- bers. He refused to acknowledge Louis Napo- leon, has retired from political life, and is occu- pied with some important historical works, as well as memoirs of his father, b. 1801. Carolan, Turlough O", kar'-o-lan, a celebrated Irish bard, who to the power of poetry joined that of musical composition, and has been called the "Orpheus of the Green Isle." He was blind, and is said to have traversed the country, mounted on a good horse, with a servant be- hind him, and to have had the doors of every dwelling he came to readily opened to him, whether the denizens were rich or poor. He composed a vast number of tunes, one harper having, at a meeting in Belfast in 1792, re- peated upwards of 100 of Carolan's pieces, although he had never heard or seen him, and believed that there were a vast number more. He was born in 1670, and died in 1738. Caroline, Amelia Elizabeth, wife of George IV. (See Geobge IV.) Carpentbr, William Benjamin, M.D., kar- pen-ter, one of the most eminent physiologists of modern times, passed his examination at the Royal College of Surgeons and Apothecaries' Society in 1835, and subsequently pursued his studies in the university of Edinburgh. Whilst there he made himself popular by the publication of several scientific treatises, and, in 1839, pub- lished his " Principles of General and Compara- tive Physiology," &c, which at once drew upon him the attention of the most distinguished physiologists of the day. He now went to reside in Bristol, where he became lecturer on medical jurisprudence, and produced several other works in connexion with his profession. Indeed, his contributions to physiological science have been of the most important kind, and have been very extensive. A bare enume- ration of their titles would occupy a consider- able space, and his works would form, in them- selves, a large encyclopaedia. He became lec- turer on medical jurisprudence in University College, London, as well as an examiner in physiology and comparative anatomy. He was also lecturer on general anatomy and physio- logy at the London Hospital School of Medi- cine, and in 1814 was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1849 he gained the prize of 100 guin as for his essay on " Alcoholic Liquors," which was published in 1850. b. 1813. Carpi, Ugo da, kaicr'-pe, an artist, who disco- vered the secret of painting in chiaroscuro, with two pieces of boxwood, one of which marked the outlines and shadows, and the other im- pressed any colour bijd upon it. In this manner he executed several prints after great pictures; among which we may notice " David killing Goliath" and the "Massacre of the Innocents." b. in Rome, about 1486; d. about 1530. Cabpini, John de Piano, kawr-pe'-ne, a Domi- nican friar, who, in 1245, formed one of an embassy from Pope Innocent IV. to the de- scendants of Genghis Khan. The object was to induce them to turn their arms against the Turks and Saracens, instead of invading Europe. There is great obscurity as to the exact place of his birth ; but it is supposed that he was born in the kingdom of Naples, about 1210. Caur, John, kar, an English architect, who 231 Carracci gained considerable celebrity In his native county of York, where, and in the adjoining counties, he erected a number of stately man- sions. He was twice lord mayor of York, and died worth, it is said, £150,000. b. at Horbury, near Wakefield, 1721-: d. at his residence, Askam Hall, Yorkshire, 1807. Carr, Robert. (See Somerset, Duke of.) Carra, Jean Louis, kar'-ra, a French political revolutionist, distinguished for his violence in the first great revolution. He joined the party of Brissot, and fell with his leader, b. at Pont- de-Vesle, 1743; guillotined, 1793. Carracci, or Caracci, Luigi, kawr-ral'-che, the founder of a famous school of painting at Bologna, was the son of a butcher, who gave him an indifferent education ; but his taste for drawing was so strong that he was induced to become a disciple of Prospero Fontana. He afterwards pursued his studies in the academy of Passignano, at Florence, and improved him- self by visiting the principal cities in Italy. On his return to Bologna his merits became con- spicuous, and he was considered as superior to his old master. Being greatly attached to his cousins, Augustin and Annibal, ho formed, in conjunction with them, that school and style of painting which has rendered their names cele- brated throughout the civilized world. Luigi was great in landscapes as well as in figures, and his private character was held In high esti- mation, b. at Bologna, 1555; d. 1619, and was interred with much ceremony in the church of St. Mary Magdalene, at Bologna. — Speaking of this artist, Sir Joshua Reynolds says : — " His breadth of light and shadow, the simplicity of his colouring, and the solemn effect of that twilight that seems diffused over his pictures, is better suited to the grave and dignified sub- jects he generally treated than the moro artifi- cial brilliancy of sunshine which enlightens the pictures of Titian." Many of his pictures have been engraved, and some by himself. Carracci, Augustin, the elder of the two cousins of Luigi, was the son of a tailor at Cre- mona. He was placed in the school of Fontana, and afterwards under Passerotti, whilst at the same time he studied the art of engraving, which acted detrimentally on his powers as a painter. Having painted his celebrated picture of 3 erome, its success roused the jealousy of his brother Annibal, and caused a separation between them, although they were both engaged in pro- ducing important works for the palazzi Mag- nani ind Zampieri. Augustin, for a time, led a. free course of life, but at last the contemplation of a Madonna of his own painting struck him with remorse, and ho retired to a convent, where he passed the remainder of his days. b. at Bo- logna, 1557; d. 1602. — He was an accomplished scholar, and as an engraver ranks among the first artists of Italy. Carracci, Annibal, younger brother of the above, studied under his cousin Luigi, by whom he was sent to Rome, where he worked for the pope. He invented a manner so excellent that both Luigi and Augustin adopted it. The Farnese gallery immortalized his name, though he received only the petty sum of 300 crowns of gold (about £200 sterling) for the labour of eight years, b. at Bologna, 1560; d. 16U9.— With the death of these three Carracci, the period which may be designated as the golden age of Italian painting closed.— Antony Carracci, a natural son of Augustin, was a pupil of Annibal, THE DICTIONARY" Carrera and painted some fine pieces in fresco at Eome. B. 1583; d. 1618. Cabrera, Rafael, kar-re-ra, a person who, born of mean parents in the city of Guatemala, passed his early life as a cattle-driver and drum- mer-boy ; but, in 1837, headed an insurrection against the government, and after a struggle of several years succeeded in creating Guatemala into an independent republic, of which he was twice elected president. Carrera is a wonder- ful man, considering the disadvantages under which he has had to labour in his career, and has shown singular activity, tact, and ability. After being associated with all 6orts of politicians, he settled down into moderate and conservative opinions ; and has done great service to his country, b. 1814. d. 1865. Carrel, Armand Nicholas, kar'-rail, the prin- cipal editor of the French "National" newspaper, and a distinguished political writer. Opposed alike to the extremities of absolutism in royalty or democracy, he attained a high position as a French .journalist ; but, being led into a quarrel with Emile de Girardin, editor of the " Presse," a fatal duel was the consequence, b. at Rouen, 1800; d. of a pistol shot at St. Mande, 1836. Carrier, John Baptist, kar'-re-ai, one of the most ferocious of the French revolutionists, who became deputy of the department of Can- tal, in the national convention. In 1793 he was despatched on amission to the departments in the west, where the civil war was raging. The cruelties of Carrier at Nantes recalled to mind the times of Nero. He caused to be con- structed covered barges, in which he sunk 100 persons at once. He also invented those horri- ble executions which went by the name of " re- publican marriages," and which consisted in fastening together, by the neck, a man and woman, who were then thrown into the Loire. By his means 15,000 individuals arc said to have perished, and the water of the Loire was so pol- luted with dead bodies, that it was prohibited to be drunk. On the fall of the party called the Mountain, he was tried before the revolu- tionary tribunal, wlrch condemned him to the scaffold, b. at Aurillae, 1756; guillotined 1794. Carbieka, Rosa Alba, kawr 1 -re-air' -a, known also as Kosalba, an Italion female painter, who learnt the rudiments of the art from her father. She was afterwards placed under an eminent artist, and hei progress was so great that her full-length portraits became famous throughout Italy, She went to Paris, and in 1720 was ad- mitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After executing portraits of the royal family of France, she proceeded to Vienna, where she re- ceived distinguished honours, b. at Venice, 1672; d. blind, 1757. Her miniatures are very highly esteemed. CARiiiFitES, Francis de, leaver 1 '-re-air 1 -ai a French Franciscan friar, bornin Provence in the early part of the 17th century, who wrote a Com- mentary on the Bible in Latin, and a " Chrono- logical History of the Popes of Rome." Cahkingtox, Noel Thomas, kar 1 -ring-ton, an English poet.formerly an apprentice in the dock- yard at Devonport. His principal poems are, "The Banks of the Tamar," and " Dartmoor." B. at Plymouth, 1777; d. at Bath, 1830. Cakstares, William, kar'-stairs, a Scottish ecclesiastic, who devoted himself much more to secular than to religious affairs, having taken an active part in all the intrigues connected with the transfer of the English crown from 231 Carte the hands of James II. to those of the prince of Orange. He was the son of the Rev. John Carstares, minister of the High Church, Glas- gow, and was born at Cathcart, near that city, in 1649. During the latter portion of the reign of Charles II. William Carstares resided iii Holland, studying at Utrecht. Becoming ac- quainted with the pensionary Fagel, he was b/ him introduced to the prince of Orange, who, finding him able, intelligent, self-reliant, and well acquainted with the political state of Bri- tain, and especially of Scotland, employed him in the communications which ultimately led to his being invited to the throne. Carstares was in the secrets of the Argyle and Monmouth parties, was suspected, apprehended in Kent, and sent to Scotland, where torture was applied in order to obtain information, but without effect. His sufferings at this time induced him, at a subsequent period, to take an active part in abolishing the use of torture in legal proceed- ings in Scotland. Returning to Holland, he was well received by William, and on that prince ascending the English throne, Carstares was entrusted with a large share in the govern- ment of Scotland, and was mainly instrumental in effecting a reconciliation between the king and the Scottish Presbyterians, whose pertinacious adherence to the principle of spiritual independ- ence had caused a breach with the sovereign. The political divine was popularly known as "Cardinal Carstares," and was courted and caressed by the needy nobles and gentlemen who had a few years before applied the "thumb- screw" to him in the council-chamber at Holy- rood. Even after William's death, the talents and experience of Carstares secured him a large share of influence in Scottish affairs. He was chosen principal of the University of Edinburgh in 1704; and died in 1715, leaving behind him the reputation of having been one of the most sagacious, able, and bold politicians of the age. Carstens, Asmus Jacob, kars'-fenn, a Danish painter, was the son of a miller, and had his mother for his first instructor in drawing. In 1789 he went to Berlin, where he was named professor of drawing, and in 1792 to Rome, where he died in 1798. b. near Schleswig, 1754. Amongst his best paintings are " I he Death of Achilles " and the " Fall of the Angels." Carte, Thomas, kart, an English historian, who entered the church, end published a de- fence of Charles I., in the matter of the Irish massacre. On the accession of George I. he refused the oaths, but afterwards became secretary to Bishop Atterbury. When that pre- late was committed to the Tower, a reward of £1000 was offered for apprehending Carte, who escaped to France, where he remained till Queen Caroline obtained permission for him to return to England. In 1736 he published his " Life of James, Duke of Ormond," in 3 vols, folio. Soon after this, he issued proposals for a History of England. He met with great en- couragement, and this work, completed in four volumes, has been highly praised. His MSS. are in the Bodleian library. Besides those men- tioned, he published a "Collection of Original Letters and Papers relating to the Affairs of England," in 2 vols. 8vo ; a " History of the Revolutions of Portugal," and some other pieces, b. at Clifton, Warwickshire, 1666 ; u. 1754. OF BIOGRAPHY. Carteaux Cabteaux, Jean Francois, kar'-to, a French brigadier-general, who entered the service as a private, and rose from rank to rank, until he received the command of a brigade. His prin- cipal achievement was the taking of Toulon in 1793, then held by the British. Here he was ably seconded by Napoleon Bonaparte, at that time a simple artillery captain, b. 1751 ; u. 1813. Caster, Elizabeth, kar'-ter, an English lady, who became an excellent Greek and Latin tcholar, besides acquiring a knowledge of the German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Arabic, and Hebrew. She executed several translations, and contributed a paper to the " Rambler" of Dr. Johnson. It was of her at- tainments in Greek that the distinguished lexi- cographer said, " that he understood that lan- guage better than any one he had ever known, except Elizabeth Carter." b. at Deal, Kent, 1717; D. 1806. Cahtek, Thomas, a distinguished Irish musi- cian and composer of vocal music. Amongst many others, he composed the melodies, "Oh, Nannie ! wilt thou gang wi' me ? " and " Stand to your guns, my hearts of oak." b. about 1758 ; b. 1801. Caktebet, Sir George, kar'-te-ret, a brave and faithful loyalist, who adhered to the for- tunes of Charles Land I Lin all their adversi- ties. He was a native of Jersey, of which he was appointed governor in 1626, and there, and in the neighbouring counties, made himself ac- tive in the royal cause. Charles II. took refuge with Sir George in Jersey for some time, but a fleet under Blake compelled him to flee to Hol- land in 1651. He was rewarded at the Restora- tion with some high oflices, and was about to be created a baron when he died, in 1679. b. 1599. Caktebet, J,ohn. (See Granville, Earl of.) Carteret, Philip, a distinguished naval officer, who, in conjunction with Captain Wal lis, in 1766, commanded an expedition to the South Seas. Dr. Hawksworth, in his Introduc- tion to his narrative of Cook's voyages, gives an account of their discoveries. Lived in the 18th century. Cartier, or Quartieb, James, kar'-te-ai, a French navigator, employed by Francis 1. in ex- ploring the coast of North America, where, in 1531, he effected the discovery of Canada, b. at St, Malo, 1491. Cabtismandua, kar'-tis-man'-du-a, aquecn of the Brigantes, in Britain, who has gained an unenviable fame by her treachery in betraying to the Romans the unfortunate Caractacus. She put away her lawful husband, Venutius, and took, in his room, his armour-bearer, Vellocatus. On this, her subjects revolted, which induced her to call to her assistance the Romans, who made themselves thereby masters of the coun- try. Lived in the 1st century. (See Caeac- sAcrs.) Cartouche, Louis Dominique, kar-foosh', the most famous robber of modern times, was the son of a Parisian artizan. Whilst very young he displayed his thieving propensities, and was expelled from the school where he had been placed. He then joined a band of robbers who infested Normandy, and soon was made their chief. He afterwards brought his accom- plices to Paris, and there daily performed ex- traordinary feats of robbery, displaying great audacity, courage, and strength. For a long 233 Cartwright time the officers of justice sought him in vain ; but, after many wonderful escapes, he was at length taken in 1721, and broken on the wheel. b. about 1693. — His life has formed the subject of numerous books, and he has been often re- presented on the stage. Cartwright, Thomas, larf-rite, an eminent Puritan divine, who was a fellow of Trinity Col- lege, and also professor of divinity at Cambridge, but getting into controversy with Whitgift and others, he was, when Whitgift became chancel- lor, in 1571, deprived of his professorship as well as his fellowship, and had to retire to the conti- nent, where he made the acquaintance of Beza and other eminent scholars. Beturning to England, he got into fresh trouble in a contro- versy with his old opponent, Whitgift, and was once more compelled to go abroad. After this time he was constantly engaged in controversial writing, was twice committed to prison, and died on 27th December, 16J3. James VI. of Scotland (afterwards James I. of England) greatly admired him, and offered him a pro- fessorship at St. Andrew's, which, however, he declined, b. 1535. Cartwright, William, a minor poet of the 17th century, was the son of a gentleman of decayed fortunes who kept an inn at Ciren- cester. William was educated at Westminster and Oxford, was one of the council of war named by the university, in which he became junior proctor, and reader in metaphysics in 1613. He was the intimate friend of Ben Jonson, who, when he was very young, said of him, " My son Cartwright writes all like a man." He died of a malignant fever which raged at Ox- ford in 1613, being only 32 years of age, having been born in 1611. A collection of his "Co- medies, Tragi-Comedics, and other Poems," was published in 1617, and again in 1651. His plays, especially that entitled " The Ordinary," possess considerable merit. Cartwbight, Edmund, the inventor of the power-loom for weaving, was educated for the church, and first held the living of Bramp- ton, near Chesterfield, and afterwards that of Goadby-Marwood, in Leicestershire. He had published several poetical effusions, besides contributing to the "Monthly Review," when his attention was accidentally drawn to the subject of mechanical weaving. Accordingly, in the April of 1785, his first power-loom was put in motion ; and, although its introduction was much opposed both by the manufacturers and their workmen, it gradually rose into impor- tance, until it has become one of the greatest of the mechanical forces of Great Britain. In 1809 Parliament granted him £10,000 for "the good service he had rendered the public by his invention of weaving." B. at Marnham, Notts, 1713; D.1823. CAHTwaiGnT, John, known as Major Cart- wright, a brother of Edmund, in early lila entered the navy, and served at the capture of Cherbourg, and in some other engagements. When the American war broke out, he refused to act against the colonists, in consequence of his notions on constitutional government making him regard the course pursued by the home government as unjustifiable. He stateu his opinions in a work entitled "Letters on American Independence ;" to those opinions lie adhered through life, being always the ad- vocate of political liberty, and was one oi the originators of the Constitutional Reform THE DICTIONARY Carus Society in 1780. He is generally regarded by the more radical party as the father and earliest and most consistent advocate of their prin- ciples. A commission in the Notts Militia, as major, obtained in 1775, furnished him with the title by which he was so well known. He was born at Marnham, in 1740, and died in 1824. A statue to his memory was erected in Burton Crescent, London. Carps, Marcus Aurclius, kair'-us, a Roman emperor, prefect of the praetorians under Pro- bus, on whose death, in 292, he was elected emperor by the soldiers. He defeated the Sar- matians in Illyria, conquered Mesopotamia, the towns of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and died, it is said, by a lightning-stroke, at the latter town, 2S3. Carvajai,, Traneis de, kar'-vazh-al, a Spanish captain, who served in America, and contributed greatly to the success of Vaca de Castro, gover- nor of Peru, over the young Almagro. He sub- sequently joined his fortunes to those of Gon- salvo Pizarro, and was taken with him, and hanged as a traitor, at Cuzco, in 1543. Carver, John, kar'-ver, the first governor of New Plymouth, North America, arrived there in the Mayflower, 11th November, 1620, and after assisting in making the necessary arrange- ments for settling the colony, and agreeing to a constitution or compact for the government, he led an exploring party to fix the site of a settle- ment, and was elected governor of Plymouth, but died in April, 1621, to the great grief of his companions. Cart, Rev. Henry Francis, kai'-re, was born in 1772, at Uirmingham, and in 1787, published an " Irregular Ode to General Elliot;" in 1788 a collection of " Odes and Sonnets ; " in 1797, hav- ing previously taken his degree of M.A. at Oxford, he was appointed by the Marquis of Anglesey to the vicarage of Bromley Abbots, Staffordshire, and in the same year published- an " Ode to Kosciusko." While at Oxford, Mr. Gary had devoted much attention to the study of French, Italian, and English literature, be- sides giving due care to the acquisition of a knowledge of Greek and Latin, and soon began to turn this study to account. In 1S05, a trans- lation in blank verse of the " Inferno," by him, was published ; and, in 1814, in the same species of composition, his version of the " Divina Com- media." This work was some time out before it attracted much attention, but was brought into notice by Coleridge, and went through four editions during the author's life. Cary subse- quently produced translations in verse of the " Birds" of Aristophanes, the " Odes " of Pindar, a series of Lives, in continuation of Johnson's " Lives of Early French Poets," besides editions of the works of Milton, Pope, Thomson, Cow- per, and Young. He was appointed assistant librarian of the British Museum, which office he shortly afterwards resigned. A pension of £200 a year was subsequently conferred upon him, which he enjoyed till his death in 1841. He was buried in the Poet's Corner of West- minster Abbey. Caky, Lott, a negro clers»-man, and one of the founders of the coloured colony of Liberia, was born a slave, in Virginia, in 1780. Having acquired some education, he became a baptist preacher at Richmond, where he was employed in a tobacco warehouse; and, being much es- teemed, many presents were made to him, and he was enabled to purchase the freedom of him- 23i Casaubon self and two of his children. He still continued his avocations at Richmond, both secular and clerical, received a good salary, and became the owner of a small farm. When the African Colonization Society began operations, he emi- grated to Africa; in 1824 took an active part in the organization of the colony; in 1826, the government devolved upon him, which he ad- ministered with great success till 28th Novem- ber, 1828, when lie was killed by an explosion while manufacturing cartrdges to defend the little community against a threatened attack of the native tribes. Caryl, John, kar'-il, a poet and dramatist of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century, acted as secretary to Mary, queen of James II, and was knighted by that unfortunate monarch, whose fortunes he appears to have followed in exile, and by whom the honorary titles of earl Caryl and baron Dartford were conferred upon him. He subsequently returned to England, and was on intimate terms with Pope, who de- dicated to him the " Rape of the Lock." Caryl was the aathor of two plays, "The English Princess ; or the Death of Richard III," " Sir Salomon ; or the Cautious Coxcomb," a trans- lation of the Psalms from the Vulgate, and other pieces. The dates of his birth and death are unknown ; he was, however, living so late as 1717. Casa, John della, kaw'-sa, an Italian prelate, who, in 1544, was created archbishop of Bene- vento, and, the same year, was sent nuncio to Venice, where he displayed great diplomatic abilities. He was in disgrace under Julius III., on account of his connexion with Cardinal Far- nese ; but was restored to favour by Paul IV., who made him secretary of state, u. at Flo- rence 1503; d. 1556. He is accounted one of the most elegant of the Italian writers, and his Latin poetry is very fine. His .principal per- formance is the " Galateo ; or, Art cf Living in the World;" besides which, he wrote some beautiful Italian poems, the Lives of Cardinals Contarini and Bembo, and other works, collected at Venice, in 5 vols. 4to, 1728. Casabianca, Louis, ka'-sa-be-an'-ka, a dis- tinguished captain in the French navy, who re- presented Corsica in the National Convention, and was also a member of the Council of Five Hundred. In Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, he commanded the Orient, a 120-gun ship ; and, in 1793, at the battle of the Nile, perished with his son, a youth of ten years, who, though seeing the vessel about to sink, would not abandon his dying parent, b. about 1755. Casanova, James, kanr'-san'-o-va, a famous adventurer, of Venetian extraction, who visited different countries of Europe in various capaci- ties. He was at once a schoolmaster, soldier, musician, chemist, writer, and politician ; and displayed, in these various callings, a great amount of talent, accompanied, necessarily, by equal chicanery. He was imprisoned at Vienna, and ultimately died there, 1863; b. at Venice, 1725. He left, besides other books, a History of his Captivity, and his Memoirs, which have been translated into French. — His brother Francis was a painter of battle-pieces. Casauboit, Isaac, ka'-so'-bawnq, a learned Swiss divine and critic, who, at the age of 23, was chosen professor of Greek at Geneva, and subsequently at Montpellier and Paris. In 1586 he married a daughter of Henry Stephens, a learned printer, by whom he had twenty chit Otf BIOGRAPHY. Casaubon ilrcn. In 1600 he was appointed one of the Protestant judges in th« controversy between Du Perron and Du Plcss.s Mornay, r nd decided against the latter. Three years later, he be- came head librarian to Henry IV. of France, and on the death of that monarch removed to England, whsrs James I. settled upon him a considerable pension, and made him a preben- dary of Westminster, and also of Canterbury. In this country he passed the remainder of his days, a rigid adherent to the principles of Pro- testantism, b. at Geneva, 1559; d. 1614, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Casaubon was the author of many learned works ; among which we may notice his " De Libertate Eeclesi- astica," suppressed by Henry IV. as offensive to the Pope; "De Rebus Sacris et Ecclesias- ticis," "A Criticism on Baronius," and his edit ions of several of theGreek andLatin classics. Casaubon, Meric, son of the above, was made a prebendary of Canterbury, and held two livings in Kent, of which he was deprived in the civil war. Cromwell made him large offers to induce him to write the history of the war, but he steadily refused to comply. He also re- fused to accept an invitation from Christina, queen of Sweden, to superintend the universi- ties in her kingdom. At the Restoration he recovered his preferments, u. at Geneva, 1599; d. 1671. — His most remarkable work is a treatise on "Credulity and Incredulity," wherein he maintains the existence of witches. Casimib I., kas'-i-meer, king of Poland, sur- named the Peaceful, son of Miecislaus,whom he succeeded in 1034. The Poles revolting under the regency of his mother, he went to Paris, and became a monk. The Poles, a prey to in- ternal dissensions, induced Pope Benedict IX. to allow him to return to his kingdom and to marry. Accordingly, he espoused a daughter of the grand-duke of Russia, and afterwards governed his kingdom with great wisdom. ». 1058. Casimib TT., king of Poland, sumamed the Just, was the younger son of Boleslaus III. When his brother Miecislaus was, on account of his tyranny, deposed in 1177, the Poles con- ferred the crown on Casimir. He was an up- right, generous prince, b. 1117; d. 1191. Casi^:b III., the Great, succeeded Ladislaus IV.in 1333. He defeated John, king of Bohemia, and conquered a port of Russia. He united to his warlike qualities the attributes of a great king; maintained peace, founded several churches and hospitals, and built numerous fortresses. He is said, however, to have been a man of strong passions, which he fre- quently indulged to excess, b. 1309; d. 1370. — In his reign privileges were bestowed on the Jews, which they ever continued to enjoy; these were granted at the request of a Jewess named Esther, one of his favourites. Casimib IV. was grand-duke of Lithuania, and ascended the throne of Poland 1445. He defeated the Teutonic knights, and made war with varied success against the king of Hun- gary and the Tartars, d. 1492. Casimib V., John, son of Sigismund III., succeeded to the throne of Poland on the death of Ladislaus VII.; obtaining permission to marry his brother's widow. Defeated at first by Charles Gustavus of Sweden, he subse- quently, with the aid of the emperor Leopold, was victorious, and, in 1660, concluded the treaty of Oliva with his successor. Shortly 236 Cassini after, his troops, under Sobicski, defeated the Tartars. The cares of government, and the loss of his wife in 1667, induced him to resign the crown, and retire to. France, where he died in 1672. b. 1609. Casibi, ka-seer'-e, a learned Oriental scholar, who took orders at Rome, and taught the East- ern languages in that city. In 1743 he repaired to Madrid, where he was made a member of the Academy of History, interpreter to the king, and head librarian of the Eseurial. From 1750 to 1770 this industrious man laboured at the compilation of a description and analysis of all the Arabian MSS. contained in the library of the Eseurial, the richest in Europe in works of that kind. This esteemed production was published at Madrid, 2 vols, folio, the second containing most interesting accounts of the battles of the Moors and Christians in the Pe- ninsula, b. at Tripoli, Syria, 1710; r. at Ma- drid, 1791. Caslon, William, kas'-lon, a distinguished letter-founder, was originally occupied in en- graving ornaments on gun-barrels, and in the manufacturing of bookbinders' tools ; but after- wards devoting himself to type-founding, he was eminently successful, and, after establishing the foundry in Finsbury known as Caslon's, realised a considerable fortune, and died at his country residence at Bethnal-green (which was country then) in 1766. b. in Shropshire, 1692. Cass, Lewis, kas, an American politician, who, in the war between England and the United States, in 1812, made an incursion into Canada, and was taken prisoner. When peace was concluded, he was appointed governor of Michigan, and organized that vast territory, making treaties with the Indian tribes, by which three millions of acres were added to the state. Under the presidency of General Jack- son, in 1831, he was secretary for war, and four years afterwards, was sent to Paris as envoy ex- traordinary. Here he. remained seven years, and whilst engaged in this mission, published his " Views on the Subject of the Limitation of the Northern Frontiers of the Union," and pro- tested against the adhesion of M. Gnizot to the doctrine of the "right of visit." The treaty concluded in 1812, between England and the United States, not meeting his approval, he re- signed, and returned to America. In the Senate he voted for the Fugitive Slave Law, and in 1857 was made secretary of state under Presi- dent Buchanan, b. 1782; i>. 1867. Cassandeb, klis-saa'-der, the son of Antipa- ter, took possession of the kingly power in Macedonia on the death of his father. He caused the death of Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, and also of his son, the young Alexander. Joining his forces to those of Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus, he de- feated Antigonus at the battle of Ipsus, 301 B.C., the latter monarch falling on the field, and the four conquerors dividing between them Alexander's empire into the great kingdoms of Macedonia, Thrace, Egypt, and Syria. (See Antigonus, &c.) CAssiANr, Julian, kam'-se-an'-e, one of the best lyrical poets of Italy, was born at Modena in 1712, and became successively professor ol Poetry in the Nobles' College of his native city, and of Eloquence In the University. His works, both in poetry and prose, were published by one of his pupils, r>. 1778. Cassini, Giovanni Do«inic, kaw-ee'-ne, a cole- THE DICTION Alt? Cassini brated Italian astronomer, was educated among the Jesuits at Genoa, and succeeded, in 1650, Cavalieri, as professor of astronomy at Bologna. He here gained so great a reputation that both the pope and the senate of Bologna intrusted him with several scientific and political missions. In 1669 Colbert induced him to visit France. He was there naturalized, and became a member of the Academy of Sciences, b. at Peraialdo, in Nice, 1625 ;"d. at Paris, 1712. Cassini dis- covered several of Jupiter's and Saturn's satel- lites, and determined the rotation of Jupiter, Mars, and Venus. He published a " Theory of Jupiter's Satellites," remarkable for its correct- ness, and assisted in the measurement of the meridian line of Paris. He left behind him a great number of astronomical memoirs and observations. Cassini, James, son of the above, at 17, was admitted to the Academy of Sciences, and en- riched science with many valuable discoveries. In 1720 he published a book on the figure of the earth, in which he maintained, in opposi- tion to Newton, that it was an oblong spheroid. To determine this, the French king sent two companies of mathematicians, one towards the polar circle, and the other to the equator, to measure a degree, the result of which was a decided refutation of Cassini's opinion, b. at Paris, 1667; D. 1756. Cassini de Thury, Caesar Francois, son of the above, evinced, at a very early age, great talents for astronomy, and was received into the Academy of Sciences at 22. He was em- ployed many years in perfecting a general map of France, and in continuing the trigonometri- cal survey of that country. The former was composed of 180 sheets, and gave a ,most com- plete representation of the country, on a scale of a line to 6 feet. Caesar Francois was unable to finish it ; but it was at length concluded by his son, who presented it, in 1789, to the Na- tional Assembly. He published a great num- ber of papers in the " Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences." b. at Paris, 1714; d. 1784.— He was succeeded in his office by his only son, Count John Dominic Cassini. b. 1748 ; d. 1315. Cassiodorus, Marcus Aurelius, lca*-si-o-dor'- us, an Italian of great talents, who was ap- pointed by Theoderic, king of the Goths, governor of Sicily, and filled some of the highest offices in Rome, but afterwards retired to a monastery in Calabria. He was celebrated as a chronologist and historian, and is said to have devoted himself also to mechanical pursuits, and invented water-clocks, sun-dials, and lamps. b. in Calabria, about 481 ; d. 577. Cassius, Caius, kdsh'-e-us, a Roman general, one of Caesar's murderers. During the civil wars between Pompcy and Caesar, he followed the fortunes of the former. After the decisive battle of Pharsalia, he was, however, spared by the conquei or. Returning to Rome, he married Junia, the sister of Brutus, and in conjunction with the latter, formed a conspiracy against the emperor. After the death of their victim, 44 B.C., Cassius received Africa as his reward, but found himself unable to maintain himself there, in consequence of the influence of Caesar's friends. Passing into the East ho levied nu- merous troops, and joined Brulus in Macedon. On the plains of Philippi, where Anthony and Octavius met them, the left of the army, under Cassius, was defeated by Antony's troops, Which neutralized the success which Brutus was Castelnau achieving on the right. Fearing to fall into the enemy's hands, he ordered one of his freed- men to run him through, and perished, by the very sword which had given a wound to Caesar, 43 b.c. His body was honoured with a mag- nificent funeral by his friend Brutus, who de- clared over him that he deserved to be called " the last of the Romans." If he was brave, he was equally learned. Some of his letters art still extant among Cicero's epistles. He was often too rash and too violent, and many of the wrong steps which Brutus took are to be ascribed to the prevailing advice of Cassius. Shakspeare describes him as having " a lean and hungry look," and makes Caesar say, — " He reads much ; He is a great observer, and he looks Quite through the deeds of men ; he loves no plays, As thou dost, Antony ; he hears no music ; Seldom he smiles; and smiles in such a sort, As if he mock'd himself, and scorn'd his spirit, That could be moved to smile at anything." The day after Caesar's murder he dined at the house of Antony, who asked him whether he had then a dagger concealed in his bosom. " Yes," replied he, " if you aspire to tyranny." — There were many other Romans of this name, in whose lives there is nothing very remark- able. Cassivblauntts, h'ts-si-ve-latc'-nui, a British chief, who was invested with the supreme com- mand of the forces of the island, to oppose Julius Caesar during his invasion of Britain, 54 b.c. Castagno, Andrea del, leawt-tan'-no, a Tuscan painter, who worked first in fresco, but after- wards learned the art of painting in. oil from Domenico Veneziano. His repayment for this was to assassinate his friend. Unsuspected, he pursued his calling, and produced some fine pictures, the principal of which is the ' Execu- tion of the Conspirators against the Medici," now in the Hall of Justice at Florence, b. about 1 406 ; d. about 1480. — Stung with remorse, he on his death-bed confessed, amidst universal execration, the atrocious crime of which he had been guilty, and was in consequence called the "Infamous." Castanos, Francis Xavierde, kas-ta-yo, duke de Baylen, the most distinguished of the Spa- nish generals who figured in the Peninsular war from 1807 till the expulsion of the French by Wellington. Castanos commanded the Spa- nish army which defeated Dupont at Baylen in 1808 ; but, in the same year, was beaten by Napo- leon at Tudela. He subsequently acted in cou- cert with Wellington, and commanded ths Spanish division which accompanied the latter into France in 1815. After the settlement of affairs in the Peninsula, consequent on the downfall of Bonaparte, Castanos occupied seve- ral important positions in the government, and died in Sept. 1852, ten days alter Wellington had breathed his last. b. about 1756. Castelnau, Pierre de, kas-taiC-no, archdea- con of Maguclone, was sent, at the commence- ment of the 13th century, by Innocent III. into the south of France as legate extraordinary, in order to search out the heretic Albigenses, and deliver them over to the secular arm. He met with a determined resistance, and was at last slain in the territory if Raymond, count of Toulouse. This murder led to the excommu- OF BIOGRAPHY. Castellane nication of Raymond, and also to the war of the Albigenses. Killed 1208. Cx stellav e, Esprit Victor Boniface, Jcas'-teU Ian, marshal of France and senator, born in Paris, March 21, 1788. His father wasadeputy to the States-General in 1789. The future Marshal entered the army, when 16 years of aire, in 1804, as a private, and in 1806 was a sub-lieutenant of dragoons in the army of Italy. The following year he became lieutenant, and went to Spain with Count Lobau as aide-de- camp. At Burgos, he took a piece of cannon at the head of his company. Eckmuhl, Ratisbon, Kssling, and VVagram all witnessed the brilliant valour of Lieutenant Castellane. " Intrepid young man!" was the exclamation of the Emperor, when he gave him the cross on the field of Wagram. After such a compliment, pronounced publicly in presence of the bravest of the brave, young Castellane was certain to pass through lire to gain all his grades at the point of the sword. In 1810 he was a captain, and he again accompanied Count Lobau as aide-de-camp in the Russian expedition of 1812. Having been promoted at Moscow to the rank of chet d'escadron, he was next aide-de-camp to the Count de Narbonne in the same campaign. During the retreat, at the head of 25 lancers of the Imperial Guard, he started from Kroiskoi, crossed a vast extent of country occupied by the Russian troops, and found means, in the midst of countless dangers, to carry important orders from the Emperor to Colonel Bourmont. At the Beresina he excited the admiration of all his companions in arms by his energy and coolness. At the restoration in 1815, M. Castellane was at first neglected, but towards the end of that year he was charged with organizing the hussars of the Bas-Rhin (5th Regiment), and obtained other military employments. In 1831-32 he commanded the department ot the Haute- Saone. His gallant conduct at the siege of Antwerp procured him the rank of lieutenant- general. In 1837 he was raised to the peerage, after good service in Algeria. He was in com- mand of the military division of Rouen when the devolution of 1843 broke out. His firmness under very trying circumstances saved his division entire, and not a man was wanting when lie handed it over to his successor. After 1852 he held the chief command at Lyons, and fully justified the Emperor's confidence, and his own motto of " Honos ab armis." At ditferent dates he received the baton of a marshal, was made a senator, grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and was decorated with most of the jrders of Europe. D. September, 1S62. Castiglioxe, Ducde, kawa'-tei-le-o'-nai. (See Acgebeau, Marshal.) Castiglione, Giovanni Benedetto, called by the French Le Benedette, and at Mantua II Grechetto. He is one of the most eminent of the Genoese painters and etchers. In animal and pastoral painting especially he excelled. His chef-d'oeuvre is the " Nativity of the Sa- tiour," in the church of San Luca, Genoa, n. at Genoa, 1G16; d. at Mantua, 1070. Castiglione, Balthazar, an Italian writer and politician, who, after serving with great bravery in a military capacity, was employed by the duke of Urbino in state affairs, and sent ambassador to several courts. He was also en- gaged in the same service by Pope Clement VII., Mid became nuncio at the court of Charles V., who held him in high estimation, b, at Mantua. 237 Castruccio 1478 ; d. at Toledo, 1529. His greatest work is " II Cortigiano," or " The Courtier," written in an elegant style, and abounding with good rules and reflections. Castiglione, Count Carlo Ottavio, an emi- nent Grecian philologist, numismatist, and bib- lical scholar, who has written some learned works on the dates of the cities of Barbary the names of which appear on Arabian coins. He has also, in conjunction with cardinal Mai, superintended the publication of several MS. versions of the Bible, particularly the fragments of the Gothic translation found in the Ambrc- sian library, which embrace portions of the Old Testament, and several of the Pauline epistles, all of which are of great value, in consequence of the remarks, glossaries, and excursuses which accompany them. These 11 SS. were edited and published at different periods, between 1819 and 1839. b. at Milan, in 1795. Castilho, Antonio Fcliciano de, lca»-teet-yo, one of the most distinguished modern Portu- guese poets, who early discovered his genius, and first came into notice by the publication of a meritorious imitation of Ovid, entitled " Let- ters from Echo to Narcissus." He has written much poetry with various success, and was the founder of a magazine which had a considerable circulation, b. at Lisbon, 1800. Castlereagh, Lord. (See Londoxdebbt, Marquis of.) Castracaiti, Castruccio. (See Castruccio.) Castro, Juan de, kas'-tro, a Portuguese viceroy of the Indies, allied to the royal family of his country. In 1545 he was appointed to the government of the East, and gained several considerable victories over the natives. As honest as brave, he died poor, and was buried at the public expense. It is said that once, wanting to raise a loan to assist commerce, he offered his " moustaches" as a security ; the lenders, however, were satisfied with his word. b. at Lisbon, 1500; d. at Goa, India, 1548. Castro, Vaca de, priest and judge-royal of Valladolid, was sent by Charles V. to Peru, in 1540, to suppress the various contending fac- tions, and to regulate the interior administra- tion of the province. On his arrival he learnt the assassination of Pizarro, and Almagro's usurpation. Marching an army against the latter, he defeated, and executed him with his accomplices. This done, he endeavoured to ameliorate the lot of the Indians by wise regu- lations, but fell into disgraci on this account, 1544. D. in Spain, 1553. Castruccio, Castraeani, kaws-troot'-che-o, a distinguished Italian soldier, who was designed for the church. In his youth the quarrels of the Guelphs and Ghibehnes were distracting Italy, and he, as one of the latter party, was driven out of Pavia. After serving with dis- tinction in Lombardy, he went to Knglaud, and entered the army of Edward I.; but was forced to quit the country, having killed a nobleman in a duel. He then became a soldier under Philip the Fair of France, and subsequently re- turned to Italy, where the Ghibelines of Lucca made him their chief. He had here much to combat, both in the jealousies of his friends and the strength of his enemies; but ultimately succeeded in overcoming all difficulties. In 1320 he was proclaimed duke of Lucca, and was recognised by the emperor Louis of Havana, b . at Lucca, 1234; d. 1328, His life has bees written by Machiavelli. THE DICTIONARY Catalani Cataiani, Angelica, kat-aw-law-ne, the cele- brated vocalist, was born at Sinigaglia, in the vicinity of Rome, in 1783. When only a child, her fine voice attracted attention, and she was placed in the convent of St. Lucia, at Gubbio, for instruction j and, while there, so excited the people by her singing in the quire, that they could not repress a burst of applause, which could only be avoided by disallowing her taking part in the services. When only 15 years of age, she appeared upon the stage in Venice with marked success; she next went to Por- tugal, where new laurels awaited her, and where she married M. Valabreque, an attache of the French embassy — an union which, originating in a romantic feeling of preference on each side at first sight, was one of unbroken happiness. Catalani afterwards went to Madrid, Paris, and London : in the latter of which cities she made her first appearance in December, 1806, in the opera of "Semiramide," creating a sensation altogether unexampled in opera performances in England. During the following season, she is said to have realized upwards of £10,000 by her performances in the opera and at concerts. She was made directress of the Theatre Italien, Paris, by Louis XVIII., during the first restora- tion, with a subvention of 150,000 francs ; and again after the final fall of Napoleon. She subse- quently visited Germany, Russia, and returned to London in 1821, where her popularity con- tinued, though her powers were believed to have become somewhat impaired. She con- tinued her professional exertions till 1827, when she retired to an estate she had bought near Florence, where she devoted herself to the education of her children and the encourage- ment of musical study; having, with the latter view, established an academy in the capital of Tuscany. Madame Catalani was distinguished by her charity and benevolence, as well as by her extraordinary vocal powers ; and frequently, besides liberal contributions in money, gave to charitable purposes the still more valuable aid of her performances. ». at Paris, of cholera, in 1819. Catesbt, Mark, F.R.S., kates'-le, an English naturalist, who from 1712 to 1726 occupied himself in collecting specimens of natural his- tory in Virginia, Carolina, Florida, and the IJahama Isles. Returning to England, he pub- lished, in 2 vols, folio, with beautiful coloured plates, the Natural History of those countries. He was also the author of other works, b. 1630 ; d. 1749. Gronovius designated a genus of plants Catesbia after him. Catesbt, Robert, instigator of the Gunpowder Plot. (See James I.) Catharine, kath'-ar-ine, the daughter of Charles VI. of Fiance, and wife of Henry V., king of England. After the death of that prince, she married Owen Tudor, by whom she had a son called Edmund, who became the father of Henry VII. b. 1401; D. 1438. For the manner in which this lady, according to Shakspeare, was wooed and won by " Harry of England," the reader is referred to the fifth act of "Henry V." Catharine I., empress of Russia, from being born of poor Livonian parents, became the wife of a Swedish dragoon, who was killed at the taking of Marienbnrg by the Russ ; ans. She then became the mistress of General Bauer, and subsequently obtained a situation in the family o f Prince M enschikoff, who was fascinated by her 233 Catharine beauty. She now attracted the notice of the Czar, Peter the Great, who made her his mis- tress, and, in 1711, his wife. At his death he left her the throne. In 1725 she was proclaimed empress, and continued to execute the great designs which had been left unfinished by her husband, b. in Livonia, 1683 ; d, 1727. (See Peter the Great.) Catharine II., empress of Russia, was the daughter of -the prince of Anhalt Zerbst. Her original name was Sophia Augusta, but on her marriage, in 1745, with the grand-duke of Russia, afterwards Peter III., she was baptized according to the formulary of the Greek church, and named Catharine Alexievna. She bore her husband two children : Paul, who succeeded her, and Anne, who died an infant. On the death of the empress Elizabeth, in 1761, Peter came to the throne, and soon discovered his intention of disinheriting his son and divorcing Catharine. She, however, anticipated his de- signs, and formed a conspiracy against him. Accordingly, she gained over the nobility and the army, and on June 27, 1762, Peter, after signing a renunciation of his crown, was sent prisoner to the palace of Ropscha. Between the prisons and the graves of princes the distance is short. On the 17th of July, Alexis Orloff, the empress's favourite, with some other con- spirators, strangled Peter, who, the empress gave out, had died of colic. She did not take any measures against the assassins, and in the following September was crowned at Moscow. The regulations adopted at the beginning of her reign were in the manner and spirit of Peter the Great. She affected to rule by clemency, and laboured to win the hearts of her subjects by acts of liberality. She also avoided foreign war till she had settled the tranquillity of the empire. Fond of literature and the arts, she gave unbounded encouragement to their intro- duction to her dominions, and held a corre- spondence with the most eminent literary cha- racters in Europe. In 1764 she caused her favourite, Poniatowski, to be crowned king of Poland, under the name of Stanislaus Augustus. She also caused a liberal code of laws to be enacted, in which the practice of torture was abolished ; attended to the subject of education, and took means to diffuse knowledge among all classes of her subjects. She encouraged medical discovery by submitting, herself, to inoculation, and in every way laboured for the enlightenment of her people. In 1768, Catha- rine's arbitrary interference in the affairs 61 Poland induced Turkey to declare war against Russia ; the result of which was the first par- tition of Poland, between Catharine, Joseph II. of Austria, and Frederick of Prussia, in 1772. More than one-third of that kingdom was then shared by the three powers, Russia taking the larger portion of Livonia and Lithuania. Iu 1774 the peace of Kainardji was concluded and Azof and Taganrog were annexed to Russia^ and the Crimea made independent of Turkey. Peace being restored, the empress devoted her attention to public improvements and to political engagements. In 1780 she formed, with the other northern states, the famed armed neutrality, the object of which was to protect the Baltic trade from tlie belli- gerent powers. In 1782 she founded a Roman Catholic archbishopric in her dominions, for her subjects of that persuasion. About the same time the created a new military older by OF BIOGRAPHY. Catharine of Aragon the title of St. Vladimir. In 1785 she seized on the Crimea and Kuban, which so alarmed the Porte, that war became almost inevitable : but the aceession of Germany as an ally to Russia stopped the preparations, and the Turks yielded to the aggression. In 1787 Catharine travelled through her new territory with a magnificent retinue, and at Cherson had an interview with the emperor Joseph II. Imme- diately after this, war again broke out between Russia and the Porte, in which the former was assisted by Germany and the latter by Sweden. Hostilities were carried on with great fury. Ockzakow was stormed by the Russians, and a prodigious carnage ensued; Ismail was also taken by Suwarrow in the same manner, and the Turks were, in general, everywhere unsuc- cessful. In 1792 peace was concluded, when, by the treaty of Yassi, the Porte ceded to Catharine the important fortress of Ockzakow, and the frontiers of Russia were extended to the Dniester. Shortly after, the attention of Catharine was drawn to the state of Poland, where a spirit of revolt had broken out, and the people seemed determined to shake off a foreign yoke. A Russian army was immediately des- patched to that province, and decided the fate of Poland by the massacre of the inhabitants of Warsaw. That kingdom was again partitioned between Russia, Germany, and Prussia, when the whole of Lithuania, Volhynia, and Podolia were given to Russia. This is historically called the second partition of Poland, and took place in 1793. In 1795 the third and last parti- tion of Poland was effected, when Russia had the greater part of what remained of that kingdom. Courland was next annexed by Catharine to her empire, after which her life was suddenly ter- minated by a fit of apoplexy, b. 1729 ; d. 1796. The passions of this woman were as gross as her mental and governing powers were great. Catharine of Abagon. (See Henry VIII.) Catharine ie Medici, kat'-er-ine de med'-e- ehe, queen of France, was the daughter of Lorenzo de Medici, duke of Urbino. In 1533 she married the second son of Francis I., afterwards Henry II. After the death of her husband and that of her eldest son, Francis II., she possessed herself of the regency of the kingdom during the minority of her second son, Charles IX. Chicane and dissimulation distinguished her government. Exciting the civil war between the Catholics and Huguenots, she resolved on the destruction of the latter, after having feigned to favour them for a time, and will be ever infamous as the principal instigator of the hor- rible mass3cre of St. Bartholomew, in 1572. Sub- sequently, she quarrelled with her son, Charles IX. ; and finally lost her power at court, in the reign of Henry III. of France, b. at Florence, 1519 ; d. at Blois, 1589. — Notwithstanding her evil propensities, Catharine possessed the love of literature and the arts which distinguished the Medici family. By her orders the palace of the Tuilerics, the Chateau of Monfeaux, &c, were built. She was, it is said, a strong believer hi astrology. Catharine Parr. (See Henry VIII.) Catharine op Siena, se-ai-naw, a saint in the llomish calendar, was a dyer's daughter, and entered, at the age of twenty, into the institution of the Dominican sisters. There, it is asserted, revelations were made to her which goon rendered her famous. She played an im- portant part in the schism in the Church which 239 Catilina broke out in 1378, between Popes Urban VI. and Clement VII., Catharine declaring for the former. She wrote some treatises on devotion, letters, and poetical pieces, which have been described as remarkable for the elegance and purity of their style. This, however, is some- what doubtful, b. at Siena, 1347; d. emaciated by her austere penances, 1380. Mr. Augustus Trollope, in his " Decade of Italian Women," published in 1859, presents an interesting account of Catharine of Siena. — There were, at Bologna and Genoa, two other saints of this name, cele- brated for their piety and mystical writings. The former lived in the 15th, the latter in the 16th century. Cathcabt, William Schaw, kath'-kart, tenth baron (in the Scottish peerage), and first earl of, a distinguished British general, was born in 1755, and, after studying for the bar, went into the army, which he joined in 1777. His first ser- vices were in the American war of independence ; he was next engaged in Sir David Sandes's expedition to Holland in 1795 ; in 1805 he was sent as ambassador to St. Petersburg; in the command of the British contingent, he was present at the battle of Austerlitz, after which he returned home, and for a time held the com- mand of the forces in Scotland. In 1807, he commanded, with entire success, the expedition into the Baltic to seize the Danish fleet ; for his services on which occasion he was raised to the British peerage, and received the thanks of both houses of Parliament. He now resumed his duties as commander of the troops in Scotland, which he continued to discharge till 1813, when he was again sent on a diplomatic mission to Russia, and has been said to have suggested the burning of Moscow, which led to the utter failure of Napoleon's Russian campaign. On the re- treat of the French, Lord Cathcart accompanied the Russian army into Germany, and was pre- sent in the campaigns of 1813-14, up to the occu- pation of Paris in the latter year. In the year 1814, he was created an earl; and died in 1S43, aged eighty-seven. Cathcabt, the Honourable Sir George, K.C.B., third son of the preceding, entered the army in 1810, and served with distinction throughout the campaigns of Germany, in 1813, and of France, in 1814. At Quatre-Bras and Waterloo he acted in the capacity of aide-de-camp to the duke of Wellington, and continued on his staff till the army of occupation was withdrawn from France. Inl818 he accompanied his grace to the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, to Verona in 1822, and to Prussia in 1826. He subsequently served with success in Canada; and, in 1852, was ap- pointed governor of the Cape of Good Hope, where he brought the Caffir war to a success- ful termination. In 1S53 he was appointed adjutant-general, and, the following year, re ecived the command of the fourth division of the army destined to operate in the Crimea. At the battle of the Alma, his division, with the cavalry, was held in reserve ; but at Inker- niann he bore a distinguished part, and fell, mortally wounded, in the thickest of the fight. b. 1794; killed at Iukermann, November o, 1354. Catilina, L. Sergius, kat-a-li'-na (Catiiine), born of a noble Roman family, squandered hii fortune in debaucheries and extravagance. Be- ing refused the consulship, he conspired, with many of the most illustrious of the llomans, to extirpate the senate and set Rome on lire. Thii THE DICTIONARY Catinat -conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, who, in the full senate, crushed Catiline with his eloquence, and forced him to unmask himself. Catiline then retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. Pe- treius, the lieutenant of Antonius, Cicero's col- league, attacked his ill-disciplined troops, and routed them, Cataline himself falling, 62 u.c. — Sallust has written an excellent account of this conspiracy. Catinat, Nicholas, ka'-te-na, an illustrious French marshal, who, in 1690, defeated the duke of Savoy at the battle of Staft'arde, in Piedmont. He took the fortress of Ath, in Flanders, in 1697; and in 1701 had the command of the army in Italy against Prince Eugene ; but the want of funds and provisions paralysed his efforts ; and meeting with several disasters, he was forced to retreat. These checks brought him into dis- grace, to which he submitted with great philo- sophy, living contentedly in retirement, b. at Paris, 1637 ; d. on his estate of St. Gratian, 1712. Cato, Marcus Porcius Priscus, kai'-to, an il- lustrious Roman, surnamed the Elder, or the Censor, who served in the army at the age of seventeen, and distinguished himself alike by his valour and his temperance, never drinking any- thing but water, and always contenting himself with the plainest food. Ry the interest of his friend Valerius Flaccus, he was appointed mili- tary tribune in Sicily, and afterwards became quxstor in Africa under Scipio, where he dis- played strict economy in the expenditure of the public money. After passing through other employments, he was chosen consul, 195 B.C., in which station he had Valerius Flaccus for his colleague. He conducted the war in Further Spain with great success, and, on his arrival at Eome, was honoured with a triumph. Eight years afterwards, he was elected censor, and exercised the functions of that office with a stringency which passed into a proverb : and a statue was erected to him with a laudatory inscription. In his latter years, fearing the rivalry of Carthage, he always concluded his speeches in the senate with the expression, " Delenda est Carthago," — Carthage must be destroyed, b. atTuseulum, 231 B.C.; d.149b.c. —He wrote a history of Roman affairs, of which only a few fragments remain; but a treatise of his on husbandry is extant, bearing the name of " De Re Rustica." Cato, Marcus Porcius, surnamed Uticensis, was the great-grandson of the preceding, and at an early age manifested that inflexibility of disposition which marked the whole of his public conduct in after life. He adopted the doctrines of the Stoics, and was extremely austere and frugal in his habits. He served in the army with his brother Csepio against Spartacus, and displayed go much valour and prudence as to obtain the commission of tribune in the army sent to Mace- donia. In his civil character he served first the office of quiestor, and by his uprightness in ad- ministering justice gained great popularity, and rendered his name proverbial for integrity. He gave his support to Cicero, when that great man was consul, and publicly honoured him with the title of "father of his country." Penetrating the ambitious designs then contemplated by Ca:sar, he opposed him to the utmost of his power, and was afterwards sent to Asia to an- nounce to Ptolemy, king of Cyprus, the decree which deprived that sovereign of his dominions. This resulted in Ptolemy's poisoning himself, 240 Catulus and Cato seizing the royal treasure for the re- public. He supported Pompey against Cesar, whose designs he considered as dangerous to Roman liberty; but the civil war which ensued filled him with grief. After the battle of Phar- salia, he retired to Africa, where he had thought Pompey had fled, and endured, with his troops, great hardships in marching across the desert to join Scipio at Utica, with whom he had some contest about the mode of carrying on the war. Cato also gave offence to that general by sparing those inhabitants of Utica who were attached to Casear. When that conqueror came before the place, Cato retired to his chamber, and after reading Plato's " Phaedo," or " Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul," fell upon his sword, 46 B.C. B. about 91 B.C. — When Caesar arrived, he said, " Cato, I envy thee thy death, since thou didst envy me the glory of saving thy life." The principal events in the life of this great Roman furnished Addison with a theme for his celebrated tragedy of " Cato." — There are others of the name of Cato in Roman history. Cats, Jacob, kats, an eminent Dutch poet, who rose to represent his country twice at two very dissimilar courts in England — Charles the First's and Oliver Cromwell's. He was knighted by Charles in 1627, but was unsuccessful in his mission with the Protector. After he returned to his country, he retired from public life, and in a rural retreat, near the Hague, betook him- self to the cultivation of the Muses. Here he composed his "Country Life," a poem full of good precepts of wisdom and virtue, but having little pretensions to any very lofty flights of the imagination. He was long a favourite with his countrymen, who still affectionately style him " Vader Cats," — " Father Cats." b. in Zealand, 1577; d. near the Hague, 1660. Cattebmolk, George, kilt' -ter- mole, one of the most original and expressive of the English school of water-colour painters. Though dealing mostly with imaginative or demi-his- torieal subjects, his genius found ample scope in the manner in which he treated them, whilst his style is entirely his own. Scenes from Shakspeare's plays and the novels of Sir Walter Scott he conceived and executed with an origi- nality which few have equalled. He is, there- fore, quite free from the charge of being an imitator, and merited ihe high position which his poetic feeling and artistic execution enabled him to attain. Subsequently he painted chiefly in oil. b. at Dickleburgh, Norfolk, 1800; d. 1868. Catullus, Valerius, ka-tul'-lus, a Latin poet, whose compositions, though elegant, are the offspring of a too luxuriant imagination. He had the boldness to satirize Cu;sar, but the emperor soon gained the poet's heart by his liberality. Catullus was the first Roman who imitated with success the Greek writers, and introduced their numbers among the Latins. b. at Verona, 87 B.C.; d. 47 b.c. The effusions of this poet are said to have been lost till the loth century, when, in 1425, a copy was acci- dentally found in a granary, and transmitted to his native city. Catulus, Q. Lutatius, kat-u-lut, a Roman consul, who commanded the fleet during the first Punic war against the Carthaginians, and destroyed their navy under Hamilcar, near the vEgates, sinking fifty and taking sixty-six of their ships. This decisive victory put an end to the war, about 212 u.c. OF BIOGRAPHY. Cauchy Cavalieri Caucht, Augustln Louis, ko'-she, an emi- nent French mathematician, who, after passing through the Polytechnic School, and attracting considerable notice by his talents, was appointed engineer for the port of Cherbourg. He was a large contributor to mathematical science. His Joyalty to the Bourbon dynasty he suffered £ really to stand in the way of his pecuniary interests, and rather than take the oath of allegiance to Louis Philippe, he resigned his public employments. The republican govern- ment of 184s absolved him from taking any oath, and he took a professor's chair at the Sorbonne. Louis Napoleon also pursued the same course, demanding no oath either from him or the astronomer Arago. Independently of his scientific pursuits, he applied himself to the cultivation of the muses, and produced several poems of considerable merit, b. at Paris, 1789; d. 1857. Caulatncocrt, Armand Augustin Louis de, ko'-liin-koor, duke of Viccnza, a French military officer and diplomatist, who took part in most of the wars of the French revolution, and at- tracted the attention of Napoleon I., who suc- cessively made him grand equerry, general of division, and duke of Vicenza. In 1807 he was sent as ambassador to Russia, and succeeded in gaining the friendship and esteem of the emperor Alexander. Returning to France in 1811, he accompanied the expedition to Moscow, and, subsequently, was Napoleon's companion when he left the army for Paris. After the re- verses of the Russian campaign, he was sent on various missions to the courts of Napoleon's allies, and ever showed himself devoted to the / interests of the emperor and his dynasty. From 1837 to 1810 he published, under the title of " Souvenirs of the Duke of Vicenza," inte- resting memorials of the empire, b. at Cau- laincourt, Somme, 1772; d. 1827. — His brother, Auguste Jean Gabriel, was a general in the French army, serving on the Rhine, at Marengo, in Spain, and Portugal. He was finally killed at the battle of the Jloskwa, 1812. b. 1777. Caussidcebe, Marc, kositf-e-air, a French politician, born of a family of humble artisans, took an active part with the revolutionists of 1831, in Lyons and St. Lli4nne. He was taken prisoner and sent to Mount St. Michel, where he was confined till 1837, when he was released by the amnesty granted by the minister Mole. In 1818, when his party triumphed, he was appointed prefect of police, in which capacity he acted with great firmness, and had the glory of extracting order from disorder. He was one of the firmest defenders of the rights of property throughout the insuirectionary movements of the time. For the inactivity which he showed on the loth of May, he was accused before the National Assembly; but he not only defended himself, but justified his conduct. After the dnys of June, he was again accused, and, by a vote of tbe Assembly, condemned on the night of the 25-26th of August. He immediately took refuge in London, where he published his me- moirs, in which a full explanation of his con- duct will be found. After this he relinquished politics and entered on a mercantile life. b. at Lyons, 1809; d. 18G1. Cavaignac, Louis Eugene, ka'-vun-yak, a French general and statesman, entered the Polytechnic School in 1820, at eighteen years uf age, and, in 1S2S, as a captain of engi- neers, served iu the Morea, The revolution of 211 1830 found him one of its firmest adherents. A warm republican and fearless in the expres- sion of his opinions, it was found necessary to give him employment abroad. Accordingly, in 1832 he was sent to join the army of Africa. Here he distinguished himself in various skir- mishes and battles, and, in 1836, he was ap- pointed to the command of the garrison in the citadel of Tlemsen. In this post he continued to extend his fame for determination and valour. Soon afterwards, he had the command of a battalion in the infantry of the line. In 1810 we find him holding a lieutenant-colonelcy in the Zouaves, with whom he had served before; and in the following year he was made a colonel; but, subsequently, he again entered the line, and greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Isly. In this conflict he com- manded the vanguard under general Bugeaud, and, for his conduct, was in 1811 created a marechal-dc-camp. In 1816, at the head of 6000 men, he drove Abd-el-Kader_-before him; and, in the following year, succeeded Lamoriciere iu the government of Oran. In 1813 he was ap- pointed governor-general of Algeria, and, two months afterwards, was invited by Lamartinc to Paris, where he promptly suppressed the in- surrection of June, and stamped his character for great decision and military ability. On this occasion he became dictator, and defeated the anarchists after a general slaughter of 8000 in- dividuals. On the achievement of this fe it, he resigned the dictatorship, and was appointed president of the council by the National Assem- bly. He next came forward as a candidate for the office of president of the republic, and was supported by nearly 1,450,000 votes. On De- cember 2, 1851, he was arrested ; but, shortly afterwards, was set at large, and permitted to live undisturbed in France, although he ab- stained from giving his support to the govern- ment of Napoleon ill. In 1857 he was elected, with M. Carnot, a member of the Legislative Assembly, by the fourth arrondissem.mt of Paris; but both refused to take the oath to the emperor. Cavaignac died suddenly, a few weeks after. 3. at Paris, 1802; d. 1857.— He was buried at Patis, and all agreed in regret- ting, in the death of the cx-dictator, an honest, worthy citizen. Cavalier, Jean, ka-val'-e-ai, one of the prin- cipal leaders of the Camisards, or Protest ants of Cevennes, when forced into rebellion atrainst Louis XIV., by the per*ecutions of the Catholics. lie defeated the best generals that came ftgainst him, and compelled Marshal de Villars to make a treaty with him. He was then taken into the king's service as colonel of a regiment; but being apprehensive that some design was formed against him, he entered into the service of England, and commanded, with his usual skill, a regiment of French refugees at the battle of Almanza, in Spain, lie was after- wards appointed governor of Guernsey and Jersey, where he spent the remainder of his days. b. in the Cevennes, 1679; d. 1740. 'J he marvellous defence of the Cevennes against tha best regular troops of France has been often used as a proof of the great deeds which may be done by bodies of riflemen, voluntarily en- rolled and acting on their own soil. Cavaliebi, Buonaventura, kaw-val'-e-air-e, an Italian friar, who, from being a disciple of Galileo, became a mathematical professor at Bologna. He wrote several treatises upon his R THE DICTIONARY Cavallini favourite science, of which he was the first to attempt the generalization, b. at Milan, 1598: ». 1647. Cavallini, Pietro, leaw-val-le'-ne, a distin- guished artist, who assisted his master, Giotto, m the famous mosaic in the porch of St. Peter's at Rome. Some of his own mosaics are to be seen in the basilica of San Paolo ; but wo know of no remains of his paintings. The last of these were consumed in the fire of 1824, when the old basilica of San Paolo was nearly entirely destroyed. Some of his frescoes still exist at Oirieto, Florence, and Assisi. It is conjectured that he was the architect of the shrine of Edward the Coufessor in Westminster Abbey u. about 1280; d. about 1865. Cavallo, Tiberius, kaw-val'-lo, an eminent electrician, who began his manhood as a mer- chant, and ended it as a natural philosopher. His performances were not characterized by originality, so much as by the industry they dis- played, and the untiring energy with which he laboured to illustrate electricity and magnetism. B. at Naples, 1749 : d. ir London, 1809. Cave, William, kaiv, :-. distinguished English divine, who wrote a great number of works of a religious tendency, and others with a view to illustrate ecclesiastical history. He is remem- bered chiefly by his " Primitive Christianity," " Lives of the Apostles and Martyrs," and his " Historia Literaria." b. at Pickwell, Leicester- shire, 1637 ; d. at Windsor, 1713. Cave, Edward, a London bookseller, who was originally a clerk in the excise, but afterwards went to London, where he apprenticed himself to a printer. On the expiration of his time he obtained a place in the Post-office, but still con- tinued at intervals to follow his business. He corrected the "Gradus ad Parnassum," and wrote for the newspapers. On being dismissed from his place for resisting abuses in the privi- lege of franking, he started the "Gentleman's Magazine," which had great success, and to which Dr. Johnson, the future lexicographer, was a contributor. Indeed, Cave 'a to be remembered chiefly on account ot his being 'he early patron and friend of the immortal doctor, who wrote his biography. b. at Newton, in Warwicksliire, 1691 ; d. in L ndon, 1751. Cavendish, Henry, hw'-en-dith, was the younger son of Lord Charles Cavendish, and the first to lay the foundation of the modern form which the science of chemistry has taken. His philo.=ophical researches have been followed by the most important results; and it is said that he supplied Lavoisier with the materials for his system. Sir Humphry Davy observed, shortly after Cavendish's death, that "his processes were all of a finished nature, perfected by the hand of a master ; they required no correction ; and though many of them were performed in the very infancy of chemical science, yet their accu- racy and their beauty have remained unimpaired amidst the progress of discovery." b. at Nice, 1731; d. 1810. This philosopher was of so sin- gular and retiring a disposition, that he could hardly bear the presence of strangers. He was never married ; indeed, it is doubtful whether he ever spoke to a woman. At all events, Lord Brougham says of him, that "he used to order his dinner daily by a note, which ho left at a certain hour on the hall table, whence the house- keeper was to take it." It is also said, that if a female servant showed herself to him, she was Cavendish immediately dismissed. He died worth upwardi of £1,000,000 sterling. Cavendish, Margaret, the eccentric daughter of Sir Charles Lucas, and wife of William Caven- dish, duke of Newcastle. After the Restoration, she passed the greater part of her time in lite- rary composition, holding the belief that she wa3 oneof the greatest geniuses thateverwielded a pen. She also believed the same of her hus- band, who, very singularly, entertained a similar opinion of her. The best-known works of the duchess are some plays, which will hardly carry her name down to a very distant posterity, b. in Essex about 1620; d. 1673. Cavendish, or Candish, Thomas, an enter- prising English navigator, who, about 1585, fitted out " a stout bark" of 120 tons, and pro- ceeded to Virginia and the West Indies. By this expedition his fortune was not increased; but on his return he assumed the manners of a courtier, and became one of the gallants of the court of Queen Elizabeth. The mode of life which he then led still further impaired his fortune, when he undertook another voyage to endeavour to repair the evil which extravagance and dissipation had wrought upon his funds. For this expedition he fitted out three small vessels of 40, 60, and 120 tons ; and with a total crew of about 125 men, set sail from Plymouth, on July 21, 15S6. He crossed the Atlantic, passed through the Straits of Magellan, and, entering the Pacific, reached the scene where he had intended to recruit his finances. His object was to plunder the Spaniards, with whom England was then at war, and who were, accord- ing to the notions of the times, considered fair game for the buccaneering propensities of any English gentleman who had the courage to at- tack them. Accordingly, Cavendish commenced his career of pillage ; fought, captured, burned, and sunk wherever he could; and, after great success, circumnavigated the globe, and arrived at Plymouth in September, 1588. He was now rich enough to appear again at Court, and was knighted by the queen. In three years, how- ever, he was airain reduced in circumstances, when he once more looked to the New World to replenish his coffers. Another expedition was fitted out, but in the manner of a joint-stock concern. It met with no success ; and Caven- dish, a disappointed and brokenhearted man, ended his days whilst on his passage back from this ill-starred enterprise, b. in Suffolk, 15G4; d. at sea, 1593. Cavendisti, Lord Frederick, a field-marshal in the English service, entered early on a mili- tary life. In 1758 he was in the action of St. Cast, on the coast of France, and was taker, prisoner. The duke d'Aiguillon, who com- manded the French army, politely offered ilia British officers permission to return to England on their paroles. They all accepted this oiler except Lord Frederick, who gave as his reason for not doing so, that he was a member of par- liament. "And what has that to do with it ?" inquired the duke. "Why, sir," replied Lord Frederick, "whilst I am attending to my par- liamentary duties I should vote fur the supplies for carrying on the war, which might be con- sidered as a breach of my parole." "Pooh, pooh !" said the duke, " we should as soon think of re- straining you from getting a child, lost, when it came to maturity, it should conquer France." B. 1729; d. at Twickenham, 1S03. This officer was one of the six who, nt the beginning of the OF BIOGRAPHY. Cavendish " Seven Years' War," entered into an agreement with each other not to marry until peace was restored, so that no domestic relations might influence their conduct. Generals Wolfe, Monk- ton, and Keppel were among the number. Cavendish. (See Bentinck, Lord W. G.) Civor/R, Camillo, Count de, ka-voor 1 , a modern Sardinian statesman, whose father amassed a lonsiderabie fortune by speculation, and was created a count by Charles Albert. In 1847, when the principles of reform became prevalent in the states, Count Cavour took a leading share in examining the economical questions of the day; but, in the following year, did not play a very important part in the struggle between his country and Austria. After the disaster of No- vara, he entered, in 1849, the Chamber of Depu- ties, succeeding Santa Rosa as minister of com- merce and agriculture. In 1851 he became minis- ter of finance, and, by his abilities, re-established the financial equilibrium, which, by the wars of Charles Albert, had been deranged. He now took the government of Great Britain for his model, and laboured to organize a similar free- trade system for his country, but met with many difficulties in the attempt. In 1852 he became president of the council, and was, for the suc- ceeding seven years, the moving spirit of Sar- dinian affairs. The great question which occu- pied his attention after 1848, was the establish- ment of the union and independence of the Italian states; and, regardless of the threats of Austria, he pursued his object with unswerving constancy. Relying on the active assistance of the emperor of the French, the liberal sympa- thies of western Euvope, and the national senti- ment expressed by the elections of 1857, he persevered in his course, which may be con- sidered to have tended greatly to precipitate the war with Austria in 1859. On the sudden termination of this war, in July of the same year, the count retired from the high position which he had filled with so much energy. He was shortly afterwards recalled to power, how- ever, and had a large share in accomplishing several most important events. During the brief period which intervened between his recall to power and his death, the great aim of his life, the unification of Italy, made astonishing pro- gress. Tuscany, Modeua, Parma, and the Papal Legations united themselves to Piedmont, and in 1860 the successful expedition of Garibaldi to Sicily and Naples, having relieved that portion of the country of the Bourbons, a vote by uni- versal suffrage was taken, which resulted in an almost unanimous declaration of the people's desire to be united to the other parts of the peninsula which already owned the sway of Victor Emmanuel, and m a parliament repre- senting the whole of the king's states, the title of king of Italy was solemnly conferred upon the representative of the house of Savoy. To the accomplishment of all these events Cavour contributed in a large degree ; but he was con- cerned in another transaction which has been regarded as of a much more questionable kind. In 1S60 the provinces of Nice and Savoy were ceded by the Piedmontese government to Fran ce, and it then came to light that this cession was the price agreedupon for the assistance of France against Austria. This transaction has been se- verely condemned even by the warmest admirers of Cavour, and will, perhaps with justice, be re- garded as the one stain upon his otherwise Honourable and pitriotic career. It is but fair, 243 Celakowsky however, to state, that he himself regarded the cession of Nice and Savoy in the light of a sub- mission to a small evil in order to accomplish a great good. It is, perhaps, impossible to over- estimate the importance of Cavour's loss to Italy ; the national calamity was at once felt to be irreparable when his death was announced, and a cry of grief and mourning went up from the whole land. b. at Turin, 1810 ; d. 1881. Caxton, William, kax'-ton, the first English printer, who, at the age of 15, was apprenticed to a mercer, and on the death of his master, went to the continent, as agent of the Mercers' Company. During his residence in Flanders he acquired a knowledge of the new invention of printing, and the first book he put to press was the "Recueil des Histoires de Troye," in the originalFrench.This work he himself afterwards translated "by the commandment of Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, &c.," and printed in 1471. In 1474 appeared " The Game and Playe of the Chess," which was succeeded by other works. He printed in the Almonry in Westminster; and whilst the literary pilgrim directs his footsteps to the Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey, to recall the effusions which received expression from the immortal dust which lies entombed in that sacred edifice, let him remem- ber, that it is to the enterprising spirit of Wil- liam Caxton that he is indebted for the intro- duction to this country of the sublime art, which gives him so much mental enjoyment. b. in Kent, about 1410; v. 1491.- Cebes, se'-beea, a Greek philosopher, and dis- ciple of Socrates. The " Pinax," or " Picture of Human Life," is generally attributed to him. It is usually printed with the " Enchiridion " of Epictetus. b. at Thebes, and lived in the 5th century B.C. Cecilia, St., se-sil'-e-a, the reputed patroness of music, a native of Rome, was distinguished for piety, and made a vow of virginity, notwith- standing her parents contracted her to a noble- man named Valerian, a heathen, whom, how- ever, she converted, and induced to respect her vow. They were subjected to martyrdom for their faith. The reputation of Cecilia, as the patroness of music and the inventor of the organ, is founded on a book known as " St. Cecilia's Arts," the authenticity of which is doubted, and on the ascriptions of the early Italian poets. The celebration of her birthday — the 22nd of Novem- ber — began to be observed about 1683. Many odes have been composed for the occasion, the most celebrated of which is the well known one by Dryden. St. Cecilia flourished in the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century a.d. Cecil, Robert. (See Burleigh.) Cecil, Robert Arthur. (See S.vlisuuky.) Ceckops, sc'-krops, the founder of Athens, who led a colony to Attica about the 16th cen- tury B.C., and divided the country into twelve communities, of which Athens afterwards be- came the capital. He established the tribunal of the Areopagus, extended the worship of Minerva and Jupiter, introduced agriculture, and the rites of marriage and burial. Athens was originally called Cccropia, in honour of Cccrops, and the word is often used for Attica, the Athenians boing also called Cecropidro. n. at Sais, Egypt; lived in the 16th century B.C. Celakowskv, Frantisek Ladislaw, tel'-a-kov'- ske, a modem Bohemian poet and philologist,- who, besides some original eilusions, produced a translation of Sir W, Scott's " Lady of tho R 2 THE DICTIONARY Celestine Lake," into a kind of Ossianic prose, which does not seem to have had the effect of inspiring his count rymen with a very exalted idea of the poetical qualities of the Scottish minstrel. He subsequently became the editor of the leading newspaper at Prague, and also professor of the Bohemian language in that university. These situations he afterwards lost on account of an article which he wrote against the severities nercised by the emperor Nicholas of Russia upon the insurgent Poles in 1831. In 1842 he obtained a professorship of Sclavonian literature in Breslau, where he remained for several years. In 1849 he returned to Prague, mentally shat- tered, through misfortunes and domestic cala- mities, which he did not long survive, b. at Strakonitz, 60 miles from Prague, 1799; d. at Prague, 1852.— In 1832 Sir John Bowring dedi- cated to Celakowsky his volume of " Cheskian Anthology." Cblestine I., seV-es-teen, a pope and saint, succeeded Boniface I. in 422. He condemned the doctrine of Nestorius in a council held at Rome, in 430. d. 432. — Cblestine II. was elected in 1143, on the death of Innocent II., and sat in the chair only five months. — Celestine III. succeeded Clement III. in 1191. He elaimed the kingdoms of Aaples and Sicily, and gave the latter to Frederick, the son oi the emperor Henry VI., on condition of his paying a tribute to the Holy See. d. 1198. — Celes- tine IV. died in 1241, eighteen days after his election. — Celestine V., a Benedictine monk, founded a new order called the Celestines, which was suppressed in France in 1778. Confining himself to his cell, he spent a life of constant devotion, which led to his being elected pope, in 1294. Cardinal Cajetan prevailed upon him to resign the chair, and was afterwards elected in his stead, by the name of Boniface VIII. He then caused the credulous Celestine to be im- prisoned in a castle, where he died, 1296. Cle- ment V. canonized him in 1313. Cellaeius, Christopher, cel-lair'-e-ut, a Ger- man professor of philosophy and Oriental lan- guages at Jena, attracted the attention of Frederick I., elector of Brandenburg, and first king of Prussia, who gave him the professorship of history and rhetoric in the university of Halle, Saxony. In this tranquil position he passed the greater part of his life, and produced several works of great merit. Among these may be noticed his "Atlas Ccelestis," and his "Kotitia Orbis Antiqute." b. at Smalkald, 1638; D. at Halle, 1707. His real name was Keller. Cellini, Benvenuto, chel-le'-ne, a famous Florentine artist, who served an apprenticeship to a jeweller and goldsmith, and, at the same time, applied himself to the study of drawing, engraving, and music. He was appointed by Clement VII. his goldsmith and musician. Being of a very turbulent disposition, he was frequently engaged in quarrels, in one of which he so severely wounded his antagonist that he was forced to make his escape from Florence to Rome, in the disguise of a friar. Here he dis- tinguished himself by his courage in defending the citadel against the constable Bourbon, whom lie said he killed as he attempted to scale the city walls. He also defended the castle of St. Angelo, and the prince of Orange, he declares, was killed by the ball which was shot from a .cannon he had directed. After this, he was employed to engrave stamps for the mint, and the coins and medals which he executed are 244 Cenci very beautiful. On the death of Clement VII, in 1534, he returned to Florence, whence he went to France, where he was patronized by Francis I., but soon quitting that country, revisited Rome, where he was confined a long time in the castle of St. Angelo, on the charge of having robbed the fortress of a considerable treasure when he had the care of it He escaped, but was retaken, and suffered great hardships, till released by the mediation of Cardinal Ferrara. He then revisited France, where he executed some fine works of sculpture, and cast large figures in metal, which gained him a high reputation. After staying there five years, he returned to his own country, and was employed by the grand duke Cosmo de Medici, who gave him a studio, where he commenced his great work, "Perseus," which was not finished for some time afterwards. The success of this performance was so great, that, in gratitude, he went on a pilgrimage to Valombrosa and Camal- doli. He now contested the palm of glory with Bandinelli for a design of Neptune. Cellini's work being pronounced the best, caused the death of the rival sculptor, through grief. His fame was now firmly established, and he spent the remainder of his days in Florence, b. at Florence, 1500; d. 1570. Cellini worked equally well in marble and metal, and wrote a treatise on the goldsmith's art, and another on sculpture and the casting cf metals. He also wrote his own life, which has been translated into English by W. Roscoe, and presents us with a tolerably accurate picture of the manners of the 16th century. Celsius, Olaus, iel'-se-ooi, a Swedish bota- nist, theologian, and orientalist. He wai tho professor of theology and the eastern languages at TJpsal, and, by command of Charles XI., visited the principal states of Europe, to compile an account of the plants mentioned in the Bible. He wrote a number of works, the princi- pal of which are " Hierobotanicon," being dis- sertations on the plants of the Scriptures, and " De Lingua Novi Tcstamenti Originali." b. 1670 ; d. 1756. Celsius is regarded as the founder of natural history in Sweden. He was the first master and patron of Linnaeus, tho great botanist, who gave to a new genus of plants the name of Celsia. — His father, Magnus Xicolaus, was a distinguished naturalist and mathematician ; and the ion of Olaus, Andrew, was eminent as an astronomer. Both wero professors at Upsal. Celscs, Aurelius Cornelius, tel'-sus, a cele- brated Roman physician, who lived in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Nothing is known with certainty of his personal history, but ha is supposed to have practised medicine at Rome. He appears to have understood the sciences of rhetoric, agriculture, and military tactics, as well as medicine, and compiled a kind of cycio- pa:dia, treating on those various subjects, with great ability and success. Only one work of his has come down to the moderns, called " Do Medicina," consisting of eight books, and it is considered the most precious work of its kind which the Romans have left us. Celsus wos styled the Hippocrates of the Latins, and is universally admired for his extensive erudition and the purity of his language. Several editions of his " De Medicina " have been published, and a good English translation by Dr. Grieve appeared in 1756. Cenci, Francesco, ten'-the, a Koman noble> OF BI0GRAPH7. Centlivre the son of a treasurer of the apostolic chamber under Pope Pius V., was a most profligate person, having plunged into the lowest depths of infamy, and was only saved from an igno- minious end by his gold, with which he rorrupted the judges. He had lour sons and one daughter, the celebrated Beatrice Cenci, all of whom he treated with the most abomina- ble cruelty. He is even accused of having as- sassinated his two elder sons. Revolting at the horrible scenes she had passed through, Beatrice, in concert with two of her brothers, and Lucretia, her mother, accomplished the death of the hated Francesco. Accused and found guilty of the murder, all perished on the scaffold, in the year 1599, except the younger brother, that sentence having been passed on them by Clement VIIT. This terrible event made a profound impression on the people of Borne, and for many ages the name of Beatrice Cenci was preserved in the popular airs. The death of the Cenci has been the subject of many paintings, of which the most celebrated is in the Colonna palace, Borne, and was for a long time attributed to Guido Eeni. The life of Beatrice has also been dramatized by Shelley. Centlivbe, Susannah, sent-le'-ver, an English actress and dramatic writer, whose performances ore marked by considerable elegance and viva- city, though not altogether free from a charge of indelicacy. Among her best plays are "A Bold Stroke for a Wife," " The Busybody," and " The Wonder." b., it is presumed in Ire- land, 16S0; d. in London, 1723. Cebdic, ser'-dik, a Saxon chief, who, "in the first year of the 6th century, invaded England, and after an obstinate resistance from the Bri- tons, sustaining many defeats, yet winning more victories, established, about 519, the king- dom of Wessex. At his death, in 534, he pos- sessed the Isle of Wight and the present coun- ties of Hants, Dorset, Wilts, and Berks, and was succeeded by his son Cynric. Cebv antes de Saavedra, Miguel, ser-van'- tee>, a distinguished Spanish novelist, the author of " Don Quixote," who from early years discovered a strong predilection for literature, but whose necessities forced him to seek for a livelihood by some other means than by that which, at best, is considered to be one of a most precarious kind. Consequently, he entered the service of Cardinal Aquaviva, of Rome, as a page, but subsequently entered the navy, and lost an arm at the famous battle of Lepanto, in 1571. This misfortune did not prevent him joining the troops of the king of Spain at Naples; but in returning to Spain by sea, he was made prisoner by pirates, who took him to Algiers, where, for live years, he was kept as a slave. After this period he was ransomed, when he went to Madrid. Here he settled, got married, and, in the course of about ten years, published about thirty dramas. The prolific Lope de Vega, however, was at that time at the head of the Spanish drama, to whom, there- fore, he resigned the palm of superiority, and directing his genius into a kindred channel, he produced the immortal novel of " Don Quixote." Inimitable in its wit and humour as this work is, it was at first received with comparative in- difference. Ultimately, however, it met with the greatest applause, although the auth >r reaped few or none of the emoluments which might have been expected from it. He was compelled to continue to struggle: on in the 21o Chabannes shades of poverty, sustained only by the con- sciousness of being gifted with of such talents as fall to the lot of few to possess, b. at Alcala de Henarcs, New Castile, 1547; r>. 1616. Cesari, Giuseppc,8at-zaw'-re, called the Cava- liere d'Arpino, a famous Italian painter, was the son of an obscure artist, who executed votive tablets for the images of saints, and while employed in a menial capacity by the painters occupied in decorating the loggia of the Vatican, he, when only thirteen years of ago, painted some figures by stealth, which led to his introduction to Pope Gregory XIII., with whom, as well as with four of his successors, Sixtus V., Clement VIII., Paul V., and Urban VIII., he became a great favourite. Though not essentially a great artist, Cesari was extremely popular for more than half a cen- tury—keeping his ground against the efforts of both Annibal Caracci and Michael Angelo Caravaggio ; and received decorations from the Pope, from Henry IV. of France, &c. His works are very numerous, both in oil and fresco; the principal being the series in illustration of Soman history in the Campidoglio, which Cesari undertook to finish in four years, but which occupied him for upwards of forty years — at least he did not complete them till after the lapse of that time. His designs are generally spirited, but the execution is very imperfect. B. about 156S; D. 1640. Cesaroiti, Melchior, sai'-zaw-rot'-te, an Ita- lian poet, and professor of rhetoric, Greek, and Hebrew in the university of Padua. In 1762 he translated the poems of the Scottish Ossian into Italian blank verse, and declared that he preferred the fitful flights of Ossian the Scot to the steady and sustained grandeur of Homer the Greek. He also translated the " Iliad" into Italian ; but the performance was rather a cari- cature than what it professed to be, and brought upon the head of Ccsarotti a considerable amount of ridicule. Besides these, he pro- duced some critical and philosophical works, which have a higher claim to respect than his poetical translations of the poets we have named. He was a great admirer of Napoleon, and wrote a poem called " Pronea," a poor work, which aimed at exhibiting that person- age as the envoy of the Almighty. Whether the emperor was pleased with this performance, we have no means of knowing; but as he was a great admirer of Cesarotti's Ossian, he created him a knight of the Iron Crown, and gave him a pension, b. at Padua, 1730; d. 1808. — Be- sides the above, Ccsarotti translated the works of several of the Greek writers of antiquity. CESPEDKS.PauIde, ses-pai'-dais, an eminent Spanish painter, whose picture of the "Last Supper," in the cathedral of Cordova, is greatly admired. He wrote a learned book on ancient and modern art, was a linguist and poet, and practised sculpture as well as architecture, b. at Cordova, 1538; d. 1608, and was buried in the cathedral of his native city, Chabrias, kai'-bre-as, an Athenian general famous for his many naval victories. From 3S8 to 376 b.c. he defeated, in several engagements, the Spartans, who were commanded by Agesi- laus, and took a prominent part in the war in Egypt. r>. at the siege of Chios, fighting on his ship, 357 b.c. — Cornelius Nepos has written his life CrfABANNEs, sha-ban', the name of a distin- guished family of Limousin, in France, many THE DICTIONARY Chabot memberr of which figured prominently in the history of their country. The most famous of the fern ly were : — 1. Jacques de Chabannes, lord of La P lice (b. 1400, ». 1454) and Antoine de Chabanns, (b. 1411, d. 1483), who both took a promincn.part in the wars between the English and French in the 15th century, and aided Joan of Arc at the siege of Orleans, and in free- ing the country from English domination. 2. Jacques de Chabannes, an eminent soldier of the lGth century, took a distinguished part in the wars of the French against the Spaniards under the famous Gonsalvo, and afterwards in the campaigns of Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I. in Italy, where he mainly contributed to win the battles of Ra- venna, in 1512, and of Marignano in 1515; but was killed at the fatal disaster at Pavia, in 1525. He was alike famous for his bravery, military skill, and fidelity to his sovereign and country. 3. Jean de Chabannes, brother of the last-men- tioned, was also an eminent leader, and so remarkable for his valour, that he was surnamed the "Young Lion." He took Alviano, the Venetian general, prisoner, at the battle of Agnadel, and enacted a prominent part in the field of Marignano; but was mortally wounded, in 1524, during the retreat of Rebec. Chabot, Francois, sha'-bo, one of the most infamous of the French revolutionists, was originally a Capuchin monk, but having imbibed atheistical ideas, he threw himself into the revo- lutionary movement, siding with the most ex- treme democrats, and either proposing or pro- moting the worst atrocities perpetrated during the Reign of Terror. He it was who made use of the irreverent and blasphemous expression that " citizen Jesus Christ was the first sans- culotte in the world." He affected great auste- rity of manner, wore the coarsest clothes, and was always filthy and squalid in his person. Being at last detected in a conspiracy, he at- tempted suicide by swallowing corrosive sub- limate, but did not succeed, and was guillotined, April 5, 1794. b. 1759. Chabwick, Edwin, chad'-wik, a modern social reformer, who, in 1834, was appointed secretary to the board of the Poor Law Commission. In 1842 he completed a report " On the General Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes in Great Britain," and in 1847 was appointed to the Metropolitan Sanitary Commission. The following year he became a member of the General Board of Health, and in 1854 received a retiring pension for the labour of a long series of years devoted to the advocacy of questions, by the practical application of which the social comforts of the community at large were greatly improved. Whilst labouring as commissioner to the General Board of Health, the honour of Companion of the Bath was conferred upon him. b. at Manchester, 1801. Chalmers, George, ehal'-mert, an eminent antiquary and general writer, was a native of Moray, in Scotland, where he was born in 1742. He studied law at Edinburgh, and then emi- grated to America, but on the breaking out of the revolutionary war, he came back to Eng- land, and was appointed clerk to the Board of Trade, a situation which he continued to hold till his death in 1825. He was a very volumi- nous writer, and was the author of a great many works, principally lives of distinguished per- sonages. His most important work, however, the ''Caledonia," a topographical nud historical Chalmers account of Scotland, from the invasion of the Ro- mans to the present period, exhibiting vast research, was left unfinished at his death. Chalmers, Alexander, received a Scottish classical education, and settled in London as a literary man. He was employed by the most eminent booksellers and printers of his time, edited a great variety of works, and contributed largely to periodical literature, b. at Aberdeen, 1759; d. in London, 1834. — Amongst other works, Mr. Chalmers edited the "General Bio- graphical Dictionary," 32 vols.; "The British Essayists, with Prefaces, Historical and Biogra- phical," in 45 vols. ; " The British Poets, from Chaucer to Cowper," in 21 vols.; and Shak- speare, in 9 vols. Chalmers, Reverend Dr. Thomas, one of the most distinguished modern Scottish divines. In 1803 he was appointed to the living of Kil- many, in Fifeshire, where, in conjunction with his clerical duties, he, for twelve years, devoted himself to the study of mathematical and che- mical science. In 1809 he became a contributor to the " Edinburgh Encyclopaedia," then under the editorship of Sir David Brewster; and other periodicals, among which were the " Christian Instructor" and " Eclectic Review." In 1815 he was called to the Tron Church of Glasgow, where he officiated for eight years. He was already, however, a man of note ; and in the following year the degree of D.D. was conferred upon him by the university of Glasgow. His eloquence now excited a national interest. " It reminds me more of what one reads of as the effect of the eloquence of Demosthenes, than anything I ever heard," says Lord Jeffrey, whose opinion has been echoed by Canning, Wilber- force, Hazlitt, Hall, and others. It was his ex- traordinary union of thought and imagination which struck us as being the secret of his power over assembled multitudes ; and to this union he added the force of an earnest delivery, at once grand and impressive. In 1816 he began his " Astronomical Discourses," which created an unprecedented excitement amongst all who heard them. He was immediately raised to the apex of popularity, for which he had to pay the usual penalty, as may be gathered from the following passage: — "A popularity," says he, " which ritles home of its sweets, and, by ele- vating a man above his fellows, places him in a region of desolation, where he stands, a con- spicuous mark for the shafts of malice, envy, and detraction ; — a popularity which, with its head among storms and its feet on the treache- rous quicksands, has nothing to lull the agonies of its tottering existence but the hosannahs of a drivelling generation." He now devoted himself to what we would call organizing Chris- tianity among the people ; and in this was so successful, that he created a new era in the parish in which he officiated as pastor. He re- moved from the Tron Church to St. John's, where Edward Irving was for some time his assistant; and perhaps no two such extraordi- nary men ever before officiated to one and the same congregation as ministers of the gospel. In 1823, when at the very zenith of his fame, Dr. Chalmers resigned his charge, and accepted the chair of moral philosophy in the university of St. Andrews. In this capacity his emolu- ments were much less, but his duties were better suited to his tastes, for his health was already somewhat shaken. Here he remained for live years, when, In 1828, he was appointed OF BIOGRAPHY. Chaloner to the divinity chair of the university of Edin- burgh. He officiated here for fifteen years, till, in 1843, the disruption in the Church of Scotland called him to another sphere of action. Then, at the head of 400 clergymen, he seceded from the establishment, and instituted the " Free Church," and became principal and pro- fessor of divinity in the new college founded by its adherents. In this position he continued during the remainder of his days, imparting Christian life and moral strength to all who came within the scope of his influence, b. at Anstruther, Fifeshire, 1780 ; d. at Edinburgh, 1847. — Dr. Chalmers was emphatically a great man, working for the good of his species with untiring energy and assiduity. His writings are numerous, and all of a religious tendency. Perhaps his best-known work is his Bridge- water treatise " On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitu- tion of Man." Chaloneb, Sir Thomas, ckal'-on-er, a distin- guished statesman and diplomatist of the 10th century, who, after serving Henry VIII. in a mission to Charles V., was the first ambassador appointed by queen Elizabeth when she came to the crown, having been sent by her upon a mission to the emperor, and afterwards to the court of Spain, where he remained from 15G1 to 1564. He was an able writer, especially of Latin verse ; and while resident in Spain wrote his great work, " On the Eight Ordering of the English Republic." He died in 1505, aged about 50. — His son, Sir Thomas the younger, was born in 1559, and was principally educated by his father's friend, Lord Burleigh. He studied at Oxford, then travelled for several years, and became famous for his knowledge of natural philosophy. He discovered alum mines near Whitby about the year 1600, which were the first ever worked in England. Having gone to Scotland towards the end of Elizabeth's reign, he became a great favourite with king James, whom he accompanied to England, and by whom he was appointed tutor to prince Henry. Cha- loner wrote a work on the nature and medicinal virtues of nitre. He died in 1615. — Twoofhis sons, Thomas and John, were members of the Long Parliament, and among the .judges of Charles I. Chambhrs, David, cham'-bers, a Scotchman who united in his own person both ecclesiastic and legal functions, having taken orders and been inducted to the ministry of the parish of Snddic, and also made chancellor of the diocese of Ross. His legal knowledge recommended him to Mary Queen of ."-cots, who raised him to the bench in 1564, by the honorary title of Lord Ormond, in which capacity he aided in the com- pilation of the collection of statutes known as the " Black Acts." He was implicated in the murder of Darnlcy, and had to fly from the country. He now passed several years in Spain and France, where he wrote some works, one of which is a vindication of the female right of succession to thrones. He finally returned to Scotland, and was reinstated on the bench by king James, which would seem to imply that he had at least satislicd that monarch that he was innocent of his father's death, b. in Eoss- shire, 1530; n. 1592. He bore the character of being a learned, able, but unscrupulous man. Chambers, Ephrailn, the compiler of an ex- tensive cyclopaedia, who, while an apprentice to Mr. Scnex, a globe-maker in London, formed the plan of his dictionary. This design occu- Chambers pied his whole attention, and some of the articles are said to have been written by him whilst standing behind the counter. The first editioD appeared in 1728, in 2 vols, folio. The next ' year he was chosen F.E.S. In 1738 a new edi- tion was published, with additions ; a third in the following year; a fourth in 1741; and a fifth iu 1746. It was afterwards continued by Mr. Scott and Dr. Hill, and subsequently en- larged by Dr. Kees. Besides this work, he was engaged in translating and abridging the " History of the Academy of Sciences of Paris." He also translated the "Jesuits' Perspective." b. at Kendal, Westmoreland; d. in London, 1740. — Chambers may be considered the origi- nator of all the encyclopaedias which afterwards appeared in England, as well as on the con- tinent. Chambers, Sir William, F.E.S., F.R.A.S., a celebrated English architect, surveyor-general of the Board of Works, treasurer of the Royal Academy, and knight of the Polar Star in Sweden, was descended of an ancient Scotch family. At the age of eighteen he was appointed supercargo to the Swedish East-India Company, and brought from China the Asiatic style of ornament, which became so fashionable in Eng- land, at one time, under the patronage of king George III. He then settled in England as an architect, and erected some magnificent man- sions in various parts of the kingdom. His principal work, however, is Somerset House, which will prove a lasting monument of his taste. He was very successful in his staircases and designs for interior ornaments, b. at Stock- holm, of English parents, 1726; d. 1796, leaving a large fortune. — He wrote a treatise on civil architecture, which is deemed valuable. Chambers, George, an English marine pain- ter, who, in his tenth year, was sent to sea as a cabin-boy. Whilst serving his apprenticeship, he discovered his imitative genius by making rough sketches of sea scenes for the amusement of his brother sailors. These attracted the notice of the captain of the ship, who had suffi- cient appreciation of their merit to induce him to cancel the indentures of Chambers, and allow him to follow a profession for which he seemed by nature to have been designed. Accordingly, he worked his way to Whitby, whore, in order to get an acquaintance with colours, he appren- ticed himself to an old woman who kept a pain- ter's shop. At the same time he worked as a house-painter, then took lessons of a drawing- master, and finally began to paint small marine pieces, which met with a ready sale. Three years after this he worked his passage to London as a seaman, where, after some difficulty, he be- came a painter of ships. He now attracted the attention of a Mr. Horner, who employed him on a panorama of London, which was exhibited at the Colosseum. He was next engaged to paint for the Pavilion Theatre, where he received the patronage of Vice-Admiral Lord Mark Kerr, who introduced him to William IV. and Queen Ade- laide. His fo! tune was now made, and he became marine painter to their majesties, b. at Whitby, Yorkshire ; n. in London, 1840. Chambeks, William and Robert, two eminent modem Scotch publishers, whose practical good sense and high moral rectitude of ta^te have been directed to the elevation of the people, through the means of their numerous publica- tions. In accordance with the design of this work, Robert has tho highest claim to our THE DICTIONARY Chambord notice, as it is to him that the public debt of gratitude is due for much of the literary ability which has characterized the publications emanat- ing from their establishment. At the age of sixteen he commenced, on very limited means, as a bookseller in Edinburgh, and subsequently contributed some popular works to "Constable's Miscellany." These were marked by consider- able ability, and in 1832 led him, with his brother William, who was also following the trade of a bookseller, to unite in the establishment of "Chambers's Edinburgh Journal." The success of this periodical was complete, and it largely helped to exalt the intellectual tastes of its readers, both in England and Scotland, but more especially in the latter. Independently of his contributions to his "Journal," Robert wrote " Tiaditions of Edinburgh," a " History of the Rebellion of 1745-46," a work, in our opinion, of great merit; "Popular Rhymes of Scotland," and " The Life and Works of Burns," of whom he is an enthusiastic admirer, and to whose family he has been of great service. He has also devoted much of his time to scientific pur- suits, and deserved well of his age for the un- wearied eiforts he has made, in conjunction with his brother, to shed the placid beams of a light and agreeable literature throughout the length and breadth of the land. b. both in Peebles, William, 1800; Robert, 1802; n. 1871. Ckambord, Count de. (See Bordeaux, Due de.) Chambray, Georges, Marquis de, sham'-brai, a French general and historian, who, entering the artillery, served in the German campaigns of 1806-9. He rose to the rank of captain, but in the Russian campaign fell sick at Wilna, and was taken by the Russians, and transported into the Ukraine. After the fall of Napoleon, he returned to France, and in 1825 became colonel- director of the artillery at Perpignan. In 1829, on account of bad health, he was permitted to retire from the service with the honoraiy title of marechal-de-camp. b. at Paris, 1783; d.' 1850. — In his retirement, the marquis wrote a history of the Russian expedition, which, in 2 vols., ap- peared in 1833. This work passed through several editions, and was recognized as a pro- duction of considerable merit. He also wrote some other works upon militaiy tactics. Ciiamfort, Sebastien Roch Nicholas, sham'- for, a French writer, who became connected with the " Revue Encyclopedique." His eloges of Moliere and Pontenclle procured him prizes from the French Academy, and that of Mar- seilles. He next compiled a " French Vocabu- lary," and a " Dictionary of Dramatic Anec- dotes." The latter work led him to dramatic composition, and his tragedy of "Mustapha" was very successful. He was honoured with the patronage of the Prince de Conde, Madame Helvetius, and Madame Elizabeth. At the breaking out of the French revolution, he, at first, supported its principles, but afterwards became shocked at its outrages. Beingafriend of Mirabeau, he assisted him in many of his works. He suffered imprisonment under Robes- pierre, and the horrors he witnessed had such an effect on his mind that he attempted to de- stroy himself, b. in Auvergne 1741 ; d. from the effects of his wounds, 1794. — His works have been printed in 4 vols. 8vo. Chamier, Frederiek,cha'-meer, amodcrn Eng- lish writer of naval tales, who entered the navy in 18D9, and distinguished himself in the Ameri- 2*3 Championnet can war of 1812, and attained the rank of captain. In 1833 he quitted the service. The best known of his works are " Ben Brace," the " Arethusa," " Life of a Sailor," and " Tom Bowling." u. in London, 1796; d. 1878. Chamillt, Noel Bouton, Comte de, sha'-me-le, a marshal of France in the reign of Louis XIV., who greatly distinguished himself in the defenco of Grave, 1677. The siege of this place occupied 93 days, and cost William, Prince of Orange, 16,000 men. The count, however, is better known as the receiver of the charming epistles known as the "Portuguese Love- Letters," written to him, when in Portugal under Schom- berg, by a nun, who had conceived a violent passion for him. These he had the bad taste to show to his friends, and, on returning to France, to publish. B. 1636; B. 1715. Chamisso, Adelbcrt von, iha-mees'-so, a Ger- man poet, traveller, and naturalist, of French extraction, the author of " Peter Schlemil." The misfortunes brought upon his family by the first revolution, drove them from France, and in 1796 they took up their residence in Berlin. Aldebert became one of the pages of the queen of Prussia, who had liim educated with great care, and made well acquainted with German literature. In 1798 he entered the Prussian army, and soon after commenced writing poetry in German, and from 1304 to 1806 was one of the editors of the "Musen-Almanach." In 1810 he returned to France, where his family had again settled, and recovered the greater portion of their property; but his mind having become thoroughly Germanized, he returned to that country, and devoted himself to the study of the natural sciences. In 1813 he wrote, for the amusement of the children of a friend, a little book called "Peter Schlemil," containing the story of a man who lost his shadow, which was translated into English, and most other Euro- pean languages. In 1815 Chamisso accompanied an exploring expedition round the world, in the capacity of naturalist, and after an absence of three years, returned, and appended a supple- ment to the work of Kotzebue, who wrote an account of the expedition. He now took up his abode at Berlin, and became the inspector of the Botanical Gardens of that city. Here he remained to the end of his life, cultivating poetry and botany, and living in the esteem of many friends, b. at the chateau of Boneourt, Champagne, 1781 ; d. at Berlin, 1838.— His bal- lads and legends are considered among the best effusions of their kind in German literature. Championnet, Jean Etienne, ekam'-pe-on'-ai, a French general of the revolutionary epoch, who, after suppressing the rising of the Giron- dists, and serving on the Rhine and in Flanders, was, in 1798, appointed to command the army at Rome, where he came in contact with Gene- ral Mack, atthe head of 60,000 Neapolitans, while Championnet had only 13,00) French to oppose to him. He, at first, evacuated Rome, but soon succeeded in defeating, and ultimately compel' ling Mack to surrender. He then retook Romp, captured Capua, Gaeta, and at length, on Janu- ary 23, 1799, Naples itself, and proceeded to organise the Parthenopean Republic. Dis- agreeing with the conduct of the Directory, he refused to execute their orders, and was arrested and imprisoned. The revolution of the 30th Prairial restored him to liberty, and the com- mand of the army of the Alps : but the coup d'etat of Bonaparte on 18th Brumaire, beuii; CORNEILLE, PETER. CROMWELL, OLIVER. COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER COUTTS, BARONESS BURDETT. Plate IX. OF BIOGRAPHY. diamplain in violence of Championnct's republican prin- ciples, he demanded his recall, and retired into private life. b. 1762 ; d. 1800. Champlain, Samuel de, sham'-pla, a French naval officer, who founded Quebec, and became the first governor-general of Canada. Lake Champlaiu was named after him. b. at Le Brouage, 1570; d. 1635. lie was the author of " Travels in New France, or Canada," 4to. Champmesle, Mary-Desmares de, sham- wail'-ai, a French actress, who was at first a strolling player, and afterwards appeared at Paris, where she had uncommon success. She received instructions from Kaeine in the per- formance of tragedy, b. at Rouen, 1644; d. 1693.— Her husband was also an actor and a dramatic writer. He died in 1701, and his works ware published in 1742, 2 vols. 12mo. Champollion, Jean Jacques, gham-pol' -le- awng, from being professor of Greek literature in Grenoble, became in 1849, keeper of the li- brary in the palace of Fontainebleau, and in 1856 librarian to the emperor Napoleon 111. He has written several scientific, chronological, and antiquarian works, and in 1819 received the prize of the Academy of Inscriptions. He also wrote a work entitled "The Tournaments of King Rene," of which only 200 copies were printed, and which is very expensive. He was also a considerable contributor to periodical literature, b. at Figeac, 177b ; d. 1867. Champollion, Jean Francois, a younger bro- ther of the above, distinguished himself as an archaeologist. In 1828 he accompanied a party of savans to Egypt, where important discoveries were made relative to the manners and customs of the ancient inhabitants of that country. Among his numerous works, we may mention his " Pantheon Egyptien," and his ''Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des Anciens Egyp- tians." b. at Figeac, 1790 ; d. at Paris, 1832. Chancellor, Richard, chu>i'-sel-lor, an Eng- lish navieator, who had a command under Sir Hugh Willoughby in the unfortunate voyage undertaken under the direction of Sebastian Cabot to discover a N.E. passage to China. Parting company with Sir Hugh, who perished on the coast of Lapland, Chancellor discovered the port of Archangel, Russia, and had an au- dienec of the czar of Muscovy, Ivan IV., who received him graciously, giving permission to the English to trade with' his subjects. This was the foundation of the Russian Company. On Chancellor's arrival in England, a company was incorporated, by whom he was sent again to Russia; but in returning, he was unfortu- nately lost on the coast of Norway, in 1556. Chandler, Richard, chand'-ler, an eminent English scholar and antiquary, who published, in 17<>3, a magnificent edition of the " Marmora Oxoniensia." Commissioned to examine the monuments of antiquity, he, from 1764 to 1766, visited Asia Minor and Greece, bringing back to England avast amount of valuable materials. He published, during the succeeding years, the result of his travels and researches, some of which have been translated into French, b. at Elson, Hants, 1738 ; D. 1810. Chandler, Samuel, D.D., an eminent dissent ing divine, and author of a variety of works in vindication of Christianity against the attacks of deists, atheists, and other opponents, a man of an amiable and exemplary character, was born in ]0?3, at Hungcrlbrd.and studied mainly at Glou- cester, where Butler, author of the " Analogy," Charming Seeker, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and other eminent men, were fellow-students with him. He officiated as minister of the Presbyterian congregation in the Old Jewry, Loudon, for forty years, and during that period most of his works were written, d. 1766. Chansos, Sir John, than'-dot, a celebrated English captain in the reign of Edward III. He was appointed lieutenant-general of the English possessions in France ; and, at the battle of Auray, in 1364, took Dugueselin pri- soner. When Edward III. erected Aquitaine into a principality for his son, the Rlaek Prince, Chandos became the prince's constable. He was present at the battle of Poictiers, 1356 ; and was killed, bravely fighting, at the battle of Lussac, 1369. Chandos was a chivalric soldier and was held in equal esteem by his adversaries and friends. Changabnieb, Nicolas-Anne-Theodule, than- gar-ne-ai, a French general, once the confidant, and, in a measure, the rival, of Napoleon III., before the elevation of the latter to the throne. In 1815, he entered the army as a private, and in 1821 accompanied the Duke of Angoulome to Spain, where he distinguished himself both by his courage and capacity. After the revolution of 1830, he went with the rank of captain to Al- geria, where he greatly increased his renown, and became a chef-de-bataillon. His coolness and intrepidity, in the first unsuccessful attack on Constantine, were the forerunners of greater fame and honour to him; for atMansourah, on the 24th November, ls36, with only 300 men, he defeated 6000 of the enemy. In 1838 he was made a colonel, and in 1841 he was wounded at the head of his brigade in an affair with Abd-cl- Kader, in which, as usual, he distinguished him- self by his bravery. In 1843 he had the rank of lieutenant-general conferred on him; and, after serving a period of thirteen years, returned to France. In 1847 the duke d'Aumale became governor of Algeria, and induced Changarnicr to accept the command of the army in that pro- vince. In the following year the duke was forced to quit Algeria, when the government was provisionally handed over to General Ca- vaignac, and Changarnicr once more returned to France. He was now appointed governor- general of Algeria, in the place of Cavaignac, who was recalled to Paris ; and on the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency of the re- public, he was made commander of the first military division, with the whole of the military command of Paris. His influence, however, was now too great to be viewed with ease by Napo- leon, who stripped him of his command, and reduced him to the condition of a private citizen. After the coup d'etat of December 2, 1851, he was exiled, and afterwards lived mostly at Brus- sels, n. at Autun, 1793 i D. 1877. Channing, William Ellery,c/(an'-nui//,an emi- nent Unitarian minister of the United States, who, in 1803, became pastor of the Federal- street congregation in Boston. As a preacher, he was remarkable for the polished grace with which he adorned his style, and the love of pure and lofty morality with which his senti- ments were imbued. His writings are animated by the same spirit, and have justly obtained for him a considerable celebrity wherever the Eng- lish language is spoken. His "Remarks on the Character and Writings of John Milton," and his " Remarks on the Life and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte," are the two perform- THE DICTIONARY Chantrey ances by which he is best known in Great Britain. b. at Newport, Rhode Island, 1780; d. at Bur- lington, Vermont, 1842. Chantrey, Sir Francis, chant'-re, an eminent English sculptor, who was "designed by his father, a Derbyshire farmer, for the law, but who preferred" the precarious pursuits of an artist, and was, accordingly, bound three years to a carver in Sheffield. Whilst serving his ap- prenticeship, he became a modeller in clay, and, in this capacity, subsequently tried his fortune successively in Dublin, Edinburgh, and London. In the last-named city he was taken by the hand by Nollekens, who greatly smoothed his path to fame and fortune. His abilities as a monumental sculptor were great ; and, being universally ac- knowledged, he was uniformly successful in his career. Jn 1818 he was elected a member of the Royal Academy, and, in the following year, Eaio. a visit to Italy. In 1837 he was knighted y Queen Victoria, b. at Norton, Derbyshiie, 1782 ; d. 1841.— Chantrey had littleof the poetry of his art. He therefore prudently confined himself within the limits of what it was in his power to achieve. One of his best statues is that of Pitt, in Hanover-square, London ; an- other, that of Canning, in Westminster Abbey. Chapelain, John, ihap-la, a French poet, who wrote "La Pueelle" (the Maid of Orleans), which, at first, was received with immense fa- vour. It passed through six editions in eighteen months, but was subsequently neglected. Be- sides the above, he produced some other effu- sions, and had a fate unusual with his order, — that of dying very rich, having himself amassed his fortune, n. at Paris, 1595; d. 1674. Chapman, George, chap-man, an English poet, who was well versed in the Latin and Greek languages, and translated Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" into English. This work, if less elegant than Pope's, is more faith- ful ; and Pope is said to have been greatly in- debted to it in his own translations of the immortal Greek bard. He also wrote many dramatic pieces, b. 1557; ». in London, 1634. CnAPPvLL, William, F.S.A., chap'-el, a dis- tinguished writer on the history and antiquities of English music, was induced to undertake his researches by the common notion that the English were not a musical people, and had no national music. In contravention of this idea, he published a " Collection of National English Airs," issued in parts between 1838 and 1810; and, between 1845 and 1S59, " Popular Music of the Olden Time." He was also the founder of the Percy and Musical Antiquarian Societies, both of which issued a variety of works bearing upon the musical and poetic history of England. Mr. Chappell has done much to vindicate the English people from the reproach of being de- void of musical genius, n. 1809. Chaptal, Jean Antoine, shap'-tal, a distin- guished French chemist, who, in 1793, became manager of the saltpetre manufactory at Paris, and one of the first professors of the Polytech- nic School. In 1801, during the consulate of Napoleon I., he became minister of the Interior; but, in three years, retired from this post, to devote himself to pursuits more in accordance with his tastes. In this spirit he directed his attention to the minufacturing interests of his country, instituted chambers of commerce, and established councils of arts and manufactures. From time to time, he gave to the public the Insults of his studies and investigations, and, 350 Charlemont by every means in his power, endeavoured to improve and extend the manufactures of France. His chemical works are numerous and highly appreciated, and he was one of the founders of the Society of Encouragement, over which he presided for many years, b. at Nozaret, 1756 ; d. at Paris, 1832. — At the time of his death, Chaptal was a peer of France and a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. Charms', Sir John, shar-'du, a French tra- veller, who went to the East to endeavour to advance " his fortunes and estate." He twice visited Persia, remaining several years each time, between 1664 and 1677, and making him- self acquainted with the manners and customs of the country. On his return, he visited Lon- don, where, in 1681, he settled as a jeweller to the court and nobility. He was knighted by Charles II., and married on the same day ; and, in the following year, became a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1686 a folio volume of his travels appeared, and has been translated into several languages, b. at Paris, 1643; d. at Tumham Green, and buried at Chiswick, 1713. — Chardin was a painstaking traveller, knew Ispahan better than he did Paris, and spoke the Persian language like a native. Chaees, ka'-rees, an Athenian general of rather questionable character, but considerable ability, who flourished between 400 and 333 B.C. — There was also a sculptor of this name, who is famous for the celebrated colossus of Rhodes, which was executed by him, but destroyed by an earthquake, 227 B.C. Chakettb de la CoirTHns, Francis Athana- sius de, sha-ret' Ico»-tre', a French royalist, and leader of that party in La Vendee. He had been a lieutenant in the navy; headed an army of Bretons, and in a great many battles fought with varied success. At length he was wounded, taken prisoner, and carried to Nantes, where he expiated with his life the crime (or virtue) of defending to the last the cause of proscribed royalty, n. 1761 ; shot, 1796. Charlemagne. (See Sovs.of France, p. 253.) Charlemont, baron, viscount, and earl of, sharl'-mont. This title has been borne by three members of the same family, all of whom have made themselves famous in the history of their country. 1. — Tobias Caulfield, the first lord, born in 1565, was sprung from an old family in Oxfordshire, and after seeing servieo at sea under the celebrated Martin Frobisher, and also under Howard of Effingham, ho ex- changed into the army, and acted under Essex and other commanders in Belgium and France, and, whether at sea or on land, always distin- guishing himself and gaining honours and po- sition. In 159S he went to Ireland, and in the wars against Tyrone secured not only fame but fortune, as he obtained large grants of the lands of the rebel chieftain. In 1615 he was named one of the council of Munstcr ; and in 1620 was ennobled by the title of Lord Caul- field of Charlemont — the latter being a fort built to overawe Tyrone's country, and of which Sir Tobias was governor, d. 1027. 2. — Wil- liam Caulfield, or Viscount Charlemont, was the grand-nephew of Sir Tobias, and took a pro- minent part in the wars connected with the revolution of 1638. He was attainted, and his estates confiscated by the Parliament of James II., but was restored on the accession of Wil- liam III. He subsequently went to Spain, and served with much distinction under the great OF BIOGRAPIIY Charles earl of Peterborough. He attained the rank of major-general, and was governor of the counties of Armagh and Tyrone. 3.— James Caulfield, earl of Charlemont, was distinguished for his literary, philosophic, and general accomplish- ments, but is more especially famous for his patriotism, and his connexion with the cele- brated Irish volunteers of 1783. The great Irish volunteer movement had its origin in Belfast, where a company was formed to protect the coast from the depredations of the French and American fleets ; and the example was followed by most of the towns in the north of Ireland. Lord Charlemont was placed at the head of the Armagh corps, and in November, 1783, when the Nrtional Volunteer Convention met in Dublin, his lordship was elected president, and in that capacity was of essential service both in forwarding the legitimate purposes of the association, and in preventing so powerful a body being used for sinister and dangerous ob- jects. During the stormy and eventful political events of the period, his lordship exercised a large and most beneficial influence — more so, per- haps, than any other man of the time, and was mainly instrumental in obtaining several valu- able reforms in the Government, and also in maintaining good relations between the latter and the volunteers. Though offered high honours and advantages he declined all, pre- ferring to maintain untainted the purity and disinterested patriotism of his character. After the subsidence of the volunteer movement, Lord Charlemont, although in infirm health, continued to take a share in political occur- rences, and strenuously resisted the legislative union of England and Ireland ; but, almost in the midst of the struggle, his constitution gave way, and he died on the 4th of August, 1799. His genius was inferior to that of many men of the time, such as Grattan-, Flood, and Plunket, but Ins high honour, exalted principles, and un- sullied character, gave him an influence which ev?n the most brilliant talents often fail to acquire. He was born in 1728; and was made an earl in 1763. Charles. This name has been borne by a great number of monarchs, and in almost every rountry. To avoid confusion, they are arranged under the names of the countries they governed. — L — SoVEKEIGJTS OF EXGLAXB, ETC. Chahles I., king of England, was the third son of James I., by Anne, daughter of the king of Denmark. On the accession of his father to the English throne, he was created duke of York and Cornwall. The death of his brother Prince Henry, in 1612, left him heir-apparent to the throne (James's second son, Robert, having died in infancy), but he was not created Prince of Wales till the month of November, 1616. In 1G23, at the suggestion of the duke of Bucking- ham, and accompanied by him, he undertook a journey to Spain, for the purpose of person- ally paying his addresses to the Infanta. This contemplated match was, however, broken oil', and shortly after his accession to the throne, in 1025, he married Henrietta Maria, youngest daughter of Henry IV. of France. Previous to his accession, the struggle between the popular and the monarchical principles of the constitu- tion had commenced ; but they had not as- feumed the definite form into which the reso- lute spirit of the times so soon afterwards 251 Charles moulded them. Charles was engaged in a war with Spain, and, found it necessary to summon a parliament to grant him supplies. Nothing, however, was more remote from the minds of the representatives of the people than the in- tention of complying with the demands of the king. Accordingly, they were dismissed, and several parliaments were similarly served, until the meeting of the Long Parliament, which was the fifth of the reign, and which was assembled in 1610. Meanwhile, a foolish war with France had been terminated, and also that with Spain ; the duke of Buckingham had been assassinated' and in 1637 John Hampden had been tried and condemned for refusing to be assessed for ship- money. Scotland had risen infrisurrection, and the first act of the Long Parliament was to enter into an alliance with the insurgents. It then proceeded to strip the crown of all its objectionable prerogatives, impeached, and sub- sequently executed Stratford, the minister of Charles, and committed Archbishop Laud to the Tower. It also brought in a bill called the Militia Bill, which- was to transfer all the military power of the kingdom into their own hands, and to which the king would not give his assent. This was followed by the battle of Edgehill, fought on the 23rd October, 1642, and which was the first blood drawn in the civil war. Hostilities having thus commenced, the royal arms were, for some time, successful, par- ticularly in the west ; but the battle of Marston Moor, in July, 1644, and that of Newbury, were ruinous to the king's cause. A treaty was entered into at Uxbridge, but the parliament insisting upon the abolition of episcopacy, which Charles would not yield, hostilities were re- newed, when the battle of Naseby, fought on the 14th of June, 1645, proved fatal" to the royal cause. The king now threw himself on the protection of the Scots, who ultimately gave him up to the commissioners of the English parliament, from whom he was forcibly taken by Cornet Joyce and carried to the army, then lying at Triplow Heath. Thence he was sent to Hampton Court, where he was treated with some respect, as the parliament and army were at variance, the former being mostly Presby- terians, and the latter Independents. Intend- ing to quit the kingdom, he shortly afterwards eifected his escape, and sought refuge witli Colonel Hammond, the parliamentary governor of the Isle of Wight. Here, however, he was detained as a prisoner, and confined in Caris- brook Castle. The army now determined to bring him to trial, in which the House of Com- mons concurred. Accordingly, he was, on the 20th January, 1649, brought to trial in West- minster Hal), and behaved with great dignity, refusing to acknowledge the authority of his judges, who had constituted themselves into a High Court of Justice. During his trial, he was forced to submit to many indignities, which hu bore with patience and resignation. The trial lasted some days, when, on the 27th, sen- tence of death was pronounced upon him. Three days only were allowed to intervene between his condemnation and his execution, which were spent in affectionate interviews with his children, whom he exhorted to stead- fastness in the Protestant religion, as reformed in the Church of England, and in recommend- ing his successor to forgive his enemies. On the seatfold before the Danqucting-house at, Whitehall he was beheaded by a masked THE DICTIONARY Charles executioner, Jan. 30, 1649. b. at Dunfermline, Scotland, 1600. — In his domestic character, few sovereigns have equalled Charles I. He was naturally possessed of a fine genius, and was one of the most powerful and elegant writers of the English language. The celebrated " Eikon Basilike " is now generally allowed not to be a production of his, although many believe that he was quite equal to its composition. Of the rine arts he was a liberal patron, and, but for the evil counsels by which he suffered himself too much to be guided, might have escaped the untimely end to which he was brought by the offended judgment of a people determined to be free, lie was the father of Charles II. and James II. Charles II., king of England, was the second son of the above, an elder brother, CharlesJames, having died on the day of his birth. Having served with the royal army till after the battle of Naseby., Charles then left the country, and in 1646 joined his mother at Paris, whence he pro- ceeded to the Hague, where he received the news of the fate of his father. In Scotland he was, at Edinburgh, proclaimed king on the 3rd February, 1649, and again on the 15th July, 1650, after he had arrived in that country. He had already been obliged to take the covenant imposed by the Presbyterians, when, on the 1st January, 1651, he was crowned at Scone. Cromwell, however, was by this time "up and doing," and had made himself master of the greater part of Scotland, when Charles deter- mined on marching southward into England. He was proclaimed king at Carlisle, of which city he took possession. He next proceeded to Worcester, where Cromwell put an end to his enterprise by defeating his army, on the 3rd of September, 1651. His escape, after this bat- tle, was almost miraculous. Hid in the thick branches of a large oak in Boscobel wood, he avoided his pursuers, who came under the tree where he was. After wandering from one place to another in various disguises, he reached Shoreham, in Sussex, whence he embarked on the 15th of October, and arrived safe at Fescamp, in Normandy. Thence he proceeded to Paris, and finally to Bruges and Brussels, at which he mostly resided until the deatli of Cromwell, in September, 165S. On the 23rd of May, 1660, he embarked from the Hague for London, where he arrived on the 29th of the same month, and was received with the most joyous acclamations. General Monk was the chief instrument of this restoration, and therefore shared in the royal favour. One of the first acts of Charles, on coming to the throne, was to sell Dunkirk, in order to supply his extravagances. In 16U5 he declared war against Holland, which produced a confederacy between that country, France, and Denmark. A Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway, and destroyed several ships. To add to the national calamities, the plague, in 1665, swept away avast number of the inhabitants of London, and, in the following year, a large pro- portion of the city was laid in ruins by tire. In 1667 peace was concluded with the Dutch, and, shortly afterwards, the great Lord Claren- don was sent into exile. About 1670 was formed the famous ministry called the Cabal, from the initial letters of the names of the five persons who composed it. At this time Charles became a pensionary of France, and entered into a new war against Holland, which terminated in 1674. In 1078 the peace of ^ime-'uen was concluded. ".hi Charles Edward The same year was remarkable as being that in which the pretended discovery of a popish plot was made, when, on the evidence of Oates and Bedloe, several eminent persons were put to death. In the parliament of 1679 the famous Habeas Corpics act was passed ; and, in the following year, the contest between the court and popular party gave rise to the famous dis- tinctions of Whig and Tory. A new parliament met at Oxford in 1681, but it was soon dis- solved. From this time Charles assembled no more parliaments, and governed in the most arbitrary manner. The charters of the corpora- tions were called in and altered, so as to make them dependent on the crown. These proceed- ings caused a conspiracy, called the Rye-house plot, to be formed against him, and Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney were executed for their supposed concern in it, 1683.— b. 1630; d. of apoplexy, 16S5.— In his last moments the " merry monarch " received the sacrament from a Catholic priest, although he had professed Protestantism, whilst his libertinism was of the most open and audacious kind. In 1662 he married Catharine, daughter of John IV., king of Portugal, by whom he had no offspring, but, by various mistresses, he left a numerous pro- geny, whose descendants now enjoy in England some of the titular dukedoms which he con- ferred upon them. Ch abt.es Edward, of the Stuart family, called the "Young Pretender," was the grandson of James II. of England. In 1745 he landed in the Highlands of Scotland, and published a manifesto setting forth the claims of his father to the English throne. Being aided by several Highland chiefs and their followers, he made a successful descent upon the Lowlands, and en- tered Edinburgh. Here he caused his father to be proclaimed; on which General Cope hastened towards the capital, but was met and defeated by Charles at Preston Pans. Instead of making a proper use of this victory, by pushing into England, Charles returned to Edinburgh, wast- ing his time in an idle parade of royalty. Being joined, however, by Lords Kilmarnock, Cro- marty, Balmerino, and other discontented chiefs, he marched as far as Manchester; but hearing that the king was about to take the field, he re- turned to Scotland, where he defeated the English forces under Hawley at Falkirk. In the mean time the duke of Cumberland ad- vanced to Edinburgh, and thence to Aberdeen, the Pretender retreating before him. At last the two armies met on the moor of Culloden, near Inverness, when, after an obstinate con- flict, in which the Highlanders displayed signal courage, the royal army was victorious, and the Scotch fled, leaving three thousand of their number dead on the field. Charles, aftet wandering about in different disguises, chiefly among the Hebrides, effected his escape to France, and thus ended all hopes of this unfortunate family ever recovering the crown of their ancestors, b. at Eame, 1720; d. at Florence, 1783. He married the Princess Stolbcrg-Gcdern, who afterwards secretly married Count Alfieri, the poet. His brother, Henry Benedict, Cardinal York, suflered so much from the ravages of the French in Italy, as to excite the compassion of the English, and his case being made known to George III., he settled upon the venerable representative of an illustrious house a considerable pension. (5'ft; Albany, Countess of, and Alfjebj.) OF BIOGRAPHY. Charles Sovereigns of Germany. Charles I. and II. (See Charlemagne and Charles I. of France.) Charles III., or the Gross, emperor of Ger- many, was elected in 881. He held, at the same time, the sovereignty of Franco; but being, from incapacity, deposed, he died of grief and poverty at Constance, in 838.— From that time the crown of France was separated from that of Germany. This king is Charles II. of France. Charles IV. was the son of John of Luxem- bourg, and grandson of the emperor Henry VII. He ascended the throne in 1317. His reign was rendered remarkable by the Golden Bull, published at the diet of Nuremberg in 1356, and which established the Germanic constitu- tion, d. at Prague, in Bohemia, 1378. — He was a learned man, and a great eucourager of letters. Charles V., emperor of Germany and king of Spain, succeeded his grandfather Ferdinand in the kingdom of Spain in 1516, and to the empire on the death of Maximilian, in 1519. Francis I. of France disputed with him the latter title, which gave rise to a violent war, in which Charles was leagued with Henry VIII. of England. After driving the French from Lombardy and taking Geneva, he defeated and made Francis a prisoner at the battle of Pavia, fought in February, 1525. In the following year, Francis was liberated ; and, although the war was renewed, peace was concluded in 1529, when, by the treaty of Cambrai, Francis_gave up all his claims to Italy and Flanders. In 1530 Charles was crowned by the pope, at Bologna, emperor and king of Lombardy. In 1535 he turned his arms against Africa, where he took Goletta, vanquished Barbarossa, entered Tunis, and re-established Muley Hassan on the throne. Soon after this, he recommenced hostilities against France, and ravaged Champagne and Picardy ; but was at length obliged to retire, and peace was restored in 1538. In 1539 the revolt in Ghent led him into Flanders, where, in the following year, he caused to be executed twenty-six of the citizens of the revolted town, and otherwise treated its inhabitants with great severity. In 1541 he attempted the conquest of Algiers ; but his fleet was dispersed in a hurri- cane, and the emperor was obliged to return unsuccessful. He again entered into a league with England against France ; but he was un- fortunate in this war, and was glad to conclude a treaty, at Crespi, in 1515. In the following year the Protestant princes of Germany con- federated against him, and, after some fighting, and a new war with Henry II. of France, he was forced to sign the treaty of Passau, in August, 1552, by which the Protestants obtained the right freely to exercise their religion in the dominions of the confederated princes. In 1555 he resigned the crown to his son Philip, in the presence of a magnificent assemblage of Spanish and Flemish nobles, in the hall of the palace of Brussels. He then retired to the monastery of St. Just, in Estremadura, where it was long supposed he employed the remainder of his days in religious exercises, mechanical pursuits, and gardening. This view of the case seems, however, to have been quite erroneous; for we learn that he was engaged as much with diplo- matic notes and despatches in his monkish apartments as if he had been in his palace at Madrid. The reader is referred to Mr. Motley's 253 Charlemagne " History of the Rise of the Dutch Republic" for further knowledge of this emperor's life. b. at Ghent, 1500; d. 1558, after having hig own funeral obsequies performed in the chapel of the convent in which he had spent the last two or three years of his life. Charles VI., the second son of the emperor Leopold I., was declared king of Spain by his father in 1704, and crowned emperor in 1711. He made peace with France in 1714, and two years afterwards declared war against the Turks, in which his general, Prince Eugene, obtained several victories; among which was that of Peterwardein, and the taking of Belgrade. These successes forced the Turks to make peace, which resulted in the treaty of Passarowitz, in 1718, by which large portions of Servia and Temeswar were ceded to Austria. An alliance was now entered into between the emperor, France, Great Britain, and Holland, against Spain ; the consequence of which was the wrest- ing of Sardinia and Sicily from that power, and the erecting of the former into a monarchy, under the duke of Savoy. He afterwards en- tered into a war against his former allies, and by the peace of Vienna, in 1735, lost Naples and Sicily, b. 1685; d. at Vienna, 1740. — He was the last male of the line of the Austrian Haps- burgs. Charles VII. was elector of Bavaria, and owed his crown to France and Prussia, in 1742. He had, however, a powerful rival in Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary, whose right was supported by Great Britain and Sardinia, and who finally succeeded to the empire. The struggle between these princes is known in history as the " War of the Austrian Succes- sion." b. 1745. Sovereigns o* France. Charles Martel, mayor of the palace under Chilperic II. and Thierry IV., kings of France, was the natural son of Pepin d'Her- istal, duke of Austrasia, of which he was proclaimed duke in 715. As mayor of the palace, he possessed the whole regal power, which he administered with great success, and gained many victories, the principal of which was over the Saracen general Abdalrahman, between Tours and Poictiers, in 732. (See An- dalrahman.) It was in consequence of this victory that he was called Martel, or the hammer. On the death of Thierry, in 73(1, no successor was appointed, and Charles conducted the government as duke of the Franks, d. at Crecy, 741, dividing his kingdom between his sons Carloman and Pepin. — The latter became the first king of France of the Carlovingian race, which name was taken from the founder, Charles Martel. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, sharl'-e- main, king of France, and founder of the Ger- manic empire, or Empire of the West, was the son of Pepin, and grandson of Charles Martel. He succeeded his brother Carloman, king of France, in 771. The greater part of his reign was spent in war. In 771 he conquered the Lombards, and assumed the crown of Lom- bardy. In 778 he made some conquests in Spain, but at Roncesvalles, where Roland, the hero of continental romance, fell, his vanguard was defeated. After defeating the Saxons and putting an end tc the monarchy of the Lom- bards, he was in 800 crowned emperor of the West by Pope Leo III. a. in the castlo of THE DICTIONARY Charles Salzburg, Bavaria, 742; d. at Aix-la-Chape'le, 814, in the cathedral of which he was buried with great pomp Charles was not only a suc- cessful warrior bi>t a wise legislator, and pro- moted learning by nil the means in his power. Chables I., called the Bald, is generally placed by French writers as their first king, although Charlemagne is unquestionably en- titled to that eminence : were this given to him, however, an irreconoileable discrepancy would take place in the numerical priority of the reigns of their sovereigns; consequently, Charles the Bald is called the first. He was crowned in 840, and elected emperor of the West by the people of Borne in 875. It is sup- posed he died of poison, at a place called Rrios, on Mount Cenis, in the Alps, 877. b. at Frankfort-on-t he-Maine. 823. Chables II., or the Fat, was the nephew of the preceding monarch. He was a feeble and treacherous prince, whom his subjects com- pelled to resign the crown in favour of his nephew Arnolph, an illegitimate son of the king of Bavaria and Italy, b. 832; d. at the castle of Indinga, Suabia, 888. Chables III., or the Simple, was crowned at Rheims in 893, and on the death of Louis IV., king of Germany, was elected emperor; but his power was greatly reduced by the usurpation of his nobles, and the encroachments of the Nor- mans. His minister and favourite, Haganon, gave such offence to the nobles, that they re- volted and drove him from his kingdom, which was seized by Robert, duke of France, who was crowned by the archbishop of Rheims in 922. The same year a battle was fought between the two monarchs, in which Robert was slain ; but his son, Hugh the Great, defeated Charles, who fled for refuge to the count of Vermandois. His wife, a sister of Athelstan, king of England, took shelter with her son Louis in that country, and he remained a prisoner during the remain- der of his days. b. 879 ; d. 929. Chables IV., or the Handsome, third son of Philip the Fair, obtained the crown of France in 1322. In his reign a fierce war raged be- tween him and Edward II. of England, who had married Isabella, the sister of Charles. The war resulted in the cession of Guienne to Ed- ward. In 1323 Charles visited Toulouse, when the people of that city tried to revive the an- cient Provencal poetry, and instituted an annual meeting of poets at the floral games, which was continued down to the Revolution. t>. 1328. — With this sovereign the elder branch of the line of Capet terminated, and was succeeded by the younger; viz., that of Valois. Chables V., called the Wise, was the eldest son of John II., and the first prince who bore the title of dauphin. His father was the king who, in 1356, was taken prisoner by Edward the Black Prince at the battle of Poictiers. He succeeded to the crown on the death of his brother in 1301. By his prudence and valour he restored the commerce and agriculture of his country, and gained several advantages over the English. Bertrand Dnguesclin and Oliver de Clisson were amongst his most famous gene- rals, d. 13S0. — The Royal Library of Paris was founded by this prince, and the Bastille was erected by him. Chables VI., the Well-beloved, son of the above, was crowned in 1330. His reign was un- fortunate, owing to the quarrels of his uncles for power during his minority, and the conten- Charles tions of the dukes of Orleans and Burgundy during the later years of his reign, the king's mind being clouded with insanity. Henry V. of England took advantage of these disputes to invade France. His great victory at Agineourt gave him possession of Normandy, and, allying himself with the Burgundian party, he disin- herited the dauphin, married Catharine, the daughter of the French king, and was crowned king of France in 1421. b. 1368 ; d. 1422. (See Henby V. of England.) Chables VII., called the Victorious, was crowned in 1423, and by his activity drove out the invaders from all their possessions except Calais. In effecting this, Jeanue Dare, the Maid of Orleans, may be considered to have greatly assisted, as the tide of fortune turned against the English after her appearance at Orleans. d. at Bourges, 1461. — The Greek language was first taught in the University of Paris during the reign of this prince. Charles was an amo- rous monarch, and the beautiful and talented Agnes Sorel was for many years his mistress. His last days were embittered by the ambition of his son, the cruel Louis XL, and, fearing to be poisoned by him, he starved himself to death. Chables VIII., called the Affable, was the son of Louis XL, and ascended the throne in 14s3, at the age of 13. He conquered Naples after a short war of five months, but lost that kingdom as quickly as he had won it. In 1495, at about ten miles from Piacenza, on his return to France, he obtained a great victory over the Italians, though their army numbered 40,000 strong, against 9000 of his troops, d. 1498. Chables IX. succeeded to the throne in 1560, on the death of his brother, Francis II. He was the son of Henry II., and his mother was Ca- tharine dc Medici, who was, in effect, the reigning sovereign. She, however, abused the power she possessed.and caused greatdiscontent among the king's Protestant subjects, who re- volted from her authority. This resulted in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, one of the blackest deeds on record, and which must for ever stain with infamy the memory of Charles. Shortly after this event, he died, "in his 24th year, smit- ten by the terrors of an evil conscience, b.1550; d. 1574. — The remorse which Charles felt on ac- count of the massacre of St. Bartholomew seems to have been as deep as it was sincere. " That miserable day," says Sully, " was, without ceas- ing, present to his mind ; and he showed by his transports of grief, and by his terrors, how great was his repentance." (See Cathabiss de Medici, Coligsy, &c.) Chables X. was the brother of Louis XVIII., and, after a variety of fortune, caused by the French revolution, was proclaimed king in Sep- tember, 1824. On his accession to the throne, he endeavoured to make himself popular; but there was a strong party against him, who were intimate with his character, and therefore had little faith in the sincerity by which any of his more liberal acts were professedly governed. In 1827 a bill was brought in regarding the " police of the press," which was nothing less than the offensive re-establishment of a censorship over all pamphlets of less than 21 sheets. It was, also, otherwise extremely oppressive upon the editors and proprietors of newspapers. The bill was, after a lively debate, withdrawn; but it left a deep impression on the minds of the Pari- sians, Accordingly, at a grand review, at which OP BIOGRAPHY. Charles the king soon afterwards appeared, he was sa- luted with " Down with the ministers !" " Down with the Jesuits ! " from all classes of the people. The king', however, was rather irritated than disconcerted or dismayed, by this demonstra- tion, and sternly told some of the most clamo- rous, that he " had come there for homaa-e, and not to be taught lessons," and then disbanded the troops. Shortly afterwards, the House was dissolved, and in the January of 1S28, a new ministry formed. Several other ministries en- joyed short reigns up to 1830, when the chambers opened in March, with Prince Polignac at the head of the admimstration. In reply to the speech from the throne, the king was told that his ministry had not the confidence of the re- presentatives of the nation, and the chambers were prorogued first of all, and then a dissolu- tion was proclaimed and new elections made. But in the spring of this year, discontents had increased among the people, and on the 25th July the liberty of the press was. suspended. Several other oppressive measures accompanied this, which were energetically protested against, and which roused the'mass of the people to take up arms. On July 27, the first encounter took place between the people and the soldiery. On the following day, the fighting became general, and the next, Marmont, who was at the head of the Guards, evacuated Paris. On the 30th, the duke of Orleans was proclaimed lieutenant- general of the kingdom, and on the 2nd of August, Charles abdicated in favour of the duke of Bordeaux, and set out for Cherbourg. The claims of the duke, however, were not recog- nised by the chambers, and the duke of Orleans (Louis Philippe) was chosen to reign in his stead. Charles sailed for England, and even- tually took up his abode at Holyrood Palace, in Edinburgh, where, 20 years before, he had sought and found an asylum. He subsequently removed to Prague, in Bohemia; thence to Goritz, in Styria ; and there, in the chateau of Grafenberg, he was attacked by cholera, which carried him off. b. at Versailles, 1757 ; d. at Goritz, 1836. Sovereigns of Spain 1 . Chables I. of Spain, (See Chables V. of Germany.) Chables II., the son of Philip IV., succeeded to the throne in 1065. He married twice, but never had any issue. By his will he constituted Philip of France, duke of Anjou, his heir, which, after his death, led to the contest known in history as the " War of the Spanish Succession." B. 1661 ; n. 1700. Charles III., son of Philip V., on the death of his brother Ferdinand exchanged his king- dom of Sicily for the Spanish dominions. He was a virtuous man, and possessed of considerable administrative abilities. In the war with Eng- land he retook Minorca, but saw his commerce ruined, and all his treasure at Havnnnah fall into the enemy's hands, b. 1716.— He founded l he orders of St. Januarius at Naples, and of the Immaculate Conception. r>. 1788. Sovereigns oe Sweden. Charles I. to IX. These biographies pre- sent nothing remarkable ; and, indeed, in the case of the first six, nothing authentic. Chables X., or Gustavcs, king of Sweden, the son of John Casimir, count palatine of the I! nine, ascended the throne of Sweden on the 2Gfi Charles abdication of Christina in 1651. He turned his arms with success against the Poles, and gained, in 1656, the famous battle of Warsaw, which lasted three days, besides taking a great num- ber of their principal places. The Poles, calling to their assistance Russia, Holland, and Den- mark, obliged the king of Sweden to conclude a peace. War, however, soon broke out again, and after taking Kronenburg, Charles laid siege to Copenhagen ; but, his navy being defeated, he was obliged to return to his country, b. at Upsal, 1622; d. 1660. Charles XI. was the son and successor of the above. On his accession, in 1660, a peace was concluded with Denmark ; but. in 1674, the latter power declared war against him, and he lost several places, which were restored at the peace of Nimeguen, in 1678. He was a good prince, and gave much of his attention to the regulation of the internal affairs of his kingdom. B. 1655; d. 1697. Charles XII., son and successor of the preceding, had, from his childhood, an ambition to imitate the actions of Alexander the Great. He mounted the throne in 1697, being then only fifteen, and, at his coronation, snatched the crown from the hands of the archhishop of Upsal, and placed it on his own head. His youth presented a favourable opportunity to Russia, Denmark, and Poland to enter into an alliance against him, with a view of dismember- ing his kingdom. The young hero, undaunted by this confederacy, attacked each in turn, be- ginning with Denmark, whom he compelled to sue for peace. In 1700 he decisively defeated the Russians at Narva, although "the odds against him were 80,000 to 8000. His next enterprise was against Poland, and, after seve- ral battles, he dethroned Augustus in 1707, and placed Stanislaus upon the throne. Charles was now at the head of 60,000 men, when he formed the resolution of humbling Peter the Great. At first he obtained some signal advantages, and was joined by Mazeppa, the hetman or chief of the Cossacks, in his attempt to over- throw the Czar. After suffering the horrors of a winter campaign in the Ukraine, he laid siege to the town of Pultowa, to the relief of which Peter came at the head of 70,000 men. On the 8th of July, 1709, a general battle was fought, in which Charles was completely defeated, and fled, leaving 9,000 men upon the field. He him- self was wounded in the leg, and had to be car-" ried off in a litter. He sought an asylum in Turkey, where he was entertained by the grand seignior, who provided for him a residence at Bender. Here his conduct was so violent, that he was ordered to leave the Turkish territories, which he refused to do. On this, the grand seignior directed that he should be forced away ; but Charles, with his retinue, formed an en- campment, and resisted the attack of the jani- zaries till superiority of numbevs obliged him to take shelter in his house. Thence he sallied out, sword in hand; but being entangled by his long spurs, fell, and was taken prisoner. He was still treated with respect, and after being kept as a prisoner for ten months, he requested leave to return to his dominions, which was readily granted. On arriving in Sweden he was received with universal joy, but found his kingdom reduced to a state of great wretched- ness. Getting together an army, in 1710 ho invaded Norway, but after penetrating fo Christiana, was"obliged to return to Sweden, THE DICTIONARY Charles He resumed the attack in the winter of 1718, but was killed by a cannon-shot at the siege of Frederickshall, on the 11th of December in the same year. b. at Stockholm, 1682 ; fell, 1718. — Charles was liberal, active, and firm; but rash, obstinate, and cruel. He was never intimidated even in the midst of the greatest dangers. At the battle of Narva he had several horses shot under him, and as he was mounting upon a fresh one, he said, " These people find me exer- cise." When he was besieged at Stralsund, a bomb fell into the house while he was dictating to his secretary, who immediately dropped the pen in a fright. "What is the matter?" said Charles. '* Oh, the bomb '." answered the secre- tary. " The bomb !" said the king, " what have we to do with the bomb ? go on." Charles XIV., whoso real name was Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, enlisted in a regi- ment of the French royal marines in 1780, and served two years in Corsica. In 1790, when the revolution began, lie was at Marseilles, and when the war broke out with Austria and Prus- sia, he was despatched to the Rhine, and, under- General Custine, soon distinguished himself. He became chief of brigade, and afterwards feneral of division, under Kleber and Jourdan. n 1797, with 20,000 men, he reinforced General Bonaparte in Italy, and took a chief part in the passage of the Tagliamento. Soon after this he was chosen by Bonaparte to present to the Directory the standards which had been taken from the Austrians, and, on his return to head- quarters, advised Bonaparte to sign the treaty of Campo-Formio. Being offended at the con- duct of Napoleon, who, when he left Italy, took fiom him one half of his troops, he resigned his command, and was appointed ambassador at Vienna, where he did not hoist the tricoloured flag above his hotel until ordered by the Direc- tory. When this was done, it created a riot, soon after which Bernadotte left for Paris, where, in 1798, he married Fugenie Clary, the younger sister of the wife of Joseph Bonaparte. In the following year he was appointed minister-at- war; but on the return of Bonaparte from Egypt, he was without employment. When Napoleon became first consul, Bernadotte had command of the Army in the West ; and when the emperor- ship was assumed, he was made a marshal, and stationed at Hanover, with the command of the army. Here he repressed irregularities, pro- vided for his soldiers without plundering the people, and laid the foundation of that high character for honour, humanity, and justice, which, at a future day, materially influenced his election to the throne of Sweden. In 1805 he left Hanover to join Napoleon against Austria, and at the battle of Austerlitz broke the centre of the Russians. In the following year he was created Prince of Pontecorvo, which Napoleon designated as the immediate fief of the imperial crown. In the war against Prussia he fought with his usual success, and in 180S was ordered against Denmark. On the 5th and Oth of July, 1809, he fought against the Austrians at Wag- ram, after which he demanded permission to retire, and obtained it. He had had high words with Napoleon, who, at that battle, had de- prived him of his reserve division, and not treated him well. He returned to Paris, but was soon again employed, and notwithstanding several quarrels between him and the emperor, neither of whom seems ever to have quite un- derstood the other, he, in 1810, accepted the 2oU Charles governor-generalship of the Roman states. By this time, Gustavus IV., king of Sweden, had, on account of incapacity, been forced to abdicate his crown, and he and his descendants were, by the Swedish States, declared excluded from the throne for ever. The uncle of this sove- reign assumed the reins of government as Charles XIII., but was childless ; and the States chose Augustus of Holstein-Augusten- burg to be heir to the tlirone. This prince, how- ever, died in 1810, and Charles XIII. proposed Bernadotte to the Swedish diet, as a proper person to be appointed prince-royal of Sweden. The choice was unanimously approved, on con- dition of his accepting the Communion of Augs- burg, which he did, and, on the 2nd November, 1810, entered Stockholm amid the acclamations of the people and the salutes of artillery. On the 5th he addressed the king and the assembled States, and concluded with this excellent pas- sage : " Brought up in the camp, I have been familiar with war, and am acquainted witli all its calamities. No conquest can console a country for the blood of its children, shed in foreign wars. It is not the physical dimensions of a country that constitute its strength. This lies rather in the wisdom of its laws, the great- ness of its commerce, the industry of its people, and the national spirit by which it is ani- mated. Sweden has lately suffered greatly ; but the honour of her name is unsullied. She is still a land sufficient to supply our wants, and we have iron to defend ourselves." In defence of the rights of th« country of his adoption, he was soon called upor. to take up arms against Napoleon, and from 1812 to the fall of that great man, he was actively engaged in the prin- cipal wars and events which occupied the atten- tion of continental Europe. In 1814 Sweden and Norway were united under Charles XIII., and Bernadotte approved as the prince-royal. In 1818 Charles XIII. died, when liernadotle was proclaimed king of Norway and Sweden, under the title of Charles XIV. He was, in the May of that year, crowned at Stockholm by the archbishop of Upsal, and subsequently at Dron- theim by the bishop of Aggerhuys. Having now attained the summit of human ambition, ho directed his attention to the development of the resources of his adopted country, and after a long reign of unusual prosperity, he passed quietly from this world, after playing no ordi- nary part in it, having completed his eightieth year. b. at Pau, in the Beam, 1701; d. 1811, and was succeeded by his son, Oscar I. Sovereigns of Naples and the Two Sicilies. Charles I., count of Aragon, and king of Naples, was the son of Louis VI 11. of France. He married the daughter of the count of Pro- vence, and thereby inherited that country. Ho accompanied his brother Louis to Egypt in 1248, and both were made prisoners at Damietta at the same time. On his return, he defeated Manfred, the usurper of the Sicilian crown, assumed the title of king of Naples, and put to death Conradin, duke of Suabia, and the duke of Austria, whom he had taken prisoners. After this he laid the prince of Tunis under tribute, and suppressed the Ghibclines. In 1276 the title of king of Jerusalem was conferred on him, after which he meditated an expedition against Constantinople. His arbitrary conduct to tho Sicilians caused them to conspire against him, OF BIOGRAPHY. Charles beaded by Giovanni do Procida. On Easter Monday, 1282, all the French who could be found in Palermo were massacred at the hour of Vespers ; and this event is known in history as the " Sicilian Vespers." Sicily was thus lost to Charles, its inhabitants choosing Peter 111. of Aragon for their king. b. 1220; d. 1285. Charles 1 1., called the Lame, the son and successor of the above, was, at the time of his father's death, a prisoner in the hands of the Sicilians, who would have put him to death but for the intercession of Constantia, queen of Peter of Aragon. He recovered his liberty in 1288, on condition of renouncing his claim to the Sicilian crown ; but being absolved from this condition by the pope, he made several un- successful attempts to gain possession of Sicily. d. 1309. Charles III., of Durazzo, was the great- grandson of the preceding, and, by his marriage with Margaret, niece of Joan, queen of Naples, obtained that kingdom from the pope, on the excommunication of Joan in 1380. He put Joan to death, and afterwards quarrelled with the pope, who excommunicated him in his turn. Charles next claimed the crown of Hungary, but fell in attempting to conquer it. v. 1386. Dukes of Savoy and Kings of Sardinia. Charles I., duke of Savoy, succeeded his brother, Philibert I., in 1482, being then only 1 4 years of age. He died at the age of 21, having achieved nothing remarkable, although the sur- name of the " Warrior" was given to him. Ho was educated at the court of Louis XI. of France, b. 146? ; d. 1489. Charles II., duke of Savoy, son of the above, was only 9 months old at the death of his father, and died at the age of 8 years. Chirles 111., duke of Savoy, called the Good, succeeded Philibert II., his brother, in \'i6i, He had a long but unfortunate reign, lie was of a versatile disposition, wavering be- tween Francis I., his nephew, and Charles V., his brother-in-law, and was consequently mis- trusted and punished by both. d. of chagrin, at Vercelli, 1553. Charles Emmanuel I., duke of Savoy, called the Great, governed from 1580 to 1630. Taking advantage of the troubles of France, he posses- sed himself of the marquisate of Saluzzo, and caused himself to be acknowledged by the " leaguers " count of Provence, in 1590. Iiut Henry IV. subsequently succeeded in taking Savoy and a portion of Piedmont. Of a bound- less ambition, the duke laid claims to the empire, after the death of Matthias, then to the king- dom of Cyprus and the principality of Maeedon. Hediedofgrief.fromnotbeing abletr iceomplish his projects, in 1630. Charles Emmanuel II., duke of Savoy, son tf Victor Amadous I., succeeded his brother Francis in 1638, under the regency of his mo- ther, Christina of France, daughter of Henry 1 V. of France. In his reign commerce and the arts flourished, b. 1634 ; d. 1675. Charles Emmanuel III., 2nd king of Sar- dinia of the house of Savoy, was the son of Victor Amadens II., and, in 1730, mounted the throne, on the abdication of his father. In 1733 he united himself to France and Spain, who desired to weaken Austria; and at the head of the allied forces conquered the Milanese, defeated the imperialists at Guastalla, and oo taiued, as a reward, Novara and some tiefs ol 267 Charles Albert the empire. In 1742, the promise of an addition to his dominions determined him to take part with the queen of Hungary against France and Spain. He possessed himself of Modena and Mirandola, after evincing great military abili- ties. He lost, however, in 1744, at Coni, 5000 men, and subsequently busied himself with the internal affairs of his kingdom, b. 1701 ; d. 1773. Charles Emmanuel IV., 4th king of Sardinia, was the son of Victor Amadeus III., and suc- ceeded his father in 1796, just as Fiance had seized the greater portion of his dominions. Mixed up in the misfortunes of the Bourbons, with whom he was connected, Charles Em- manuel vainly exerted himself to suppress the revolutionary elements in his kingdom. He was forced to cede to the French republic his continental possessions, and, in 1798, retired to the island of Sardinia. In 1802 he abdicated in favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel, and re- paired to Rome, where he died, 1819. Charles Felix, became king of Sardinia in 1821, on the forced abdication of his brother, Victor Emmanuel. He suppressed rebellion, introduced order into his kingdom, and com- piled a military code. b. 1765; d. 1831, without children, leaving the crown to Charles Albert, the prince of Carignano. Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, was the son of Charles Emmanuel, prince of Carignano. Educated in France, he early imbibed liberal ideas and a desire for the independence of Italy. In 1821 he e mmanded the Sardinian artillery, on the hreaking out of the insurrection in that year. Victor Emmanuel, when he abdicated, nominated him regent till the arrival of the new king, Charles Felix (see above). An Austrian intervention, however, obliged him to retire, and, exiled in Tuscany, he continued there for some time, in disgrace, a victim to the resent- ment of the Carbonari, who thought he had betrayed them. In 1829, however, he was appointed viceroy of Sardinia, and in 1831 was called to the throne, in default of heirs to Charles Felix. He now ardently devoted him- self to administrative reform in the various departments of law, commerce, and the army. In 1848, the year which witnessed revolutions in nearly all the kingdoms of Europe, he gave bis subjects a liberal constitution, aMd openly embraced the cause of Italian independence and unity. Supporting by force of arms the in- surgents of Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Placentia, and Modena, he at first obtained various bril- liant successes, defeating the Austrians at Pastrengo, Goito, Rivoli, and Somma Cam- pagna. He succeeded also in taking Pizzi- ghettone and Peschiera ; but, badly seconded by the Lombard troops, he was, in his turn, beaten at San Donato, by the Austrian Radetzky, and forced to quit Milan precipitately. He was now compelled to solicit an armistice, the terms of which lost him all his former advantages. Yielding to the remonstrances of the ultra party, he imprudently recommenced the war at th« expiration of the armistice; but lie now pxperi enced nothing but reverses. Losing, in spitf of great personal bravery the decisive battle d Novara, on the 23rd of Mai eh, 1849, he abdicated on the same day in favour of his son, Victoi Emmanuel II. d. a few months after, at Oporto, Portugal. This prince was singularly religious, and it was said of him, " He fought like a hero, lived like a monk, and died like i martyr." He THE DICTIONARY Charles doubtless meant well for Italy, but was not equal to the great task of establishing her unity and independence. Various Rulers. Chables, duke of Burgundy, called the Bold, wis the son of Philip the Good, whom he suc- ceeded in 1467. He early displayed great courage, verging on rashness, and was con- stantly at war with Louis XL, king of France. The latter instigated Charles's subjects (the inhabitants of Liege and Ghent) to revolt against him ; but thev were defeated, and cruelly punished by the duke. Learning that Louis XL was again tampering with his people, he seized him, and forced him to assist in suppressing the insurrection. Charles then took Guelder- land and Zutphen, and, desirous of increasing his dominions, invaded Switzerland, where be iommitted the most inhuman outrages. The Swiss, however, collected their forces, and the duke was first defeated at Granson, and after- wards at Morat, 1476, where his army was com- pletely destroyed. In 1477, whilbt liesieginy Nancy, in the territory of the duke of Loraine, he was killed, b. 1433. (See Louis XI.) Charles left one daughter, Marie, who inherited his estates, and added a portion of them to Austria by her marriage with Maximilian, son of the emperor Frederick III. Chables I., duke of Lorraine, was brought np at the French court under Charles V., and reigned from 1391 to 1431. He sustained the rights of his father-in-law, Robert, to the em- pire, against Weneeslas, fought in the French army at Agincourt, and in 1417 was made con- stable of France. By some he is called Charles 1 L d. 1431. Chables II., called the Great, duke of Lor- raine, was the son of Duke Francis I. and Christina of Denmark, niece of Charles V. Being only three years old at the death of his father, a joint regency was established under Christina and the bishop of Verdun. This prince was the benefactor of his people, and possessed great administrative abilities. He founded the university of Pont-a-Mousson, and the towns of Clermont, Luneville, and Stenay. He married Claude, daughter of Henry 1 1, of France, and in 15S9 aspired to that throne, b. 1543. Charles III., duke of Lorraine, succeeded to the dukedom in 1624, and unwisely incurring the hostility of France, was despoiled of big estates by Louis XI II. He, however, recovered a portion of them by the treaty of St. Ger- mains in 1041, and that of the Pyrenees in 1658. Having violated these treaties, he was a^aln dispossessed of his provinces. He then joined the army of the emperor, and gained a victory at Treves, where he took prisoner Marshal de Crequi. b. 1603 ; d. 1675.— By a will, signed in 1660, he constituted Louis XIV. of France his heir. Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, nephew of the above, succeeded to his rights in spite of the opposition of Louis XIV. Not being able, however, to retain possession of the dukedom, he look service in Austria. Obtaining the friendship of the emperor Leopold, he received the band of the archduchess Marie-Eleonora, the emperor's sister. He became one of the first generals of the empire, and gained, amongst many other victories, that of Jlohatz over the Turks, i-< M'"T n.nt Vienna. 1613; D. 1690. Charles Chables 1., king of Navarre. (See Chablbs IV. of France. Chables II., king of Navarre, called the Bad, was crowned in 1349. Descended from Philip the Bold, king of France, he possessed the right to the throne in case of the extinction of the Valois line. He constantly fomented troubles in the kingdom, with the view of arriving at the crown. Allying himself, with this aim, to Edward III. of England, he urged his pre- tensions to various provinces, raised Paris in insurrection against the dauphin (Charles V.), endeavouring even to poison him, and be- came tranquil at last only when he saw that prince firmly seated in the enjoyment of power. Then turning to Spain, he became en- tangled in the contest between Peter the Cruel and Henry of Transtamara, who disputed each other's right to Castile. Betraying, in its turn, each party, he was at length compelled to give up a portion of his dominions, in 1379. Adver- sity at last instructed him, and he passed his latter years in peace, engaged in governing his country, b. 1332; d. 1387.— He met with a re- markable desith. Being ill of a leprosy, the phy- sicians cousecl him to be wrapped in sheets dipped in spirit- of wine and covered with brim- stone. Tiie e were sewed about his body, and his page, endeavouring to loosen the bandage, accidentally set fire to "it with a taper which he held in his hand. Ti eking was so dreadfully scorched, that he diedi i great agony, 1387. Charles III., king o" Navarre, called the Noble, was t he son of t he abo -e, and succeeded him in 1387. Desiring to li\ . U. peace with all his neighbours, he gave up Hie pretensions of his father to several provinces of France, and received, in return, considerable sums of money. d. 1425, after a long and tranquil reign. The kingdom of Navarre, at the death of this mon- arch, passed into the hands of John of Aragon, who had married Blanche, the daughter and heiress of Charles the Noble. At her death, in 1441, her son Charles should have succeeded her as Charles IV. of Navarre ; but his father ex- cluded him from the succession, which passed, in 1479, to his sister Eleanor de Foix. Charlotte, princess of Wales. {See Leo- told, king of the Belgians.) Chasles, Michel, sAaJ, a distinguished French geometrician, who, by his power of generaliza- tion, greatly simplified and extended the most important theories. In 1841 he was appointed professor of astronomy and of applied mechanics in the Polytechnic School, and in 1846 was called to the chair of higher geometry, which was in- stituted in the faculty of Sciences. In 1851 he was elected a member of theAcademy of Sciences. The best of his numerous works is his "Traits de Geometrie Supcrieure." b. at Epernon, 1793. Chasles, Victor Euphemion-Philarete, a dis- tinguished French litiej-ateitr, whose father, from being a professor of rhetoric became a revolutionist, and subsequently a general in the French army. In his loth year, Victor was apprenticed to a printer, and at the time of the Restoration, was imprisoned for two months, on account of his master being suspected as a plotter against the security of the state. Chasles was set at liberty through the intercession of Chateaubriand, when he came to England, where for seven years he directed the printing department of the establishment of Mr. Valpy. Soon after this, he returned to Paris, and OF BIOGKAPHT. Chasse entered upon a literary career marked by con- siderable originality and success. His fecundity in authorship has been so great, that it would occupy a considerable space even to enumerate his works. Besides writing for the " Revue des Deux Mondes," the " Revue de Paris," and other publications, he has composed a number of volumes, embracing a wide range of subjects, under thetitle of " Studies," and is the author of several works on England and its literature. He is also a professor of languages and European literature in the modern College of France, and a knight of the Legion of Honour, b. at Main- villiers, near Chartres, 1799; d. 1873. Chassis, David Henry, baron, thaa'-sai, a brave soldier, who, in 1775, entered the Dutch army as a cadet, but subsequently joined the French, and in 1793 became a lieutenant- colonel. In the war with Prussia, in 1806, he greatly distinguished himself, and in the Pe- ninsula received the nickname of "General Bayonet," from the frequency with which he caused that weapon to be used in battle. In 1811, Napoleon I. made him a baron of the em- pire, and he continued to fight throughout the campaigns of 1813 and 1814. After the peace, he was appointed governor of Antwerp, and in 1832 defended that city against 75,000 French soldiers, with a .garrison of 6000. b. at Thiel, in Guelderland, 1765; d. 1849. Chasseloup-Laubat, Francois, marquis de, iha'-sai-loup-lo-ba' ', an eminent French officer of engineers, who fought with credit in the wars of the republic and first empire. Napoleon made him general of division in 1799, and grand officer of the Legion of Honour in 1811. At the Restoration, he gave in his adherence to the Bourbons, and was made a peer of France, b. 1754; D. 1833. Chastelabd, Pierre de, sha-tai'-lar, a French gentleman of noble birth, believed to be de- scended from the chevalier Bayard, was a little of a poet, and followed Mary Queen of Scots from France after the death of Francis II. Chastclard became madly enamoured of the queen, believed his passion returned, and con- cealed himself in her majesty's chamber, where he was discovered, tried on a charge of treason, and executed for the crime, in 1563. b. 1510. CHASTELEB.Jean Gabriel Joseph Albert.mar- quis de, sha-te'-lai, a distinguished officer in the service of Austria, who was prominent at the assault on Belgrade, in 17G9, and was actively engaged against the armies of France for several years. In 1805, he defeated Marmont at Gratz; in 1803, he raised the Tyrolese, and had nearly mastered the province, when Lefevre totally routed his army. He fought against Murat in 1815, and was made governor of Venice, where he died in 1825. b. at Mons, 1763. Chateaubriand, Francois Auguste, viscount ile, sha'-to-bre-ong, a distinguished French writer, who was educated for the church, but who subsequently entered the army. After passing through some adventures, he, in 1791, went to America in search of the North-west passage, and had an interview with Washington In the United States. His wanderings through the primeval woods of that country have been described in his " RimeY' and his " Atala." On his return to Europe, he joined the army of Conde\ and, in 1793, was an exile in London, re- duced to a state of great misery. He remained in England seven years, suffering severe hard- ships, maintaining himself principally by tcach- 25S> Chatter-ton ing the French and Latin languages, and trans- lating works for the booksellers. In 1797 his " Essay on Revolutions" appeared in London, and in the spring of 1300 he was enabled to re- turn to Paris. He now published his " Atala" in the columns of the "Mercure" newspaper; this was followed by his "Genius of Chris- tianity," which was so fortunate as to attract the attention of the First Consul. The favours of Napoleon, however, were in a measure rejected ; and although Chateaubriand continued to write, he produced little worth noting until the fall of the empire, when he published his celebrated pamphlet "De Bonaparte et des Bourbons," which Louis XVIII. declared was equal to an army of 100,000 men in paving the way for thi return of his dynasty to the throne. He now became a favourite at the Tuileries. After serving in several ministerial capacities, he re- signed titles and all he possessed, with the fall of the monarchy of 1830, and sank into de- spondency, which deepened with his years, b. at St. Malo, 1768 ; d. 1848. Chatham, Earl of, chat'-am. (See Pitt.) Chatei,, Francois du, sha-tel, the favourite pupil of David Teniers, whom he so closely and successfully imitated, that many of the pupil's works have been ascribed to the master. He painted mostly common-place scenes of ordinary life ; but sometimes aimed at higher objects, and not wi'hout success, as his great picture, the " States of Brabant and Flanders Swearing Allegiance to Philip IV. of Spain, in 1666," in which there are upwards of 1000 figures, yet no confusion or inaccuracy, sufficiently proves. ; b. at Brussels, 1626 ; d. 1679. Chatterton, Thomas, chat'-ter-ton, the boy- I poet, an extraordinary youth, whose father was I the master of a charity-school, and the sexton at Redcliffe church, Bristol. Thomas was edu- cated in writing and arithmetic at Colston's charity-school; after which he was articled to an attorney, with whom he continued till he was 17. Soon after this he went to London, where, for some time, he earned a scanty sub- sistence by writing for periodical publications ; but, being reduced to great distress, poisoned himself at his lodgings in Brook-street, Hol- born, and was buried in the parish of St. An- drew, Hoi born. b. at Bristol, 1752; poisoned himself, 1770. — In 1778 were published, in one volume 8vo, "Miscellanies in Prose and Verse, by Thomas Chatterton." What, however, has given celebrity to this youth, is the real or pre- tended discovery of poems, said to have been written in the 15th century, by Thomas Rowley, a priest of Bristol, and found in Redcliffe church, of which Chatterton's ancestors had been sex- tons nearly a century and a half. His father certainly removed a number of parchments from an old chest in that church, most of which were used in covering books. Young Chatter- ton, from the perusal of some of these, is sup- posed to have formed the design of a forgery. In 1768 appeared, in a Bristol newspaper, an article entitled "A Description of the Friars first passing over the Old Bridge; taken from an Ancient Manuscript." This attracted the notice of a Mr. Barrett, who was engaged in writing the history of Bristol (fee Barrett); and lie obtained from Chatterton several pieces in prose and verse, purporting to be written by Thomas Rowley and Canynge, the founder of Redelill'e church. The year following, he began a correspondence with Horace Walpole, well 3 2 THE DICTIONARY Chaucer known as an antiquary and connoisseur. This gentleman sent the papers to his friends Mason and Gray, who pronounced them forgeries. Chatterton had formed great expectations from the patronage of Mr. Walpole; but finding him- self neglected, he wrote him a letter, which Walpole called "impertinent," and their inter- course ended. Eowley's poems were first col- lected by Mr.Tyrwhitt, in one vol. 8vo, and after- wards in one vol. 4to, by Dean Milles; but the former gentleman gave up the question of their genuineness. A sharp controversy was carried jn for some time on the point, between Mr. Warton, Mr. Bryant, Mr. Mathias, and others; but the poems are now generally considered as Chatterton's own productions. Chaucer, Geoffrey, chaiv'-ser, the father of English poetry, was the son of a wealthy mer- chant, who gave him a liberal education. He was for some time at Cambridge, and afterwards studied at Oxford. Afterwards he improved himself by visiting foreign countries, and on his return, studied law in the Inner Temple, but soon quitted the law for the court, becoming a yeoman to Edward III., who granted him a pension. In 1370 he was appointed his majesty's shieldbearer. In 1373, being sent to Genoa to hire ships for the king's service, he obtained, when he came back to England, a grant of a pitcher of wine a day, to be delivered by the butler of England, besides the comptroller- ship of the customs of London for wool, &c. Prior to this, he had had a pension of twenty marks a year conferred on him. In the suc- ceeding reign, having embraced the doctrines of Wiokliffe, he was obliged to go abroad to pvoid the resentment of the clergy. He, how- ever, returned privately, but was taken and committed to prison, whence he was not re- leased till he had made his submission, and dis- covered the names of those who had associated with him in embracing the new doctrines. For having done this, he was afterwards tilled with remorse, and, in his " Testament of Love," de- plores the disgrace into which his conduct had brought him. In 1386 he was elected knight of the shire for Kent, and, in 13S9, was made clerk of the works at Westminster, Windsor.and other palaces. He was now easy in his circumstances, and composed those immortal works which, from the knowledge they display of human nature, seem to have been produced for all time. n. in London, 1323; d. 140u, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. — Chaucer mar- ried Philippa de Houet, a lady of good family, '»y which means he became allied to John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, who was his great patron while he was himself in power. The poet left two sons, one of whom was speaker of the House of Commons and ambassador to France. Of Chaucer's poems, his " Canterbury Tales" are entitled to the first rank, although many of his other pieces possess great beauties and merit. There have been several editions of hia works, and some of his poems have been modernized by Drydcn. Pope, and others. Chaudet, Antoine Denis, «ha'-dai, an emi- nent French sculptor, many of whose works are in the public institutions of Paris; but one of his admired performances, a bronze statue of Napoleon I., of colossal size, and in Roman soEtume, which was erected on the column in the Place Vendome, was melted down in the reign of Louis XVI II. He was likewise a man of some learning, ana a good painter, ids wife 260 Chenier being also possessed of some talent as a genr* and portrait painter, b. 1763; d. 1810. Ciiazzki.i.es, John Matthew, chaz-zel', a French mathematician, who assisted Cassini in drawing the meridian line, and in 1685 was made hydrographical professor at Marseilles. He subsequently paid a visit to Egypt, and measured the pyramids, when he discovered that the four sides of the largest answer to the cardinal points of the compass. He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1695. b. at Lyons, 1657 ; d. 1710. Cheevbb, George Barrell, D.D., ehee-ver, a dis- tinguished American divine and literary man, was born at Hallowell, Maine, in 1807, and edu- cated at Bowdoin college, in his native State, and at Andover theological seminary, Massa- chusetts. He was first settled as a minister at Salem, Mass., and espoused Congregationalism and total abstinence principles, his advocacy of the latter having got him into trouble with a distiller whom he had satirized under a ficti- tious name. He visited Europe in 1836, re- moved to New York in 1839, and made himself conspicuous by his determined opposition to slavery. He published a great variety of works, which became exceedingly popular with the evangelical section of religionists. Several of his works are written in the style of allegories. Cheke, Sir John, cheek, a learned English- man, who, in 1541, became tutor to Prince Edward (afterwards Edward VI.), at whose ace ssion he was rewarded with a pension and a grant of lands. He was also made provost of King's College, Cambridge, and received the honour of knighthood. Subse- quently he was much persecuted on account of his Protestant principles, and died of grief in 1557. b. at Cambridge, 1514. — He wrote a number of learned works, and laboured to reform the mode of pronouncing Greek. Chelmsford, Lord. (. 1872. Chestkbpield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, fourth earl of, chea'-ter-feeld, was, in his day, considered a man of the finest wit, and a model of bon ion. In early life, lie was treated almost with indifference by his father, and at the age of eighteen entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he pursued his classical studies with great assiduity. In 1714 he left the university, and set out upon the grand tour of Europe, during which ho contracted many of the then fashionable continental vices, which may have had the eilect of afterwards inducing that loose tone of morality which pervades his celebrated " Letters to his Son." On his return he was made a gentleman of the bedchamber to the prince of Wales, afterwards George II., and was returned member of parliament for St. Ger- mains, in Cornwall. In 1726, the death of his father removed him to the House of Lords, where he was considered one of the most effec- tive debaters of bis time. On the accession of George II., whom he had long faithfully served, he expected to reap considerable advantages ; but in this he was disappointed, as that sove- reign allowed himself to be swayed by the counsels of his queen rather than by the advice of his mistress, afterwards Lady Suffolk, to whom Chesterfield, as an expectant, had de- voted much of his attention. In 1728 he be- came ambassador to Holland, and being suc- cessful in the object of his missions, George If. made him high steward of the household and a knight of the Garter. In 1732 be was re- called from Holland, and took an active part against Sir Robert Walpolc, who was then at tlie head of the affairs of the country. On the resignation of that minister, in 1742, Chester- field was excluded from the new government, as the king held him in the light of a personal enemy ; but he received the appointment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In this post he THE DICTIONARY Chettle greatly distinguished himself, reducing Ireland to a state of tranquillity, such as it had not hitherto enjoyed. His meritorious services had now greatly allayed the prejudices of the king, who recalled him in 1746, and had him appointed secretary of state. His health, never very strong, was now on the decline, and in 1748, orach to the regret of the king, he resigned his office. On this occasion, his sovereign offe*ed to confer the dignity of a duke upon him, but the earl declined the honour, b. in London, 1694; d. 1773. — Chesterfield still enjoys a certain literary reputation, as much, perhaps, from his being the associate of literary men, as from any productions of his own. He was, at different times of his life, the friend of Addison, Arbuth- not, Pope, Swift, Gay, Voltaire, and Mon- tesquieu. His conduct towards Samuel John- eon is as well known as the remarkable manner in which the great doctor resented it. The villa of Pope, at Twickenham, was the place where he and those others who had hoped to rise through Mrs. Howard, the favourite of George II., were wont to assemble, for the pur- pose of regaling her with the incense of their (lattery. (See Johnson, Dr.) Chettle, Henry, cket-el, an English drama- tist, contemporary with Shakspeare, who is said to have written, or assisted in writing, forty different plays ; but of which only four have been printed. He appears to have been originally a compositor. The dates of his birth and death, and, indeed, almost every incident of his fife, are unknown. Chkvalieh, Michael, the~ral'-e-ai, a distin- guished French political economist. In 1833 he published a work on the " Public Koads, Canals, and Railways of France," which has frequently been reprinted. In 1843 he put forth his "Letters on the Organization of Labour," which was designed to refute the revolutionary socialist doctrines then in vogue. The roup- d'etat of December 2, 1851, placed him again in possession of all the appointments which he had held previous to the advent of the Republic. Besides the above works, he was the author of many more, social and political ; among which may be mentioned the " Gold Question," trans- lated into English by Richard Cobden, and pub- lished in 1859. b. at Limoges, 1806. — He is a warm supporter of free trade, and was instrumental in concluding the commercial treaty between France and England negotiated by Mr. Cobden in 1860. Chevreul, Michael Eugene, chev'-re(r)l, a distinguished French chemist, who studied in Paris under Vauquclin. He became director of the dye-works, and professor of special chemis- try at the Gobelins, where he innovated upon the laws of associated colours, and drew up a paper for the use of artists, dyers, and manu- facturers. He rose to the highest honours in his profession, and did much to advance the state of chemical science, b. at An- gers, 1786. — He wrote several works of value, and his "Laws of Contrast of Colour" has been translated into English. Chichele, or CmcniEY, Henry, chick'-le, archbishop of Canterbury, was, in 1407, sent ambassador to the pope, who gave him the bishopric of St. David's. In 1414 he was raised to the see of Canterbury, and in that high posi- tion obtained many privileges for the clergy, re- sisting at the same time papal encroachments. a, at Higham Ferrers, 13(52 • d. 1443.— He was 262 Chisholm a liberal encouragcr of learning, and was the founder of All Souls College, Oxford. He also built, at his own expense, the western tower of Canterbury Cathedral. Child, Sir Josiah, Bart., child, an emi- nent English merchant and writer on political economy and commerce, which he was among the first to treat in a philosophical manner. Ho was born, 1630, made abaronet, 1678, and died, 1699. He wrote many works on the subjects mentioned, the principal of which are, " Obser- vations concerning Trade and the Interest of Money," 1668; a "Treatise proving that the Abatement of Interest on Money is the Effect and not Ihe Cause of the Riches of a Nation ; " "A New Discourse of Trade," &c. Childebert, shil'-dai-bair, the name of three kings of France, who reigned over that king- dom at various periods ; I., about 511 ; II., from 575 to 596; III., from 695 to 711. Childbric, thil'-dai-rik, the name of three kings of France, who severally ascended the throne in 458, 670, and 742. Chillingworth, William, chU'-linq-tcurth, an eminent English divine, who went to Douay for the purpose of embracing the Catholic faith; but the letters of Bishop Laud, his godfather, caused him, in 1631, to return to England and the Protestant communion. The Romanists, after this, attacked him with great animosity, and he replied in a work entitled, " The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way of Salvation;" printed in 1635. In the same year he was made chancellor of Salisbury, and afterwards preben- dnrvof Brixworth, in Northamptonshire. In the civil war he adhered to the royal cause, and, in 1043, was at the siege of Gloucester as an engi- neer. In the same year he was taken prisoner in Arundel Castle, Sussex, and conveyed to Chi- chester, where lie died at the bishop's palace in 1641. b. at Oxford, 1602. Chilo, ii'-/o, a Spartan philosopher, and one of the seven wise men of Greece. He died through excess of joy, in the arms of his son, who had obtained a victory at Olympia, 597 B.C. Chilperic, I. and II., thil'-pai-rii, two kings of France, one of whom reigned from 561 to 581, and the other from 715 fo 720. Ching, or Xi-Hoam-Ti, eking, an emperor of China, who united the various states into one em- pire. He repulsed the attacks of the Tartars or Mongols, and built the " great wall," to divide- China from Mongolia. Reigned 240 B.C. Chisholm, Caroline, chix'-kome, an English lady eminent for active humanity, who, in her twentieth year, was married to Captain A lexander Chisholm, of the Indian army. Soon after their marriage, they proceeded to Madras, where she greatly exerted herself in behalf of the daugh- ters and orphans of the British soldiers. The state of Captain Chisholm's health was such as to require a change of climate, when, in 1838, they removed to Australia, and taking up their abode in Sydney, Mrs. Chisholm was struck with the destitution of many emigrant girls, whom she took under her protection, and found for them a place of shelter. Her benevolent exer- tions were, to some extent, assisted by the colo- nial government, and by 1845 she had suc- ceeded in obtaining situations and employment for 11,000 females and men in the colony. Many of these she had assisted with the loan of 6mail sums to the extent of £1200, of which she only lost £16 ; a fact which speaks volumes in favour OF BIOGRAPHY. Chcerilus Christiern of their honesty. In 1846 Captain Chisholm and she came to England, and took up their abode in London, where she actively exerted nersclf in behalf of the poorer classes of intend- ing emigrants. She established a "Family Colonization Society," by which passage-money was collected by weekly instalments, and lec- tured throughout the country in favour of emigra- tion. The result of this was an impulse to the emigration cause, and the improvement of ac- commodation on board emigrant vessels, suc- cessive ships being despatched with females properly provided for. In 1854 she herself, with her family, proceeded again to Australia, where, she stated, she intended to pass the re- mainder of her life. b. in the parish of Woot- ton, Northamptonshire, about 1810; d. 1877. Chcekilus, keer'-i-lus, a tragic poet of Athens, who wrote 150 tragedies, of which thirteen ob- tained the prize. — An historian of Samos. Choiseul, Ktienne Francois, Due de, thirot- zu(r)l, the principal minister of state during the greater portion of the reign of Louis XV. of France. His administration, however, was very unfortunate, liy the Peace of Paris, in 1763, Canada was ceded to England, and hi the Seven Years' War, against Frederick of Prus- sia, France was unsuccessful, in conjunction with Austria, her ally. In 1760 he expelled the Jesuits from France, and is said to have en- couraged the British colonies of North America, during the first symptoms of their rebellion against the mother country. He was partial to the arts and literature, bi'injr the friend of Vo!- tiuie and other men of learning, u. 1719; d. in Paris, 1785. Cbobon, Alexandre Ktienne, ko'-raic>n/,_a. dis- tinguished French writer on the principles of musical composition, was born at Caen, in 1772, and died at Paris in 1S34. — His principal works arc " Principcs d'Accompagnemcnt des Eeoles d'ltalie," " Principcs de Composition des Ecolcs d'ltalie," " Mcthodc Concertantc de Musique a Plusieurs Parties," &e. As a composer he was also successful, having produced "La Senti- nelle,"oneofaset of romances, which has become a popular song in France. He was likewise a distinguished linguist, and was possessed of an extraordinarily retentive memory. Chosroes L, or Khosrou the Great, kos'- rs-eg, king of Persia, succeeded Cabades in 531. He concluded a peace with the Romans, but afterwards invaded their territories, a.nd was re- pulsed by Belisarius. In the reign ofJustin II., he attacked the Ilomans again, but was de- feated by Tiberius, d of vexation, 579. — He was fierce, cruel, and rash ; but possessed many great qualities, and liberally encouraged the arts and sciences. {See Belisarius.) Chosroes II. ascended the throne on the de- position of his father llormidas, in 5s9. He is accused, on plausible grounds, of murdering his father. His nobility conspired against him on account of his cruelties, and obliged him to tly to the Romans, who replaced him on the throne. He afterwards carried his arms into Judsoa, uibya, and Egypt, and made himself master of Carthage; but was defeated by the emperor Heraclius, and thrown into prison by his son, where he died, in 628. Christiern, or Christian I., kris-tc-ern, king of Denmark, succeeded Christopher of; Bavaria in 1418. In the following year he was elected king of Norway, and, in 1456, ol'Sweden. In the hitler kingdom, however, he had but u , 203 title without power, and in 1464 was finally driven out by Charles Canutson. In Denmark he became popular by his prudence.moderation, and liberality, b. 1425 or 1426; d. 1481.— He instituted the order of the Elephant. Christibrn II., called the Cruel, and also, the Northern Nero, succeeded his father John on the throne of Denmark, in 1513, and in 1520 was elected King of Sweden. The cruelties which he practised in the lattereountryalienated all hearts from him, and he was shortly deposed by an insurrection excited by Gustavus Vasa. He afterwards, in 1523, lost the crown of Den- mark from the same cause, b. 1480; d. in prison. 1559. Christiern III. succeeded to the Danish crown in 1534, on the death of his father, Frederick I. He embraced Lutheranism, and made it the established religion, b. 1502; d. 1559. Christiern IV., king of Denmark, succeeded his father, Frederick II., in 1588. He made war successfully against Sweden, and in 1625 was elected chief of the Protestant league. The following year, however, he was defeated by the famous Tilly, and forced to sign a humiliating peace at Lubeck. At home he was an able administrator. He fostered commerce and industry, built new cities, and left Denmark peaceful and happy, b. 1577 ; d. 1648. Christiern V. ascended the Danish throne in 1670, on the death of his father, Frederick III. He united with the princes of Germany, and declared war against the Swedes, in which he was unsuccessful. In 1673 he allied himself with the Dutch against Louis XIV., and also declared war against Sweden. He took Pome- rania from the latter power : but restored it by a treaty made in 1679. In the midst of the wars which he carried on, he compiled a code of laws, which forms the basis of the jurispru- dence of Denmark, b. 1616 : D. 1699. Chrisiiern VI., king of Denmark, succeeded his father, Frederick IV., in 1730. During his reign, the kingdom enjoyed continuous tran- quillity. Copenhagen, which, in 172S, had been destroyed by fire, was rebuilt with great mag- nificence. B. 1699 ; D. 1746. Christiern VII., king of Denmark, succeeded his father, Frederick V., in 1766. In the same year he married Caroline Matilda, sister of George III. of England. He appointed, as his minister, his doctor, Strucnsee, whose influence soon became paramount. At the end of two years, however, this minister was disgraced and put, to death, all authority passing into the hands of the queen-dowager, Julie Marie of Brunswick. The end of his reign was disas- trous. In 1807 Copenhagen was bombarded and taken by the British, and the king's latter days were clouded by insanity, b. 1749 ; d. 1808. Christian VIII., king of Denmark, succeeded his father, Frederick VI., in 1839. This monarch had been proclaimed King of Norway in 1814, by the Norwegians, just after the cession of that country by his father to Sweden, but was compelled 'o abdicate a few months after, b. 1786; D. idiS. Christian IX., formerly prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sondcrburg-Glu •ksburr, succeeded Frederick VI i. as kin;.' of Penm.ir.: in 1863. Inl864theduchicsofSehlcswig-Ib '■ stein and Lauenburg were take,! frmn Iicinnai . by Prussia. This king is the latin r of Alex- andra, the princess of Wales, b. lols. THE l)lCTIONARt Christina Christina, kris-le'-na, queen of Sweden, was the only child of Gustavus Adolphus, whom she succeeded in 1632, when only in her sixth year. She possessed an elevated understanding, and invited to her court the most learned men in Europe. Among these were Grotius, whom she sent ambassador to France; Salmasius, Descartes, Bochart, Huet, Vossius, and Meibom. In 1654 she abdicated in favour of her cousin Charles Gustavus, on the pretence of being already weary of the splendid slavery which attaches to a crown, although only in her 28th year. It is affirmed, however, that the prin- cipal reason was her having embraced the Roman Catholic religion. From Sweden she went to Borne, but, after residing there some time, she removed to France, where she was well received hy Louis XIV. Whilst residing in that country, she caused Monaldeschi, her favourite master of the horse, to be put to death in her own house, for some alleged crime which, in her estimation, amounted to high treason against his sovereign, whom she still considered herself to be. Even in this act she found de- fenders; among whom was Leibnitz, who jus- tified the deed in an elaborate pamphlet. Her conduct, however, excited the disgust of the court, when she applied to Cromwell for per- mission to visit England ; but the sturdy Pro- tector turned the shadow of his countenance upon her, and denied the boon. She now re- turned to Rome, where she resided till the death of Charles Gustavus, when she went to Sweden, with the view of reascending the throne. Her subjects, however, were by this time entirely alienated from her, and she was once more forced to return to Rome, where she died, in 1689. b. 1626.— She left a collection of Maxims, and Reflections on the life of Alex- ander the Great, of whom she was a great admirer. Christina, Maria, mother of Isabel II., ex-queen of Spain, took an active part in the aii'airs of that country from 1830 to 1851. As queen regent she governed arbitrarily, and in 1854 was compelled to retire into exiie. b. at Naples, 1806; n. 1878. Her daughter was also compelled to quit Spain in 1868. Christison, Robert, M.D., kris'-te-son, an eminent physician and professor of r».iteria medica in the university of Edinburgh, is author of numerous papers on medical subjects, but particularly toxicology, which he has made his especial study, and on which he is now an acknowledged authority : his " Treatise on Poisons," being recognised as the standard work on the subject. He graduated at Edin- burgh in 1819; spent some time in the medical schools of London and Paris; commenced prac- tice in Edinburgh soon alter his return from the continent ; was appointed to the chair of medical jurisprudence in his native city in 1822 ; and in 1832 was promoted to that of materia medica. His father, the late Mr. Alexander Christison, was professor of Hu- manity in the Edinburgh University. B. 1797. Christophk, Henry, kris' -top, negro king of Hayti, began life as a cook at a tavern in Cape Town, St. Domingo. Being of colossal stature, and possessed of considerable force of character, he seemed marked out by nature for promi- nence among those whose uneducated percep- tions enable them to penetrate little beyond what appears on the surface of human character. In 1790 an insurrection of the negroes in St. 264 Chrysostom Domingo took place. He was employed by Toussaint L'Ouverture, the generalissimo of the Blacks, and was successful in suppressing various revolts which darkened the dawn ol negro freedom. In 1802 he defended Cape Town with valour against General Leclerc, the brother-in-law of Napoleon I., and when forced to evacuate the place, took 3000 men with him and joined Toussaint. Christophe now fought vigorously for the liberation of his countrymen, and in 1806 became generalissimo of the army, and president for life of Hayti. In 1811 he was proclaimed king of Hayti, under the title of Henry I., the crown, at the same time, being made hereditary in his family. He took the French court for his model, and con- stituted an hereditary negro nobility. In 1812 he was solemnly crowned, and reigned success- fully for some years. In 1818 reverses came upon him, and the republican negroes rose against his authority. Whilst lying ill, from the effects of a stroke of apoplexy, in his fine palace of Sans-Souci, he was surrounded by insurgent troops. The duke of Marmalade, one of the highest of his nobles, proclaimed the abolition of monarchy, and Christophe shot himself through the heart. He left a widow and children, but his eldest son and most of his inferior officers were slaughtered, b. 1767 ; d. 1820. — This sable sovereign was by no means destitute of governing qualities, whilst he en- couraged the freedom of the press, and pro- moted education. He also framed a code of laws, which he dignified with the title of the "Code Henri," in imitation of the "Code Na- poleon." Chxysippus, kri-sip'-put, a Stoic philosopher, who succeeded Cleanthes as head of that school, and was looked on as a column of the " Porch." He combated the philosophy of the Epicureans and Academicians, his principal opponent being Carneades. His industry was great, and his erudition profound. He is said to have left behind him 705 works, of which only fragments have come down to us. b. at Soli, 280 B.C.; d. 207 B.C. Chrysostom, St. John, kre-sos'-tom, the most eloquent of the fathers of the Christian church, and bishop of Constantinople. His father's name was Secundus, but the son is known only by the surname of Chrysostom, or "goldfn- mouthed." He was reared for the bar, which ho quitted for a religious life, and lived as a hermit, in a cave six years; after which he returned to Antioch and was ordained. He became so famous for his eloquence, that, on the death of Nectarius, patriarch of Constantinople, he was, in 397, elected his successor. He there built several hospitals, and gave most of his income to the poor; but in his endeavours to enlarge his episcopal jurisdiction, was involved in a dispute with Theophilas bishop of Alexandria. This churchman gained the empress Eudoxia to his side, and the consequence was, that Chrysostom was deposed and sent into Bithynia, which occasioned an insurrection at Constan- tinople. To appease the people, he had to be recalled in triumph. The wrath of the em- press, however, was not modified, and happening to oppose the placing of her statue near the church, he was again sent into exile, to a desolate tract on the Kuxine Sea. b. at Antioch between 344 and 354; d. at Comana, in Asia Minor, overcome by the fatigues of a forced journey, 407.— Thirty-live years after the death OF BIOGRAPHY. Chubb of Chrysostom, his remains were carried to Constantinople, and buried with great pomp by Theodosius II.; it is said they were subse- quently removed to Rome. His feast is cele- brated by the Roman church on the 27th of January, and by the Greek on the 13th of November. His works were edited by Saville, at Kton, in 8 vols, folio, 1613; and by Mont- faucon in 13 vols. 1718, Paris. His book on the priesthood is a valuable work, and has been translated into English. Chbzanowski, Adalbert, krti-an-ow-tki, a Po lish general who, after serving in the French army for many years, entered the Russian ser- vice after the battle of Waterloo. He took part in the Polish revolution of 1830, after which he retired to Paris, b. 1789; d. 1S61. Chubb, Thomas, chubb, a notorious deistical writer, who carrici on the trade of a glover in Salisbury, was born in 1679, and died in 1746. — He was not possessed of any education, but had a certain talent for controversial reasoning, which caused his tracts, of which he published a great many, to make a considerable noise in their day. Ciiund, chund, a famous Hindoo poet, styled the Homer of Rajpootana, who'flourished in the 12th century. His chief poem, which is about 100,000 lines in length, which touches on every conceivable subject, is even now very popular among the Hindoos. Churchill, church' '-kill, John. (See Marl- borough, Duke of.) Churchill, Sir Winston, an English historian, who wrote a " Chronicle of the Kings of Eng- land," published in 1675, folio, n. in Dorset- shire, 1620; d. 1688. He was the father of the celebrated duke of Marlborough, and his daugh- ter Arabella became mistress to James II., by whom she had two sons and two daughters. Churchill, Charles, an English poet, the son of a curate of St. John's, Westminster, received his education at Westminster school, but was refused matriculation at Oxford, on ac- count of his levity when before the examiners. At the age of twenty-five he was ordained, and served a curacy in Wales; but, becoming a dealer in cyder, was unfortunate, and fell into bankruptcy. After this he came to London, and succeeded his father as curate of St. John's, to which he added the profits of a seminary, in which he taught young ladies to read and write. His first-published literary performance was a poem called "Rosciad," written against the principal theatrical managers, which had so great a success that it stimulate 1 him to furl her exertions in the satirical line. His next was the " Apology," which was succeeded by "Night," intended to serve as an apology for his own nocturnal habits, which were sometimes marked by such shameful excesses as to damage his reputation. After several other perform- ances, in one of which — " Pomposo" — he at- tacked Dr. Johnson, he wrote, to please Wilkes, "The Prophecy of Famine, a Scotch Pastoral," which met with great success. There seems nothing, however, more difficult to bear with equanimity than sudden prosperity, and Churchill fell into greater irregularities of conduct than ever. His parishioners were forced to remonstrate strongly with liim against his vires, and he quitted the clerical profession. He now gave himself up to a dissipated course of life, parted from his wife, and kept a mis- tress. He continued, however, the friend of John Wilkes, and wrote further satires. 2(*> Oialdini Among others he attacked Hog-irth, who re* venged himself in hisjucture of "The Reverend Mr. Churchill as a Russian Bear;" but he haa written nothing which has left a permanent im- pression upon the literature of his country, n. at Westminster, 1731; d. at Boulogne, 1761. Cialdini, Enrico, che'-oicUde'-ne, an Italian general, who has won fame and honour in the national struggles of his country, was born in Modena, August 8, 1811, and though therefore comparatively a young man, he is a " general in the army" — that is to say, equal in rank to a French marshal. All his steps have been won on the field by hard fighting. Enrico Cialdini, when no more than 16 ypnrs of age, marched with General Zucchi to aid the Romagna insur- rection at Bologna in 1831. After the Austrian intervention in Central Italy he was obliged to emigrate. His father had been arrested, and was poisoned by small doses of belladonna in the dungeons of the duke of Modena. Cialdini went to Paris, where he studied chemistry under M. Thenard, and was preparing to study medicine when a proposal was made to him to go to Spain. The prospect of a pair of epaulets tempted him. He went and took part in the War of Succession, and the revolution of 18-18 found him a lieutenant-colonel in the Spanish service. Mazzini, in the revolutionary period of 1818, recommended Cialdini to the provincial government of Milan, who invited him to take •Service with them. Cialdini obeyed the call, but on arriving at Milan he found the state of affairs changed. Lombardy had given herself up to king Charles Albert, and governed herself in his name. It was not the moment for hesitat- ing; the king had just been beaten, and Italy was about to fall once more into the clutches of Austria. Cialdini enrolled himself in the corps of General Durando ; he marched on Vieenza, and there received three wounds, supposed at the time to be mortal. He was thereby for a year reduced to a state of helplessness. The rate of Italy had been decided at Novara and at Rome, and it was necessary for him again to return to Spain. Cialdini wrote to the Pied- montese minister of war: — "You have more officers than you can find employment for, and, as I am ashamed to be a burden to you, without doing an} thing, and to go on half-pay at 40, I intend resuming my post in the Spanish army. You will find me there when Italy requires my services." The minister replied by these words : " Don't go." Then came the expedition to the Crimea. Cialdini went there with the rank of general, and at the battle of the Tchcrnaya he showed what he was worth. In 1859 Cialdini was the first in the regular allied army who fired a shot on the enemy, executing the passage of the Sesia under the tire of the Austrians, whom he drove from their position. His corpt d'armee then went into the mountains to act in the Tyrol. The peace of Villafranca checked him in his career. In 1S00 he defeated the army of I.amoriciere, and gained the battle of Castel- fidardo; and in 1861, after Garibaldi had ex- pelled Francis II. from Naples, and the people of the Two Sicilies had united themselves with the kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel, Cialdini was sent to command the national troops, and took Gaeta in 17 day*; for the 50 days which preceded the bombardment wert expended in the construction of the necessary works. Fifteen days after, the genera! also took the citadel of Messina. He had been made a tiie dictionary Cibber major-general after the campaign of Umbria, and the king nominated him general of the army after Messina. In 1861 he was made vice- roy of Naples, with full powers to suppress the brigandage which prevailed under pretence of endeavouring to restore the deposed king. This service he effectually accomplished for the time, and then resigned the viceroyalty, returning to the command of his division in the JEmilia. When the question of the cession of Nice and Savoy to France was being discussed in the Italian parliament, and Garibaldi made a severe attack upon Cavour for his share in that trans- action, Cialdini wrote a violent letter to the Italian patriot soldier, which caused a temporary quarrel; this, however,, was soon appeased by frank explanations on both sides. But in 1862 Cialdini again came into collision with Gari- baldi in a more painful manner. When the latter's ill-advised movement in that year began to assume a serious aspect, and all remonstrances had failed to deter him from the prosecution of his project of marching upon Rome, Cialdini was sent to take command of the royal troops in Sicily, and it was under his orders that Gari- baldi was attacked and made prisoner at Aspro- monte by Colonel Pallavicini — a service which obtained the rank of major-general for the latter, but must have been a painful duty to all concerned. Cibbib, Caius Gabriel, tib'-ber, a German sculp. or, wno, about the i.me oi uiouiwelWl Protectorate, came over to England, and began to pursue his profession in London with sooif success. The statues of the kings, and of Gresham, in the Royal Exchange, which were burned, were by him, and also the two figures of "Melancholy" and " Raging Madness," at the principal gate of old Bethlehem Hospital. He also executed the bassi-relievi on the pe- destal of the London Monument. During the latter years of his life, he was chiefly employed by the duke of Devonshire in decorating the seat of that nobleman at Chatsworth. In the revolution of 1688, he took up arms under the duke, in favour of the prince of Orange, and lived to see the cause for which he fought suc- cessful, b. about 1630; d. in London, 1700, leaving a considerable fortune. Cibbkb, Colley, an English poet and play- writer, the son of Gabriel Cibber, the sculptor, served in the army of the prince of Orange at the Revolution, and afterwards went on the stage: but not attaining to eminence as an actor, turned his attention to dramatic writing. His first play was " Love's Last Shift," which was performed in 1695, and met with great ap- plause; after which he wrote a number of others. His best work is considered to be the "Careless Husband," performed in 1704; but the " Nonjuror " brought him the most fame and profit. George I., to whom it was dedi- cated, presented him with £200, and appointed him to the office of poet laureate, b. in London, 1671 ; n. 1757. — His comedies are light, airy, and pleasant, but his royal odes possess many faults. He wrote an " Apology" for his own life, which is very amusing, as it depicts many of his own foibles and peculiarities with consider- able candour. — His son Thcophilus followed, for a short time, the theatrical profession, and wrote a ballad opera called " Pattie and Peggy." b. 1703: d. on his passage to Ireland, 1758. Cibber, Susanna Maria, was the wife of Thcophilus Cibber, and the sister of Dr. Thomas Cicero Arne, the musical composer. She, as an actrers, became a great favourite with the public, and was considered by many as the best representa- tive of the tragic muse in her time on the stage. b. 1714; d. 1766, and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Cicefo, Marcus Tullius, sis'-e-ro, a learned philosopher, and the greatest of Roman orators, washonourably descended both by his father and mother's side. He was instructed in philosophy by Philo, in law by Mutius Scsevola, and ac- quired his military knowledge under Scylla, in the Marsian war. When young, he translated the Greek poem " Phenomena," of Aratus, into Latin, of which some fragments remain. At the age of twenty-six he appeared at the bar, and pleadei the cause of Quinctius, and a year afterwards defended Roscius of Ameria in such a manner as won the applause of the Romans. He then travelled into Greece and Asia, and spent some time at Athens with his friend Atticus in studying the best models of Grecian oratory. On his return to Rome he became distinguished above all other pleaders. After passing through the offices of sedile and praetor, he offered himself as a candidate for the consul- ship; and, though powerfully opposed, was suc- cessful. One of his competitors was the famous Catiline, whose conspiracy against the state he was afterwards the great means of unveiling; for which he was called by the citizens "the father of his country," and the second founder ol the republic. (See Catiline.) His vehemence, however, against Clodius, who was accused of having violated the mysteries of the Bona Dea (nee C/KSAR, Julius), brought upon him a train of evils, which finally forced him into voluntary exile ; but his banishment was of short duration, for the Clodian faction becoming odious, the senate and people unanimously recalled him. In the quarrel between Ca;sar and Pompey, he espoused the side of the latter, and followed him into Greece ; but, after the battle of Phar- salia, returned into Italy, and obtained the friendship of Caesar. He now retired from the arena of politics, and devoted himself to the calmer elegances of literary pursuits, when the assassination of the dictator once more called him upon the political stage. He advised the senate to grant a general amnesty; but when he saw Antony gaining the ascendancy, he re- moved to Athens, to escape the effects of the enmity of that general. In a short time, how- ever, he returned to Rome, and seemed to enjoy the friendship of Octavius, who nevertheless was induced to sacrifice him to the malice of Antony. Cicero was at Tusculum when he re- ceived the news of his proscription. In order to escape the vengeance of his enemies, he set out in a litter for the seacoast, but was over- taken and slain. His head and hands were carried in triumph to Antony, who was mean enough to place them on the rostra in the Forum, where Cicero had so often defende 1 tht* lives, fortunes, and liberties of the Roman people, b. at Arpinum, 106 b.c. ; assassinated near Gaeta, 43 B.C. — The talents of this great man have been the subject of universal admira- tion, and he possessed eminent public and pri- vate virtues, although they were, in some degree, obscured by his excessive vanity. He married Terentia, whom he afterwards divorced, and by whom he had a son and daughter. His second wife was a young woman to whom he was guardian. — His son Marcus served under 6t fclOGRAPH?. Cid Campeador Pompey, with great reputation, and Augustus made him augur; but his conduct was licen- tious, and Pliny says that he was the greatest drunkard in the empire. The works of Ciceio have been repeatedly published both collectively and separately. Cid Campeador, The, rid kam-pai'-a-dor, from the Arabic el seid, " the lord," and the Spanish campeador, " champion," was a Castilian hero, whose exploints are so largely mingled with fable and romance, that it is difficult, now, to determine how much of what is relating concerning him and his exploits is true. It would appear, however, that his real name was Don Roderigo Dias de Bivar, and that he was reared in the court of the kings of Castile. On account of the great prowess he displayed in early years, the honour of knighthood was be- stowed on him ; and, in 1063, he proceeded with Don Sancho ofrCastile against Ramiro, king of Aragon, who was slain in battle. On the acces- sion of Sancho, he accompanied him to the siege of Zamora, where the king was killed by treachery, and the Cid led back the troops to Castile, carrying with him the dead body of his monarch. A lphonso, the brother of Sancho, was then placed on the throne ; and in 1074 the Cid married Donna Ximena Dias, daughter of Count Diego Alvarez, of the Asturias, whom he had slain in single combat, to avenge an insult which Diego had offered to Roderigo's father. Soon after this he revolted against Alphonso, and committed great ravages in Aragon, pene- trating nearly as far ns Sarajrossa, and xing his residence in a fortress called Pefia del Cid, "The Uock of the Cid," where he became an independent chief. In 1094 he took Valentia, and held it till the time of his death, b. at Burgos, 10 K); d. U)9'J. Corneille has written a famous tragedy, -embodying the exploits of th:s warrior. Mr. Southcy also published a " Chronicle of the Cid," illustrative of his ad- ventures. There is, however, a Spanish poem of the Cid, which was written in the 12th cen- tury by the " Homer of Spain," of whom we have no further knowledge; but whose per- formance is said, by Southey, to be " the oldest poem in the Spanish language, and, beyond comparison, the finest." Cigoli, Ludovico Cardi da, che'-gol-e, an eminent Florentine painter, who was one of the reformers of the style of the School of Florence, and is among those masters whose works make an epoch in the history of art in Tuscany. He opposed the style of the followers of Michael Angelo, and was the first who successfully com- batted the anatomical practice indulged in by that school of painters. He followed the cha- racteristics of Correggio and Baroccio, and had also much in common with the Caracci. His " Lame Man Healed by St. Peter," was said to be the third best picture at Rome, but is unfor- tunately now destroyed ; it was, however, en- graved. His productions are mostly large altar-pieces, and arc to be found in many of the churches in Italy. Cigoli was likewise an architect, and something of an author, as he wrote a treatise on perspective, b. 1559; d. 1613. Cimabue, Giovanni, sim'-a-boo-ai, a Florentine painter and architect, considered as the restorer of the art of painting in Italy. He was in- structed by the Greek painters whom the senate had summoned to Florence; but he very quickly surpassed his masters. There are still some •m Cinq-Mars remains of his works in fresco and distemper, showing signs of genius. His principal picture, however, is the "Madonna," painted for the church of St. Maria Novella. This production, when finished, was escorted to the church by a triumphal procession of the citizens, b. at Flo- rence, 1240; d. 1300. Cimarosa, Domenico, sim-aw-ro'-sa, a musi- cian, who early achieved, by his compositions, great success, and was invited to the courts of the German sovereigns, and also to the court of Russia. He is the author of more than 120 operas, serious and comic ; amongst which may be remarked his " II Matrimonio Segre- to," and the " Horatii and the Curiatii." He principally excelled, however, in the opera buffa. b. at Naples, 1749 or'1751; D.at Venice, 1801. Cimon, ri'-mon, an Athenian general, the son of Miltiades. He behaved with great courage at the battle of Salamis, and was afterwards ap- pointed to the command of all the naval forces of Greece. He defeated the Persian fleets and took 200 ships, and totally routed their land forces on the same day, near the river Eury- medon, in Pamphylia. He was shortly after, by the intrigues of Pericles, banished from Athens, but was recalled, and adjusted the dispute existing between the Athenians and Lacedaemo- nians. HewEsnow appointed to carry on the war against Ftrsia, in Lgypt and Cyprus, with a fleet of 200 ships; and, on the coast of Asia, gave battle to the enemy, and totally destroyed their fleet, d. besieging the town of Citium, in Cyprus, 419 b.c. He may be called the last of those Greeks whose spirit and boldness defeated the armies of the barbarians. He fortified and embellished Athens with the captured spoils, and h'asbeen highly extolled by his biographers, . as well for his liberality as his valour. He was born about 502 b.c. Cincinnatus, sin'-sin-nai'-tus, L. Quinctius, a celebrated Roman, who was informed, as he was in the act of ploughing his field, that the senate had chosen him dictator. Upon this, he left his farm, and repaired to the field of battle, where his countrymen were closely besieged by the Volsci and iEqui. Afterconquering theenemy he returned to Rome in triumph. Sixteen days after his appointment, he laid down his office, and resumed his agricultural pursuits. In his 80th year he was again summoned against Prancste as dictator; and, after a successful campaign, once more resigned the absolute power he had enjoyed only 21 days, disregarding the rewards that were offered him by the senate. Lived about 520-435 B.C. Cinuamvs, John, sin'-nam-us, a Greek his- t orian, who wrote the lives of John and Michael Comnenus, the work embracing the period be- tween 1113 and 1186. Printed at Utrecht, 1652, 4to, and at Paris, 1670, folio. The dates of his birth and death are not known. Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, rin'-na, a Itomar consul, who, with Marius, filled Rome with tin blood of their slaughtered enemies. He was consul four successive years. Assassinated at Ancona, 83 b.c. — Cornelia, the wife of Cicsar, was the daughter of this consul. Cinq-Maks, Henry Coiffler, Marquis de, sank mar, a favourite of Louis XI II., befriended by Cardinal Richelieu, who introduced him to the king. Cinq-Mars, however, irritated against the card' ual for his opposition to his marriage with Maria de Gonzaga, instigated Gaston, duke ol Orleans, the king's brother, to rebellion. THE DICTIONARY Cipriani Between them a secret treaty was set on foot, by which Spain was to render them assistance ; but the plot being discovered by Richelieu, the marquis was seized and beheaded, in September, 1642. b. 1620. Cipriani, Giovanni Batista, tip'-re-aw'-ne, a famous Tuscan artist, was born at Pistoja in 1727. After studying at Florence (where his master was an Englishman) and at Home, he came to England, and was one of the original members of the Koyal Academy, and made the design for the diploma, for which he received a silver cup. He is pronounced to have been " fertile in imagination, graceful in his composition, and elegant in his execution." His per>onal character was also distinguished by probity, simplicity, and benevolence. Died at Chelsea, in 1785. Many of his works were engraved by Bartolozzi; some of liis principal pictures are at Houghton. Ciskekos, Francis de. (See Ximenes.) Civius, ti-vi'-lU, a brave chief of the Bata- vians, the ancient inhabitants of a portion of Holland, who, about 70 B.C., put himself at the head of his countrymen, and drove out the Romans, beating many of their best generals. He finally made peace with Ceiialis, Vespasian's commander. Claibaut, Alexis Claude, klair'-o, a preco- cious French mathematician, who at the age of four could read and write; at nine had made some progress in algebra and geometry, and solved several difficult problems ; and at eleven produced a memoir on curves, which appeared in the "Miscellanea Rerolinensia," with an ho- nourable certificate of the Academy of Sciences. That learned body admitted him an associate at the age of eighteen ; and he was one of the academicians who went to the north to mea- sure a degree, with the view of ascertaining the figure of the earth, b. at Paris, 1713; d. 1765. — He wrote " Elements of Geometry and of Algebra," a "Treatise on the Figure of the Earth," "Tables of the Moon," &c. Clairfait, Count de, klair'-fai, a famous Austrian general, who first distinguished him- self against the Turks. In the wars which sig- nalized the close of the 18th century, he fought with great valour against the French ; and, in 1795, commanded the army of Maycnce, which attacked the French camp formed before that city. This he forced, and took a number of prisoners. Whilst following up his success, he received, at Mannheim, an order to retire, on which he resigned his command. Subsequently he became a member of the Aulic council of war, and shortly afterwards died at Vienna, in 1798. b. at Brussels, 1733.— Clairfait was considered by he French the ablest general opposed to them during the war. Clairon, Claire Josephe de la Tudc, klair 1 - awiig, a distinguished French actress, who in her 12th year first made her appearance on the stage. She subsequently became the greatest tragic performer of her age and country, but lived a licentious life. b. near Conde, 1723; d. 1803. Clapperton, Hugh, Captain, klap'-per-ton, a distinguished African traveller. At the age of thirteen he was apprenticed to the captain of a ship ; but having been caught violating the excise laws, by taking a few pounds of rock-salt to the mistress of the bouse frequented by the erew of his ship, consented, rather than be sub- fected to a trial, to go on board a man-of-war, 266 Clarendon and accordingly joined the Clorindu frigate, commanded by Captain Briggs. Through the interest of his friends, he was promoted to the rank of a midshipman, and in 1814 was made lieutenant. He was now appointed to the com- mand of the Confiance schooner, on Lake Erie, in N. America, and was held in high estimation as an honourable member of his profession. In 1822 he went with Major Dixon Denham and Dr. Oudney on an expedition to Central Africa ; and on his return was made commander. In this enterprise he and Denham determined the posi- tions of Bornou, Houssa, and Mandara. Ouci- ney had died at an early stage of the journey, in 1824. The principal object of the expedition had been to ascertain the course and the termi- nation of the Niger ; but as they were unsuc- cessful, he was dispatched again, in 1825, on the same journey. He and his party landed, in the month of November, in the Bight of Benin ; but they were all more or less attacked with a sick- ness which proved fatal to several of them. He had proceeded to Chungary, a village four miles from Saccatoo, where he was seized with dysen- tery, which carried him off. b. at Annan, Scot- land, 1788; d. at Chungary, 1827. Clare, John, klair, the son of a Northampton- shire iarm-labourer, who was early sent to work in the fields, whilst in by-hours he received oc- casional instruction at a neighbouring parish school. When he became able to read he pur- chased a few books, and, by degrees, initiated himself into composition in verse. In 1818 he produced a "Sonnet to the Setting Sun," which attracted the notice of a bookseller at Stamford, and led to the publication of a small volume entitled " Poems descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery," which was favourably received. He subsequently produced the " Village Minstrel, and other Poems;" the "Shepherd's Calendar, and other I'ocms;" an 1 in 1836 the "Rural Muse." These are all pleasing effusions, but exhibiting neither strength nor much origi- nality. Clare, unfortunately, lost his reason, brought on by brooding over some unsuccessful trading speculations, which, although compara- tively trifling, to a mind like his were suffi- ciently overwhelming, n. at Helpstone, North- amptonshire, 1793; i). May 20, 1864. Clarenbon, Edward Hyde, earl of, klur'-en- don, lord high chancellor of England, studied the law under his uncle, Nicholas Hyde, chief justice of the King's Bench. Being an ardent royalist, he attached himself, (luring the civil war, to the cause of Charles, and greatly contri- buted to the Restoration. In the exercise of his judicial functions his conduct was above re- proach, yet be became unpopular, and was forced to resign his official situations. To escape the penalties of a threatened impeachment, he pru- dently retired into exile, and passed the re- mainder of his days in France, b. at Dinton, Wiltshire, 160S ; n. at Rouen, 1671.— Clarenflon wrote the well-known "History of the Rebel- lion," which is held in high estimation, and will transmit his name to a distant posterity. His daughter Anne was married to the Duke of York, who, by her, had two daughters, Anne and .Mary, both of whom ascended the English throne. Clarendon, George William Frederick Vil- liers, fourth earl of, succeeded to the title in 1838. He was educated at Cambridge, and in 1S23 was appointed a commissioner of excise in Dublin, in which capacity he displayed abilities sufficient to recommend him to some higher OP BIOGRAPHY. Clarke employment by the government. Accordingly, in 1831, he arranged a commercial treaty with France, and in 1833 became minister plenipo- tentiary at the court of Madrid. When he suc- ceeded to his title, he came to England, and took his seat in the House of Lords. Here he soon distinguished himself, and in 1810 became lord privy seal in the Melbourne administration, and, before the end of the same year, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In the following year Sir Kobert Peel came into power ; but in 1846, when Lord John Husscll was appointed to the premiership, Lord Clarendon was made president of the Board of Trade, which office he resigned for the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, on the duties of which he entered in the following year. He continued to exercise his viceregal authority through a very trying course of years till 1852, when, with the other members of the ministry, he resigned, and was succeeded by the earl of Eglinton. On the accession to power of the Coalition ministry, under the earl of Aber- deen, he accepted the seals of the Foreign Office, which he also continued to hold under the ad- ministration of Lord Palmerston, cementing the French and Sardinian alliance in reference to the Russian war. If, before that contest, he displayed some disposition, as was said, to yield to the czar, yet his firmness at the congress of Paris in 1856, in respect to the boundaries of Russia and her right to the Isle of Serpents, showed that he well knew how to uphold the honour and interests of his country. — Lord Clarendon went out of office along with the rest of his colleagues, on the defeat of the Palmerston administration on the conspiracy bill, in 1858; and on the re! urn of Lord Palmerston to power, in 1859, Lord Clarendon did not again take office, the seals of the foreign department being given to Lord John (now Karl) Russell. In i->64 he became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, under Lord Palmerston, and, in the following year, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, which office he held till June, 1866. }r\ Decem- ber, I-56S, he again became Secretary for Foreign Affairs under Mr. Gladstone, n. 1S00; i>. 1S70. Clarke, Jeremiah, Mark, a musician of great promise, but who, having conceived a violent Eassion for a lady much above him in rank, ecame afflicted with melancholy, and put an end to his existence in 1707. He was the friend and pupil of Mow, who, in 1693, resigned the situation of almoner at St. Paul's cathedral in his favour. He did not publish much, and what pieces he did are chiefly of a religious kind. They show fine talent and sensibility, so much so, that it was said of him, that " tenderness is so much his characteristic, that he may well be called the musical Otway of his time." His anthems, "Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem," and " I will love Thee," are held in high esteem. Clakkk, Samuel, a learned English philoso- pher and divine, who became chaplain to Bishop More, of Norwich, and received from that pre- latc the rectory of Drayton, in Norfolk. In 1701 he published his "Paraphrase of the Gos- pel of St. Matthew," which was afterwards extended to the remaining Gospels. In 17o6 appeared his Latin translation of Newton's "Optics," for which Sir Isaac complimented him with £500. About this time he was pre- sented to the rectory of St. Rennet's, Paul's Wharf, London, and appointed chaplain to Queen Anne. In 1709 he obtained the rectory of St. James's, Westminster, and took bin 269 Clarke degree of D.D. at Cambridge. From this period he continued to publish works upon various subjects, some of them of a doctrinal, and others of a deeply philosophical kind ; and, in 1727, he was offered the place of master of the mint, vacant by the death of Sir Isaac Newton, but refused it. He was previously presented to the mastership of Wigston Hospital, in Leicester- shire. In 1729 he published the first twelve books of Homer's " Iliad," with a Latin version and annotations. The remaining books were published by his son in 1732. b. at Norwich, 1675 ; d. in London, 1729.— Dr. Clarke was a profound scholar, a close re;isoner, an acute critic, well versed in mathematics, philosophy, and metaphysics. He was also a man of un- affected manners ; mild, amiable, and charitable to those who differed from him. Clabke, Edward Daniel, LL.D., a distin- guished modern traveller, who in 1792 accom- panied Lord lierwick to Italy, and in 1799 com- menced a tour through Denmark, Sweden, Lapland, Finland, Russia, Tartary, Circassia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Turkey, and Greece. In 1S02 he returned by Germany and France, bringing with him many valuable manuscripts, which he preiented to the library at Cambridge. He also presented to that uni- versity a fragment of the colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, of the best period of Grecian art, and brought with him, besides, a sarcopha- gus of Alexander, and a magnificent collection of mineralogical specimens. In 1808 he was appointed professor of mineralogy at Cam- bridge, in which city and its neighbourhood he passed the rest of his life. b. at Willingdon, Sussex, 1769 ; d. in London, 1822. — A complete edition of his works, in 11 vols., was published after his death. Clakke, Mrs. Cowden, whosi maiden name was Mary Novello, was the daughter of a distin- guished musician. In 1828 she married Mr. Cowden Clarke, who had intimate connexions with Charles Lamb, Keats, Leigh Hunt, and other literary celebrities. In 1829 Mrs. Claike commenced her analysis of Shakspeare's works, I and after sixteen years of patient labour and I research, produced, in 1815, her "Concordance to Shakspeare," which obtained, deservedly, a great success, b. 1809. — Her husband is the i author of one or two books, and her sister, j Clara Novello, has attained considerable dis- tinction as a singer. I Clarkk, Adam, LL.D., an eminent divine, i deeply skilled in Oriental languages and Biblical i antiquities. His studies were pursued at the j school founded by John Wesley, at Kingswood, 1 near Bristol, and at the age of eighteen he be- I came a travelling preacher in the Methodist 1 connexion. In the ministerial character his 1 preaching was both attractive and useful ; but I it is principally on account of his writings that I he is noticed in this work. In 1302 he pub- I lished his very useful "Bibliographical Dietiou- I ary," which at once procured for him a literary reputation; and although it does not now rank as a very profound work, still it contains a vast body of well-arranged information, and has been once or twice reprinted. He now continued to produce other works, amongst which may be noticed a laborious " Commentary on the Bible;" a "Narrative of the Illness ami Death of Richard Porson;" "Memoirs of the Wesley Family ;" " Baxter's Christian Directory," which he edited, and several others of a reli- THE DICTIONAEY Clark pious class. His industry was very gTeat; for, besides these and many pamphlets and sermons, he wrote four reports on the state of the public records, and edited the first volume of a new edition of Rymer's " Foedera." Independently of these labours, his Ufa was devoted to the active promotion of the well-being of his spe- cies ; and it is impossible to review his character without being impressed with the idea that he was not only a good but a great man. b. 17G2 ; d. at llavdon Hall, seventeen miles from Lon- don, 183a. Clark, William Tierney, a civil engineer, who, in 1808, went as a draughtsman from Iiristol to London, and entered into the service of Mr. Rennic, with whom he remained till 1811, when he was appointed engineer of the West Middlesex Waterworks. This post he retained throughout his lite, making great im- provements in the establishment, and realizing large profits to the company. In 1819 he un- dertook the completion of the Thames and Medway Canal, which he successfully accom- plished : and, in 1824, commenced the suspen- sion-bridge over the Thames at Hammersmith. In 1827 he finished this work, after which the duke of Norfolk employed him to construct an- other over the Arun. In 1839 he began another over the Danube, at Pesth, which was not com- pleted till 1849, at a cost of £622,000. This was the greatest work of his life, and it gave so much satisfaction to his royal patron, the em- peror of Austria, that he presented him with a box set in brilliants. For a design for a sus- pension-bridse over the Neva, the emperor of Russin sent him a first-class gold medal, b. in Somersetshire, 1783 ; d. 1852. — He was a mem- ber of several learned societies. Clark, Sir James, physician in ordinary to Queen Victoria, and equally distinguished for his public humanity and private benevolence. He received the rudiments of his education at the grammar-school of Fordyce, a maritime pa- rish of Scotland, and afterwards entered King's College, Aberdeen, where he took his degree of M.A. He then went to Edinburgh, where he pursued his medical studies, and, in lsoi), re- ceived an appointment in the navy, in which he remained till 1815, when he returned to Edin- burgh, and, in two years more, took his degree of M.D. in the university of that city. He now set out on a continental tour, and settled in Home, where ho practised lor eight years, during which he pursued his professional duties with unwearied zeal, earnestly devoting himself to the great cause of humanity in investigating nodes for the alleviation of its suffering, or the cure of those numerous ills to which " ilesh is heir." He visited the principal universities and j medical schools of Germany, France, and Italy, | directing his especial attention to the influence of those climates chiefly resorted to by in- valids upon various kinds of diseases. The result of these investigations, and his otherwise large experience, was the publication, in 1829, of his work "On the Sanative Influence of Climate," a fourth edition of which appeared in lHoU, and is now an authority. Indeed, accord- ing to the language of the " London .Medico- Chirurgieal Review," it is " an indispensable companion to every invalid who seeks restora- tion of health or prolongation of life beneath a milder sky than that which lowers over his native land." Whilst in Home, Dr. Clark be- cumj known to Prince Leopokl of Saxe-Coburg, 270 Claudianus and, in 1821, was by him appointed his physi- cian. In 1826 he came to England, and settled in London ; and was, shortly afterwards, made physician to St. George's Parochial Infirmary. In 1832 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, and, in 1835, physician to the duchess of Kent and the Princess Victoria. On the accession of her majesty to the throne, he con- tinued her physician. In the same year of hit appointment to that position, he published hii treatise " On Pulmonary Consumption," in which he shows that this insidious disease ha» its origin in a deteriorated condition of the system, an opinion not generally entertained until first clearly demonstrated in this treatise. On the establishment of the London University, Dr. Clark was elected one of the senate; and, with the view of remedying some defects in the system of English " Clinical Instruction," he wrote a pamphlet on that subject. In 1838 he was created a baronet, a title well earned, seeing it has been won in the field of humanity, in en- deavouring to promote health and preserve life by every means which a sound judgment, great knowledge, and a large practical experience can place at his command, b. at Cullen, Banffshire, 1788} d. 1870. Clarkson, Thomas, klark'-son, an English philanthropist, one of the first advocates of the emancipation of the negroes, was educated with a view to the church, but relinquished his chances of preferment to advocate the abolition of negro slavery. He laboured, in conjunction with Mr. Wilberforee and other benefactors of mankind, in the cause he had espoused, and lived to see a law for the entire abolition of the traffic in slaves passed, on the 25th March, 1S07. It took the labour of another twenty years, how- ever, to effect the abolition of slavery in the islands of the West Indies; but it was accom- plished in 1833, when the Emancipation Act liberated, for a compensation of twenty millions to the owners, nearly a million of slaves. De- clining health prevented Mr. Clarkson taking so active a part at this period as he had hitherto done ; but in the achievement of the work to which he had so long devoted himself, he conti- nued to labour to the last. b. at Wisbeach, 1760; d. at Playford Hall, Sussex, 1816. Claude Lorraine, klawd, a famous painter, so called from the place of his birth. 1 lis real name was Claude Gelee, and the poverty of his parents early compelled them to rind some em- ployment for their child; and accordingly he was made a pastrycook. Receiving some in- structions in drawing, however, he went to Rome, and was employed by the painter Tassi, who grounded him in the principles of his art. Determined to take nature for his master, he passed whole days in the fields, watching their various aspects under the mutations of the skies, and became one of the greatest of land- scape painters. He painted in fresco as well as in oil. His works are numerous, and to bo found in most of the principal galleries of Europe, b. in Lorraine 1600; d. at Home, 1682. — England is especially rich in the landscapes of tins artist. The National Gallery alone has ten of his paintings, and some of them rank among the finest of his works. Claudianus, klam'-di-ai'-nus, a Latin poet, of Egyptian birth, who, at an early age, settled in Italy, and attached himself to Stilicho, the minister of the Emperor Honorius, but was in 408 disgraced, when Stilicho lost his life. Ho OF BIOGRAPHY. Claudius erjoyod, amongst his contemporaries, so dis- tinguished a reputation, that they proclaimed him equal to Homer and Virgil. What, how- ever, has come down to the moderns of his works does not seem to justify these extrava- gant eulogies. His verses possess harmony, but are monotonous; there is also imagination in them, but little invention and genius. The l>esc of his performances are, a " Panegyric of Ktilieho," and his poems on " Rutinus and Eutropius." B. at Alexandria, about 365 ; d. probably in the second decade of the 5th century. (See Stilicho.) Claudius, klou'-de-us, a name common to many illustrious Roman emperors, consuls, generals, censors, &c; of whom the most worthy of remark are the following: — Claudius I., Tiberius Drusus Nero, the fourth emperor of Rome, was elected by the sol- diers after the murder of Caligula. He made himself popular at first by adorning and beauti- fying the city with buildings. He passed over into "Britain, and received a triumph for victories which were gained by his generals. He was of weak intellect, and though well-meaning at first, followed the example of most of the Roman emperors, and became a sanguinary tyrant. He married four wives, one of whom, named Messalina, he put to death on account of her lust and debauchery. He was at last poi- soned by another, called Agrippina, who had made him name her son, Nero, as his successor. d. 54. Claudius II., gnrnamed the Goth, was a Dalmatian, and succeeded Gallienus in 268. lie conquered the Goths, Scythians, and Heruli, and killed, it is said, no less than 300,000 in a battle, d. in Pannonia, 270. — This prince has been called the second Trajan, as much on ac- count of his valour in battle as his justice in ad- ministration. Claudius, Appius, a Roman Decemvir, be- came enamoured of Virginia, the daughter of Virginius, an officer in the army employed against theiEqui. Endeavouring by every base means in his power to prevail over her virtue, but being constantly baffled, he had recourse to the extraordinary expedient of suborning a man named Claudius to demand her, under the pre- tence that she was the child of his slave, and brought up as her own by the wife of Vir- ginius. This claim was brought before the tribunal of the Decemvir, who decreed that, till all the witnesses should appear, Virginia should be delivered to the claimant. The people Opposed this decree, when Virginius was privily sent lor, and appeared before the tribunal. Being unable, however, to get the sentence re- voked, he snatched up a butcher's knife, and atabbed his daughter to the heart. An insur- rection ensued. The army having joined Vir- ginius, the senate was unable to resist them. Accordingly, the deeemvirate was dissolved, and Appius committed to prison, where he died, 419 B.C. — Upon these events, James Sheri- dan Knowles founded his celebrated tragedy of " Virginius." Claudius, or Claude, Clemens, a Spaniard by birth, who attained to the position of bishop of Turin, was the first to protest against* the corruptions and superstitions of Popery, d. 839. Clausel, Bertrand, Count, Tclo'-sel, entered the French army at an early age, and as aide- de-camp to General Perignon servvl in the 271 Clayton army of the Pyrenees in 1794-95. With General Leclerc he went to St. Domingo, and there commanded a division in endeavouring to sup- press an insurrection of the blacks. He next served in Spain, and was severely wounded at the battle of Salamanca. In 1813 he was almost daily engaged with the English during the re- treat of the French, before Wellington, into France. On the return of Napoleon I. from Elba, he rejoined his standard ; but on his fall, he was compelled to leave his country and retire to America. He subsequently returned, and in 1830 succeeded Marshal Bourmont as commander-in-chief in Africa, and in the follow- ing year was created a marshal. In 1832 he was made governor of Algeria, but being baffled in his attempt on Coustantine, in 1836 he returned to Paris with a broken spirit, from which he never revived, b. at Mircpoix, 1772; 'D. at Toulouse, 1841. Clavijo y Faxakdo, Joseph, l-la-ve'-cho e fax-ar'-do, a Spanish writer, who was named keeper of the royal records, and translated from the French the Natural History of Button, a work highly esteemed. This procured for him the vice-directorship of the Cabinet of National History of Madrid, which post he retained till his death, in 1806. b. in the Canary Isles, 1726. — Behaving very unworthily to a sister of Beaumarchais, the popular writer, the latter fought a duel with Clavijo, and made the Spaniard sign a declaration that he had been g.iilty of a misdeed, and Clavijo was, in conse- quence, disgraced by the king for a term. This episode has been dramatized by Gothe and others. Clay, Henry, Mai, an American statesman, who was called to the b;ir at an early age, and distinguished himself as an advocate. In 1M>3 he was elected member of the Kentucky legis- lature, and in 1809 a member of the senile at Washington. In the year 1811 he was eleeled a member of Congress, and was made speaker of that body. In 1814 he was one of the com- mission sent to Ghent to negotiate peace with Great Britain, and in 1825 was appointed, by President Adams, foreign secretary. In 1823 he contested the presidency with General Jack- son, but was defeated, and' again in 1832, 1836, . and 1844, he was a candidate, but did not meet with success. Retiring for a time from pub- lie affairs, he returned to take his seat in the senate, and there enjoyed, until a short time before his death, a very great influence, b. in Virginia, 1777 ; d. 1852. — Henry Clay was the head of the Whigs. Of a conciliatory disposi- tion, he, on two occasions, in 1820 and in 1850, succeeded in effecting a compromise between the slave states and the abolitionists, and his death was felt as a public loss. Clay, Cassius M., an American statesman, who has distinguished himself as an advocate of the abolition of slavery, and has given a proof of sincerity by freeing his own slaves, lie was born in Kentucky in 1810, studied for the bar, and after holding the position of member of congress, was in 18G1 appointed minister in Russia on the formation of the Lincoln cabinet. He subsequently resigned the appointment, and returned to America to take part in the civil war then raging. His writings, with a memoir from the pen of Horace Greeley, were pub- lished in 1848. Clayton, Robert, D.D., Iclai'-ton, successively bishop of Killala, Cork, and Clogher, was sus- THE DICTIONARY Clayton pected of a leaning towards Arianism, and on making a motion in the House of Lords, that the Athanasian and Nicene creeds should be expunged from the Church of England Liturgy, was ordered to be prosecuted for heresy, but died before the trial came on. He was author of "Am Introduction to the History of the Jews;" " Chronology of the Hebrew Bible vin- dicated ; " "A Dissertation on the Prophe- cies :" and " A Vindication of the Histories of the Old and New Testaments," which latter work he wrote as an answer to Lord Boling- broke. B. in Dublin, 1695 ; d. 1758. Clayton, John Middleton, an American poli- tician, was born in Delaware in 1796; was elected to congress in 1829 ; resigned in 1836, and became chief justice of his native state ; in 1845 he returned to congress ; in 1849 became secretary of state under General Taylor, and in that capacity negotiated the famous Bulwer- Clayton treaty on the subject of English and American claims in central America, which has since been the subject of much controversy. Resigned in 1850, and died in 1856. Cleanthes, kle-un'-thees, a Grecian philoso- pher and disciple of Zeno. While pursuing his studies, he maintained himself by his manual labour, — succeeded his master in the school, and had for pupils kings Antigonus and Chry- sippus. Starved himself to death at the age of 90, about 240 B.C. Cliiahchus, kle-ar'-kus, a Lacedaemonian general, who was condemned to death for having abused his authority at Byzantium, where he had been sent as an ally. Retiring into Persia, he offered his services to the younger Cyrus, and raised a body of Greek mercenaries, with whom he acted against Arta- xerxes, the brother of Cyrus and king of Persia. After the buttle of Cunaxa, where Cyrus fell, and whilst he was leading the retreat of the 10,000 immortalized by his successor, Xenophon, Tissaphernes, the Persian general, inveigled him into an interview, and slew him, 401 B.C. Clemence, Isaure, klai'-mawnce, a wealthy and illustrious lady of Toulouse, who was de- scended, it is supposed, from the counts of that city. Towards the year 1490, she instituted at Toulouse the " Jeux Floraux" (Floral Fetes), and left considerable revenues for the support of these gatherings, b. about 1450; d. 1500 or 1513. These fetes were established to en- courage the art of poesy, and at them were dis- tributed prizes for the best effusions. These prizes consisted of different flowers in gold or silver. Something of the same kind had been commenced in 1322, and in 1695 an academy was founded from the funds, and exists at this day. Clemens, Friedrich, klem'-f.ns, the name assumed by a German poet of some talent and more eccentricity. He was born at Osnaburg, Westphalia, of poor parents named Gerke, but took the designation of Clemens from his god- father, the Rev. Clemens van Morsey. Friedrich began verse-making when only 10 years of age, and obtained the appointment of assistant letter- carrier by the time he was 14 ; he then succes- sively studied theology, became an itinerant schoolmaster, a footman, a lawyer's clerk, and a private in the 60th British regiment, which he accompanied to Canada; but disliking soldier- ing as much as other occupations, he asrain took to rhyming, and with the money thus pro- cured he purchased his discharge, and returned 272 Clement to Hamburg. Here he lived by selling his verses, which he printed himself at a machine of his own construction, and finally obtained an appointment as inspector of the Hamburg and Altona telegraph. Among his publications are "Specimens of my Poetry ;" "Aspirations of the Heart to God ; " " Eccentric People ; " " The Manifesto of Reason," which caused a great sensation, and was interdicted by the Diet ; " Through Night and Fog," a novel, and "The Emigrant on the Ohio," a comedy. His last publication is entitled "All-Book," and aims at preaching the "religion of love," but has not been successful. While officiating as lawyer's clerk, on, it is said, fifteen pounds a year, he married a milliner's assistant, who accompanied him in all his subsequent wan- derings and vicissitudes, b. January 22, 1801. , Clement I. and II., klem'-ent, popes of Rome, of whom one died about 100, and the other 1047. Clement III. succeeded Gregory VIII. in 1187, and preached a crusade against the Sara- cens, d. 1191. Clement IV. was elected in 1265. He signed with St. Louis of France, the " Pragmatic Sanction," which put an end to the differences existing between Rome and France, d. at Viterbo, 1268. Clement V. was elected in 1305, and removed the residence of the popes from Home to Avig- non. He was the tool of Philip the Fair of France, and, at his desire, suppressed the order of Knights Templars, d. 1314. Clement VI. was elected in 1342. In his pontificate, Rienzi attempted to re-establish the republic of Rome. This pope was a learned man, and had a prodigious memory, d. 1352. Clement VII., cousin of Leo X., succeeded Adrian VI. in 1523. He entered into the " holy league," with Francis I. of France, the Italian princes, and Henry VIII. of England, against the emperor Charles V. In the war which ensued, Rome was taken and plundered, and the pope himself was shut up in the castle of St. Angelo. He had, consequently, to make terms with Charles. Subsequently, Henry VIII. having repudiated Katharine of Aragon and married Anne Boleyn, Clement excommuni- cated him in 1534. This occasioned a schism, and ultimately resulted in the separation of England from the Komish church, d. 1534. Clement VIII. was elected in 1592. He ab- solved Henry IV. of France, upon that monarch making public profession of Catholicism, and was chiefly instrumental in bringing about the peace of Vervins in 1598. He elevated to the rank of cardinal, Baronius, Bellarmin, and other distinguished men, and was a learned and saga- cious pontiff, d. 1605. Clement IX. was elected in 1667. During his pontificate, Candia was taken from the Vene- tians by the Turks, d. 1669. Clement X. was the successor of the above. Being of great age, the government was left in the hands of Cardinal Paluzzi, a distant relative. d. 1C76. Clement XI. was elected in 1700. His pon- tificate was disturbed by the quarrels of the Jesuits and the Jansenists, and on issuing the famous bull " Unigenitus," a schism was pro- duced, which lasted many years, between France and Home. d. 1721. Clement XII. succeeded Benelict XIII. lu OP BIOGRAPHY. Clement Cleopatra 1730, and reformed many abases of the church. d. 1710. Clbsibnt XIII. was elected in 1758. The Jesuits having been expelled from France, Spain, Portugal, and Naples, he made great but useless efforts to reinstate them. In 1768 he lost Avignon and Benevento. d. 1769. — There is a splendid mausoleum to him in St. Peter's, at Rome, executed by Canova, who was eight years employed on it. Clement XIV. was the successor of the above. Of a conciliatory disposition, he lived on good terms with all the European courts, and re- covered Avignon and Benevento, which had been lost under the preceding pontiff. Pressed to decide the question of the abolition of the order of the Jesuits, he, in 1773, after tempo- rizing for several years, issued the bull ordain- ing their suppression, d. 1774. Clement, Francis, a learned French Bene- dictine monk, who continued the " Literary History of France," commenced by Rivet. He composed the llth and 12th volumes of that compilation, and also published the 12th and 13th volumes of the collection of French histo- rians begun by Boquct. His greatest achieve- ment, however, was the extension and improve- ment of the work entitled " L'Art de verifier les Dates apres J.C.," which had been origin- ated by Dantine, and re-written and published by Clemcncet. After thirteen years' labour, he raised it to three large vols, folio, which appeared from 17S3 to 1792. He was me- ditating the production of a similar work on ancient chronology, with the title of " L'Art dc verifier les Dates avail t J.C.," when he died, in 1793. b. at Beze, in Uurgundy, 1714. — Clement was a laborious writer, and was the author of I several other works besides those mentioned above. Cli menti, Muzio, kle-mahi'-te, an eminent Italian musical composer, and considered the father of pianoforte music. At an early age he evinced a decided predilection for his art, and even in his ninth year passed his examination as an organist. In his thirteenth, he wrote a mass for four voices, and attracted the notice of Mr. Peter Beck ford, an English gentleman travelling in Italy, who became his patron, and took him to his seat in Dorsetshire, in England. Here he devoted himself to other studies, and became accomplished in several languages, as well as in various branches of science, without neglecting the cultivation of his talents in the more particular art in which he seemed by nature desuned to excel. In his 18th year he composed i>U celebrated Opera No. 2, which is considered the basis on which the whole fabric »f modern pianoforte sonatas is founded. His time now extended to the continent, and lie lose to the highest rank in his profession. In 1800 he engaged in the music trade, still con- tinuing, however, to devote himself to his art throughout the remainder of his days. b. at Some 1752 ; d. in London, 1332. — He was buried ir the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Clennkll, Luke, klen'-el, a painter and en- graver, was born in Northumberland, in ]7S1, being the son of a farmer. After several vain attempts to induce him to settle to farming, tanning, and other trades, he was apprenticed to Bewick, an engraver on wood, and soon dis- played considerable ability. In 1S01, he re- moved to London, married, and soon had as much work as he could execute. He engraved 273 Stothard's designs in illustration of Rogers's Poems, and Falconer's " Shipwreck ;" and was finally induced to relinquish the graver and devote himself to the brush. He was very suc- cessful, his " Final Charge of the Guards at Waterloo," having procured him the prize of 50 guineas offered by the British Institution. In 1814, ho was commissioned to paint a picture commemorative of the visit of the allied Sove- reigns to the city of London, and was engaged upon it when his mind gave way : he was hope- lessly deranged, and died in a lunatic asylum in 1840. His " Day after the I'air," and " Market- boats at Brighton," are much admired. Cleobulus, kle-ob'-u-lus, one of the seven wise men of Greece, was the son of Evagoras of Lindos, and was famous for his fine form. His maxims were, " Do good unto your friends, that you may attach them to you the more ; do good unto your enemies, that you may make friends of them." d. 560 B.C. Cleombeotus, kle-om'-bro-hu, king of Sparta, gave battle, at Leuctra, to the Thebans, headed by Epaminondas, and was there killed, 371 B.C. — This battle, where the Spartan army was almost entirely destroyed, put an end to the pre-eminence of Sparta in Greece. Cleom enes II 1., kle-om'-e-nees, king of Sparta, who succeeded his father Leonidas, was of an enterprising spirit, and resolved to restore the ancient discipline of Lycurgus in its full force, by banishing luxury and intemperance. He made war against the Acha;ans, and attemptc 1 to destroy their league. Aratus, the general of the Achreans, who supposed himself inferior to his enemy, called Antigonus to his assistance; and Cleomenes, when ho had fought the unfor- tunate battle of Sellasia, 222 ex., retired into Egypt, to the court of Ftolemy Evergctcs, where his wife and children had gone before him. Ptolemy received him with great cordiality; but his successor, weak and suspicious, soon ex- pressed his jealousy of this noble stranger, and imprisoned him. Cleomenes killed himself, and his body was flayed and exposed on a cross, 220 or 219 b.c. — There were others of this name, but of inferior note. Cleon, kle'-on, a name common to many emi- nent Greeks, of whom the most famous is an Athenian, who, though originally a tanner, be- came, by his intrigues and eloquence, general of the armies of the state. Ho took Torone, in Thrace, and was killed at Amphipolis, in abattle with Brasidas, the Spartan general, 422 b.c. Cleop.vtha, kle-o-pa'-tra, queen of Egypt, famous for her great beauty, crimes, and mis- fortunes, was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, who died 51 b.c, leaving his eldest son, Ptolemy Dionysius, and his daughter, Cleopatra, to reign conjointly over the kingdom. '1 hey, however, disagreed, and Cleopatrawas compelled to seek for safety in Syria. Here she met Ciesar, whilsl engaged in the pursuit of Pompey, after tin battle of Pharsalia, and, by her fascinating manners, completely won him over to her cause, Accordingly, he determined that she should be reseated on the Egyptian throne, which led to an attack upon his own quarters by the king'i troops. This resulted in the overthrow of her brother's forces, and himself being drowned i» the Nile. Cleopatra then ascended the throne in conjunction with her younger brother Pto- lemy, whom she subsequently poisoned. Or the return of Cxsar to Rome, she followed him and lived there till his assassination, 4i b.c THE DICTIONARY Cleostratus After this event she returned to Egypt, and about 40 b.c, after the battle of Philippi, was summoned by Antony to answer . the charge alleged against her of having assisted Brutus. When she made her appearance before him, however, he could not resist her charms, and was induced to marry her, repudiating his for- mer consort, Octavia, the sister of Augustus. AVar now ensued between Augustus and Antony, and, at the battle of Actium, Cleopatra fled, and her paramour was defeated. The fallen queen, to escape the humiliation of gracing the triumph of Augustus, applied an asp to her breast, and died of the wound, 30 B.C. — She was a woman of genius, versed in several languages, but ambi- tious and voluptuous, although in her greatest extravagances there was a splendour and gran- deur which seemed almost to refine them. With her ended the dynasty of the Greek kings in Egypt, which began with Ptolemseus, the son of Lagus, 323 B.C. (See Antony and Cssak.) Ci/EOstbatcs, kle-ox'-tra-tus, an ancient phi- losopher and astronomer of Tenedos. He is said to have introduced the constellations of the zodiac, and reformed the Greek calendar. Lived between 548 and 432 b.c. Clee, le, General, le(r)klair, a distinguished French officer, who fell, mortally wounded, on the field of Magenta, June 4, 1859. Clehk, John, of Eldin, klerk, the inventor of an improved system of naval tactics, in refer- ence to what is called "breaking the line." This idea was first acted upon by Sir George (afterwards Lord) Rodney, on the 12th of April, 1782, when the French, under De Grasse, were defeated in the W. Indies. His plan was subse- quently acted upon by both Howe and Nelson, and uniformly met with success. He published an accountof his system in "An Essay on Naval Tactics, &e.," but his claim to the originality of the idea has been disputed by General Sir Howard Douglas, whose father was captain of Rodney's fleet at the time of the action, and who claims the merit for Lord Rodney. Mr. Clerk had never made a single voyage on sea, and was therefore no practical sailor, b. in Scotland; D. 1812. Clerk, John, Lord Eldin, an eminent Scottish lawyer, was the son of the preceding, and was alike famous for his legal knowledge, his ability as a pleader, his wit, his brusque manners, and his thorough fearlessness and integrity of cha- racter. He was called to the bar in 1785, and though his polities, which were liberal, shut him out from official employment, except for a »hort time as solicitor-general under the coali- tion ministry of 1805, he soon made his way to the foremost rank in his profession, and for many years enjoyed the largest and most lucra- tive practice that had up to that time been known in Scotland. He lived in the great lite- rary and philosophical age which procured for Edinburgh the title of the "Modern Athens," and was in habits of friendship with all the Sreat men of the day, including Scott, Stewart, effrey, Brougham, Wilson, &c. He was re- markable for his eccentricities, one of which was an inordinate love of cats and dogs, a host of which he always kept about him. lie was raised to the bench in 1823, resigned in 1828, and died in 1832, aged 75. Cleveland, or Cleiveland, John, kleve'- land, an English poet, joined the army of the ca- valiers, and was the first poet who sung in favour of theroyal cause. In 1655, being taken prisoner, 274 Clifford he was released by Cromwell, to whom he sent a moving petition, b. at Loughborough, 1613; d. in London, 1659. The best edition of his works is that of 1687. — Fuller, in his " Worthies of Leicestershire," says of this poet that he was "a general artist, pure Latinist, exquisit* orator, and eminent poet." We have, however, an opportunity of judging, and think that hi. genius will hardly sustain such extravagan* praise. When he was in the zenith of his fame, the sheets of " Paradise Lost " were struggling into a dim light through the mists of bigotry and party prejudice. The great epic was scarcely read, whilst impression after impres- sion of Cleveland's poems was pouring from the press. But how changed are these things now ! Milton lives, and shall endure as long as the language; whilst the effusions of the other are never heard of among the people. CurFonr, klij'-urd, the name of a distin- guished English noble family, many scions of which have become famous in history, and have well deserved the title of the " Stout Clitlords," which was popularly given to them. The most remarkable of the family were — 1. Roger de Clifford, who established himself in the north by inheriting Brougham Castle, in Cumberland, was killed in the wars with the Welsh, and was the father of Henry II.'s " Fair Rosamond." 2. Robert, the son and successor of Roger, a man of heroic and martial spirit, was one of the guar- dians of Edward II., by whom he was made lord high admiral, and acquired great renown in the wars with Scotland, being rewarded with large grants of lands belonging to the Douglases, Max- wells, &c. ; he was killed at Bannockburn, June 25, 1314. 3. Hoger, the fifth lord, took a leading part in the wars of Edward III. in both France and Scotland, enjoyed the family estates longer than any of his predecessors, and was the first of the Lords Clifford of the north who lived to be a grandfather. 4. Thomas, the sixth lord, was the famous Clifford of the French wars, in the reign of Henry VII., and also took a promi- nent part in the Wars of the Roses, in which he espoused the Lancastrian side. He was killed at the battle of St. Albans, in 1455. 5. His son, known as the "younger" and the "black" Clif- ford, also took a prominent part in the contest be- tween the Red and White Koses, and his ferocity gained him the nickname of the " Butcher." His slaughters at the battle of Wakefield, where both Richard duke of York (the competitor for the crown) and his son, the youthful duke of Rutland, were killed, are strongly condemned by Shakspeare and some of the chroniclers of the time. He was slain, at the age of 26, the day before the battle of Towton, and his body consigned to a pit along with a mass of the vulgar dead. 6. Henry was the eldest son of the last-mentioned, and was only an infant at the time of his father's death. The family es- tates had been confiscated, and bestowed upon " Crookback," then duke of Gloucester, and afterwards Richard III., and the youthful Clifford was fain to seek a refuge among the peasants of Cumberland, where, dis- guised as a shepherd, he spent twenty-four years, and hence acquired the name of the " Shepherd Lord." Alter the close of the Wars of the Roses, and the death of Richard 111. )d Bosworth, Clifford was restored to his '.itie am! estates, and was one of the best of his race and the greatest ornaments of the nobility of Eng- land, be rig deeply read in all tiie literature, OF BIOGRAPHY. Clift Clive learning, and science then known, to which he had devoted the long years of his peasant life. He was not, however, devoid of the martial qualities of his family, for he mustered his re- tainers, and appeared at their head at the battle of Flodden, and, though then 60 years of age, showed all the fire and valour natural to his blood. He died in 1528, after having both en- dured the pain of seeing his son, who was created earl of 'Cumberland, run the wildest career of dissipation, and enjoyed the pleasure of witnessing the prodigal's reformation. 7. George Clifford, third earl of Cumberland, was remarkable for his love of adventure and his in- satiable passion for a nautical life. He made eleven different expeditions, fitted out at his own cost, against the Spaniards and Dutch in the West Indies, on the coast of America, &c. ; and had his fill of perils and adventures. He commanded one of the ships that helped to destroy the famous "Invincible Armada," in 1588, and cut a prominent figure in many ac- tions with the would-be invaders, particularly in a battle off Calais. He captured Fayal in 1589, and took twenty-eight vessels of different sizes, valued at upwards of £20,000— a large gum in those days. He was a great favourite of Queen Elizabeth, who invested him with the Garter, and bestowed upon him other marks of her approval. He was a keen patron of spectacles, shows, horse-races, &c, and spent large sums in giving magnificent entertain- ments, the consequence of which was that though he began life immensely rich, he died compara- tively poor, in 1605 leaving behind him the re- putation of ng one of the most singular men, and having run one of the most remarkable careers, on record. 8. Lady Anne Clifford, the daughter and heiress of the above, was the last of her race, and not the least notable. She was born in 1 589, and married to Richard, earl of Dorset, a man of talent and spirit, but a great spend- thrift. Dorset died in 1624, and Lady Anne married Philip Herbert, earl of Pembroke, in 1630 ; a union productive of as little happiness as the former. Pembroke died in 1650, shortly after the fall of the monarchy, having previously made himself specially obnoxious to the royal- ists, who satirized him severely. The extinction of the male branch of the house of Clifford, by the death of Francis, fourth earl of Cumberland, and his son, left Lady Anne sole possessor of the family estates, for which a contest had gone on for thirty-eight years; and she then devoted herself to repair the evils brought about by war, waste, and confiscation. She executed many great works, and did not fail to take full credit for them ; she patronized poets and men of let- ters, wrote memoirs, and made her home, as has been said, " a school for the young and an asy- lum for the aged, a refuge for the persecuted, and a pattern to all." She died at Brougham Castle in 1675, aged 87. Clift, William, klift, a distinguished natura- list, and many years conservator of the llun- terian museum, under the supervision of the council of the lioyal College of Surgeons. He contributed several papers to the literature of natural history, such as " Description of some Fossil Bones found in the Caverns at Proston," " Experiments to ascertain the influence of the Spinal Marrow on the action of the Heart in Fishes," "On the Megatherium," "On Fossil Kemains from the Irrawadi," &c. u. near Bod- min. 1775; d. 1849. 275 Clinton db Witt, klin'-ton, a publicly active citizen of New York, who filled the office of mayor in 1815, when he became a candidate for the presidency of the United States, but was unsuccessful. Between 1817 and 1826 he was frequently elected governor of the state of New York ; but he is noticed here principally on ac- count of his being the most ardent promoter of the scheme for cutting the great canal from Lake Erie to the Atlantic Ocean, b. at Little Britain, Orange county, New York, 1769; d. 1S28. Clinton, Sir Henry, an English general, who, in 1778, was appointed to the command of the army in N. America, but in 1781 was so un- successful that his conduct was severely cen- sured, and he returned to England in the fol- lowing year. Soon after, he published a narra- tive of his conduct, which was replied to by Earl Cornwallis, and again vindicated by Sir Henry In 1734 he published a farther defence of him- self. He then filled the appointment of governor of Limerick, an fl was just made governor of Gibraltar when he died, in 1795. Clinton, George, an American general, who, after serving under Lord Amherst against the French, became brigadier in the continental army, on the outbreak of the War of Indepen- dence, and succeeded in checking the attempt of General Sir Henry Clinton to relieve General Burgoyne. Though surprised by Sir Henry on this occasion, the British general was forced to abandon the enterprise, and retire. George Clinton was also a member of Congress, and served in the wars against the Iroquois Indians. «. 1739; D. 1812. Clisson, Olivier de, khs'-ton, a gallant French soldier, who was made Constable of France in 13:J0. He defeated the Flemings at the battle of Kosbecq, in 1382. b. in Brittany; d. 1407. Clitus, kli'-tus, the most conspicuous of this name was the friend and foster-brother of Alexander the Great. He had saved the king's life in a battle, yet Alexander killed him with a javelin, in a fit of anger, when he was intoxi- cated, because, at a feast, he preferred the actions of Philip to those of his son. Alexander was afterwards inconsolable for the loss of a friend whom he had so wantonly sacrificed in the houi of drunkenness, d. 328 B.C. Clive, Bobert, Lord, of Plassy, Mice, was educated at several schools, but with so little success, that his father, despairing of his becom- ing eminent in any profes-ion, obtained for him a place as a writer in the Honourable East India Company's service. Disgusted with this occu- pation, however, he quilted the desk in 1747, and entered the army, in which he so highly distinguished himself at the taking of a fort belonging to the rajah of Tanjore, that he ob- tained the post of commissary-general. Soon afterwards, the French, under Dupleix, began tc discover their ambiious designs on India, which roused the jealousy of the English, when war was entered upon, and the genius of Clive had many opportunities of displaying itself. ; The French and their allies, however, gained numerous advantages. In 1751, Trinchino- poly, the seat of Ali Khan, the ally of the j English, was besieged by the French ; on which Clivc's superior genius suggested the advantage of attacking the city of Arcot, and the attempt [ succeeded beyond expectation. This circum- I stance drew oil' theenem" from Trichinopoly to I retake Arcot, which Clive defended in such a T a THE DICTION AK¥ Clodoald manner that the siege was raised. This success was followed by a series of victories, and the overthrow of the enemy. In 1753 Clive em- barked for England, to rest awhile and recruit his health, when he was presented, by the Court of Directors, with a sword set with dia- monds. In 1755 he returned to India as Go- vernor of Fort St. David, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and, shortly after, he assisted Admiral Watson in reducing Angria, the pirate, taking Gheriah, his capital, and all his trea- sures. In the meantime, Surajah-u-Dowlah, the nabob, had made a successful attack on the British, captured a number of prisoners, and immured upwards of a hundred of them in the "Black Hole" of Calcutta. This brought Clive at once to that place, which he took, completely defeating the army of Surajah, whom, after the victory of Plassy, in 1757, he compelled to sue for peace. Clive now entered Moorshedabad, and placed Mcer Jaffier, one of the nabob's officers, on the throne. The Mogul conferred on him the title of omrah of the em- pire, with a grant of lands, said to produce £27,000 a year. In 1759 he destroyed a large Duteh armament, sent against him, in Bengal ; and, in the following year, returned to Eng- land, and was created an Irish peer. In 1764 he went to Bengal as president, where he soon restored tranquillity, and returned home in 1767. In 1769 he was made knight of the Bath. In 1773 a motion was made in the House of Com- mons to resolve that, " In the acquisition of his wealth, Lord Clive had abused the powers with which he had been intrusted." He defended himself with spirit and modesty ; and the mo- tion was not only rejected, but the house re- solved, that " Lord Clive had rendered great and meritorious services to his country." This ungrateful treatment, however, penetrated his soul, and in a fit of gloom he put an end to his existence in 1774. b. at Styche, near Market Drayton, in Shropshire, 1725. — Lord Chatham called him a " heaven-born general, who, with- out experience, surpassed all the officers of his time." He represented Shrewsbury in Parlia- ment from 1760 to his death. He left £70,000 to the invalids in the Company's service. His lordship married a sister of Dr. Maskclyne, as- tronomer-royal, by whom he had five children. A statue was, in 1859. erected to his memory, temporarily, opposite the government offices in Whitehall, "with the view of its being ultimately transferred to Shrewsbury. Clodoald, or St. Cloud, klo'-do-ald, son of Clodomir, and grandson of Clovis, king of France. Alter the death of his father, and the murder of his two brothers (see Clodomir), he became a monk, and found refuge in a monas- tery near Paris, which took from him the name of St. Cloud, d. at St. Cloud, 560. Clodius Pcblius, klo'-de-us, a turbulent Roman citizen, descended of an illustrious family. He made himself notorious by his licentiousness, avarice, and ambition. He in- troduced him=elf in women's clothes into Ju- lius Caesar's house, whilst Pompeia, Cresar's wife, of whom he was enamoured, was celebra- ting the mysteries of Ceres, or Bona Dea, at which no man was permitted to be present. Tried for this violation of human and divine laws, he succeeded in corrupting his judges. From a patrician he became a plebeian, in order to be eligible for the tribuneship; and was an inveterate enemy to Cato and Cicero. By his 270 Clovis influence he procured the banishment of the lat- ter, who was, however, soon afterwards recalled. Killed by the slaves of Milo in a quarrel, 52 b.c. Clodomib, klo'-do-meer, son of Clovis, suc- ceeded, on the death of his father in 511, to the kingdom of Orleans. He fought against Sigis- mund, king of Burgundy, took him prisoner, and put him to death. He himself was after- wards slain in a battle with Gondemar, Sigis- mund's successor, in 524. — He left three chil- dren, of whom two were murdered by their uncles, and the third, Clodoald, saved himself by flight. Clootz, Jean Baptist de, klootz, better known by the name of " Anacharsis Clootz," was a Prussian baron, who, at the beginning of the French revolution, distinguished himself by his impiety and extravagances. After perform- ing various feats of madness, calling himself Anacharsis, and the "Orator of the Human Pace," he gave a large sum to the Assembly to make war against all kings, and demanded that a price should be put upon the head of the king of Prussia. Healsodeniedtheauthorityof all rulers, even that of the Creator, and published a work to that effect, b. 1755. Guillotined under Robes- pierre, 1794. — He was nephew to the learned Cornelius Pauw, of Berlin. Clotaire I., king of France, Iclo'-tair, was the son of Clovis and Clotilda. He, at first, was only king of Soissons, in 511, but became, in 561, master of the whole of France, on the death of his brothers, b. 497 ; d. 561. Clotaire II. succeeded his father Chimeric I., in the kingdom of Soissons, at the age ol four months. His mother maintained the kingdom for him against the efforts of Childe- bcrt, and afterwards becoming possessed ol Anstrasia, he reigned over the whole of the kingdom, b. 593; d. 623. Clotaire III. came to the throne of Bur- gundy in 656, on the death of his father, Clovis II. b. 652; d. 670. Batilda, his mother, go- verned during his minority with great wisdom. Clotaire IV. reigned only in name from 719 to 720, Charles Martel, mayor of the palace, having the real power. Clovis 1., klu'-ve, the founder of the French monarchy, succeeded Childerlc, his father, in 4S1. His kingdom then was bounded by the sea and the river Scheldt on the N. and E., on the YV. by the dioceses of Therouanne and Bou- logne, and on the S. by Cambrai. He was not, however, slow in extending these territories. In 4S6 he attacked Soissons, and made that place his capital. In 493 he took Paris, and removed his residence to that city. Three years later he turned his arms against the Ger- mans, and defeated them at Tolbiae. After that victory he embraced Christianity, at the solicitation of his wife Clotilda, and was bap- tized at Itheims. He afterwards defeated the king of Burgundy, and, in 507, gained a great victory over Alaric, king of the Goths, whom he kiiled with his own hand, thus obtaining Aiiuitaine. He was now at the height of his power, but he sullied the successes of his reign bv putting to death several chiefs, whose am- bition he feared, b. 465; d. 511, dividing his estates between his four children, Thierry, Clo- domir, Childebert, and Clotaire. Clovis II., was the second son of Dagobert, kins of Soissons and Burgundy, whom he sue- ceded in 63tf, u. 6J3 : d. 666 OF BIOGRAPHY. i- 4 Clovis Clovis III., was the son of Thierry III., king of France, whom he succeeded in 691, at the age of nine, and reigned five years, under the guar- dianship of Pepin d'Heristal, mayorof the palace. B. 695. Clyde, Lord. (Si?* Campbell, Sir Colin.) Cluttebbuck, Robert, klut'-ter-buk, an an- tiquary and topographer, who wrote a " History oc Hertfordshire," of which county he was a natire. b. 1772; D.1S31. Cobbett, William, kob'-bet, one of the boldest ind purest English political writers, was the son of a small farmer and publican in Sussex. He was bred to country life, but going to Ports- mouth, in 1782, he first beheld the sea, which seems, at once, to have unsettled all his notions of rural existence, for the next day he made application for employment on board a man-of- war. In this, however, he was not successful, and in the following year, being at Guildford fair, he took the sudden determination of pro- ceeding to London, where he was engaged as a cop3'ing clerk to an attorney. Becoming dis- gusted with this employment, he went to Chatham, where he enlisted in a regiment of foot, and, in a short time, having been made a corporal for good conduct, was landed with his regiment on the shores of New Brunswick, N. America. Here he rose to the rank of sergeant-major, and after a service of eight years, returned to England, where, at his own earnest request, he got his discharge, on account of his good behaviour and the services he had rendered the regiment. Shortly afterwards he went to France, to avoid prosecuting a charge which he had preferred against four officers of his regiment for peculation. He then sailed for New York, where he arrived in 1792. Two years after this, he commenced his political career as a writer, by attacking Dr. Priestley, who had just arrived from England, and who was fiercely denounced in a pamphlet entitled " Observations on the Emigration of a Martyr to the Cause of Liberty, by Peter Porcupine." This was written by Cobbett, who rapidly fol- lowed it up by others in the most violent anti- democratic strain. He now became as bold as he was unsparing in his sarcasm, upon all who offered opposition to his views ; and the conse- quence was several prosecutions for libel, which forced him to leave America, and return to Eng- land in 1800. Here he commenced, in London, a daily Tory paper, which did not succeed. He next started his " Weekly Register," which com- manded a large circulation, and which, we believe, without the intermission of a single week, he continued till the day of his death, a period of thirty-three years. It was commenced as an aid to the Tory party ; but it began to change its views in 1803, and finally became thoroughly reforming in its principles. In 1801 two verdicts were obtained against him by the government for libel, and, in 1810, another for a paper which he had written against flogging some local militiamen at Ely. On this occasion he was condemned to pay a fine of £1000 to the king, and to be imprisoned for two years. Having suffered this punishment, he came forth from the house of his confinement as vigorous as ever, and, as might be expected, more hostile against the powers that had incarcerated and amerced him. To annoy the administration, he at once began his "Twopenny Trash," a series of political papers, which had a circulation of 100,000 copies. In 1817, to escape impending 877 Cobden danger, he once more visited America, yet still continued the " Register " by transmitting his "copy " regularly across the Atlantic. In 1818 he returned, and commenced a daily paper, which lived only two months. He was again cast in two actions for libel, when, in 1820, he first tried to get into parliament. In this, how- ever, he did not succeed till 1832, when he was returned to the first reformed parliament for Oldham, which he continued to represent till his death, b. at Farnham, 1762; d. 1835.— Cobbett passed an active life, and wrote an excellent Grammar of the English language, besides many other works of high common sense and excellence, independent of his political labours as an editor. Cobden, Richard, kib'-den, is the son of a small Sussex farmer, who died whilst Richard was a boy. He was therefore taken charge of by an uncle who had a wholesale warehouse in London, into which Richard .was in due time introduced. He afterwards became a partner in a Manchester printed-cotton factory, and occa- sionally " took the road," as commercial travel- ler for the house. He subsequently visited Egypt, Greece, and Turkey, and in 1835 went to N. America. The result of his observations in this country, to some extent, appeared in a pamphlet entitled " England, Ireland, and America, by a Manchester Manufacturer." An- other pamphlet of his, entitled " Russia," also appeared about this time. In 1837 he contested the borough of Stockport, but was unsuccessful, when he made a journey through France, Bel- gium, and Switzerland. In the following year he went through Germany, and, soon after his return, commenced his advocacy of the repeal of the taxes on corn. In 1839 the National Anti-corn-law League was formed, and in 1841 Mr. Cobden was elected member of parliament for Stockport. He now continued to advocate, with all his energy, the repeal of the corn laws, and, being an effective public speaker, he won over a great many to his views. His in- fluence gradually rose in the House of Commons, until, on June 29th, 184G, Sir Robert Peel made his memorable speech, wherein he gave all the credit of the repeal ofthecorn laws to Mr. Cobden. "The name which ought to be," said Sir Robert, " and which will be associated with the success of these measures, is the name of a man who, acting, I believe, from pure and disinterested motives, has advocated their cause with untiring energy, and by appeals to reason, enforced by an elo- quence the more to be admired because it was unaffected and unadorned,— the name which ought to be and will be associated with the suc- cess of these measures, is the name of Richard Cobden." After this, Mr. Cobden once more visited the continent, and £70,000 was collected by his grateful countrymen and presented to him. In 1847 he became member for the West Riding of Yorkshire, which he continued to re- present for several years, when he retired for some time from active public life. In 1859 h« revisited America, and during his absence was chosen member for Rochdale. On his return, he was offered the presidency of the Board of Trade, under the Palmerston administration, which he refused to accept. His reasons for not joining the noble lord's government were ex- plained at length by him at a public meeting in Roehdale, in August, 1859. The general purport of these was, that he had been, tor many years, a decided oprxment of the foreign policy of Lord rHE DICTIONARY Cochran Palmerston, and which he designated as a war- like one. In 1859-60, Mr. Cobden negotiated with the French government commercial trea- ties, having for their object to facilitate the com- mercial intercourse of Great Britain and France, which were subsequently sanctioned by parlia- ment. By these treaties, known in this country as the French commercial treaty and the supple- mentary treaty thereto, great reductions were made in the scale of duties levied on British goods in France, and corresponding abatements in the British tariff on French wines, silks, and other articles, b. at Dunford, near Midhurst, 1804 ; d. in London, 1865. Cochran, Robert, kok'-rdn,a Scotch architect, who was employed by James III. of Scotland in building several great, structures. That monarch created him earl of Mar, and distinguished him by so many marks of his favour, that several of his nobles rose, seized the favourite in the royal presence, and, making short work of him, sum- marily hanged him, in 1484, on the bridge of Lauder, which he himself had erected. Cochran, William, a Scottish artist, who, after studying at Rome, settled in Glasgow, where he acquired a considerable fortune by the practice of his art. His " Endymion" and " Daedalus," historical pictures, are held in high esteem, b. 1738 ; d. 1785. Cochrane, Captain John Dundas, R.N., a great traveller, who made a journey on foot "through Russia, and Siberian Tartary, from the frontiers of China to the Frozen Sea and Kamtschatka." He published, in 1824, a narra- tive of this extraordinary undertaking, and afterwards went to America, where he died, in Columbia, in 1825. b. 1780.— The original in- tention of this explorer was to travel round the globe, as nearly as it could be done, by land. When he left London for St. Petersburg, his design was to cross from Northern Asia to America at Behring's Straits, and the whole of the journey was to be accomplished on foot; " for the best of all possible reasons," he says, — " that my finances allowed of no other." Cochrane, Lord. (See Dundonald, Earl of.) Cochrane, Admiral Sir Alexander, G.C.B., son of Thomas, eighth earl of Dundonald, entered the navy at an early age, and attained to the rank of post-captain in 1783. After doing good service in various actions while in command of theHind and the Thetis, he was, in 1799, appointed to the Ajax, of 80 guns, and joined the fleet under Lord Keith, which accom- panied the expedition of Sir Ralph Abererombie to Egypt, and had entrusted to him the duty of providing for the landing of the troops, which service he performed in a most satisfactory manner. He sat in parliament for the Dun- fermline burghs from 1804 to 1806 ; on the rupture of the peace of Amiens, he was ap- pointed to the Northumberland, 74 ; in the following year was made rear-admiral; was with Nelson in the celebrated pursuit of the French and Spanish fleets ; in 1806, in con- cert with Sir John Duckworth, he pursued and overtook a French fleet sent out to relieve St. Domingo, and, in the action which followed, captured the whole of the enemy's ships except two frigates and a small corvette. For this service, Admiral Cochrane was created a knight of the Hath, received the thanks of parliament, and a sword of honour and the freedom of the city of London. He assisted in the capture of the Danish West India islands, and of Mar- SB Cockburn tinique and Guadaloupe, and was appointed governor of the latter island in 1810. In the war with the United States, in 1813, Sir Alex- ander was nominated to the command on the North American station, and vigorously block- aded the enemy's ports. He was made admiral of the Blue in 1819; and held the command at Plymouth from 1821 to 7.824. b. 1758 ; d. sud- denly at Paris, in 1832. — His son, Sir Thomas John Cochrane, K.C.B., is admiral of the White, to which rank he attained in 1856. His most dis- tinguished services were performed under his father's command on the coast of America; against the pirates in the Indian Archipelago in 1844 ; and at the capture of the capital of Borneo in 1846. b. 1813. Cockburn, Henry Thomas, Lord, ko'-burn, was the son of Archibald Cockburn, of Cockpen, one of the barons of the Exchequer in Scotland. He followed the profession of the law, and became one of the Scottish lords of Session. In 1830 he was made solicitor-general for Scot- land, and in 1834 was promoted to the bench. As a member of the Scottish bar he achieved many triumphs, and was an early contributor to the pages of the " Edinburgh Review." He also wrote a life of his friend Lord Jeffrey, which was published in 1852. A most agreeable work by Lord Cockburn, entitled " Memorials of my Time," has been published since his death. It gives an account of the leading events which marked the history of Scotland in his day, and is replete with amusing ar.d characteristic anecdotes of the distinguished men who figured in " modern Athens " during her palmiest days. B. 1779 ; i). while on the Ayr circuit, 185 1. Cooklukn, Admiral the Right Honourable Sir George, G.C. Li., entered the navy in 1781, and early began to distinguish himself. After serving on the East India, home, and Mediter- ranean stations, in 1795 he shared in the blockade and capture of Leghorn. He subse- quently served in the West Indies, where he was the principal means of Martinique being ceded to Britain as a colony. For this he received the thanks of the House of Commons. In 1812, the duty of reconciling Spain and her transatlantic colonies was committed to him, and in 1813 and 1814 he was actively engaged in the American war. After Waterloo, he was deputed to convey Napoleon to St. Helena, and in 1818 entered parliament, representing Ports- mouth, Weobly, and Plymouth, till 1830. In 1841 he was returned for Ripon, for which he sat till 1846, when he retired from public life. Before his death he inherited the baronetcy of his brother, b. 1772; d. 1853. Cockburn, John, of Ormiston,adistinguished agriculturist, whose efforts to encourage that important branch l2 industry have procured for him the title of " Father of Scottish hus- bandry." He introduced the system of granting long leases to tenants, which has been pro- ductive of immense advantage to the agriculture of Scotland ; he also established a linen factory, a bleachfield, &c., and was thus the means of introducing branches of industry which have since become largely developed in that country. He was a member of the last Scotch Parlia- ment, and the first representative of East Lothian in the imperial House of Commons, b. near the end of the 17th century; d. 1758. Cockburn, Mro., a lady of literary tastes and considerable talent, the authoress of the modern version of the " Flowers of the Forest," and OF BIOGRAPHY. Cockburn several other pieces of great merit, was the daughter of Rutherford it Fernilee, Selkirk- shire, and wife of Patrick Cockburn, advocate, younger brother of Cockburn of Ormiston, the agriculturist. Her house in Edinburgh was the resort of all the most distinguished men of the day then resident in Edinburgh. j>. 1794. Cockbubn, Mrs. Catherine, a self-educated authoress, who, at the age of 17, published a tragedy called "Agnes de Castro," which was well received. Another tragedy by her, "The Fatal Friendship," was produced with great success at the Lincoln's-inn Fields Theatre about two years later, and is considered her best piece; she wrote several others. Mrs. Cockburn also wrote on metaphysical subjects, and composed several pieces in defence of Locke's philosophy, and on kindred themes. After changing from Protestantism to Catholi- cism, and back to Protestantism again, she married the Rev Mr. Cockburn, who was for some years incumbent of Long Horsley, near Morpeik. Her maiden name was Trotter, b. 1679; D. 1749. Cockbuen', Sir Alexander James Edmund, lord chief justice, was tducated at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge. In 1825 he was admitted of the Middle Temple, and in 1829 was called to the bar. In 1841 he became Q.C., and on account of the great ability with which he defended Lord Pahnerston's foreign policy in the Don Pacifieo debate, and the assistance which he gave to the liberal party from time to time, he was appointed solicitor-general, in 1850, by Lord John Russell, and received the honour of knighthood. He then became at- torney-general under Lord Aberdeen, and sub- sequently chief justice of the court of Common Pleas. On the overthrow of the Derby admi- nistration in 1859, he was appointed to the lord chief justiceship by the government of Lord Palmerston. b. in London, 1802. Cocker, Edward, kok'-er, ai. industrious schoolmaster and penman. He published four- teen copy-books, a small English dictionary, a book tor writing, called " Cocker's Morals," 7 ; n. 1847. Combermeke, fctapleton Cotton, Viscount, kom'-ber-meer, was the eldest son of Sir R. S.Cotton, M.P. for Cheshire, and in 1791 en- tered the army. Engaged, first in Flanders, next at the Cape of Good Hope, and then in India, he saw a good deal of service, when he returned to England, and accompanied the duke of Wellington to the Peninsula. Here he greatly distinguished himself, and in 1810 was appointed, under the duke, to the command of the allied forces. He continued actively engaged till the close of the war, and in 1817 was appointed go- vernor of Barbadoes, with the command of the forces in the West Indies. This position he, in 1822, exchanged for the command of the British troops in India, and in 1825 distinguished him- self at the siege and capture of the fortress of Bhurtpore. On the death of the duke of Wei lington he became constable of the Tower of London, and lord-lieutenant of the Tower Ham- lets. For his services in the Peninsula he had received a peerage, and for those in India he was created a viscount. In 1855 he became a field-marshal, and also held the appointment in the court as gold stick in waiting on her ma- jesty Queen Victoria, b. 1773. b. 1865. Commehson, Philibert, kom'-mair-sawnii, a celebrated French botanist, who made a voyage round the world, and collected a vast variety of plants. He did not live long enough to de- scribe his discoveries, but his collection and drawi gs were deposited in the Jardin des Flantes, at Paris, b. at Chatillon, Ain, 1727 ; t>. at Mauritius 1773. — To him we are indebted for several beautiful flowers which came ori- ginally from China and the Moluccas. Comixes, Philip do, kom-e'-nen, a French Comte statesman and historian, who was descended from a noble family, and became eminent at the court of Louis XI. He was first attached to Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, but, in 1472, trans- ferred his services to Louis. After the death of this monarch, he joined himself to the party of the duke of Orleans, who afterwards became Louis XII., but was unfortunate in being im- prisoned and having his property confiscated. Shortly after the accession of Louis XII., who did not please to remember the sacrifices he had made for him, he retired to the country, and passed the remainder of his days in writing his memoirs, b. at the Chateau de Comines, near Comines, 1445 ; d. at Argenton, in Poitou, 1509. — His " Memoirs of his Own Times" show a great knowledge of men and things, an acutc- ness of judgment in tracing circumstances to their causes, and are enriched with a variety of excellent observations. The best edition of the original is that of Fresnoy, 1747, 4 vols. 4to; and in English, the translation of Uvedale, with curious notes, in 2 vols. 8vo. Commodus, L. Aurelius Antoninus, kom'-mo- dus, a Roman emperor, son of Marcus Aurelius, succeeded his fattier in 180. He was naturally depraved and licentious, committing the most terrible cruelties and crimes. Of great stature and strength, he would fight with the gladia- tors, and boasted of his dexterity in killing wild beasts in the amphitheatre. Poisoned by Martia, one of his concubines, whose death he had meditated, 192. b. 161. Comnent/s. (See Alexis, Anna, Isaac, &c.) Cosipton. Henry, kom'-ton, an English pre- late, sou ot the earl of Northampton, who fell in the royal cauee at. the battle of Hopton Heath. Originally in the army, he entered into orders, and in 1074 was preferred to the bishopric of Oxford, and, the year following, translated to London. He now had the charge of educating the princesses Mary and Anne, afterwards queens of England. James II., on the bishop's refusal to suspend Dr. Sharpe, removed him from his episcopal functions; but, before the Revolution, he was restored. On the landing of the prince of Orange, he conveyed the prin- cess Anne from London to Nottingham, and exhibited great zeal in placing William and Mary on the throne, at whose coronation he officiated, instead of archbishop Bancroft, b. 1632; d. at Fulham, 1713. — This prelate was fond of botany, having the finest garden of exotics in England, and greatly assisted Ray, Plukenct, and other naturalists. Comte, Auguste, konte, a modern French speculative philosopher, who commenced his public life as a follower of Saint-Simon, and, in 1820, prepared a work explanatory of the system of that enthusiast. He subsequently became mathematical professor at the Polyteelvme School; but, on the accession of Louis Napoleon to the empire, he was deprived of that oflice. Between 1830 and 1812 he published, in si/, large volumes, his "Course of Positive Philo- sophy," the object of which was to show that the human mind passes throuqrfi three succes- sive stages in its meditations upon all subjects. The first the theological ; the second, the me- taphysical; and the third, the positive, in which the mind is supposed to have attained its great power of comprehending all things con- nected with those laws by which the universe is governed. His system, however, is too elabo- rate to 1 e entered upon here. In 16 13 he pub- THE DICTIONARY Comyns lUhed a mathematical work, and in the following year, a " Discourse," intended to enforce the views of his larger work. M. Comte's theories, whatever may be their value, attracted a con- siderable number of ardent admirers, especially amongst the disciples of St. Simon and Fourier. At Paris a kind of institution was formed, of which he himself was the high priest, and of which all the members worked, wi'n much activity, to spread the ideas of their master. These ideas were developed in a series of works, of which the first was his " Positive Philosophy." 'J his was translated into English by Miss Alar- tincau. b. at Montpellier, 1798: d. at Paris, 1857. Comtits, Sir John, kum'-ins, author of a "Di- gest of the English Law," which he left in MS., but which was translated and published under the superintendence of his nephew in 1762-67, in five volumes, to which a supplementary one was added in 1776. The work has gone through several editions. Some other law works of his have also been published. Little is known of the particulars of his life ; but he had, before his death in 1740, r '*ained to the position of lord chief baron of tne Exchequer, b. 1667. CoNciNoCoNciNi.fam-cAe'-Me, calledMarshal d'Ancre, went, in 16tiO, from Florence to France, with Mary de Medici, wife of Henry IV. After the death of that king, he obtained a marquisate and some considerable appoint- ments. At the same time, he was first minister of the young king, Louis ill I., over whom he exercised great influence. He, however, in- curred the jealousy of the nobles, and at their instigation, Concini was assassinated, 1617. — His wife was afterwards condemned to death for the priictice of sorcery, and their son de- clared, by the parliament, disennobled, and in- capable of holding any estates in the kingdom. Conde, Louis, kon-dai, the first prince of, a chief of the Huguenots, was the son of Charles of Bourbon, duke of Vendome. He displayed greatcourage at the battle of St. Quentin; but, on the death of Henry II. of France, he became so discontented with the measures of the duke de Guise, that he joined the H uguenot party. He was wounded and taken prisoner at the battle of Dreux, in 1562, and slain in that of Jarnac, 1569; b. 1530. — The deeds of his son and grandson, Henry I. and Henry II., do not call for any special notice. The latter's greatest glory, according to Voltaire, was that he was jthe father of the great Conde. Cond£, Louis II., prince of, known as the "Great Conde," was the son of Prince Henry II. of Conde, and was first known as duke d'Enghien. In early years he showed great military genius, and at twenty-two entirely de- feated, in 1643, the Spanish at Kocroy, although Wry inferior to them in numbers. The follow- ing year he gained the battle of Friburg, and, in 1615, that of Nordlingen, in Germany. Le*s fortunate in Catalonia, he failed in his attempt to take Lerida, but, soon after, defeated the archduke Leopold at Lens, which led to the peace with Germany, in 1648. During the troubles of the Fronde, Conde, who had, at first, taken part with the court, afterwards sided against Mazarin. In 1650 he was arrested and deprived of his liberty for thirteen months. Set free, he hastened to avenge his wrongs, and, levying a body of troops, marched on Paris, but, after some successes, was beaten by Tu- renne, in the Faubourg St. Antoine. He then 288 Condillac joined the Spaniards in the Netherlands, when, in 1659, the peace of the Pyrenees restored him to his country. War afterwards breaking out between France and Spain, he, in 1668, con- quered Franche-Comte' in three weeks, and in 1672 evinced great talents in the war with Hol- land. The hard- fought battle of Sentf was his last exploit. His closing days he spertt at Chantilly, enjoying the friend.-hip of Boileau, Moliere, and Kacine. b. at Paris, 1621; n. 1686. — Bossuet delivered his luneral oration, which is considered a masterpiece of elo- quence. Condb, Jose Antonio, a Spanish orientalist, who distinguished himself, in 1796, by his trans- lations of some of the Greek minor poets, and in 1799 by a translation of "Al-Edrisi's Descrip- tion of Spain," from the Arabic. He subse- quently became a member of the Spanish Aca- demy, and superintended, in conjunction with two other litterateurs, the continuation of the collection of early Castilian poetry by Sanchez. When the French invaded his country, he was appointed by Joseph Bonaparte chief librarian of the Madrid library. After the French were expelled from the Peninsula, he went to Paris, where he resided for some years, and returned to Spain only to pass the remainder of his days in obscurity, neglect, and poverty. *. at Para- leja, in the province of Cuenpa, 1765; d. a» Madrid, 1820. Condkr, Josiah, kon'-der, was the son of a bookseller, which trade he himself followed, and became the proprietor and editor of the " Eclectic Review." In 1819 he retired from the bookselling business, but continued to manage the Review till 1837. In 1824 his "Modern Traveller" was commenced, and ex- tended to thirty three volumes. He continued producing other works of a useful and some o! a religious tendency, till 1832, when, in the in- terest of the dissenters, he undertook the edi- torship of the " Patriot" newspaper. In this situation he continued for twenty-three years, occasionally publishing pamphlets on passing topics, and works of greater importance. Amongst these latter may be noticed, " An Analytical and Comparative View of all Reli- gions;" and "The Harmony of Histovy with Prophecy." B. in London, 1789; d. 1855. Condillac, Eticnne Bonnot de, kon-de'-yak, a distinguished French metaphysician, whos*: admiration of the English philosopher, John Locke, led him, in 1746, to publish his " Essay on Human Perceptions," which in 1749 he fol- lowed by his " Treatise on Systems." The former was designed to advance the opinions of Locke, and the latter to oppose the abstract theories of Leibnitz and Spinoza, as being op- posed to ideas received from experience. His third work was a " Treatise on the Sensations,' which is considered his masterpiece, and in which his philosophical system ia fully unfolded. After the publication of these works, he was ap- pointed tutor to the prince of Parma, and in this situation, published his " Course of Stu- dies," which he divides into the arts of writing, reasoning, and thinking, followed by a general history of men and empires. When he had finished the education of his royal pupil, he re- signed himself once more to philosophical medi- tations, in which he passed the remainder of his days. Previous to his death, however, he published a work on " Logic." b. at Grenoble, 1715 j d. 1780. — However ingenious Condillac OF BIOGRAPHY. Condorcet may be, he is to be considered neither a faithful nor a profound expounder of the views of Locke. His system may be characterized as one of nearly absolute sensation, whilst that of Locke unites sensation with reflection. Cohdokcet, John Anthony Nicholas Caritat, marquis of, Icon-dor -sai, a French philosopher, ■vlurated at the college of Navarre, where he soon distinguished himself as a geometer. In 1765 he published his first work, " On the Inte- gral Calculus," which was received with appro- bation by the Academy of Sciences. In 1767 ho published his treatise, " Of the Problem of Three Bodies;" and the year following his "Analytical Essays." In 1769 he was chosen member of the academy, and in 1773 secretary, in which capacity he distinguished himself by the elegance of his eulogies on those academi- cians who had died since 1699. His " Life of Turgot" is reckoned an admirable piece of bio- graphy ; but that of Voltaire, of whom he was an original disciple, is flattering beyond bounds. On the approach of the Revolution, he endea- voured, by his writings, to extend its principles, and, in 1791, became a member of the National Assembly, and of the Jacobin club. He offered many insults to King l.ouis in his misfortunes, though he opposed his being brought to trial. When Robespierre arrived at power, Condorcet was denounced as a Girondist, and concealed himself for some time in the house of Madame Verney. Fearing, however, that she might suffer on his account, he voluntarily quitted her roof, and became a houseless wanderer in the country around Paris, with nowhere to lay his head. At last the necessities of hunger drove him into a small inn at the village of Clunart, where he was taken and committed to prison. On the following morning he was found dead in his cell, having terminated his existence by taking poison, which, to save himself from the ignominy of the scaffold, he always carried about with him. u. near Nion, in Dauphiny, 1743 ; d. in the prison of Bourg-la-Reine, 17!! 1. — He left "A Sketch of the Progress of the Hu- man Mind," a " Tract on Calculation," and an " Elementary Treatise on Arithmetic." He had a lofty mind, and endeavoured to make his phi- losophy applicable to the happiness of his fellow- men, and influential in ameliorating the se- verities of social institutions. His manners were cold, but his heart was warm. D'Alembcrt said of him, tliat he was a volcano covered with snow. Coxfccius, or KooNG-rtr-TSE, kon-fa'-sha-its, a Chinese philosopher, whose extraordinary precocity enabled him to be a mandarin in the third year of his age. He lost his father before this; "but he had a learned man for his grand- father, who bestowed great pains upon him, and early brought his understanding to maturity. When he was 19 he took a wife, by whom he had a son, who died at the age of 50, and left a son called Tson-tsc, whose character stood high for wisdom and virtue. At the age of 23 he formed the project of a general reformation in the kingdom of Loo, and carried it out with success. At that time, however, the Chinese empire was not consolidated under one sove- reign, but seems to have been divided into several separate kingdoms. Notwithstanding the respect which the king and the people of Loo had for the great wisdom of Confucius, he was driven from the country, and became en outcast and a wanderer, lie continued, 889 Congreve however, to disseminate his doctrines, passing through several states, endeavouring to br>~ ■ mankind to wisdom and happiness. His ioi- lowers became numerous, and of them he selected ten as his chosen disciples, to whom he imparted the treasures of wisdom. These as- sisted in spreading his tenets, until they wero almost universally adopted by the people, when they became the great authority of Chinese politics and morals. Lived about the 6th eel tury ii.c— When the king of Loo was informed of the death of the great philosopher, he bursv into tears and said, " that Heaven, being dis- pleased with him, had taken away Confucius." From that time his memory was cherished as that of a saint, and several magnificent struc- tures were raised to his honour. His books are regarded by the Chinese as the fountain of wisdom ; and, according to all authorities, they deserve the praise bestowed upon them, as far as regards a pure morality. Their instructions are cherished not only by the Chinese, but by the Cochin-Chinese and the Coreans, and other people, forming, altogether, perhaps not less than nearly half the population of Asia. His descendants are held in veneration, and enjoy extra privileges, at this day. Congli-.ton, Henry Brooke Parnell, Lord, ton - gel-ton, a distinguished politician of the ad- vanced Whig or Liberal party, was the son of Sir John Parnell, chancellor of the Irish Exche- quer, and l.etitia Charlotte, daughter of sir Arthur Brooke, of Colebrooke, Fermanagh. Ho was also connected with the Portarlington fa- mily, having, in 1801, married the daughter of the first earl of Portarlington. Lord do Vesci was his cousin, being the son of his mother's sister. With such connexions, it was no diffi- cult matter for Mr. Parnell to obtain a seat in Parliament. Accordingly he was returned, in 1802, for the borough of Portarlington, but soon resigned, and remained out of Parliament till 1806, when he was elected for Queen's County ; and, though he had to encounter severe contests with the Tory party, he retained the seat till 1332, when he declined a contest with the then powerful repeal party. In 1833, he was returned for Dundee, in Scotland, which he continued to represent till 1841, when he was elevated to the House of Peers, by the title of Lord Conglcton of Conglcton, county of Chester. He had pre- viously (in 1812) succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his elder brother; and held at different periods under the Whig government the offices of lord of the Irish Treasury (18067; Secretary at War (1830) ; and Paymaster of the Forces (1835-1841). As Sir Henry Parnell (by which name he is best known) he took an active share in the debates in the House of Commons ; and made the motion on the Civil List vihich upset the ministry of the Duke of Wellington in ls30. Lord Conglcton published a number of pamphlets, &c, on subjects connected with cur- rency, banking, trade, the penal laws ag.)iin.f the Irish Catholics, financial reform, roads, &c. u. 1776; committed suicide while labouring under aberration of mind, in 1812. CoxGuiiVK, William, kori-grece, an Fnglisi dramatic poet, brought up in Ireland, and edu- cated at trinity College, Dublin; after which h • entered of the Middle Temple, but nevei followed the law. His first literary production wa; a romance called "Incognita, or Love and Duty reconciled," written at the age of seven- teen. In 16 l J3 appeared his comedy of the " old U THE DICTIONARY Congreve Bachelor," which was received with great ap- plause at Drury Lane, and drew from Dryden the remark that he had never seen such a first play. It was the means of recommending him to the earl of Halifax, who made him a com- missioner of the Hackney-coach office. His uext performance was the "Double Dealer;" (md in 1695 he brought out his " Love for Love," and two years afterwards his " Mourning Bride." His next piece was "'I he Way of the World," which was so ill received, that it disgusted him with the stage, and determined him no longer to write for it. b. at Bardsa, near Leeds, York- shire, 1670; d. in London, 1729. — His remains were interred in Westminster Abbey. Besides the above pieces, he wrote the " Judgment of Paris," a masque ; " Semcle," an opera ; and some poems. He left his fortune to Henrietta, duchess of Marlborough. Congreve, Sir William, Baronet, entered the army, and in 1816 was made a lieutenant- colonel, when he retired from the service. In 1808 he invented the Congreve rocket, for which he received from the emperor of Russia the de- coration of St. Anne, for the effects it produced at the battle of Leipsic, in 1813. It proved similarly effective at Waterloo ; but before either of these battles, it was employed by Lord Cochrane in his attack on the French tleet in the Basque Roads and at Walcheren. It is now in universal use in an improved form. Sir William sat in parliament for various constitu- encies, and was inspector of the royal laboratory at Woolwich. In 1826 he engaged in some mining transactions, which resulted in a suit in chancery and a decision against him for fraud. This was on May 3, 1828, when Sir William hastened to Toulouse, where, eleven days after- wards, he died. b. in Middlesex, 1772. Conon, ko'-non, a famous general of Athens, who became governor of all the islands of the Athenians, and was defeated in a naval battle by Lysander, near iEgospotamos. He voluntarily went into banishment to Evagoras, king of Cyprus, and afterwards to Artazerxes, king of Persia, by whose assistance he delivered his country from the Spartan yoke. He defeated the Spartans near Cnidus, in an engagement where Pisander, the enemy's admiral, was killed. By his means the Athenians fortified their city W'*h a strong wall. d. about 388 b.c. Conrad 1., count of Franconia, kori-rad,viaa elected emperor of Germany in 911. d. 918. Conkad II., son of Herman, duke of Fran- conia, was elected emperor of Germany in 1021. In 1027 he was crowned at Rome, as emperor of the East. He also obtained, in 1033, the king' dom of Burgundy by the will of King Ko' doiphus III. d. 1039. Conhad III., son of Frederick, duke of Suabia, was elected emperor of Germany in 1138. Alter a long war with the duke of Saxony and Ba- varia, he, in 1117, set out with Louis VII. of France for the Holy Land, laying siege unsuc- cessfully to Damascus, b. 1093 ; d. 1152. Conhad IV. was elected emperor of Germany after the death of his father, Frederick II., in 1250. Pope Innocent IV., who claimed the right of disposing of the crown, nominated William of Holland, and preached a crusade against Conrad. Conrad thereupon marched into Italy, took Naples, Capua, and other places, but died in the midst of his victories, 1254. Co.n i; \ni.\-, or Conbadino, Icon-rud'-in, was Constable the son of Conrad IV., and the acknowledged duke of Suabia; but his inheritance of Sicily and Apulia passed away from him finally by the battle of LaGrandella, in 1265. In 1267, in his sixteenth year, Couradin took the field at the head of 1OO0 men, and after various successes, met Charles of Anjou at Tagliocozzo, where he was defeated, in 1268. He fled from the field, and, after passing through a series of misfor- tunes, not uncommon to crowned heads who have been unsuccessful in the field, he was caught and delivered into the hands of Charles for a sum of money. He was taken to Naples, and, with Frederick of Austria and several of his followers, condemned to sutler on the scaffold. Beheaded 1268. — There is a story about Con- radin's throwing from the scaffold a glove to be given to Peter of Aragon, the husband of Con- stance, the daughter of Manfred, who first held his inheritance of Sicily and Apulia, and who fell at La Grandclla. It rests, however, on doubtful authority. The mother of Conradin, when she heard of her son's capture, hastened from Germany to ransom him. She, however, was too late ; when she applied the money to the founding of the great convent del Carmine, where, behind the great altar, the remains of Conradin and Frederick were deposited. Conscience, Henri, kou'-sheim, or kon'-shai, one of the most distinguished fiction writers of the Netherlands, was the son of a dealer in old iron, who determinedly opposed the literary bent of his son's mind. Opposition, however, was of no avail, and Henri, after serving some years in the army, obtained the patronage of King Leopold, and soon made himself a name famous not only in his own country, but throughout Europe. The scenes of his country's history, and the manners and mode of life of the people, are the themes Conscience delighted to portray. b. at Antwerp, 1812. Constable, John, kun'-sta-bel, an eminent English artist, who began life as a miller with his father, but whose genius early led him into a very different pursuit. Having discovered a decided taste for drawing, he received much encouragement from Sir George Iieaumont, and took instructions from R. R. Reinagle, R.A. Landscape-painting became his profession, and in 1795 he went to London, but docs not seem to have received much encouragement. In 1799 he again visited the metropolis, and in 1800 was admitted a student in the Royal Aca- demy. Previous to this he had chiefly lived in Sull'olk. He now became a steady exhibitor at the Royal Academy, and gradually worked him- self into notice and fame. It was not, however, till 1829 that his merits received the acknow- ledgment they had long deserved. In that year he was elected a Royal Academician, b. at East Bergholt, Suffolk, 1776 ; d. at Hampstead, 1837. — Constable made nature his stud}', and ho painted many admirable pictures. Among these may be mentioned his "Cornfield" and his " Valley Farm." When yet a young man, he was asked by his patron, Sir George Beaumont, what style "he intended to adopt. " None but God Almighty's, Sir George," was the reply. He could nut have adopted a better. " I love," he used to say, " every stile and stump and lane in the village ; and as long as I am able to hold a brush, 1 shall never cease to paint them." (See " Life," by Leslie, London, 1842.) Constable, Archibald, an eminent Scotch publisher, to be remembered chiefly on account OF BIOGRAPHY. Constant of his connexion with Sir Walter Scott and the " Edinburgh Review." b. 1775 ; d. 1827. Constant, Henri Benjamin, kon'-ttang, a dis- tinguished French writer and statestnan.studied English literature at Oxford, Scotch philosophy at Edinburgh, and German learning at Erlan- gcn, and among his personal friends were all the great thinkers of the day — Kant, Goethe, Wie- land, Gibbon, Mackintosh, &c. He was republi- can in his politics, but subsequently supported the constitutional monarchy, though always steadily maintaining the public liberties. Between 1818 and 1830, he was prominent in the chambers and elsewhere in discussing all great events. He was the founder of the "Constitutionnel" news- paper, which, under his auspices, was singularly successful. Though the recipient of favours from Louis Philippe, he carefully guarded against the idea that he thereby forfeited his indepen- dence of action, telling the king on one occasion that if the government made blunders, he would be the first to expose them notwithstanding his majesty's favours ; to which the royal reply was, that " He expected and desired nothing else." Constant's great work, and his last, was "Religion, considered as regarded its Service, its Forms, and its Developments." He was author of several books besides, b. at Lausanne, 1767 ; d. at Paris, Dec. 1830, and was buried in the Pantheon. Constantine, kon'-ttctn-tine, a name very com- mon to the emperors of the East, the most celebrated of whom was Flavius Valerius, the son of Constantius, and surnamed " the Great " from the grandeur of his exploits. He con- quered Licinius, his brother-in-law and colleague on the throne, and obliged him to lay aside the imperial power. It is said that, as he was going to light against Maxentius, one of his rivals, he saw a cross in the sky, with this inscription, en touto nika, — in hoc vince. This was about the year 312, when he became a convert to Christianity, and obtained an easy victory, ever after adopting and using a cross as his standard. He soon rose to be sole emperor, and began to reform the state. He prohibited nocturnal assemblies, and abolished many of the obsceni- ties of paganism. In 821 he ordered the ob- servance of the Sunday, and abstinence from work on that day ; caused the Christian churches which war had destroyed to be rebuilt, and in 323 assembled the first universal council at Nicica; abolished the consulting of oracles, and the fights of gladiators ; but in 326, upon a false accusa- tion, caused his son Crispus to be beheaded for attempting to seduce Fausta, his own step- mother. She herself, however, was afterwards put to death. In 328 he founded a city where Byzantium forjnerly stood, and called it afterhis own name, Constantinopolis. Here he trans- ported part of the Roman senate ; and, by keeping his court in it, raised it to be the rival ofKome in population and magnificence. From that time the two imperial capitals began to look upon each other with an eye of envy; and soon after the ase of Constantino, a separation was made of the two empires, and Home was called the capital of the western, and Constanti- nopolis the capital of the eastern, n. 271; d. at Nicomedia, 337. This emperor has been dis- tinguished lor personal courage, and praised !nr the protection he extended to the Christians ; but the murder of his son Crispus has been deservedly censured. His remains were carried 'o Constantinople, where they were sumptuously interred. He was placed by the senate of Rome 291 Constantine) among the gods, and by the Christian^ of tha East, among the saints. His festival is cele- brated on the 21st of May by the Greek, Russian, and Coptic churches. He left three sons, Con- stantinus, Constans, and Constantius, among whom he divided his empire. The other dis- tinguished emperors of this name are the following: — Constantine II., called the " Younger," eldest son of the above, received, as his share of the empire, on the death of his father, Gaul, Spain, and Great Britain. Desirous, however, of possessing himself of the territory of his brother Constans, he invaded Italy, but was defeated, and killed near Aquileia, 310. Constantine 111., surnamed Pogonatus, or the " Bearded," who was the 19th emperor of the East, mounted the throne in 668, with his two brothers, Tiberius and Heraclius, on the death of their father, Constans II. He waged war successfully against the Saracens, but rendered himself odious by the murder of his two bro- thers, and died 685. — It was under this prince that the "Greek fire" was first employed. Constantine IV., the 2Sth emperor of the East, succeeded his father, Leo the Isaurian, ih 741. He sided with the Iconoclasts, who hurled down the images of the saints, and persecuted the followers of the Romish church, d. of the plague, in an expedition against the Bulga- I rians, 775. — He was surnamed Copronymus. I Constantine V., the 30th emperor of the East, succeeded his father, Leo IV., in 780, his mother Irene being regent. She at length took complete possession of the throne, and was cruel enough to put out the eyes of her younger son, who died 797. b. 770. — (See Irene.) Constantine VI., who was surnamed Por- phyrogenitus, emperor of the East, sen "bf Leo the Wise, mounted the throne in 911, at the age of six, under the regency of hi» mother Zoe. > He was deposed in 919 by Romanus I., surnamed Lecapenus, but regained the throne in 915. He continued to reign without any associate in the imperial power until 9o9, when he was poisoned by his daughter Theophania at the instigation of her brother Romanus, who suc- ceeded him. Constantine VII., the third son of Ro- manus I., reigned with his father and his two brothers, from 919 to 915, during the time that Porphyrogcnitus was deposed. Constantine VIII., second son of Roma- nus II., succeeded John Zernisces, and was pro- claimed emperor of the Ea-st, with his brother, Basilius II., who held the principal authority till 1025, wheu he died. Constantino was after that sole emperor, d. 1028. (See Basilius II.) Constantine IX., who was surnamed the "Gladiator," obtained the empire in 10 12, having married the empress Zoe, widow of Romanus II 1. This prince is known alone for his debaucheries. He allowed the Turks to increase their terri- tories at his expense, and to establish themsel vt s in Persia, b. 1000 ; ». 1054. Constantine X., who was surnamed Ducas, succeeded, in 1059, Isaac Comnenus, who had adopted him. In his reign the Scythians ravaged the empire, arid some cities were de- stroyed by earthquakes, d. 1067. Constantine XL, a son of the preceding, who was associated with his brotner Michael VII. on the throne of the Eastern empire. He ceased to reign in 1078, when Constantinople was takcu by Niccphorus. U 2 THE DICTIONARY Constantino Constantine XII., (Palaeologus), the last em- peror of the East, the son of Manuel II., suc- ceeded his brother John Palaeologus II., 1448. In 1453, Mahomet II. laid siege to Constanti- nople with a formidable army. Constantine de- fended the eity bravely, but, abandoned by the princes of Christendom, he was unable to hold the place, and died, fighting like a hero, in the breach, 1453. His death was followed by the .'apture and pillage of Constantinople, which Mahomet made the capital of the Ottoman empire. Constantine, Flavius Julius, an usurper, who was proclaimed, in 407, although a private soldier, emperor of the West, by the Roman soldiery in Great Britain, and for some time sustained his dignity by the victories he won. He fixed his court at Aries, in France ; but the emperor Honorius laid siege to this place, forced him to surrender, and put him to death, 411. — About this time Arcadius, the brother of Ho- norius, was emperor of the East. Constantine, Paulovitch, the second son of the emperor Paul of Russia. The name of Constantine was given him at baptism, in the hope that he would one day reign at Constanti- nople. This, however, wasnot destined to come to pass, for, from some unaccountable cause, he took a disgust at the honour designed for him, and at the age of seventeen, married a sister of the duchess of Kent, with whom, however, he did not live happily. In four years they parted by mutual consent. In 1799 he fought under Suwarrow in the Italian campaign, and dis- tinguished himself by his personal bravery, though not by his capacity for command. In 1805 he headed the reserve on the field of Aus- terlitz, where he withstood the fierce and energetic charges of Bernadotte, and, when the battle was lost, retreated in good order. Throughout the remainder of the wars with Napoleon I. he preserved the character of a brave and resolute soldier. At the close of the war he became generalissimo of Poland, but 'iad little sympathy with the nation over whose lestinies he held the military power. In 1820 lie procured a divorce from his wife, and married a beautiful Polish lady; and in 1S25 the emperor Alexander died at Taganrog. He was the pre- sumptive heir to the throne, and when the news of the death of the emperor reached St. Peters- burg, Nicholas called the council of the empire together, and required them to take the oath of allegiance to his brother, who had now become viceroy of Poland. The council, however, pro- duced a paper in which Constantine renounced his claim to the throne, and desired that it might be transferred to the next heir, who was the grand-dukeNicholas, and who, consequently, ascended the throne. Constantine was present at the coronation of his brother in Moscow, after which he returned to his government of l'oland at Warsaw. Here he continued to reside till 1830, when an insurrection of the brave- spirited Poles took place, and he was driven from his palace of the Belvedere, and forced to quit Poland. War now commenced between the Russians and the Poles ; but the best days of Constantine had passed, b. at St. Petersburg, 1799; d. of cholera, at Witepsk, 1831. (See Nicholas.) Constantine, Pope, was elected to the papacy in 708. d. 715. — There was also an anti-pope of this name, who usurped the holy office in 707. Constantine, Nioholacvich, the second son 883 Cook of the emperor Nicholas of Russia, was designed for the navy, and in 1831, when only four years of age, was declared admiral of the fleet. With increasing years he became more and more im- bued with a desire to excel in his profession, and received nautical instructions from Admiral Liitke, a seaman as well as a man of science In 1845 he paid a visit to Constantinople, being the first imperial prince of Russia that had done so ; and in 1847 he visited England with Admi- ral Liitke, as commander of the Ingermanland, on his way to a voyage up the Mediterranean to visit his mother, then an invalid at Palermo. Whilst in England, on this occasion, he left a very favourable impression, being of a lively disposition, and speaking English as well as French with great fluency. In the war ol 1854-56 he had the defence of the Baltic in- trusted to his care, in conjunction with Admiral Liitke. Whilst engaged in this duty, however, he scarcely sustained his reputation for spirit, seeing that the Russian fleet did all that it could to avoid a contest with the British and French fleets, even in what might be called the duke's native seas. In 1859 he paid another visit to England, where ho made an inspection of its great naval arsenal at Portsmouth, the Great Eastern steam-ship, and many public works, b. 1827. Constantius I., Jcon-stan'she-us, a Roman emperor, was adopted, in 292, by Maximian, and became emperor in 305. He reduced the Britons to subjection, who had risen against the Romans, and died at York, 30G. — He was the father of Constantine the Great. Constantius II., was the second son of Con- stantine the Great, and had, for his share of the empire, the East and Greece. His brothers having died in the West, he, after defeating Magncntius and Decentius, became, in 353, sole possessor of the empire, d. on his march against the emperor Julian, who had been pro- claimed by the soldiery, 361. Conybeare, John, D.D., Tcon'-e-beer, bishop of Bristol, to which see he was elevated in 1750, was the author of a " Defence of Revealed Re- ligion," written in reply to Tindall's " Chris- tianity as old as the Creation." b. 1692 ; d. 1755. Conybeare, Very Reverend AVilliam Daniel, was distinguished as a geologist, and was one of the earliest promoters of the Geological So- ciety. He discovered the antediluvian monster called Plesiosaurus, for which he was highly complimented by Cuvier. He also directed liis attention to the coal-fields of several districts, and pointed out many facts in their physical geography, which enabled practical adventurers to proceed upon more certain data in making their mineralogical discoveries. In 1819 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and be- came dean of Llandalf in 1845. b. in London, 1787 ; n. 1857. Cook, James, Captain, kooh, a celebrated navigator, who, at an early age, was appren- ticed to a shopkeeper at Staithes, Yorkshire, but being inclined to the sea, his master gave up his indentures, when he bound himself to a Mr. Walker, a shipowner in the coal trade at Whitby. He served nearly seven years in this line, after which he became mate in the samo employ. On the breaking out of the war, in 1755, he entered on board the Eagle man of war, and in 1759, in the capacity of master ot the Mercury sloop of war, was at 'he reduction OF BIOGRAPHY. Cook of Quebec by Wolfe. While on that station, he was employed in taking the soundings of the river St. Lawrence, and, afterwards, was en gaged in making a chart of the same river, which he executed with great accuracy. He was next with Lord Colvil as master, in the Northumberland man of war, and was at the retaking of Newfoundland, of which coast he made a survey. On his return to England, in 1762, he married a respectable young woman at Harking, in Essex, and in 1764, when Sir Hugh Palliser was appointed governor of Newfound- land, Cook became marine survayor of that coast and of Labrador. The manner in which he performed his duties in this situation was the princii al cause of his being chosen to con duct an expedition for astronomical and geo- graphical purposes into the South Pacific Ocean. Accordingly, with the rank of lieu- tenant, he entered on board the Endeavour, and set sail in August, 1763. He was accompanied by Mr. Green, as astronomer, Sir Joseph Banks, and Dr. Solander.and arrived at Otaheite, where the transit of Venus was observed, and where he remained til] the 13th of July, 1769, when he resumed his voyage, and discovered a number of islands, to which he gave the name of Society Islands. On October 6th he reached New Zealand, hmen lie circumnavigated. He then visited New Holland and New Guinea, and the descrip- tion he gave of these new regions caused the set- tlement of Botany Bay, so long known as a penal colony. He returned toEngland inJune,1771,and was, shortly afterwards, appointed a commander in the navy. An account of this voyage was pub- lished from the captain's journals and other documents, by Dr. Hawkesworth. The existence of a southern continent being still an undecided question, in order, if possible, to ascertain that point, Captain Cook was employed in another voyage, and sailed with two ships, the Resolu- tion, commanded by himself, and the Adventure, by Captain Furneaux, in the July of the follow- ing year. 1 n this voyage they explored the south- ern hemisphere as high as latitude 71° 10', and, alter making many additions to our geographical knowledge, but without attaining the main ob- ject, he arrived safe at Spithead in July, 1774, having lost only one man out of 118. He was now raised to the rank of post-captain, and ap- pointed to a post in Greenwich Hospital. The Admiralty having resolved to determine the disputed question as to there being a northern communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Captain Cook volunteered his services for the enterprise, and in the July of 1776 sailed from Plymouth in the Resolution. After sail- ing as high as lat. 70° 41' N., the ships were obliged to shift their course to the south, and In November 1778, reached the Sandwich Is- lands to pass the winter. Here Captain Cook was slain in a quarrel with the natives, at Qwhyhee, the largest of the Sandwich Islands, February, 1779. b. at Marton, Yorkshire, 1728. Cooe, George, D.D., an eminent Scottish divine, was the son of John Cook, professor of moral philosophy in the university of St. An- drews, and after going through the usual curri- culum required from divinity students by the Scotch church, was licensed to preach the gospel in 1795, and was ordained minister of the parish of Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, in the same year. Here he remained till 1828, when he was nominated to fill the chair at St. Andrews formerly occupied by his father. Dr. Cooper Cook espoused the views of the moderate party in the Scottish church establishment, of which he was for many years the recognised leader. He was an able and voluminous writer on divi- nity, church history, &c. b. 1795 ; d. 1345. Cooke, Benjamin, an eminent composer, who was a pupil of Dr. Pepusch. The university ol Cambridge conferred on him the degree of Doc- tor in Music in 1777. He became organist ot St. Martin-in-the-Ficlds in 1782. He was the author of " Hark ! the lark," and several well- known glees and catches, b. 1739; d. 1793. Cooke, George Frederick, an English actor, who was bred to the trade of a printer, at Berwick-upon-Tweed ; but imbibing a passion for the stage, made his first public appearance at Brentford, in the character of Dumout, in " Jane Shore." In 1778 he appeared in Lon- don, but was not successful. After an absence of twenty-two years, however, he reappeared in the character of Richard III., at Covent Garden, withthemostcomplete success. He continued for a number of years to perform leading parts in the drama, until, in 1810, hesailedfor New York. Here violent excesses in drinking, to which he had long given way, proved too much even for his constitution, which had been one of the most powerful, and he died in September, 1812. B.at Westminster, 1755. — Edmund Kean, his great successor in tragedy, during one of his visits to America, had a monument erected over Cooke'a grave. Coo let, Thomas, hool'-ai, architect of the Royal Exchange and Newgate Prison, Dublin, the former of which, though of but moderate size, is considered one of the finest, most ele- gant, and at the same time most convenient, public buildings of the kind in existence. He also commenced the erection of the noble pile, known as the " Four Courts," in the same city ; but only lived to complete the west wing, the remainder having been executed by Gandon, but with some variations from the original plans. b. 1740; d. 1784. Coopee, Sir Ast»'ey, koop'-er, a distinguished surgeon and anatomist, who rose to the summit of his profession, and in 1820 was called in to attend George IV., and removed a tumour from the roval head. In the same year he received a baronetcy, which, it was stipulated, was to de- scend to his adopted son and nephew Astley Cooper, he himself being without a son. In 1822 he was elected one of the court of examiners of the College of Surgeons, and in 1827 presi- dent of the college. In 1828 he became serjeant- surgeon to the king, and in 1830 vice-president of the Royal Society. In 1834 he received from Oxford the honorary degree of doctor of civil law, and subsequently visited Edinburgh, where the university made him an LL.D., au.i the freedom of the city was voted to him. Old age and ill-health had, with all his honours, now gathered upon him, and in 1810 he was struck with an illness which shortly afterwards carried him otT. B.at Brooke, Norfolk, 1765; d. in London, 1841. — A statue by Baily was erected to his memory in St. Paul's Cathedral. (See Life, by Bransby B. Cooper.) Coopeh, Samuel, a celebrated English painter, who excelled in miniature portraits, insomuch that Louis XIV. of France offered £150 for his picture of Oliver Cromwell. He was called " Van- dyck in Little." b. in London, 1609; i>. in Lon- don, 1672, and was buried in old St. Pancrae church, where his epitaph, in Latin, ra^y „n THE DICTIONARY Cooper seen, calling him the Apelles of his age. His wife was the sister of the poet Pope's mother. — He had a brother, Alexander Cooper, who be- came painter to Queen Christina of Sweden. Coopee, James Fenimore, a distinguished American novelist, whose father was a judge in the state of New York. After passing through Yale College, he, in 1805, entered the navy as a midshipman, and for six years followed the sea, when he retired and got married. He now took up his abode in Cooperstown, a village founded by his father, on Lake Otsego, in Western New York. It was not, however, till 1821 that Mr. Cooper ventured to appear as an author. Then he produced his " Precaution," which was not well received; but which, being shortly afterwards succeeded by his " Spy," it may be presumed gave him courage to proceed in the style of novel-writing. This second pro- duction was a decided success, and led the way to a long list of fictions, which it would occupy a considerable space even to name. Among them we may specify his " Pioneers," and his " Pilot," " The Last of the Mohicans," " Lionel Lincoln," "The Red Rover," and "The Water- witch," as sufficiently indicating the character- istics of his genius, b, at Burlington, New Jersey, 1789; d. at Cooperstown, 1851. — Cooper wrote in other paths besides those of the imagi- nation. He produced "Lives of Distinguished American Naval Officers," "Sketches of Swit- zerland," "Gleanings in Europe," and several other works. ' Many of his stories have been translated both into German and French ; and it is also affirmed that some of them are to be found even in one or more of the Oriental tongues. Coopkr, Thomas Sydney, began life as a scene-painter in the theatre at Canterbury, and, in 1823, went to London to enter the Royal Academy ; but he was forced to return to the former town, and there he remained, giving instructions in drawing, till 1827. In that year he went to Holland, and there, under the animal-painter Verboeckhoven, made that par- ticular branch of art the subject of hi* ardent study. In 1831 he returned to England, and adopted animal-painting as his special branch. In 1833 he exhibited his first picture in the gallery of the Society of British Artists, and from that time he steadily advanced in fame and fortune. In 1845 he was chosen an associate of the Royal Academy, and may be pronounced one of the finest cattle-painters England has produced, b. " at Canterbury, 1803. Coote, Sir Eyre, Jcoot, an English general, who entered the army at an early age, and fought against the followers of Charles Stuart in 1745. In 1754 he went to India, where he distinguished himself in many important actions, particularly at the siege of Pondicherry. On account of his conduct there, the directors of the Hon. East India Company presented him with a diamond- hilted sword. In 1769 he was made commander- in-chief of the Company's forces; but quitted Madras at the end of the following year, and returned to England, where he was appointed governor of Fort St. George, and made knight of the Bath. In 1781 he proceeded again to India as commander-in-chief, and, at the head of 10,000 men, defeated Hyder Ali, whose forces numbered 150,000. b. in Ireland, 1726; d. at Madras, in 1783. — There is a fine monument to liis memory in Westminster Abbey. 294 Copleston Cope, Sir John, kope, an English general, host known in connexion with the total defeat the royal army under his command sustained from the rebels under Prince Charles Edward Stuavt, at Prestonpans, near Edinburgh, on September 21, 1745. Cope allowed himself to be complet ely surprised by the Highlanders, and, according to popular tradition, rather prematurely quitted the field, never drawing rein till he reached Berwick- upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce his own defeat. His conduct on the occisiou was mercilessly, and perhaps somewhat unfairly, ridiculed by the Jacobite writers of the time, particularly in the song beginning, " Hey, Johnny Cope, are ye waking yet ?" Cope, Charles West, R.A., an English artist, who, in 1843, was one of the three succes - ful competitors for the prizes offered by the Royal Commission of the Fine Arts in cartoons. His subject was " The First Trial by Jury." The fresco competition of the following year brought him forward with " The Meeting of Jacob and Rachel," which caused him to be selected to paint one of the six frescoes for the House of Lords. The subject which he chose for this was " Edward III. conferring the Ordei of the Garter on the Black Prince." For the same building he afterwards executed "Prince Henry's Submission to the Law," and " Gri- selda's First Trial," deemed his masterpiece in fresco. In 1843 he was elected an A.R.A., and in 1848 a R.A. He was a frequent exhi- bitor at the Royal Academy, and, both in ima- ginative and historical painting, reached a high standard of excellence. His works are numerous; among which the principal are — " The Last Days of Cardinal Wolsey," painted for Prince Albert; "Lear and Cordelia;" " Othello relating his Adventures ;" and " The Children of Charles I. in Carisbrook Castle." b. at Leeds, 1811.. Copeenicus, Copebntk, or Zepebwic, as he has been diil'erently called, Nicholas, ko-per- ni-kus, was a famous Prussian astronomer, whose family was noble, and whose uncle was bishop of Warmia. He was educated at Cracow, where he became a doctor of medicine. He afterwards went to Italy, and in 1500 obtained a professorship of mathematics at Rome. He subsequently returned to his native country, where he became a canon in the church of Frauenburg. Here he passed the remainder of his days a quiet and grave man, deeply immersed in astronomical researches, whilst healing the poor by his medical knowledge, and comforting them by his ecclesiastical duties. The result of his solitary vigils appeared in his great work entitled " De HevolutionibusOrbiumCoelestium," which overturned the Ptolemaic system of astro- nomy, and established for himself an enduring fame. This system makes the sun the" centrum mundi," round which the earth and other planets revolve. The MS. of his great work remained in his possession some years before he would publish it. At length he gave it to the world, and only lived to see a printed copy of it a few hours before his death, b. at Thorn, in Prussia, 1473 ; n. 1543, and was buried in the cathedral to which he belonged. Copleston, Edward, D.D., kop'-el-ston, bishop of Llandaff, was the son of the rector of Offwell, Devonshire, and was educated at Ox- ford. He became fellow of Oriel College in 1795; in 1S02 he succeeded Hurdis as professor of poetrv j in 1810-11 he vindicated the university OF BIOGRAPHY. Copley from some attacks made upon it in the " Edin- burgh Review;" in 1814 he was elected provost of Oriel College ; was appointed dean of Chester in 1826 ; and in 1827 became the successor of Dr. Charles Sumner in the see of Llandaff. Among other works he was author of an " Inquiry into the Doctrines of Necessity and Predestination;" " Preiectiones Academica?;" an "Essay on. Agriculture;" all of which are distinguished for learning, elegance of diction, and purity of taste, b. 1776; d. 1849. Copley, Sir John Singleton, kop'-ley, a dis- tinguished artist, born in America, but claimed by Ireland as a native, from his first " seeing the light " almost immediately after the arrival of his parents, who were from Ireland, in the United States. By natural impulse he be- came a painter, and rose to eminence in his profession on both sides of the Atlantic, before he had visited either England or Italy. In 1775, however, he arrived in London, and took up his residence in George-street, Hanover-square. During the previous year he had visited both Ensland and Italy, and had now determined to settle in the former. In 1777 he became an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1783 a member. He devoted much of his attention to illustrations of history, and his " Death of Lord Chatham " is, perhaps, his best work. b. at Boston, United States, 1737; d. 1815. — He was the father of the venerable Lord Lyndhurst. Coram, Thomas, Captain, kor'-am, an English philanthropist, who instituted the London Foundling Hospital, an establishment founded for the maintenance and education of exposed and deserted children, lie was bred to the sea, iu the merchant service, and spent all that he had on this and other benevolent schemes, so that in his old age he was obliged to be sup- ported by the contributions of several noble patrons, among whom was Frederick, prince of Wales, b. 1668; d. in London, 1751, and was buried in the Foundling Hospital, on the gate of which there is a statue of him. Corbet, Richard, kor'-bet, an English prelate, but better known for his poems, mostly of a humorous and satirical character, which were first printed in 1647, under the title of " Poctica Stromata," and have since been several times reprinted. Many of them are satires on the Puritans, of whom Corbet was a decided, though not vindictive opponent. He was the son of a rich gardener at Ewell, in Surrey, was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, of which he became dean ; was successively bishop of Oxford and Norwich ; and was noted in his day for the eccentric but genial tone of his mind. b. 1582 ; D. 1635. Corbottld, Edward Henry, kor'-boold, a skilful artist in water colours, and has also been successful in oil-painting. His themes are historical incidents, which he treats more in a romantic than in a realistic style. In 1813 he sent in a cartoon for the decoration of the Palace at Westminster, and obtained a prize of £'100 under the second award. He was, in earlier life, a successful illustrator of books, and also painted well in fresco. '1'he subjects of some of his pictures are — "The Plague of London;" "The Assembling of the Canterbury Pilgrims at the Tabard Inn, Southwark;" " The Baptism of Ethelbert ; " and a scene from Tennyson's " Morte d'Arthur." b. 1S15. Cokday d'Akmans, Marie Anne Charlotte, kor'-dai, was born of a good family, who resided ??5 Coriolanus principally at Caen, where she wa3 greatly admired for her beauty and spirit. She had "a lover named Belsunce, a major in the French army, who was denounced by Alarat, and caused to be assassinated. This event animated Char- lotte with a passion for vengeance against Marat, whom she regarded as the oppressor of her country. She hastened to Paris, and on being, after some difficulty, admitted to his pre- sence, stabbed him tc I he heart, July 13, 1793. Far from attempting to escape, she confessed the fact, and was condemned to suffer death, and was accordingly guillotined on July 17, 1793. b. near Seez, 1763. — This circumstance was attended by another equally extraordinary. As she was being conducted to the scaffold, a deputy of the city of Mayence, named Adam Lux, was so transported with admiration of her beauty and heroism, that he hastened to the tribunal, and demanded to suffer death in her stead. This, however, was not conceded to him ; but he was also condemned and executed with the same instrument. Cormenin, Louis-Marie de la Have, Viscount de, kor 1 -me-nd, a distinguished French political writer, was at the age of twenty-two called by Napoleon I. to the council of state, was made a baron by Louis XVIII., and a viscount by Charles X. He was a member of the chamber from 1828 to 1846, and in all these positions distinguished himself as much by the originality of his genius as by independence of character. Cormenin was by profession an advocate; in politics he was opposed to every party in turn in which egotism, privilege, or administrative rapacity, was to be resisted ; but the cause of political and social progress had no more earnest defender than he. He wrote the best treatise on administrative law yet published in France ; and under the nom-de-plume of " Timon," pub- lished a vast number of pamphlets on almost every political topic of importance that had occupied attention in France during many years. His " Rook of Parliamentary Orators" is held in high esteem by all thinking French- men ; and great powers of logic, wit, and sound knowledge rendered him one of the most power- ful writers of his day. M. Cormenin was in 1855 added by imperial ordinance to the In- stitute, as member of the administrative section of the Academy of the Medical Sciences, b. at Paris, 1788. Corelli, Arcangelo, ko-rail-le, called by his countrymen " the divine," was an Italian musical composer, whose greatest work is his "Con- certi Grossi," or twelve concertos, b. at Fusig- nano, 1653; d. at Eqme, 1713. — As a violinist, he was unrivalled, and his compositions for that instrument are regarded as of standard excellence. Cokiolanus, kor'-i-o-lai'-nus, the surname of C. Marclus, from his victory at Corioli. His story, as given by the Koman historians, is re garded as a fiction by Niebuhr, who thinks it ought to be excluded from history. It is stated/ however, that the consulship, which he had solicited, was refused him, he having rendered himself distasteful to the people on account of his haughty character. lie afterwards proposed measures hostile to the interests of the people, and opposed the gratuitous distribution of the com which had been sent, in a time of scarcity, by Gelo, king of Sicily Eager for vengeance, Coriolanus ottered his services to the Volsci, and soon appeared at their head, ravaging 1 the THE DICTIONARY Corneille Roman territory, and laying siege to the "Eternal City" itself. The inhabitants, terrified, sent several embassies to Mm ; but he was deaf to all their entreaties. He was about to deliver the assault, when Veturia, his mother, followed by his wife and a train of Roman women, arrived at his camp, to supplicate him to pause. Con- quered by their tears, Coriolanus consented to raise the siege. He was assassinated some little time after, about 488 B.C., by the Volsci ; although, according to others, he lived to an advanced age.— Shakspeare and other poets nave dramatized his life. Corneille, Peter, kor'-nai, an eminent French dramatist, who was brought up to the bar, for which his genius was entirely unsuited. Accordingly, he quitted it, and commenced writing for the stage. His first comedy, "M£lite," was produced in 1629, and was fol- lowed by " Clitandre," " La Veuve," " La Galerie du Palais," and "La Place Royale," when, in 1637, appeared his " Cid," founded on the " Cid" of Guillen de Castro, of Spam. This performance filled the Parisians with enthu- siasm. It carried their conceptions into new regions of dramatic history, and its author be- came " Le Grand Corneille." Whatever grati- fication this might bring to the vanity of the author, it was not quite universal. He had been so unfortunate as to offend the Cardinal Richelieu, who had himself some poetical pre- tensions, and who, as the founder of the French Academy, used his influence in endeavour- ing to abate the public admiration. One of the members of that learned body, there- fore., wrote an elaborate critique on the " Cid," hinting at a deficiency of inventive genius in Corneille, seeing that he had borrowed the plan of his drama from a Spaniard. Such an insinu- ation was too damaging to be taken with indif- ference by Corneille, who set to work and produced his " Horace," and his " Cinna," which are in themselves sufficient to establish a claim to ingenious originality. In 1610 appeared his " folyeucte," which was succeeded by " La Morte de Pompt^e," " Le Menteur," and several others; none of which, however, nearly ap- proached the " Cid." Nay, they betokened an evident declension of genius, and, in 1653, his "Pertharite" decidedly proclaimed him a fallen star. This disgusted him with the stage, and he turned his attention to other kinds of poetical composition. His success in these, however, was not great, and he returned to the drama. In 1659 he produced his " CEdipe," and conti- nued to write, but with no steady success. In 1672 his " Pulcherie" appeared, and, in 167-1, his " Surena ;" but he had already ceased to be popular, b. at Rouen, 1606; d. at Paris, 1684, — For thirty-seven years he was a member of the Academy. Corneille, Thomas, brother of the above, was also a poet, a member of the French Aca- demy, and of that of Inscriptions. He wrote no fewer than forty-two pieces, which, with the ex- ception of'Ariane" and " Le Comte d' Essex," have all passed into oblivion. Of this number, however, many met with the greatest success in their day. They were published, with those of his brother, in 1733, in 11 vols. 12mo. b. 1625; i». 1709. — licsides his plays, he wrote a "Dic- tionary of Arts," in 2 vols, folio, and a "Geo- graphical and Historical Dictionary," in 3 vols. folio. Cornelia, kor-ne'-U-a, wife of Pompey, and ??S Cornero daughter of Mctellus Scipio, accompanied her husband in his flight after the battle of Phar- salia, and saw him massacred before her eyes in the harbour of Alexandria. (See Pompey.) — The mother of the Gracchi, and daughter of Scipio Africanus. She directed the education of her sons, and was greatly admired for her virtues. When a Campanian lady once made a show of her jewels at Cornelia's house, and en- treated her to favour her with a sight of her own, Cornelia produced her two sons, saying, "These are the only jewels of which I can boast." In her lifetime, a statue was raised to her, with this inscription, " To Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi." Lived in the 2nd. cen- tury b.c. (See Gbacchus.) — The daughter of Cinna. (See CaesAB, Julius.) Cornelius, Peter von, kor-nai'-le-oon, an emi- nent German artist, wh > became a painter by choice, and who, in his nineteenth year, was en- gaged to ornament, with figures in chiaroscuro, the cupola of the old church of Neuss, nearDus- seldorf. After this, he proceeded to Frankfort, where he executed a series of designs illustrative of the " Faust" of Goethe, to whom the engrav- ings were dedicated. His reputation was now fast rising, when he proceeded to Rome, where he united himself with several kindred spirits, and commenced Btudying with a view to found a new school of German art. To accomplish this, fresco was the style adopted, and Cornelius was commissioned to paint the walls of the villa of Bartholdy, the Prussian consul-general. The subjects he chose were, "Joseph Recognising his Brethren," and "Joseph Interpreting the Dream of Pharaoh's Chief Butler," which were a decided success, and excited general admira- tion. He now rose higher and higher in his profession, and left Rome, 1819. At Dusseldorl he remodelled the academy, and then had two spacious halls assigned him to paint, in the Glyptothek at Munich. In one of these— the Hall of Heroes — he represented, in colossal pro- portions, the leading events of the "Iliad;" in the other — the Hall of the Gods— he symbo- lized the Grecian mythology. These works were not completed till 1830, and are conceived and executed with such a grandeur of effect as to command universal homage. He became direc- tor of the Munich Academy, which, under him, rose to be a great school of art. n. at Dussel- dorf, 1787. d. 1867. Cornero, or Cobnabo, Louis, Jcor-nar'-o, a Venetian nobleman, remarkable for protracting his life to a considerable length by a course of regimen. In his youth he lived freely, which brought him into a bad state of health. On this, he formed the resolution of confining him- self to twelve ounces of food and fourteen of wine daily ; by which means, with exercise, he acquired a vigorous constitution. The system he practised, included spare and simple diet, avoidance of heat and cold, late nours, sexual indulgences, and over-fatigue. It required gen- tle and pleasing excitements, occasional riding on horseback, field sports, and the hearing of music. All violent passions were to be re- strained or repressed, and no indulgence allowed to envy, hatred, ambition, jealousy, and the like. The result of his plan was perfect health, cheer- fid spirits, and long life. At an advanced age he wrote his popular book on " Health and Long Life," which has been translated into most lan- guages; he also wrqte a "Treatise on Waters)" particularly the lasruneg aboqt Venice. 5, sjt DISRAELI, BENJAMIN. DANTE, ALIGIIIEKI. DICKENS, CHARLES. OF BIOGRAPHY. Cornwall! s Venice, 1168 ; d. at Padua, 1566. His wife, who survived him, lived to about the same age.— The conclusion to be drawn from Cornaro's book on health is, that all men, or most of them, shorten their lives by over-eating and urmking. Corxwallis, Charles Mann, marquis of, korn'- ual-lis, entered the army at a very early age, and in 1758 was made a captain in the light in- fantry. Three years afterwards he was aide-de- camp to the marquis of Granby, whom he accompanied in Germany till the end of the war. In 1761 he was promoted to the rank of lieute- nant-colonel, and the year following, succeeded, on the death of his father, to the title of Earl Cornwallis. On the breaking out of the Ameri- can war, he was ordered to embark for that country, where he displayed great military ta- lents, highly distingdfching himself at the battle of Brandywine and the reduction of Charles- town. He won the battles of Camden and Guildford, but in 1781 was forced to surrender at York Town to the united American and French army, in consequence, he declared, of the inefficient support he received from Sir Henry Clinton. Soon after this, he returned to England. In 1786, the affairs of British India wearing a critical aspect, he was appointed go- vernor of Bengal, where, in December, 1790, he took Bangalore. This success he followed up by defeating Tippoo Saib, who delivered to his lordship his two sons as hostages. Having suc- cessfully brought this war to a close, he returned to England, was created a marquis, and ap- pointed master-general of the ordnance. In 1798 he was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland, where he quelled an insurrection, defeated an invading French force, and succeeded in effect- ing the important measure of a union between the two kingdoms. In 1801 his lord-lieutenancy expired, when he was employed as minister plenipotentiary in France; in which capacity he signed the preliminary treaty of the peace of Amiens. In 1804 he accepted the governor- generalship of India, where, soon after his ar- rival, he fell ill of a fever, on his march to join the army at Ghazepore, in the province of Benares, b. 1738; d. 1805 — Napoleon had a high opinion of the abilities and honesty of Cornwallis. He was a good soldier and states- man, and a man of undoubted integrity. CoKUiiGGio, kor-rai-dje-o, a celebrated Italian painter, whose real name was Antonio Allcgri, but called Corresrgio from having been born in the town of that name. His life is shrouded in ob- scurity. The little that is known of him seems to be rather the offspring of conjecture, eked out with imaginary probabilities, than facts ob- tained as the result of ascertained data. It is not known by whom he was instructed in his art; but Bianchi, Bartolotto, Lombardi, his une'le Lorenzo, and Mantegna, have all been nimed as his teachers. We believe that he was mostly self-taught, seeing that he seems never to have lived at Rome. His manner, however, »ombines grandeur of design with sweetness and gracefulness of execution. It is said that he married, in 1520, a lady of a Mantuan family, whose name was Girolama Merlini. She is the original in the picture of his Holy Family, " La ZinVarella." None have excelled him in the delicacy of his flesh-colouring ; and his " Peni- tent Magdalen" is aflirmed to be the most exquisite female figure ever painted. Four of his best pictures are in the National Gallery of Great Britain :— " Mercury instructing Cupid in 297 Cortes the presence of Venus," an " Ecce Homo," " La Vierge au Panier," and " Christ's Agony in the Garden." The first two, in 1834, were purchased by the British Government from the marquis of Londonderry for £10,000. b. at Correggio, 1494 ; d. 1534, and was buried in the church cf St. Francis, at Correggio. Cort, Cornelius, kort, a famous engraver, was a native of Holland. In 1566 he went to Italy, and was received into the house of Titian, at Venice, and engraved several of that master's pictures. He ultimately settled in Rome, where he established a school for teaching engraving, and is said to have given lessons to Agostino Caracci, which, however, is doubted. Cort en- graved upwards of 150 pictures, among which are specimens of Raffaelle, Caravaggio, Cor- reggio, Michael Angelo, and other eminent masters. Hewas also a designer, b. 1536 ;D. 1578. Cort, Henry, of Gosport, invented the process by which pig-iron was converted into malleable iron by the flame of pit-coal in the puddling furnace. Before his time, English ironmasters were compelled to employ charcoal for fuel. Having got pig-iron into a malleable condition, he further invented a process for drawing it into bars by means of grooved rollers. In other words, he reduced the labour and cost of pro- ducing iron to one-twentieth of what they were before his day, and the iron was of a better quality. In perfecting these inventions, Cort expended a fortune of upwards of £20,000, yet was robbed of the fruits of his discoveries by the villany of an official in a high department of government, and, both cheated and perse- cuted, he was ultimately allowed to starve, by the apathy and selfishness of an ungrateful country. In 1859 a public appeal for the benefit of his family was made, and, looking at the services he rendered to the iron trade and our iron constructions, there can be no hesitation in assigning to the name of Cort a place beside the illustrious names of Watt, Arkwright, and Wedgwood. B. 1740; d. 1800. Coktes, Hernando, kor-tais, the conqueror of Mexico, a celebrated Spanish adventurer, whose family was respectable, but not opulent. He was bred at Salamanca, to the law, which he renounced to follow a soldier's life. The gover- nor of Hispaniola was his relation ; and Cortes, in 1504, went to St. Domingo, where he was appointed to several valuable posts. In 1511 he accompanied Velasquez in his expedition to Cuba, and displayed so much skill and bravery in the conquest of that island, that he was chosen to conduct a similar enterprise for the conquest of Mexico. Accordingly, in 1519, he set out on his expedition, and first landed at Tabasco, where, after several bloody battles, bo compelled the natives to submit to the Spanish voke. Thence he sailed to St. Juan de Ulloa, in the Bay of Mexico, where he was met by several messengers from the governors of the province. Assuming now the title of ambassa- dor of the kin- of Castile, he insisted on having an audience with Montezuma, the emperor, and for that purpose gave out that he intended to march on the capital. In the mean time, he founded a settlement on the coast, to which was given the name of Vera Cruz, at the same^time declaring himself independent of the governor of Cuba. For seme time he had tried in vain to negotiate a friendly intercourse with Monte- zuma, and now, at the head of 500 Spaniards, indifferently armed he marched up the country. THE DICTIONARY Coryate After various events, on 7th July, 1520, he de- feated the Mexicans in the great battle of Otumba, and finally succeeded in establishing himself in their capital. Meanwhile, a commis- sion was sent from Spain to deprive him of his post ; but this he contrived to elude, and after- wards obtained from Charles V. the appoint- ment of governor of New Spain. His conduct to the natives was merciless in the extreme, and a new commission of inquiry arriving, he re- turned to his native country to vindicate his honour, in 1528. Having made his defence to the satisfaction of Charles, he was created mar- quis of the Valle de Oajaca, and obtained a large grant of land in New Spain, where he proceeded in 1530. After an absence of ten years, he re- turned, to be treated with cold civility by Charles, and with neglect by his ministers. Disgusted alike with king, court, and courtiers, he, after an unfortunate expedition to Algiers, in which he served as a volunteer, retired to a residence in the vicinity of Seville, and there passed the remainder of his days. b. at Medellin, a village of Estremadura, 1485 ; d. near Seville, 1547. — W. H. Prescott, the American historian, has written a full and interesting account of the " Conquest of Mexico," in which full details are given of the life and deeds of Cortez. Cokyat, Thomas, kor'-i-ut, an English tra- veller, who called himself the "Odcombian leg- stretcher." He was the son of the rector of Odcombe, and in 1611 published an account of his travels on the continent, with the singular title of " Coryat's Crudities." In the following year he set out again, with the design of spend- ing ten years in the East. He rambled through Greece, Turkey, Syria, Egypt, and Persia, and died at Surat, in 1617. n. at Odcombe rectory, in 1577. — "Coryat's Crudities" is now a rare book, and fetches, whenever it is sold, a very high price. It affords good illustrations of the state of society in the 10th century. Cosse limssic, Charles de, kos brees'-salc, a celebrated French marshal, who successfully commanded the French army in Flanders and Piedmont, under Francis I., Henry II., and Charles IX. He acquired so high a reputation, that nobles and princes came to him to learn the art of war. b. 1505 ; d. 1563. Cos way, Richard, It. A., kos'-wai, a distin- guished painter, who, by his skill in miniatures, rose to the highest rank in his profession. He took immense sums, and was patronized by the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., and all the leading members of the aristocracy. He married Maria Hadfield, a lady also of consider- able artistic talent, and who, after his death, retired to Lodi, in Italy, where she kept an educational establishment, and acquired great respect in the neighbourhood. Cosway lived in the greatest splendour throughout his career, and was, in 1771, elected a member of the Koyal Academy, b. at Tiverton, in 1740 ; D. 1821. Cotes, Francis, R.A., kofes, one of the origi- nators of the Koyal Academy of London, and distinguished as a drawer of portraits in crayons. In oil-painting he was regarded by many as su- perior to Reynolds. His most celebrated works are a full-length portrait of the queen of George III., with the princess royal in her lap, and another of the beautiful daughter of Wilton the sculptor, b. in London, in 1725 ; d. 1770. CoTMAir, John Sell, kot'-man, an artist famous for his etchings of architectural subjects, suoh Courtois as old castles, cathedrals, churches, ar.d other antiquities, was a native of Norwich. He pub- lished several volumes of etchings of the anti- quities of Yorkshire, Norfolk, Aormandy, ic. He was, for a few years, teacher of drawing in King's College, Somerset House; but the greater part of his life was spent in his native county. b. about 1780 ; d. in London, 1843. Cotta, Bernhard, kot'-ta, an eminent German geologist, and author of a variety of works on that and cognate sciences, among which may be mentioned : " Geognostic Charts of Saxony and Thuringia;" "Geognostic Wanderings;" "In- troduction to the Study of Geognosy and Geo- logy ;" " Inner Structure of Mountains;" "Let- ters on Humboldt's Kosmos," &c. b. 1808. Cotton, Sir Robert Rruce, kot'-ton, a cele- brated English antiquary^ and founder of the famous Cottonian library, now at the British Museum, was educated at Cambridge, and, having acquired a high reputation for talent, learning, and integrity, was the adviser both of the king and the leading statesmen of the time. James I. first knighted him, and subsequently created him a baronet. Sir Robert, however, espoused the views of the reformers of the period, and joined, though with moderation, in urging redress of grievances. He, in conse- quence, became obnoxious to the court ; a trea- tise, in manuscript, on a political topic, was surreptitiously obtained from his library; he was east into the Tower, and his whole library seized. His constitution suffered from confine- ment, and this harsh treatment ultimately led to his death, which occurred in 1631. b. in Huntingdonshire, 1570. His valuable library, now the property of the nation, and full of most precious books and rare MSS., was subsequently enlarged by his son and grandson. Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, koo'-lomb, a French mathematician, who, in 1779, produced a treatise on the " Theory of Simple Machines," which gained the prize of the Academy. He is regarded as the founder of experimental phy- sics in France, and is the inventor of the torsion balance. There are few to whom the theory of electricity is so much indebted as to this philo- sopher, b. at Angouleme, 1730 ; n. 1806. Oourten, William, koor'-ten, an ingenious English naturalist, whose collections were pur- chased for £20,000, and deposited in the British Museum, b. in London, 1612; d. 1702. Courtois, Jacques, koor'-twa, commonly called Borgonone, was the son of an obscure painter, who instructed him in his art. Jacques spent some years in the French army, and made sketches of all the most striking scenes of the camp, the march, and the battle-field. He left the army after three years' service, and elevated himself to painting battle-pieces, for which he became very famous. At Bologna he studied under Guido and Albani, but finally settled in Rome, where he became a lay brother of the Jesuits, for whose establishment he executed some religious works, besides the numerous battle subjects which he painted for others. There are specimens of Courtois at Florence, Venice, and other towns in Italy, b. near Besancon, Franche-comte, 1621 ; d. at Rome, 1676. — His younger brother, Guillaume Cour- tois, was also a famous painter, but of sacred subjects; his masterpiece being a great battle of Joshua, which was engraved by Clouet, and dedicated to Oasimir, king of* Poland. Several of this artist's paintings have been engraved^ OF BIOGRAPHY. Cousin and he occasionally etched himself, b. 1628 ; d. at Rome, where he chiefly lived, 1679. Cousin, Jean, koo'-tii, an eminent French painter, sculptor, pnd geometrician. At the courts of Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry IV., he was the principal favourite, and is the first French artist who excelled as an historical painter. His most celebrated pic- ture is "The Last Judgment." now in the Louvre. His greatest work in sculpture is the monument of Atmiral Chabot, in the church of the Celestines. His book on geometry was pub- lished in 1560. b. at Soucy, near Sens, about 1500 ; D. about 1590. Cousin, Viitor, a distinguished French in- quirer into tne systems of mental philosophy, and lecturei on philosophy at the Faculty des Lettres, in Taris. The original idea upon which his own system is based is, that every system is true, but incomplete in itself; but when all sys- tems are united, and suitably, as it were, dove- tailed toother, a complete system would be obtained. Alter various vicissitudes, incident to the political changes in France, he became, under Lr uis Philippe, a councillor of state, an officer of the Legion of Honour, and a peer of France Cousin wrote largely on educational as well af philosophical subjects, and translated the wo-ks of Plato, in thirteen volumes, b. at Paris, "1792; d. 1867. Cor thon, Georges, koo'-lawng, was brought up to *he bar, but on the outbreak of the French revolution, he became a member of the National Assembly, and of the Convention, and was one of tie most sanguinary of the Mountain party, lie (trained all his eilbrts to accomplish, first, thf destruction of the monarchy and the death of -he king, and, next, to effect the ruin of the Girondists. He was the close friend and asso- ciite of Robespierre, and, along with him, initiated the most atrocious measures. He possessed considerable oratorical powers, which he invariably used in support of an extreme policy. He proclaimed death to all tyrants, ind expressed a wish that kings might no .onger have an earth to support, or a sun to enlighten them. He was sent as commissioner to Lyons, where he enacted terrible scenes of oloodshed and proscription. On one oecasion, ne struck with a hammer the noblest edifices in '.he city, exclaiming, " Down, ye monuments of pride, I condemn you to destruction !" Like his "hief, and other leaders in that terrible epoch, Couthon was of mild features and suave man- ners ; and so decrepit in body that he was •dlowed to sit while speaking in the Convention. He shared in the fall of Robespierre, and was guillotined, July 28, 1794. b. at Orsay, a village in Clermont, 1756. Coutts, Angela Georgina Burdctt, koots, a 'ady possessed of great riches, and the daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, who for many years represented Westminster, as a Reformer, in parliament. Her grandfather, Mr. Coutts, the ranker, having, at a late period of life, mar- ried Miss Mellon, an actress, bequeathed to >he latter his very large fortune, which acted as a. temptation to the duke of St. Albans to marry tier. The duchess dying in 1834, without issue, left to Miss Burdett her immense wealth, esti- mated at £2,500,000, on the condition that she would assume the name and arms of the Coutts family. This she accordingly did, and devoted ner life to charitable purposes generally, and tae promotion of the English church especially. Cowper b. 1814.— Her great wealth attracted many ad- mirers, among whom were named the duke el Norfolk's eldest son and Prince Louis Bona- parte, afterwards Napoleon III. Coverdale, Miles, kuc'-er-ditil, a distin- guished reforming English divine, who, in 1532, united with William Tyndale in translating the Scriptures. In 1551 he became bishop of Exe- ter, b. in Yorkshire, 1487 ; d. in London, 1568. Cowley, Abraham, kow'-te, an English poet, educated at Westminster school. After passing through various vicissitudes on account of his loyalty to the Stuart dynasty, he, on the death of Cromwell, obtained a lease of a farm at Chert - sey, valued at about £300 a year. Early in life, however, he produced a small volume of poems, called " Poetical Blossoms," which gained him a considerable reputation. Dr. Johnson places him at the head of those whom he calls meta- f)hysieal poets ; but though he is sometimes sub- ime, always moral, and frequently witty, yet he is both tedious and affected. His Anacreontics are reckoned his best productions. He also wrote a comedy called " Cutter of Coleman Street," and some pieces in prose, particularly a "Discourse on the Government of Cromwell," and a " Pro- position for the Advancement of Experimental Philosophy." b. in London, 1618; d. at Chert- sey, 1667, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where there is a monument to his memory. Cowley, Mrs. Hannah, a poetess, whose effu- sions are perhaps more remarkable for their affectation than their merit. She wrote three narrative poems, called " The Scottish Village," "The Siege ofAcre," and "The Maidof Aragon." For these, however, her name is not here pre- served, but on account of her " Belle's Strata- gem," and " A Bold Stroke for a Husband," which are her two best comedies, of the nine which she wrote, b. at Tiverton, 1743; d. at Tiverton, 1809. — Her maiden name was Park- house, and her husband a captain in the service of the East India Company. Cowley, Henry Richard Wellesley, Lord, many years British ambassador at Paris and other courts, was the son of the first Lord Cowley, better known as Sir Henry Wellesley. At an early age, he entered the diplomatic ser- vice, and in 1852 succeeded the Marquis of Nor- manby at the Tuileries. In conjunction with Lord Clarendon, he represented England at the congress of Paris, held in 1856. b. 1804. Cowper, William, kow'-per, and sometimes pronounced koo'-ver, a celebrated English poet, was the son of Dr. Cowper, chaplain to George II., rector of ISerkhampstead in Hertfordshire, and nephew to Lord-Chancellor Cowper. Being designed for the law, William, after finishing his education, was plaeedundcr an eminent attorney, and, at the age of 31, was nominated a clerk m the House of Lords. A constitutional timidity of disposition, however, prevented him from accepting it. He was next appointed clerk of the journals, a situation which, it was supposed, would require no personal attendance ; but when tii found that it would be requisite for the clerk to appear at the bar of the House, it had such an effect on his nerves, that he was obliged to resign the office. A morbid melan- choly now seized him, and it was found neces- saryto place him under the care of Dr. Cotton, at St. Albans, where he gradually recovered the use of his faculties. In 1765 he settled at Hunt^ ingdon, where he formed an acquaintance with a clergyman of the name of Uuwin, in whose THE DICTIONARY Cox family he became an inmate. That gentleman being killed by a fall from his horse, in 1767, Cowper and Sirs. Unwin took up their abode at Olney, Buckinghamshire, where they contracted an intimacy with Mr. Newton, then curate of that parish, and whe/e Cowper devoted himself to p ictry. To a collection of hymns published by that gentleman, Cowper contributed sixty- eight. In 1782 he published a volume of his poems, which did not excite much attention ; but another volume, in 1735, stamped his repu- tation as a true poet. His " Task," " The Sofa," " John Gilpin," and other productions, will im- mediately occur to the reader's mind as works of enduring excellence. He afterwards engaged in translating Homer into Miltonie Terse; and though his version is not so pleasing as that of Pope, it renders the original with greater fide- lity. In 1786 he removed, with Mrs. Unwin, to Weston, Northamptonshire, where he continued to cultivate his literary tastes. In 1791his in tellect again gave way, and not even frequen change of scene could rouse him from hi: despondency, for he was now sunk into a stall of complete dejection, from which he nevci after recovered, b. at Berkhampstead, 1731 d. at Dereham, in Norfolk, 1800, and was buried in the parish church, where a monument is erected to his memory. Cox, Richard, kox, an English prelate and one of the translators of the " Bishops' Bible," to which he furnished the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistle to the Romans. He was bishop of Ely, but suffered a good deal of persecution on a charge of heresy, but was ultimately raised to that see by "Elizabeth. b. 1199; d. 1531. Cox, David, a distinguished water-colour artist, who unwearicdly devoted himself to the study of Nature under her ever-varying aspects, and reaped his reward in the general admiration which was awarded to his pictures. Although the opinion prevailed that they were merely rough sketches, being mostly executed on coarse paper, yet they exhibit a breadth and poetical embodiment, which stamp them with the mark of genius, and as the offspring of a highly vigorous and observing mind. He was one of the earliest members of the Society of Painters in Water-colours, and in the gallery of that society, in London, his pictures were almost exclusively shown, n. at Birmingham, 1793; d. at llarborne, near Birmingham, 1859. Coxii, William, archdeacon of Wilts, and author of the following among a great variety of other works: — "Sketches of the Natural, Civil, and Political State of Switzerland," "Tra- vels in l'oland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark," "History of the House of Austria," "History of the Bourbon kings of Spain," "Memoirs and Correspondenceof John, Duke of Marlborough," "Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole," "Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and Ame- rica," "Correspondence of Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury, with William HI. and others," &e. B. 1717; D. 1828. Ckabbe, Reverend George, kriib, an English poet, who rose, from very humble circum- stances, to hold the rectory of Trowbridge, in Wiltshire. He was. educated for the medical profession ; but bcins.' unsuccessful, applied ♦o Burke, the great statesman, for poetical pa- tronage. The politician took him under his protection, and advanced his fortunes by open- iog a path for his preferment in the church, Cranmer His principal poems are "The Library ," "The Village," which was revised by Dr. Johnson; " The Newspaper," " The Parish Register," and the " Tales of the Hall," for which Mr. Murray, the publisher, gave him £3y order of Louis XV. a monument was erected to his memory in the church of St. Gervois. His works have been published in 12 vols. 4to.— His son, Claude Prosper Joliot de Crebillon, was also a man of letters, and wrote several esteemed novels, the principal of which is entitled, " Les Egaremens du Cceur et dc l'Esprit." b. 1707 ; B. 1771. Creech, Thomas, Jcreetch, an En?lish poet, who wrote some original pieces, which arc now almost forgotten. He is, however, known as a translator, of classical poetry, having executed versions in English verse of Lucretius, Horace, Theocritus, &c. He was educated at Sherborne Free School, and alter wards at W'adham College, Oxford. B. 1659; committed suicide, 17U1. Ckeswkk, Thomas, R.A., kres'-icik, an emi- nent English landscape-painter, who produced 801 Croke a great many " Scenes," " Spots," " Shades," and " Streams," redolent of poetic beauty. In 1843 he became an associate in the Royal Aca- demy, and, in 1347, exhibited his two greatest works: " England," and "The London Road a Hundred Years ago." b. at Shffld. 1811; d. 18b9. Crichton, James, kri'-ton, a celebrated Scotchman, of whom so many wonderful things are related as to have procured him the name of the "Admirable Crichton." He was educated at St. Andrews, and, at the age of twenty, visited Paris. Here he acquired great reputa- tion not only as a disputant, but for his skill and activity in games of all sort*, as well as martial exercises. He next went to Rome, and displayed his talents in the presence of the pope > and cardinals. Thence he travelled to Venice, where he became intimate with the learned Aldus Manutius, who dedicated to him the Paradoxes of Cicero, in a strain of panegyric which borders on the ridiculous. At Padua he held disputations with the most learned profes- sors on a number of subjects, but particularly on the Aristotelian philosophy. At Mantua he slew a famous fencing-master in a duel. The duke of Mantua admired him so much, as to appoint him tutor to his son, a licentious young man, by whom, it is said, he was assassinated in the public streets, during the carnival, b. in Perth- shire, 1560 ; assassinated, 1583. Cbcesus, kre'-sus, the last king of Lydia, of the race of the Mermnada 1 , celebrated for his great riches. His court was the asylum of learning ; and here were to be found /Esop and Solon. Showing, with pride, his treasures to the latter, that philosopher said, " Call no man happy before his death;" and, in truth, misfor- tune soon came upon the rich king. He was conquered by Cyrus, King of Persia, and placed on a burning pile, when, exclaiming " Solon, Solon," with great energy, his captor asked him the reason of such an exclamation. Croesus then repeated the conversation he had had with Solon on human happiness. Cyrus, moved at the recollection of the instability of human allairs, ordered Croesus to be taken from the burning pile, and became one of his most inti- mate friends. Mounted the throne, 560 B.C. The manner of his death is unknown. Croke, or Crook, Sir George, kroke, an able and upright English lawyer, sprung from afamily famous for producing men of talent in that profession, was a native of Buckinghamshire, received his education at University College, Oxford, and studied law at the Inner Temple. lie was knighted in 1623, and made king's serjeant; he was created one of the justices of the Common Picas in 1625 ; in 1628 he succeeded Sir John Doddridge as justice of the King's Bench ; in 1636 he took the part of Hampden on the question of ship-money, refusing to concur with the other judges in condemning the patriot for refusing to pay that illegal impo- sition. Sir George gained great popularity for his conduct on this occasion, but, such was his high character for rectitude, he still retained the favour of the king. His law reports obtained a h\s\\ position for authenticity and impartiality, as well as for sound legal know- ledge, and have been many times reprinted, translated, and edited, with notes, additions, and explanations. His arguments on ship-money, especially, attracted much attention, and were, prinred with those of Sir Richard Hutton u ' at Chilton. 1559; d. 1641. THE DICTIONARY Croker Choker, Eight Honourable John Wilson, kro'-ker, was educated for the bar, and, in 1800, was entered a student at Lincoln's Inn. He de- voted much of his time, however* to literature and politics, displaying in the latter field strong Tory tendencies. In 1807 he became member of parliament for Downpatrick, in Ireland, and in 1809 secretary to the Admiralty. This post he held for twenty years, during which he sat as member in the House for various boroughs. Meanwhile he was almost continually engaged with his pen, and was a ready and versatile writer. His most extensive production is an edition of " Boswell's Life of Johnson," which Macaulay criticised with great severity in the " Edinburgh Eeview." He wrote, besides, "Stories from the History of England," and edited " The Suffolk Papers," " Walpole's Let- ters to Lord Hertford," and several other works. b. in Galway, Ireland, 1780; d. at Hampton, 1851. Croly, Reverend George, kro'-le, a modern poet and imaginative writer, as well as the rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, and St. Benet's, London. His principal effusions are " The Angel of the World ;" a tragedy entitled " Catiline ;" a comedy called " Pride shall have a Fall;" "Salathiel," a romance; and " Mar- ston," with "Tales of the Great St. Bernard," both works of fiction. He has likewise written a "Life of Burke;" but it was as a popular preacher that his fame was most extended, b. at Dublin, 1780; d. 1860. Ceompioit, Samuel, krump'-ton, an fngenioH mechanic, the inventor of the spinning mule was born near Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire, i 1753. Bolton then was really " in the Moors, and only numbered about 5000 inhabitants which, mainly through the influence of Cromp ton's invention, had, in 1861, increased "• " wards of 70,000. His youth was spent in a large picturesque old house, witli quaint timber front, and there the thoughtful young weaver occupied his days with working upon Hargreaves's newly- invented jenny, and solaced his evenings with his violin— the first triumph of his mechanical skill. At the age of twenty-one he commenced the construction of a spinning-machine, which he called a "mule," because it united the features of Arkwright's and Hargreaves' ma- chines. For five years did Crompton persever- ingly work, with scarcely any tools except his claspknife, and a few others which he purchased with money earned by playing his violin in the orchestra of the Bolton theatre. Hemade his ma- chine at length, but had to hide it in a garret, lest his ignorant neighbours should destroy it. As secretly as he could, for his house was besieged by the curious, Crompton and his wife worked upon the wheels, and spun yarn of such a fine- ness that manufacturers saw they would be able to produce in this country material similar to the much -coveted muslins of the East Indies. Being a man of simple habits, of great industry, of unquestioned probity, and of deep religious- ness, one would have supposed that now a career of unexampled success and honour was open to him. Yet such is the singular history of his life, that with the triumph of his mecha- nical genius commenced a series of personal and family misfortunes that would have crushed the spirit of an ordinary man. Efforts were made to get from Crompton his secret, which he gave up with his first-made mule to a num- ber ot gentlemen on the promise of a subscrip- Cromwell tion being raised to remunerate him. Only enough money, however, was raised to enable him to replace his mule with one of four more spindles than that had which he had given up. Crompton struggled on in poverty, while others with his mule were laying the foundations of colossal fof tunes. In the year 1800, when the mule had been given to the public about twenty years, some gentlemen in Manchester promoted a subscription in favour of Crompton, and realized between £400 and £500, with which he increased his little manufactory for spinning and weaving. In 1807, when the nation had been immensely benefited by the increase of trade consequent upon the use of the mule, Crompton made some efforts to obtain a na- tional recognition of his services. These efforts being without satisfactory result, four years later they were renewed. When Mr. Perceval was shot in the House of Commons, he had a paper in his hand relative to Crompton's claim, and he had said but a few minutes before that it was the intention of the government " to propose £20,000 for Crompton." But Perce- val's assassination dashed the cup from Crompton's lips, and the parliamentary pro- ceedings eventuated in a vote of £5000, barely sufficient to pay the expenses of the application. Crompton was greatly disappointed. After that time he engaged in several businesses, in all of which he was pursued by an apparent fatality; he became very shy, and at last fell into poverty. From this he was relieved by the purchase of a small annuity, which he enjoyed only \ tree years. He died on the 26th of June, 1827, aged seventy-four years, and was buried in the old churchyard, where two slabs of polished grey granite, surmounting a massive bloek of Lan- cashire gritstone, cover his remains. A monu- ment to his memory was erected in his native town in 1862, and publicly inaugurated on the 24th of August of that year. Cromwell, Oliver, krom'-well, the great Pro- tector, came of a good family on both sides, and after passing about a year at Cambridge, was removed to Lincoln's Inn, with the view of prosecuting his studies for the bar. It has been said that he was much addicted to low plea- sures and gaming in his youth ; but when we find him, in his twenty-first year, marrying the daughter of Sir John Bourchicr, and spoken of by religious men as a professor of religion, we are inclined to believe that he has been vilified by malice, rather than spoken of with justice. In 1628 he was elected member of parliament for Huntingdon, and, in the following year, distinguished himself by his zeal against the bishops. When the parliament was dissolved, he retired into the country, and took a grazing farm at St. Ives, where he became overseer of the parish, and a zealous member of the reli- gious community with which he had connected himself. In 1636 Sir Thomas Stuart, his mater- nal uncle, died, leaving him property in the " Isle of Ely " worth £500 a year. To this place he now removed his family ; but being dis- gusted with the measures of the government, ho in 1637 actually took a passage for himself and family in a ship lying in the Thames, and bound for New England, in America. This vessel was detained by proclamation; but if she had been suffered to proceed on her voyage, the head of Charles I. would, perhaps, never have been for-' feited to his country ; England would never have been a commonwealth, nor Oliver Cromwell OF BIOGRAPHY. Cromwell its Protector. In 1640 he was returned to parliament for Cambridge, and, by this time, had become a popular leader, being called " Lord of the Fens," for having defended a por- tion of the fen country of Cambridgeshire from being wrested from the people by the grasping hands of certain proprietors who had been draining them for themselves. In 1642, when parliament determined upon hostilities, he went to Cambridge, where he raised a troop of horse, and which he himself so ably commanded, that he soon acquired the rank of colonel, and a great reputation for military skill and valour. His men were well disciplined, and, under his leadership, at the battle of Marston Moor, in 1644, acquired the name of "Ironsides." At Stamford, and in the second battle at Newbury, Cromwell greatly distinguished himself, and received from his party the title of " Saviour of the nation." This party consisted of the Inde- pendents, who had gained so great an influ- ence in parliament as to pass the famous self- denying' ordinance, by which all members of either House were excluded from commands in the army. Prom this, however, Cromwell, on account of his value to the cause, was excepted; a stroke of policy which preserved his ascen- dancy in the army, and paved the way for his future advancement. He was now made lieu- tenant-general, and by his conduct in 1645, the battle of Naseby, which decided the fate of the royalists, was won. This victory was followed by a series of successes, for which he was voted a pension of £2500 per annum, and the thanks of the House. When the king was handed over by the Scotch to the parliament, Cromwell de- termined to get 1dm into his own power. This he effected in 1647, by means of Cornet Joyce, a young and spirited soldier. He now obtained the eliief command of the army, and at a con- ference at Windsor, winch he himself opened with prayer, propounded the bold measure of punishing the king by a judicial sentence. Charles was now in the Isle of Wight, when Cromwell was called into the north against the Scots, and into the west against the Welsh. Wherever he fought, success attended him, and returning to London, he purged the parliament house of its members, by means of his troopers, under the direction of Colonel Pride. In the January of 1619 the king's trial commenced. Cromwell was the third to sign the warrant for his execution, and the monarch suffered accord- ingly. Cromwell was now called into li eland, where he took a terrible vengeance upon the inhabitants of Dro^heda, Wexford, and several other places. In 1650 he returned to England, 4nd was sent against the Scots, who had armed to restore Charles II. On September 3, 1650, he gained the battle of Dunbar; and that day twelvemonth he defeated Charles at Worcester. The sovereign power was now within his reach, and he did not hesitate to grasp it. Accord- ingly, on February 10, 1654, he was invested with the dignity of Protector of the Common- wealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland, in the Court of Chancery. In this capacity, he vigor- ously directed the affairs of the kingdom, mak- ing the English flag, borne by men like Blake, respected wherever it was seen. In 1658, how- ever, he became moody and suspicious. In the August of that year, his favourite daughter, Mrs. Claypole, died at Hampton Couit. This event, with the publication of a pamphlet by Colonel Titus, entitled "Killing no .uuid.a," Croune tending to prove the assassination of a tyrant a public duty, produced a slow fever, from which he never rallied. He was, by order of his phy- sician, removed to Whitehall for change of air, but nothing would avail him now. He died on the 3rd of September, 1658, the anniversary of his victories at Dunbar and Worcester, and a day which he was accustomed to consider espe- cially fortunate to himself, b. in the town of Huntingdon, 1599. — His corpse was interred on the 25th of April, in Henry the Seventh's chapel, whence, at the Restoration, it was taken and exposed on, and, it is said, buried under, the gallows at Tyburn. It is needless here to enter into the character of Cromwell. That he was one of the greatest statesmen and most valiant warriors England has produced, none will deny; and that he .was as good, if not better, than most men would have been under the same circumstances, few will be in- clined to dispute. — Cromwell had six children ; viz., Richard, Henry, Bridget, Elizabeth, Mary, and Frances. Richard succeeded him in the protectorate; but when affairs turned, and he found his post no longer tenable, he resigned and went abroad. Richard Cromwell subse- quently returned to England, and a story is told of him, to the effect that, while a suitor for the restoration of his property he was met in Westminster Hall by one who mistook him for a countryman viewing the place, and re- marked that, perhaps, he had never seen such a grand place before. "No," replied Richard, "not since I sat in that chair," pointing at the same moment to the chair of state which then occupied a prominent (dace in the justice-hall at Westminster. A portion of his property was restored to him, and he died at Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, in 1712.— Henry went to Ireland, as lord-lieutenant, and bore a good character. It was the general opinion at the time, and has since been fully endorsed, that the Protector made a mistake in naming the mild and gentle Richard as his successor instead of Henry, who possessed more of the vigour, energy, and genius of his great father, d. in 1674. — Bridget married, first, General Ireton, and afterwards General Fleetwood. — Elizabeth, Cromwell's favourite daughter, married John Claypole, Esq., of North- amptonshire. — Mary married Lord Fauconberg, and is supposed to have assisted in the restora- tion of Charles II. She died in 1712.— Frances married, first, a grandson of the earl of War- wick, and secondly, Sir John Russell of Cam- bridgeshire. — Elizabeth, the wife of Cromwell, was a woman of strong mind, and a constant spur to her husband in his career of ambition. She also governed her household with great address, and died in 1665. Crotch, William, Jcrotch, doctor of music whose almost infant performances are said to have rivalled those of Mozart. In 1797, when only twenty-two, he was appointed musical pro- fessor at Oxford, and in 1822, principal of the Royal Academy of Music. He composed a large number of pieces, both for the pianoforte and the organ, besides an opera called " Palestine." b. at Norwich, 1775; d. at Taunton, Somerset- shire, 1847. Crownu, John, kroirn, an industrious writer of plays during 1 the reign of Charles II., who was set up by the carl of Rochester as a drama- j tic rival of Dryden, but whose productions— tragedies and comedies, lor he wrote both — ,uc of an inferior order, a3 well as rcgaids THE DICTIONARY Cruden plot, construction, language, and morals. Nevertheless, of his tragedies (two) one called " The Destruction of Jerusalem," was popular when first produced; and his "Sir Courtly Nice," a comedy, was more than once jeprinted. He was the son of an Independent minister in Nova Scotia, where he was born, but in what year has not been ascertained, d. about 1703. Cbuden, Alexander, kroo-den, a laborious compiler, who, in 1728, went from Aberdeen to London, and settled there as a bookseller. In 1737 he published his "Concordance to the Bible," a book of great merit, d. 1770.— He was a very pious man, but at times deranged in his mind. Chuikshank, George, krook '-shank, the son of an artist, and an artist himself, devoted his time mostly to the humorous or political illustration of works. His " Comic Almanac " was published, with unflagging originality of de- sign, for about twelve years ; and some of the fictions of Mr. Charles Dickens were accom- panied by sketches from his pencil. Subse- quently, he published " The Dottle," a series of eight drawings, showing the progressive effects of intemperance upon a family ; and then be- came a professional painter in oil. In this path he executed, among other pictures, " Tam 0*Shauter," " Titania and Bottom the Weaver," and a very curious allegorical picture called the " Worship of Bacchus." His excellence, how- ever, lay in comic etchings for woodcuts, b. in London, 1792. d. 1878. Ctkshiius, te-sib-e-ut, a mathematician of Alexandria, the inventor of the pump and other hydraulic instruments, also of a clepsydra, or water-clock. Lived in the 2nd century B.C. Ctksiphon, tes'-i-fon, an Athenian, who coun- selled his fellow-citizens to present Demos- thenes with a golden crown for his probity and virtue. Lived in the 4th century B.C. Cudworth, Ralph, kucT-icorth, a learned di- vine, who wrote upon " The True Intellectual System of the Universe," and whose attainments were of the highest order. His writings set men to think, and gave rise to much contro- versy, b. at Allcr, Somersetshire, 1617; d. at Cambridge, 1688. Culpepper, Nicholas, kul'-ppp-er, an Eng- lish astrologer and herbalist. He was the son of a clergyman, was bred an apothecary, and settled in Spitaliields, where he practised physic and astrology with great success, d. 1651. — He wrote several books, the most cele- brated of which is a Herbal, wherein he de- scribes the good and bad qualities of plants according to the sidereal influence. Cumberland, William, duke of, the second son of George II., kum'-ber-land, was, in 1743, with his father, present at the battle of Dettin- gen, where he was wounded in the leg. He, in 1745, commanded the Uritish at the battle of Fontenoy, where they were defeated by the French, "in consequence of not, being properly supported by the Dutch. In 1716, at Culloden, he defeated Charles Stuart, and received the thanks of both houses of parliament. B. 1721; d. 1765. Cumberland pursued the adherents of the Stuarts with such remorseless severity, and broke up the clan system of the Scottish high- lands with such unflinching determination, as to acquire the title of " 1 he Butcher," by wh'ch name his memory is still execrated on the hiils and in the glens ot'the Scottish highlands. Cumberland, Uichard, an English dramatic 301 Cunningham and miscellaneous writer, was educated for the church, but became secretary to the Hoard of Trade, and, in 1780, was despatched to Madrid, on a secret and confidential mission. In this office he considerably exceeded the expenditure allowed him ; and subsequently, on a compensa- tion allowance, retired to Tnnbridge Wells, where he entirely devoted himself to literature. From this retreat he poured forth essays, opera*, comedies, tragedies, poetry, novels, and pamph- lets on various subjects. It is as an essayist, however, that he is most favourably known; for, out of upwards of thirty dramas, there is scarcely one which is now remembered, b. at Cambridge, 1732; d. at Tunbridge, 1811. Cumming, John, D.D., kum'-ing, a Scottish divine, and minister of the Scotch Church in Crown Court, Covent Garden, London. He published a great many works on religions subjects, chiefly bearing on the fulfilment of the prophecies ; and, as secretary to the Protestant Reformation Society, was frequently called upon to take a prominent part in questions of dispute between the Roman Catholics and the Protes- tants, b. in Aberdeenshire, 1810. Cunningham, Allan, kitn'-ning-ham, a Scottish peasant, who was apprenticed to the trade of a stonemason; but, in his leisure, applied himself to the cultivation of the homely Doric muse of his country, and rose to a considerable eminence as a lyric poet. In 1810 he went to London, where he eked out a subsistence by reporting for the newspapers and contributing to periodicals. He subsequently obtained the situation of manager of the extensive studio of Chantrey, which enabled him to pursue his literary tastes in accordance with his own sentiments, and without the usual hazards attending the pre- cariousness of the profession of literature. Con- sidering his education and occupation, his works may be viewed as both numerous and excellent. The principal of them are the novels of " Paul Jones," " Otterburn," and " Sir Michael Scott;" " Songs of Scotland, with Critical and Historical Notes ;" " Sir Marmaduke Maxwell," a drama ; "The Lives of the most Eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects;" "The Life of Burns," and " The Life of Wilkie." He was highly appreciated by Sir Walter Scott, much admired by Hogg, and affectionately esteemed by Chantrey, who bequeathed him £2000, and an annuity of £100. b. in Dumfriesshire, 1785 ; d. in London, 1812. Cunningham, Peter, the eldest son of Allan Cunningham, was educated at a private school, and entered the public service as a clerk in the Audit Office. In 1851 he was promoted to one of the chief clerkships, and gave to the world some of the fruits of his leisure hours. In 1833 he published a " Life of Drummond of Haw- thornden j" and, in 1835, " Songs of England and Scotland." In 1841 a new edition of Camp- bell's " Specimens of the British Poets," and in 1819 a "Handbook of London." Beside these, he edited Johnson's " Lives of the Poets," Gold- smith's works, and contributed to "Eraser's Magazine," and several other periodicals, articles of light literature, B. in London, 1816; d. I860. Cunningham, William, D.D., late principal of the New (or Free Church) College, Edinburgh, was one of the leaders of the " Non-intrusion" party in the Scottish church, whose struggles evcntuatedinalargeproportkmofthe clergy and people of that church renoum ing its authority, aad establishing what is called the " Fret 07 BIOGRAPHY. Curias Dentatus Church." The question in dispute was as to the right of the people to refuse clergymen appointed by the patrons of livings, the privilege of vetoing such appointments being all that was at first claimed ; but the views of the leaders of the anti- patronage party gradually developed themselves into a claim of the right of election by the people. This was denied by the law courts and the legis- lature ; and the result was that a large portion of the clergy and people repudiated state con- nexion and control, and set up the " Free Church ;" though still maintaining their right to be regarded as the national church. This claim was of course only recognised by them- selves ; and they now occupy the position of an ordinary dissenting body, though probably the most numerous and influential one in Scotland. Dr. Cunningham, after passing through the ordinary educational curriculum, was appointed assistant to one of the ministers of Greenock, was afterwards removed to Trinity Church, Edin- burgh ; and, having taken a leading part in the ecclesiastical discussions which preceded and followed the disruption, on the formation of a denominational hall of divinity, was appointed one of the professors, and on the death of Dr. Chalmers in 1847, succeeded him as principal and professor of divinity in the New College. Dr. Cunningham was more distinguished for intellectual power and learning than for elo- quence as a preacher; but his unquestionable talent and high character gave him much influ- ence in the body to which he belonged b. at Dunse, Berwickshire, October, 1805 ; d. 1861. Curius Dentatus, Marcus Annius, ku'-re-us der.-tai'-tus, a Roman, celebrated for his bravery, fortitude, and frugality. He was victorious over various nations, and when the Samnites attempted to bribe him, he said, " I prefer my earthen pots to all your vessels of gold and silver, and my desire is to command those who are in possession of money, while 1 have none, but live in poverty." Lived in the 3rd cen- tury B.C. Curtius, Marcus, kur-she-us, a Roman, who devoted himself to the infernal gods for the safety of his country. A wide chasm having suddenly appeared in the Forum, the oracle had said that it would never close until Rome threw into it its most precious possession. Thereupon Curtius, arming himself, mounted his hoise, and solemnly threw himself into the abyss, which instantly closed over his head, 300 B.C. Cuvier, Georges Christian Leopold Dagobert, Baron, koo'-ve-ai, a distinguished French natu- ralist, who, at the age of 21, became tutor to the only son of Count d'Hericy in Normandy, where, having a residence by the seacoast, he commenced the study of marine animals. In a short time he sent some papers to the Society of Natural History, and in 1795 received tht> appointment of assistant to Mertrud at Paris, in the Jardin des Plantes. Here he commenced his collection of comparative anatomy, and in 1796, when the National Institute was formed, became one of its first members. He now began a series of works illustrative of fossil remains, and in 1800 was appointed professor of natural philosophy at the College of F'rance, but still continued" to lecture on comparative anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes. In 1802 he was chosen by the first consul, Bonaparte, one of the inspectors-general to establish public schools in France, and became perpetual secretary to the Institute for the department of M aturul Sciences. I 305 Dacier He now rose to the highest honours, and in 1S14, just before the abdication of Napoleon I, was named a councillor of state, which appoint- ment was confirmed by Louis XVIII. His next advancement was to the chancellorship of the university, which he held till his death. In 1819 he was created a baron; in 1826 Charles X. conferred on him the decoration of grand officer of the Legion of Honour; and in 1832 Louis Philippe created him a peer. b. at Montb^liard, 1769; d. at Paris, 1832. Cuvier greatly advanced the natural sciences, the true object of which is, he declares, " to lead the human mind towards its destination, — a knowledge of truth." His works are very numerous, and, perhaps, his greatest is his " Theory of the Earth." Cuvier, Frederic, was a younger brother o. the above, and was also devoted to the pursuit of natural history. His most scientific work is " On the Teeth of Animals," published in 1822. b. at Montbeliard, 1773 ; P. at Strasburg, 1838. Cutp. (See Kuyp.) Cynjegikus, sin-e-ji'-rus, an Athenian, brother of the poet iEsehylus. After the battle of Ma- rathon, he pursued the flying Persians to their ships, and seized one of their vessels with his right hand, which was immediately cut off by the enemy. Upon this, he grasped the vessel with his left hand ; and when he had lost that also, retained his hold with his teeth. Cyprian, St., Thascius Coecilius, xip'-re-an, a learned father of the Latin church, who, in 216, embraced Christianity, on which he wrote his book " De Gratia Dei," addressed to Do- natus. Persecuted and beheaded at Carthage, 253. — His works were edited by Bishop Fell, at Oxford, in 1632 ; and rendered into English by Dr. Marshall, in one vol. folio. Cyrus, H'-rus, king of Persia, son of Cambyses and Mandane, daughter of Astyages, king of the Modes. There are different accounts of his youth. He restored the independence of Persia, which had long been under the domination of the Medes, and caused himself to be pro- claimed king about 559 B.C. In a short time he extended the limits of his empire, which soon became the greatest in Asia. He decisively de- feated Croesus, king of Lydia, invaded Assyria, and took Babylon by turning the channel of the Euphrates. He afterwards, however, was beaten by the Scythians, taken prisoner, and put to death by their queen, 529 B.C.— Histo- rians do not agree, however, as to the manner of his death. (See Crcesus.) Cyrus, called the "Younger," was the youngest son of Darius Nothus, and brother of Artaxerxes, king of Persia. When the latter mounted the throne, he was made go- vernor of Asia Minor. Desirous, however, of the supreme authority, he levied forces against his sovereign. A great battle was fought between the brothers at Cunaxa, 401 b.c, where Cyrus was defeated and himself slain by Artaxerxes. Cyrus had in his service Clearchus and Xenophon. (See Xenophon.) D Dac, or Dach, John, dak, a German painter, who was employed by the emperor Rudolph II., and whose pieces are very excellent. b. at Cologne, in 1566; v. at Vienna, 1650. Dacieu, Andrew, du'-xe-ai, a learned French THE DICTIONAKY Dacier Dalby scholar, who, with his wife, produced the " Del- phin " edition of the Classics for the use of the dauphin. His translation of Horace appeared the same year ; and, in 1691, his translation of the " Reflections of Marcus Antoninus," and the next year Aristotle's " Poetics." For his ser- vices to literature, he was appointed perpetual secretary to the Academy, rewarded with a pen- sion of 2000 livres, and made keeper of the cabinet of the Louvre, u. at Castres, 1651 ; d. 1722. — Besides the works above mentioned, he translated Plato into French; the "Lives" of Plutarch, the "Manual" of Epictetus, and several others. Dacieb, Anne, wife of the above, and daugh- ter of Le Fevre, professor of Greek at Saumur, received a liberal education. In 1674 she pub- lished an edition of Callimachus, and, in 1681, a translation of Anacreon and Sappho, which was followed by versions of some of Plautus's comedies, and of the " Plutus " and " Clouds " of Aristophanes. In 1683 she married M. Dacier, and, in 1711, produced her translation of the " Iliad." Three years after, appeared her ver- sion of the "Odyssey;" and this closed her literary labours, b. at Saumur, in 1654; d. 1730.— Madame Dacier was as remarkable for her modesty as her erudition. A learned Ger- man having paid her a visit, begged that she would write her name and a sentence in his book. She excused herself as long as she could, but being strongly importuned, she complied, and added to her signature the sentence from Sophocles, "Silence is the ornament of the female sex." Daedalus, de'-da-lus, an Athenian, son of Eupalamus, was the most ingenious artist of'liis age. To him we are supposed to be indebted for the invention of the wedge and many other mechanical instruments, as also the sails of ships. Having killed, from jealousy, his nephew Talus, Diedalus, with his son Icarus, fled from Athens to Crete, where Minos gave him a cor- dial reception. Here he constructed a famous labyrinth for Minos, in which he himself and his son were subsequently confined ; when lie made for them wings of feathers and wax for their use, and they took their flight from Crete. The heat of the sun, however, melted the wax on the wings of Icarus, who flew too high, and he fell into that part of the ocean which, from him, has been called the Icarian sea. The father alighted at Cumse, in Italy, where he built a temple to Apollo, and thence directed his course to Sicily, where he was kindly received by Cocalus, who reigned over part of the country. He was ulti- mately put to death by Cocalus, who had been threatened with war by Minos. The flight of D;edalus from Crete, with wings, is explained by observing that he was the inventor of sails, which in his age might pass, at a distance, for wings. Dagobert I., dag'-o-bair, king of France, was recognised as king of Austrasia in 622, and on the death of his father, Clotaire II., in 628, be- came possessed of Neustria, and in 631 of Aqui- tania, on the death of his brother Caribcrt. He subdued the Saxons, Gascons, and liretons; but tarnished the splendour of his exploits by his cruel and dissolute habits. He founded St. Denis, near Paris, in 632, and was there buried, 638; b. 602.— Dagobert II. succeeded to the kingdom of Austrasia in 656; assassinated 679. — Dagobert 111. succeeded his father, Childe- bert III., 711; D. 715. Dagcerre, Louis James Mande, da-gair, 306 the inventor of the diorama and daguerreo- types, or sun-pictures, which take from him their name. He was originally an artist, and became a scene-painter to the opera at Paris, assisting M. Prevost in producing his pano- ramas of the great cities of the world. His in- genuity, however, was continually prompting him to make new efforts in his art; and in 1822, in conjunction with Bouton, he perfected and exhibited the first diorama, which had a great success. For seventeen years he continued in this line, when he discovered the means of de- lineating objects by the chemical action of light. Something similar had been attempted before, by various chemists ; but it remained for Daguerre to work out the discovery. To him belongs the merit of producing sun-pictures perfect upon metallic plates. In 1839 he made an exhibition of these pictures, and was named an officer of the Legion of Honour. At the same time, on condition of publishing his me- thod, an annuity of 6000 francs for life was voted to him by the government, and the pro- cess of daguerreotyping became generally known, b. at Cormeille, France. 1789; d. at Petit-Brie-sur-Mamc, 1851, where a monument has been erected to his memory. Dahl, Michael, dal, a Swedish portrait pain- ter, who came to England, and met with great success. He had the honour to paint the por- trait of Queen Anne, and was, during her reign and that of George 1., the rival of Sir Godfrey Kneller. b. at Stockholm, 1656 ; d. in London, 1743. Daiil, John Christian, a distinguished Nor- wegian landscape-painter, whose views of Italian and Tyrolean scenery were universally admired. In rendering' the wild grandeur exhibited by his native country he was equally successful, u. at Bergen, 1788; D. 1857. DAnLBERO, Erie, dnl'-bairg, a Swedish gene- ral, who, after studying the science of fortifi- cation, was, in 1648, appointed an engineer. Gustavus Adolphus sent him to superintend the works for the defence of Thorn, and he attended that monarch in the Polish war. By his advice, the king undertook the enterprise of marcliing his army across the Great Belt, when frozen over, in 1657, whereby he extended his conquests to Copenhagen. In 1660 Dahlberg was en- nobled, and in 1669 appointed commandant of Malmo, and superintendent of fortifications. He so greatly improved these, as to be called the Vauban of Sweden. In 1690 he was made governor of Livonia, and died at Stockholm in 1703. b. 1625.— He published " Succia Antiqua et Hodierna," 3 vols, folio, 1700. Dalbt, Isaac, dal'-be, a self-taught mathe- matician, who, in 1772, went to London, ; nd received the appointment of usher to Archbishop Tenison's grammar-school, then near Charing Cross. Here he got acquainted with many ce- lebrated men of science, and subsequently be- came mathematical master of the naval school at Chelsea. He was afterwards engaged in the trigonometrical 6urvcy of England, and in 1799 was appointed professor of mathematics in tho senior department of the Uoyal Military College at High Wycombe. On the removal of that in- stitution to Farnham, Surrey, he accompanied it; but infirmities were now fast increasing upon him, and he was forced to resign his situation. b. in Gloucestershire, 17-41; d. at Farnham, 1821. Besides other writings of less collective importance he coir posed for the Military College OF BIOGRAPHY. Dale a " Course of Mathematics," in 2 vols., which extended to a sixth edition. Dale, David, dale, an extensive manufacturer and philanthropist, who, having acquired a considerable fortune, devoted it to the encou- ragement of industry and the improvement of the condition of the labouring classes. With this view he erected the cotton mills at New Lanark. The system he adopted was to give the workpeople an interest in the business by making them participators in the profits. They were generally engaged for a specified number of years, during which they were provided with food, lodging, and clothing, and, at the termi- nation of their engagement, received the share of the surplus profits apportioned to them. Education and the care .of their morals also formed prominent feature.? in Mr. Dale's system of treating his workpeople. Mr. Dale likewise attempted, though unsuccessfully, to introduce the cotton, manufacture into the county of Sutherland, in the Scottish Highlands. The works at New Lanark were long under the ma- nagement of the celebrated Bobert Owen, who had married Mr. Dale's daughter, and who suc- ceeded to them on the death of his father-in- law. Mr. Owen further developed the system in operation in accordance with his socialist or community theories, but it did not succeed, and the New Lanark works afterwards passed out of his hand?. — (See Owen, bobert.) — Jlr. Dale was born at Stewarton, Scotland, in 1738; and died at Glasgow in 1300. Dale, Rev. Thomas, M.A., canon of St. Paul's, London, was educated at Christ's Hospital and Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, and was or- d lined in 1S22. lie kept a school for some time at Greenwich, and also at Beckcnhani, Kent; and had for his first curacy St. Michael's, Corn- hill. He subsequently held some other church preferments; from 1323 to 1830, was professor of English Language and Literature at the Lon- don University; and from 1830 to 1839 occupied a similar chair at Kind's College, London. Sir Uobert Peel, in ls35, appointed Mr. Dale rector of St. Bride's, Fleet-street; and, in 1816, pro- moted him to a eanonry in St. Paul's and the rectorship of St. Pancras. He resigned the latter post after an incumbency of 14 years, and was appointed to the living of Therlield, Herts. While at Cambridge, Mr. Dale published his " Widow of Nain," " The Outlaw of Taurus," and " Irad and Adah: a Tale of the Flood." Between 1819 and 1322 he published three suc- cessive volumes of poems, which, alter having passed through several editions separately, were in 1330, collected into a single volume. He also gave to the world a translation of So- phocles, " The Sabbath Companion," " The i.ood Shepherd ; a Commentary on the Twenty- third Psalm;" "The Domestic Chaplain and Family Liturgy," besides several volumes of sermons preached at St. liride'.s, before the uni- versity of Cambridge, and on other occasions; and an editiop of Cowpcr, with notes, critical and biographical, n. at Pcntonville, August 22, 1797; n. 1870. D'Alembeut. (See Alembekt, D'.) Dalhoosie, James Andrew Broun Ramsay, tenth earl and first marquis of, dal-hoo'-ae, a muilcrn English statesman, was educated at Harrow, and afterwards entered Christchurch, Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1838. In ls32 he became Lord Ramsay, by the death of bis elder brothers, and in 1831 contested the 307 Dallas representation of Edinburgh in the House ol Commons, but was unsuccessful. In 1837, how- ever, he was returned for Haddingtonshire. In the succeeding year, he was called, by the death of his father, to the House of Lords, and in 1843 entered upon official life under the ministry of Sir Bobert Peel. His first office was that of vice-president of the Board of Trade, of which he became president in the following year. In this capacity his business habits were so emi- nent, and his reforms so judicious, that, on the accession of Lord John Bussell to power, in 1846, he was requested to keep his appointment, which he accordingly did. In 1817, on the recall of Lord Hardinge from India, Lord Dal- housie was appointed governor-general. He had now an opportunity of developing those ad- ministrative talents with which he was en- dowed. On reaching Calcutta, he proclaimed that his policy was to acquire equally direct dominion over the territories of the native princes, as the British already had over those of other parts of India in their possession. Ac- cordingly, on a revolt taking place in Mooltan, he marched a force into the North-western provinces, and, after defeating the Sikhs and Afl'gbans, annexed the Punjab. In two years afterwards, the king of Ava provoked an expe- dition to be sent against him, when the coast of Iiurmah was taken by the British, and in 1852 Pegu was incorporated with their dominions. After this, a series of annexations were made, which greatly enlarged the British empire in India. Aagpore, Sattara.Jhansi, Berar, and Oude were successively appropriated, either on account of the tyranny and misrule with which they had been governed, or from the failure of their law- ful heirs among the native dynasties. Whilst these events were taking place, the internal re- sources of the country were being energetically developed and improved. A uniform system of cheap postage was introduced, and a large por- tion of India intersected by railways ; the Ganges Canal was cut, and grand trunk roads con- structed through various parts. The energy of Lord Dalhousie's administration was apparent in every direction, when, with a broken constitu- tion, he returned to England in 1.350. In 1849 he had been created a marquis for his successes in the Punjab: and previous to his return he had, on the death of the duke of Wellington, been appointed to the wardenship of the Cinque Ports, and the East India Company also settled on him a pension of £'5000 a year. u. 1812; D. 1800. Dallas, Sir Bobert, dal'-as, a distinguished English lawyer, was the eldest son of Robert Dallas, of Kensington, and after being educated at Geneva along with his brother George, was entered at the Temple, called to the bar, and soon made himself conspicuous by his talent. He was engaged in the defence of Warren Hastings, for his efforts on which occa- sion he obtained the silk gown of a king's counsel. He was elected to the House of Com- mons fur St. .Michael's, Cornwall, in 1802, but, being appointed chief-justice of Chester, ho va- cated his scat, and was subsequently returned for Kirkcaldy, lie was appointed one of tho puisne judges of the Common Pleas in 1813, and succeeded Vicary Gibbs as president (if the same court in 1818. In 1823 he resigned his seat on the bench, and died December 25, 1821. Dallas, Sir George, brother of the above, an eminent political writer, began life as a civil X 2 THE DICTIONARY Dallas •ervant of the East India Company, having sailed for Calcutta when only eighteen years of nge. He soon made a name in India, having published at Calcutta, shortly after his arrival, a clever poem called "The Indian Guide." Warren Hastings now took him in hand, and pot him appointed superintendent of the collec- tions at Ragacshay, an office which he filled most satisfactorily for several years. Being obliged to return to England on account of his health, he was deputed by the residents in Calcutta to present a petition to the House of Commons against Pitt's India Bill. He pub- lished a pamphlet in vindication of Warren Hastings in 1789; in 1793 he wrote a work upon the state of affairs and the policy of a war with France, in which he strongly denounced the revolution in that country. This secured him the favour of Pitt, who had this piece and others by Pallas reprinted for general distribu- tion. Sir George afterwards wrote a series of letters to Lord Moira on the state of Ireland, which originally appeared in the "Antijacobin." In 179S he was made a baronet ; in the following year he published a pamphlet against concluding peace with the "present regicide government of France," and was soon alter returned to Par- liament for Newport, Isle of Wight. His subse- quent publications were "A Letter to Sir W. Pultency on the Subject of the Trade between India and Europe," " A Defence of the Wars of the Marquis Wellesley in the Decean and Hin- dustan," and a tract on the religious conver- sion of the Hindus, b. 1758; D. 1833. Dallas, George Mifflin, an American lawyer and statesman, was the son of James Alexander Dallas, secretary of the treasury and of war under Jefferson and Madison respectively. The family from which Mr. Dallas sprung has pro- duced several men distinguished in literature, law, statesmanship, See., in America; while the European branch boasts the names of the above-mentioned Sir Robert and Sir George Dallas; and the sister of the subject of this no- tice intermarried into the Byron family. George Mifilin Dallas was bred to the bar, and, after acting as private secretary to Mr. Gallatin in his mission to St. Petersburg, in 1813, to negotiate peace with England through the mediation of the czar, returned to America in 1815, and began to practise his profession. He held some legal offices in his native state of Pennsyl- vania, and in 1><31 began his political career as one of the representatives in congress of his own state, attaching himself to the democratic party, and taking an active part in the debates of the house. Mr. Van Buren sent him to St. Petersburg as minister, in 1837, where he re- mained till 1811, when, on the election of Gene- ral Harrison to the presidential chair, Mr. Dallas returned home and again devoted him- i-elf to the practice of his profession. At the next election he was chosen vice-president, Mr. Polk being the president ; and in 1816, as presi- dent of the senate, he gave his casting vote aiw-a ; nst the protective tariff bill which was then fl»e great question of the day. He was minister to the court of St. James under Mr. Buchanan's presidency, and in that capacity had charge of arranging the central American question with the British government. He resigned his post on the election of Mr. Lincoln as president, u. at Philadelphia, July 10, 1792. t>. ISfio. Dalrymple, James, daV -rim-pel, first Vis- count Staii , was a native of Ayrshire, and re- 308 Dalrymple ceived his education first at the parish school of Mauchline, and afterwards in the university of Glasgow. He served as a captain in Glen- cairn's regiment during the civil war ; was ap- pointed professor of philosophy at Glasgow in 1641, and while in this position studied civil law with a view to the bar. He resigned his chair in 1647, went to Edinburgh, and was ad- mitted an advocate in February, 16 18. He was next year chosen secretary to the commission sent by the Scots to negotiate for the return oi Charles I L, and held the same post again in 1650. Cromwell recommended him to Monk for a seal on the Scottish bench, and in ft>57 he was accord- ingly invested with the judicial ermine. Dal- rymple was knighted at the Restoration, created a baronet in 1664, appointed president of the court of session in 1671 , which office he held till 1681, when displeasing the government on the subject of the Test Act, he was superseded, and obliged to retire to Holland. He published " Institutions of the Law of Scotland," in 1681 ; and, while resident at Leyden, transmitted to the Edinburgh press " Decisions of the Court of Session from 1661 to 1681 ;" and published at Leyden in 1686, *' Philosophia Nova Kxperi- mentalis." He returned to England with the prince of Orange, with whom he had become a favourite in Holland, and was reinstated in the presidency of the Scottish court. He was made a peer by the title of Viscount Stair in 1G90; was reappointed lord advocate; and, in 1691, became one ofthe principal secretaries of state, an office which he continued to fill till the par- liamentary inquiry into the massacre of Gleneoe drove him from office in 1695. In the same year he published a work entitled "A Vindica- tion of the Divine Perfections;" and died shortly afterwards, b. 1619. Dalrymple, David, Lord Hailes, a Scotch judge, who, after finishing his education at Eton and Utrecht, was called, in 1748, to the Scotch bar, and in 1776 appointed a judge, on which occasion ho took the title of Lord Hailes. In this capacity he was eminently distinguished for the diligence with which he fulfilled his duties; but it is on account of his labours in the field of literature that he is chiefly celebrated. He pub- lished a number of books in the form of me- moirs and letters, relating to the history of Britain in the reigns of James I. and Charles I.; " Remarks on the History of Scotland," 12mo; "Annals of Scotland," 4to, 2 vols.; "Remains of Christian Antiquity," 3 vols. ; several Me- moirs intended for a iiioaraphia Scotica; papers in the " World" and " Mirror," and a great many other works, every one of them bearing the stamp of considerable merit, b. at Edin- burgh, 1726; D. 1792. Dalrymple, Alexander, an eminent hydro- grapher, who, by the force of his talents, raised himself to considerable eminence in the service of the East India Company. He endeavoured to establish friendly commercial relations be- tween the sultan of Sooloo and the Company, but was unsuccessful. He returned to Eng- land with a like object in view, but failed there also. In 1775 he again went to Madras, where he had been appointed a member of council, and one of the committee of circuit; but in 1777 was, with several others, recalled to have his conduct investigated regarding some of his proceedings. In 1779 he was appointed hydrographer to the Company, and in 1795. when a similar office was established by the 6f BIOGRAPHY. Dalton Admiralty, it was given to Dalrymple. This appointment he held till 1808, when he was oalled upon to resign it on the ground of super- annuation. This, however, he refused to do, and was dismissed, b. at New Hailes, Scot- land, 1737 ; d. from vexation, a month after his dismissal from office, 1808. Dalton, John, dal'-ton, a distinguished ma- thematician, meteorologist, and natural philoso- pher, who, from humble circumstances, gra- dually worked his way into public notice and honourable fame. In his thirteenth year he kept a school at Eaglesfield, Cumberland, and in his fifteenth, removed to Kendal to fill the situation of usher in the school of his cousin, lieorge Bewley. In 1793 he became professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in the New College at Manchester, which he held until the removal of that institution to York in 1799. He continued to reside in Manchester, and gave lessons in private seminaries, and also occupied himselfwithlecturinguponhisfavouritcsubjects. He also filled the appointments of secretary and vice-president to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, and in 1817 became its president, to which distinction he was elected every succeeding year until his death. Mean- while he had long been known as a contributor to the " Lady's Diary," " The Transactions of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society," and other serials ; but it was not till 1803 that he commenced seriously to work out his grand discovery of the atomic theory. In the following year he explained it to Dr. Thomas Thomson, and subsequently in some of his own lectures, delivered in London and several other of the principal towns of England. In 1808 appeared the first volume of his "New System of Chemical Philosophy," which, in 1810, was fdlowed by the second volume. In both of these volumes he treated of the atomic theory, which proved one of the most important contri- butions that had yet been made to the science of chemistry. By it, the constituents of any article could be regulated with perfect accuracy, and the knowledge of chemical combinations reduced to an amazing degree of simplicity and certainty. It is upon this discovery that his fame rests, as it at once places him amongst the most original inquirers and thinkers of his day. For it the first gold medal of the Royal Society was awarded to him. In 1832 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the title of D.C.L. ; in the following year William IV. gave him a pension of £150 a yew, which, in 1830, was raised to £300. In 1831 the University of Edin- burgh conferred on him the degree of LL.D., and in 1833, £2000 was subscribed by his friends in Manchester for a statue to him, to be sculptured by Chantrey, and placed in the entrance-hall of the Royal Institution of that city. In 1821 lie was elected i fellow of the Royal Society, and was also a member of various other learned societies, b. at Eaglesfield, near Coekermouth, Cumberland, 1706, v. at Man- chester, 1814. Damasus I., Pope, ddm'-a-sus, was a native of Portugal, and rose to the pontifical chair in 300. He laboured to reform the morals of his time, and extend the discipline of the church. The Arians were opposed by him in several councils. B. 304; d. 381. — Damasus II. was elected pope in 10H, and only survived his election twenty- three days. Daiii.u, Hon. Anne Seymour, dai'-mer, whose 300 Dana talents as a sculptor have rendered her name famous, was the daughter of field-marshal Con- way, and was, in 1767, married to the Hon. John Damer. Little felicity, however, followed her union, Mr. Damer having put an end to his own existence in 1776. Mrs. Damer then devoted herself to the cultivation of her taste for the fine arts— a taste which had distinguished her even in youth. She studied under Cerracchi, the sculptor, and soon became well known for the chaste and classical productions of her chisel. A statue of George III., in the Register Office, Edinburgh ; a bust of her mother, the countess of Aylesbury, in Tunbridge Church, Kent; and the bust of Lord Nelson in the council chamber at Guildhall, London, may be named as speci- mens of her works, of which she produced a great many. b. 1748; d. 1828. Damocles, ddm'-o-klees, a llatterer of Diony- sius the tyrant, whom he pronounced the happiest man on earth. This prince, in order to con- vince him of the happiness which a sovereign enjoyed, invited him to a banquet, and caused him to be arrayed and treated as a monarch. During the entertainment, a sword was sus- pended from the ceiling, over the head of Damo- cles, by a single horsehair; and thus was typified the happiness of a tyrant. Damon and Pythias, dai'-tnon, two Pytha- gorean philosophers of Syracuse, rendered me morable by their friendship. Dionysius the tyrant having condemned Damon to death, per- mission was granted him to return to his native place, in order to settle Ids affairs, Pythias remaining in his stead. The hour fixed for the execution arrived, and Pythias was about to suffer the punishment ; but Damon returned in time, and a generous contest ensued between them as to who should be the victim. Dionysius was so touched by this faithful friendship, t bat- he pardoned Damon, and asked to be admitted as a third friend. Lived in the 4th century b.c. Dampieb, William, dam-peer, an English navigator, who was early sent to sea, and first sailed in a Bristol privateer. After cruising a considerable time on the American coast, and taking several prizes, principally from the Spaniards, Dampier went aboard another buc- caneering ship. Not meeting with success, he sailed for the East Indies, where he left the vessel, and proceeded to the English factory at Acheen. Afterwards he became gunner to the factory at Bencoolen. In 1601 he embarked for England, and arrived there the sameyear, when he published his " Voyage round the World," which was well received by the public. He had now made himself known, and was sent out on a voyage of discovery to the South Seas. In this expedition he explored the north and north- west coasts of Australia, with Shark's Bay. lie also explored New Guinea, New Britain, and New Ireland ; but, on his return home, was wrecked on Ascension Island. In 1701, how- ever, he arrived in England, and published an account of his voyage. He continued to fol- low the sea till 1711, after which his life is lost in obscurity, n. in Somersetshire, 1052. There is a portrait of Dampier in the Trinity House. His "Voyages" bear the stamp of truth, and are written in a vivid style of narrative. Dana, Richard Henry, dai -tia, an American writer, who was educated at Harvard College, Massachusetts, with a view to his following the legal profession. Delicacy of health, however, forced him to quit ids le'ual studies, when he THE DICTIOtf AllY Danby applied himself to the more congenial pursuits of literature and politics. In 1817 he became a contributor to the "North American Review," and, from the attractive character of his articles, was introduced to a share in its management. This continued till 1820, when his connexion with that periodical ceased. He now started " The Idle Man," which lived only through one volume, and in which his "Tom Thornton" appeared. In 1825 he wrote his poem of " The Dying Eaven," which appeared in the " New York Review;" and in 1827 he published his "Buccaneer, and other Poems." In 1833 he published a collection of his poems and prose writings, and another edition in 1850. Mr. Dana, however, principally confined himself to miscellaneous writing, and to occasional lectur- rn* on poetry, b. at Cambridge, near Boston. 1787; b. 1879. Danbt, Francis, A.R.A., dun'-be, a modern artist, received his earliest lessons in design at the School of Arts in Dublin, and after acquiring some distinction in that city, he, in 1820, re- moved to Kngland, and took up his residence at Bristol, whence he sent his pictures annually to the exhibition of the Royal Academy, but with little success till 1824, when his " Sunset at Sea after a Storm" attracted considerable notice. This picture was purchased by Sir Thomas Lawrence. The following year he sent his " Delivery of Israel out of Egypt," which was highly thought of, and he became an associate of the Academy. He now worked hard, and ex- hibited several pictures, which increased his reputation. In 1829, on account of some do- mestic affairs, he left England, and was absent for ten or twelve years, when he returned, and began to exhibit again. He had now attained the summit of his art, and continued to produce a great many first-class paintings. Among these may be named his "Morning at Rhodes," " The Enchanted Island," " The Deluge," " A Holy Family," " Caius Marius amid the Ruins of Carthage," "The Departure of Ulysses from Ithaca," and "A Wild Seashore at Sunset." B. at Wexford, in Ireland, 1793. d. 1861. Dance, George, jun., dance, an eminent archi- tect, whose first work was the prison of New- gate, begun by him in 1770. He also designed St. Luke's Hospital and the front of Guildhall, which, as an artistic performance, is remark- able only for its absurdity. He was also the architect of the British Institution, formerly the Shakspeare Gallery, Pall Mall, and the theatre at Bath. He held the appointment of city sur- veyor till 1816, when he resigned in favour of \ Mr. W. Montague, a pupil of his own. b. in London, 1740; d. in 1825: and was buried near Wren and Ramie in St. Paul's Cathedral. Danceb, Daniel, dan'-ser, an extraordinary English miser, who, in 1736, succeeded to a considerable estate. Notwithstanding this, he led the life of a hermit for more than half a century. His only dealing with mankind arose from the sale of his hay ; and he was seldom seen, except when gathering logs of wood from the common, or old iron or sheep's dung from under the hedges. He was frequently robbed, and therefore shut up the door of his house, and tr< >t in and out by an upper window, making use of a ladder, which he drew up after him. His sister, who lived with him many years, left him, at her death, a considerable increase to his wealth ; and, on this occasion, he bought a second-hand pair of black stockings to put him- 410 Daniell self in decent mourning. This was an article of luxury, for, at other times, Daniel wore hay- bands on his legs. b. 1714, near Harrow, in Middlesex ; d. 1795 ; and left his estates to Lady Tempest, who had been very charitable to both him and his sister, under the notion that they were poor. Dancourt, Florence Carton, dang-koor, a French dramatist of the time of Louis XIV., by whom he was patronized. He was originally intended for the church, but preferred the bar, which he in turn abandoned for the profession of actor and author. He was a great favourite with Louis, in whose service he passed thirty- eight years, and then retired to his estate in Berri, where he passed the remainder of his life in retirement. His works, principally farces, the scenes of which are laid in low life, oc- cupy six volumes, b. at Fontainebleau, 1661 ; d. 1726. Dandolo, Enrico, dan'-do-lo, doge of Venice, to which office he was elected in 1192, being then 84 years old. He raised the Venetian re- public to a considerable height by the vigour and wisdom of his government. In 1201 he engaged in the crusade, and conquered Zara, which had revolted against the Venetians. In 1203, though nearly 90 years of age, he greatly distinguished himself at the siege of Constanti- nople, on the taking of which he was created despot of Romania, d. in 1205. Dandolo, Andrea, doge of Venice, extended the commerce of the republic by a union with Egypt, which produced a war between the Ve- netians and the Genoese, which lasted several years. He was a man of letters, wrote a "His- tory of Venice," and corresponded with Petrarch. b. about 1307; d. in 1351. Danican, Andrew. (See Philidor.) Daniel, Samuel, diin'-yel, an English poet and historian, who became groom of the privy chamber to the queen of James I. At the close of his life he retired to a farm in his native county, where he died in 1619. b. in Somerset- shire, 1562. His poems and dramatic pieces were collected, and printed in 2 vols. 12mo, 1718. The most important are an. heroic poem in six books, on the Wars of York and Lancaster; " Musophilus," a very elegant composition ; a tragedy of "Cleopatra;" and the "Complaint of Rosamond." Besides these, there are several masques, sonnets, odes, and epistles. He also wrote the "History of England to the End of the Reign of Edward III.," which, according to some authors, is the best of all his works. Daniel, Gabriel, da'-ne-el, a French historian, who entered among the Jesuits at the age of eighteen, and became historiographer of France under Louis XIV., who gave him a pension of 2000 francs. One of his first productions was a " Voyage to the World of Descartes," which has been translated into several languages. His greatest performance, however, is " The History of France," published at Paris in 3 vols, folio, 1713, but afterwards enlarged to 7 vols, 4to, 1722. This work is said to have little merit as a whole, it is rather a history of the kings than of the people, is feeble in style, and full of in- accuracies. He also wrote several miscella- neous and theological treatises, b. at Rouen, 1649; d. at Paris, 1728. Daniell, William, R.A., diin'-yel, an artist and engraver, who, at the age of fourteen, went with his uncle to India, and commenced sketch- ing all that struck them as beautiful or intereft- OF BIOGRAPHY. Daniell Dante lng between Cape Comorin and Serinagur, in the Himalaya mountains. They were ten years engaged in this task, and many of their views were subsequently published in a work called "Oriental Scenery," which appeared, completed, in 6 vols, folio in 1808. As an engraver, Mr. Daniell produced several other works of great merit, and between 1814 and 1825 was occupied in getting up a work entitled a " Voyage round Great Britain," for which he spent the summer of every year in making notes and collecting drawings. Besides these, he painted in oil many large pictures of scenes in India, and, in conjunction with Mr. Paris, produced, in 1832, a panorama of Madras, and, more recently, " The City of Lucknow." n. 1769 ; d. 1837. Daniell, John Frederick, a distinguished chemist and meteorologist, who commenced life as a sugar-refiner, but, becoming acquainted with Professor Brande, they, together, started the " Quarterly Journal of Science and Art," and superintended the first twenty volumes of that serial. In 1820 Daniell published an account of his new hydrometer, an instrument which has been of immense service to meteorology. In 1823 liis " Meteorological Essays" appeared, and raised him still higher in the rank of men of science. His "Essay on Artificial Climates" appeared in 1824, and in 1831, on the establish- ment of King's College, he was made professor of chemistry. About this time a description of his new pyrometer was 'given to the world, and for the invention of this instrument, the Royal Society awarded him the Kumford medal. In 1837 he received the Copley medal for discover- ing a mode by which a continuous current of voltaic electricity may be maintained. In 1812 he received one of the Royal medals for a paper on the theory of salts. In 1843 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.C.L., and in the same year a second edition of an " Introduction to Chemical Phi- losophy " appeared. With his professorship, he held other important appointments, and was for thirty years a member of the Royal Society. B. in London, 1790; d. 1815. Besides the above, he wrote a great many treatises upon subjects connected with his favourite studies. DAyNECKKR,JohnHenry,rfaK'-at-fcer, a distin- guished German sculptor, was born at Stuttgardt of humble parentage, but early evincing a taste for the fine arts, and especially for sculpture, he attracted the notice of Charles Duke of Wurtem- bcrg, who took him under his protection, and procured his admission to the Military Artistic Academy of Stuttgart, where he made such pro- gress, that when only 16 years of age, he obtained a prize for his model of Milo. This was in 1774. He subsequently visited Taris and Home, in the latter of which cities he met Canova, and derived much benefit from his con- versation and instruction. Danneckcr returned to Germany in 1796, and shortly afterwards completed the "Ariadne," one of his finest workt. His noblest effort, however, is his statue of Christ, which occupied him eight years, was finished in 1824, and is now in the possession of the Emperor of Russia. Dan- nccker was especially eminent for the beauty of the features, the elegant pose, and the fine proportions of his statues, b. 1758; d. 1811. Dantan, Jean Pierre, dan'-ia, a French sculptor, whose father followed the same pro- fession, and in whose studio he first imbibed the principles of bis art. He subsequently 311 studied under Bosio, and, when he first essayed on his own account, produced several bust and portrait studies, wlrich excited considerable ad- miration, and at once brought him prominently into notice. His genius, however, led him into the study of caricature, when, about 1832, he captivated the humorous inclinations of the Parisians by a series of grotesque statuettes, which he called " Charges," of the principal celebrities of the capital. These were nothing more than exaggerated portraits of the leading features of the face, rendered with great in genuity, yet without being ridiculous. They were new and striking, and " took " with the public amazingly. One of the peculiarities of these " Charges " was, that the heads were dis- proportionately large, whilst the bodies upon which they were placed were as disproportion- ately diminutive. They were executed with a view to correctness of attitude and expression, in so far as regarded the individuals they were intended to represent, although all about them was either exaggerated or diminished to an amusing degree of absurdity. The consequence to these " celebrities " in the hands of Dantan was great popularity ; and as many of them, such as Paganini, Lablaehe, Thalberg, were men continually before the public, it may be presumed that the genius of the sculptor helped to extend rather than circumscribe their fume. b. at Paris, 1SO0 ; i>. 1869. Dante, or Durante, Alighieri, dan'-tai, the most distinguished of Italian poets, in early life served his country both as a soldier and a poli- tician. He became one of the priori or chief magistrates of his native city of Florence about 1300, when the contentions of the two factions of the Bianchi and the Neri were at their height. He joined the former, which, being the weakest, was overcome in the struggle, and Dante fall- ing with his party, was banished, and his pro- perty confiscated. For many years he was doomed to bear the sorrows of an exile. At length he was taken under the protection of Guido da Polenta, lord of Ravenna, under whose roof he passed the remainder of his days. b. at Florence, 1265; d. at Ravenna, 1321.— It was during his exile that Dante wrote his poem, of world-wide fame, " La Divina Corn- media." It comprises three poems, or distinct acts — Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. The poet, describing the fate of souls after " shufliing off this mortal coil," places in hell and pur- gatory all those who are remarkable either for their crimes or vices (especially those who were the authors of his mi«'ortunes), and in paradise those who have done good deeds on earth. He is, supposed, in company with Virgil, to descend to the infernal regions, and there describe the various punishments of sin- ners, whilst Beatrice, his first-loved earthly companion, leads him through the delights of paradise. This extraordinary composition is one of the most sublime productions which have ever emanated from the genius of man, although many passages are full of extra- vagances, and others, from their peculiar allusions, are very obscure. " La Commedia" was the first poem ever written in the Italian language; before it, the Latin tonirue was always employed. The best edition is that of Venice, 1757, 6 vols. 4to. This poem has found in all countries a host of editors, commentators, and translators. Dante also wrote some works iu Latin, particularly one on Monarchy, and THE DICTIONARY Dante another, " Do Vulgari Eloquentia." It is, how- ever, on his "DivinaCommedia" that his fume securely rests. A monument was erected to his memory in the church of Santo Croce, in Florence, and opened to public view on the 24th of March, 1830. This tardy justice to the memory of a great poet, by his countrymen, may have been stimulated by the reproving lines of Byron, in the 4th canto of " Cliilde Harold," beginning — " Ungrateful Florence! Dante sleeps afar!" Dante, Jean Baptiste, of the same family £ the poet, was remarkable for his mechani- cal genius, the most noted production of which was a pair of wings, which were so nicely constructed, that he could support himself in the air, and fly across the Thrasimenus lake, near Perugia, of which city he was a native. This machine nearly immortalized him in a not very agreeable manner, however, for in an exhibition of its powers before the people, one of the wings broke, Dante fell upon the top of the church of Notre Dame, and severely shattered his thigh. This put an end to his aerial excursions, and he subsequently devoted himself to mathematics, of which he was pro- fessor at Venice. Died towards the end of the 15th century.before he had attained his 40th year. Danton, George Jacques, dan'-tawng, a leading demagogue in the French revolution, was a lawyer, and attained notoriety in that storm which brought prominently into notice a number of persons who would otherwise have passed their days in obscurity. He displayed extraordinary talents in the National Conven- tion, and was a powerful speaker. He was the leader of the Cordeliers club, was accused of havif; instigated the massacre of the 2nd of September, and- w s a man of debauched character in private life. He was mainly in- strumental in organizing the opposition to the Prussian invasion after the sanguinary scenes of September, his declaration, in the midst of general terror and confusion, that the " country was in danger, and could only be saved by boldness, incessant boldness, notliing but bold- ness," having roused the populace to make those efforts which resulted in the defeat of the Duke of Brunswick at Jena, and the commencement of that career of conquest and aggression which closed only on the field of Waterloo. Robes- pierre supplanted him, and he died under the guillotine in 1794. n. at Areis-sur-Aube, 1759. D'Ahbi.at, Madame Frances, dar-blai, was the daughter of Charles Buvney, the author of the "History of Music," and, in 1793, married a French emigrant artillery officer, with whom she afterwards went to France; and who, on the restoration of the Bourbons, attained the rank of general. After the termination of the war, they returned to England, and settled at Bath, where her husband died in 1818. She continued to reside at Bath up to the time of her death, n. at Lynn Begis, 1752; d. at Bath, 1840. — Madame DArblay's maiden name was Frances Burncy, and she gained considerable celebrity by her literary productions. These were mostly in the paths of fiction, in which she produced four novels, " Evelina," "Cecilia," " Camilla," and the " Wanderer." For this last she received £1500, although it is but an indifferent performance. She wrote several Dther works, among which were Memoirs of ler father, which, in 1832, she published in (vols. 31' Darnley Darcet, John, dar'-sai, a French chemist and physician, who became professor of che- mistry in the National Institute of Paris. He published several papers on the management ol potteries, and the nature of earths fit to be used in those manufactories. He also gave analyses of several minerals, and published the "State of the Pyrenees, and of the Causes of their Wasting." b. at Donazit, Landes, 17-5; d. at Paris, 1801. Daect, Patrick. (See Abcy, Patrick d'.) Darius the Mede, dd-ri'-us, the prince men- tioned in the Scriptures, is, according to some, the same as Cyaxares, son of Astyagcs, and maternal uncle to Cyrus. D. at Babylon, about 348 B.C. Darius I., king of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes. He entered into a conspiracy with six others against the usurper Smerdis, whom they slew, and then made an agreement that he should have the crown whose horse should neigh first in the morning. By a plan concerted . by the groom of Darius, a certain spot was fixed upon, and when the candidates came to the place, the horse of Darius suddenly neighed, in consequence of which he was saluted king. He subsequently took Babylon, after a siege of ten months, rebuilt the temple of Jerusalem, and restored the captive Jews to their own country. At Marathon his forces were defeated by the Greeks, on whiclrhe resolved to carry on the war in person, but died in the midst of his preparations, 485 b.c. ; b. about 550 b.c. Daeius II. was surnamed Ochus or Nothus (bastard), because he was an illegitimate son of Artaxerxes. After the murder of Xerxes, he ascended the Persian throne, and espoused Pa- rysatis, his sister, a cruel princess, by whom he had Artaxerxes Mnemon, afterwards king, and Cyrus the Younger, d. 404 b.c. Daeius III., surnamed Codomannus, was the last king of Persia. The peace of his kingdom was early disturbed by Alexander, who invaded Persia to avenge the injuries which the Greeks had suffered from the predecessors of Darius. The king of Persia met his adversary in person, at the head of 600,000 men. This army was remarkable, however, more for the splendour of its equipment than its military courage. A battle was fought near the Granicus, in which the Persians were easily defeated. Another was soon after fought near Issus, where Alex- ander left 110,000 of the enemy dead on the field, and took, among the prisoners of war, the mother, wife, and children of Darius. The darkness of the night favoured the retreat of Darius, who saved himself by flying in disguise. These losses weakened, but did not discourage, the Persian monarch, who assembled another more powerful army, with which he encoun- tered his enemy at Arbela. The victory was long doubtful ; but the intrepidity of Alexander, and the superior valour of the Macedonians, ultimately prevailed over the effeminat% Per- sians, and Darius fled towards Media. Hit misfortunes were now almost at in end. Bes sus, the governor of Bactria, in hopes of sue cecding him on the throne, attempted his life; and Darius was found by the Macedonians, in his chariot, expiring, covered with wounds, 330 b.c. In him the empire of Persia was extin- guished, 229 years after it had been first founded by Cyrus the Great. (See Alexandre the Gbeat.) Dabnley, Earl of, tlarn'-U, son of the Earl OP BIOGRAPHY. Darquier of Lennox, the ill-fated husband of Mary queen of Scots, was married to her in 1565, and two years afterwards was blown up by gun- powder in a house where he was lying unwell, in the neighbourhood of Holyrood palace, at Edinburgh. (See Mart Stuart.) Darquieb, Augustin, dar'-ke-ai, a French astronomer, and member of the National Insti- tute, who early discovered a stror.g inclination for the study of astronomy, which he cultivated with ardour; purchasing instruments, and establishing an observatory in his own house. He also educated pupils, paid the expenses of calculations, and sought for no pecuniary aid from government. His last observations were printed in Lalande's "riistoire Celeste," and we brought down to March, 1 798. b. at Tou- louse, 1718; d. 1802. Daru, Pierre Antoine Noel Bruno, Count, d'ir'-oo, a distinguished poet, historian, and statesman of Franee, who entered the military service of his country, notwithstanding an ardent attachment which he had to literary pursuits. He rose through a succession of employments, writing poetry, and assisting in the military organization of the army. He at- tracted the notice of the first consul, and, in 1802, bet-ame a member of the Tribunal. In 1805 he was made a counsellor of state, and general-intendant of the Imperial household. This last office he hesitated to accept. " I have spent my life among books," said he, " and have not had time to study the arts of the courtier." " Of courtiers I have plenty," said Napoleon I, ; " they will never fail ; but I want a minister, at once enlightened, vigilant, and firm." He sub- sequently became the confidential friend of the emperor, and his prime minister. In 1812 he opposed the expedition to Russia, as he did several other of the emperor's schemes. On the abdication of Napoleon, he retired from public life, and, although exiled by the first govern- ment of the restored Bourbons, was recalled in 1819, and made a peer of France. He after- wards wrote a " Life of Tully," and a " His- tory of Venice." b. at Montpellier, 17(57; r>. 1829. Darwin, Erasmus, dar'-icin, an English phy- sician and poet, who, in 1755, took his bache- lor's degree in medicine at Cambridge, and on that occasion produced a thesis in which he maintained that the movements of the heart and arteries are immediately produced by the stimulus of the blood. From Cambridge he re- moved to Edinburgh, where he took his doctor's degree, after which he practised at Lichfield. In 1757 he married Miss Howard, of that city, who died in 1770; after which he mar- ried the widow of Colonel Pole, who brought him a good fortune. He then removed to Derby, where he passed the remainder of his life. Dr. Darwin's literary fame rests upon his " Botanic Garden," with philosophical notes, in two parts: — 1. "The Economy of Vegeta- tion." 2. "The Loves of the Plants," 2 vols. 8vo. 3. " Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life," 8vo. 4. " Phytologia, or the Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening," 1 vol. 4to. In these works the poet, botanist, and philosopher appear to advantage, although they are now little read. Besides these, he was the author of papers in the " Philosophical Transactions," and a tract on "Female Education," 4to. He had also a share in the formation of the "System of Vesre- 'sbles" of Limueus, published in the name of the 313 D'Aubigne' I Botanical Society at Lichfield, b. near Newark, Nottinghamshire, 1731 ; d. at Derby, 1802. Darwin, Charles, F.B.S., an eminent modern naturalist, who distinguished himself by his discoveries in the paths of zoology and geology. He is also widely known by his work entitled " The Voyage of Naturalists." This is a record of the observations which he made in several of the countries visited by his Majesty's ship Beagle, between the years 1832 and 1836, to which he had been attached as naturalist. He also wrote several other works, which place him high among geologists. His " Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection," has gone through several editions, and been the occasion of much controversy among the learned, b. at Shrewsbury, Feb. 12, 1809. Datames, dat'-a-mees, a Persian general under Art axerxes II., who gained many victories over the enemies of that prince. Being dis- graced, however, by the king, to whom envious courtiers had misrepresented him, he raised Cappadocia in revolt, and defeated Artabazes, whom the king sent against him. Assassinated by Mithridates, 361 b.c. — Cornelius Nepos has written his life. Datis, dai'-tis, a general of Darius I., had the command, in conjunction with Artaphernes, of the Persian army which was defeated by Jlil- tiades at Marathon, 49J B.C. — He was subse- quently put to death by the Spartans. Daubenton, Louis -Jean -Marie, do-ben- tawng, a French anatomist and naturalist, who became assistant to Button in the royal garden, and keeper of the king's museum, 'in 1714 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences, and contributed several valuable papers to their memoirs. He had also a considerable share in the production of Button's " Natural History," generally furnishing the anatomical descriptions. His " Instructions to Shepherds," 1784, 8vo, is an excellent work. He was like- wise the author of " A Methodical View of Minerals," and contributed several articles to the " Encyclopedia." Daubcnton was the prin- cipal means of introducing and successfully propagating the breed of Spanish sheep in France. He was married to the authoress of "Zelie dans le Desert," with whom he lived in great happiness, n. at Montbard, Burgundy, 1716; d. at Paris, 1800. Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D., F.B.S., daw'-be-ne, distinguished himself by his labours in the fields of geology, chemistry, and phy- siological botany. On these subjects he pub- lished a great many papers, whilst perform- ing his duties as professor of botany and chemistry in the University of Oxford. In 1856 he was elected president of the British Associa- tion. B. 171)5; D. 1867. D'Aubigne', Jean Henri Merle, do-been'-yai, a Swiss theologian, who, for some time, was the paster of a French church in Hamburg, whence he removed to Brussels, where he ac- quired great popularity as a preacher. It is, however, on account of his great work, entitled "A History of the Reformation of the 16th Century," that he is here noticed, a performance which has acquired an immense popularity. He also wrote several other works; among which we may name "The Protector (Crom- well); a Vindication ;" and "Germany, Knu r - land, and Scotland." His sympathies leant greatly towards the evangelical Protestantism of the last-named country, to which lie pai^ THE DICTIONARY D'Atibigne' frequent visits, and, in 1856, received the freedom of the city of Edinburgh, b. at Geneva, 1794; d.1872. D'Aubigne', Theodore Agrippa. (See Av- bignb', D'.) Dauit, Leopold Joseph Maria, Count, doun, a celebrated Austrian general, who served the empress Maria Theresa with the greatest zeal and glory. He commenced his military career against the Turks ; but it was as a commander in the armies which were engaged in the Seven Years' War against the kinar of Prussia, that he attained the acme of his glory. After a scries of good fortune, however, he met with a defeat at Torgau, in 1760. b. 1705; d. at Vienna, 1706. DAtnror, Pierre Claude Francois, dan-noo, a distinguished politician and man of letters, after being a student of divinity at Montmo- rency, was professor at Troyes, Soissons, and Bou- logne. His first appearance as an author was in 1787, when he published an essay on the influence of Boileau on French literature, which was well received. In 1792 he became a member of the National Convention, in which he voted for the detention of Louis XVI., but opposed his execution. He was subsequently imprisoned by the Jacobins, and escaped the guillotine on the occurrence of the revolution of 9th Ther- midor. On resuming his seat in the Convention, he was appointed one of a commission to draw up a new constitution, was for some time reporter, and afterwards secretary of the Con- vention, in which last office he continued till the close of its sittings, when he was appointed a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He pronounced, by order of the republic, the eulogium on General Hoche in the Champs de Mars; was sent to organize the Koman republic in 1799; and elected president of the Council of Five Hundred on his return. He opposed the proceedings of Napoleon on the 18th lirumaire, and refused several offices tendered to him. He, however, as a member of the Tribunate, pro- nounced an harangue on the battle of Marengo, and moved the honours decreed to Desaix. He was archivist to the legislative body and the empire from 1804 till the restoration, when he lost his places, and took to journalism, having conducted the " Journal des Savants" till 1838, which position he resigned on being named perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscrip- tions and Belles Lettres. He was restored to his offices at the revolution of 1830, and was subsequently made a peer of France. He was a voluminous writer, having contributed to the "Biographic Universale," the "Histoire Lit- te'raire," and the "Journal des Savants," up- wards of 330 different papers, besides other writings, b. 1761; D. 1840. Davknant, Sir William, ddv'-nant, an English poet, who, after being some time at Lincoln College, became page to the duchess of Rich- mond, and then to Lord llrooke. In 1637 he suc- ceeded Ben Jonson as poet laureate; and, having fought for the king during the civil war, received, in 1643, the honour of knighthood. On the decline of the royal cause, he went to France, and formed a plan of carrying out to Virginia, in America, some artificers; but his ship w:is taken by F.nglish cruisers, and he himself would have suffered death, had not Milton interceded on his behalf. This generous act lie was enabled, at a future day, similarly to repay to Milton. At the 314 David Comnenus Restoration he obtained a patent for erecting a theatre in Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and devoted himself to dramatic composition and poetry. b. at Oxford, 1605 ; d. in London in 1668, and was interred in Westminster Abbey. His works were published together in 1678. — His son, Charles Davenant, was well versed in politics, and acquired some reputation by his poetic works, as also others connected with political and social economy. His works were published in five volumes 8vo, 1771. b. 1656; d. 1714. David, St., da'-vid, a British saint, who, in the 5th century, was bishop of Caerleon, and the metropolitan of the Welsh church. He subse- quently removed his see to Mynyw, which came to be called Ty Dewi, or the house of St. David. There are many churches dedicated to him in Wales ; but the notion of his being the patron saint of that country, and his originating its symbol in the leek, are treated as modern in- ventions. Lived in the 6th century. — The wearing of the leek, in Wales, on St. David s day, probably originated from the custom of " Cym- hortha," or the friendly aid, practised among farmers. In some districts of South Wales, all the neighbours of a small farmer were wont to appoint a day when they attended to plough his land, and the like ; and, at such time, it was the custom for each to bring his portion of leeks with him for making the broth or soup. David I., king of Scotland, succeeded his brother Alexander the Fierce, in 1124. lie was reared in England, and married Maud, grand- niece of William the Conqueror. When called to the Scottish throne, he held the earldom of Northumberland and Huntingdon, and, on tne death of Henry I., king of" England, main- tained the claim of his daughter Maud against Stephen, and seized Carlisle. He was, however, defeated at the battle of Northallerton, in 1138. The following year a negotiation was entered into, by which Carlisle was suffered to remain in the possession of David, n. at Carlisle, 1153. David II., king of Scotland, was the son of Robert Bruce, at whose death he was but five years old. On the invasion of his country by Baliol, he was sent to France; but his party prevailing, after a bloody contest, he returned in 1342. He made several inroads on England, but was taken prisoner and conveyed to the Tower, where he was confined till 1357, when, on paving a heavy ransom, he was set free. D. in 1371. David op Hirazug, surnamed the Black, a Welsh divine, bard, and grammarian. The lite- rary compositions of the Welsh being affected by their conquest by Edward I., this divine was chosen to modify the grammar and system of prosody of lideyrn, agreeably to the regulations which took place on that occasion. He also translated several copies of a Missal, or the Office of the Virgin, into Welsh. Flourished in the 14th century. David ap Gwilym, a celebrated Welsh bard, who composed a variety of beautiful poems, under the patronage of Ivor the Generous. The subject of the greater part of these is love. One hundred and forty-seven of them he dedi- cated to the fair Morvid, his mistress; but she rejected his suit, and married Rhys Gwgan, an officer in the English army at the battle of Cressy. Flourished in the 14lh century. His works were printed in London, in 1789. David Comnewus, the last emperor 5. — Sir Henry wrote largely on geology, and pub- lished several excellent manuals for the young student. His " How to Observe," first pub- lished in 1835, has been pronounced a truly Ba- conian volume— a sort of "Novum Organum" of geo'ogy. Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor Eugene, del'- a-leraaw, a distinguished French painter. His father passed through the sternest scenes of the great revolution, and, in 1SU5, died prefect of the Mouths of the Rhone and the Gironde. Young Delacroix was well educated, and entered the Academy of Arts in his 18th year. His first exhibited picture represented " Dante and Virgil sailing round the Infernal City," and excited a great deal of controversy: which may be taken ' 31tf Delambre as a sign of its being differently executed from the style of French art then in vogue, as well as of its indicating proofs of genius. It was succeeded by the " Massacre of Scio," which placed him at the head of a school designated the " Romantic." Both of these pictures now belong to the national collection, and hang on the walls of the Luxembourg. His position was now in a measure fixed, and he continued to work with unremitting assiduity. Among his earlier performances, we may notice his " Christ in the Garden," " Milton dictating ' Paradise Lost' to his Daughters," and " .v e- phistopheles appearing to Faust." The revo- lution of 1830 supplied him with other themes ; but having become an attache of the govern- ment mission to Marocco, the scenes of the East suggested new subjects. On his return, he exhibited, in 1831, "Women of Algiers;" a work which Parisian judges declared placed him on a parity with Rubens as a colorist. M. Thiers, who had from the first been his admirer, being now Minister of the Interior, gave him the walls of the Salon du Roi, at the Palais Bourbon, to paint; which he accomplished by symbolically illustrating the arts, winning for himself still greater fame. He was now called upon to adorn other public buildings, at which he laboured, whilst at intervals he produced other important gallery and cabinet paintings. Among these may be named " Hamlet with the Skull of Yoriek," "Medea," "Cleopatra," " Christ at the Tomb," and the " Resurrection of Lazarus." His works, as a whole, are nu- merous, and marked by great energy of style and originality of invention. His admirers place him on the same pedestal with Paul Veronese b. at Charenton-Saint-Maurice, near Paris, 1799; B . 1S(>3. Delambre, Jean Baptiste Joseph, del-ambr , a distinguished modern French astronomer, who was first taught by the poet Delisle, at Amiens, and who afterwards entered the astronomical class under Lalande, in the College of France, at Paris. This teacher, as did Delisle, became the friend of Delambre; and many of the calcu- lations of the master were performed by the pupil. Up to this period, Delambre had sup- ported himself by translating foreign works tor publishers, and by giving instructions as a professor of languages ; when he became tutor to the two sons of a person of the name of Dassy. This gentleman fitted up a small ob- servatory for his use, and Delambre soon be- came an adept in the use of the instruments, and resolved to devote himself to the study of astronomy and its history. Persevering by nature, and devoted to whatever he engaged in, he surmounted every obstacle that came in his way, and, in 1781, formed the table of the mo- tion of Herschel's newly-discovered planet, which procured him the prize awarded by the Academy of Sciences. He now entered upon the construction of his solar tables' and those of other planets; in 179:4 completed his calcu- lations, and received another prize, which thf Academv had offered in the preceding year. He was now deputed, with Mechain, to measure the arc from Dunkirk to Barcelona, which, from the death of his assistant, he had to com- plete himself. The result of the measurements ta^'-n in the performance of this duty, furnished the data for his work entitled " Base du Systeme Metrique Decimal," for which the Institute of France decreed him a prize. He had n.wat- THE DICTIONARY Del any tained what may reasonably be supposed to be the summit of a philosopher's ambition, and was chosen an associate of almost every learned body in Europe. In his own country honours were showered upon him, and in 1817 he was made a chevalier of the order of St. Michael. His scientific works are very numerous, b. at Amiens, 1749; d. at Paris, 1822. Delany, Patrick, de-lai'-ne, an eminent Irish divine, who by his learning and ability raised himself from a humble origin to be chancellor ■>f Christ Church, tutor of Trinity College, Dub- lin, and ultimately to the deanery of Down, where he was educated. He married for his second wife the daughter of Barnard Granville, Lord Lansdowne, a woman of superior intellect and acquirements. Dr. Delany's principal works are — " Revelation Examined with Candour," 3 vols. ; "Reflections upon Polygamy;" "An Historical Account of the Life of David, King of Israel," 3 vols. ; " Sermons on the Social Duties and Vices," 2 vols. ; besides " Essays on the Origin of Tithes," "Critiques on Lord Orrery's Life of Swift," with whom Delany was long on terms of intimacy, b. about 1686 ; d. - 1768. Delant, Mary Granville,' second wife of the preceding, when seventeen years of age married Alexander Pendarves, Esq., but in 1724 was left a widow, and after remaining in that condition for nineteen years, married Dr. Delany. She lived for several years with the Duchess of Portland, at Bulstrode ; and on the latter's death was as- signed a house in Windsor, with a pension of £200 a year, by George 1 1 1., which she enjoyed till her death. Her correspondence with many of the wits and learned men of the day, which is dis- tinguished for elegance and spirit, has made her well known to the reading public ; but she was especially distinguished for her skill in drawing and painting. When 70 years of age she in- vented a beautiful and ingenious Flora, con- structed of coloured paper, skilfully cut out with scissors, and arranged on a black ground, which was so tastefully executed as almost to equal nature. In this amusement Mrs. Delany spent her time till her 83rd year, when failing sight compelled her to relinquish the pursuit, b. 1700; d. 1788. Delaroche, Paul, del-a-rosh' ', an eminent French painter, who early became devoted to his art. At first he applied himself to land- scape, but by degrees entered upon historical subjects, and became the head of the " Eclectic" school. His style and pictures are so generally familiar, that it is hardly necessary to do more than enumerate the names of some of them, to recall them to mind, and prove his claim to the eminence he attained. "Joan of Arc in Prison with Cardinal Beaufort," the " Death of Queen Elizabeth," "The Children of Edward IV. in the Tower," "Cromwell contemplating the Dead Body of Charles I.," " Execution of Lady Jane Grey," " Charles I. insulted by the Parlia- mentary Soldiers in the Guard-room," " Straf- ford receiving the Blessing of Laud, on his Way to the Scaffold," "The Death of the Duke of Guise," "Napoleon Crossing the Alps," "Napo- leon at Fontainebleau," and many more. Most of these, if not all, have been engraved ; and may be said to be almost universally known. In 183-1 Delaroche was created an officer of the Legion of Honour, b. at Paris, 1707; d. 1856. Delavigne, Jean Francois Casimir, de-la- !>»en', a modern French poet, whose beat ell'u- 370 Delorme sions are his " Messeniennes." which refer to the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815. He also wrote several dramas, which enjoyed an ephemeral success, b. at Havre, 1793; d. at Lyons, 1843. Delille, Jacques, de-leel', a modern French poet of considerable eminence. He translated the " Georgics " of Virgil, which obtained for him admission to the French Academy. Hebe- came professor of Latin Poetry at the College of France, and of the Belles-lettres in the Paris University. Having twice withdrawn from the unsettled social condition of his country, he came to London, where he translated Milton's " Paradise Lost." On his return he produced his poem entitled " Conversation ;" but shortly afterwards became blind, and died. Besides the works already mentioned, he produced the "Three Kingdoms of Nature," "Misfortune and Pity," and " Imagination." The chief charac- teristics of his effusions are sweetness of versi- fication, true pathos, and purity of moral sen- timent, b. at Aigues-Perse, Auvergne, in 1738; d. 1813. Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, de-leeV, an emi- nent French mathematician and astronomer, who had for his pupil the celebrated Lalande. Being invited to Russia, he there held the ap- pointment of astronomer-royal for upwards of twenty years. On returning to Paris, he was appointed professor in the Royal College. In 1724 he paid a visit to England, and there be- came acquainted with both Newton and Ilallcy. B. 1688; d. 1768. Dblisle, Guillaume, a French geographer o( distinction, who, after studying under the di- rection of his father, also a geographer, con- ceived the notion of remodelling the existing system of geography, and accordingly, in 1700, published maps of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and also constructed globes of both the terrestrial and celestial spheres. He wasele.ted a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1702, and was subsequently appointed teacher of geo- graphy to Louis XV., who named him, in 1718, his first geographer, and allowed him a pension of 1200 livres a year. Peter the Great invited him to St. Petersburg, where his brother Joseph was already settled ; but this invitation he declined, and died of apoplexy in 1726 b. at Paris in 1675. Delolme, Jean Louis, de-lolm', a political writer, who first practised as a lawyer in his native Switzerland, and afterwards travelled to gain a knowledge of the constitutions of va- rious countries. He fixed his abode in England, where he remained until near the close of his life, composing political essays, and writing in the journals. In spite of considerable talents, he led a miserable existence, having an unfortu- nate passion for gaming. Delome is best known by his " History of the Constitution of Eng- land," written in French, but translated intc English, and often reprinted. " It is the best work to consult on the government of Eng- land," says a foreign writer, " and proves its superiority over all other existing governments." b. at Geneva, about 1740; b. 1806. Delorme, Philibert, de'-lorm, a celebrated French architect, who first studied in Italy, and was attracted to Paris by the Cardinal du Bel- lay, who introduced him to the court of Henry II. Delorme was commissioned to execute the plans of the chateaux of Anet and Meudon.anil subsequently, for Catharine de Medici, those of OF BIOGRAPHY. Dellamaria the Valois court at St. Denis, and of the palace of the Tuileries, of which he was created gover- nor. He left some writings on architectural art ; amongst which is a treatise entitled "New Inventions, in order to build better and at small cost." b. at Lyons, 1518 ; d. 1577. Dellamabia, Domenico, del'-la-ma-re-a, a musical composer of some distinction, who was born in Marseilles, but of Italian parents. He had composed a grand opera when only eighteen years of age, which was well received on its re- presentation in his native city. He afterwards studied in Italy, where he wrote six comic operas, all of which were received with applause. In 1790 he returned to France, and within two years produced four operas and several other works, all exhibiting talent of a superior order. His best operas are — "II Maestro di Capella" (comic), " Le Prisonnier," " L'Oncle Valet," " Le Vieux Chateau," and " L'Opera Comique." b. 1761; d. suddenly at Paris, 1800. Deluc, John Andrew, de-look', a modern philosopher, who principally devoted himself to the study of physics and geology, extending his observations to all parts of Europe, and endea- vouring to make his discoveries tally with the text of the book of Genesis. He passed a por- tion of his life in England, and was there ap- pointed queen's reader. His principal works are, "Theory of Barometers and Thermome- ters," "New Notions on Meteorology," " Let- ters to the Queen of England on the Mountains and History of the Earth," and " Geological Journeys." In 1802 he published " An Account of the Philosophy of Bacon," with a view of opposing Lasalle, a French infidel translator of the English philosopher ; but the work was not much esteemed. To Deluc we owe many important improvements in the barometer, ther- mometer, and hydrometer, b. at Geneva, 1727; d. at Windsor, 1817. Demades, dem'-a-dees, an Athenian, who, from being a mariner, became a distinguished orator, and rose to high station in the republic. He was made prisoner by Philip of Maeedon at the battle of Chferonea, 339 B.C., and succeeded, by his frankness, in gaining the esteem of his captor, and was set at liberty. He remained some time attached to Maeedon, and used his influence in favour of the Macedonian party at Athens. When on an embassy to Antipater in 3 1 8 B.C., he fell into the hands of Cassander, the son of Antipater, who put him to death for having used disrespectful expressions towards his father in a letter he had written to Perdiccas. Demetrius, de-me'-tre-us. Many of this name are mentioned in ancient history, the most celebrated of whom are the following : — Demetrius, king of Maeedon, surnamed Poliorcetes, on account of the many places which he destroyed, was the son ot Antigonus, one of Alexander the Great's generals and suc- ces?ors. At the age of twenty-two, he was sent with an army against Ptolemy, by whom he was defeated near Gaza; he soon, however, repaired his losses, and, with a fleet of 250 ships, sailed to Athens, which he conquered from Demetrius Phalereus. He afterwards defeated Cassander at Thermopylae, but was subsequently himself overthrown at the battle of Ipsus, fought 301 B.C., when he fled to Ephcsus, the Athenians refusing to reccij e him. Notwithstanding this ingratitude, tie raised another army, and when they groaned under the power of a foreign enemy, came to 321 Demidov their help. He then slew Alexander, the son of Cassander, and seated himself on the throne of Maeedon. At the end of seven years he was obliged to quit his kingdom and retire into Asia, where, being reduced to great distress, he went to the court of Seleucus, his son-in- law; but a difference breaking out between them, war ensued, in which he was defeated. Seleucus then confined him in a castle, but al- lowed him to take the diversion of hunting. d. of excessive drinking, 283 b.c— His posterity reigned till the time of Perseus, who was van- quished by the Romans. ■ Demethius I., king of Syria, surnamed Soter, was the son of Seleucus Philopator. He was for some time deprived by usurpers of his rightful inheritance ; but the Syrians, recog- nising him as their lawful sovereign, placed him on the throne. He then declared war against the Jews, in which conflict Judas Mac- cabieus lost his life, bravely fighting for the liberties of his country. A confederacy of the neighbouring kings was subsequently formed against Demetrius, and he was slain, 150 B.C. Demetrius II., surnamed Nicator, the son of the preceding, was placed on the throne by Ptolemy Philomator, king of Egypt, after ex- pelling the usurper Alexander Balas, 146 B.C. He married Cleopatra, the wife of the same Alexander, and daughter of Ptolemy, but gave himself up to dissipation; when, after various vicissitudes, his reign became so intolerable, that his subjects solicited the king of Egypt to grant them another sovereign. Demetrius fled, and was killed by the governor of Tyre, 12(5 B.C. Demetrius Phalereus, a celebrated orator and statesman of Athens, attached to the Macedonian party, and elected archon, by their influence, 317 b.c. He governed wisely ; and the Athenians, charmed by his eloquence, erected 360 bronze statues in his honour. He afterwards fell into disgrace, and Demetrius Poliorcetes took possession of the city, and pro- claimed the liberty of the Athenians to throw off the yoke of the Macedonians. His life being threatened, he fled to the court of Ptolemy Lagus, king of Egypt, whose son banished him from his dominions, d. by the bite of an asp, 283 b.c. — He wrote several books, and it is said that the library of Alexandria was com- menced by his advice, and that he contributed to it 200,000 volumes. There is a treatise on rhetoric ascribed to him ; but it is of more modern date. (See Demetrius Poliorcetes.) Demetrius, the son of Ivan IV., czar of Russia, was still in his cradle at the death of his father. He was the brother and sole heir of Fcdor. The ambitious Boris Godonov caused him to be assassinated in 1591,. thus hoping to pave his own way to the throne, b. about 1581. — The disappearance of Demetrius fur- nished an opportunity for a crowd of impostors to assert their right to the crown. One of these, a monk, and whose real name was Gregory Otrcpieff, caused himself to be re- cognised as czar in 1605, and, after a reign of a few months, was assassinated in Moscow, 1606. The false Demetriuses ceased not to make their appearance until the rise of the house of Romanoff in 1613. DEMinov, or DeMidofe, dem'-i-dof, a wealthy and influential Russian family, whose head was a skilful blacksmith of Tula. This Demidoff was intrusted by Peter the Great with the THE DICTIONARY Democedes business of casting the cannon for that prince's numerous warlike expeditions. He actively seconded all the exertions of the czar, and in 1725 discovered the mines of Kolyvan, the work- ing of which speedily enriched him.— He left a sou, Nitika, and several grandsons, who dis- tinguished themselves in the same career as their progenitor, and amassed colossal fortunes. The best-known of these are Psocop Demi- doff, who worked with great profit the iron, copper, and gold mines of the Ural Mountains. b. at Moscow about 1730. — Nicolas Nikitich, a zealous philanthropist, who introduced into his country several branches of industry, founded establishments of public utility, and carried to a great state of perfection the work- ing of mines. He had an annual income of a quarter of a million sterling. His last years he passed in France and Italy, enjoying the society of learned men, and heaping benefits on all around him. b. near St. Petersburg, 1773 ; d. at Florence, 1828.— He left two sons, Paul and Anatol, who, as well as inheriting his fortune, had also the same high taste and benevolence. Of these Count Anatul allied himself to the Bonaparte family, by marrying, in 1840, one of Napoleon's nieces, the princess Mathildc, daughter of Jerome, and sister of Prince Napoleon. In 1845, however, a separation took place between them. Democedes, dem'-o-se'-dees, a physician of Crotona, who went to Athens, and resided at the court of Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos. On the death of that prince, he and his family became captives to the Persians, and were carried to Susa, where he worked with other slaves. Happening to cure Darius from the effects of a wound received whilst hunting, he was liberally rewarded, admitted to the royal table, and requested by the monarch to remain at his court. He returned, however, to his own country, and married the daughter of Milo the wrestler. Lived in the 6th century B.C. Desiocritus, de-mok'-ri-tus, a famous Greek philosopher, whose father was a man of wealth ; but Democritus, preferring philosophy to riches, spent his patrimony in travelling to acquire knowledge. There was a law in his country, that whoever reduced himself to poverty should be deprived of sepulture. Democritus had incurred this fate; but his talents were such, that the magistrates decreed he should be buried at the public expense. He was con- stantly laughing at the follies of mankind, and therein had the advantage of Heraclitus, who was always weeping over them. None of his writings have come down to us. He was the author of the atomical philosophy, and the pre- cursor of Epicurus. B. at Abdera, in Thrace, about 460 ; d. 357 B.C. Deuoivbe, Abraham, dem'-ouvr, a clever mathematician, was a native of Vitri, Cham- pagne, France, but on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he was compelled to leave his country, and came to England, where he devoted himself to the study of the positive sciences, his favourite work being the " Prin- cipia" of Newton, gaining a livelihood in the meanwhile by lecturing on mathematics in Lon- don. He became a member of the British Koyal Society and of the Academies of Paris ind lierliu. The nv£J claims of Leibnitz and New- ton to the merit of inventing the method of fluxions, was referred to Dmnoivrc for decision — :> proof of the high estimation in which his Demosthenes talents and learning were held. His principal works are — "Miscellanea Analytiea," "A Trea- tise on Annuities ;" " The Doctrine of Chances," the latter being his greatest effort, and which, dedicated to Newton, was first published in 4to, in 1718, and three times reprinted, b. 1667 ; d. in London, 1754. De Morgan, Augustus, demor'-gan, was pro- fessor of mathematics in University College, London, from its foundation, in 1823, till 1831, when he resigned. In 1836, however, he re- turned to the same post. He wrote a great many works on arithmetic, trigonometry, mathematics, and the kindred sciences, b. in the island of Madura, East Indies, 1806; n. 1870. Demosthenes, de-mos'-the-nees, the greatest of Grecian orators, was the son of an Athenian, a wealthy armourer. Losing his father when a child, his guardians embezzled a considerable portion of his estate, and, at the age of seven- teen, he pleaded his cause against them, in which he was successful. His first attempts at oratory, however, in the public assembly, were not so happy ; for his lungs were weak, his pro- nunciation inarticulate, and his gestures awk- ward. He now retired for some years from public life, and by great perseverance overcame his defects. He would declaim as he walked up the side of steep hills, and by the seashore when the waves were roaring, and accustom himself to speak with pebbles in his mouth. To acquire a good gesture, he would practise before a mirror ; and to correct a habit he had of shrugging up one of his shoulders, he placed a sharp-pointed sword just over it, in the place where he stood. The principles of his art he had acquired under Isams, and he had also attended the lectures of Plato. Not being ready in speaking extemporaneously, he studied orations with great care in a cave, on which account his detractors declared that they smelt of the lamp. He read and re-read, too, all the great writers of antiquity, especially the history of Thucydides, which he transcribed, it is said, some eight or ten times. Having thus gained confidence that he had overcome his faults of manner and style, he returned to public affairs at the age of twenty-seven, and alter passing some years at the bar, entered the government, and tilled the highest offices of state. The encroachments of Philip of Macedon at this period alarmed all the Grecian states, particu- larly Athens. Demosthenes was foremost in rousing his countrymen to a sense of their danger. He depicted the ambitious designs of Philip in glowing colours in his celebrated orations called Philippics. When Philip was about to invade Attica, Demosthenes was sent as ambassador to prevail on the Boeotians to assist them ; in which mission he succeeded. He was also at the battle of Chasronea, where the orator, however, played the coward, and fled, and for his conduct there, several accusa- tions were preferred against him ; but he was ac- quitted. Philip dying, Demosthenes thought thii a favourable opportunity to crush the M aeedonian power, and by his exertions a new confederacy was formed among the Grecian stat-'s, and tht Persians were solicited to commence hostilities against Philip's son, Alexander. The vigorous activity of this prince, however, and the dreadful chastisement he inflicted on Thebes, soon had the effect of breaking up the confederacy. The Athenians found it expedient to divert the victor's wrath by sending to him an embassy, OF BIOGRAPHY. Dempster of which Demosthenes formed one; bat his apprehensions induced him to turn back on the road. He was one of the orators whom Alex- ander required to be delivered up ; but Demades pacified the king without this sacrifice. The influence of Demosthenes being now on fie decline, .55schines took advantage of it, to bring an accusation against him on the subject of his conduct at Chaironea, and his having had a crown of gold awarded him ; but the orator so well defended himself in his celebrated oration " De Corona," that he was honourably acquitted, and his adversary sent into exile. Shortly after, however, Demosthenes was convicted of re- ceiving a golden cup and twenty talents from Harpalus, one of Alexander's generals, who had revolted from Alexander, and instigated the Athenians to rise against his authority. To avoid punishment, Demosthenes fled to jEgina, where he remained till the death of Alexander, when he was recalled by his countrymen, and brought home in triumph. But this change of fortune was of short duration. Declaring war against Antipater, Alexander's successor, and that general defeating the Athenians, he re- quired the citizens to deliver up Demosthenes, who fled to the temple of Neptune, at Calauria, where he poisoned himself, 322 b.c. u. at Athens, 381 b.c. The Athenians erected a statue to his memory, and maintained his eldest child at the public expense. Majesty and energy are the characteristics of the eloquence of Demosthenes. To convince the understanding, rather than to exert a power over the passions of his hearers, was the object of this speaker's oratory ; and, as Cicero said, this is the ideal model of true eloquence. Of the orations of Demosthenes which are extant, the text of Bek- ker is now regarded as the standard, and many of his orations have been translated into the Knglish and other languages. Of the former, the work of Leland is the best. Dempsteb, Thomas, demp'-ster, a Scotch writer, who studied at Cambridge, whence he removed to Paris, and afterwards became pro- fessor of philology at Pisa. He wrote several books, the most curious of which are a " Martyr- ology of Scotland," a " List of Scottish Writers," and a " History of the Etruscans ;" but, either from carelessness, indolence, or ignorance, none of them are to be relied upon. b. at Muiresk, Aberdeenshire, 1579 ; d. near Bologna, 1025. Dempsteb, George, a native of Dundee, Scot- land, who was bred to the Scottish bar, but only practised for a short time, and then de- voted himself to politics, having been elected for his native town in 1762. lie became a mem- ber of the Rockingham party, and supported Pitt till the regency question came under con- sideration, when he joined Pox. He retired from Parliament in 1790, and directed his atten- tion to the improvement of the Scottish high- lands, by developing the resources of those dis- tricts in agriculture and the fisheries. He published several essays on agricultural and other subjects, together with a volume of speeches in Parliament, b. 1730 ; d. 1818. Dexham, Sir John, deu'-ham, an English poet, whose father was baron of the Court of Exchequer. In 1G31 he was sent to Trinity College, Oxford, whence he went to Lincoln's Inn, with the view of following the law; but in this he made little or no progress. In 1641 his tragedy of "The Sophi" appeared; and soon after He was made governor of Fareham Castle 3::.i Denner for Charles I. In 1643 he published his " Cooper's Hill," the best of all his works. It is in this poem that the celebrated couplet, so very much admired, appears : — "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull ; Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing. full." It relates to the Thames. After the decapitation of Charles I., he attended Charles II. in his exile, and was appointed by him ambassador to Poland. At the Restoration he was appointed surveyor-general of the royal buildings, and created knight of the Bath. b. at Dublin, 1615 ; d. in London, 1668 ; and was buried in West- minster Abbey. Denham's "Cooper's Hill" is a descriptive poem, and gave rise to a new species of composition, which, says Johnson, may be denominated local poetry. Pope has bestowed on him the compliment of the " majestic Denham." Den ina, Carlo Giovanni Maria, dai-ne'-na, an Italian professor and writer of history, who held chairs at Pignerol and Turin, but was deprived of the latter appointment, and banished to Ver- celli. He was shortly afterwards pardoned, however, recalled to Turin, and appointed librarian to the king. He visited Berlin in 1782, on the invitation of the Prussian king, and in 1801 was introduced at Mayence to Napoleon, who made him his librarian, and he then settled in Paris, where he died in 1813. b. at Revello, Piedmont, 1731. — His writings are very numer- ous, but the following may be considered the most important : — " Revolutions of Literature " (1760), which drew upon the author the resent- ment of Voltaire, and which has been translated into English ; "Revolutions of Italy," 5 vols. (1769) ; " Discorso sull' Impiego delle Persone," (1777), which was the occasion of his losing the rhetoric chair at Turin ; "Observations on the Principal Languages Written and Spoken in Europe," 3 vols. (Ih05) ; "La Russiade," (1799) ; "Bibliopea ossia l'Arte di compor Libri," (1776) : &e., &c. DENisoir,theRl.Hon. John Evelyn, den'-e-ton, entered parliament as member for Newcastle- under-Lyme in 1823, and served as one of the Lords of the Admiralty under Mr. Canning. He succeeded Mr. Shaw Lefevre (now Vis- count Eversley) as Speaker of the House of Commons in 1857, and was unanimously re- elected to that office in 1859, 1S65, and 1863. B. 1800 ; it. 1873. Denmah, Thomas, Lord, den'-man, received the rudiments of his education at Diss, under the celebrated Mr. and Mrs. Barbauld. He subse- quently entered St. John's College, Cambridge, and, in 1806, was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. In 1818 he was returned member of Parlia- ment for Wareham, Dorset, and in 1820, for Not- tingham. In the House of Commons he leagued withBroughamandBurdett,andinl820,became solicitor-general to queen Caroline. His conduct in behalf of that unfortunate lady was so highly approved by the London citizens, that they presented him with the freedom of their city. In 1830 he was appointed attorney-general, and in 1832, chief justice of the King's Bench. In 1834 he was raised to the peerage, and, till 1850, presided over the court of Queen's Bench, when he retired on account of failing health, b. in London, 1779; d. at Stoke Albany, Northamp- tonshire, 1854. DjujfEit, Balthazar, denner, a celebrated Y 2 THE DICTIONARY Dennie German portrait painter, distinguished for the excessively elaborate finish of his works; their extraordinary finish, however, being their chief merit. Little is known of Denner's early life. He was a native of Altona, and after living for some time with a painter at Dantzic, and dis- tinguishing himself at the courts of some of the minor princes of Germany, he came to England on the invitation of George I. Here he spent a few years, but did not succeed so well as he an- ticipated, his portraits exciting more surprise than admiration, and he left this country in ".728. He subsequently travelled over the north of Europe for some years, and died rich, either at Rostock in 1749, or at Hamburg in 1747. b. 1685. — Though Denner bestowed more labour upon his pictures than probably any other artist ever did, he still contrived to paint a con- siderable number, which are scattered over the galleries of Germany, some being at Vienna, some at Munich, and others elsewhere. All his pieces are not finished in the same high degree, but some are so to such an extent as, it is said, to require the aid of the microscope to discover all the minute details of the execution. Denner painted nearly all the German princes of his day, besides two kings and one emperor, namely, Frederick IV. of Denmark, Augustus II. of Poland, and Peter III. of Russia. Dennie, William Henry, den'-ne, a brave and skilful British officer, who won a prominent place among those who have made their country's arms famous in the East. He entered the army in 1800; became lieutenant in 1801, captain in 1810, and lieutenant-colonel in 1832. After taking part in the Indian campaign under Lord Lake, in 1805-6, and being present at the capture of the Isle of France, in 1810, he won marked distinction by his services in the Bur- mese war of 1826-27. In the Affghan war, in 1839, he led the assault on Ghuznee, and was the first man who made his way within the walls. In September, 1840, Colonel Dennie was sent to watch the Wullee of Khnoloom, who was then in the field at the head of 10,000 men, in /.id of Dost Mohammed, and succeeded, on the 18th of September, after some difficult and able manoeuvres in the Hindu Koosh defiles, in forcing the enemy to accept battle at Bameean, where, with only 1000 men, he dispersed the aiemy's 10,000. The result of this action was the termination of the campaign and the sur- render of Dost Mohammed. When the Khyber Pass was forced by the British troops, April 5, 1842, Colonel Dennie was at first in com- mand of the rear-guard, ana on Sir Robert S.ile being disabled by his wound, the charge of the I whole force devolved on Dennie, which he con- I Mimed to hold during the greater portion of the | iese of Jellalabad, where he was killed uu the ■ kit of June, 1842, almost at the conclusion of i the siege. He generally rode a white charger, ' and the colonel and his horse were ever conspi- 1 tuous objects in the midst of danger, and indeed this circumstance is said to have caused his | death by making him an easily-distinguished mark for the enemy's riflemen, who, after many attempts, at last succeeded in hitting him. The queen had named him one of her aides-de-camp, but before the intelligence of the appointment reached Jellalabad, Colonel Dennie was no more. Dknnis, John, den'-nis, an English author and critic, who, in 1692, wrote a Pindaric ode on King William, after which he published several other poems, two of which, on the 324 D'Eon battles of Blenheim and Ramilies, procured him the favour of the duke of Marlborough, who gave him £100 and placed him in the Custom- house. In 1704 appeared his tragedy of" Liberty Asserted," which, as an invective against the French nation, became popular. This was fol- lowed by his " Orpheus and Eurydice," " The Comical Gallant," an alteration of " The Merry Wives of Windsor;" "The luvader of his Country," which was also an alteration of " Coriolanus." When the treaty of Utrecht was negotiating, he imagined himself of so much consequence, that he went to the duke of Marl- borough, and begged that he would use his in- terest that he might not be delivered up to th« French king. The duke gravely told him that " he had made no provision for himself, though he could not help thinking that he had done the French almost as much mischief as Mr. Dennis." In 1712 he made a merciless attack on the " Cato" of Addison, and his reflections on Pope's " Essay on Criticism" secured him a place in the "Dunciad." His attack on "Cato" drew forth a whimsical pamphlet, called "The Narrative of Dr. Robert Norris, concerning the strange and deplorable Frenzy of Mr. John Dennis." b. in London, 1057; d. 1734. Denon, Dominique Vivant, Baron de, den- Clang', was appointed to the offiee of a gentle- man about the person of Louis XV., and after- wards, as secretary to an embassy, resided seve- ral years in Italy. Here he studied the arts, and subsequently, after passing through the horrors of the French revolution, attracted the notice of Bonaparte. With him he went to Egypt, and on returning to Paris, received the appointment of general director of the museums, with the superintendence of the medallie mint, and such works of art as were executed in honour of the victories of France. On the abdication of the emperor, he was still allowed to retain his office, but in 1815, having rejoined Napoleon on his escape from Elba, was deprived of it. He now retired from public life, and occupied his leisure with preparing a general history of art. In this performance he was assisted by eminent artists ; but he did not live to complete it. b. at Cha- lons-sur-Saone, 1747; d. at Paris, 1825. — He wrote " Travels in Egypt," which is considered a great work, a comedy, and several other pro- ductions of considerable merit. Dentatus, Lucius Sicinius, den-tai'-'us, a Roman tribune, who had been engaged in 120 conflicts, and was 45 times wounded. He was murdered by the soldiers of Appius Claudius, bat not until he had slain 15 of them and wounded 30 more. D Eon de Heaumont, Chas. Genevieve Loui ise Auguste Andre Timothee, Chevalier, dawng, was a native of Tonnerre, and played the parts of equerry to Louis XV., doctor of law, parlia- mentary advocate, officer in the army, ambas- sador, royal censor, &c, during a long life ; but the most singular affair in connexion with hira is, that his sex was long a complete mystery. ■ He came to England in attendance on the duke de Nivernois in 1761, and was appointed pleni- potentiary on the departure of the duke after the conclusion of peace in that year. An alfront subsequently put upon him by the appointment, of the count de Guerchy to the post of ambas- sador, and the order to himself to act as secre- tary, induced D'Eon to publish some severe com- ments on de Guerchy, and to disclose certain state secrets. For this he w.13 prosecuted in OF BIOGRAPHY. De Quincey the Court of Kind's Bench, convicted, and out- lawed. Doubts respecting his sex, which had originally been started at St. Petersburg, about 1771, became the topic of much conversation in London, and several heavy bets were made on the subject, one of which became the occasion of an action at law. The belief was now general that the chevalier was a woman, and in 1777 he left England, and on arriving in France assumed female attire, which he continued to wear during the remainder of his life. He had been granted a pension by the French government, which he lost at the Revolution, although he petitioned the National Assembly as Madame D'Eon, re- questing to be employed as a soldier. He sub- sequently fell into great poverty, and was sup- ported mainly by his friends, one of whom, a medical gentleman, along with numbers of the same profession, made an examination of the chevalier's body after his death, which proved that he was of the male sex, but his motive for making a mystery of the matter was never ascertained. The chevalier was a scholar and an author, and his works were published in 13 vols., under the title of "Loisirs du Chevalier D'Eon." b. 1727 j D. 1911. De Quincey, Thomas, de quin'-cy, was a mer- chant's son, and educated at Eton and Oxford. He devoted himself to literature, and few em- ployed their pens upon so many and such varied subjects. His "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater" reveal much of the history of his earlier years, and were first published in the "Old London Magazine," in 1821. From that time De Quincey constantly kept his name before the public, in metaphysics, political economy, philo- sophy, and biography. To enumerate the number of his essays would occupy a consider- able space; but a complete edition of his works has been published in America, under the edi- torship of Mr. J. T. Fields. This, we believe, is the most complete edition which has yet ap- peared. It is impossible here to give the slightest criticism of the various writings of Mr. De Quincey. Every department of literature touched by him he has either illumined with new lights, or given it additional graces by the magical fertility of his pen. Of the edition of his works to which we have above alluded, he says, " It is astonishing how much more Boston knows of my literary acts and purposes than I do myself. Were it not, indeed, through Boston, hardly the sixth part of my literary undertakings — hurried or deliberate, sound, rotting, or rotten — would ever have reached posterity; which, be it known to thee, most sarcastic of future cen- sors, already most of them have reached." u. at Manchester, 1785; d. 1859. Derby, James Stanley, carl of, dar'-be, an English nobleman, and an active supporter of Charles I. in the civil war. In an action at Wigan, in Lancashire, he displayed considerable bravery against superior forces. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, and, in vio- lation of a promise of quarter which had been given him, was beheaded in 1651. This earl wrote a " History of the Antiquities of the Isle of Man," and none shed greater lustre on the cause for which he fought than he. His coun- tess retired to the Isle of Man, where she regarded herself as queen, and which she de- fended with the utmost gallantry, being the last person in the British dominions who yielded to the parliament forces. Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, four- 325 Derham teenth earl of, a modern English statesman, who, as Mr. Stanley, was first returned to parlia ment in 1820 as member for Stockbridge. He afterwards represented Preston, Windsor, and Lancashire. His first efforts in addressing the House were very successful; and, under various administrations, he held office with credit to himself. During the early part of his career, he strenuously supported reforming changes, and was chief secretary for Ireland, and subsequently, colonial minister under Lord Grey's administration, from 1830 to 1831. In the discussion on the Reform Bill of that period, he resolutely defended its provisions with great warmth and talent, and also carried the bill for national education in Ireland. He was likewise a principal instrument in the success of the maasure for the emancipation, in 1833, of the West-India slaves. Now came, however, the crisis upon which he separated, for the remainder of his political life, from the Liberal party. Alarmed at the intended pro- ject to reduce still further the Irish Church establishment, he, with other members of the cabinet, resigned his office. He was once more, under Sir Robert Peel, colonial minister ; and, in 1844, he was called to the House of Lords, in his father's lifetime, as Baron Stanley. About 1815, when Sir Robert declared for free trade, Lord Stanley headed the protectionist, opposition, and from that time became the leader of the Conservative party. In 1851, his father dying, he succeeded to the earldom of Derby. The year following, he was enabled to form an administration to succeed Lord John Russell's, but he had only a few months' tenure of power. In 1858, on the fall of the Palmerston administration, he again had the formation of a ministry intrusted to him, which lasted until 1859. In 1866 he again became premier, but resigned, in favour of Mr. Disraeli, early in 186S, in consequence of ill health, and retired from active political life. The eloquence of Lord Derby was semarkable for the purity and fire of its style, and earned him the title of the " Kupert of debate." b. at Knowsley Park, Lancashire, 1799. d. 1869. Dercyllidas, der-sil'-li-das, a Lacedaemonian general, who, about 404 B.C., entered Asia Minor, defeated the Persians, and took several of their cities; thus preserving the Greek colo- nies, which had been threatened by their neigh- bours. He also buiit a wall between Thrace and the Chersonesus, to prevent the incursions of the people of the former country. Derham, William, deer'-ham, an English scholar and divine, who devoted himself to philosophical pursuits, became a member of the Royal Society, and contributed largely to the " Philosophical Transactions." In 1713 he pub- lished his " Physico-Theology," being the sub- stance of his Boyle's Lectures, with curious notes ; and in 1714 appeared his " Astro-Theo- logy," which was also delivered at the same lecture. In 1716 he was made canon of Wind- sor, and in 1730, the University of Oxford con- ferred on him the degree of D.D. The last thing he printed of his own was " Christo- Thcology, or a Demonstration of the Divine Authority of the Christian Religion," 1730. In his younger days he published a treatise entitled "The Artificial Clockmaker," in 12mo, which has been several times reprinted. Ho was rector of Upminstcr, where he died, 1735. b. near Worcester, 1657. THE DICTIONARY Dering Dering, Sir Edward, deer'-ing, an English gentleman, who distinguished himself, in the reign of Charles I., by his zeal for the reform of abuses. He brought in a bill for the abolition of bishops, deans, and chapters. Notwithstand- ing these revolutionary tendencies, he after- wards espoused the king's cause, which he sup- ported with a regiment of horse equipped at his own expense. He was a great sufferer in the civil war, and died before the Restoration. His speeches in parliament are in 1 volume 4to. Dekmodt, Thomas, der'-mo-de, an Irish poet, was the son of a schoolmaster, who is said to have employed his son as Greek and Latin assistant when only nine years of age. He ran away to Dublin when ten years old, and after leading a somewhat questionable life for several years, enlisted, and went abroad under the com- mand of the earl of Moira, who, for his good conduct, made him a second lieutenant in the waggon corps. By intemperance, however, he forfeited his position, and the earl's favour, and ultimately died in utter poverty. He published a small volume of poems in 1792, which had been written in his thirteenth year; another volume of poems appeared in 1800, and a third in 1801 ; he subsequently issued a poem called the " Battle of the Bards," and likewise wrote a pamphlet on the French Revolution, annexed to which was a poem entitled the " Reform." B. at Knnis, 1775; d. at Sydenham, 1802. Desaguliers, Jean Theophile, dai'-sa-goo- le-ai, a French philosopher, who came to Lon- don with his father, who was a minister, on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Entering into holy orders, he, in 1702, succeeded Br. Kiel as lecturer in experimental philosophy at Oxford, and published a " Course of Experi- mental Philosophy," a "Dissertation on i-Jee- tricity," "Fires Improved; being a New Method of Building Chimneys, so as to prevent their smoking." He also translated into English " Gravesande's Mathematical Elements of Natu- ral Philosophy." He was an active member of the Royal Society, and contributed several papers to its "Transactions." B.atRochelle,1683; D. 1749. Desaix, Louis Charles Anthony, des-ai', a French general, who early entered the military service of his country, and rose to the rank of lieutenant. In the early part of the Revolution lie became aide-de-camp to Prince de Broglie, and was severely wounded at the battle of Lauter- bcrg, but kept the field, and rallied the bat- talions after they had been thrown into dis- order. Named successively general of brigade and of division, he contributed greatly, by his talents, to the success of the famous retreat of Mereau from Germany, the left wing of the army being commanded by him on that occa- sion. He afterwards defended the bridge and fort of Kehl, for two months, against the Austrian army, with great bravery, and was wounded; but subsequently joined Bonaparte at Milan, when it was announced that "the brave General Desaix had come to visit the army of Italy." He served with Bonaparte in Egypt, where he distinguished himself greatly, and was appointed governor of the upper part of the country. It was here he achieved his greatest glory. He completely subdued Upper Egypt, and received, as a testimony of admira- tion from Bonaparte, a sword, with this in- scription on its blade, " Conquetc de la Haute 326 Descartes Egypte !" He was obliged, however, in 1800, to sign the unfavourable treaty of El Arish with the Turks and English, and, on his way to France, was captured and detained by Lord Keith as prisoner of war. He afterwards ob- tained his parole, and went to France. He once more fought under the banner of Bonaparte in Italy, but was killed at the battle of Marengo, to which victory he principally contributed, June 14, 1800. b. at St. Hilaire-d'Ayat, in Avignon, 1768.— A statue was erected to this general, in the Place-Dauphine, in Paris. Desault, Pierre Joseph, des'-olte, a French surgeon, who, in his twentieth year, went to Paris, and soon became popular as a lecturer on anatomy and surgery. In 1776 he was admitted a member of the corporation of surgeons, and in 1782 was appointed surgeon-major to the Hospital of Charity, after which he became head surgeon of the Hotel-Dieu. In 1791 he com- menced his " Journal de Chirurgie," a work of high reputation. During the violence of the Revolution he was confined some time in the Luxembourg prison ; but his usefulness saved his life. He died while- attending the dauphin, June 1, 1795, which induced a suspicion that he was despatched because he would not poison that unfortunate prince, b. near Macon, 1744. He left a work entitled " Traite des Maladies Chirurgicales," &c., 2 vols. 8vo. Desbabreaux, Jacques Vallee, Count, dai- bar'-ro, a French nobleman, who became coun- sellor in the Parliament of Paris, but which position he resigned, in order to devote himself more fully to the enjoyment of good cheer and the pursuit of pleasure. He changed his abode and climate according to the seasons, and was intimately associated with all the fine wits of the day ; Balzac, Chapelle, Descartes, and others. He composed several songs and fugitive pieces ; but the only production of his which is pre- served is the beautiful sonnet, "Grand Dieu, tes jugements sont remplis d'equite," &c. Vol- taire, however, denies the authorship to Des- barreaux, and gives it to the Abbe Lavau. b. at Paris, in 1602 ; d. 1647. Desbillons, Francois Joseph Terrasse, dai- bel'-i/awng, a French Jesuit, who wrote 2 vols, of fables resembling those of La Fontaine, and some Latin poems. He also published an edi- tion of Phtedrus, with notes, b. at Chatcauneuf, in 1711; d. at Mannheim, 1788. Descartes, Rene, dai-kart', a celebrated French philosopher, who received his education at the Jesuits' college at La Fleche. Here ho acquired a considerable knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages ; but on leaving that seminary, removed to Paris, applying him- self to the study of mathematics. In 1016 he entered the army of the prince of Orange, and afterwards served under the duke of Bavaria, fighting with great bravery at the battle of Prague, in 1620. While in the garrison at Breda, he solved a difficult mathematical pro- blem, which had been posted in the public streets ; and this introduced him to the ac- quaintance of the learned Beckmann, principal of the college of Dort. He also wrote, at this time, in Latin, a treatise on music, and pro- jected some other works. After this, he quitted the military life, and travelled into Holland, Switzerland, France, and Italy, where, although it has been said that he saw Galileo, at Florence, it docs not appear that he visited him. In 1629 he settled at Amsterdam, and applied himself OF BIOGRAPHY. Desfontaines assiduously to the mathematical sciences, par- ticularly dioptrics, in which he made some im- portant discoveries. About this time he visited England, where he made observations on the declination of the magnetic needle. His_ phi- losophy now became the subject of much discus- sion, meeting with an extensive reception, though with considerable opposition. Gilbert Voet, rector of the University of Utrecht, wrote against it, and Descartes replied with a viru- lence unbecoming a philosopher. To escape re- ligious persecution, he accepted an invitation from Christina, queen of Sweden, to go to Stockholm, where he obtained a pension and an estate. By this queen he was treated with great distinction, although she pursued her studies under his direction at five o'clock in the morn- ing, notwithstanding that his health was far from being vigorous, b. at La Haye, in Tou- raine, 1596; d. at Stockholm, 1650, when his remains were conveyed to Paris, and interred with great pomp in the church of St. Genevieve. Descartes was a man of great parts, and of a vigorous imagination. He was the first to re- duce the science of optics to the command of mathematics. His principal works are, 1. " Principia Philosophise ;" 2. " Dissertatio de Methodo recte regenda; Rationis," &c. ; 3. " Di- optrics ;" 4. "Meditationesj" 6. "Geometry;" 6. " Letters." Desfoktaiites, Pierre Francois Guyot, dai- fon'-tain, a French critic, who studied under the Jesuits, and in 1724 went to Paris, where he contributed to several periodical papers, espe- cially to the " Journal des Savants," which he greatly aided by the cleverness of his articles. Offending Voltaire by the freedom of his criti- cisms and censures, a bitter literary warfare was the consequence. Besides other works, he pub- lished a prose translation of Virgil. B. 1683; d. 1745. — There was also a French botanist of this name, who published several works on flowers and plants, b. 1751 ; D. 1833. Deshoitliebes, Antoinette, dai-sTioot-e-air, a distinguished French poetess of the reign of Louis XIV., who was intimate with all the lite- rary celebrities of that sparkling age, and ap- pears to have borne herself, throughout many difficult circumstances, with a propriety much to be commended. Her contemporaries called her the " Tenth Muse" and the " French Calliope." She attempted poesy in all its various forms, from the song to tragedy; but the idyl and eclogue were those in which she most excelled. One of the most admired of her compositions is " Les Montons," a charming allegory, in which she deplores, in beautiful verses, the sad lot of " children who have lost their father. She mar- ried, in 1651, the Seigneur Deshoulieres, but ivho died leaving her without fortune, b. 1633 ; b. 1694. DESiBERirs, or Didieb, des'-i-deer-e-us, the last king of Lombardy, succeeded Astolphus in 756. His daughters were married to the two sons of Pepin, king of France, Carloman and Charlemagne. Desiderius invading the papal territories, the pope called in Charlemagne to his aid, who marched into Lombardy, took his father-in-law prisoner, and sent him with his family to France, where thev died. Dethroned in the year 777. DESMAnis, Joseph Francois Edouard, de-ma- ke', a French dramatic poet, was the friend of Voltaire, and the associate of the leading wits of the time in Paris. He was a man of singularly 327 Dessalines amiable manners and disposition, and used to remark that " If literary men were only agreed, they would, though few in number, rule the world ;" and that, " If my friend laughs, he ought to tell me the cause of his joy ; but if he weeps, it is my duty to find out the sources of his grief." Desmahis was the author of a play called the " Impertinent," which was received with great applause; and of two volumes of miscellaneous works in verse, b. at Sully-sur- Loire, 1722 ; D. 1761. DESiiAizEAirx, Pierre, dai'-mai-zo, a French biographical writer, who came to England, and became fellow of the Royal Society. He trans- lated into English " Bayle's Dictionary," and wrote the lives of Chillingworth and John Hales. He had also a concern in the great Historical Dictionary, 10 vols, folio, b. at Auvergne, 1666; d. in London, 1745. Desmabets, Francois Seraphin Regnier, dai- mar-ai, a French poet and critic, who trans- lated the odes of Anacreon into Italian, and was the author of poems in Latin, French, Italian, and Spanish, besides an excellent French gram- mar. He was perpetual secretary to the French Academy, and was at one time secretary to the French embassy at Rome. b. in Paris, 1632 ; d. 1713. Desmolets, Pierre Nicholas, dai'-mo-lai, a French ecclesiastic, who continued Sallcngre's "Memoirs of Literature," 11 vols. 12mo, and edited several of Land's treatises, b. at Paris, in 1677 ; d. 1760. Desmoulins, Camille, dai' -moo-la, a fellow- student of Robespierre, who, in 1789, was the favourite orator with the people of Paris, and made his idea of liberty the idol of his worship. He had the greatest contempt for everything that wore the appearance of religion; and although his talents were considerable, they seem only to have hastened his downfall. In the heat of the great revolution, his colleagues conspired against him, and brought him to the scaffold, b. at Guise, 1762 ; guillotined, 1794. Despaed, Edward Marcus, des'-pard, an Irishman, who early entered upon a military life, a::d became an able engineer. At the close of the American war he served in the West Indies, where he distinguished himself by an expedition on the Spanish main, in which he had for a coadjutor Captain, afterwards Lord, Nelson. For his services there, he was made lieu- tenant-colonel. Inl784he was appointed Eng- lish superintendent at Honduras; but his conduct causing him to be suspended, he demanded an investigation. This, however, was refused him, when he became violent against the govern- ment, and was sent to Coldbath Fields prison, whence he was remsved to the House of In- dustry at Shrewsbury, and next to Tothill Fields Bridewell. On his liberation, he endeavoured to seduce the soldiery, and having collected some followers, held meetings at alehouses, to which no persons were admitted without taking a treasonable oath. At these assemblies, it is said that various plans were devised for the murder of the king ; and, at last, it was deter- mined to make the attack when his majesty went to the Parliament House. The plot being discovered, he and several other persons were arrested, and, being found guilty, suffered on the scaffold, in 18u3. Dessalines, Jacques, dai-sa-leen,a. negro, who, from being a slave, was made the first king of St. Domingo. Ho was carried in early lite from THE DICTIONARY Destoucb.es the Gold Coast of Africa, of which he was a na- tive, to St. Domingo, and joined the negro chief Toussaint L'Ouverture on the outbreak o/ the negro insurrection in the island after the French revolution, became Toussaint's first lieutenant, and, after his capture, headed the re- bellion against General Rochambeau, whom he mainly contributed to defeat in the battle of St. Marc. He was proclaimed emperor of Hayti on the 8th of October, 1804; but his cruelty and avarice making him obnoxious, Christophe and Pethion raised an insurrection, and Dessajines was killed by a musket shot on the 17th of Oc- tober, 1806, and was succeeded by Christophe, under the title of Henry I. Though of low stature, Dessalines was firmly built, and his eyes were possessed of uncommon brilliancy. He was utterly uneducated, b. about 1760. Destouches, Philip Nencault, dai-ioosh', a French dramatic writer, who was attached to a political mission to England, and resided in London for a number of years. On his return to his own country, he refused the office of am- bassador to Russia, and retired into the coun- try, where he devoted himself to agriculture and the belles-lettres, b. at Tours, 1680; d. 1754. — His principal pieces are '• Le Philosophe marie," and " Le Glorieux ;" the last of which is esteemed one of the best comedies in the French language. His works were printed at the Louvre, in 4 vols. 4to, 1757, and since in 10 vols. 12mo. Devis, Arthur William, de'-vis, an English painter, who received, when very young, a silver medal from the hands of Sir Joshua Reynolds, then president of the Royal Academy, for profi- ciency in the arts. He was employed by the East India Company, when only twenty years of age, as draughtsman on a voyage of disco- very ; but the ship despatched on the expedition was wrecked on the Pellew Islands, and Devis, after much privation, succeeded in reaching Bengal, where Sir William Jones and other distinguished individuals received him kindly, and warmly patronized him. He returned to England in 1795, and successfully practised his art for many years. His most important pic- tures are — " King John Signing Magna Charta," " Lord Cornwallis receiving the Sons of Tippoo Saliib as Hostages," and the "Battle of Trafalgar." Before executing the last-named work, Devis went on board the Victory, and made a sketch of the cockpit where Nelson died, and likewise took portraits of the officers and others who surrounded the hero in his last moments, b. Aug. 10, 1762; ». Feb. 11, 1822. D'Ewes, Sir Symonds, duse, an English anti- quary, who employed a considerable part of his time in collecting materials for a history of Great Britain, and had the honour of knight- hood conferred upon him by Charles I. In 1641 he was made a baronet, and, on the breaking out of the Civil War, accepted the Solemn League and Covenant. He compiled the " Journals of all the Parliaments during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth," published in 1682, folio, and wrote his own life, which is in Peck's " Desiderata Curiosa." The "Journals of Parliament" are an authority for the parliamentary transactions of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, b. at Coxdcn, Dorsetshire, 1602 ; d. 1650. De Witt, John, de wit, a distinguished Dutch statesman, who laboured to retrench the power of the house of Orange by endeavouring to pre- vent the union of the offices of stadtholder, 328 Dibdin captain-general, and high-admiral in one and the same person. In 1654 he negotiated the peace with Cromwell, in which it was arranged that .no member of the house of Orange should be made high-admiral or stadtholder. b. at Dort, 1625 ; murdered, with his brother, at the Hague, 1672. He had gone in his carriage to receive his brother as he came out of prison, having been unjustly confined, when he was set upon by the populace and killed. D'Hilliebs, Bakaguay. (See Bakaguay.) Diagobas, di-dg'-o-ras, a Greek philosopher of Melos, and a disciple of Democritus, who, having been the victim of a perjury which re- mained unpunished, passed from superstition to atheism, and was generally called the Atheist. He was driven from Athens on the charge of having turned into ridicule the Eleusinian mysteries, and perished by shipwreck, about 412 B.C. Diaz, Bartolomeo, de'-az, a Portuguese navigator, who discovered the Cape of Good Hope, to which he gave the name of the Cape of Tempests ; but on his reporting this, in I486, to John 1 1., king of Portugal, he commanded it to be called Cabo de Buena Esperanza, or the Cape of Good Hope. Said to have been lost in a storm in 1500. Dibdin, Charles, dib'-din, an English actor, dramatist, and distinguished sea-song writer, was educated at Winchester, and originally in- tended for the church ; but going to London, at the early age of sixteen he produced an opera, called " The Shepherd's Artifice," which was brought out at Covent Garden. In 1778 he was appointed musical manager at Covent Gar- den. Subsequently he built the "Circus," afterwards called the " Surrey ;" and in 1783 published his " Musical Tour." In the follow- ing year he gave his entertainment called " The Whim of the Moment," of which he was sole author, composer, and performer. In this piece he sung his ballad of " Poor Jack," which completely won the ear of the public; and, from that time, his reputation as a balladist was established. He wrote no fewer than 900 songs, according to some, and 1200 according to others. Whichever number is correct, docs not much signify ; as a soil so prolific must have produced many weeds. Many of his lyrics, however, have great merit. They have solaced the seaman during long voyages, sustained hrm in the storm, and inspired him in battle ; and they have been quoted to restore the mutinous to order and discipline. In 1805 he retired from public life, and received a government pension of £200 per annum, b. at Southampton, 1745; d. 1S14. " Poor Tom Bowling" was written upon a brother of his, who had been the cap- tain of an East Indiaman, and was twenty-nine years older than the author. — Thomas, a son of Charles, was long connected with the London stage, as an actor and dramatist. He wrote and adapted a vast number of pieces ; but none of them are distinguished by much original merit. He also wrote a work of amusing " Re- miniscences." b. 1771 ; d. in Pcntonvillc, 1841. Dibdin, Rev. Thomas Frognall, was the son of the brother of Charles Dibdin's celebrated " Poor Tom Bowling, the darling of our crew." He lost his parents when only in his fourth year, and was designed for the law, but ulti- mately became a clergyman, and an eminent bibliographer. In 1809 appeared his " Biblio- OF BIOGRAPHY. Dicearclms mania," and an enlarged edition in 1811. The work was well received, and brought him £200 of profit, and considerable reputation. After it, came his edition of Ames's " Typographical An- tiquities," the "Bibliotheca Spenceriana," the "Bibliographical Decameron," and several "Antiquarian Tours." He was the founder of the Roxburghe Club, a literary association, instituted for the purpose of reprinting books. lie also wrote " Reminiscences of a Literary Life," and several theological works, n. at Calcutta, 1776 ; d. 1847. Diceakchus, di'-se-ar'-kus, 4 peripatetic phi- losopher of Messina, in Sicily, whose treatise on the " Geography of Greece " was published by II. Stephens, in 1589, and by Hudson in his "Collection of Writers on Geography," in 1709. His principal philosophical work was one " On ^he Soul," which he divided into three dia- logues, and which argued against its existence. Lived in the 3rd century b.c. Dick, Sir Alexander, dik, a Scottish physi- cian, who studied at Edinburgh, and at Leyden under Boerhaavc ; and having taken his degree of M.D., returned to his. own country. He afterwards made the tour of Europe, and when he came back settled in Pembrokeshire, where he practised with success. On the death of his brother, he succeeded to the family estate of Prestoutield, where he resided the remainder of his days. In 1756 he was chosen president of the College of Physicians at Edinburgh, to which he was a benefactor, b. at Prestoniield, in 1703 ; d. 1785. — He was the first who paid attention to the culture of the true rhubarb in Britain ; for which he received, in 1774, the gold medal from the London Society for Promoting Arts and Commerce. Dick, Sir Robert Henry, major-general, en- tered the army as ensign in the 75th foot in 1800; obtained a company in the 78th, in 1801 ; was in the expedition to Sicily, and was wounded in the battle of Maida ; was present in the battle of Alexandria, under Abercromby, and again wounded at Rosetta. He was attached to the 42nd Highlanders in 1808, and went to the Peninsula with the 2nd battalion, where he was present, in command of his battalion, at Busaco, Ciudad-Rodrigo, the storming of Fort St. Michael, and the siege of Burgos. He again joined Wellington in the campaign of 1815, and was a third time wounded at Quatre-Bras, while in command of the 42nd. At the conclusion of the war he retired to Tullimet, his paternal estate in Perthshire ; but, having lost his wife, he once more sought active service, obtained a command in India, and was killed in the battle of Sobraon, on the 10th of February, 1846, while in the act, as Lord Gough in "his de- spatches expressed it, of " personally animating, by his dauntless example, the soldiers of her Majesty's 80th regiment in their career of noble daring." Dick, Thomas, LL.D, the "Christian philo- sopher," was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and afterwards entered the ministry of the Secession Church. Much of his time was passed in teaching and lecturing on scientific subjects. He also contributed to many periodi- I cals, whilst producing the following more per- manent works : — " The Christian Philosopher," j " The Philosophy of Religion," " Philosophy of a Future State," " On the Mental Illumination and Moral Improvement of Mankind," " Chris- [ tian Beneficence contrasted with Covetousness," , 329 Diderot " Celestial Scenes," " The Solar System," " The Atmosphere and Atmospherical Phenomena," and "The Telescope and Microscope." Some of these works have been translated into other languages, and the " Solar System " into the Chinese. All his works have received the liighest commendation, and merit a place in every Christian library. Towards the close of his life a small pension was granted to him by the government, b. near Dundee, Scotland, 1772 • d. 1857. Dickens, Charles, dik'-ens, one of the most successful of modern novelists, was intended for the profession of the law, but became a reporter for the newspapers. His first engage- ment was in the office of "The True Sun," and his next in that of the "Morning Chro- nicle," in the evening edition of which paper first appeared his " Sketches of Life and Cha- racter." These were subsequently collected, and given to the world under the title of " Sketches by Boz." Their success induced an enterprizing publisher to engage Mr. Dickens and Mr. Seymour, the comic draughtsman, " the one to write, and the other to illustrate, a book which should exhibit the adventures of a party of cockney sportsmen." The result was the " Pickwick Papers," a performance which at once placed Mr. Dickens in the foremost rank as a popular writer of fiction. After it, came his " Nicholas Nickleby," " Oliver Twist," the " Old Curiosity-Shop," " Barnaby Rudge," and many more, teeming with original wit, humour, and sentiment, besides abounding with vivid descriptions of human life and character. In 1841 he paid a visit to America, where his fame had preceded him, and where he received a hearty welcome. On his return, he published a work recording the impressions made by his visit. In 1845 he was appointed principal editor of the " Daily News," a paper of liberal politics ; but he did not long hold this position. To its columns he contributed "Pictures of Italy." On his retirement from that paper ho resumed the pen of fiction, and produced " Dombey and Son," " David Copperfield," " Bleak House," several " Christmas tales," the "Child's History of England," "Little Dorrit," and edited the "Memoirs of Grimaldi." He, besides, till 1859, conducted the periodical called " Household Words," and was a constant contributor to its pages. In that year he relin- quished his connexion with that serial, to esta- blish another on a similar plan, and entitled "All the Year Round," of which the first se- ries was completed and the second commenced in December, 1868. In 1S67-8, he visited the United States for the purpose of giving readings in the principal towns, and, on his return from America, commenced a series of farewell read- ings in the chief towns of the United Kingdom. b. atLandport, Portsmouth, 1812; b. 1870. Dickons, Mrs., dik'-ons, whose maiden name was Poole, a celebrated singer, sustained the same range of characters as Mrs. Billington, to whom, however, she was inferior as a vocalist. She began her career at Covent Garden, in 1793, after having been the pupil of Rauzzini, the teacher of Braham, and from that time till 1818 was constantly engaged at the operas and ora- torios in the metropolis. Ill-health compelled her to retire in the year last-mentioned ; and she died in 1833. Diderot, Denis, de'-de-ro, a French writer, was the sou of'a master cutler, and was intended THE DICTIONARY Didius Julianus for the profession of the law ; but, from sheer in- dolence and the love of reading, he relinquished this Intention, and gave himself up to literature and philosophy. His first work, entitled " Phi- losophical Musings," was published in 1746, and was afterwards reprinted under another title. In 1747 he waa concerned in a Medical Dictionary, which suggested to him the idea of a " Dictionnaire Encyclop^dique," which, with the assistance of others, he completed. His .hare in this work was large, and the whole of the articles on arts and trade were furnished by him. His own opinion of it, however, is not very flattering. "In its execution," said he, "I nad neither time nor the power to be par- ticular in the choice of my contributors, who were mostly very inferior men, badly paid, and, consequently, careless in their work." While engaged in the " Encyclopedic," he wrote some other books ; such as a licentious novel, called " Bijoux Indiscrets," and two comedies, the " Fils Naturel" and the " Pere de Famille." In 1749' appeared his "Letters on the Blind," the free sentiments in which occasioned his being imprisoned six months at Vincennes. On re- covering his liberty, he wrote " Letters on the Deaf and Dumb." His other works are, " Prin- ciples of Moral Philosophy," " Reflections on the Interpretation of Nature," " The Code of Nature," "The Sixth Sense," "Of Public Edu- cation," " Panegyric on Richardson," " Life of Seneca." Diderot was an ingenious, rather than a useful writer. His works are fanciful, and full of prejudices against religion; but he made himself rich by them, if that is of consequence when a man comes to his death- bed. The last remark he was heard to make by his daughter, shortly before his death, was, that "the first step towards philosophy is in- credulity." n. at Langres, in Champagne, 1713 : B. in Paris, 1784. Didius Julianus, M. Salvius Sevcrus, did'-e- ut ju-li-ai'-nus, a Roman emperor, who was consul in 179 a.d. He purchased the imperial diadem from the soldiers at an enormous rate, in 193 ; but did not pay the sum agreed upon, and made himself odious by his luxurious and extra- vagant habits. Shortly afterwards, however, Severus was declared emperor by the praetorian bands, and Didius was slain, having reigned only sixty-six days. b. at Milan, about 133. Dido, or Elissa, di'-do, queen and founder of Carthage, was the daughter of Belus, king of Tyre. She married Sichaeus, priest of Hercules, .vho, for the sake of his riches, was murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Belus. Dido, dis- consolate at the loss of her husband, sailed with a number of Tyrians, and settled on the coast of Africa, where she purchased a tract of land, on which she built a citadel, called Byrsa. This place soon increased, and her dominions ex- tended, larbas, king of Mauritania, wooed her ; but she rejected his suit; when he threatened to invade her territories. She requested three months to reconsider her refusal, and, in the interval, caused a funeral pile to be erected, on which she stabbed herself in the presence of her subjects, about 953 B.C. Virgil and Ovid have represented this action as the effect of grief, occasioned by the departure of iEneas, of whom she was enamoured. Didot, Francois Ambrose, de-do, a celebrated printer, who invented stereotyping, ascribed also to a Scotchman named Ged, and executed several works with beauty. He also improved 330 Diemen the construction of paper-mills, and invented many useful machines relative to the typo- graphic art. At the age of 73 he read over five times, and carefully corrected, every sheet of the stereotyped edition of Montaigne, printed by his sons. He had likewise projected, and partly executed, an index to that writer, b. 1730; d. at Paris, 1804.— His brother, Pierre Francis, and his sons (particularly Francis) and a nephew, also did much to improve th« arts of printing and type-casting in France. Didrojt, Adolphe Napoleon, de'-drawng, one of the greatest modern French students of medieval Christian art, who made himself fa- miliar with all the remarkable mediaeval mo- numents in France and Greece. In 1848 he lectured on Christian iconography in Paris, and afterwards became editor of the " Annales Archeologiques." His principal work, however, is his " Iconographie ChnStienne," a portion of which has been translated into English by Mrs. Millington. b. at Hauteville, 1806. Diebitsch, Sabalkanski Hans Karl Frederich Anton, de'-biUh, a Prussian, who entered the military service of Russia, and in 1805 was wounded at Austerlitz. After the battle of Friedland, he rose to the rank of captain, and subsequently became major-general. He fought at the battle of Lutzen, and was at that of Dresden. In 1814 he opposed the hesitation of the allies to march on Paris, for which the emperor Alexander bestowed on him the order of St. Alexander Nevski. In 1820, he became chief of the imperial staff of Alexander, whom he attended on his death-bed at Taganrog. In the war with Turkey in 1828-9, he took Varna, and greatly extended his reputation by making the passage of the Balkan. He advanced to Adrianople, when the treaty of that name was signed, and which saved his army. In 1831 he was sent to quell the insurrection in Poland, and fought the battle of Ostrolenka. Thence he transferred his head-quarters to near Pultusk, where he died of cholera, in 1831. b. at Gross- leippe, in Silesia, 1785. Dieffknback, Johann ¥rc(\cric\\,de'-fen-bak, esteemed one of the most skilful operating sur- geons that ever lived, originally studied for the church, participated in the war of liberation in Germany, and did not commence the study of surgery and medicine till after the fall of Bona- parte in 1815. He attended the classes at Vienna and Wurtzburg, and then settled at Berlin, where he was appointed to the chair of surgery. He published several useful works, but his fame mainly rests on the skill with which he performed the most difficult opera- tions, among others, those of making artificial noses, cheeks, eyelids, . at Chelsea, 1676.— He wrote a play called " Elvira, or the Worst not always True," which was printed in 1667. Digges, Thomas, digg, was educated at Ox- ford, after which he became muster-master- gencral of the forces sent by Queen Elizabeth to assist the oppressed Netherlander. He wrote, — 1. " Alae, sive Scalse Mathematical," containing demonstrations for finding the parallax of any comet, or other celestial body, 4to. 2. An arithmetical treatise, named " Stratioticos," requisite for the perfection of soldiers, 4to. 3. " Perfect Descriptions of the Celestial Orbs," 4to. 4. " Humble Motives for Associations to maintain the Religion estab- lished," 8vo. 5. "England's Defence," a treatise concerning invasion, folio. B. in Kent; n. 1595. Digges, Sir Dudley, the eldest son of the above, was educated at University College, Oxford. He was knighted by James I., who sent him ambassador to Russia; but in the parliament of 1621 he resisted the court measures, and so continued to do in the next reign, for which he was sent to the Tower. In 1636 he was bought over by the grant of the mastership of the Rolls. He wrote, — 1. "A Defence of Trade," 1615, 4to. 2. "A Discourse concerning the Eights and Privileges of the Subject," 4to. 3. " Speeches," in Eushworth's Collections. 4. A collection of letters, which appeared after his death, under the title of the "Complete Ambassador." b. 1583; d. 1639. Dilke, Charles Wentworth, dilk, a publicist, closely connected with the literature of his day. Receiving, at an early age, an appointment in the Navy Pay-ofiice, he found leisure to con- tribute papers to various magazines and reviews, and to edit a collection of old English plays, in 6 vols. This work appeared in 1814. He sub- sequently became connected with the "Athe- liieum," a literary journal, and by skilful man- agement raised it to an influential position in periodical literature, b. 1789; d. 1864. DiLKE.Sir Charles Wentworth, son of the above, wasone of the most active promoters of the Great Industrial Exhibition of 1851, and to his un- wearied industry in working out its details, its 6uccess was greatly attributable. He was also one of the Koyal Commissioners for the Ex- hibition of 1862, and took the most active part in its organisation and superintendence. He was made a baronet in 1862, and entered par- liament in 1865. B. 1810. Dillenius, Johann James, dil-le'-ne-us, an eminent German botanist, who, in 1721, accom- panied Dr. Sherrard to England, where he spent the remainder of his days. Soon after his arrival he undertook a new edition of Ray's *' Synopsis Stirpium Ilritannicarum," and was appointed the first botanical professor at Oxford, on Dr. Sberrard's foundation. In 1735 the university admitted him to the degree of W.D. He published a work, entitled "Hortus 332 Diodorus Siculus Elthamensis," and a " History of Mosses." b. at Darmstadt, 1687; d. 1747. Dimsdai/b, Thomas, dims'-dail, n celebrated physician, who accompanied the duke of Cum- berland in his expedition against the army of Prince Charles Stuart, as assistant-surgeon, and continued in that capacity till the sur- render of Carlisle, when he returned to Hert- ford. In 1761 he commenced practice, and became celebrated by his successful mode of inoculating for the small-pox. In 1768, ac- companied by his son, he went to Russia, and inoculated the empress and grand-duke, for which he was created a baron of the empire, physician to her majesty, and counsellor of state. A gratuity of £12,000 was given him for his journey, and a pension of £500 a year. In 1781 he again visited Russia, to inoculate the two sons of the grand-duke. The year preceding, he was elected member of parliament for Hertford, and again in 1784, on which he quitted practice. About this time he had the misfortune to lose the sight of both eyes by cataract, from which he was relieved by Baron Wenzell. In 1790 he retired from par- liament. He wrote "Tracts on Inoculation," 8vo, 1781, in which is an account of his first journey to Russia, b. in Essex, 1712 ; d. 1800. DiNABCnus, di-nar'-ktu, a native of Corinth, who established. himself at Athens, and there received large sums of money for the composi- tion of orations, which he prepared by order for those who wanted them. Accused of taking bribes from the enemies of Athens, he went into involuntary exile about 307 B.C., but was re- called after an absence of fifteen years. Three of his orations only have come down to us, and are in Stephens's Collection, 1575. Dinockates, di-nok'-ra-tees, an architect of Macedonia, who rebuilt the temple of Diana at Ephesus, burnt down, 356 B.C., by Eratostratus ; extended and beautified Alexandria, at the com : mand of Alexander the Great; and was called into Egypt by Ptolemy Philadelphus. To him, as well as to others, has been ascribed the gi- gantic project of cutting Mount Athos in the form of a statue, holding a city in one hand, and in the other a basin, into which all the waters of the mountain could empty themselves. Lived in the 4th century. Diocletian, Cains Valerius, di-o-klc'-she-an, a Roman emperor, born of an obscure family, and raised from a common soldier to the rank of general. On the death of Numcrian, in 284, he waS chosen emperor. He took Maximian to be his colleague, and created two subordinate emperors, Constantius and Galerius, whom he styled Ccesars. He was a great commander, and a patron of learning ; but, in 303, stained his reign by a persecution of the Christians. He renounced the crown in 304, and retired to Sa- lona, where he died, 313. b. at Dioclca, in Dal- i matia, about 245. — This was one of the most distinguished of the Roman emperors. I Diodati, Giovanni, , the title of Lord Melcomb- Regis. He associated much with the wits and learned men of the time, some of whom — such as Churchill and Pope — ridiculed and satirized him, while Hogarth introduced him and his wig into his picture called the " Orders of Periwigs." His "Diary," published in 1784, is curious as exhibiting the traits which distin- guished the statesmanship of the time. b. in Dorsetshire in 1691 ; d. 1762. Dodslky, Robert, dods'-le, an author and bookseller, but who first figured in life as foot- man to a lady. While in this station, he pub- lished a volume of poems by subscription, en- titled the " Muse in Livery." Ilis next piece THE DICTIONAKY Dodsworth was a dramatic trifle called " The Toyshop," which had the approbation of Pope, and was brought upon the stage with so much suc- cess, that the author was enabled to commence bookseller in Pall Mall, where he carried on an extensive business many years, and then left it to his brother. He also wrote the " King and Miller of Mansfield," which was followed by a sequel to it, named " Sir John Cockle at Court." His greatest dramatic effort, however, was the tragedy of "Cleone," which was successfully brouglit out at Covent Garden theatre. He also produced a little book, entitled " The Economy of Human Life," which, owing to a notion that prevailed that it was the production of the earl of Chesterfield, had a large sale. In 1760 he published select fables of JEsop and other fabu- lists, to which he prefixed an essay on fable. He also edited a valuable collection of poems by different authors, 6 vols. ; and a collection of old plays, 12 vols. Mr. Dodsley was likewise the projector of the " Preceptor," a useful book for youth, 2 vols. 8vo ; and of " The Annual Agister," a work of high and deserved reputa- tion. His own miscellaneous pieces were col- lected and published in 2 vols. 8vo. B. at Mansfield, 1703 ; d. at Durham, 1764. Dodswoeth, Roger, dods'-worth, an English topographer, who collected the antiquities of Yorkshire, in 162 large volumes, which are in the Bodleian library at Oxford, b. in York- shire, 1585 ; D. 1654. Dodweil, Henry, dod'-wel, a learned writer, who, after various vicissitudes, was, in 1688, appointed Camden professor of history at Ox- ford, but was deprived of that place in 1691, for refusing the oaths to King William, on which he retired to Cookham, and afterwards to Shot- tesbrooke, in Berkshire. In 1701 he published ' an account of the ancient Greek and Roman cycles, a quarto volume, of which Or. Halley had a high opinion. To follow him through his numerous publications would exceed our limits ; but his most famous book was on the " Natural Mortality of the Soul," in which he endeavoured to prove, from Scripture and the fathers, that " it is immortalised actually by the pleasure of God, to punishment or reward, by its union with the divine baptismal spirit." This book made a great noise, and was an- swered by several writers, particularly Or. Samuel Clarke. He wrote and edited several other works, and died at Shottesbrooke in 1711. b. at Dublin, 1641. — Henry, a son of the above, was bred to the law, aud was an active pro- moter of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. He wrote a pamphlet, but did not affix his name to it, en- titled, " Christianity not founded on Argument," in which, under the pretence of friendship, he endeavoured to undermine the Christian re- ligion. It was answered by Dr. Lcland, Dr. Doddridge, and the author's brother William, ivho was educated at Trinity Collcgo, Oxford, and became D.O., rector of Shottesbrooke, pre- bendary of Salisbury, aud archdeacon of Berk- shire. Dogget, Thomas, doy'-get, the legator of " Doggct's coat and badge," was an English actor" and dramatic poet, who excelled in the representation of comic characters, playing at Drury Lane theatre, and becoming joint mana- ger of that house, d. in 172L— lie left a legacy to provide a coat and badge to be rowed for. from London Bridge to Chelsea, by six 336 Domenichino watermen, yearly, on the 1st of August, the day of the accession of George I. Dolabella, P. Cornelius, doV-a-bel'-la, the son-in-law of Cicero, who attached himself to Julius Caesar, by whom he was made consul. On the death of Csesar he obtained the govern- ment of Syria ; but having slain Trebonius, the governor of Asia Minor, and one of Caasar's assassins, he was declared an enemy of the re- public Cassius besieged him in Laodicca, where he killed himself, in the 27th year of his age. d. 43 b.c. Dolci, Carlo, dol'-chai, an artist of Florence, who attained' great eminence as a painter of religious subjects. His heads are said to be inimitable, b. 1616; n. 1680. Dollond, John, dol'-lond, an eminent Eng- lish optician, who, though put to the trade of silk-weaving, devoted himself to the study of astronomy, which led him to consider the means by which the power of the telescope might be improved. Commencing business as an optician with his eldest son Peter, he invented the achromatic object-glass, and succeeded in ap- plying the micrometer to reflecting telescopes, and made many other improvements, b. in Spitalficlds, 1706; d. 1761. — His son Peter also made great improvements in optical instru- ments, and, in conjunction with his father, acquired a well-merited reputation, b. 1730; d. 1820. OoLOiiiEU, Deodat, do'-lo-me-u(r), an able French mineralogist, who served with Bonaparte in Egypt, Ixit on his return was taken prisoner, and confined at Messina. Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, interested himself successfully for his release, which he obtained in 1801. b. at Grenoble, 1750; d. in 1801.— His principal works are, " Voyage to the Isles of Lipari in 1781 ;" "Memoir on the Earthquake of Calabria in 1783 ; " and several papers con- tributed to the "Mineralogical Dictionary." He was commander of the Order of Malta, a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and also of the National Institute. Don at, Jean, dom-ar 1 , a distinguished French jurist, who presided for nearly 30 years over one of the courts of law at Clermont. He wrote an important work on the civil law of France, entitled, " Les Lois Civiles dans leur Ordre Natural, suivies du Droit Public," which was the origin of the system of Montesquieu's " Spirit of the Laws." It was translated into English, in 1772. by W T illiam Strahan. Domat's "Legum Delectus" was published after the author's death, b. 1625; d. 1695. Dombeowski, Henry John, dom-broo'-sJce, a Polish general, who, in 1791, was engaged in the cause of the independence of his country against Russia and Prussia. Obliged to take refuge in France in 1796, he there formed a Polish legion, and had the command of it in the Italian campaign. In 1806, after the battle of Jena, he hastened to Poland, and there assembled a force of 30,000 men, which he united with Napoleon's army. In 1812, having made the greatest exertion to cover the retreat of the French from Moscow, he led the remains of his army beyond the Rhine. He was ap- pointed, in 1815, commander of the cavalry, and senator of the new kingdom of Poland, but did not long enjoy these dignities, b. near Cracow, 1755 ; d. 1813. Domenichino, do'-main-e-ke'-no, an Italian- painter, who studied in the school of the Caraeci, OF BIOGRAPHY. Dominic where his fellow pupils, from his slowness, called him the "Ox." On this, one of his masters told them, that " this ox would in time make his ground so fruitful, that painting would be fed by what it produced." The prediction was verified. He was also deeply skilled in Architecture, and filled the appointment of architect to Gregory XV. b. at Bologna, 1581 ; ». 1611. Dominc, St.. dom'-e-neek, a Spanish priest, who founded the order of the preaching friars called Dominicans, and, according to some authorities, the Inquisition. This, however, is an error, as the formal establishment of the "Holy Office" did not take place until 1233, when Gregory IX. named Pietro da Verona, a Dominican monk, the first inquisitor-general. b. at Calahorra, Spain, 1170; d. at Bologna, 1221. He was canonized by Pope Gregory IX. DoMiTlAlf, Titus Flavius, do-mish'-e-an, the younger son of the emperor Vespasian. He obtained the imperial dignity on the death of his brother Titus, a.d. 81. The commence- ment of his reign seemed auspicious for the happiness of the Romans; but he soon discovered the wickedness of his disposition, and gave way to the most detestable crimes. He assumed the title of deity, and, at the same time, amused himself in catching flies, and sticking them on a bodkin. His cruelties rendered him so odious, that he was afraid of his own shadow, and took a number of precautions to secure himself from assassination, by which fate, however, he was overtaken, a.d. 90, in the -loth year of his age. He was the last of the twelve Ciesars. Domitianus, Domitius, do-misK '-e-at'-nus, ge- neral of Diocletian's army in Egypt, who caused himself to be proclaimed emperor at Alexandria in 286, and fell by violence two years afterwards. Doif, David, an eminent botanist, who, in 1836, was appointed to the chair of Botany in King's College, London, which he held till his death. He wrote several excellent works upon the science of which he was a professor, and was, fur some time, librarian to the Linmcan Society, b. at Forfar, Scotland, 1800; d. 1810. Donaldson, Thomas Leverton, don' -did -son, professor of architecture in University College, London, gradually rose to the high position he attained, and published several works illus- trative of the subject of his profession. After pursuing his studies abroad, visiting Naples, and spending a year at Rome, he returned, and commenced publishing several works, which brought him prominently into notice. When the Institution of British Architects was inau- gurated, in 1835, he was chosen one of its secre- taries, and subsequently became chairman of the commissioners of sewers for Westminster, .ti 18-13 he was appointed professor of arclritec- '.ure at University College. He acted '>n the committee for theGreat Exhibition of 1651, and, in 1855, received, for his own drawings Iron, the committee of the " Exposition Universclle." a gold medal. He gave up his professorship in 1861. b. 1795. DoNATELLO.or Dox ato, don-a-tnil-o, aFloren- tine sculptor, was the first who abandoned the dry Gothic style, and attempted to restore to his ait the grace and beauty of the antique. His works are to be found in many of the Italian churches. Michael Angclo, it is said, held Donatclli's performances in high admiration. 8. !:;>!; d. 1166. Dossil, M., do-na'-te, amtlcru Italian astro- 337 Donovan nomer, of the museum at Florence, who was the first to discover, on the 2nd of June, 1858, the magnificent comet of that year, and which was known by his name. At that date it was 228,000,000 miles distant from the earth, being visible only by the most powerful telescopes. From that time it gradually approached our world until the 10th of October, when it was at its nearest, viz., 51,000,000 miles. Donati's comef was unexpected, and was new to astronomers, who, however, at its arrival, had been anxiouslj looking out for the return of that of 1556. Donelly, Sir Boss, don'-el-e, a British admi- ral who entered the navy when young, and served in Lord Howe's victory on the 1st of June, 1791, where he so distinguished himself as to obtain promotion to flag rank, and was in commission for some time in the Mediterranean. In 1803, Nelson entrusted him with the command of the squadron of frigates engaged in blockading Toulon ; and in the expedition against the Cape of Good Hope, shortly afterwards, he evinced the most determined bravery. His next sphere of action was South America, where he was at the capture of Buenos Ayres ; and during the investment of Monte Video he commanded the brigade of seamen and marines acting on land along with the army, and took part in the storm- ing of the town on the 3rd of February, 1807, for his services on which occasion he received the thanks of Parliament. He next served on the Cadiz station, and, in 1810, joined Lord Col- lingwood oft' Toulon. He attained the rank of rear-admiral in 1814; vice-admiral in 1825 ; and admiral in 1838. d. at an advanced age in 1811. Donizetti, Gaetano, don-e-zet'-te, a distin- guished Italian musical composer, who received his first instructions in his art in the Musical Institute of Bergamo. In 1815 he removed to Bologna, and, entering the army, produced, in Venice, in 1818, his first opera, entitled " Enrico di Borgogna." In 1822 he left the army, but. still continuing to cultivate his musical abili- ties, he put forth, in 1830, his "Anna Bolena" at Milan. Up to this period he had produced no fewer than thirty-one operas ; and during the next fourteen years he added to these thirty- three more. Many have sunk into oblivion, but others, being of the highest class, retain their popularity with the musical public. Among these we may mention "Anna Bolena," "Lu- crezia Borgia," " Lucia di Lammcrmoor," "La Fille du Regiment," "Don Pasquale," &c. In 1833 he was appointed professor of counter- point in the Royal College of Music at Naples, and afterwards became chapel-master and com- poser to the imperial court at Vienna. Having unfortunately contracted habits of intemper- ance, he was for some time confined in a lunatic asylum. In ls!7 he was taken to Bergamo, where he died in the following year. b. at Bcr- pramo, 17'.*. Donovan, Edward, don'-o-van, a writer on various departments of natural history, one of worse earliest works was "A Natural His- tory of British Insects," begun in 1792 and finished in. 1816. This work, although of great value at the time of its appearance, has since been superseded by others. Between 1791 and 1797 he published four volumes of a work en- titled "The Natural History of British Birds," and in 1798, he commenced a scries of illus- trated volumes of the insects of Asia, containing epitomes of the natural history of the insects ul China, India, and Asia generally, which hac THE DICTIONARY Donne a very large sale. He subsequently published other works, and conducted a periodical called the "Naturalist's Repository," of which three vols, appeared. Science is not indebted to Donovan for any new discovery or important generalization: but his illustrated works have done much to engender a taste for the study of natural history, d. 1837. Donne, John, do;r, an English divine and poet, who, though reared a Roman Catholic, embraced, at the age of nineteen, the Protestant religion. Soon afterwards he went abroad, and on his return became secretary to Lord Chan- cellor Ellesmcre, when he privately married a daughter of Sir George More, lieutenant of the Tower. The latter was so irritated at the match, that he not only prevailed upon the chancellor to dismiss him from his service, but got him imprisoned in that ancient fortress. His confinement, however, was short, and a re- conciliation was effected. At the desire of King James, he entered into orders, and became his chaplain. He was made D.D. by the university ■of Cambridge, and rose to such fame by his preaching, that he had the oirer of no fewer than fourteen different livings during the first year of his ministry. In 1617 he was chosen preacher at Lincoln's Inn ; in 1621 he was made dean of St. Paul's, and soon alter, Vicar of St. Dunstan's.in the West. b. in London, 1573; d. 1631, and was buried in St. Paul's cathedral. — Dr. Donne was a man of great wit, learning, and gravity. His satires arc highly praised by Dryden, who calls him "the greatest wit, though not the greatest poet, of our nation." They were rendered into modern English by Pope. Three volumes of his sermons were published after his dentil, and some miscellaneous essays. Donne, Benjamin, an English mathematician, who made a survey of Devonshire in 1761, for which he received a premium of £100 from the Society for Promoting Arts and Commerce. About the same time he published "Mathe- matical Essays," in 8vo, which had a favourable reception, and procured him the oflice of keeper of the library at Bristol, where ho kept an academy many years. In 1771 he printed an " Epitome of Natural and Experimental Philo- sophy," and in 1774 a work entitled "The British Mariner's Assistant." In 1796 he was appointed master of mechanics to the king. b. at ISidcford, 1729; n. 1798.— Besides the books above mentioned, he wrote treatises on geo- metry, book-keeping, and trigonometry. Doo, George Thomas, doo, an English artist, who was appointed historical engraver to the queen, and is best known by his " Knox preach- ing before the Lords of the Covenant," after Wilkie; Etty's "Combat," and Eastlakc's "Italians coming in Sight of Borne." From the little encouragement, however, extended to his art, he nearly entirely abandoned it, and became a painter of portraits in oil. B. in Lon- don, 1S0O. Doka.v, John, Ph.D., dor'-an, a modern English writer, who, at the age of fifteen, mani- fested a predilection for literature, and produced a melodrama entitled " The Wandering Jew," which was, in 1822, first played at the Surrey The;. tie, London. After passing some years in Frame, he became, successively, private tutor in four cf the noblest families in Britain ; and, in 1835, published ills " History of the Borough and Castic of Heading." This work obtained for him the houorary degree of Ph.D. from 338 Dorigny the university of Marburg, in Prussia. His other works are Xenophon's "Anabasis," with notes ; " Life of Dr. Young ;" " Filia Dolorosa," which was written in conjunction with Mrs. ltomer, and published in 1853. The share of that lady in it, however, was very small. " Table Traits, and Something on Them," " Habits and Men," " Knights and their Days," " Queens of England of the House of Hanover," " Monarchs retired from Business," and " The History of Court Fools." These works passed through several editions, and Dr. Doran also acted in the capacity of editor to a' weekly paper, and contributed largely, both in prose and verse, to various periodicals, b. in Lon- don, 1807; D. 1878. DoEcniiSTEn, Dudley Carleton, Viscount, dor'- ches-ter, an eminent English statesman, who, after visitingdill'erent European courts in a diplo- matic character, was appointed ambassador to the United Provinces of the Netherlands, where he bore a distinguished part in the synod of Dort. On his return to England, he was, in 1626, created a peer by the title of Baron Carleton. He was soon after sent again to the Hague, and was employed there in several important mea- sures, when he was recalled, created Viscount Dorchester, and made secretary of state, b. in Oxfordshire, 1573; d. 1632. — His letters during his embassy were printed in 1757, and again in 1775. Doni.v, Andrea, dor'-e-a, a celebrated Genoese naval commander, who, bom of a noble family, early adopted the profession of arms, and distinguished himself in the service of dif- ferent Italian states. At length his own coun- try required his assistance against the rebels of Corsica, and these he defeated. He was then appointed commander-in-chief of a fleet of galleys, and inflicted severe loss on the African pirates. On a revolution breaking out in Genoa, he entered into the service of Francis I. of France, which he quitted for that of Pope Clement VII., but shortly afterwards joined the party of Charles V. of Spain, and sueceedoxl in driving the French out of Genoa. Charles now offered to invest Doria with the sovereignty of Genoa, but he nobly refused it, stipulating only that the republic should continue under the imperial protection. Having delivered Genoa from the oppression of the French yoke, he was, in 1528, honoured by the senate with the title of the "father and saviour of his country," and had a statue erected to his honour, and a palace built for him. He made his name famous through the Mediterranean by his naval ex- ploits, particularly against Barbarossa and the African corsairs, b. at Oncglia, 1168; i>. 1560. Doee, Paul Gustavo, dor-ai', a French artist, noted chiefly for his drawings illustrative of the Bible, Milton, Dante, etc., which arc marvel- lously effective. He is the most prolific draughts- man and painter of the present day. b. at Strasbourg, 1833. Dobigny, Nicholas, do-recn'-ye, an eminent French engraver and designer, who resided for a lengthened period in Italy, and engraved many celebrated Italian paintings. Among these may be mentioned the " Transfiguration," by Ballade; the "Taking down from the Cross," by Daniel da Voltera ; and the " Mar- tyrdom of St. Sebastian," by Domcnichino. In 1711 he came to England for the purpose of engraving the cartoons of Ballade, and had a room sot apart for him at Hampton Court. He OF BIOGRAPHY. Dorislaus completed his task in 1719, when he received a purse of 100 guineas for a couple of sets which he presented to George I., who also knighted him. His sight having begun to fail, ho, in 1723, disposed of his drawings, and in the following year returned to Paris, u. at Paris, 1657; d. 1746.— He had an elder brother named Louis, distinguished as a fresco-painter, who passed his life chiefly in Italy, d. at Verona, 1742. Dorislat/s, Isaac, dor-is-lai'-us, a Dutch doc- tor of civil law at Leyden, whence he went to England, and was appointed to read lectures on history at Cambridge ; but avowing republican principles, was obliged to resign. He after- wards became judge-advocate in the king's army, but quitted his majesty's service for that of the parliament, and assisted in drawing up the charge against Charles I. In 1619 he was sent ambassador to the Hague, where he was stabbed, while at supper, by some exiled royal- ists. The parliament caused his body to be brought to England, where it was interred in Westminster Abbey. Here, however, it was not suffered to remain. At the Restoration it was exhumed, and finally buried in St. Mar- garet's churchyard. Dobochoff, Ivan, dor'-o-lcoff, a Russian general who entered the army at the age of twenty, and won distinction in the wars with the Turks in 178S. He displayed great courage in the siege of Warsaw in 1791, for which he was promoted and obtained a gold medal. He was made major-general in 1803, and from that time till 1807 served against the French, and was decorated both by his own sovereign and by the king of Prussia. He was charged with the defence of the fortresses on the Gulf of Fin- land ; and in the campaign of 1812, again came into prominent notice, having greatly distin- guished himself in the battles of Smolensko, Borodino, and Moskwa, for which he wa» raised to the rank of lieutenant-general, n. 1762; D. 1813. D'Oksay, Alfred, Count, dor'-mi, a clever Frenchman, distinguished as a man of fashion, and for his drawings and models, especially of horses. He married a daughter of the Countess ofBlessington.but subsequently separated from her. He befriended Napoleon III. when residing in London as an exile, for which the emperor made him Director of Fine Arts in Paris in 1852, a few months before liis death, b. 1798. Dorset, Thomas Sackville, carl of, dor'-set, grand treasurer of England, was raised by Queen Elizabeth to the peerage, under the title of Lord Buckhurst. He was one of the Com- missioners who tried Mary Queen of Scots, and it was he who was deputed to announce her sentence to that unfortunate lady. In 1598, he succeeded Lord Burleigh as treasurer, and was president of the commission appointed to try the earl of Essex. James I. created him carl of Dorset, and he continued to receive in his reign the same favour lie had enjoyed in the preced- ing, n. at Buckhurst, Sussex, 1536; v. at the council-board, 1608, and was buried in West- minster Abbey. DosiTn.Tus, do-si-the'-ns, a hercsiarch of Samaria, who asserted that he was the Messiah. and had with him a woman whom he called the moon. Retiring into a cave, he there starved himself, in order that his disciples might believe bo had ascended to heaven. His sect, which la-'ed till the 6th century, abstained 339 Douglas from animal food, and observed the sabbath with excessive rigour. Dossr, Dosso, dos-e, an artist of Ferrara, some of whose paintings bear a resemblance to those of both Raifaele and Titian. He is men- tioned in terms of high praise by Ariosto. b. about 1475 ; d. 1560.— His brother, Giobattista, aidedDosso in the execution of his works,though only in the subsidiary parts. Doubleday, Edward, dub'-el-dai, a distin- guished English naturalist, who, in the depart- ments of entomology and ornithology, produced some excellent works. After making a tour in the United States, he returned, and became one of the curators in the British Museum. Here he was enabled to pursue his favourite studies to a large extent, and commenced a work in parts, " On the Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera." This work he did not live to complete, b. in London, 1810 ; d. 1849. Douce, Francis, dooce, an antiquarian, chiefly known by his work entitled " Illustra- tions of Shakspeare and Ancient Manners." At his death he bequeathed his writings and cor- respondence, in a strong box sealed up, to the British Museum, which would not accept it, on account of its being labelled with the following inscription : — "Mr. Doucc's papers, to be opened in the year 1900." It was then presented to tho Bodleian library, b. in London, 1762 ; n. 1834. — Mr. Douee also wrote a dissertation on Hol- bein's " Daneo of Death," accompanied by 54 engravings on wood, which arc admirably exe- cuted. Douglas, dug-las, the name of a family who have played a distinguished part in Scottish history, and who were long the leading noble house in that kingdom. Tho name, which is of Gaelic derivation, signifies "dark gray," and is said to have originated in tho following circum- stance. In a battle between the Scots and an invading body of Danes, in which the latter were defeated, the Scottish king had observed a man of stalwart proportions, grizzled locks, and dusky aspect, perform prodigies of valour in the battle, and after the conclusion of the combat, seeing the hero leaning on his sword at a little distance, directed one of his atten- dants to call yonder dhu-glas man to him. On the approach of the warrior, the monarch complimented him ou his prowess, knighted him, and assigned him certain lands for his in- heritance. This, according to a tradition, was the origin of tho noble house of Douglas ; and whether the story be true or not, it is certain that the race .have generally been distinguished by the courage, the stalwart frame, and the swarthy complexion of their alleged progenitor. Tho family has produced many eminent war- riors, of whom the following are the most distin- guished :— Douglas, William, surnamed the "Hardy," was besieged in Berwick by Edward I., and not- withstanding a gallant defence, was taken pri- soner, d. 1302. Douglas, James, eldest son of the above, usually called " The Good Sir James," was one of the most eminent of the associates of Sir ltobert Bruce in his efforts to restore the inde- pendence of Scotland, and did distinguished ser- vice at the battle of Bannoekburn, where he commanded tho left wing of tho Scottish host, and was made a knight banneret under the royal standard, lie afterwards, in company with Loekhart o r Lee, undertook to convey the heart Z2 THE DICTIONARY Douglas of King Robert to Jerusalem, in accordance with a vow that monarch had made. On arriving at Sluys ho learned that the young king of Leon and Aragon, Alphonso XL, was engaged in a war with the Saracens, and joined his army. In a battle which was fought, and in which the Christians were victorious, Douglas was killed in consequence of pursuing the routed enemy too impetuously. He had a heart added to his armorial bearings for this service, which ever afterwards was the special cognizance of the Douglases. He left no legitimate issue, and w-as succeeded in the bulk of his estates by his two brothers, Hugh and Archibald. Douglas, William, the knight of Liddesdale, was a natural son of the preceding, and is called by Fordun, " England's scourge and Scot- land's bulwark." He stained his name, how- ever, by his treatment of Ramsay of Dalwortby, whom he long confined in Hermitage Castle, and subjected to great cruelty and privation. He made many inroads into England, and after performing numerous famous exploits in arms, was captured at the battle of Durham, along with David II., in 1346 ; and was slain, in 1353, by his father's nephew, Sir William Douglas, while hunting in Ettrick forest. Douglas, Archibald, brother of the "Good Sir James," became regent of Scotland in 1333 ; but havinsr invaded England, bis forces were routed by those of Edward III., and himself taken pri- soner, mortally wounded, at the battle of Hali- don Hill, fought July 19, 1333. In this battle upwards of 1-1,000 Scots are said to have fallen, and by the decisive victory obtained on this occasion, Edward Baliol was placed on the Scottish throne. Douglas, William, first earl of, was a younger son of Archibald, brother of the " Good Sir James," by Marjory, sister of John Baliol, king of Scotland. In right of his wife, a daugh- ter of the earl of Mar, he was styled earl of Douglas and Mar ; and fought in the battle of Poicticrs. d. 1381. Douglas, James, second carl of, was the son of the preceding, and is the hero of the battle of Otterburn, where he was slain in 1388. Douglas had made an excursion as far as Newcastle, where he encountered in single combat and overthrew the famous Hotspur, Harry Fercy. The Fercies pursued him on his retreat, and overtook him at Otterburn, and the battle and death of Douglas were the results. This com- bat has given rise to a romance by Allan Cun- ningham, and some of its incidents have been incorporated in the old ballad of "Chevy Chase," though the main portions of that compo- sition refer to a different encounter, the epoch of which is not ascertained. Douglas, Archibald, third earl, was a natural son of the " Good Sir James," and succeeded the hero of Otterburn on the death of the latter without issue. He was called "Archibald the Grim," from his swarthy complexion, stern manners, and great prowess in battle. He was made prisoner at Poicticrs, but effected his escape. The date of his death is unknown. Douglas, Archibald, fourth carl, gained a signal victory over the carl of March and Hot- spur in 1401, but was defeated and made prisoner by Fercy, at HomilduE, in the following year. He afterwards went to the aid of Charles VII. of France, and was killed at the liatlUiofVcrncu.il, in Normandy, in 1424. He was called " Tvncirsiu." in consequence ot bi hie 340 Douglas generally unfortunate in his enterprises. This nobleman also bore the title of duke of Touraine in France. Douglas, William, the sixth earl, having been murdered in Edinburgh Castle, while young, by the chancellor Crichton, a deadly feud arose between the fa milies, which was warmly pursued by his successors, d. 1410. Douglas, William, the eighth earl, the most powerful, haughty, and imperious of his race, who acted in the kingdom with a high hand; and, having beheaded McAllan of Bombie, for refusing to join him in an attack on Crichton, the deed was keenly resented by the king, James II., who invited Douglas to a conference at Stirling, and there stabbed him with a dagger. The earl fell, mortally wounded, and was despatched by Sir Patrick Gray with a battle- axe. This was on Feb. 13, 1452, and is the occurrence to which Sir Walter Scott alludes in the "Lady of the Lake," when, in reference to James Douglas of Fothwell, he makes the burghers of Stirling — " Mourn him pent within the hold 'Where stout earl William was of old'— And there his word the speaker stayed, And finger on his lip he laid, Or pointed to his dagger blade." Douglas, James, the ninth and last carl of, having taken up arms to revenge his brother's death, the king mustered an army, and laid siege to Abercorn Castle, the great stronghold of the earl, and the latter, deserted by his fol- lowers, fled to Annandale, and thence into Eng- land, pursued by the royal troops under the command of his kinsman, the earl of Angus. Douglas was subsequently made prisoner, com- mitted to the Abbey of Lindores, and died there in monkish seclusion, in 1488, his brothers, the earls of Ormond and Moray, being both taken and beheaded for joining in his rebellion. With this nobleman the direct and senior branch of the house of Douglas closed, and their power and influence passed to the collateral line of the carls of Angus, or the "Red Douglases," as they were called to distinguish them from the cider line, who were always known as the "Black Douglases." The Angus line of the Douglases sprung from George, the son of William, first earl of Douglas, by his marriage with Margaret, sister and heiress of the third earl of Angus. On the resignation of his mother, George Douglas obtained a grant of the earldom of Angus, and in 1397, married Mary, second daughter of the third king Robert. The most distinguished of this branch of the family were— Douglas, Archibald, sixth earl of Angus, com- monly called the "Great Earl of Angus," and popularly known as " Bcll-the-Cat," from an expression he made use of when volunteering to head the movement against Cochrane, the architect-favourite of James III., which resulted in that unfortunate man being hanged over the bridge of Lauder, which he had himself built, and to the rebellion in which king James was slain after the battle of Torwood, where Angus commanded the right wing of the rebels. This earl was warden of the East Marches, lord high chancellor of Scotland, and was an accom- plished gentleman, as well as brave warrior. His greatest honour, however, is, that he was the father of Gawin Douglas, the learned bishop of Dunkcld. The carl in vain endeavoured to dissuade James IV. from his disastrous invasion OF BIOGRAPHY. Douglas of England ; and his two sons, George, master af Angus, and Sir William Douglas, of Glen- bervie, having fallen on the field of Flodden, the old earl retired into Galloway, and died soon after of a broken heart. This nobleman figures, in a characteristic manner, in SirWalter Scott's "Marmion." d. 1514. DouGtAS,Arehibald,the seventh earl of Angus, and grandson of " Bell-the-Cat," was high chan- cellor of Scotland, married Margaret of Eng- land, the widow of James IV., and for a long time, in concert with his brother, Sir George Douglas, completely swayed the young king, James V., till that monarch, determined to break the thraldom in which he was held, escaped from their control, banished the whole race, and confiscated their estates. It is upon the fortunes of one of the family, described as James of Bothwell, involved in the common ruin of the race, that the interest of Scott's " Lady of the Lake " turns. This nobleman was the grandfather, by Queen Margaret, of Darnley, husband of Mary Queen of Scots. Douglas, James, younger sou of Sir George Douglas of Pittendreich, became earl of Morton, and was the famous regent of Scotland. (See Mon-roif, James Douglas, fourth Earl of.) Douglas, or Douglass, Frederick, an Ameri- can negro, who has evinced considerable talent as a writer and speaker, and who, until the fall of the " peculiar institution " of slavery , brought about by the American civil war of 1861-^1, was a zealous and untiring champion of the cause of his less able brethren. He was born in Maryland about 1816, and learnt to read and write when a boy. After having been sold twice, he escaped from his last master, and took refuge, with his wife, in New York, where he assumed the name by which he is now known. In 1817 he visited England, and a sum of money was raised to secure his free- dom. On his return he settled at Rochester, U.S., as the publisher of an abolitionist journal, "L'Abeille du Nord." Douglas, Gawm or Gavin, a Scotch poet, ' was younger son of the sixth earl of Angus, and obtained the bishopric of Dunkeld, to which was added the rich abbey of Aberbro-. thick, b. at Brechin, 1475 ; d. 1522. His works arc — 1. A translation of Virgil's "iEneid;" 2. " The Palace of Honour," a poem ; 3. " Aurere Narrationes, Comediaj aliquot Sacra?;" 4. "De Rebus Scoticis Liber." His "Palace of Honour" is his principal original composition, designed to show the instability of worldly pomp, and to prove that true honour and happiness are only to be found by a constant practice of virtue. His translation of the JEneid was the first made of a classic author into any British tongue, unless Hector Boetliius be called a classic. It is a work of great merit. (See Beaton, James.) Douglas, Admiral Sir Charles, entered the Dutch service, which he quitted lor the English navy. The American war commencing, he was appointed commodore of a squadron in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where he obtained a great reputation, and in 1787, was made rear-admiral. B. in Scotland; d. 1789. Douglas, David, an eminent British botanist and enterprising traveller. In 1823 he visited the United States as a botanical collector, and in the following year, explored the vegetable woductions of the country in the neighbourhood of the Columbia, towards California. He fur- ther extended his researches, and, in 1827, 341 Dow- crossed the Rocky Mountains to Hudson's Bay, where he met with Sir John Franklin, then re- turning from his second overland expedition. With him he returned to England ; and in 1829, sailed again for Columbia river. He after- wards visited the Sandwich Islands, where he fell into a trap set for the capture of wild bulls, and met his death from one of these animals, which had also fallen into it. b. at Scone, Scot- land, 1799; killed, 1834. The botany of Eng- land stands greatly indebted to Douglas, lie introduced almost all the new hardy plants in its gardens, many valuable timber trees, besides numerous beautiful species of ornamental shrubs. Douglas, General Sir Howard, Bart., an English military officer, who distinguished him- self by his devotion to his profession. After serving in the Peninsula from 1809 to 1812, he published a treatise " On Military Bridges," which was succeeded by another on " Naval Gunnery," and brought him prominently before the lords of the Admiralty. To the edition of 1855 of this work he appended a chapter on the siege of Sebastopol and the operations in the Crimea generally. One of his prophecies re- garding the fall of Sebastopol, in this portion of his treatise, was doomed to be falsified. As a military engineer, his judgment was considered to be entitled to great weight, b. at Gosport, 1776; d. 1861. Dounmajt, Hugh, doon-man, an English poet, and author of " Kdith, a Tragedy ;" " Infancy," a poem ; " The Land of the Muses," &c. lie was a native of Exeter, studied at Oxford, and settled in his native city as a physician, b. 1740 ; d. 1809. Dousa, Janus, doo'-sa, a learned Dutchman, whose real name was Vander Does. He became eminent as a scholar and soldier, and, in 1574, was nominated governor of Leyden. On the establishment of its university, he was ap- pointed first curator, b. 1545 ; d. 1604. He wrote Latin poems, among which is one on the history of Holland. — His son Janus distin- guished himself, in his childhood, by his Latin poems. He was an eminent critic, mathemati- cian, and philosopher. His poems were pub- lished at Leyden in 1607. b. 1571 ; d. 1596.— Three other sons of the first-named Dousa — George, Francis, and Diedriek — were distin- guished scholars and travellers. Douvke, Thomas de, doovr, archbishop of York, in which station he was placed by William the Conqueror, whom he accompanied from Normandy. He was a great benefactor to his elergy, - and rebuilt his cathedral, d. in 1100. — His nephew (or brother) Thomas was made archbishop of York in 1108. He had some dis- putes with Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, relating to the primacy, d. 1114. Douw, or Dow, Gerard, dou, an eminent Dutch painter, who was the disciple of Rem- brandt, and acquired uncommon excellence in painting in miniature, b. at Leyden in 1613 ; d. 1675 or 1680. — His works are to be found in all great collections. Dow, Alexander, was in the military and civil service of the East India Company, having attained the rank of colonel in the army and acted as secretary to the governor of Bcncoolcn. He was the author of a translation of Ferishta's Persian history of Hindostan, bringing the nar- rative down to the time of Aurungzebo, in three vols. 4to, published between 1763 and 1772 ; THE DICTIONARY Doyle '•'Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Despo- tism in Hindostan ;" " An Inquiry into the State of Bengal," &c. b. at CriefT, Perthshire ; d.1779. Doyle, Sir John, doil, a military offiter, who entering the army as ensign in 1771, won distinc- tion in the fi»st American war.in the principal ac- tions in which he took part. Heaficrwardsserved under Lord Moira, and in Holland under the duke of York ; was secretary at war in Ireland under carl Fitzwilliam and Lord Camden, and acquired great influence in the Irish House of Commons, in one of his speeches in which he produced a great sensation by relating the con- duct of a corporal of the 10th dra50; d. 1723. He possessed great talents, but these were sullied and clouded by his vices of de- bauchery, avarice, and guilty ambition. Dubois, Edward, a writer of light literature who attained a high degree of popularity in his time, and was connected with the " Mirror " and " Morning Chronicle" in their palmy days, under the direction of Thomas Hill and Mr. Perry respectively. Dubois had studied for the bar, but paid little attention to his profession, though he held two legal appointments, the deputy judgeship of the Court of Bequest and the secretaryship to the Commissioners of Lunacy. His principal works were—" My Pocket Book, or Hintcs for a Bight Merric and Conceited Tour in Quarto," published anony- mously, and written in ridicule of the books of travel got up by Sir John Carr, and which passed through several editions. " The Wreath," " Old Nick," a satirical poem ; the " Decameron of Boccaccio," with remarks on his life and writings; a work on the "Letters of Junius," which he attributed to Sir Philip Francis, with whom he was said to have been counccted. b. 1775 ; D. 1850. Dubos, John Baptist, doo-lo', a French writer, who wasiemployed in some secret trans- actions by M. do Torcy, minister of foreign affairs, for which he was rewarded with several benefices. He is principally known by his " Critical Reflections on Poetry and Painting," 2 vols. 12mo; a work which, at the time of it* appearance, was highly esteemed. He alsc wrote some political pieces, and a "Critical History of the Establishment of the French Monarchy in Gaul." e. at Bcauvais, 1670; o. at Paris, 1742. Du Cange, Charles Dufresne, Seigneur doo-kanzh, a French author, who studied foi the profession of the law, but subsequently devoted himself entirely to history and philo- sophy. His first work was "A History of Constantinople under the French Emperors," which was succeeded by his " Scriptural Glos- sary," a work of great value in enabling us to understand the writers of the dark and middla ages. He also produced some other historical OF BIOGRAPHY. Ducarel works, and left a large number of manuscripts. B. at Amiens, 1G10; d. 1638.— His children received a pension of 2000 francs from Louis XIV. Ducarel, Andrew Coltee, doo'-Tca-rel, an eminent civilian and antiquary, who published a number of topographical and antiquarian work?. His best known is one on Anglo-Gallic, Norman, and Aquitaine coins, which appeared in 1757. "Anglo-Norman Antiquities," con- sidered in a tour through Normandy, is another valuable work on the particular subject of which it treats, b. in Normandy, 1713 ; d. at South Lambeth, 1785. Ducarel was commissary of St. Catherine's and Canterbury, and wasbrought to Kngland soon after his birth. When the Society of Antiquaries was incorporated, in 1755, he was appointed one of its first fellows. Ducas, Michael, doo'-lcdt, the author of a history of the Greek empire, from the reign of John Palaoologus I. to its fall in 1453. His work was printed at the Louvre in 1619. Ducasse, Jean Baptiste, doo-kas-sai, a French naval officer, who duringthe reignof Louis XIV. made himself formidable to the English while governor of St. Domingo, and gained fame by obtaining a victory over the renowned Admiral Benbow. d. 1715. Duckworth, Sir John Thomas, Bart, duh'- tcerth, a British admiral, who entered the navy in 1759, under Admiral lioscawen, and took part in several engagements with the French. Having served in various ships, and seen a great deal of active service, he, in 1793, was attached to Lord Howe's fleet, and, in the celebrated action of June 1, 1791, greatly distin- guished himself by his bravery, as well as naval skill. In 1800 he was appointed to the command of the Leeward Islands; and in 1S01 for aiding in the reduction of the Swedish and West India islands, was created a K.C.B. In 1803 he was appointed commander-in-chief of Jamaica, and, for the vigorous measures he adopted in pro- tecting the commerce of that island, received the thanks of itSHIouse of Assembly, with the presentation of a sword valued at £1000. In 1805 he defeated the French in the Bay of St. Domingo, for which he was thanked by both Houses of Parliament, and had an annuity of £1000 bestowed upon him. In 1807 he forced the passage of the Dardanelles, in spite of the Turks; and, from 1810 to 1815, was commander- in-chief at Newfoundland. He subsequently became governor of Plymouth, and, in 1813, was created a baronet, b. in February, 17-18; d. at Devonport, 1817. Duclos, Charles Pineau, doo-klo', an historio- grapher of France, who became perpetual secre- tary to the French academy, and died in 1772. b. at Dinant, 1705. His principal works are — 1. " Memoirs on the Manners of the 18th Cen- tury," 1vol. 12mo; 2. "The History of Louis XI.," 3 vols. I2mo; 3. "The Confessions of Count * * *." Dud ev ant, Madame Amantine Lucile Aurore, dood'-vant, better known by her assumed name of Georges Sand, having been married at 17, parted from her husband in her 27th year, and went to Paris to pursue a life of lite- rary independence. There she produced, in conjunction with a young student named Jules Sandeau, a novel, called " Hose et blanche," which met with success. Her next perform- ance, entitled "Indiana," was entirely her own, and it immediately made her celebrated. :- OF BIOGRAPHY. Dujardin man consul, who obtained a naval victory over the Carthaginians, near the Lipari Islands, in which they lost fifty-eight vessels, this being the first engagement at sea which the Romans had fought, 260 B.C. He was honoured with a naval triumph, the first that ever appeared at Rome, and was also allowed peculiar honours.' Some medals were struck in commemoration of this victory, and there still exists at Rome a portion of the column which was erected in the Forum on this occasion, and the inscription on which is one of the most ancient specimens of the Latin language. Dcjakdiu, Charles, doosh'-ar-da, a Dutch painter, distinguished for his representations of market scenes, mountebanks, and robbers. He also engraved in aquafortis, b. at Amsterdam, 16-10 ; d. at Venice, 1673. Dcmabesq, Henry, doo-mar-esk, a lieutenant- colonel in the British army, who served through- out the wars with Napoleon, and was present in the thirteen battles for which medals were struck, besides many affairs of outposts in the sieges of Badajoz and Burgos, and the attack on the forts of Salamanca. His last field was Waterloo, where he was on the staff of Sir John Byng, and was sent with an order by the Duke of Wellington to his general of brigade. This he delivered, and in returning with the answer was shot through the lungs ; but, determined to do his duty, he rode up to the duke, delivered his despatch, and then fell from his horse ap- parently a dying man. The wound was not immediately fatal, however; but as the ball was never extracted, it is supposed to have pro- duced paralysis, and caused his death in 1838, at the establishment of the Australian Agricul- tural Company in New South Wales, where he was chief commissioner, b. 1792. Dcmas, Lewis, doo'-ma, an ingenious French- man, who was brought up to the law, but ap- plied himself to mathematical and mechanical studies, inventing an instrument called the bureau iypographique, to teach children reading and writing mechanically. He also devised an- other for instructing them in music, and wrote works on these subjects, explanatory of his method, b. at Nimes, 1676 ; n. 1744. Dcmas, Alexandre Davy, one of the most fer- tile French dramatists and romancists. His dramas number more than eighty, and his novels more than forty. He wrote about 1200 volumes, many of them representing a low state of morals, rather repulsive than attractive to the general tone of English sentiment. He also wrote " Impressions of Voyages," and his "Memoirs," which were commenced in 1852, and by 1S56 had extended to twenty-seven vol- umes. His most popular work is, perhaps, the " Count of Monte Christo," which has been re- produced in English in several forms. Dumas affected to be a universal genius, took to polities, and started a newspaper in Naples during the dictatorship of Garibaldi in 1860, which, how- ever, did not live long. He also prided himself on his skill as a cook, and on the rapidity with which he could serve up a dinner, b. at Villers- Cotterets, in the department of the Aisne, ■ 1803. Dcmas, Alexandre fiU, son of the above, wrote " Trois Homines forts," " La Dame aux Camt'lias," and the " Demi-Monde ; " pro- ductions which., however they may exhibit the no session of talent in their author, are very low in their morality, b. 1824. 948 Dumouriez Dcmas, Jean Baptiste, a distinguished French chemist and botanist, who, in 1823, received the appointment of demonstrator of chemis- try at the Polytechnic School, and was also made professor of chemistry at the Athenee of Paris. From this period the science of organic chemistry stands deeply in- debted to his exertions. In 1829 he founded the Central School of Arts and Manufactures, and, in 1834, became professor of organic che- mistry in the School of Medicine. In 1815 he was made president of the Society for the En- couragement of Industry, and, in 1849, received the porte-feuille of Agriculture and Commerce. In 1851 he acted as vice-president of the Great Exhibition in London, and subsequently became vice-president of the superior council of public instruction in France, b. at Alais, in the de- partment of the Gard, 1800. Dumont, Pierre Etienne Louis, doo'-mawnq, a Swiss divine, who became minister of the Protestant church in Geneva, and afterwards went to London, where he became acquainted with Sir Samuel Romilly, and other eminent men. After a visit to France, he returned, and became the editor of several of the treatises of Jeremy Bcntham, from pure admiration of the wisdom of that philosopher. In 1814 he re- turned to Geneva, and became a member of its representative council ; and there, on the pan- opticon plan of Mr. Bentham, had a prison erected, in 1824. b. at Geneva, 1759; d. tra- velling in Northern Italy, 1829. Dcmout d'Ubville, Jules Sebastien Cesar, door'-veel, a French naturalist and navigator. Being commissioned by Charles X. of France, in 1826, to go in search of La Perouse, the French navigator, and his companions, he took the command of the frigate Astrolabe, and was so far successful, as to obtain a knowledge of the fate of these voyagers. Whilst engaged in this duty, he made some important surveys of the coasts of various islands in Australasia and the Eastern seas. An account of his labours was published in 1830, and is esteemed as a valuable contribution to science. In 1837 he proceeded on a voyage to the south pole, and penetrated to lat. 64° 20' S. ; Ion. 184° 18' E. On his return he published an account of his expedition, b. 1790 ; killed in a rail- wav accident between Versailles and Meudon, 1842. Dcsiocriez, Charles Francois, doo-moor'-e-ai, an officer in the French military service, who, at the commencement of the great revolution, espoused the liberal side, although attached to the constitutional monarchy of 1791. Sus- pected, as well as detested, by those whose po- litical principles were more violent, he retired from internal politics, and took service under General Luckner, then lighting against the Austrians on the northern frontier. Here he soon distinguished himself, and, receiving the command of the army opposed to the duke of Brunswick, took up a position in the forest of Argonne, which enabled Kellermann to beat the Prussians at Valmy, and saved France from invasion. He next entered Flanders, won the battle ofGemappes, took Liege, Antwerp, and a large portion of the country ; but was compelled to return to Paris on the trial of Louis XVI. After the execution of that monarch, he re- sinned his command, entered Holland, and took Breda; but was defeated at Ncerwindu and Louvain, Ashe still wished lor a return of the THE DICTIONARY Dunbar government to constitutional monarchy, he dis- pleased the Convention, because he was averse to their proceedings against the Belgians, and entered into secret negotiations with the enemy, which brought an accusation of treason against him, when, with several of his officers, he fled to the Austrian head-quarters. His ideas of a constitutional monarchy, however, were not fonformable to the notions of the allies, and he refused to serve against his country. He now wandered through several parts of the conti- nent, with a price set upon his head, and at length crossed to England; but was thence driven by the operation of the Alien Act. He then took refuge in Hamburg, where he re- mained for some time ; but again returned to England, and, throughout the remainder of his days, enjoyed a pension from the British govern- ment, b. at Cumbrai, 1739; d. at Henley-upon- Thames, 1823. Dunbar, William, dun'-bar, a Scottish poet, who wrote several beautiful effusions, and, after being almost unknown for 200 years, was re- suscitated in his poems, which are now acknow- ledged to be amongst the most original in his language. His " Thistle and Kose," an allegory celebrating the matrimonial union of James IV. of Scotland with Margaret, daughter of Henry VII., is a rich specimen of poetical imagery, b. it is supposed, about 1160 ; i>. about 1520. His poems were published, with notes, by Sir David Dalrymple. Duncan, Adam, Lord, diui-kan, a British admiral, was bred to the sea, and, in 1761, attained the rank of post-captain. Being inti- mate with admiral Kcppel, the latter appointed him his captain ; and, in 1787, he became rear- admiral ; in 1793, vice-admiral; and, in 1795, admiral of the Blue. In the war he was appointed to the North Sea station, where he blockaded the Dutch in the Texel, till the summer of 1797, when an alarming mutiny broke out in his squadron. His conduct on this occasion was firm, and, notwithstanding the difficulties in which he was placed, he detained the Dutch until he was enabled to meet them in action. An engagement then took place on October 11, oft' Camperdown, when the Dutch admiral, De Winter, after a brave resistance, was obliged to strike. Eight ships were taken, two of which eartied flags. For this service the gallant admiral received the thanks of parliament, was created viscount Duncan, of Camperdown, and baron Duncan of Lundie, in the shire of Perth. An annual pension, also, of £2000 was granted him, and the two next heirs of the peerage, b. at Dun- dee, Scotland, 1731 ; d. 1804. Lord Duncan was of a singularly manly and athletic form, his height being six feet three inches. His character was that of an amiable, upright man. It is said that when Duncan and De Winter, who was also of gigantic stature, met on the surrender of the latter, each was struck with the fiue physique of the other ; and that Duncan ex- elaimed, neither having been wounded, "Why, Admiral, how has it happened that two such marks as we present should have been missed in such a shower of bulk ts as that we have just yassed through?" Duncombk, William, dun-Team, a poet, and author of a tragedy entitled "Lucius Junius Brutus," besides other works, and a translation of Horace, was born in London in 1690, and died in 1769. — His son John was also a poet, 360 Dundonald and wrote "The Fcmincad," and other poems, b. 1730; d. 1786. Dundas, Sir David, dun-dass, a general in the British-army, who enjoyed a high reputation as a tactician, was for a short time commander- in-chief on the resignation of the duke of York, and was author of two works, " Principles of Military Movements," and " Regulations for the Cavalry," which are both standard authorities in the army. b. at Edinburgh, 1736 ; d. 1820. Dundas, Thomas, a gallant British officer, who greatly distinguished himself at the capture of Guadaloupe, in 1794, and died there in the succeeding year. There is a cenotaph to his memory in St. Paul's Cathedral, London, b. 1750. Dundas, Henry. (Sec Melville, Lord.) Dundas, Sir James Whitley Deans, a modern English naval commander, entered the navy at an early age, and was present at several minor actions during the Napoleon wars. He was for some years a lord of the admiralty under lord Melbourne, and, in 1841, became rear-admiral. In 1853 he was appointed to the command of the English fleet winch was to assist Turkey against Russia. At the commencement of the following year he entered the Black Sea, and in April the English and French fleets bombarded Odessa. In the December of the same year, however, Admiral Sir Edward (afterwards Lord) Lyons superseded him in the command. His family name was Deans, his father being James Deans, Esq., M.D., of Calcutta; but he took the names of Whitley and Dundas on marrying his cousin Janet, daughter of the late Lord Ames- bury, b. in Scotland, 1785 ; d. 1862. DuNDAS,SirRich.Saunders,K.C.B.,anEnglish naval commander, but having no relationship to the above. Entering the service at an early age, he was a captain at 22, and, in 1840, took a part in the war with China, and afterwards commanded a squadron in the Mediterranean, under the orders of admiral Parker. Between 1828 and 1816, he was twice secretary to the admiralty, and from 1852 to 1855 was a lord of the admiralty. In 1S53 he was appointed rear- admiral, and, in 1855, was nominated to succeed Sir Charles Napier in the command of the Eng- lish fleet sent to act against Russia in the Baltic Sea. Doubting, like his predecessor, the success of an attack on Cronstadt, he took vigorous measures to destroy the enemy's commerce in the north, and, assisted by the French admiral Penaud, attacked Sweaborg. After a bombard- ment of 45 hours, the Russian arsenals, barracks, and magazines were almost entirely destroyed, with a loss also of 2000 men. This was the most terrible blow to the naval power of the czar during the whole of the war. b. at Mel- ville Castle, Edinburghshire, 1802; d. 1861. Dundonald, Thomas Cochrane, Earl of, dun- don' -aid, a British admiral, and the tenth earl of this name, entered the naval service in 1793. He soon distinguished himself by his bravery, being almost continually engaged in the most difficult and daring enterprises, in boarding vessels, or cutting out rich prizes from beneath the very mouth of the guns in the land for- tresses of the enemy. In 1809 he commanded a fleet of fire-ships, with which he destroyed the French fleet in the Basque lioads, for which he was rewarded with the knighthood of the Bath. In 1814 he was charged with having spread a report relative to the abdication of the emperor Napoleon I., which had 3 great elfect on the OF BIOGRAPHY. Dunning funds, and which caused him to be brought to trial. Ho was found guilty, and sentenced to pay £1000, to stand in the pillory, and to undergo one year's imprisonment. When this happened, he was a member of the House of Commons ; he was therefore deprived of his seat, stripped of the order of the Bath, and struck otf the list of captains. These proceedings were iniquitous in tine extreme, as they arose almost entirely from his being a radical reformer and strong opponent of the Liverpool-Castlereagh adminis- tration. The public were enraged at such a sentence. The punishment of the pillory was remitted, he was reseated in parliament, and his fine paid by public subscription. His pros- pects of advancement in the service of his country were, however, for the time, annihilated. Accordingly, he sought employment abroad, and in 1818 received the command of the fleet of the Chilians, to fight for their independence. In this war he displayed his usual bravery. In 1822 he exchanged the Chilian for the Bra- zilian service, and, in the following year, was made marquis of Maranao by Don Pedro. On leaving this service he returned to Europe, and, in 1827 and 1S28, assisted the Greeks in their war of independence. He had hitherto borne the title of Lord Cochrane, but by his father's death he now succeeded to that of Earl of Dundonald, and, on the accession of the Whigs to power in 1830, was reinstated in his command in the British navj-, and made a rear-admiral. In 1841 he became vice-admiral of the Blue, and, in 1817, had his order of the Bath restored to him. In 1851 he became vice-admiral of the White, and, in 1851, admiral of the United King- dom. Being greatly devoted to scientific pur- suits, he offered, in 1856, to blow up the walls of Scbastopol during the siege of that fortress ; Iwt the committee appointed to consider his plan, rejected it. b. 1775 ; d. 1859. His Life, written by himself, was recently published under the title of " Autobiography of a Seaman, by Thomas, Earl of Dundonald." Dunning, John, dun'-ning, an eminent lawyer, was the son of an attorney at Ashburton, in Devonshire. After studying under his father some time, he entered the Middle Temple in 1752, and in 1756 was called to the bar. He soon rose to distinction in his profession, and ob- tained a scat in parliament, where lie distin- guished himself on the side of the opposition. A ftcrwards he became solicitor-general, recorder of Bristol, and chancellor of the duchy of Lan- caster. 7a 1782 he was created Lord Ashburton, but died in the following year. b. at Ashburton, Devonshire, 1731 . His lordship was an upright lawyer, and often pleaded the cause of the poor, unsolicited, and without a fee. Dunois, John, doo'-nwaw, count of Longuc- ville, and called the " Bastard of Orleans," grand chamberlain of France, was a natural son of Louis, duke of Orleans. It is said that when but a youth, his mother-in-law, the duchess of Orlccns, who was a daughter of the Visconti of Milan, when on her death-bed, called her family together, and charged them never to rest till they hr.d revenged the death of her husband, who hud been assassinated by the Burgundians. On this young Dunois stepped forward, and pledged himself never to forget his father's wrongs while he could wield a sword or rein in steed. "Ah," exclaimed the dying duchess, " they have robbed me — you should have been vj son." At a very early age he distinguished 351 Dupaly himself by his great bravery, and had the better in an action with the English in H27, at Mon- targis. At the siege of Orleans, he shared the laurels of success with Joan of Arc, and in 1432 contributed greatly to the victory at Patay. The same year he brought under the royal authority the town of Chartres, and in 1436 re-occupied Paris, which had been taken by the English. After these considerable services to the state, he sullied his fair fame by engaging in a conspiracy against Charles VII., and insti- gating against that king the revolt of his son, afterwards Louis XI. He repaired his dis- loyalty, however, by throwing himself at the feet of the former monarch, and caused all to be forgotten in his devotion at the sieges of Har- fleur, Gallardon, and Dieppe. In 1444 he was appointed lieutenant-general, and, from this time to 1450, was engaged against the English, who were now driven out both of Normandy and Guienne. He was appointed, for his ser- vices, grand chamberlain, b. at Paris, 1402 ; d. 1468. This is the warrior alluded to in the opening lines— " C'etait lejeune et brave Dunois" — of the favourite French national air "Partant pour la Syrie," which was composed by Hortense Beauharnais, the mother of Napoleon III. Duns, John, duns, commonly called " Duns Scotus," a famous Franciscan divine, who was educated at Oxford. In 1301 he became pro- fessor of theology at Oxford, and was so dis- tinguished by his eloquence, that it is said 30,000 scholars came to listen to his precepts. In 1304 he went to Paris, where he acquired a great reputation as a disputant, and was called the "subtle doctor." He opposed the notions of Thomas Aquinas, which produced two parties, the Thomists and the Scotists. b. sup- posed at Dunstance, near Alnwick, Northumber- land, 1265; D. at Cologne, 1308. His works were printed at Lyons in 12 vols, folio, 1639. Dunstan, St., dun'-stan, an English monk and celebrated .statesman, who, at a very early age, was made abbot of Glastonbury by king Edmund I. King Edgar made him bishop of Worcester, and, in 959, archbishop of Canter- bury. Tito pope confirmed the appointment, and appointed him his legate. Dunstan ex- tended the papal power in a most arbitrary manner, though opposed by the English clergy ; for which he deprived many of their benefices, and placed monks in their room. On the death of Edgar, in 975, he placed on the throne his son Edward, who being a minor, Dunstan assumed the regency. Under Ethel red, how- ever, he lost his influence, and died of grief, 933. it. at Glastonbury, 925. The popular story of his taking the devil by the nose with a pair of tongs when his Satanic majesty was too importunate with the saint, is well known, and is believed to have had its origin in the fact of Dunstan having rather rudely separated the young king and the wife he had presumed to marry without the sanction of the reverend minister. Duxton, John, dun'-ton, a noted bookseller, who published the "Athenian Mercury," which was reprinted in 4 vols. 8vo, under the title of the "Athenian Oracle." In 17J0 appeared the " Projects of Mr. John Dunton." He also wrote a book called " Dunton's Life and Errors " which abounds in literary history of a curious kind. B. in Huntingdonshire, 1059; l>. 1733. Dupaty, Jean Baptist Mereier, doo-pii-te, an THE DICTIONARY Duperley eminent French publicist, and president of the parliament of Bordeaux, was authoi of " His- torical Reflections on Penal Laws," "Academical discourses, and Letters on Italy." b. at Ro- fhelle, 1746; d. at Paris, 1788.— His son, Charles, was a famous sculptor, whose works are distinguished bv theii classic purity of ktyle. B. 1771 ; D. 1825. Dupekbet, Louis Isidore, doo'-pair-re, a French hydrographei , who in 1817 made a voyage in the North Pacific Ocean, and mapped the Ladrone Islands and several others; but, whilst engaged in his duties, suffered shipwreck among the Sandwich Islands, in 1830. After remaining ten weeks on an island, he and the crew were taken by an American ship to Monte Video, whence he returned tc France in the same year, lit was subsequently engaged in making surveys in the South Pacific, and after- wards published the results of his expeditions. b. at Paris, 1786. Dcpin, Louis Ellies, doo'-pa, a French writer, who, about 168-1, commenced his valuable work entitled '' Bibliotheque Universelle des Auteurs Ecclesiastiques," &c, or " History of Eccle- siastical Writers," which, notwithstanding its general excellence, was much censured by zeal- ous Komanists for some freedom of sentiment, which the author was compelled to retract. He afterwards became involved in a profitless dispute with Di. Wake, archbishop of Canter- bury, on a projected union between the English and Gallicar. churches, b. at Paris, 1657 ; d. there 1719. Besides the above work, he wrote several others on the scriptures, church govern- ment, and practical divinity. Dupin, Andre Marie Jean Jacques, an emi- nent French lawyer, who, in 1815, became o member of the Chamber of Representatives, and opposed the proposal to proclaim the son of Napoleor. I. emperor, under the title of Napoleon II. In the same year he was united wilt Berryci in the defence of Marshal Ney. Subsequently, he defended several others, among whom may be named Beranger, in 1821, frorr the vengeance ot arbitrary power. In ^826 he became a member of the Chamber of Deputies, and assisted by his influence and opposition to produce the revolution of 1830. In the same year he was made procureur- genera of the Court of Cassation, and, in 1832, became president of the Chamber of Deputies, tc whict otlice he was re-elected sever, times. After the forced abdication of Louis Philippe, Lr. 1848, ht proposed the young count of Paris as king of the French, but failed in this attempt to stem the republican tide. He then endeavoured tc form a new government, and, it. the following year, became president of the Legislative Assembly, During this stormy period of political vicissitude, his conduct was marked by great firmness and courage. In 1852, when the decrees confiscating the property of (he House ol Orleans were published, he re- signed his procureur-generalship. In 1857, However, he again accepted the office of pro- L-ureur-general, and in his address, written at the time, he says, "I have always belonged to France, and never to a party." He wrote several valuable works on law. b. at Varzy, in the department ol the Nievre, 1783 ; d. 1865. Dupin, Charles, Baron, brother of the above, entered the French navy in 1803, as an engineer, and, alter performing some services in the Mediterranean, became professoi ot mechanics 352 Duponceau and the physical sciences in the Ionian Academy, which he assisted in forming, at Corfu. In 1812 he returned to Paris, and, in 1813, in- stituted the maritime museum at Toulon. After the peace of 1815, he visited Great Britain, for the purpose of examining her pub- lic engineering works, and afterwards published the results of his observations. In 1828 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, as representative for the department of Tarn, and, ' after the revolution of 1830, represented Seine. When the change of 1848 was effected, ho became a representative in the Constituent Assembly, and also in the Legislative Assembly. After the revolution of 1851, he became a senator. In 1851 he was president of the French jury at the Great Exhibition in London. He wrote a great number of important works connected with the science of engineering. b. at Varzy, 1784 ;D. 1873. Dupino, Charles Francois, doo-pe'-no, a modern French philosopher, who, during the revolutionary era, distinguished himself as a politician, and rose to the presidency of the Legislative Assembly. Previous to this, how- ever, lie had filled the chair of rhetoric in the college of Lisicux, and had deeply devoted himself to astronomical studies. He was the inventor of a telegraph, by which he cor- responded with a friend at some distance, until dread of the political factions then rampant compelled him tc lay it aside. By this time he had published several scientific works, and, in 1794, appeared his "Origine do tous les Cultes; ou, la Religion Universelle," a great work, which ultimately led to the " com- mission" undertaken to explore the ruins of Upper Egypt, in the time of Napoleon I. This production was succeeded by other volumes, relating to astronomy and mythology, b. at Frve-Chatcau, near Chaumont, 1742 ; d. at Is- suf-Lille, 1809. Duplkix, Scipion, doo-plai', historiographer of France, wrote a work on the liberties of the Galiican church, which he presented to the chancellor Seguier to be licensed ; but that magistrate threw it into the fire. This so preyed upon his mind, that he died in 1661. b. at Condom, 1569. Besides the above, he produced, — 1. "Memoirs of the Gauls;" 2. " History of France," 6 vols, folio ; 3. " Roman History," 3 vols, folio ; 4. " A Course of Philosophy," &c. Dt.-fi.kix, Joseph, a celebrated French mer- chant, who, in 1731, was sent as director of the colony of Chandernagore, where he carried on an extensive commerce through all parts of the Indies. In 1742 he was made governor of Pondicherry, which, in 1748, he defended against two English admirals. For this he was created a marquis by the French king, and a nabob by the Mogul. He was recalled, however, in 1751, and died in 17G3. Duponceau, Peter S., LL.D., doo-pawn/j'-to, a native of the He de Rh<5, in France, after com- pleting his education in his native province, went to Paris, where he acted for some time as secretary to De Gebelin. author ot a well-known work entitled "The Primitive World." Dupon- ceau accompanied Barou (It Steuben tc Ame- rica in 1777, served four i wnpaigns in the colo- nial army during the War of independence ; and after the conclusion of peace in 1783, was ap- pointed to a post in tin; office of tin: Republic's secretary tor foreign afloirs. He subsequently Of biography. Dupont studied for the bar, then devoted himself to literary pursuits, and wrote two very learned and ingenious works, the one being: on the lan- guages of the aboriginal American Indians, and the other on the nature of the Chinese written character, which, although neither alphabetic nor syllabic, he explains to be still lexicographic or strictly representative of particular vocables, with their grammatical accidence, and not pic- torial or vaguely indicative of ideas or things. Later investigations have elucidated those ques- tions more fully ; still Duponceau's work is of considerable value, b. some time between 1750 and 1700; d. 1841. Dupont, Pierre, doo'-p.airnt/, a gifted French song writer, the son of humble parents, made himself famous by his lyrics, especially those from rural scenes. He has been called the " Burnsof France," andis so, perhaps, more truly than even Bc'ranger. His first published pro- duction is entitled " The Two Angels," and was issued in 1844. This was followed by " The Oxen," which was received with a burst of ap- plause, which encouraged the author to sing of the scenes and occupations of the country, and the joys and sorrows, the manners and the lives, of the French peasantry. Having obtained an appointment in the bureau of the Institute, he became a resident of Paris, and was affected by the political and social questions of the time. His " Song of Bread" was produced prior to the revolution of 1819, as was likewise his " Song of the Workers." In the midst of the din of the convulsion which cost Louis Philippe his throne, the strains of Dupont sounded clearly out in tones of triumph and encouragement. He was arrested after the coup d'etat, and con- demned to transportation to Cayenne; but strong representations having been made to Louis Napoleon, he ordered his release. The poems of Dupont have been published in a col- lected form under the titles "Cahiers de Chan- sons," "La Muse Populaire," and" Chants ct Chansons, Poesie et Musique," Paris, 1850-51. B. at Lyons, April 21, 1821; D. 1870. Dupont db Nemouhs, Pierre Samuel, tloo- paumg-dai-nai-moo(r), a political economist of France, was twice president of the Constitu- tional Assembly, and held several high official positions, and was eminent for his steady oppo- sition to the anarchists, from whose enmity he was obliged to fly to America in 1797. He returned thenec in 1805, became president of the Chamber of Commerce, and, in 1814, was ap- pointed secretary to the provisional government. On the return of Bonaparte from Klba in 1815, Dupont finally retired to America. He was the author of a variety of works on various depart- ments of political economy and other subjects, the most prominent of which are his "Tableau raisonnc dc Prineipesde l'Fconomie Politique," "Reflexions surl'Ecritintit. Richesscs del'Ets t," and "Philosophic del' Univers." ts.1739; d.1817. Duppa, Brian, dup'-pa, a pious prelate, who, In 1038, was appointed tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles If., and, about the 6ame time, made bishop of Chichester, whence, in 1011, he was removed to Salisbury. He at- tended Charles I. in the Isle of Wight, and is. (•apposed to have assisted him in the composi- tion of" Eikon Basilike." At the Restoration lie was made bishop of Winchester and li rd almoner, n. at Lewisham, Kent, 1589; i>. 1002. lie published a few devotional pieces, but his greatest works were (hose of charity. Durand Duprat, Anthony, doo-pra', a French states- man, who became president of the parliament of Paris in 1507, and chancellor of France in 1515. He was also appointed tutor to the count of Angouleme, afterwards Francis I., and was the author of the famous Concordat, which rendered him so acceptable to the court of Romoj that he obtained several ecclesiastical prefer- ments and a eardinalship. d. 1535. Dupre dk St. Maur, Nicholas Francis, doo'-prai, a French writer, who was a member of the Academy of Paris, and translated Mil- ton's "Paradise Lost" into French. He also wrote an essay on the coins of France, " Inqui- ries concerning the Value of Moneys," &c. B. at Paris, 1096; t>. 1775. Dupuytren, Guillaume, le Baron, doo-pwe'- tren, a distinguished modern French surgeon and anatomist, who invented several surgical instruments, and greatly extended the limits of his profession by the scientific character which he gave to his clinical instructions. He wrote very little, and on the evening before he expired, desired that a medical paper might be read to him, "that I may carry," said he, "the latest news of disease out of the world." n. at Pierre-Buttiere, in the department Hautc-Vi- enne, 1777 ; d. in Paris, 1S35. Whilst pursuing his studies, Dupuytren was so poor that he could hardly obtain the means of keeping life in his body ; yet he bequeathed a fortune of £20,000 to an only daughter, and £8000 for the endow- ment of a pathological and anatomical chair i:i Paris. Duquesne, Abraham, Marquis, doo-X-ain, a celebrated French naval warrior, first went to sea under his father, who was in the service. He distinguished himself at so early an age, that at seventeen he had the command of a vessel, in which he fought several successful actions with the Spaniards. In the troubles which occurred in France during the minority of Louis XIV., lie was in the service of Sweden, and defeated the Danish fleet commanded by King Christian IV. Recalled to France in 1617, he got together a squadron at his own expense, and was engaged several times both with the English and Spanish. In the French war of 1672 with Holland, Louis XIV. sent him against Do Ruyter, and Du- quesne defeated him in a terrible engagement near Messina, in 1076. He afterwards gained great successes against the pirates in the Medi- terranean, and humbled the dey of Algiers, it. 1010 ; d. 1688. Being a Protestant, Louis XIV. did not raise him to those high positions which his services entitled him to; and thus he never became an admiral. (See Ruytkr, De.) Durajt, Don Augustin, door'-an, a modern Spanish critical and miscellaneous writer, who made some excellent collections of the ro- mances of his native country, and acquired con- siderable fame by some of his own poetical imitations of old ballads, n. at Madrid about 1793; n. 1802. Durand, Jean Nicholas Louis, doo'-rnnf, an eminent French architect, who.in 1780,obtaincd the great prize for an architectural design from the Royal Academy of Architecture in Paris, lie afterwards became professor of architec- ture in the Polytechnic "School, ar.d produced several works illustrative of his Art. These ate not considered very valuable, although they huve been greatly coram ::dod. e. at Paris, 1700; d. at Thiais, - : '.,'; vicjiifv ri Paris 1S11. A L THE DICTIONARY Duranti Duranti, Jean Etienne, doo-ranf-c, first presi- dent of the parliament of Toulouse in 1581, wrot c •"Dc Iiitibus EcclesiaV' printed at Kome in 1591. b. 1531; murdered by the Leaguers in 1589. Duras, Clara, duchesse de, doo-rot, a French literary lady of considerable talent and of high moral excellence, was authoress of "Ourika" and " Edouard," two imaginative works. She was more distinguished, however, for exertions to promote education, and her support of cha- ritable institutions, than even for her mental ca- pacity. Her father, the Count de Kcrsaint, was sacrificed to the popular fury for having voted against the regicides in the National Con- vention. The Duchess de Duras was born in 1779, and died at >iiee, where she had gone for her health, in 1828. Duher, Albert, doo'-rer, the first engraver on wood, and an eminent artist, the son of a gold- smith in Nuremberg. He engraved more than he painted ; so that his pictures are scarce, and highly valued. The people of Nuremberg show with pride his portraits of Charlemagne and other emperors; but it is as an engraver that he is most celebrated. He is said to be the first who engraved upon wood; yet, as a painter, he was so highly esteemed, {hat the emperors Maximilian I. and Charles V. appointed him their artist, and conferred upon him rank and riches. Diirer's best historical paintings arc in the collections of Dresden, Vienna, Munich, and Prague. He was also the first who printed woodcuts in two colours, b. at Nuremberg, 1471 ; d. there, 1528. Diircr wrote a book on the rules of painting, and some other works; and since the revival of German art, he is looked upon as its great exemplar. D'Urtet, Thomas, dur'-fe, a facetious Eng- lish poet, who wrote a number of plays and songs, which are very licentious. Charles II. was wont to lean upon his shoulder, and hum the times of some of his songs. His effusions, .however, on account of their looseness, are now justly forgotten. He resided frequently with the earl of Dorset at Knowle, where is a portrait of him, painted when he was asleep, after dinner; for he had such an ordinary visage, that he could not bear to have his likeness taken. His ballads, ftc, were printed in ('• vols. 12mo, under the title of "Pills to purge Melancholy." B. at Exeter, about 1515; «. in London, 1723. Durham, John George Lambton, Earl of, dttr'-ham, was educated at Eton, and, in 1313, became member of Parliament lor the county of Durham. In 1S2S he was raised to the peerage, by the title of Daron Durham, of the city of Durham, and, in 1330, became prominently con- nected with the reform agitation, hi the same year he was made lord privy seal, under the ad- ministration of Earl Grey. In framing the lie- form Pill at that time, he proposed the intro- duction of the ballot ; but this was rejected. In 1833 he resigned his oilice in the government, and was created earl of Durham. In the same year he was sent on a special mission to Russia, and, on his return, differed from his colleagues, but was, in 1835, again sent to Kussia, where be remained for two years, and became an especial favourite with the emperor of that country. In 1338 lie was sent as gnvernor-general, with ex- traordinary powers, to Canada; but conceiving himself not supported in his measures by the home government, he returned, without being recalled, in the same year, for this step he was rebuked, and ik.4 permitted to land under the 3*4 Duval usual salute. This may be regarded as the close of his public life. b. at Lambton Castle, Durham, 1792 ; d. at Cowcs, Isle of Wight, 1840. Durham, Joseph, sculptor, was the son of a London merchant, and sprung from an old family at Houghton-le-Spring, in the county of Durham. He was thepupil'of Francis, and of Mr. E. H. Baily, K.A., and first attracted notice by his bust of Jenny Liud, in 1848, of which more than 1#00 copies were sold in a brief pe- riod. In 1855 he executed, for Sir P. E. Moon, a bust of the queen for presentation to the corporation of London ; and shortly afterwards was commissioned to make a bust of Hermione for the Egyptian Hall of the Mansion-house. He also executed a statue of Frank Crossley, Esq., for the public park at Halifax ; and his design was selected for the work of art commemorative of the Exhibition of 1851 — his design being unanimously adopted from among the many- sent in in response to the invitation which had been issued to the "artists of all nations." Amongst Mr. Durham's minor works are " Paul and Virginia," " Chastity," " Fate of Genius," "Go to bleep," &e., all displaying much merit. b. 1821. Dukoc, Michael, doo'-rok, entered the French army in 1792, and accompanied Napoleon I. to Egypt, where he greatly distinguished himself, and was severely wounded by the bursting of a howitzer. When the imperial court was formed, in 1805, he was made grand-marshal of the palace, and was subsequently engaged in several diplomatic missions, although he still continued to play his part in the wars of France. He was made Duke of Friuli, and fell in the battle of Wurtzchen, 1813. n. 1772. (For full de- tails of Duroc's connexion with the emperor and the Imperial family, see Pourrienne's " Me- moirs.') Dussek", John Louis, doo-sek, a celebrated musical composer, and an excellent performer on the pianoforte, was a native of Bohemia, and a pupil, at Hamburg, of Emanuel Each. Having gone to Franco, the occurrence of the revolution forced him to leave that country and come to London, where he established a musical warehouse in the Haymarket; but this specula- tion did not succeed, and he returned to the continent, and was successively attached to the household of Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia and of Talleyrand. His compositions, though unequal, are "very voluminous, and few authors have written so much that is both good and popular. B. 1762 ; D. 1812. Duv.'.r,, Nicholas, doo-vat, a Dutch painter, who studied in Italy under Pietro da Cortona, whose manner he adopted. King William III. appointed him director of the Academy at the Hague. B. 1611; D. 1732. Duvat,, Valentine Jamerai, an extraordinary person, who, after serving as a shepherd, be- came, in his eighteenth year, keeper of the cattle belonging to the hermits of St. Anry?, near Lune- villc. Under these brothers he ardently dev otc 1 himself to study, and, by an accident, got intro- duced to the duke of Lorainc, who placed him in the college of Pont h Mon^san. The duke afterwards made him Ins librarian, and r sor of history in the Academy of Lunevilie. In 1733 he followed the grand-duke Francis to Flo- rence, and on the marriage i : that prince with the heiress of the house of Austria, he accom- panied him to Vienna, where the emperor OP BIOGRAPHY. DwigM appointed him keeper of his cabinet of medals. B. 1695 ; ». 1775. Dwight, Timothy, dwite, an American di- vine of high reputation, both as pulpit orator and lucid expounder of the Scriptures. In 1795 he became president of Vale College, Newhaven, where ho also held the professorship of theo- logy. He wrote several religious worts, but the'one upon which his fame rests, is entitled " Theolo?y Explained and Defended, in a Series of Sermons." This is an extensive work, and consists of a course of lectures delivered by him, as professor of divinity, on the Sundays in term-time. These extended over four years, and although exhibiting no great depth or ori- ginality of thought, arc still, as a whole, a pleas- ing collection of divinity, n. at Northampton, Massachusetts, 1752; d. 1817. Dvcb, William, R.A., dice, a distinguished Scottish painter, who was taught the rudiments of his art in the Scottish Academy. In 18-it he exhibited at the Royal Academy " King Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance," which raised him to the rank of an associate of that institution. Ho afterwards exhibited specimens of his skill in fresco-painting, and soon after- wards received a commission from Prince Albert to paint, in that style, one of the com- partments of his summer-house at Buckingham Palace. He was subsequently similarly em- ployed at Osborne. He was also among the lirst artists engaged upon the new palace of Westminster, and his " Baptism of Ethelbert," in the House of Lords, is considered one of the best paintings in the chamber. After this he was appointed to l aint the queen's robing- room. In 181S he was elected R.A. ; after which he produced " Omnia Vanitas," the "Meeting of Jacob and Rachel," " King Lear and the Fool in the Storm," "Chribtabel," the " Good Shepherd," and several other works of more or less merit, n. ia Scotland, about 1800; r>. l^ijl. Dvcf, Rev. Alexander, was educated for the church, and officiated, for some years, in both Cornwall and Suffolk; but, going to reside in London, in 1S27, he entered upon a literary career, and soon rose to distinction. He edited editions of the poems of Collins and Skelton, " Specimens of British Poetesses," and several of the elder dramatists. He also appeared as a commentator on Shakspcare, and edited works for both the Camden and Shakspcare Societies. In 1856 lie edited a volume of " Recollections of the Table Talk of Samuel Rogers." b. at Edinburgh, 1798. Dyer, Sir Edward, di'-o; a poet of tin Eliza- bethan era, who was educated at Oxford, and after having travelled, received many appoint- ments from the queen, principally in the foreign diplomatic service. He studied chemistry, was thought to be a Rosicrucian, and was made a dupe by the famous astrologers and impostors, Dec and Kelly. His pieces were mostly pas- loral odes and madrigals, and arc to be found in " England's Helicon," published at the close of Elizabeth's reigu, and reprinted in the ' Bibliographer." b. about 1540; b. some time after the accession of James I. Dyer, John, an English poet, who was edu- cated for the bar ; but, quitting the legal pro- fession for painting, went to Italy, where he wrote a poem, entitled " The Ruins of Rome," which he published in 1710. He had before favoured the public with a descriptive piece, Eaehard called "Grongar Hill," which, according to Dr. Johnson, is " the happiest of his productions." Not long after his return, he entered into orders, and obtained the living of Calthorp, in Leicestershire, which he exchanged for Belch- ford, in Lincolnshire. He also had the rectory of Coningsby, in the same county, to which was added that of Kirby. In 1757 appeared "The Fleece," a poem which possesses considerable merit, notwithstanding that it only treats of " The care of sheep, the labours of the loom." b. in Carmarthenshire, 1700; b. 1758. Dteb, George, a poet, a scholar, and an anti- quary, deeply versed in books and their history, was educated at Christ's Hospital, London, and at Emanuel College, Cambridge, where he gra- duated B.A. in 1778. He spent some time as usher at a school, and in officiating as a Baptist minister. He ultimately settled in London, where his time was occupied first as a parliamentary reporter, which, however, he abandoned after a trial of two months, then as a private teacher, and finally in various literary undertakings. As a poet, Dyer attracted notice, but not frme; as a scholar he edited some pLys of Euripides, and an edition of a Greek Testament, but is best known as editor, or joint-editor, of "Valpy's Editions of the Classics," in 111 volumes, in which all the original matter, except the pre- face, was contributed by him ; as an antiquary, his principal works are a "History of Die University of Cambridge," in 2 vols., and " Pri- vileges of the University of Cambridge," also in 2 vols. Dyer was a man of great simplicity of character, and his studious habits made him somewhat absent-minded — traits of character which afforded his friend " Elia" (Charles Lamb) an opportunity of making sundry jokes at his expense in articles in the " London Magazine." b. 1755; n. 1811. Dymon'p, Jonathan, di'-mond, a linen-draper, and a member of the Society of Friends, pub- lished, in 1823, an "Inquiry into the Accord- ance of War with the Principles of Chris- tianity." This work was well received; but his fame rests more particularly upon his " Essay on the Principles of Morality, . 1124. Eable, John, earl, an English bishop, who was tutor to Charles II. while Prince of Wales, and suffered much during the civil war and the Commonwealth. At the Restoration, he was made dean of Westminster, and afterwards bishop of Worcester, and then of Salisbury. Dr. Earle was a scholar and author, having written a humorous work called " Microcosmo- graphy, or a Piece of the World Discovered; in Essays and Characters." He also translated into Latin the " Eikon Basilike," and Hooker's "Ecclesiastical Polity;" the latter, however, was destroyed through the carelessness of the bishop's servants, b. at York, 1601 ; d. 1665. Earlom, Kichard, er'-lom, an eminent Eng- lish engraver, who was distinguished for his skill in mezzo-tint, and produced a great num- ber of imitations of chalk-drawings. He en- graved after many of the most celebrated mas- ters, both English and foreign, b. in London, about 1742; d. about 1822. Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock, P.R.A., test 1 - laik, a modern English artist, early became a student under Fuseli, at the Koyal Academy of Painting, and afterwards settled at Plymouth as a portrait painter. In 1817 he visited Italy and Greece ; in 1S23 he began to exhibit at the Koyal Academy, and in 1827 was elected an associate of that institution. In 1828 he ex- hibited on its walls his " Peasants on a Pil- grimage to Pome," &c, which is a work of great merit, and has been several times en- graved. His next great work was his " Christ weeping over Jerusalem." This placed him at the head of his profession, and was, at the time of its production, esteemed as one of the best paintings in the historical style that had ap- peared for a lengthened period of time. It was succeeded by his "Christ blessing little Chil- dren" and his "Hagar and Ishmael;" both, .hough excellent, are considered, as pictures, by no means equal to the other. In 1811 he was made secretary to the Royal Commission of the Fine Arts, and, in 1843, was appointed keeper of the National Gallery. In 1800 he was elected president of the Royal Academy, with the honour of knighthood, and in 1855 was i: :?:' : director of the National Gallery, with a salary cf £1000 n year. In the same year lie was created a knight of the Legion of Honour, and two years pre- ! viously, had the degree of D.C.I,, presented to ) him by the University of Oxford. Besides b:s eminence as an artist, Sir Charles has contri- buted some valuable wcr.Yj to the literav."*: cf art. Among these may be i^nryX his " Contri- butions towards a History cf Oil-i'.iitlr'.-V' Sr?t published in 1817. n. 1793; D. 1865. Lasilaki-', Elizabeth Rigby,LaJy, th:ly of Ingoldstadt, and was chosen t: be ihc champion cf the church against .':.. cc.-V ircfcrrr.ers. lie accordingly disputed •-;■"■! T v • •. I Juki; of Sasonv, at r.. : ;.i':, in 1518; with Carlvwtadius, in 1519; OF BIOGRAPHY. Ecluse and at the Diet of Augsburg, in 1538, he argued against the Protestant Confession. He held a three days' debate with Melancthon and others at Weimar, in 1541, on the continuance of sin after baptism ; and again, on the same topic, at Ratisbon, to which place the discussion had been adjourned. He was the author of numerous polemical works, and some homilies. He was considered a clever debater, but it is believed that he did not greatly aid the cause he defended, n. 11S6; D. 1543. Eclusb, Charles do V, ai-lclooz', a physician of Arras, ai.d professor of botany at Leyden, whose works on botany were published at Ant- werp, in 2 vols, folio, 1601. u. 1526 ; d. 1GU9. Edeiinck, Gerard, ed'-e-link, an eminent Dutch engraver, who mostly resided in France, where he executed the bulk of his works ; among which may be noticed, as his finest, the picture of the "Holy Family," by Kaffaelle, and the "Tent of Darius," by Le limn, b. at Antwerp, 1619; d. 1707. Edema, Gerard, e -de-ma, a Dutch landscape- painter, who went to Norway and Newfound- land to delineate the plants and insects of those countries. He settled in London in 1670, and became famous for painting landscapes, b. about 1652; d. 1700. Edgar, ed'-r/ar, king of England, at the age of 16 succeeded his father Edwy, in 959. He made war against the Scots, and compelled Wales to pay him yearly a certain number of wolves' heads, which cleared the country of those animals. Securing his kingdom from invasion by a large fleet, he is said to have subdued Ireland, and governed his people with a vigorous success. His queen flying, and hear- ing of the great beauty of Elfrida, a daughter of the earl of Devon, ne sent Earl Ethelwald, one of his favourite courtiers, to see if the charms of the lady were equal to what was reported of them. The moment he beheld her, the earl for- got his duty to his master, gave a false report of her charms, and married the lady himself. His conduct ultimately became known to the king, who caused him to be slain for his treachery, when the beautiful Elfrida became the wife of Edgar, d. 0"7o. The quiet enjoyed in England during his reign procured him the name of the Peaceable. (See Elfrida.) Edgais, king of Scotland in 1093, was the son of Malcolm III., by the sister of Edgar Athelingof England. His sister married Henry I. of England, which circumstance terminated a war which had been raging between the two countries, d. 1107. Edgeworth, Richard Lovell, edg'-werth, an English writer, was designed for the profession of the law; but on the death of his father, in 1769, he relinquished all intention of carrying out this design, and went to Ireland, in 17S2, to dedicate the remainder of his life to the im- provement of his estate and the education of his children. To this duty lie nobly devoted himself, and reared a large family by four diffe- rent wives, he having been as often married. b. at Bath, 1741; d. at Edgeworthtown, Long- ford, Ireland, 1817. He greatly assisted his celebrated daughter, Maria, in her works, ilthough he himself was by no means " a ready writer." The following, however, appeared in his name: — "Poetry Explained," "Rational Primer," " Professional Education," "Speeches in Parliament," and an " Essay on the Con- struction of Roads and Carriages." He was a 357 Edmund member of the last Irish House of Commoni, and an active magistrate in the neighbourhood where he resided. Edgeworth, Maria, the daughter of the pre- ceding, a favourite modern English authoress, was the offspring of his first marriage, and re- sided in England till 1782. She then removed to Ireland, where her education proceeded under the direction of her father, and in 1793 they pub- lished a joint production on " Practical Educa- tion." " Early Lessons" was the next produc tion, which attained great popularity. In ISOi appeared the " Essay on Irish Bulls," another joint production ; but it is not on these that the fame of Miss Edgeworth rests, but on the excel- lent series of novels, which already had begun to appear under her sole name ; the first of these was " Castle Rackrent," which was issued in 1801, and which indicated the possession of powers of a very rare character. In all her novels her pen was devoted, not only to make us feel what is good, but to make us do what is good. This is especially the ease in her "Belinda," " Leonora," " The Modern Griselda," " Moral Tales," " Popular Tales," " Tales of Fashionable Life;" in short, in all that she has written. Her last and most popular novel was " Helen," which appeared in 1834, and which was closed by the juvenile story of " Orlandino." It was to her "rich humour, pathetic tender- ness, and admirable tact" in the delineation of her Irish characters, that Sir Walter Scott was indebted for the suggestion to do something in a similar way for his own country. He accord- ingly began the Waverley novels, keeping, no doubt, the productions of Miss Edgeworth clearly in his view. As a general estimate of her genius, the following discriminating criti- cism of Lord Jeffrey is as just as it is happily expressed: — "The writings of Miss Edgeworth exhibit so singular a union of sober sense and inexhaustible invention — so minute a know- ledge of all that distinguishes manners, or touches on happiness, in every condition of hu- man •fortune— and so just an estimate, both of the real sources of enjoyment, and of the illu- sions by which they are so often obstructed — that it cannot be thought wonderful, that we should separate her from the ordinary manufac- turer of novels, and speak of her tales as works of more serious importance than much of the true history and solemn philosophy that come daily under our inspection It is im- possible, we think, to read ten pages in any of her writings, without feeling not only that the whole, but that every part of them, was intended to do good." b. at Hare Hatch, Reading, 1767; d. at Edgeworthtown, Longford, Ireland, 1819. Edinburgh, Duke of. {See Alfred, Prince.) Edmund, St., ed'-mund, became king of the East Angles in S55, and was in 870 eonquered. and put to death, by the Danish princes Ing> war and llubba, whose propositions for peace, from their humiliating conditions, he had re- jected. "His body," Fuller says, "was placed in a goodly shrine, richly adorned with jewels and precious stones, at Bury, in Suffolk." He was canonized, and Bury St. Edmund's was so named from its being the place of his burial. Eumund I., king of England, son of Edward the Elder, succeeded his brother At helstan in 9 10. Ho subdued Mcrcia, Northumberland, and Cum- berland. For his personal elegance and splen- dour, he received the name of the Magnificent, and was stabbed at a feast in Gloucester, in 916, THE DICTIONARY Edmund by Leolf, a robber, whom he had caused to be banished. Edmund II., commonly known as Ironside, son of Ethelred, whom he succeeded on the English throne in 1010. A fierce war raged between him and Canute, king of Denmark, and he ultimately was forced to agree to a partici- pation of the kingdom with the Danish prince. Assassinated in 1017, at Oxford, by two of his chamberlains. (See Canute.) Edbed, ed'-red, king of the Anglo-Saxons, was the youngest son of Edward the Elder, and succeeded his brother Edmund in 9-16. He re- pressed several revolts of the Danes, and de- feated Malcolm, king of Scotland, d. 955, leaving the throne to his nephew, Edwy. Edbisi, ed-re'-se, an Arabian writer on geo- graphy, who produced a work on that science, which has been translated intoseveral languages. In 183G-1S40, it was published in France, and formed the fifth and sixth volumes of the " Re- upU de Voyages et de Memoires" of the French Geographical Society, u. 1099; d. 11G4. Edwabd the Elder, ed'-ward, sou of Alfred the Great, succeeded his father in 901. He subdued Northumbria and East Anglia, and extended his dominions as far as Scotland. D. 925. Edwabd the Martyr, son of Edgar the Great, king of England, was murdered by order of his stepmother Elfrida, at Corfe Castle. His youth and innocence, coupled with his tragical death, procured for him the designation of the Martyr, u. 961 ; assassinated 978, after a reign of three years. Edwabd, king of England, called the Con- fessor, was the son of Ethelred. He succeeded Ilardicanute in 1012, and was crowned at West- minster on Easter-day. Having been brought up in Normandy, lie brought over many of the na- tives of that country, whom he preferred at his court, which gave great disgust to his Saxon subjects. Notwithstanding this, he kept pos- session of his throne, and framed a code which is supposed to be the origin of the common law of England. He abolished the tax of Danegclt, was the first who pretended to cure the king's evil by touch, and restored Malcolm to the throne of Scotland, which had been usurped by Macbeth. He consulted William of .Normandy about the choice of a successor, and this after- wards furnished that prince with a plea for in- vading the kingdom after the death of Edward, in lOtiG, when he was buried in Westminster Abbey, u. at Islip, Oxfordshire, about 1005. Edwabd I., king of England, surnamed Long- shanks, succeeded his hither, Henry III., in 1272. At the time of his father's death he was in Palestine, fighting against the Saracens for the recovery of Jerusalem, and when he re- turned, completed the conquest ol Wales and subdued Scotland. To preserve Wales, he caused his son, who was horn in Caernarvon, to be called the " Prince of Wales," which, ever since, has continued to be the title of the eldest sou of the kingof England. In endeavouring to break the spirit of the Scotch, he was unsuccessful, the patriotism of Wailaee and his followers com- pletely baffling his attempts at the entire sub- jugation of that people, b. at Westminster, 12M9; B. at Carlisle, on Ins way to Scotland, 1307. — Whilst in the Holy hand, Eleanor, the wife of this sovereign, is said to have saved his life by sucking the piison from a wound which he re- ceived from a vengeful assassin. She was the 353 Edward daughter of Ferdinand III., king of Castile. His second wife was Margaret, daughter of Philip the Hardy, king of France, the laws which he framed entitle him to the name of the English Justinian. (See Henby HI., and Moni- fobt, Simon de.) Edwabd II., the son of the above, was created Prince of Wales in 1284, and after his accession to the throne, suffered himself to be governed by his favourites, Gavestou and the Despcnser*. which occasioned the barons to rise against him. In his reign the battle of Bannockbum was fought near Stirling, in Scotland, which restored to that country whatever she had lost of her independence in the previous reign. In 1327 lie was deposed by his subjects, and his crown conferred on his son, when he was confined in Perkeley Castle, Gloucestershire, where he was murdered in 1327. u. at Caernarvon, 128i. Edwabd III. was the son and successor of the above, and ascended the throne when about fourteen years of age. His reign was active and glorious. He obliged the Scots to acknowledge Edward Baliol for their king, who did him homage for his crown. This was the result of the battle of Halidon Hill, in which the Scots were defeated, and had 14,000 men slain. He next laid claim to the crown of France, and gained the battles of Crcssy and Poictiers. In the first was defeated Philip of Valois, and in the last king John, who was taken prisoner, and eent to England. He also defeated the French in a naval engagement off the coast of Flanders, which is the first sea fight on record between the English and the French. His queen also, about the same time, defeated David Bruce, king of Scotland, and took him prisoner. He afterwards reduced Calais, and peopled it with English, b. at Windsor, 1312 ; d. at East Sheen, near Richmond, Surrey, 1377. In this reign Chaucer, the father of English poetry, lived ; the order of the Garter was instituted'; the art of weaving cloth introduced from Flanders; gunpowd-r invented ; and cannon first used ar Crcssy. As his gallant son, Edward the Black Prince, died before him, he was succeeded by his grandson, Richard 11. (See Edwabd, Prince of Wales, etc.) Edwabd IV. was the eldest son of Richard, duke of York, and disputed the crown with Henry VI., whom he succeeded in 1461. He married Lady Elizabeth Grey, whose husband had fallen, as an adherent of -the house of Lan- caster, and whose beauty, whilst pleading for the restoration of her husband's lands, won the heart of the king. This marriage so disgusted the carl of Warwick, commonly called the King- maker, that he joined the Lancastrian party, and, in 1469, defeated Edward's forces near Banbury. Soon afterwards Edward was taken prisoner, but, effecting his escape, he put him- self at the head of his followers, and obtained a victory over Warwick, near Stamford. The earl fled to France, whence he returned with a supply of troops, and proclaimed Henry VI., who had been confined in the Tower for six years, and set him on the throne. This event procured for Warwick the title of " king-maker." Edward had fled to Holland, but soon returned with assistance, and marched to London, where he took Henry prisoner. Shortly afterwards, he met Warwick on the field of battle at Barnct, where the Lancastrians were defeated, and the earl slain. Another victory at Tewkesbury se- cured Edward the quiet possession of the throne, OF BIOGRAPHY Edward after which there are few memorable events to record of this monarch, b. at Rouen, 1-141 ; d. 1433, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. In Edward's reign the art of printing was intro- duced into England. Edwabd V., king of England, son of the above, succeeded his father at the age of twelve. Riuhard, duke of Gloucester, his uncle, after- wards Richard III., took the guardianship of both him and his brother, and placed them in the Tower, where they were smothered in their beds, in 1483. b. in the sanctuary of Westmin- ster Abbey, 1470. The bodies of these princes were discovered in 1674, and removed, by com- mand of Charles II., to AVestminster Abbey. (See RicnARD III.) Edward VI., the son of Henry VIII., by Tane Seymour, ascended the throne in 1547, at the age of ten years, lie was a prince of pro- mising talents, virtue, and piety. The Refor- mation, begun by his father, was energetically carried on by Archbishop Cranmer throughout his reign. His aversion to popery was so great, that he signed a will, in which he set aside his sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the succes- sion, lest they should favour the Roman Catho- lics, and settled the crown on Lady Jane Grey. b. at Hampton Court, 1537 ; D. at Greenwich, 1553. He founded the hospitals of Christ Church, Bridewell, St. Thomas, and a number of grammar-schools, which are still popularly known as King Edward's Schools. Edward, Prince of Wales, commonly called the lilack Prince, from the colour of his armour, was the eldest son of Edward III. He accom- panied his father to Prance in his lGthyear, and distinguished himself there above all the war- riors of his age ; particularly at the battle of Creey, or Cressy, where he captured the stan- dard'of the king of Bohemia, embroidered with three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dien, "I serve." These he adopted himself; and from that time to the present, they have con- tinued to be the crest and the motto of the princes of Wales. He also gained the victory of Poietiers, where he took prisoners John, king of Prance, and his son, whom he brought captives to London. Their entry into the capi- tal took place in 1350. In 1361 he married the daughter of Edmund, earl of Kent, brother to Edward II., a widow, by whom he had a son, who was afterwards Richard II. By the peace of Bretigny, he obtained the principality of Aquitaine and Gascony, taking up his residence at Bordeaux. Here he gave an asylum to Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, who had been driven from his throne by his brother Henry, count of Trastamare. Peter was restored to his kingdom by Edward ; but the Castilian behaved to him with the basest ingratitude, refusing to find supplies for the English troops, and, it is alleged, even causing poison to be administered to the English hero, from the effects of which he never recovered, b. at Woodstock, 1330; D. 1370. Edward Plaxiagenet, the son of George, duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV. and Richard III., by Isabella, daughter of the fa- mous earl of Warwick, the " king-maker," was allowed by his uncle Edward to take the title of earl of Warwick, but refused the dukedom of Clarence. When Henry VII. attained to the throne, he conlined the young earl in the Tower, and in 1436 Lambert Simnel assumed his name, end got up a party to maintain his right to the o5S Edwards crown as the last of the Plantagencts. On this the king paraded the prince through the streets of Loudon, but again consigned him to the Tower, where he was involved in a plot by Per- kin Warbeck, who had personated Richard, duke of York, second son of Edward IV., and both were in consequence executed in 1490. This unfortunate prince was of weak intellect, and was left by Henry VII. almost totally un- educated. Edwards, Richard, ed'-wards, an early Eng- lish dramatic writer, was appointed by Queen Elizabeth vx 1561 master of the singing boys of the chape! royal, and in 1566, when her majesty visited Oxford, one of his plays, " Palamon and Arcite," was performed before her. His com- positions consist of dramas, masques, and poe- try for pageants, the best known of his works being the" Paradise of Daintie Devices," from which Shakspeare quotod the song " When griping Grief," in " Romeo and Juliet," act iv. scene 5. b. in Somersetshire, 1523 ; d. it is be- lieved about 1566. Edwards, Thomas, a furious polemical di- vine, who warred both with Episcopalians and Independents, and withdrew into Holland when the latter party gained the ascendancy, having previously hurled against the "Sectaries," as he called them, a "work called " Gangrama," which exhibits a curious picture of the reli- arious animosities of the time. He belonged to the Presbyterian party, and was utterly intole- rant of all opposition to the tenets of his sect. He was educated at Cambridge, where he took the degree of M.A., and diedin exile in 1647. Edwards, George, an eminent English natu- ralist, who, after travelling some tune abroad, returned, and became librarian of the College of Physicians, London. He published a " History of Birds," 7 vols. 4to; "Gleanings of Natural History," 3 vols. 4to ; and a volume of " Es- says," 8vo. b. at West Ham, Essex, 1693; i>. 1773. Edwards, Thomas, an English divine, who, in 1755, printed a translation of the Psalms, and afterwards was chosen master of the grammar- school at Coventry, and presented to the rectory of St. John Baptist in that city. In 1759 he published the "Doctrine of Irresistible Grace proved to have no Foundation in the New Tes- tament ;" and, in 1762, defended Bishop Hare's system of the Hebrew metre against Dr. Lowth, in which he failed. In 1766 he took his doc- tor's degree, and, four years later, obtained the living of Nuneaton, in Warwiekshh e, where he died in 1785. b. at Coventry, 1729. Besides the above works, he published selections from Theocritus, with notes, and some other pieces. Edwards, William, an architect who acquired great skill in bridge-building. He was only a common mason, but by dint of genius and skill, he rose to distinction in the line mentioned. His first performance was on the river Taafe, which brought him into notice, and gave him opportunities for displaying his powers, which he did in numerous other structures, b. in Glamorganshire, 1719; d. 1739. Edwards, Jonathan, an American divine, who, in 1757, was chosen president of the col- lege of New Jersey, where he die J in 1753. b. at Windsor, Connecticut, 1703. Mr. Edwards was an acute metaphysician, but a rigid Calvin- ist. Ho wrote "A Treatise concerning Reli- gious Affections," " An Inquiry into the Modern i prevailing Notion of that Freedom of Wii! THE DICTIONARY Edwards which is supposed to be Essential to Moral Agency;" "The Great Doctrine of Original Sin Defended," " Sermons," &c. &c. Edwards, Bryan, an ingenious writer, who became a member of the Assembly of Jamaica, W. Indies, where he delivered a speech against Mr. Wilberforce's proposition concerning the slave trade, in 1789. He afterwards settled in England, and became member of Parliament for Grampound, in Cornwall. He made his first speech in defence of his countrymen against the advocates for the abolition of slavery, and distinguished himsklf by a blunt roughness of manner, blended with sound sense and judg- ment, b. in Wiltshire, 1743; d. 1800. lie wrote " The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies," 2 vols. 4to; "The Proceedings of the Governor and Assembly of Jamaica in regard to the Maroon Negroes;" and " An Historical Survey of the French Colony in the Island of St. Domingo," 8vo. Edwardes, Sir Herbert Benjamin, K.C.B., a gallant British officer, who, entering the ser- vice of the East India Company in 1810, soon became noted for his talents, which first parti- cularly displayed themselves in a series of let- ters in an Indian newspaper, from " Brahminee Bull in India to his cousin John Bull in Eng- land." He was present as aide-de-camp to Sir Hugh Gough at the battles of Moodkee and Sobraon. He afterwards served against the Affghans in the Bunnoo Valley, of the ope- rations in which he published an account ; but his principal achievement was against Dewan Moolraj of Mooltan, who, having rebelled against the Sikh government at Lahore, Lieut. Edwardes collected a Sikh force, defeated Mool- raj in two pitched battles, and shut him up in the fortress of Mooltan till a regular army could be brought against him. The siege of the rebel governor's stronghold shortly followed by a Britibh force under General Whish, and Moolraj surrendered on Jan. 22, 1819, just as a breach in the walls was about to be stormed. For his services in this war in the course of which he lost his right hand by the accidental explosion of a pistol, Lieut. Edwardes was raised to a brevet majority, and by special statute was created an extra companion of the Bath. He subsequently served under Sir Henry Lawrence in the Punjaub, and was of essential service in raising troops to aid in the suppression of the great Indian rebellion of 1857, for which he was made a K.C.B. in I860, and was promoted to brevet colonel in 1861. b. at Frodcsley rectory, Shropshire, in 1819; ». December 23, 1868. Edwy, ed'-Ke, king of England, son of Ed- mund I., succeeded his uncle Edred in 955. He married Elgiva, his relation within the prohi- bited degrees of kindred, which proved the ruin of both. Archbishop Odo seized the queen, and having branded her in the face with a hot iron, sent her to Ireland, after which she was put to a cruel death. Edwy was driven from the throne, and died under excommunication in 958; b. 939. Egbert, eg'-bert, the first king of all Eng- land, and the last of the Saxon heptarchy, was proclaimed king of Wessex in 800, and, in 827, united all the other kingdoms under him. He distinguished himself against the Danes, d. 837. Egede, Hans, ai'-geed, superintendent of the Danish missionaries in Greenland, went, in 360 Ehrenberg 1721, and resided there for fifteen years, labour- ing to convert the inhabitants, b. 1030; d. 1758. Egede wrote a description of Greenland, published first in 1729. — His son Paul became assistant to his father, and afterwards bishop of Greenland. He published a new edition of his father's book, and a journal respecting Greenland, b. 1708; d. 1789. Egerton, Thomas, e.df-er-ton, lord chancel- lor of England in the reign of James I., re- ceived his education at Oxford, whence he re- moved to Lincoln's Inn, and, in 1592, received the honour of knighthood, and was made at- torney-general. Soon afterwards he became master of the rolls, which was followed by the office of lord keeper. In 1G03 he was made Baron Ellesmere and lord chancellor. In 1610 he was created Viscount Brackley. b. about 1540; d. 1617. After his death were published his " Privileges and Prerogatives of the High Court of Chancery," and his " Observation ; concerning the Cilice of Lord Chancellor." Egg, Augustus, R.A., eg, a painter, who firet exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1S38, and was elected an associate in 1818. His forte lay in depicting scenic and humorous subjects, Shakspeare in his lighter moods and Le Sage furnishing him with themes. He also executed some historical pieces; but even in these his sense of the humorous exhibits itself. Mr. Egg was entrusted with the arrangement of the gallery of modern paintings at the Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition in 1857 ; and exhi- bited at the Royal Academy, in 1859, a triptych, which was considered to be superior to anything he had previously produced. His other works are numerous and much esteemed. He was made It. A. in 1S60. b. 1816; d. 1863. EoixnARD, ai'-gin-hard, a German historian at the court of Charlemagne, and appointed secretary to that sovereign, who gave him his daughter Imma in marriage. He afterwards embraced a religious life, and became superin- tendent of several monasteries. i>. about 841. Eginhard wrote a curious " Life of Charle- magne," in elegant Latin ; also the "Annals of France from 741 to 829." Egil, Scallegrim, ai'-gil, an Iceland poet and warrior of the 10th century, who was in the habit of joining the incursions made by his countrymen into the north of England and Scotland, in one of which he slew a son of Erie of the Uloody Axe, the exiled king of Norway ; and being afterwards taken prisoner, was con- demned to death, but having delivered extem- poraneously a poem in praise of Eric, he was pardoned. This poem has been preserved, and is entitled "The Ransom." A Latin version of it was printed in Wormius's " Danish Lite- rary Antiquities," in 1630. Egjiont, Lamoral, Count, eg'-mont, a distin- guished nobleman in Flanders, who served in the armies cf Charles V. with great reputation. He was made general of horse by Philip II., and distinguished himself at the battle of St. Qucn- tin in 1557. But the duke of Alva, on the pre- tence that he meditated designs in favour of the prince of Orange, caused him, together with count Horn, to be beheaded at Brussels in 1568. b. 1522.— (See Alva, and Motley's " History of the Rise of the Dutch Republic.") EnRENBEitG, Christian Gottfried, air- e»-Jatry', a distinguished German microscopist and natu- ralist, who made several scientific expeditions into various parts of the globe; among which OF BIOGRAPHY. Ehret may be noticed one with Humboldt into the Ural and also the Altai mountains. He wrote largely on his favourite pursuits, and investi- gated the fossil forms of microscopic organic beings with success, b. at Dclitseh, in Prussian Saxony, 1795. Ehbet, George Dionysius, ai'-rait, a botanical painter, a native of Germany, who was employed in 1736 in illustrating the "Hortus Clifforti- anus," and afterwards came to England, where he was liberally encouraged, and became a member of the Hoyal Society, b. 1710 ; d. 1770. Eiciiobn, Johaun Gottfried, ike-horn, a Ger- man professor of oriental and biblical literature in the university of Gottingen. He filled several important posts, and in 1819 was appointed privy councillor of justice for the kingdom of Hanover. His writings, illustrative of oriental literature, are numerous, and procured for him a reputation of being amongst the most learned and distinguished scholars of Germany, b. at Dorrenzimmern, 1752; d. 1827.— Charles Fre- derick, a son of the preceding, distinguished himself as a jurisconsult, b. at Jena, 1781; D. 1854. Elbee, Gigot d', dai{l)-bai, the general-in- chief of the Vendeans in the war of the French revolution, wa3 a native of Dresden, but became naturalized in France, and served some time in the army. He quitted the service, however, in 1783, and retired to Beaupreau, in Anjou. In 1793 he became leader of the royalists in La Vendee, b. 1752 ; taken and shot, Jan. 2, 1791. ELCHO.thelU.Hon.FrancisWemyssCharteris, el'-ko, the popular lieut.-col. of the London Scottish Rifle Volunteers, was born in 1^18. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church .Oxford, and, in 1841,was returned to pari, for East Glou- cestershire. Since 1817 he has represented Had- dingtonshire. Hewas a lord of the treasury under Lord Aberdeen in 1852,and a prominent member of the "Adullamite" party that aided the Tories to throw out Gladstone's Reform Bill in 1SC6. Eleanor, el'-v-wr, duchess of Guienne, suc- ceeded her father, William IX., at the age of 15, in 1137, and the same year married Louis VII., king of France. She accompanied him to the Holy Land, where she is said to have in- trigued with her uncle, Raymond, prince of An- tioch, and a young Turk named Saladin. A separation ensued between her and her husband, and in 1 153 she married the duke of Normandy, afterwards Henry II., king of England, which occasioned a succession of wars between the two kingdoms. Her jealousy of Henry, and subse- quent conduct to Fair Rosamond, have afforded a copious subject to poets and romance-writers. She excited her sons to rebel against their father, for which she was imprisoned sixteen years. On the accession of Richard I. she was released, and in his absence in the Holy Land, was made regent, d. in 12U4, a nun in the abbey of Fontevrault. Eldon, John Scott, eavl of, el'-don, after passing through the university of Oxford, entered himself a student of the Middle Temple in 1773, and took his degree of Master of Arts in the following year. After patient and labo- rious study, he rose into notice, and in 1733 was returned member of parliament for Weobly. In 1 787 he was appointed chancellor of the bishopric and county palatine of Durham; and, in the following year, solicitor-general. In 1793 he was made attorney-general, and in 1799 was raised to the chief-justiceship, with a seat in the 361 Elgin House of Lords, as Baron Eldon. In 1801 li» became lord chancellor, which office he finally resigned in 1827. In 1821 he had been created Viscount Eneombe and Earl of Eldon. b. at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1751; d. Jan. 13, 1838. Elgin, Thomas Bruce, seventh earl of, el' -gin, entered the army at an early age, and, in 1793, accompanied the Prussian army in its opera- tions in Germany. In 1795 ho was made envoy extraordinary, and sent to Berlin, and in 1799 dispatched to Constantinople in the same capa- city. Here he remained till the French were expelled from Egypt, in 1802. In 1S00 he made a journey to Athens, for the purpose of recover- ing some of her remains of Grecian art, and was so far successful as to make an excellent collec- tion, which, in 1816, was purchased by the go- vernment, and placed in the British Museum, where it is known as the " Elgin Marbles." b. 1766; d. at Paris, 1811. Elgin, James Bruce, eighth earl of, was, in 1811, returned member of parliament for South- ampton ; but on the death of his father in the same year, succeeded to the earldom, and in the following year was appointed governor of the island of Jamaica. In 1846 he became governor-general of Canada, where the character of his policy rendered him an especial favourite, not only with those over whom he had been called to rule, but with the ministers in Eng- land. In 1849 he was created an English peer, and in 1854 appointed to the lord-lieutenancy of Fifeshire, Scotland. War having broken out between England and China, lord Elgin was, in 1857, sent out by the Rritish government as plenipotentiary to China, with the view of ob- taining satisfactory terms of peace, or, if this could not be done, to prosecute the contest with vigour. The Indian mutiny of the same year, however, prevented him from carrying into effect his instructions so soon as he would other- wise have done ; for not only was part of the force destined for China diverted from its route and sent to Calcutta, but he himself left Hong- Kong with all the troops that could be spared, to go to the assistance of Lord Canning. Re- turning to China at the end of the year, he im- mediately made a demand of redress for injuries sustained by the British, and upon the refusal of the Chinese, through commissioner Yeh, to comply, Canton was attacked and captured. Lord Klgin then, in conjunction with Baron Gros, the French plenipotentiary, determined to proceed with an armed force to the vicinity of Pekin, and reached the mouth of the Peiho river, which he found strongly defended by forts on each bank. These being taken by Ad- miral Sir M. Seymour, the force proceeded to Tien-tsin, and there the plenipotentiaries were met by Chinese commissioners, to adjust the terms of a treaty. After much procrastination, on various pretexts, which weremct by Lord Elgin with great determination, the Chinese commis- sioners agreed to execute a treaty in conformity with the terms proposed to them, and on the 25th June, 1858, this was signed at Tien-tsin. This great point gained, Lord Elgin determined to proceed to Japan, in order to obtain from that government a treaty which would throw open its ports to British commerce, so that it might participate in the advantages possessed by the Dutch. Taking with him a yacht, as a present from the queen of England to the emperor of Japan, he reached the port of Naga- saki, and proceeded up the Gulf of Jeddo, be- THE DICTIONARY Elie de Beaumont Elizabeth yond where any foreign vessel had hitherto been allowed to pass. After effecting a treaty of commerce between Great Britain and Japan, he returned to England, and took office, in 1859, under Lord Palmerston as postmaster-general. In 1860, in consequence of the Chinese havingre- fused to permit the British envoy toPekin to pass upthePei-ho, and having fired on the British ships of war when endeavouring to force the passage of the Taku forts, Lord Elgin was again sent to China in company with the French plenipotentiary, Baron Gros. His expedition was successfully ended by the capture of the Summer Palace near Pckin, which induced the Chinese minister, Prince Kung, to promise a strict observance of the treaty of 1858. In 1S62 he succeeded Earl Canning as viceroy of India, but died the following vear at Dhurumsala, in Cashmere, b. 1811 ; D.1S03. Elie de Beaumont. (See Beaumont.) Eliot, John, el-yot, a pious divine, called the " Apostle of the Indians," was educated at Cam- bridge; but on embracing puritanism, he, in 1631, emigrated to New England, and became pastor of a congregation of Independents at Roxbury, where he established a grammar- school. In 1616 he began to learn the Indian j language, that he might devote himself to the conversion of the natives. In this he met with great success, and obtained a considerable in- fluence over the various tribes. He translated the Bible into their language, and several pieces of practical divinity, b. 1601; d. at Roxbury, 1690. Baxter says of this divine, "There was no man on earth whom I honoured above him." A handsome memorial, to perpetuate his name, was erected in the " Forest Hills Cemetery," at Roxbury. Eliott, or Elliot, George Augustus, Lord Heathfield, educated at Lcyden and the mili- tary school of La Fere, in France. lie after- wards entered the Prussian service as a volun- teer, and returned to Scotland in 1735. Not long after this, he joined the engineer corps at Woolwich, and obtained an adjutancy in the 2nd troop of horse grenadiers, with which he went to Germany, and was wounded at the battle of Dettingen. In 1759 he was appointed to raise the 1st regiment of light horse, with which lie served on the continent with great reputation. On bis recall from Germany, he was sent to the Havannah, in the reduction of which he had an eminent share. At the peace, tho king conferred on his regiment the title of royal. In 1775 General Eliott was appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland, whence he re- turned soon after, and was made governor of Gibraltar, for which important post no man <>ould have been better fitted. He was very abstemious, bis constant food being vegetables, and his drink water. He never allowed himself more than four hours' sleep at a time, and was so accustomed to hardiness, that it became habitual, and enabled him to defend that im- portant fortress against the formidable opera- tions of the French and Spaniards, 1779-83, with such persevering obstinacy, that tne siege of Gibraltar will always stand out as one of the most glorious incidents in military his'.ory. On his return to England, he was raised to the peer- age by the title of Lord Heathfield and Baron Gibraltar. b. in Roxburghshire, Scotland, 1718; d. at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1790. Lord Heath- field married Anne, daughter of Sir Francis Drake, of Devonshire, who died in 1769, leaving 363 one son and a daughter. His remains were brought to England, and buried at Heathfield, in Sussex, where a monument was erected to his memory. Elizabeth, queen of England, was the daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn, who was beheaded in 1536. She was educated in the Protestant religion, and, in the reign of he: sister Mary, was sent to the Tower, whence sho was afterwards removed toWoodstock.where she was kept till 1555, and then taken to the royal palace of Hatfield. On the death of her sister, in 1558, she was proclaimed queen, and Philip of Spain, the husband of Mary, made her an oiler of marriage, which, after a. considerable amount of coquetting, she civilly declined. Now was commenced the restoration of those religious reforms which had been proscribed in the previous reign, but with that prudence and moderation, which showed how well quali- fied she was to guide the de>tinics of the people over whom sho had been called to reign in such troublous times. One of her first measures was to send succours to the reforming party in Scotland, which produced the treaty of Edinburgh and the departure of the French from that country. She next gave her assist- ance to the French Huguenots, who put Havre de Grace into her hands, whilst she con- tinued gradually to tighten the reins of govern- ment upon her own Catholic subjects, and such other religionists as would disturb the peace of the state by their zeal and violence. Dadlej, carl of Leicester, became her favourite, and had the ambition to aspire to her hand; she, how- ever, preferred to make an apparent effort to unite him to Mary queen of Scots. In 1568 that unfortunate prince's fled to England for protection from the religious persecution of her subjects; but being a Catholic^and having offended Elizabeth, she was taken prisoner, and lifter being kept many years in confinement, was at last beheaded in Fotheringay Castle. Her treatment of the queen of Scots, against whom she would appear to have contracted a feeling of jealousy, is one of the blackest spots in the reign of Elizabeth. She afterwards en- deavoured to clear herself of the odium which the death of Mary raised against her, and caused Davison, her secretary, to be prosecuted for issuing the warrant for the execution; but such conduct only made her guilt more trans- parent in the eyes of the penetrating and thoughtful. The French and Spaniards having formed a league for the extirpation of heresy, Elizabeth was induced to protect the Protes- tants; and her assistance was of great effect in bringing about the separation of the United Provinces from the dominion of Philip II. The king of Spain, in return, scut a body of troops to invade Ireland ; but they were all cut off by Lord Grey, the deputy, "in the mean time, various offers of marriage were made to the queen, the most remarkable of which was that of the duke of Anjou, who came to England for the purpose of espousing her; but after staying some time, and after Elizabeth had taken up the pen to sign the marriage articles, she with- drew her hand, and broke off the alliance. In 15S8, Philip of Spain sent against England his famous armada, to which the pope gave the appellation of Invincible. It consisted of 130 vessels, carrying 2,431 pieces of artillery, 4,575 quintals of powder, and was manned by about 27/100 soldiers and seamen. To oppose this OF BIOGRAPHY. Elizabeth formiJablc force, Elizabeth had 1S1 ships, manned by about 18,000 sailors. On this occasion the queen distinguished herself by her great presence of mind and inflexible courage. She rode on horseback through the camp at Tilbury, and inspired her people with heroism by her deportment and her speeches. The English fleet, however, assisted by the winds, prevented the Spaniards from landing, and the boasted armada was destroyed. The duke of Mcdina-Sidonia, who commanded the Spanish fleet, escaped, and arrived atSantander, in the Bay of Biscay, with no more than 60 sail out of his whole fleet, and these very much shattered. In speaking of this victory, Camden says, " Several monies were coined ; some to commemorate the victory, with a fleet flying with full sails, and this inscription, Vetdt, vidit,fugit, — 'It came, it saw, it fled ;' others in honour of the queen, with iireships and a fleet all in confusion, in- scribed Dux fcemina faetx, — 'A woman the leader of the exploit.'" In this same year, Leicester, her favourite, died, when Kobert Devereux, earl of Essex, took his place ; but this nobleman, on account of treason, was exe- cuted in 1601. After tlus event Elizabeth seems to have become weary of the world, for she never recovered the shock which the execution of the Earl of Essex gave her. b. at Green- wich, September 7, 15*3; d. March 21, 1603. Elizabeth was endeared to her subjects by the' glory of her reign, by the wisdom of her measures, and by the frugality of her adminis- tration, which rendered the public taxes few and litrlit. She had, however, much vanity, thought herself the most beautiful and accom- plished of women, and was, besides, violent and haughty in her temper. She understood the learned languages, and some of her letters and prayers, written with her own hand, are extant. Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia, eldest daughter of James I. of England and Anne of Denmark, was married in 1613 to Frederick, then Elector Palatine. The Bohemian states, in 1619, offered Frederick their crown, which, unfortunately for himself and his family, he accepted; but after the battle of Prague, in November, 1620, he lost not only Bohemia but his own dominions, and was obliged to fly from one place to another lor several years, until he at last found refuge with the Prince of Orange at the Hague. All his wanderings and suffer- ings were shared by Elizabeth, who, after her husband's death in 1632, at the restoration of their son Charles Louis to a portion of his patrimony, resided for some time in the Palatinate, but came to England with her nephew, Charles II., in 1660, where she died in 10>2 and was buried in Westmhibter Abbey. b. 1396. She was the mother of the famous Prince Rup rt, and of Sophia, wife of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, and mother of George 1. Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of the em- peror Maximilian II., was married to Charles IX. of France, in 1570. She sent to Margaret, queen of Navarre, two books of her writing; une on the Word of God, and the other a rela- tion of the chief events in France during the time she resided there, b. loot; d. in a con- vent, 1592. Elizabeth Pktrov.ya, daughter of the czar Peter the Great, in 1711 usurped the im- perial throne, by deposing the infant Ivan, Elliott which was effected without the shedding of blood. At her accession, she made a vow that no capital punishments should take place in her reign. But her humanity was at least equivocal, as she afterwards inflicted upon the countesses Bestuchef and Lapoukin the punish- ment of the knout, and had their tongues cut out, for betraying some of her secret amours. Though dissolute in her manners, she was ex- tremely superstitious, and performed her devo- tions with rigorous exactness. In 1756 she joined Austria and France against Prussia, and died in 176]. b. 1709. Ellexboeough, Edward Law, first earl of, el'-en-bru(r), was the son of the first Lord Ellen- borough, and in 1818 succeeded to the peerage as second baron. In 1828 he was made pre- sident of the Board of Control, which office he filled under the administrations of the duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel. In 1812 he superseded the earl of Auckland as governor- general of India, and under his government Scinde was annexed to the British crown. In 1813 he was recalled, contrary to the wishes of the government of Sir Kobert Peel, who, in 1815, appointed him first lord of the Admiralty. In the following year, with the fall of the ministry, he resigned Ins post, and after that time discussed in the House of Peers the affairs of India with considerable ability. In 1S53 he was appointed, under the Derby administration, president of the Board of Control, which office he resigned the same year, in consequence of the censure inflicted on a severe letter written by him to Lord Canning, in reference to a pro- clamation issued by that nobleman while go- vernor-general of India, b. 1790; D. 1S71. Ellesmeke, Francis Leveson Gower, Earl of, eU-meer, brother of the late duke of Sutherland, distinguished himself by several translations from the German, and, from 1826 to 1831, represented Sutherlandshire in the House of Commons. In 1827 he was appointed one of the lords of the Treasury; in the follow- ing year he became secretary for Ireland, and in 1830, secretary at war. On the death of his father, in 1833, he took the name of Egerton, and as Lord Francis Egerton, represented South Lancashire from 1835 to 1S16. In this last year he was created earl of Ellesmere and Viscount Brackley, and in 1819 was elected president of the Asiatic Society. In 1855 he was created a knight of the Garter, and became colonel-com- mandant of the Lancashire yeomanry cavalry. Besides translations, he wrote works, in the form of tragedy, history, and biography, of considerable merit. The gallery of paintings collected by him is, perhaps, the finest pos- sessed by a private individual in the kingdom. b. in London, 1800; d. 1S57. Elliotsox, Dr. John, el'-yot-ton, a distin- guished English physician, who, from the oppo- sition which his views met with in reference to the mesmeric treatment of patients, resigned some important appointments, and, in 1819, became physician to a mesmeric hospital in London. He was an unflinching advocate of what he deemed the truths of mesmerism; made considerable contributions to medical science, and wasa fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, of the Royal Society, and the founder and president of the London Phrenological Society. B. 1785; d. T 68. Elliott, Ebenezcr, et'-i/of, an English poet, who was an iron-merchant at Sheffield, and be- THE DICTIONARY Ellis came famous as a writer of "Rhymes" against the Corn Laws. These first appeared in a local paper, after their author had settled at Sheffield, and produced a powerful effect upon all who read them. When they re-appeared in a single volume, in conjunction with "The Hanter," he no longer sung in comparative obscurity, but commanded a wide circle of admirers. Tn 1S34 a collected edition of his works was published. His effusions have pro- cured for him the right- of being emphatically the bard of Yorkshire, as he is certainly, like Crabbe, the poet of the poor and of the Corn-law struggle, before that ended in the triumphal achievement of the aspirations of his muse. b. near Kotherham, Yorkshire, 1731; d. near llarnsley, 1849. Ellis, John, el'-lis, an English poet, brought up as a scrivener, and for many years deputy of his ward, and master of the Scriveners' Com- pany. Mr. Ellis was the intimate friend of Dr. Johnson, and wrote several pieces in " Dodsley's Collection." He also published separately, "The Surprise, or Gentleman turned Apothe- cary," a tale in Hudibrastic verse; and "A Travesty of the Canto added by Maphams to the YEneid." b. in London, 1698; r>. 1791. In reference to this person, Dr. Johnson remarks to Boswell, " It is wonderful what is to be found in London. The most literary conversation that 1 ever enjoyed, was at the table of Jack Ellis, a money-scrivener, behind the ltoyal Exchange, with whom, at one period, I used to dine, generally once a week." Ellis, George, one of the authors of the ' Rolliad," to which he contributed " The Birth- day Ode," " The Ode on Dundas," &c, and was also a writer of the "Probationary Odes," and an acute contributor to the " Anti-Jacobin." His greatest work, however, is his " Specimens of the Early English Poets," which suggested Southey's "Specimens of the Later English Poets." He also produced "Specimens of the Early English Romances in Metre," which is another excellent work. b. 1 7-15 ; d. 1815. Sir Walter Scott addressed to Ellis the oth canto of "Marmion," and says, "He was the first con- verser I ever saw. His patience and good- breeding made me often ashamed of myself, going off at score upon some favourite topic." Ellis, Sir Henry, an English writer, who be- came connected, as a librarian, with the British Museum in 1805, and, in 1827, was made prin- cipal, which office he held till 1856, when he resigned it. During that time he produced many antiquarian works; amongst which was an edition of " Brande's Popular Antiquities," which is hisrhly esteemed. He also published original letters illustrative of English history, from autographs in the British Museum ; and, in 1316, wrote the general introduction to the " Doomsday Book," which is considered an able performance. In 1832 he was created a knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic order, and, in 18138, was raised to the rank of knight bache- -jr. s. in London, 1777; d. 1809. Ellis, Mrs. Sarah Stickncy, the wife of the Reverend William Ellis, officially connected with the London Missionary Society, was one of the most fruitful writers of her time. As a poetess she received well deserved praise, whilst, as a prose writer, she held a highly respectable rank, especially among those whose productions have a special reference to the social condition of women. A bare enumeration of her works 364 Elphinstone would occupy a considerable space; but those which are, perhaps, best known to the public, may be specified as suggestive of the moral tone of her works. " The Wives of England," "The Daughters of England," "The Mothers of England," " Look to the End," &c. All these have, more or less, a character of practical good, conveying, in a meek and modest spirit, the bsst advice, and having in view the special im- provement and edification of her own sex. b. about 1812. Elliston, Robert William, el'-Us-ton, a cele- brated English actor, who was esteemed the best comedian of his time. " The Venetian Outlaw" was the only literary work he pro- duced, b. in London, 1774; d. 1831. Ellwood, Thomas, el'-woori, was bred in the Church of England, but was converted to Quakerism, through which he lost the favour of his father. He became reader to Milton, suf- fered imprisonment for his profession, and wrote a number of books in its defence. He also edited George Fox's " Journal," and published a " History of the Old and New Testament ;" a sacred poem on the life of David, &c. b. 1639 ; d. 1713. A casual remark of Ellwood's to Mil- ton, suggested to the latter the idea of writing the " Paradise Regained." Elmes, James, elms, was brought up for an architect, but became rather an expounder than a professor of the science in the pursuit of which he began life. He wrote largely on architec- ture, the fine arts, and edited " Elmes's Quar. terly Review," to which Haydon contributed. He also produced a " General and Bibliogra- phical Dictionary," and contributed to the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitana." b. in London, 1782. Elmore, Alfred, A.R.A., el'-mor, an Irish artist, whose pictures of the " Crucifixion" and the " Martyrdom of Thomas a Becket," brought him prominently into notice in 1840; after which time he became a pretty regular contri- butor to the walls of the ltoyal Academy. His works nre numerous; among which we may specify " The Inventor of the Stocking-loom," as, perhaps, one of the best known, b. at Clon- akilty, Cork, 1815. Elmslet, Peter, elms'-Ie, an eminent littera- teur, and early contributor to the " Edinburgh Review," and also to the " Quarterly Review," on literary subjects. He became Camden pro- fessor of modern history at the university of Oxford, and was, besides, principal of St. Alban's Hall. As a Greek scholar, he was highly dis- tinguished, n. in London, 1773 ; D. 1825. ELpmNSTOJfE, William el' -fin-stone, a bishop of Aberdeen, who founded King's College, in the University of Aberdeen. He was also the principal means of establishing the Gray friars' convent and the chapel royal at Stirling, b. at Glasgow, in 1131 or 1437; d. at Edinburgh, 1514. Elphi if stone, Arthur, Lord Balmerino, dur- ing the reign of Queen Anne had a company in Lord Shannon's regiment; but joining in Mar's rebellion in 1715, fought at Sheritl'muir, and, in consequence of the defeat of the partisans of the Pretender, was compelled to fly to France, in the army of which country he served for some time, but returned to England in 1733. He again embarked in the attempt to restore the Stuarts made in 1715, under the auspices of Prince Charles Edward, who made him captain of the second troop of his life guards. Balmerino was Of BIOGRAPHY. Elphinstone taken prisoner at the battle of Culloden, was committed to the Tower, brought to trial in Westminster Hall, July 29th, 1746, along with Lords Kilmarnock and Cromarty, condemned, and executed on Tower-hill, on the 18th of the following month, b. 1688. Elphinstone, George Keith, Viscount. (See Keith, Viscount.) Elphinstone, James, a native of Edin- burgh, who spent his life in attempting to effect what he called a reformation in the orthography of the English language, on the principle of spelling all words ac- cording to their pronunciation — an attempt in which he of course failed, but the idea lias again been revived by the Pitmans of Bath, under the name of phonography. This effort is not likely to be more successful than that of Elphinstone, who wrote several works on the subject, and wasted his time, energies, and substance in vain. b. 1721 ; d. 1809. Elphinstone, the Honourable Mountstuart, joined the Bengal civil service at the age of 18, and was an atiachS to the political resident at the court of the Peishwah, adoptive father of Nana Sahib, theCawnpore slaughterer, when the duke of Wellington visited it at the com- mencement of the nineteenth century. He then became attached to the duke's suite, and acted as his aide-de-camp at the battle of Assaye. He was afterwards resident at Nagpore, envoy to Cabul, and, in 1816, when the marquis of Hast- ings took the command of the armies of the three presidencies against the confederated Mahratta powers, of which the Peishwah was the chief, Mr. Elphinstone was the British representative at his court, and penetrated the inmost soul of the wily, treacherous chief, although the latter had succeeded in making Sir John Malcolm believe that he was a faithful ally of the English. In the course of a few ■weeks, Elphinstone's opinion of the Peishwah was verified to himself by his being burnt out of his own ambassadorial dwelling by the emis- saries of this friend; and he reached the British camp with nothing except the horse he rode and the clothes he wore. In 1S20 ho became governor of Bombay, to which presidency the Peishwah's country was attached, and during the seven years he ruled Western India, the " Elphinstone Code " became law, and for its brevity, its completeness, its clearness, its en- lightened provisions, might be compared to the "Code Xapolcon," in imitation of which its leaves were coloured. The education of the upper classes was commenced, and, on the principles he advocated, extended itself far and wide among the natives. At the close of his adminis- tration, in 1827, he left India, when, in addition to the presentation of addresses from all classes, a college, called after lilm, was established by the natives; a statue of him by Chan trey was erected, and "."~.'~ :a!istantial tokens of respect and aCeelicn were offered. After his arrival in Engln'ld, ha produced his " History of India." It is ; : : fe.e was subsequently offered the peerage twice with the high offices of governor-genera", c: India and of Canada. On l»r majesty's accession, a deputation of the directors oftliu late East India Company waited upon him tc ask him to accept the crder of Bath, and a seat in the privy council. Other ■, which mc»t men est.era ant. con . were aUo oilcrcd, ami is t„-:i declined, u. 185:), Emerson Elsynge, Henri, et-sinje, clerk of the House of Commons, was remarkable for his skill and tact in conducting the business of the House, and it was said in consequence that more re- spect was paid to his stool than to the speaker's chair. He resigned his place, which had been procured for him by archbishop Laud, in 1648, rather than, as he privately stated, have any hand in the king's death. He wrote a very useful work, entitled "The Ancient Method and Manner of Holding Parliaments in England," which was published in 1663, and several times reprinted. He also left in MS. " A Tract Concerning the Proceedings in Parliament," which has not yet been printed. It is in Lincoln's Inn library, b. at Battersea, 1598; d. 1654. Elwes, John, el'-wes, an extraordinary miser, whose family name was Meggot, which he altered, in pursuance of the will of Sir Harvey Ehves, his uncle, who left him at least £250,000. At this time, he was possessed of nearly as much of his own, and was in the habit of attend- ing the most noted gaming-houses. After sit- ting up a whole night at play, he would proceed to Smithfield to meet his cattle, which were coming to market, from his seat in Essex, and there stand disputing with a butcher for a shilling. If the cattle did not arrive, he would walk on to meet them. More than once, he walked, without stopping, the whole way to his farm, which was 17 miles from London. He would walk in the rain in London sooner than pay a shilling for a coach ; sit in wet clothes to save the expense of a fire; eat his provisions in the last stage of putrefaction, and he once wore a wig a fortnight which he had picked up in a lane. In 1774 he was chosen knight of the shire for Berkshire, his conduct in Parliament being perfectly independent, b. about 1712 ; d. 1789, leaving a fortune of half a million sterling, besides entailed estates. Elzevir, el'-ze-vir, a family of famous printers at Amsterdam and Leyden. There were five of this name, — John, Bona venture, Abraham, Louis, and Daniel. Louis began to be known at Leyden in 1595. and was the first who made the distinction between the « consonant and the u vowel. Daniel died in 1630. He published, at Amsterdam, in 12mo, 1671, a catalogue of books printed by his family. A particular style of type is called by their name at the present day. Emanuel, e-mitn'-u-el, king of Portugal, suc- ceeded John II. in 1195. He restored the nobility to their privileges, and greatly en- couraged maritime expeditions, by one of which a new passage to India was discovered by Vasco da Gama, and to Brazil, in 1501, by Cabral. Emanuel also sent an expedition to Africa, and established a commercial intercourse with the kingdom of Congo. D. 1521. Emei'.son, William, em'-er-ton, an English mathematician, who began life as a schoolmaster, but quitted that employment, and contented himself with a small paternal estate. He was a profound mathematician, but of singular habits, vulgar in his manners, fond of low com- pany, and extremely shabby in his dress. He always walked to London when he had anything t<. publish, and carefully revised every sheet iiL-nscl'. b. at Hvxworth, near Darlington, 1701 : D. there, 17S2. He wrote treatises on Fluxions, Mechanics, Algebra, Optics, Astronomy, Xavi- gat ion, Arithmetic; a "Commentary on thePrm- ■ ipia >i.' Newtcry' and several other esteemed nrui'l .v. THE DICTIONARY Emerson Emerson, Ralph Waldo, an American essayist, the son of a Unitarian minister of Boston, U.S., was designed for the same profession. The peculiarity of his views, however, led him into other studies, which broke his connexion with the religious body to which he belonged. After publishing several essays or orations, he, in 1840, started a publication called the " Dial," devoted to the discussion of prominent questions in philosophy, history, and literature. It lived for four years, during which period Mr. Kmerson kept himself before the public by delivering orations upon popular subjects. In 1841 he published " Lectures on New England Refor- mers," and subsequently lectured on Sweden- borg, Napoleon, and other eminent men. In 1816 appeared a volume of poems, and in 1849 he visited England, where he delivered a series of lectures, and afterwards published them, under the title of " Representative Men." Soon after, he published " English Traits," embodying some of his observations on English manners, customs, and characteristics. Besides these more special labours, he contributed to various reviews and other periodicals, b. at Boston, U.S., 1803. EiiEity, John, em'-er-e, a comic actor of con- siderable merit, especially in the delineation of rustic characters, in which line he was very successful on the London stage. He was a native of Sunderland, where he was born in 1777; D. 1822. Emly.y, Thomas, em'-lin, an English Arian divine of high reputation, and remarkable on account of the persecution he Buffered for his opinions. He published a book entitled " A Humble Enquiry into the Scripture Account of Jesus Christ," in consequence of which he was accused of blasphemy, tried, condemned, and sentenced to a year's imprisonment, and £1000 line. The line was subsequently reduced to £70, and after suffering the year's imprisonment, Emlyn was set at liberty, lie was of an amiable disposition, and enjoyed the friendship of Dr. Samuel Clarke, Winston, and other distinguished men. n. 1603; d. 1743. Emma., em'-ma, daughter of Richard II., duke of Normandy, and mother of Edward the Con- fessor, king of England. She was first married '.o Etuelred, who was obliged to flee to Nor- mandy with his sons Alfred and Edward, when the Danes invaded the kingdom. After his death she married Canute. In the reign of her son, the earl of Kent accused her of a too inti- mate familiarity with her relation, the bishop of Winchester. To prove her innocence, she is said to have walked barefoot over burning ploughshares without being hurt. Lived in the 11th century. Emmet, Thomas Addis, era-met, the son of a physician in Dublin, was called to the bar, but did not practise his profession, becoming, in- stead, one of the active and prominent leaders of the " United Irishmen." He was apprehended by order of the Privy Council, made a full con- fession of his participation in the rebellion of 1798, was kept for some time in confinement, vad then set at liberty. Ho ultimately settled m America, and rose to great eminence at the New York bar. is. 1704: i>. 1827. Emmet, Robert, younger brother of the above, was also educated for the legal profession, but became involved in (be plots of the "United Irishmen," having acted as secretary to the secret direction of that body. On the failure of 360 Enfield the rebellion he fled the country, but subse- quently returned, and, in 1803, attempting anew rising, with very slender means, was appre- hended, tried, condemned, and executed as a traitor. Emmet was full of zeal, enthusiasm, and energy ; he also possessed a wonderful power of eloquence, and these qualities, together with his ardent attachment to the daughter of Curran, have thrown an interest of a peculiar kind around his brief and unhappy career. His memory is still held in much reverence by his countrymen, who consider him to have been a true and de- voted patriot. It was his attachment to Miss Curran that led to his tragic end; he might have escaped from the country, but lingered about the residence of the young lady. The correspondence between them became known to her father, whogave information to the attorney- general, and the apprehension of Emmet, with its fatal catastrophe, was the result. Moore has celebrated this sad story in his song begin- ning, " She is far from the land where her young hero sleeps." u. 1780; executed, 1803. Empedocles, em-peiT-o-klees, a philosopher, poet, and historian of Agrigentum, in Sicily, adopted the doctrine of the metempsychosis, and wrote a poem on the system of Pythagoras, very much commended. His poetry was bold and animated, and his verses were so universally esteemed, that they were publicly recited at the Olympic games with those of Homer and Hesiod. It is said that his curiosity to view the flames of the crater of Etna proved fatal to him. Some maintain that he wished it to be believed that he was a god, and, that his death might be un- known, he threw himself into the crater, and perished in the flames. His expectations, how- ever, were frustrated by the volcano throwing up one of his sandals, which discovered to the world that Empedocles had perished by lire. Others report that he lived to an extreme old age, and that he was drowned in the sea. Lived between 450 and 350 n.c. Empsox, Sir Richard, emp'-son, the son of a sieve-maker at Towcester, Northamptonshire, became a favourite with Henry VII., and, on account of his oppressions, rendered himself odious to the nation. He was beheaded with his coadjutor, Dudley, in 1510. Excke, Johaun Franz, enh, a German as- tronomer, director of the royal observatory at Berlin. He enlarged the boundaries of astro- nomical science, and resolved the orbit of the comet called after his name, which was first seen by Tons on the 2(ith of November 1818. u. at Hamburg, 1791; d. 1865. EtfGELBRKCllT, John, en'-gel-breeshf, a Luthe- ran fanatic, who gained the attention of ignorant and vulgar people by pretended intercourse with spirits. He asserted that lie had received letters from heaven, and called himself " the mouth of the Lord." He ultimately died neglected and despised, in 1611. B. at Bruns- wick, 1599. Engiielbkel'iitsu.v, Cornelius, en'-gel-bree, ->ht- sen, a German artist, who was the "first of bis countrymen who painted in oil, ami has been regarded as one of the most eminent Limners of his age. B. at Lcyden, 1408; D. 1533. Enfield, William, e* -field, a dissenting minister, who was educated under Dr. Ash- worth, at Daventry, and, in 1763, became minister of a congregation at Liverpool. About 1770 he removed to Warrington, as | tutor in the belles-lettres in the academy OF BIOGRAPHY. Engliien there. During his stay at Warrington, he published several works; as, the "History of Liverpool," " Institutes of Natural Philo- sophy," &c. In 1785 he undertook the pastoral care of a congregation at Norwich, and con- tinued there till his death in 1797. b. at Sud- bury, 1711. He is best known as the author of " The Speaker," a school book in general uso. He published also a volume of Prayers and Hymns ; "Biographical Sermons ;" a "History of Philosophy," in 2 vols. 4.to; and two volumes of Sermons. Enghieh, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Due d', dong'-e-a, son of the duke of Bourbon, and a descendant of the "Great CondeV' He entered the army at an early ago, and under his grandfather, served in the ranks of the French emigrants against the troops of the French republic. When the corps was disbanded in 1801, the young prince took up his residence at the chateau of Ettenheim, near the banks of the Shine, in Baden. To this spot the agents of Napoleon I. came by night, and having seized him in his bed, hurried him to France, where he was tried by a mock tribunal for taking up arms against his country in the time of Robes- pierre, and condemned. In the night of the 22nd March, 1S01, he was shot in the wood of Vincennes ; an event which roused the indig- nation of Europe, and excited an interest and sentiment of sorrow wherever it was known. b. at Chan! illy, 1772. England, Sir Richard, G.C.B., xng'-land, a distinguished military officer, began his career in the great war with France, and saw con- siderable service at Flushing, in Sicily, and in France. In 1S32-33 he commanded the troops iu Caffrarin, and distinguished himself in the war there in 1835-36. He then went to India, and commanded the column which relieved Candahar in the Ailghan war, for his services iu which he was made a K.C.B. He com- manded a division in the Crimea in 1851-5, and was present in the battles of the Alma and Inkermann, as well as the unsuccessful attack on the Russian stronghold, in June 1S55. Sir Richard returned to England at the close of I he latter year, and was nominated G.C.B. He became a general iu the army, and colonel of the -list foot. b. in Canada, 1793. Knnius-, Q., en'-ne-iis, a Roman poet, who wrote in heroic verse the annals of the Roman li public, and displayed much knowledge of the world in some dramatical and satirical com- positions, d. of the gout, contracted by his frequent intoxication, 1C9 b.c. ; b. at Rudice, now Huge, in Calabria, 239 B.C. Seipio, on his deathbed, ordered his body to be buried by the tide of this poetical friend. Conscious of his merit as the first epic poet of Home, Ennius bestowed on himself the appellation of the Homer of Latium. Of all his writings, nothing now remains but fragments collected irom the quotations of ancient authors. Eniick, John, en'-tick, an English divine, who published a history of the war which ended in 17U3, 5 vols, bvo ; a " History of Lon- <. n," 4 vols, fivoj a "Latin and" Engli-h Dictionary;" "An English Spelling Die- ' y," and other works! b. 1713 ; n. 1773. ENiiNoru3, cn'-tin'-o-pus, an architect, who on the invasion of Italy by the Visigoths in 105, took refuge in the marshes in the Gulf of V, if.' . , and ihirebuii! hiius. li a li '' ; ■ . In -1!3, on the Mcond invasion under Alaric, a niim- Epaminonda3 her of others flew to the Venetian marshes, and built houses beside that of Entinopus, and this was the origin of the great city of Venice, of which he may thus be said to have been the founder. His own house Entinopus converted into a church, which stood on the site of that of Sat; Giacomo, in the Rialto. d. about 120 a.d. ENrHECASTEAUx, Joseph Antoine Bruni d', ontr-kas'-to, a. famous French admiral, who be- came, in 1783, commander of the naval forces of his country in the East Indies. In 1791 ha was appointed to the command of two frigates destined to search for La Perouse, and also t< explore those coasts which that unfortunate navigator had not reached. In spite of all his endeavours, Entrecastcaux was unable to fulfil but the second part of his instructions. He explored the eastern coast of New Caledonia, the isle of Bougainville, and nearly 1000 miles of the S.W. coast of Australia, besides visiting many points of the Tasmanian seaboard, b. at Aix,1740 ; d. at sea, near Java, 1793. — Captain Rossel, who succeeded him, wrote an interest- ing account of the expedition. Eotvos, Joseph, e-ot-vos', an eminent Hunga- rian politician and litterateur, who wrote some dramas, and, in 1836, set out upon his travels, and visited England, of whoso institutions he formed a high opinion. Some of his works have been translated into English, and are held in hiirh estimation for the talent they display. B. at Buda, 1813. Epaminondas, e'-pum-i-non-da>, a famous Theban, descended from the ancient kings of Boeotia, and celebrated for his private virtues and military accomplishments. His love of truth was so great that he never disgraced him- self by a lie. lie formed a sacred and inviolable friendship with Pelopidas, whose life he saved in a battle. By his advice, Pelopidas delivered Thebes from the power of Lacedoemon. This was the signal for war. Epaminondas was put at the head of the Theban armies, and defeated the Spartans at the celebrated battle of Leuetra, 371 B.C. Puuning his victorious career, he en- tered the territories of Laccdscmon with 50,000 men, and gained many partisans; but, on his return to Thebes, he was seized as a traitor for violating the laws of his country. In the midst of his suecessea ho had neglected the decree which forbade any citizen to retain the supremo power move than one month, and all his emi- nent services seemed insufficient to redeem him from death. Ho bowed to his fate, and only begged of his judges that it might be inscribed on his tomb that he suffered death for saving his country from ruin. This reproach produced such an effect that he was pardoned, and again invested with the sovereign power. He was successful in a war in Thessaly, and assisted the Eleans against the Lacedaemonians. The hostile armies met near Mantinea, and while Epami- nondas was bravely lighting, he received a fatal wound in the breast. Being informed that the 1! i-. iians had gained the victory, he expired, ex- claiming tint he died uncouqucrcd. Fell in the ■18th year of his age, 302 years B.C. B. -ill B.C. The Thebans deeply lamented his death ; in him their power was extinguished; for only ilming his life had they enjoyed freedom and independence among the Grecian states. Epa- minondas was frugal as well as virtuous, and indignantly refused the rich present- which were offered to him by Artaxcrses, king of Persia, lie is represented by his biographer as THE DICTIONARY Ephxem an elegant dancer and a skilful musician, accom- plishments highly esteemed among his country- men. Ephbem, Syrus, ef-rem, an eminent Christian author, and deacon of Edessa, who wrote against the opinions of Sabellius, Arius, the Mani- chseans, &c, and acquired such reputation that he was styled the doctor, and the prophet of the Syrians. His works have been published in various editions, the best being those of Oxford, 1708, folio, and Rome, 1732-1738, folio, in Syriac, Greek, and Latin. He was a native of Nisibis, in Syria, and died about 378. Epicharmus, ep-i-kar'-mus, a poet and philo- sopher of the Pythagorean school, and men- tioned as being the first writer of comedy. Aristotle attributes to him the invention of the letters 6 and x- b. in Cos, and flourished in the 5th century B.C. Epicteius, ep-ik-te'-tus, a Phrygian Stoic philosopher, originally the slave of Epaphro- ditus, the freedman of Nero. Though driven from Home by Domitian, he returned after that emperor's death, and gained the esteem of Adrian and Marcus Aurelius. He supported the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, and declared himself strongly against suicide, b. at Hierapolis, and flourished in the 1st century. His "Enchiridion" is a faithful picture of the Stoic philosophy. His style is concise, devoid of all ornament, and full of energy and useful maxims. The emperor Antoninus thanked the gods he could collect from the writings of Epic- tetus wherewith to conduct life with honour to himself and advantage to his country. His favourite maxim was " Bear and forbear." Into this he resolved every principle of practical morality. Epicurus, ep-i-ku'-rns, the founder of a cele- brated sect of philosophers, studied at Samos and Athens, whence lie removed, in consequence of the war with Perdiccas, and opened a school, first at Mitylcne, and next at Lampsacus. He finally settled at Athens, where he obtained a number of disciples, owing to the pleasantness of his system and his deportment. They lived together, and had all things in common. It is said that he wrote no fewer than 300 volumes. b. about 312 B.C.; d. near Athens, 270 b.c. The system of Epicurus, some think, tends to atheism, by ascribing too little to the Deity, and too much to nature. His doctrine of plea- sure being the supreme good, has been much misrepresented and abused; for his own life was irreproachable, and he inculcated virtue as the essence of pleasure. It must be admitted, how- ever, that his system was afterwards grossly perverted from the author's original meaning. EriMEXiDEs, ep-i-men'-i-dces, an epic poet of Crete, contemporary with Solon. He is reck- oned one of the seven wise men, by those who exclude Pcriander from the number. While he was tending his flocks one day, he entered into a cave, where he fell asleep. His sleep, accord- ing to tradition, continued for fifty-seven years, Mid when ho awoke, he found every object so considerably altered, that ho scarcely knew where he was. After death he was revered as a god by the Athenians. Lived between C50 and 550 e.c. Epinay, Louise, Madame d', dai-pe'-nai, was the daughter of a gentleman of Flanders, who having been killed in the service of the king of Prance, v. suitable match was found for his daughter, an*l site was accordingly marriod to Erasmus M. d'Epinay, the son of a rich financier. Her husband, however, treated her cruelly, and she separated from him at an early age, became in- timate with all the literary persons of note in Paris, especially Rousseau, for whom she formed a warm attachment, and loaded him with gifts, which he repaid by becoming violently attached to her sister-in-law, and violently hostile to her- self. She afterwards became the associate of the famous Grimm, with whom she deposited some memoirs of her life, with fictitious names, and which, after Grimm's death, were published with the real names inserted in place of the fictitious ones, under the title of " Memoirs and Correspondence of Madame d'Epinay." During her own lifetime she had published " Les Con- versations d'Emilie," which went through seve- ral editions, was awarded a prize by the French Academy, in 1783, and has been translated into several languages. Among her other benefac- tions to Rousseau was the cottage in the valley of Montmorency, called the Hermitage, where he occasionally resided, and which was long visited by his admirers with great reverence. b. about 1725; d. 1783. Epiphanius, ep'-i-fai'-ne-us, a bishop of Salamis, active in refuting the writings of Origen; but his compositions are more valuable for the fragments of others which they preserve, than for their own intrinsic merit, d. 403. Epiphanius, St., a Christian bishop, who wrote in Greek several religious works, the principal of which is the " Panarion," or a treatise on heresies, b. near Eleutheropolis, in Palestine; d. at sea, on a vovage to Cyprus, 403. Episcopius, Simon, e-pis-ko'-pe-us, a learned divine, who, in 1612, was chosen divinity pro- fessor at Leyden, but met with considerable trouble on account of his being an Arminian. He was the principal of the Arminian remon- strants at the synod of Dort, which assembly deposed him and the other deputies from their ministerial functions, and banished them the republic. He then went to Antwerp, but in 1620 returned to Holland, and became minister to the remonstrants at Rotterdam. In 1634 he removed to Amsterdam, and was chosen rector of the remonstrants' college, b. at Amsterdam, 1583; d. there, 1613. His works make 2 vols, folio. Epbeiiesnil, Jas. Duval d', e'-prai-mes-neel. a French advocate, who became counsellor of the parliament of Paris, and distinguished him- self by his violence during the French revolu- tion, d. on the scaffold with his old antagonist, Chapelier, in 1791. b. at Pondicherry, 1745. On his way to the place of execution, he said to his companion, " We have at this moment a terrible problem to solve ; namely, to which of us two the shoutings of the mob are addressed." He was the author of " Remonstrances," pub- lished by the parliament, 1788; "Nullity and Despotism of the Assembly," Svo ; " Actual State of France," 1790, 8vo. Eraed, Sebastien, ai'-rard, a celebrated French pianoforte-maker, the son of an uphol- sterer, lie early went from the provinces to Paris, and there established a pianoforte manu- factory, improving considerably all that related to that instrument, as likewise to the harp and organ. He also founded an establishment in London, b. at Strasburg, 1752 ; d. 1831. Erasmus, Desiderius, c-ras'-mus, an illustri- ous Dutch writer, the illegitimate son of one ELIZABETH, QUEEX OF ENGLAND. ERSKINE, THOMAS BARON. EUGENE (OF SAVOY), PRINCE. EYRE, EDWARD JOHN. Plate XII. OF BIOGKAPHY. Erasmus Gerard, a native of Tergou, by the daughter of a physician. Erasmus was called Gerard, which he afterwards altered to the Latin name Desi- derius, and the Greek, Erasmus, all signifying amiable. At an early age he lost both his parents, when his patrimony was left to the care of guardians, who, in order that they themselves might enjoy it, removed him from one convent to another, till at last, in 1436, he took the habit among the canons regular, at Stein, near Tergou. The monastic life being disagreeable to him, he accepted an invitation from the archbishop of Cambrai to reside with him as his private secretary. During his abode with this prelate, he was ordained a priest; but in 1496 went to Paris, and supported him- self by giving private lectures. In 1497 he visited England, and met with a cordial recep- tion from the most eminent scholars, and ap- plied himself to the study of the Greek lan- guage, of which he was before ignorant. His first literary works were philological; as his " Adagia," " De Copia Verborum," and " De Ratione Conscribendi Epistolas." His "Ada- gia" is a collection of proverbs, commented upon with great learning. In 1503 we find him at Louvain, where he studied divinity under Adrian Florent, afterwards Adrian VI. The next year he published his " Enchiridion Militis Christiani," a book of practical religion. In 1506 he took his doctor's degree at Turin, and went to Bologna, where he continued some time ; thence he removed to Venice, and resided with the famous Aldus Manntius. From Venice he proceeded to Padua and Rome, where many offers were made him to settle ; but having re- ceived an invitation from Henry VIII., he set out for England, and arrived there in 1510. He at first lodged with Sir Thomas More, and while there, wrote his " Praise of Folly," de- signed to show that fools are everywhere to be found, even in "high places," and at the court of Rome. Fisher, bishop of Rochester, now in- vited him to Cambridge, where he was made Margaret professor of divinity, and Greek pro- fessor. In this seat of learning a lodging was . assigned him in Queen's College, in the grounds of which his walk is still shown. In 1514 we find him at Bale, preparing for the press his ■" New Testament," and "Epistles of Je- rome," which were published in 1516. This was the first time the Xew Testament was printed in Greek ; and is Erasmus's greatest work. The Reformation now began under Luther ; and though Erasmus approved of his principles and object, he was afraid to irritate the court of Rome. A friendly correspondence passed be- tween these two great men; but afterwards a controversy ensued on free-will, and Luther treated Erasmus as a hypocrite. It is certain that Erasmus approved the Reformation in his heart, but had not courage to express him- self openly; and the consequence w.-is, that he was disliked by both parties. Indeed, he says of himself, "Even if Luther had spoken every- thing in the most unobjectionable manner, I had no inclination to die for the sake of truth." In 1522 appeared his "Colloquies," which gave great offence to the monks, who used to say that " Erasmus laid the egg which Luther hatched." His next controversy was with Scaliger and others, who, in their zeal for the purity of Latin composition, objected to the use of words not in the works of Cicero ; whence they were called Ciccronians, Against these pedants Ercilla y Zuniga Erasmus wrote an admirable dialogue, entitled " Ciceronianus," printed in 1528. The same year appeared his learned work, " De recta Latini Graecique Sermonis Pronunciatione." His last publication was his "Eeclesiastes, or the Manner of Preaching," 1535. b. at Rotterdam, October 28, 1467 ; d. at Bale, July 12, 1536, and was buried in the cathedral of that city. The inhabitants of Rotterdam still show the house where he was born, and there is a statue erected to his memory in the great square of that city. His works were edited at Leyden in 1703, in lj volumes folio, by Le Clerc. Erasistratus, e-ra-sis'-tra-tus, a.i ancierr*. physician of great eminence, who acquired a high reputation at the court of Se'cucus Nica nor, was the first to dissect humui bodies, and has been called the father of anatomical sci- ence. He wrote several works, none of which arc extant, except in the f -■m of fragments in Galen and Caelius Aurel.anus. He lived to a great age, and ultimately put an end to his life by drinking hemlock, in order to escape the pain caused by a earner in his foot. Lived in the 4th century, b.c Ebastus, Thorn.'/;, e-riis'-tus, a physician, and the author of sevtral medical works. He is re- membered principally from the religious con- troversy known by his name. His general principle was, that the censures of the church, and othe- inflictions, were not the proper means to be adopted for the punishment of crimes. The celebrated Beza was his chief opponent. B. at Baden, Switzerland, 1524; d. at Bale, 1583. Eratosthenes, er-a-tos'-the-nees, a native of Cyrene, intrusted with the care of the Alexan- drian library. He has been called a second Plato, the cosmographer, and the geometer of the world. He first observed the obliquity cf the ecliptic, and discovered the means of measuring the extent and circumference of the globe. Starved himself, after he had lived to his eighty-second year, 195 B.C. He collected the annals of the Egyptian kings by order of one of the Ptolemies. Ebatostratus, er'-a-tos'-tra-tus, an Ephesian, who burnt the famous temple of Diana, the same night that Alexander the Great was born. His object was to transmit his name to pos- terity by an action so uncommon. Ercilla t Zcxiga, uir-neel'-ya e thoo'-ne-ga, a Spaniard, who was brought up at the court of Charles V., and joined the expedition against the Araueanians in Chili, S. America. The scenes in which he was engaged suggested the composition of an epic poem, which he pro- duced, and called " La Araucana." He wrote it on scraps of paper and bits of leather, during those intervals he was enabled to snatch from his military duties. It describes the perils of the contest in which he was engaged with great spirit and vividness. This poem is con- sidered the first epic in the Spanish language. The author's career was on one occasion nearly brought to a premature end while in the new world. A tournament was being held at the imperial city in that country in honour of the accession of Philip II. to the throne, when a dispute occurred between Ercilla and another gentleman. Hot blood arose, swords were ■ drawn, partisans joined both sides, and a general melee was the result. Don Garcia, the governor, hastily setting the disturbance down as an act of mutiny, condemned both the originators of the quarrel to death. Ercilla was led to the B 11 THE DICTIONARY Eric scaffold, everything was ready for the execution, when at the last moment, and barely in time to save his life, the innocence of the poet was dis- covered, and the tragedy averted. He subse- quently took part in an expedition against some rebels in Venezuela, and then returned to Spain, where he was neglected by his former patron, Philip, and after living for some years in obscurity in Madrid, he died in that city in 1595. b. in 1533, some biographers say in Ma- drid, others in the town of Bermea, Biscay. The "Araucana" was published in separate portions between 1577 and 1590; and has been intro- duced to English readers by Mr. Hayley, who in his *' Essay on Epic Poetry," translated select passages, and gave an analysis of the whole piece. Eric, eer'-ik, is the Swedish synonyme for the Eiiglish Henry. Of this name there are many kings of Sweden and Denmaik. The- fol- lowing are the most deserving of notice : — Eric XIII. of Sweden and VII. of Denmark, who succeeded Margaret in 1412. He mar- ried the daughter of Henry IV. of England, and made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but was taken prisoner in Syria, and paid a large ransom for his liberty. Soon after his return the Swedes revolted, and were joined by the Danes; on which he withdrew to the isle of Gothland. In 1439 he was formally deposed, and afterwards settled in Pomerania, where he died in 1459. This monarch compiled a " His- tory of Denmark to the Year 1288." Eric XIV., son and successor of Gustavus I., king of Sweden, made proposals for the hand of Princess Elizabeth, afterwards queen of Eng- 'and ; but being refused, he married the daughter of a peasant. This alienated from him the hearts of his subjects, and, together with his cruelties, occasioned a revolt. He was com- pelled to renounce his throne in 1568, and died in prison, 1578. Ericsson, John, er'-ik-son, a Swedish me- chanician, who, early displaying considerable ability, was appointed an engineer cadet, and subsequently entered the army of his country. He was employed in the survey of Northern Sweden, and devoted much of his time to mechanical speculations, more particularly to his " flame-engine." This was intended to work independently of steam, by condensing flame, and so obtaining the necessary power. Visiting England in 1821, he discovered that when worked by mineral fuel, the experiment failed. In 1829 he competed for the prize offered by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Com- pany for the best locomotive, and his engine attained a speed of fifty miles an hour. He subsequently removed to the United States, and many useful inventions, developed there, made his name familiar to the world. His caloric engine, however, was that which attracted most attention, as likely to supersede the use of steam. It seemed, at first, to meet with some success in England, but was ultimately allowed to drop, Brunei and Faraday deciding against its practicability. A vessel called the Ericsson was, however, built in the United States, and fitted with his caloric engine, and, on her trial trip, she made 12 miles an hour. Returning from this, however, a squall overtook her, and she sank. Since that catastrophe, Ericsson's scheme does not appear to have proceeded further. In 1SG2, he constructed an iron-clad cupola war-ship, called the Monitor, for the 370 Errington Federal government of America, which was followed by several others on a similar prin- ciple. The idea of this vessel, however, Ericsson is alleged to have borrowed from the plans of Captain Cowper Coles, of the British navy. b. in Vermeland. Sweden, 1803. Kkigkna, John Scotus, er-itf-e-na, a learned Scotchman, who is said to have travelled to Athens, where he acquired the Greek and Oriental languages. He resided many years at the court of Charles the Bald, king of France, with whom he lived on terms of the greatest familiarity. At the request of his patron, he translated the works of Dionysius into Latin, which drew upon him the resentment of the pope, to avoid whose fury he fled to England. His greatest work was the " Division of Nature ; or, the Nature of Things," printed at Oxford in 1681. Some say that he was employed by Alfred in restoring learning at Oxford, and that he kept a school at Malmesbury, where he was murdered by his pupils on account of his severity. Lived in the 9th century. Ebinna, e-rin'-na, a Grecian poetess, who was contemporary with Sappho, and wrote several pieces, fragments of which are extant, and were published in the Edinburgh edition of Anacreon of 1754. Flourished 000 B.C. Erlach, John L^uis, air'-lak, a noble Swiss, who distinguished himself in the service of France, and obtained several victories, for which, on the defection of Turenne, he was made commander-in-chief of the army, by Louis XIV. B. at Berne, 1595 ; d. 1650. Erie, Sir William, erl, an eminent laywer, who represented the city of Oxford from 1837 to 1811, and after a successful career in his profes- sion, became chief justice of the Common Pleas. This office he resigned in 1866. b. 1793. Ernest II., Duke of Saxc-Coburg-Gotha, er'- neit, the brother of the latePrince Consort.notcd as the leader of the reform party in Germany. He is an accomplished musician, b. 1818. Ehnesti, John Augustus, air-net'-te, a Ger- man writer, was in 1742 chosen extraordinary professor of ancient literature at Leipsic, and, in 1756, professor of eloquence. Two years afterwards, he took his doctor's degree, and ob- tained the divinity chair, which he held with freat reputation till his death, in 1781. b. at ennstadt, 1707. Eros, e'-rot, a servant, of whom Mark An- tony demanded a sword to kill himself. Eros produced the instrument, but, instead of giving it to his master, killed himself in his presence. Erostratus. (See Eratostratcs.) Erpenivs, or Ebpen, Thomas van, tr'-pen, a learned Dutchman, who was educated at Ley- den, after which he travelled into several countries to perfect himself in the oriental languages. He returned to Leyden in 1613, an 1 was chosen professor of the oriental tongues, n. 1581; d. 1624. He wrote " Grammatica Arabica," " Rudimenta Lingua; Arabica?," " Praiccpta de Lingua Gracorum Connnuni," "Grammatica Hcbnea," "Orationes de Lingu- arum Hcbnea atque Arabica; Dignitate." He also translated several Arabic works into Latin, with annotations, and the New Testament and Pentateuch into Arabic. Errington, Edward, er'-ing-tun, descended from an old Northumbrian family, became a civil engineer, and when railways began to be constructed in the north of England, devoted himself chiefly to the department of h's prufes- OF BIOGTIAPHY. Erskine sion connected with tlicm. Along with Mr. Locke, he was engineer to the Glasgow and Greenock railway and dock, the Lancaster and Carlisle, the Caledonian, the East Lancashire, the Scottish Central, Scottish Midland, and Aberdeen railways. About the year 1850 he was, again with Mr. Locke, appointed consult* ing engineer for the northern division of the London and North-Western railway, and in that capacity constructed many of their branches and extensions. He was also up to the time of his death engineer-in-chief to the London and South- Western railway. He superintended the construction of the lines connecting that sys- tem with Exeter and the West of England. He was, like his partner (Mr. Locke), a strong ad- vocate for economy in the first cost of construc- tion, and the lines executed by him all bear testimony to this. Mr. Errington, at the time of his death, was vice-president of the Society of Civil Engineers, b. at Hull, 1806; d. 1862. Erskine, Ebeuezer, era-kin, the founder of the Secession church of Scotland, wrote many sermons and discourses, which, in their day, were highly esteemed. "Were I to read in order to refine my taste," says Hervey, in his " Theoron and Aspasia," " I would prefer Bishop Atterbury's sermons, Bates' works, or Seed's discourses; but were I to read with a single view to the edification of my heart in true faith, solid comfort, and evangelical holiness, I would have recourse to Mr. Erskine, and take his volumes for my guide, my companion, and my own familiar friend." b. at Dryburgh, Berwick- shire, Scotland, 1680; d. 1754.— In his evange- lical labours, Ralph, a brother of Mr. Erskine, greatly assisted him, acting with him, and sus- taining him in his great work. He published " Gospel Sonnets," and — " Employ'd his talents to reclaim the vain." B. 1685 ; D. 1752. Erskine, Thomas, Baron, was the third son of the tenth earl of Buchan, and, in his 14th year, entered the navy, in which he served four years. In 1768 he quitted the sea, and entered the army, in which he remained for eight years, when he renounced the profession of war for that of the law. In 1775 he became a student of Lincoln's Inn, and, in 1778, was called to the bar, where his advancement was both rapid and brilliant. In 1783 he became member of par- liament for Portsmouth; but his talents did not here appear to the same advantage as they did at the bar. He, however, became attorney- general to the prince of Wales; but, in 1792, was forced to resign the appointment, for deter- mining to defend Thomas Paine when prose- cuted for the publication of "The Rights of Man " In 1802 Erskine was made chancellor of the duchy of Cornwall ; and, in 1806, when the Grenville ministry was formed, became lord chancellor, being raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron Erskine, of Restormel Castle, in Cornwall. In 1807 he retired from public life, and, in 1815, received the order of the Thistle. In the intervals of his leisure, Lord Erskine wrote a political romance, called " Armata," a preface to the speeches of Fox, " A View of the Causes and Consequences of the War with France," which passed through numerous edi- tions. His works have been published in 6 vols. 8vo. B. at Edinburgh, 1750; d. 18*23. Erskine, Henry, brother of the preceding, was likewise a lawyer, having become a number of the Scottish Faculty of Advocates in 1763. 371 Eryceira He was gifted with great oratorical powers, his speeches before the courts and in the General Assembly of the Church having eclipsed thoso of all his rivals and contemporaries. Mr. Ers- kine was also famous as a wit, and for his love of humorous practical jokes ; he was exceedingly popular everywhere, and had the happiness to continue to enjoy celebrity and universal favour all his life. When Lord Rockingham's ministry was formed in 1782, Mr. Erskine was appointed Lord Advocate and entered Parliament ; on the accession of Pitt to power, however, he retired, and was then elected dean of Faculty. Ho was again Lord Advocate in 1806, under the Gren- ville cabinet; and retired from public life in 1812. b. at Edinburgh, 1746; d. 1817. Innu- merable anecdotes illustrative of the wit, hu- mour, polish, and popularity of " Harry Erskine" are still current in Edinburgh. Ebskinb, John, a writer on law, was the grandson of Lord Cardross, and cousin -german of Lord Chancellor Erskine. He passed the life of a studious recluse, and there are few incidents in his career to notice. He was a member of the Faculty of Advocates of Edinburgh, having been called to the bar in 1719, but does not appear to have had much practice. In 1737 he became professor of Scotch Law in the univer- sity of Edinburgh, and in 1754 published " Principles of the Law of Scotland," in one volume, a work remarkable for its lucid arrange- ment and the clearness and terseness of its ex- position of the leading principles of the laws. It became a leading authority, and passed through several editions. He resigned his pro- fessorial chair in 1760, and employed his time in his retirement in expanding the materials of his " Principles" into a more elaborate work, which he lett nearly finished at his death, and which was published in two volumes folio, in 1773, under the title of "An Institute of tho Law of Scotland," and has since been many times reprinted, with notes and commentaries, so as to make it harmonise with all recent changes in the law. It has long been, and is still, the great standard of Scottish law, and is as firmly established as " Coke upon Littleton," or " Blackstone" in England. Unlike the great English standards, however, it is of little value for its constitutional law, which is slightly treated ; and the great changes which have taken place since Erskine's time, have made that por- tion of his work relating to matters of trade and commerce meagre and out of date ; but as to the rights of person and property it is sound and comprehensive, and of great value both to the practical lawyer and to the theoretical stu- dent. B. 1695; D. 1765. Erwin De Sieixbich, air'-vlt, a continental architect, who built Strasburg cathedral, with the exception of the tower, which was not com- pletely finished until t lie 15th century, b. at bteinbach, Baden ; d. 1318. Erxleben, John Christian Polyearp, airx'- le-ben, a German naturalist, who studied physic at Gottingen, and there gave lectures on the veterinary art and natural history. He also wrote on those subjects. His " Principles of Natural History,*" 8vo, 1768, is a valuable work. b. at Quedlinburg, 1744; d. 1777. Eryceira, Ferdinand de Menescs, Count, air'-e-se-eer'-a, a Portuguese historian, who de- voted himself to military service, and distin- gitishcd himself as an able leader at Tangier. u. at Lisbon, 1614, lie wrote " The History ot BB 2 THE DICTIONARY Eryceira Tangier," folio, 1723; "History of Portugal," 2 vols, folio ; " The Life of John I., King of Portugal," &c. Ebyceiba, Francis Xavier Meneses, Count, a descendant of the above, was also a soldier and an author, b. at Lisbon, 1673; d. 1743. He wrote on the " Value of the Coins of Por- tugal," " Reflections on Academical Studies," " Parallels of Illustrious Men and Women," and a translation of the " Henriade." Eschenbacb:, Wolfram von, ahh-en-bak, a German troubadour of the middle ages, deemed one of the best poets of kis time, adopted a military life, as was customary at the time, but he won more laurels with the lyre than with the sword. He lived principally at the court of Herman, landgrave of Thuringia, and in 1207 won the prize in one of those poetic contests which were common at that time, and have since been celebrated by a modern poet as the " Wars of Wurtzburg." Eschenbach was acquainted with Latin, French, and Provencal, besides his native tongue. His principal poems are the " Titurel" and the "Parcival," or the "History of the Guardians of the San Greal," of which so much mention is made in the " Mortc d' Arthur." The " Titurel" was printed in 1477 ; and is contained in Midler's collection of the German poets of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries. The dates of Eschenbach's birth and death are unknown, but he was living in 1227. Espagnac, John Baptist, Baron d', den'-pan- yalc, a gallant French general, who served with great glory under Marshal Saxe, and wrote a number of books on military art, with a history of the Marshal, in 3 vols. 4to. b. 1713 ; d. at Paris, 1783. Espaktero, Joaquin Baldomero, ais'-par- fair'-o, a modern Spanish general and states- man, though designed, on account of the delicacy of his constitution, for the literary profession, was so captivated by the charms of a military life, that in 1808 he enlisted as a common soldier in an infantry regiment at Seville. He subse- quently entered a military school at Cadiz, where he studied the art of war generally, with the science of engineering and fortification. In 1815 he joined an expedition to Peru, in South Ame- rica, and there became captain in a regiment. He was now on the way to advancement. From his being successful in no fewer than seventeen consecutive actions, he was raised to the com- mand of a battalion; and, in 1820 and 1822, successively became colonel, brigadier, and chief of the general staff. Subsequently, the successes of Bolivar defeated the efforts and blasted the hopes of the royalist Spanish generals, and Espartero was thrown into prison at Arequipa. From this situation he soon afterwards made his escape, and arrived in Spain in 1825. He now enjoyed repose for a few years, although still following his profession. In 1833 the civil war commenced, when he sought and obtained leave to proceed against Bon Carlos. Throughout the stormy period which now ensued, he took a leading part, and rose to the dignity of tield- ruarshal and general-in-chief of the army of the North. In 1836 he acted with General Evans In ihe relief of BUboa, and continued vigorously to oppose the efforts of the Carlists till 1839, when the supremacy of the queen was acknowledged. In that year he was created a grandee of the first class, and duke de la Victoria. In 1841 he became regent of the kingdom, but in 1813 was forced to quit his country, and take refuge in 372 Esse England. He there took up his residence in Lonrton, and did not return to Spain till 1847, where he lived for some years in retirement, but in 1854 was again called to assume the reins of government, which he held till 1856, when he was forced to tender his resignation, b. at Granatula, in Ciudad Real, 1792; n. 1879. ' Espen, Zeger Bernard van, es'-pe/i, a learned professor at Louvain, who opposed the formu- lary and the bull Unigenitus, by which he brought himself into trouble.and went toAmers- fort to avoid his enemies, where he died in 1728. 3. 1646. His works on the canon law were printed at Paris, 4 vols, folio, 1753. Espeb, Johann Fricdrich, es'-pair, a natu- ralist and astronomer, and author of a work entitled "A Method of determining the Orbits of Comets and other Celestial Bodies without astronomical instruments or mathematical cal- culations." He was the first to explore the caverns in the neighbourhood of Bayreuth, and to describe the curious fossil remains which they contain. One of these caverns has been named after him. b. at Drossenfeld, Bayreuth, 1732; d. 1781. Espronceda, Jose de, ai»-prone-ihai'-da,, a Spanish poet of some reputation, but whose po- litical predilections brought him, at an early age, into difficulties with the government of his country. He was twice imprisoned before he was eighteen, and, on the last occasion, fell in love with the daughter of a brother prisoner, when he was shipped to England with some other Spanish refugees. Here he made himself acquainted with the language, and devoted him- self to the study of Shakspeare and other poets. In 1830 he took part in the political disturbances in Paris, and fought at the barricades. On the death of Ferdinand, the king of Spain, he re- turned to Madrid, and entered the regiment of body-guards of the queen. In 1835 and 1836 he was fighting in defence of the barricades in the streets of Madrid ; and, in 1841, became secre- tary to the embassy at the Hague. On his return to his country, he became a member of the Cortes, which had long been an object of his most fervent ambition, b. near Almendralejo, Estremadura, 1810; d. at Madrid, 1842. The poetry of Espronceda is estimated highly by his countrymen ; but it consists only of a few short effusions, which altogether do not amount to more than would be comprised in a single vo- lume little larger than the " Vicar of Wakefield." The character of his muse may, in some degree, be indicated by naming a few of the titles of the subjects upon which it was exercised — "The Beggar," " The Executioner," and " The Pirate." Esse, Andre de Montalembert d', des-sai, a distinguished French military commander, who joined the army of Vivonne in the first expedi- tion to Naples, and at the battle of Fornovo, in 1495, when oidy 12 years of age, gave remark- able proofs of valour and coolness. He was present in all the wars waged for some years in Italy between the French and Spaniards, and won so high a name for courage that Francis I. chose him for one of his four companions-in- arms as challengers at a tournament held be- tween Ardres and Guines in 1520, the exploits performed on the occasion being always after a favourite theme of conversation with the king. In 1543, d'Esse, with a very weak garrison, de- fended Laudrecies against Charles V. and 50,000 men, and compelled him to raise the siege, b. Us3; killed at the siege of Terouano, 1558. OF BIOGRAPHY. Essex EsQUinos,HeiiriAlphonse,es'-J:e-ro*,atalented French writer, formerly representative for the department Saone-et-Loire in the French le- gislative assembly. He was exiled in 1853 for his opposition to the government of Napoleon III., and, in 1855, came to England, where he has since resided, acting as Examiner to the Military Council of Education. He has written some admirable sketches of English life and character m the Revue dea Deux Monies, b. 1814. Essex, Thomas Cromwell, Earl of, es-seks, was the son of a blacksmith at Putney. Early in life he became clerk to the English factory at Antwerp ; but, leaving that situation, he went into several countries as the secret emissary of the state. On his return to England, he was taken into the service of Cardinal Wolsey, who obtained him a seat in the House of Commons, where he defended his patron with great spirit. On the fall of the cardinal, Cromwell became the chief adviser of Henry VIII., who gave him several important places. He was very instru- mental in the dissolution of the monasteries, and greatly promoted the Reformation. For these services, the title of earl of Essex, with many manors and estates, chiefly the spoils of the Church, were conferred upon him. At length his affairs took an adverse turn. He had been so unfortunate as to advise the marriage of the king with Anne of Cleves, who, not proving agreeable to Henry, that capricious sovereign wreaked his vengeance on the adviser of the marriage, and caused him to be tried for high treason and heresy. To be so accused was cer- tain death. Accordingly, he suffered decapita- tion on Tower-hill, in 1540. b. at Putney, Surrey, about 1490. He was a man of a liberal mind, and promoted more men of merit while he was in power than any of his predecessors. He left a son, who was created Lord Cromwell ; which title continued in the family many years. Essex, Robert Devereux, Earl of, was the son of Walter, earl of Essex, and in 1586 accom- panied the earl of Leicester, the favourite of Queen Elizabeth, to Holland, where he behaved with bravery at the battle of Zutphen. On his return to England, he was made master of the horse, and rose rapidly in the royal favour. In 1589, ho accompanied Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris in an expedition to Portugal, which eave great displeasure to the queen, whose dissatisfaction was further increased by his marrying a daughter of Sir Francis Walsing- ham and the widow of Sir Philip Sidney. In 1591, he commanded the forces sent to the assistance of Henry IV. of France, but was unsuccessful, and lost his only brother, to whom he was greatly attached. In 159(i, he was appointed joint-commander with Lord Howard in an expedition against Spain, where he con- tributed to the capture of Cadiz, and also to the destruction of fifty-seven ships of war be- longing to the enemy. After this, he had the command of a force sent out to intercept the Spanish fleet ; but nothing was done except the taking of Fayal by a separate division of the squadron, commanded by Sir Walter Raleigh ; and this occasioned a dispute between him and the earl. In the following year, Essex was made earl-marshal of England, and spoke vehe- mently against a peace with Spain, in opposition to Lord Burleigh, who supported the measure. On the death of that statesman, Essex suc- ceeded mm as chancellor of Cambridge; but 373 Essex about this time, at a private council held re- specting the appointment of a proper person to govern Ireland, he had the imprudence to op- pose her majesty with rudeness; on which she gave him abox on the ear. The earl instantly laid his hand on his sword, and swore that he would not have endured such treatment even from her father, and withdrew from the court. At length a reconciliation was effected, and he was sent to Ireland to subdue the province of Ulster, which had risen in rebellion. The ill success which attended him in this expedition was the true be- ginning of his downfall, as it gave his enemies an opportunity of poisoning the queen's mind against him, with apparent justice, during his absence. On his return to England, however, he met with a better reception than he expected ; but, soon after, fell into disgrace, and was im- prisoned. In 1600 he regained his liberty; but instead of conducting himself with caution, he began to vent his indignation in bitter terms, and said that "the queen grew old and can- kered, and that her mind was become as crooked as her carcass." His enemies having intelligence of his actions and speeches, sent for him to attend the council, which he refused, and began to arm in his own defence. Some blood was shed before he surrendered ; on which he was made prisoner, tried, and beheaded, in 1601. b. at Netherwood, Herefordshire, 1567. A story is told of the queen having given Essex, whilst in her favour, a ring, with the assurance that, on his sending it to her at any time when he might be in trouble, he should receive her pardon. This ring, it is said, he gave to the countess of Nottingham, his relation, and the wife of his inveterate enemy, the admiral, to carry to the queen ; but that lady, in obedience to the commands of her husband, kept it, and the unhappy Essex suffered. On her deathbed the countess is stated to have confessed this fact to Elizabeth, who said, that " God might forgive her, but she never could." The authen- ticity of this story is doubtful; but it has served to embellish a tragedy called "The Earl of Essex." (See Elizabeth.) Essex, Robert Devereux, Earl of, son of the above, was educated under Sir Henry Savile at. Merton College, Oxford, and was restored to his family honours by James I. He married Lady Frances Howard, daughter of the earl of Suf- folk ; but she, contracting an affection for the royal favourite, Robert Carr, afterwards earl of Somerset, instituted a shameful suit against her husband, and obtained a divorce. In 1620 Essex served under Sir Henry Vere in the Palatinate, and afterwards under Prince Maurice in Holland. On his return to England, he acted as a mem- ber of Parliament in opposition to the court; and on the breaking out of the rebellion, had the command of the parliamentary army, lie fought against the king at Edgehill, after which ho took Heading, raised the siege of Gloucester, fought in the double battle of Newbury, and succeeded in covering London. In 1614 ho marched into the West ; but was so completely inclosed in Cornwall, that ho and Ins principal officers were glad to escape by sea. Uy the Self- denying ordinance, in 1615, he was deprived of his command, and died the year following, b. 1592. Essex, James, an architect, was the son of a carpenter and builder, of Cambridge, and spe- cially applied himself to reviving the gothic style, in which aim, though delicicnt in education THE DICTIONAEY Estaing and theoretic knowledge, he was very 6ticcesS' Jul. He was entrusted with the repairs of King's College chapel and of the cathedrals of Lincoln and Ely; and wrote some memoirs on architecture, &c, in the " Archax>logia." b. 1723; d. 1734. Estaing, Charles Hector, Count d', des'-tang, a French commander, who served under Count Lally in India, where he was made prisoner by the English ; but was released on his parole, which, however, he broke. In the American war he was employed as vice-admiral and gene- ral of the French armies, and took the island of Grenada. In 1787 h*c became member of the Assembly of Notables, and commandant of the national guards at Versailles at the commence- ment of the Revolution, b. in Auvergne, 1729; guillotined at Paris, 1794. Estampes, Anne de Pisselcu, duchess d', es'-tamp, a favourite mistress of Francis I. of France. She carried on a correspondence with Charles V. of Spain, and informed him of the state of the armies and the country. By her means Charles was enabled to gain considera- ble advantages, and to humiliate France. After the death of Francis, she retired to her country seat, where she died in 1576. Este, House of, one of the oldest historical families of modern Europe, its origin being traced as far back as the 5th century. The last offspring of this house was Maria Beatrice, wife of the archduke Ferdinand of Austria, who died in 1800. Their son, Francis IV., was restored to the Modenese dominions of his ma- ternal ancestors by the treaty of Paris, in 1814. He died in 1846, and was succeeded in his pos- sessions and titles by his son, Francis V., de- posed in 1859. Estrades, Godfrey, Count d', des'-trad, a French general and statesman, who, in 1661, was sent ambassador to England, and again in 166G, where he strenuously maintained his right of precedence over the Spanish ambassador. The year following he went to Holland, and concluded the treaty of Breda. In 1673 he was at the conference at Nimcguen, and con- tinued to be engaged in politics up to the time of his death, b. at Agen, 1607; d. 1686. The negotiations of the Count d'Estradcs were printed at the Hague in 1772, in 9 vols. 12mo. Estbeks, Francis Annibal d', 'des'-trai, duke and marshal of France, was educated for the church, and appointed bishop of Laon, which he quitted for a military life. b. 1573; r>. at Paris, 1670. He wrote "Memoirs of the Regency of Mary de Mcdieis," and a " Narra- tive of the Siege of Mantua." Gabrielle d'Es- trtfes, the mistress of Henry IV., was this noble- man's sister; and several of his descendants were distinguished in the military and naval service of France. Ettielbald, eth'-el-hald, king of Wcssex, was the eldest surviving son of Efhclwolf. He married his step-mother, Judith of France, but was forced to abandon that connection, and she became the wife of Baldwin, count of Plunders, and the ancestress of Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, and, through her, of the kings of England. Etbclbald was engaged in mili- tary conflicts with the Danes, and distinguished himself by the common quality of bravery, but otherwise holds no remarkable place in his- tory, d. 860. ExnEi/BEnT, e'h'-el-hert, king of Kent, married Ucrtha, daughter of Caribert, king of 374 Euclid France. By her means he was induced to em. braec Christianity, which he had permitted to be preached to his subjects by Augustine, the monk. After enacting several laws, he died 616. Ethelbert, king of England, the second son of Ethelwolf, succeeded his brother Ethel- bald in 860. He was a virtuous prince, beloved by his subjects, and mostly engaged in repelling the incursions of the Danes, d. 866, and was buried at Sherborne. Ethelred, eth'-el-red, king of England, the son of Edgar, succeeded his brother, Edward the Martyr, in 973. His unmanly spirit sub- mitted to pay a tribute to the Danes, by a tax levied on his subjects, called Danegelt. To free himself from this oppression he caused the Danes to be treacherously massacred, through- out the country, in one day. On this, Sweyn, king of Denmark, entered his kingdom, and compelled him to fly to Normandy ; but Sweyn dying soon after, Ethelred returned, and, after an inglorious reign of 37 years, died in 1016. Ethelwolf, eth'-el-woolf, king of England, came to the crown in 837, and rendered his reign famous for being that in which tithes were instituted. He was a mild and religious prince, and went to Rome with his youngest son, Alfred, d. 857, and was buried at Win- chester. Etheregb, George, elh'-e-redj, an English dramatic writer of the reign of Charles II. In 1664 he produced the comedy of " The Comical Revenge ; or, Love in a Tub." Encouraged by the favourable reception of this piece, he brought out another in 1668, entitled "She Would if She Could." In 1676 appeared his "Man of Mode; or, Sir Fopling Flutter." These productions raised him to a plice among the best wits of his time, although they are more remarkable for spirit of dialogue than origi- nality of invention. Their licentiousness, how- ever, has long ago excluded them from public representation. In 1683 he received the honour of knighthood, b. 1636; r>. at Ratisbon, from a fall down a stair, after a convivial entertain- ment, 1638. Ettt, William, R.A., et'-te, an eminent Eng- lish artist, who, in 1807, entered as student of the Royal Academy ; but, after what might be called, without a metaphor, no end of labour and disappointment, he was unable to get him- self represented by any of his pictures on the walls of the academy till 1811, when " Telema- ehus rescuing Antiope" was permitted to appear. From this time he continued to plod at, but not to attract by, his art ; and, in 1816, was induced to visit Italy, for the purpose of study ; but he re- turned, almost immediately, to work again in London. Labour, as usual, met its reward. In 1820 he commanded notice by his "Coral- Finders ;" and the following year his " Cleo- patra arriving in Cilicia" procured and esta- blished a reputation. He was now famous, and produced a great many works, and especially excelled in representing the nude female. His aim, in all his large pictures, was to paint some great moral on the heart ; as, for example, in "Ulysses and the Syrens," he meant to show the importance of resisting sensual delights. The only picture which the nation possesses of his painting is "Youth at the Prow, and Plea- sure at the Helm," which is in the Vernon Gal- lery. B. at York, 1787; r>. there, 1849. Euclid, u'-klid, a celebrated mathematician OF BIOGRAPHY. Euclides of Alexandria, who immortalized his name hy his hooks on geometry, in which he digested all the propositions of the eminent geometricians who preceded him, as Thales, Pythagoras, and others. Ptolemy became his pupil, and his school was so famous, that Alexandria, where he taught, continued for ages the great univer- sity for mathematicians. Lived in the 3rd cen- tury B.C. The best, indeed only, edition of his whole works is that of Gregory, Oxford, folio, 1703. His "Elements" have gone through in- numerable editions, and have been used in every country where mathematics are taught. Ecclidks, uMi'-dtes, a native of Megara, and • disciple of Socrates. When the Athenians had forbidden all the people of Megara, on pain of death, to enter their city, Euclides disguised himself in woman's clothes to introduce him- self into the presence of Socrates. He was the founder of the school called the Megaric, distin- guished by its dialectic subtlety. He wrote six dialogues, which are lost. Lived in the 4th century b.c. Eudxkos, John Andrew, u'-de-mon, a learned Jesuit, descended from the imperial family of the Palxologi, was educated in Italy, and taught philosophy at Padua and Kome with much re- putation. Urban VI II. appointed him principal of the Greek college re-established at Kome, and he accompanied Cardinal Barberini in a mission to France. He left a variety of works behind him, chiefly of a polemical character, having been engaged in religious controversies with many individuals, among whom were the Knglish anti-papal divines Abbot, Prideaux, Collins, and others, b. in Candia; d. at Rome, 1625. Eubocia, eu-do'-she-a, a learned Athenian lady, whose original name was Athcnais. She was the daughter of Leontius, the philosophical sophist, who left her only a small legacy, be- queathing the rest of his property to his two sons. Conceiving herself ill-used, she went to Constantinople to lay her complaint before Theodosius II. Here she became the favourite of Pulcheria, sister of that emperor, and em- braced the Christian religion. In 421 she was married to the emperor, who afterwards di- vorced her in a fit of jealousy. She then went to Jerusalem, where she built churches, and led a life of great devotion, always protesting her innocence of the crime laid to her charge by Theodosius. d. 460. This empress wrote some Greek poems, and paraphrases on some of the prophets. She is said also to have written a life of Christ, composed of lines taken from Homer. Eudocia, or Eudoxia, widow of the emperor Constantine Ducas, on whose death, in 1067, she assumed the imperial diadem, and married the general liomanus Diogenes. When her son Michael ascended the throne, he shut her in a convent, where she amused herself in writing on the pagan mythology. She left a treatise on the genealogies of the gods and heroes, which was printed in Villoison's " Aneedota Graica," 1781. Eudocia, Feodorcvna, first wife of Peter I., czar of Kussia, and .'daughter of the boyard Fcodor Lapukin. Peter married her in 1689, but a few years afterwards he sent her to a nun- nery, on account of her complaints of his infi- delity, d. 1731. Eudoxus of Cnidus, u-dox'-us, an eminent astronomer of Caria, in Asia Minor. He studied 376 Eugene in Egypt with Plato, and afterwards opened a mathematical school at Athens. It is said that he passed a great part of his time on a high mountain, where he made celestial observa- tions. Lived in the 4th century B.C. Eugene, Francis, oo'-zluiin. Prince of Savoy C.uignan, was the son of the count of Soissons, by the niece of Cardinal Mazarin. He was intended for the church, but the death of his father changed this design, and determined him to follow the military profession. His mother being banished to the Netherlands by Louis XIV., and his family otherwise wronged by that sovereign, he went to Vienna, where the emperor gave him a regiment of dragoons, and he served in Hungary with great reputation against the Turks. In 1691 he, at the head of the imperial army, entered Piedmont, where he relieved Coni, which was at that time besieged by the French, and took Carmagnola. In 1697 he commanded the imperialists in Hungary, and, the same year, defeated the Turks at the battle of Zenta. On the death of the king of Spain, in 1701, the " war of the Spanish succession " commenced, and Prince Eugene achieved new laurels. At the close of the campaign of 1702, he returned to Vienna, and was made president of the council, and associated in the command of the allied army with the duke of Marlborough, In 1704 he had a principal share in the famous battle of Blenheim. In 1707 ho was repulsed at Cassano by Vendomc ; but he soon recovered his reputation in a bloody action near Turin, which was then besieged by the French, whose trenches he forced, and gained a complete victory. The same year he entered France, and laid siege to Toulon, but did not succeed in taking the place. In 1708 he shared in the victory of Oudenarde and the capture of Lille. In 17o9 he fought at Malplaquet, where he was severely wounded, but would not quit the scene of action. In 1712 he visited London, to in- duce the English ministers not to make a separate peace ; but his arguments were in- effectual, and England signed the treaty of Utrecht. A'ow left to carry on the war alone, he was successfully opposed by Marshal Villars, with whom he entered into a negotiation, which was followed by the peace of Badstadt in 1714. In 1716 a war broke out between the emperor and the Turks, on which the prince was again intrusted with the command in Hungary, where, in that year, he defeated the grand vizier at Petcrwardein, this splendid victory being followed by the no less great ex- ploit of the capture of Belgrade. It was here, with 40,000 men, he defeated a relieving army of 150,000 Turks. Peace being concluded at Passarowitz, in 1718, he retired into private life; but in 1733, when the election for the crown of Poland was disputed, he was asrain employed. This campaign, however, was short ard unproductive of any remarkable action, although successful in its results, b. in Paris, 1663 ; d. at Vienna, 1730. During the few years of repose which the peace of Passarowitz brought this warrior, he worthily employed himself in public affairs and in the arts of peace. The emperor Charles VI. found in him as faithful a counsellor as he was a skilful captain; and in the days of his misfortunes, he would cry, " Alas ! the fortune of tho empire has departed with Prince Eugene ! " The prince was of the middle height, but stoutly built, and was exempt from those excesses THE DICTIONARr Eugenius which have so often sullied the characters of great men. Napoleon places him in the same rank of generals as Turenne and Frederick the Great, and considered the plans of his cam- paigns as conveying a perfect knowledge of the art of war. Eugenius I., u-je'-ne-us, a pope and saint, succeeded Martin in 654. He is praised for his liberality and piety. D. 657. Eugenics II. succeeded Pascal I. in 824, and decreed that in every country parsonage a master should be kept to read and explain the Scriptures. He, however, defended image- worship, though the practice was condemned by the council of Paris, d. 827. Eugenius III., Pope, ascended the papal chair in 1115. Rome was at that time in a turbulent state, and finding that he could do little good, Eugenius retired to Pisa, and thence to Paris. D. 1153. Eugenius V. (Gabriel Condolmera) suc- ceeded Martin V. in 1431, in which year the council of Bale assembled. This pope and the members of that assembly differed in their judgment, when he issued a bull against them. This, however, was disregarded, and he was under the necessity of confirming the decrees. In 1438 lie called a council at Ferrara, to bring about a reconciliation between the Greek and Latin churches. At this council appeared the emperor Fala:ologus, with several Greek bishops ; but the plague breaking out at Fer- rara, the council was removed to Florence, where, in 1439, a sort of union was agreed to, but wassoon broken. In 1139 the council at lial- deposed Eugenius, and elected Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, who took the name of Felix V. Eugenius, however, triumphed over his adver- saries, b. at Venice; d. at Rome, 1447. Eugenius, an obscure grammarian, who was proclaimed emperor in Dauphine by Count Arbogast, after the murder of Valentinian 11., in 392. He crossed the Alps, and made himself master of Milan in 391; but was defeated and slain by the emperor Theodosius. Lived in the 4th century. Euler, Leonard, co'-ler, a Swiss mathemati- cian, who received his education in the univer- sity of Rale, with a view to the church, but principally devoted himself to mathematical studies under the famous John Bernoulli. In 1727 he followed his friends Hermann and Daniel Bernoulli to St. Petersburg, where, in 1733, he became professor of mathematics in the Academy of Sciences. In 1735 he impaired his sight by intense application to the solution of a difficult problem. His memoir on Fire ob- tained the prize from the French Academy of Sciences, in 1733, and, in 1740, he divided another, on the Flux and Reflux of the Sea, with Maclaurin and Daniel Bernoulli. In 1741 he went to Berlin, at the invitation of the king, to assist in establishing the academy there. When introduced to the queen-dowager, she expressed her surprise at the paucity of his con- versation; upon which he replied, that he had just come from a country where those who spoke were hanged. He continued at Berlin till 1760, when he returned to St. Petersburg, where he soon after entirely lost his sight. Still he continued his favourite pursuits. He also received another prize from the French Aca- demy, for three Memoirs on the Inequalities in the Motions of the Planets; which were fol- lowed by two others lor solutions uf questions 376 Eupolis on the Theory of the Moon. In 1772 appeared his Lunar Tables, b. at Bale, 1707; d. at St. Petersburg, 1783. Besides the above works, he wrote a great number of papers in the Memoirs of several academies ; " Opuscula Analytica," "Introduction to the Analysis of Iiiti'nitcsi- mals, <£c. In 17G0, when the Russians invaded Brandenburg and advanced to Charlottcnburg. they plundered a house belonging to Euler. When this was told to General Tottleben, he immediately caused reparation to be made to the mathematician, and the empress Elizabeth of Russia presented him with '4000 florins. Eumenes, u'-me-neet, a Greek commander, and accounted the most worthy of all the officers of Alexander to succeed him after his death. He conquered Paphlagonia and Cappadocia,of which he obtained the government, till the power and jealousy of Antigonu's obliged him to retire. He then joined his forces to those of Pcrdiccas, and defeated Craterus and .Neoptolemus. He was put to death by order of Antigonus, 315 B.C. The latter, however, honoured his remains with a splendid funeral, and conveyed his ashes to his wile and family in Cappadoeia. Eumenes I., king of Pergamos, succeeded his uncle Phiheterus, 263 B.C., and reigned 22 years. —Eumenes II., nephew of the preceding, suc- ceeded his father, Attalus, 197 b.c. He assisted the Romans against Antiochus the Great, and reigned 38 years.— Both of these sovereigns were greatly attached to learned pursuits, and the latter enriched the famous library of Per- gamos, which had been founded by his predeces- sors, in imitation of the Alexandrine collection of the Ptolemies. Eunapius, u-vai'-pe-ut, a Byzantine sophist and historian.who wrote a history of the Caesars, I of which few fragments remain. His " Lives of j the Philosophers" of his age is still extant. It I is composed with fidelity and elegance, precision i and correctness, b. 347 ; r>. 420. ! Eunus, u'-niu, a Syrian slave, who inflamed the minds of the people by pretended inspira- tion and enthusiasm. Oppression and misery impelled 2000 slaves to join his cause, and he soon found himself at the head of 50,000 men. With this force he defeated the Koman armies, till Perpenna forced him to surrender by famine, and he and the greater number of his followers were impaled on crosses, 132 b.c. Euphhanob, u'-fra-uor, a Greek sculptor, whose principal works were effigies of the Greek gods and heroes, a figure of Paris being esteemed his best performance. He was a native of Corinth, but seems to have practised his art at Athens, and is mentioned as the first sculptor who gave an appropriate expression to the sub- ject of each of his works, lie worked with equal success on both marble and bronze, and was also clever as a painter. Lived about 364 b.c. Eupiiorion, u-for'-e-on. The most remark- able of this name is a Greek poet of Chalcis, in Eubeea. Tiberius took him for his model lor correct writing, d. 220 b.c. Eupolis, u'-po-lis, a comic poet of Athens, who severely condemned the vices and immoralities of his age. It is said that he had composed 17 dramatic pieces at the age ot 17. Some sup- posed that Alcibiadcs put Eupolis to death, because he had ridiculed him in his verses; but Suidas maintains that he perished in a sea-light between the Athenians and the Lacedemonians in the Hellespont. Lived in the 5th century b.c. OF BIOGRAPHY Euripides Euripides, u-rip'-i-dees, a Grecian tragic poet, who studied at Athejis under Anaxagoras the philosopher and Prodicus the rhetorician. He was twice married, but was unfortunate in both wives, which is supposed to have suggested some of the severe remarks levelled against the female sex which are found scattered over his works. He left Athens in disgust, on account of the rivalry of Sophocles and the raillery of Aristophanes, and went to the court of Arche- laus, king of Macedon. Here he enjoyed all the tranquillity he sought; but as he was walking one evening in a wood, he was attacked by the king's hounds and torn in pieces, b. at Sala- mis, 480 B.C. ; killed, 406 B.C. The Athenians, out of respect for his talents, went into mourn- ing, and asked for his body ; but the Macedo- nians would not part with it, but erected over it a magnificent tomb at Pelfa. Only 19, out of 75 of his tragedies are extant; and the best editions are those of Barnes, Cambridge, 1694, folio ; and Musgrave, Oxford, 1773, 4to. He has been well translated into English by Woodhull and Potter. Eukybiades, tt-ri-bi'-a-dees, a Spartan com- mander of the Grecian fleet, at the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, against Xerxes. He was on the point of striking Themistocles, when the latter was advising an attack on the Persian fleet; upon which the Athenian cried, "Strike, but hear me." (See Themistocles.) Lived in the 5th century b.c. Eusden, Laurence, use'-den, an English poet, who in 1718 obtained the laureateship, which made him several enemies, particularly Pope, who placed him in the " Dunciad." Cooke, in his " Battle of the Poets," refers to him in these lines: — " Eusden, a laurell'd bard, by fortune raised, By few been read, by fewer still been praised." The duke of Buckingham, in his "Session of the Poets," also ridicules him : — " In rush'd Eusden, and cried, ' Who shall have it But I, the true laureate, to whom the king gave it ?' Apollo begg'd pardon, and granted his claim, But vow'd that, till then, he had ne'er heard his name." He became rector of Coningsby, in Lincolnshire, where he died, 1730. His poems are in Nichols's collection, b. in Yorkshire. EnsEBirs, u-se'-be-us, succeeded Marccllus as bishop of Home, in 310, and died the same year. He was strongly opposed to the readmission of lapsed Christians to communion. His opinions on this subject gave great offence at Rome, and the emperor Maxentius banished the pope to Sicily. He was by birth a Greek. EusEBirs, Pamphilus, an ecclesiastical his- torian, who, in the persecution by Diocletian, assisted the suffering Christians by his exhorta- tions, particularly his friend Pamphilus, whose name, out of veneration, he assumed. He was chosen bishop of Cicsarca about 313, and was at first the friend of Arias, because he considered *:im as persecuted ; but on perceiving the dan- gerous tendency of his opinions, he abandoned him, and assisted at the council of Nice, which he opened with an address ; he was also at that of Antioch. The emperor Constantino had a particular esteem for him, and showed him several tokens of favour, b. in Palestine, about 265; D. 333. He wrote an " Ecclesiastical His- tory," the " Life of Constantine," and other :J77 Evans works. The best edition of his " Ecclesiastical History" is that of Cambridge, 3 vols, folio, 1720. He wrote, besides, many other works, the principal of which is one entitled " Evan- gelical Preparation," 2 vols, folio, Paris, 1628. Eustachius, Bartholomew, u-stai -she-us, a distinguished Italian physician, who settled at Rome, and made several discoveries relative to medical science. The most important of these was the passage from the throat to the external ear, since known by the name of the Eustachian tube. He formed some anatomical tables, and Boerhaave, in 1707, published his "Opuscula Anatomica." d. 1574. Eustathius, u-stai'-the-us, an Homeric com- mentator, was a native of Constantinople, who, in the latter part of his life.was made archbishop of Thessalonica, in which station he exhibited much ability and prudence. He is best known, however, for his commentaries on Homer and Dio- nysius Periegetes, the first of which is a compila- tion from the works of older scholiasts and com- mentators, to which Eustathius added but little of his own. It is, however, a work of immense labour, and was first printed at Rome in 1542- 1550, and has been reprinted at several other times and places since, as, for instance, at Paris, in 1577, and at Oxford in 1697. The date of his death is unknown, but is believed to have occurred subsequent to 1194. Eutbopius, Flavins, u-tro'-pe-us, a Latin his- torian, who wrote an epitome of the History of Rome, from the age of Romulus to the reign of the emperor Valens, to whom the work was dedi- cated. Of all his works, the Roman history alone is extant. It is composed with conciseness and precision, but without elegance. Lived in the 4th century. EuTYCniis, u'-ti-kees, a monk, who lived near Constantinople, and who is said to have founded the sect called Eutyehians, in the East. Lived in the 5th century. Euiycnius, u-tirTci'-iu, a physician and divine, who, after practising physic for many years, was ordained, and in 938 became patriarch of Alexandria, b. at Cairo, 876 ; d. 950. He wrote, in Arabic, "Annals from the Creation to 900," published at Oxford by Pocoek, in 1659, 4to. He also write a "History of Sicily," the MS. of which is in the public library at Cambridge. Evagokas, e-viig'-o-riis, a Greek historian, who wrote a " History of Egypt," the " Life of Ti- magencs," "De Artificio Thucydidis Oratorio," " Lexicon in Thucydidem." Lived in the 1st century a.d. Evagokas, king of Cyprus, who re-took Sa- lamis, which had been wrested from his father by the Persians. He made war against Artaxerxc:', the king of Persia, with the assistance of the Egyptians, Arabians, and Tyrians, and obtained some advantages over the fleet of his enemy. The Persians, however, soon repaired their losses, and Evagoras saw himself defeated by sea and land, and obliged to be tributary to the power of Artaxcrxes, and to be stripped of all his dominions, except the town of Salamis. Assassinated soon after this fatal change of fortune, by a eunuch, 374 b. c— He left two sons; Nicoelcs, who succeeded him, and Protagoras, who afterwards deprived his nephew Evagoras of his possessions, upon account of his oppres- sion. Evans, Oliver, ev'-ans, an ingenious American mechanist, who constructed engines for the manufacture of cotton, and made many improve- THE DICTIONAKY Evans merits in the common corn-mill ; but is chiefly remarkable as the inventor of the high-pressure steam-engine, and as having proposed the appli- cation of steam power to the propulsion of car- riages, having, though ridiculed and sneered at, actually constructed a locomotive engine, b. near Philadelphia, 1755; ». 1811. Evans, General Sir De Lacy, G.C.B., entered the army in 1807 as ensign in the 22nd Foot, and after serving several years in India, returned and fought in the Peninsular campaigns of J812, 1S13, and 1811. He also fought at Quatre Bras and Waterloo, where he had his horse shot under him. In 1835 he volunteered to command the British Legion in Spain, and for his valour throughout the campaigns in which he served against the Carlists, he was invested with the order of the Bath and the Cross of San Ferdi- nand and San Charles of Spain. In 1854 he became commander of the second division of the Army of the East, and greatly distinguished himself at the battle of the Alma. At Inker- mann he rose from a bed of sickness to join his division ; but when he saw the manner in which General Pennefather was leading his men, he refused to take the command, but left his share of the merit entirely to that officer. He returned to England in 1855, and received the Grand Cross of the order of the Bath. With the exception of two short intervals, he had a seat in parliament from 1831 to 1865. b. at Moig, Ireland, 1787; d. 1870. Evanson, Edward, ev'-cn-ton, an English di- vine, who became curate to his uncle at M itcham, in Surrey. In 1768 he obtained the living of South Mimms, and was afterwards presented to the living of Tewkesbury, in Gloucestershire, to which was added that of Longdon, a village in Worcestershire. Here his sentiments on the doctrine of the Trinity underwent a change, and he ventured to make alterations in the Common Prayer, which gave such offence to the pa- rishioners that a prosecution was instituted against him, which failed, on account of some irregularity in the proceedings. In 1778 he re- signed his livings and returned to M itcham, where he undertook the education of some pupils, b. at Warrington, Lancashire, 1731 ; d. 1805. He wrote the " Dissonance of the four generally-received Evangelists ;" " A letter to Bishop Hurd on the Grand Apostasy;" "Re- flections on the State of Religion in Christen- dom ;" and some other works. Evans, David Morier, for some years assistant city correspondent of the Timet newspaper, and afterwards manager of the commercial depart- ment of the Standard and Morning Herald. He is the author of many important commercial works, the chief of which is " Facts, Failures, and Frauds," published in 1859. Was editor of the "Bankers' Magazine." b. 1819; r>. 1874. Evelyn, John, etf-lin, an English author, who, by marriage ■with the daughter of Sir Richard Browne, became possessed of Sayes Court, a manor in Kent, where he led a retired life till the Restoration, to which he in some measure contributed. At the establishment of the Royal Society, he became one of its first members. In 1662 appeared his "Sculptura; or, the History and Art of Chalcography and Engraving in Copper." This curious and valu- able work has since been reprinted. In 1064 came out his " Sylva ; or, a Discourse of Forest Tree?," which has gone through many editions, and is a great repository of all that was, in the 3.7! Everett author's time, known of the forest trees of Great Britain. He was appointed a commissioner for the sick and wounded seamen, one of the com- missioners for rebuilding St. Paul's, and after- wards; had a place at the Board of Trade. In the reign of James II. he was made one of the commissioners for executing the office of lord privy seal, and after the revolution was ap- pointed treasurer of Greenwich hospital. In 1697 appeared his " Numismata, or Discourse of medals." Mr. Evelyn has the honour of being one of the first who improved horticulture, and introduced exotics into this country. Of his garden at Sayes Court a curious account may be seen in the "Philosophical Transactions." b. at Wotton, Surrey, 1620 ; d. 1706. Evelyn was buried at Wotton, where, on his tombstone, he had it recorded, " That all is vanity which is not honest ; and that there is no solid wisdom but real piety." He wrote several books besides the above, and of his "Memoirs" Sir Walter Scott says, "We have never seen a mine so rich." — His son John wrote a Greek poem, pre- fixed to his father's "Sylva," and translated Rapin's poem on gardens into English, and the "Life of Alexander" from Plutarch. He was also the author of a few poems in Dryden's col- lection, d. 1693, aged 44. Everdingen, Aldert van, ever-din'-jen, a clever Dutch landscape painter and etcher, who excelled in delineating the rude and grand features of nature. He spent upwards of a year in Norway, and took great delight in sketching the wild scenery of its rugged coast. Some o£ his forests arc extremely picturesque and truth- ful ; and he likewise excelled in sea stories and in figures. He executed numerous etchings, which are now scarce ; among them are a scries of views in Norway, and fifty-six original illus- trations of the fable of " Reynard the Fox." He was born in Alkmaar in 1621, and died there in 1075. E verett, Alexander Hill, eo'-e-ret, an Ameri- can author of note, who began life as a tutor in an academy, but afterwards entered into the office of John Quincy Adams, as a student of the law. In 1809 he went to Russia as an attache of the mission of Mr. Adams, and spent two years in St. Petersburg, studying political economy, and making himself acquainted with the modern languages. On returning to Ame- rica, he connected himself, in Boston, with both law and literature. From 1818 to 1824 he served as charge d'affaires in the Netherlands, where he pursued his literary studies, and, in 1821, published a work entitled "Europe; or, a General Survey of the Principal Powers," &c., which was highly spoken of. In the following year he issued another, which entered into a consideration of the Godwin and Malthusian theories of population. In 1825 he became American minister at the court of Spain, which he held for nearly five years, during which he continued to devote himself to his studies, and produced a political work on America, whilst at the same time contributing to the "North American Review," then under the editorship of his brother. In 1841 he was chosen presi- dent of Jefferson College, Louisiana, and, in I845,ministcr-plcnipotentiarytot'nina.'rnroug!i ill-health, he did not reach Canton till 1816 where he died 1847. n. at Boston, 1790. Everett, Edward, D.C.L., brother of tho lbovc, studied divinity with a view to the office If pastor, and became, before he was twent v. OF BIOGRAPHY. Evremond minister of a large Unitarian congregation at Boston. In 1815 he relinquished the pulpit for the professorial chair of Greek Language and Literature in Harvard university. Previous to his entering upon his duties, he visited Europe, and for two years resided at Gottingen, studying German, and making himself ac- quainted with the best modes of instruction adopted in the German universities. After a sojourn in Europe of five years, during which he visited various countries, he returned to America, and entered upon his university duties with large stores of accumulated learning and knowledge. In 1820 he added to the duties of his chair those of editor of the "North Ame- rican Review," which he continued to perform for four years. In 1824 he was elected to the House of Representatives, and, in 1836, became governor of Massachusetts. In 1841 he was appointed minister to the English court, which post he held for about five years, and on his return was elected president of Harvard univer- sity, which he was subsequently compelled to resign on account of ill-health. In 1853 he was elected a member of the Senate for Massachu- setts. B. 1794; r>. 1805. Eversley, the Rt. Hon. Charles Shaw Lcfcvrc, Viscount, ev'-ers-le, for many years member for the northern division of the county of Hamp- shire, v as elected Speaker of the House of Com- mons in 1839, an office which he retained until 1857, when he was raised to the peerage, b. 1794. Evhemond, St., aivr'-mont, Charles de St. Denis, Lord of, a French writer, who relin- quished the law for the military profession. He served under Condi, as lieutenant of the Guards, and in the civil wars of France fought at the battles of Rocroi and Nordlingcn. He attended Mazarin in the negotiation with Spain; but having betrayed some confidential secrets, in a correspondence with the marquis de Crequi, was obliged to quit France. Accordingly, he found a refuge in England, where he was in great esteem with Charles II. In 1639 permis- sion was granted him to return to his country; but he preferred ending his days in the land of his adoption, n. near Coutances, Normandy, 1613; d. in London, 1703, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He was a man of wit and ingenuity. His works were printed in 1705, in 3 vols. 4to, by Des Marzcaux. Ewald, Johannes, u'-ald, a distinguished Danish poet, who wrote several dramatic pieces, and a poem entitled " The Temple of Fortune," .vhich prove his genius to have been consider- able. His principal work is named " Balder'* Death," a drama which takes a high standing in Danish literature, b. at Copenhagen, 1743; d. 1781. Ewikg, John, u'-ing, an American divine and mathematician, was educated, or rather com- pleted his education, at Princeton college, and acted for some time as teacher of the grammar school there. He took his degree in 1755, and was chosen instructor of philosophy in the col- lege of Philadelphia, and minister of a presby- terian congregation in that city. While on a visit to this country, in 1773, the university of Edinburgh conferred upon him the degree of D.I).; and in 1779 he was chosen provost of Philadelphia university. He contributed some papers to the American edition of the "Ency- clopaedia Britannica," published a volume of lectures on natural philosophy, and was com- missioner for settling the boundary lines be- 379 Eyre tween several of the states of the American uuiou. b. in Maryland, 1732; J>, 1802. Exmouth, Edward Pellew, Viscount, a dis- tinguished British naval commander, who in 1/iO, entered the navy, and first brought him- self prominently into notice in 1776, at the battle of Lake Champlain, N. America. Having risen successively through the ranks of lieutenant and post -captain, in 1793 he was appointed to the command of the Nymphe frigate, of 36 guns and falling in with the Cleopatra French fri- gate, he captured her, after a desperate fight and had the honour of knighthood con- ferred upon him. Continuing in active ser- vice, in 1799 he was appointed to the com- mand of the Impetuous, of 78 guns, and was engaged in various services on the French coast, In 1802 he was named colonel of the marines; and, in the same year, was chosen member of parliament for Barnstaple, in Devon- shire. In 1804 he commanded the Tonnant, of 84 guns, and received the rank of rear-admiral of the Red. He was also made commander in the East Indies, on which he resigned his par- liamentary seat. In 1S0S he was raised to the rank of vice-admiral of the Blue. In 1810 he blockaded Flushing, and, shortly afterwards, was appointed to the commander-in-chiefship in the Mediterranean. Here he co-operated with the British forces on the eastern part of the coast of Spain with great skill. The value of his services was recognised in 1814, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron Exmouth, of Canonteign, Devonshire. In the same year he was promoted to the rank of full admiral, and, subsequently, made a K.C.B. and G.C.B. In 1816 he proceeded to Algiers, to chastise the Dey for having violated a treaty concluded for the abolition of Christian slavery. His plan of attack is considered to be one of the boldest ever adopted by a naval commander. He entered the harbour with his ship, the Queen Charlotte, and being admirably supported by the other ships of his fleet, set lire to the war- ships of the Algerines, bombarded the cit v, and forced the Dey to yield to all his demands!' For this service he was thanked by both houses of Parliament, and raised to the rank of viscount. On the death of Admiral Duckworth, in 1817, he was appointed to the chief command at ply. mouth; but, after 1821, retired from public ser- vice, b. at Dover, 1757; d. 1833. Exupekius, ex-u-peer'-e-ut, bishop of Tou- louse, and a saint of the Roman calendar. He expended all his own wealth, and sold the sacred vesselsfto maintain the poor in a time of famine. d. about 417. Etck, Hubert van, ike, an eminent artist, and founder of the Flemish school of painting. One of his finest works, in which lie was assisted by his brother, is the "Adoration of the Lamb," in the church of St. Bavon, Ghent, He painted in distemper and in oil. b. at Maaseyck, Vim ■ B. 1426. Etck, John van, brother of the above, painted history, portraits, and landscapes; but is chiefly known by his being the inventor of a new method of mixing his oils, which greatly improved the style of painting, b. 1370; b. 1411. Eybe, I'.dward John, ire, a son of the Rev. Anthony Lyre, of Hornsea, Yorkshire, who emi- grated to Australia when young, and was noted for his explorations there, and his good services towards the aborigines. After being lieutenant- THE DICTIONARY Eyre governor of New Zealand and Antigua, he be- came governor of Jamaica in 1862. Here he suppressed a rebellion of the negroes in I860, which threatened the lives of all the whites in the island. He was superseded on a charge of having exceeded his powers as governor, but completely exonerated by the result of a commis- sion of inquiry held on his conduct, b. 1817. Eyre, Sir William, K.C.B., an English general, entered the army in 1823, and, after serving in Canada, proceeded to the Cape of Good Hope, and distinguished himself as lieutenant-colonel in both the Caffre wars. In acknowledgment of his eminent services, he was made a companion of the order of the Bath, promoted to be colonel in the army, and ap- pointed an aide-de-camp to the queen. On the military force being sent out to the East, during the Russian war, he was appointed to a brigade of the 3rd division of the army, and was present at the battle of the Alma. He commanded the troops in the trenches during the battle of lnkermann, and remained in the Crimea until after the fall of Sebastopol. In 1855 he was created a knight commander of the order of the Bath, was made a commander of the Legion of Honour, a knight of the imperial order of the Medjidie of the 2nd class, and was among the general officers who received the Sardinian war- medal. After his return, in 1856, he was selected by the commander-in-chief to com- mand the troops in Canada, which appoint- ment, on account of ill health, he was forced to resign, b. 1806; d. at Bilton Hall, Warwick- shire, 1859. F Fabeb, Johann,/a'-Jer, a German divine, who was created doctor at Cologne, and in 1526 was appointed confessor to Ferdinand, king of the Romans. He was subsequently presented to the see of Vienna, and was called the " Mallet of Heretics," owing to the zeal which he showed against Luther, b. in Swabia, 1170; d. 1511. His works were printed at Cologne, in 3 vols, folio. — There was another controversialist of this name, who wrote several works against the Protestants. Fabkrt, Abraham, fa-hair, a gallant French officer, who was the son of a bookseller at Metz. He was educated with the duke d'Epernon, became a soldier, and saved the royal army in the celebrated retreat of Mayence in 1635. He was wounded in the thigh at the siege of Turin, and on being recommended to have the limb amputated, he refused, remarking, "I wont die by piecemeal ; death shall have me entire, or not at all." He, however, recovered, and sub- sequently distinguished himself in the battle of Clarice in 1611, and at the siege of 'Bapaume. He was afterwards governor of Sedan, and in 1651 captured Stenai, and received the baton of a marshal in 1658. He refused the decora- tions of the king's orders, as he said he was not entitled to wear them; and being unable to produce the proofs of nobility which had been conferred on his family by Henry IV., he like- wise declined that honour, "because he would not," he declared, "have his cloak decorated with a cross, and his name disgraced by an imposture." b. 1599; d. 1662. F ABiAtr, fai'-be-an, a pope and saint, accord- ing to the Koman calendar, lie ascended the 3S0 Fabricius papal chair in 236, and erected churches, and sent bishops into Gaul to propagate Chris- tianity. He suffered in the persecution under Decius, 250. Fabius Maximus, Rullianus, fai-be-u», an illustrious Roman, who, as master of the horse in the war against the Samnitcs, charged the enemy, and obtained a victory. Having done this" in the absence of the dictator, and contrary to his orders, he was condemned to death, but was rescued by the people. In 303 n.c. he served the office of censor, and obtained the name of Maximus, for lessening the power of the populace in elections. He triumphed over seven nations, and served the office of dictator a second time 2S7 B.C. Fabius Maximus, Quiutus, surnamed Cunc- tator, a Roman, distinguished for his prudence, valour, and generosity. He was consul the first time 233 B.C., when he gained a great victory over the Ligurians. When Hannibal the Carthaginian defeated the Romans at the battle of Thrasymcne, he was nominated pro- dictator, to oppose that general. He succeeded in surrounding Hannibal, whom, however, he allowed to escape, when he was recalled by the senate, who refused to confirm an agreement which he had made for the ransom of prisoners. On this, Fabius sold his estates to raise the money. When the time of his dictatorship expired, he advised his successor, Paulus iEmilius, not to hazard an engagement ; his advice, how- ever, was neglected, and thus waslost the famous battle of Cannai. Fabius was now looked upon as the only refuse of the Romans, and he quickly recovered Tarentum, which had been betrayed to Hannibal. In his advanced years, he was superseded by Scipio, yet his death was lamented by the people as a common loss. b. about 275; r». 203 B.C. Fabre, John Claude, fair, a French priest of the Oratory at Paris, who compiled two dic- tionaries, translated Virgil into French, and continued Fleury's " Ecclesiastical History." B. 1668; D. 1753. Fabri, Honorc, fa'-bre, a learned Jesuit, who wrote " Physica, seu Rerum Corporearum Scientia," 6 vols. 4to; " Synopsis Optica," 4to; " De Plantis, do Generatione Animalium, et de Homine," 4to, &c. He is said, by some, to have discovered the circulation of the blood before Harvey. B. at Bellay, 1607 ; d. at Rome, 1688. Fabbiano, Gentile da, fab'-re-a'-no, an Italian artist of great skill and merit, whose principal works were a picture of the Madonna for the Cathedral of Orvicto, "The Adoration of the Kings," now in the Florence Gallery, and many other works at Florence, Siena, Rome, and Venice, the senate of the latter city having invested him with the patrician toga in acknow- ledgment of his merit as an artist. A great many of his best works have been lost, and on* of these is said to have elicited from Michael Angelo the remark that the artist's style was like his name — gentile, b. at Fabriaiio, in the Marches of Ancona, about 1370 ; d. about 1450. Fabeicitts, Cah\9,fn-brisk'-e-us, a celebrated Roman, who, in his fmt consulship, obtained several victories over the Samnitcs and Lu- canians, and was honoured with a triumph. Two years after, lie went as ambassador to Pyrrhus, and refused with contempt the pre- sents otlV'red him. Pyrrhus admired the OF BIOGEAPHY. Fabricius magnanimity of Fabricius, but his admiration was increased when ho made a discovery of the perfidious offers of his physician, who had volunteered to the Roman general to poi- son his master for a sum of money. To this gTcatncss of soul was added the most consum- mate knowledge of military affairs, and the most perfect simplicity of manners. Fabricius wished to inspire a contempt for luxury among the people. He lived and died in the greatest poverty. His body was buried at the public charge, and the Roman people were obliged to give a dowry to his two daughters, when they had arrived at years of maturity. Lived in the 3rd century B.C. Fabricius, George, a learned German anti- quary and poet, who, in 1550, published a work entitled " Roma," being an elucidation of the antiquities, &c, of the seven hilled city. His poems appeared at Bale, in 1567, in two volumes, and besides these he wrote a variety of other pieces, all of which are charac- terized by great purity and elegance of style. His Latin especially was of high excellence. The emperor Maximilian is said to have con- ferred a laurel crown upon him shortly before his death, which occurred in 1571. b. at Chem- nitz, Upper Saxony, 1516. Fabricius, Jerome, an Italian physician, usually called Aquapendentc, from the place of his birth, professed anatomy with extra- ordinary reputation at l'adua. b. 1537 ; d. 1619. His works on anatomy have been printed in 2 vols, folio. Fabricius, Johann Albert, a learned divine, who became professor of eloquence at Hamburg, and published " Bibliothcca Latina," 2 vols.-lto ; "LMbliotheca Gneca," 1-1 vols. 4to; "Codex Apocrypbus Novi Testamcnti," 3 vols. 8vo ; "Codex Pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamcnti," 2 vols. 8vo; " Bibliographia Antiquaria," 4to; "Bibliothcca Latina Kcclesiastiea," folio; " Bibliothcca media; et infimx Latinitatis," 5 vols. 8vo. b. at Leipsic, 1668 ; d. at Hamburg, 1736. Fabroni, Angelo, fa-bro'-ne, a learned Italian, who was educated first at Faenza, and after- wards at Rome, where he obtained a eanonry. He was afterwards appointed prior of the church of St. Lorenzo at Florence, where he remained till called to be curator of the univer- sity of Pisa. He is generally known by his Biographies of Italian literati of the 17th and 18th centuries, of which work he published 18 volumes, and left another ready for the press. Besides this, he wrote separate biographies of Cosmo, Lorenzo, Leo, and other eminent per- boiis of the house of Medici, with many pane- gyrics on learned men. Be also conducted the " Giornale di Literati," and published some religious pieces, b. in Tuscany, 1732 ; d. at Pisa, 1803. FABTAif.or Fabian, Robert./U'-Ji-arc, an Eng- lish historian, and author of a work culled the "Concordance of Histories," being a chronicle of the history of England from the first landing of the Romans down to his own time. The first edition was printed by Pinson, in 1516, and the work has been several times republished since. Fabyan was a merchant of London, a member of the Drapers' Company, served the offices of alderman and sheriff, and repre- sented the corporation in op-tain deputations to the king fir redress of grievances in conni \i m with the duties charged upon English cloth in 3sl Fagius its importation into the Low Countries. He de- clined the office of mayor in 1502, on the ground of poverty, though he is known to have been opulent at the time; but then he had sixteen children, which, in his opinion, was a sufficient reason for declining to incur the expenses attending the chief magistracy of London even then. He is believed to have been born in London, though the family from which he sprung had an estate in Essex, b. about 1150 ; d. about 1512. Facciolati, Jacopo, fat'-che-o-la'-te, an Italian scholar, who gave much attention to the study of classical literature, to the revival of which he greatly contributed. He compiled a Latin dictionary, upon which, in conjunction with his pupil Forcellini, he spent nearly forty years of labour, and which was published at Padua in 1771 in four vols, folio. He was professor of logic in the university of Padua, and his lectures and other compositions, which are very voluminous, show him to have been one of the most erudite men of his own or any other time. b. 1682 ; d. 1769. Fadlallah, or Chodsa Raschid Addix Fadlallaii, fad-lal-la, a Persian historian, was vizier to the sultan Cazan, who reigned at Taurus, and at whose command he compiled a history of the Moguls, which be finished in 1291. He added a supplement to this work by the order of Cazan's successor. The first part was translated into French by La Croix. Lived in the 13th century. Faed, John, faed, artist, having early dis- played a taste for art, went to Edinburgh when 21 years of age, and exhibited there, in 1850, some pictures delineating humble life, which were readily bought. He afterwards frequently exhibited the productions of his pencil, his subjects being drawn from Shakspeare and his contemporaries, Burns's "Cotter's Saturday Night," "Tam o' Shanter," &c. b. in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, 1820 Faed, Thomas, R.A., brother of the above, a painter of distinction, whose earliest exhibited work was a water-colour drawing from the " Old English Baron." Ho soon, however, adopted oil as the medium of his conceptions, and successively produced "Scott and bis family at Abbotsford," " The Mitherless Bairn," " Home and the Homeless," "The First Break in the Family," "Sermons in the Backwoods," "His Only Pain," "From Dawn to Sunset," &c. Mr. Faed became an associate of the Scottish Academy in IS 19, and shortly afterwards fixed his residence in London, where he was made A.R.A. in 185!), and R.A. in 1861. b. at Burley Mill, Kirkcudbright, 1826. Fagan, Christopher Bartholomew, fai'-gir.. a comic author, of Irish extraction, was a clerk in a public office in Paris, and de- voted his leisure to literary pursuits. His works were published in 1760, in four vols., and the most approved of his pieces, all of which are executed in a delicate and racy style, are entitled — " La Rendezvous," " La Pupille," " L'Amitie Rivalc," " l.es Originaux," and "Jocoude." He had the aversion to business which generally distinguishes men of genius, but, what is more singular, he had also a strong dislike to society, b. at Paris, 1702; D. 1775. Fagius, Va.u\,fai'-jc-us, a German Protestant divine, whose real name was Buchlein. t'tfi some time he exercised the office of a school- THE DICTIONARY Fagel master, but afterwards entered into orders. In 1541 the plague broke out at Isny, where he resided at the time, and he remained in the place, comforting and ministering to the sick. In 1543 he and Buccr went to England, where archbishop Cranmer employed them on a new translation of the Scriptures, b. at Heidelberg, 1504 ; d. at Cambridge, 1550. In Mary's reign his body was taken up and burnt. He wrote several books on the Hebrew language and the Targums. Fagel, Gaspard, fa'-jel, a famous Dutch statesman, who after filling the offices of coun- sellor-pensionary of Haarlem and recorder to the States-general, was, on the murder of De Witt in 1672, advanced to the vacant position of grand pensionary; and, in 1678, co-operated with Sir William Temple, English ambassador, in arranging the treaty of Nimeguen. Louis XIV., in the course of his war with Holland, attempted to corrupt the pensionary, but the offers were indignantly spurned, and Fagel continued to give the most effective aid to the Prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, especially in preparing the way for that prince to the throne of James II., but unfortunately did not live to Warn the official notification of William's accession, having died on the 15th of December, 1688. b. 1629. He was a man of great sagacity, of impressive eloquence, and wielded much political influence. He was never married. — Several other members of the same family played prominent and honourable parts in the affairs of Holland, one of whom, Francis Nicholas Fagel, nephew of Gaspard, was one of the most eminent military commanders the republic produced. He enjoyed the friendship of William III. ; displayed marked gallantry at the battle of Fleurus in 1690 ; as well as at the siege of Mons in 1691, at the siege of Namur, at the capture of Bonn in 1703, at the taking of Tournay, and at the battles of Ramillies and Malplaquet, under Marlborough, d. 1718. Fagon, Guy Crescent, fa'-gawng, physician to Louis XIV., who defended the doctrine of the circulation of flhe blood, and collected nume- rous plants to enrich the royal gardens, of «vhieh he was superintendent. B. at Paris, 1633 ; D. 1718. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, fii'-ren-hite, an experimental philosopher, who improved the thermometer, by making use of mercury instead of spirits of wine, and formed a new scale for the instrument, grounded on accurate experi- ments. The English have generally adopted his scale ; but the French prefer Reaumur's, b. at Dantzig, 1686; d. 1736. Fahrenheit wrote "A Dissertation on Thermometers." Fahie, Sir William Charles, fai'-he, one of the many distinguished officers who illustrated the annals of the British navy during the last war with France, served as a lieutenant with great credit in the West Indian campaign of 1794, obtained post rank in 1796, and from that time till 1810 he was in constant employment in the West Indies, during which period he cap- tured the French men-of-war L'Armee d'ltalie and Htxutpov.lt, assisted in the reduction of the Dutch West Indies in 1807; at the capture of Martinique in 1809, and at that of Guada- loupc in 1810. He subsequently reduced the islands of St. Martin, St.Eustatius, and Saba; and the flags of Holland and France being now expelled from the Antilles, he returned to Eng- land. He continued in command of the Aber- 382 Faithorne cromby (formerly the French ship Hautpoult, which he had himself captured) till the conclu- sion of the war. He was nominated C.B. in 1815 ; and, after the escape of Napoleon from Elba, co-operated, in the Malta, 74, with the Austrian general, Lane, in the siege of Gaeta, which surrendered, after an obstinate defence, in August, 1815. For this service Captain Fahio received the insignia of a Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit from the King of the Two Sicilies. He was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral in 1819, vice-adrniral and Knight Commander of the Bath in 1830, and from 1820 till his death held the commands in the Leeward Islands and at Halifax, b. 1763 ; d. 1833, at Bermuda. Fairbaibn, William, fair'-bairn, a Scotch mechanist and civil engineer, who was among the first, if not the first, to construct sea-going vessels of iron. He was also continually engaged in experimenting on the qualities of iron, and did much to advance mechanical knowledge in the department of engineering, b. at Kelso, Scotland, 1789? i>. 1874. Fairfax, Edward, 4 /air'-/uifc», an English poet, who translated Tasso's poem of "Godfrey of Bouillon" into English verse, and wrote a curious book entitled " Demonology," in which he avows his belief in witchcraft, b. about 1632. Fairfax, Thomas, Lord, general of the parlia- mentary army in the civil war, was the eldest son of Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax. He began his military career under Lord Vere.in Holland, and when hostilities commenced between the king and parliament, he took a decided part in favour of the latter, being, like his father, a zealous Presbyterian. He had a principal com- mand in the northern counties of England, where he and his father were defeated in several engagements ; but, afterwards, Sir Thomas had better fortune, and distinguished himself so greatly at the battle of Marston Moor, in 1644. that he was appointed general of the army, iri the place of the earl of Essex, and Cromwell became his lieutenant-general. In 1645 he defeated the king's forces at Naseby, after which he marched into the west, where he took Bath, Bristol, and other important places. In 1647 he was made constable of the Tower, and the following year succeeded to the title, by the death of his father. He then proceeded into the eastern counties, and took Colchester, after a brave resistance by Sir George Lisle and Sir Charles Lucas, whom his lordship, after the surrender, caused to be shot. On his return to London, he was named one of the king's judges, but refused to act, though he took no steps to pre- vent the death of the king, and, at the time of the execution, was kept engaged in prayer by Majov Harrison. In 1650 he resigned his commission, and lived in retirement till the Restoration, when he made his peace with Charles II., upoO whom he waited at the Hague, b. at Denton Yorkshire, 1611; b. at Nun Appleton, York^ shire, 1671. He wrote an account of his publio life, and this, in conjunction with the " Fairfax Correspondence," published a few years since, throws much light on the motives which infiu» enced himself and others in taking a prominent part in the important events of those times. Faithobne, William, fai' -thorn, an v ,ngUsh painter and engraver, was a soldier in th» royal army during the civil war, and was tak. 1691. Walpole gives a considerable list of the prints of this artist.— His son, William, was a good engraver in mezzotinto. Falconberg, Mary, Countess of, fal'-kon- berg, the third daughter of Oliver Cromwell, and wife of Thomas, Viscount Falconberg, was a woman of considerable talents, a mem- ber of the church of England, and contri- buted to the restoration of Charles II. She was possessed of great personal beauty, and so much spirit and energy that Burnet says, " She was more worthy to be Protector than her brother." d. 1712. (See Cromwell.) Falconer, Thomas, faV-lco-ner, a great stu- dent and eminent scholar, was the author of " Chronological Tables " from the reign of Solo- mon to the death of Alexander the Great, " Ob- servations on Pliny's Account of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus," published in the " Archajo- logia," and an edition of Strabo, published long after the author's death. Such was his passion for the acquisition of knowledge, that heusedtoread in a kneeling posture, the only one he could bear during an illness of nearly thirty years. He was almost constantly enduring acute pain, and that he was able under these circumstances to study at all, much less compose his various works, is wonderful, b. at Chester, 1736; ». 1792. Falconer, William, brother of the preced- ing, a physician in large practice at Bath, was a clever writer on medical and chemical sulv jects, many valuable treatises having been pro- duced by him. He ascertained the properties of carbonic acid gas, a discovery which has been erroneously attributed to Dr. Priestley. B. at Chester, 1743 ; d. 1821. Falconer, William, a Scotch poet, who was born of humble parents, and bred to the sea. In 1751 he published a poem on "The Death of the Prince of Wales;" but his reputation rests on "The Shipwreck," a poem in three cantos, which is highly descrip- tive and pathetic. It was suggested by a ship- wreck, suffered by himself, in a voyage from Alexandria to Venice, when only he and two others of the crew were saved. Falconer also wrote "An Ode to the Duke of York," which obtained him the post of purser to the Royal George. He likewise compiled a useful work, entitled "The Marine Dictionary," 4to, and published a poem against Wilkes and Church- ill, under the title of " The Demagogue." He sailed from England, in the Aurora, for the East Indies; but, after her departure from the Cape of Good Hope, the ship was never heard of. n. about 1730; lost, it is supposed in the Mozambique Channel, in the' winter of 1769. His father was a barber in Edinburgh. Falconet, Stephen Maurice, fal'-ko-nai, a famous sculptor, was a native of Paris, was admitted a member of the Academy in 1741, and soon produced a rapid succession of admi- rable works that won for him a European fame. In 1766, Catharine II. invited him to Russia to execute a statue of Peter the Great, and the re- sult was the well-known colossal figure of the emperor on horseback at St. Petersburg. Fal- conet was an author as well as an artist ; and ofter his return to Paris in 1778. published some works in reference to sculpture, b, 1710; r>. 383 Falkner 1791. — Peter Falconet, his son, a painter of historical pictures and portraits, visited Eng- land in 1776, and gained two prizes from the Society of Arts. Falconi a, Probajal'-ko'-ne-a, a Latin poetess, who composed a cento from Virgil, containing the sacred history from the Creation, and the history of Christ in verse. Lived in the 4th century. Falieri, OrAe\afo, fal-e-air'-e, doge of Venice, who sailed with a fleet to the assistance of Bald- win, king of Jerusalem, about 1102. He con- quered Dalmatia, Croatia, and other provinces ; but, in defending the republic against the Hun- garians, was killed, 1117. Falieri, Marino, doge of Venice in 1351, formed the design of murdering all the senators, to render himself absolute ; but the plot being discovered, he was beheaded. This forms the subject of one of Byron's dramas, d. 1355. Falk, John Pcter,falk,an ingenious Swede, who studied medicine at Upsal, where, also, he applied himself assiduously to botany under Linnams, by whose recommendation he was appointed professor of botany in the Apothecaries' Garden, and keeper of a cabinet of natural history at St. Petersburg, b. 1727; shot himself, 1774. His observations, made in his travels, were published at St. Petersburg, in 1785, 3 vols. 4to. Falkland, Henry Cary, Viscount./aM^'-Zawrf, was lord-deputy for Ireland, from 1622 to 1629. His administration, however, was by no means popular. He wrote "A History of that most unfortunate Prince, Edward II." d. 1633. Falkland, Lucius Cary, Viscount, the eldest son of the preceding, was educated in Trinity College, Dublin, where he became distinguished for his proficiency in classical and general literature. He married a lady of small fortune, which greatly displeased his father, when he retired to a country house, and devoted himself to the study of Greek. On the breaking out of the civil war, he joined the court party, but by no means could reconcile the integrity of his own high principles with the duplicity which marked the conduct of Charles I. In the midst of the troubles which distracted the kingdom, he lost the buoyancy of his spirits, and would frequently ejaculate to himself, in mournful tone, " Peace ! peace !" which, however, he was not destined to live to see. At the battle of New- bury, he volunteered into the cavalry commanded by Lord Byron, and fell, shot through the body. His remains were not found till the followingdav. b. 1010; killed, 1613. Lord Clarendon, in his " History of the Rebellion," says that this noble- man " was a person of such prodigious parts of learning and knowledge, of that inestimable sweetness and delight in conversation, of so flowing and obliging a humanity and goodness to mankind, and of that primitive simplicity and integrity of life, that if there were no other brand upon this odious and accursed civil war than that single loss, it must be most infamous and execrable to all posterity." Notwithstand- ing the apparent excess of this panegyric, Falk- land seems to have deserved it ; for "he was an ornament to the nation, and the envy of the age. One of his sayings was, " I pity unlearned gentlemen on a rainy day." He is represented among the statues in the lobby of the House of Commons. Falkner, Thomas,f«lk'-7ier, an English sur- geon, who became a Jesuit, and acted as a mis- sionary in Paraguay. He returned to England THE DICTIONARY Fallopio after the suppression of the order to which he belonged, and lived subsequently in retirement. He was the author of a " Description of Pata- gonia," &c. d. 1780. Fallopio, Gabriel, fat-lo-pe-o, an eminent physician and anatomist, who discovered the tubes of the uterus which bear his name. He was professor of anatomy, first at Pisa, and afterwards at Padua, where he died in 1562. b. at Modena, 1523. His works were printed in 3 vols, folio, at Venice, in 1584. Fancoubt, Samuel, fan'-kort, a dissenting minister, who became pastor of a congregation at Salisbury, whence he was obliged to remove for rejecting the Calvinistic notions of election and reprobation. He then went to London, and established the first circulating library, about 1740, in which, however, he had little encou- ragement. He wrote some controversial tracts, and died poor, in 1763. b. in the W. of Eng- land, 1678. Fajtnius, Caius,/a»'-ne-«8, surnamed Strabo, was consul of Komc591A.U.C.,and rendered him- self remarkable by a law, which prohibited any person from spending more than a certain sum daily. — His son was distinguished for eloquence. He was consul in the 630th year of Kome. — There was another of this name, who wrote a history of Nero's cruelties, the loss of which is greatly regretted by Pliny the Younger. He lived in the 1st century. FANsnAWE, Sir Richard, fan'-ghaw, a states- man and poet, who was educated at Cambridge, and in 1635 was sent ambassador to Spain, whence, in 1641, he returned, and acted steadily for the royal cause. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, and closely confined for a considerable time ; but at last recovered his liberty, and went to Breda, where he was knighted by Charles II. in 1656. At the Resto- ration he was made master of requests, and sent to Portugal to negotiate the marriage with the king and the infanta Catharine. In 1664 he was scut ambassador to Spain, where he died of fever in 1666. b. in Hertfordshire, 1608. He translated into English the "Pastor Fido," or Faithful Shepherd, of Gnarini'; also the " Lusiad" of Camoens. His letters during his embassies in Spain and Portugal were printed in 1702, 8vo. Fabadat, Michael, /ur'-a-dai, a distinguished English chemist and natural philosopher, who was at first apprenticed to the trade of book- binding, but whose mechanical genius and talent for investigation procured him the ultimate patronage of Sir Humphry Davy. Through his interest he was taken into the laboratory of the Koyal Institution of London, where he was enabled to pursue his studies. In 1827 he pub- lished his work on "Chemical Manipulations," and from that time continued a regular con- tributor to the "Philosophical Transactions," spreading his investigations over the wide field of electricity. He succeeded, if not in discover- ing, at all events in establishing, the laws of electro-magnetism, and has, perhaps, done more than any other man towards the elucidation of electric phenomena. On this subject he pub- lished three volumes, entitled " Experimental Researches in Electricity," in which are included his researches into the magneticnatureof oxygen gas, light, and other important subjects. A true philosopher, he rejected all posts of honour, confining himself to his sphere in the Royal In- stitution, where the charm of his lectures was a continual attraction to those who 'leliihtcd to SSI Farmer follow him through the paths of magnetic science. In private life his character was irre- proachable, and characterized by great good- ness and humanity, b. in London, 1794; d. 1867. Fabdella, Michael Ar\ge\o, far-dail'-la, was professor of natural history and astronomy at Padua, and wrote several books on his favourite sciences, which are little known, b. in Sicily, 1650; d. at Naples, 1718. Fabel, William, far'-el, a Protestant divine, who studied at Paris; but having embraced the Reformed religion, he left France and settled at Geneva, wherfe he laboured with great zeal against popery, and was there the chief actor in establishing the Reformation. He was ba- nished thence, with Calvin, in 1538, for refusing to submit to the synod at Berne. Farcl then settled at Neufchatel, where he died in 1565. b. in Dauphine, 1489. His writings are few. Fabet, John, fai'-re, a clever geologist and surveyor, who made a survey of the county of Derby for the Board of Agriculture, which was published in two volumes. He took great pains to investigate the relative position of the various strata throughout Great Britain, and collected specimens illustrative of this valuable depart- ment of science; and it is in this last respect that his chief merit lies. His observations on this subject were published in a series of papers in Nicholson's "Philosophical Journal." b. at Woburn, Bedfordshire, 1766; d. 1826. Fabia t Sousa, Emanuel, fi-re'-a ee soo'-sa, a Portuguese knight, who wrote a " History of Portugal" to the reignof Henry the Cardinal, a " History of the Portuguese Dominions in Europe, Asia, and Africa," and some other works, b. 1590; d. at Madrid, 1610. Fabinato, Paolo, faw'-re-na'-to, a celebrated painter of Verona, who was a pupil of Titian, and of whose works there are several excellent specimens in the churches of Verona and the vicinity. His style of design is robust and vigorous, and his colouring partakes largely of the character of the Venetian school. He like- wise etched a few designs from sacred and mythological subjects, b. 1522 ; d. 1606, on the same day as his wife. FABiffELLi, fav:r'-e-nail'-le, a distinguished Neapolitan vocalist, whose real name is said to have been Carlo Broschi. He studied under Porpora at Rome, whence he went to Vienna, where be became a great favourite with Charles VI., who loaded him with riches and presents. In 1734 he visited London, and, by the capti- vating power of his melody, drew all who could atl'ord to hear him. So great was the attraction of his voice, that Handel was forced to dismiss a rival company, over which he was presiding, notwithstanding his own immense popularity. His influence over the musical sympathies of his audiences seems never to have been equalled. b. at Naples. 1705 : v. 1782. Faemee, Hugh,./'rt) J -me) - ) alearncd dissenting divine, who wrote "An Inquiry into the Nature and Design of our Lord's Temptation in the Wilderness," 8vo, in which he considered that event as a divine vision, rcpresentingthediffereiit scenes of our Saviour's future ministry. It was answered by several writers. In 1771 he pub- lished his "Dissertation on Miracles." His next publication was an "Essay on the Demoniacs of the New Testament," whom he maintained to have been afflicted with natural diseases. This work was replied to by Dr. Worthington and Mr. Fell: to the former Mr. Farmer returned a OF BIOGRAPHY, Farmer temperate answer, but on the other he was unmercifully severe. His last performance was entitled " The General Prevalence of the Wor- ship of Human Spirits in the Ancient Heathen Nations, asserted and proved." This was also attacked by Mr. Fell, in an acute and learned treatise, in 1785. In the same year Mr. Farmer was almost deprived of his sight; but was relieved by a surgical operation, and enabled to pursue his studies, b. at Shrewsbury, 1714; d. at Walthamstow, 1787. He directed his execu- tors to burn his papers ; but some of his lette»s, and fragments of a dissertation on the story of Balaam, were published in 1804, with his life prefixed. Fakm f.b, Richard, a divine and antiquary, was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he took his degree of M.A.. in 1760, and the same year was appointed classical tutor. In 1767 he took the degree of B.D., and became one of the preachers at Whitehall. In the pre- ceding year he published his " Essay on the Learning of Shakspeare," in which he proved that all the knowledge of ancient hLtory and mythology possessed by the immortal bard was drawn from translations. In 1775 Mr. Farmer was chosen master of his college, and took his degree of D.D. He also became chancellor and prebendary of Lichfield, librarian to the univer- sity of Cambridge, and prebendary of Canter- bury, which last situation he resigned for a residentiaryship of St. Paul's. He collected ample materials for a history of Leicester; but these, with the plates, he gave to Mr. Nichols, for the use of his history of that county, b. at Leicester, 1735; r>. 1797.— His collection of scarce and curious books was sold by auc- tion. Fabnaby, Thomas, far'-na-be, an eminent English schoolmaster, who, after a variety of fortune, settled in London, where he acquired great reputation as a teacher. In 1616 lie was admitted to the degree of M.A. at Cambridge. In the civil war he was imprisoned for his loyalty, and died in 1647. b in London, about 1575. He published Juvenal and Persius; Seneca's " Tragedies ;" Martial ; Lucan's " Phar- salia," and other classical authors, with notes; " Index Rhetoricus et Poeticus ;" " Florilegium Epigrammatum Graecorum;" and "Systema Grammaticum." Fabnesb, Pier Luigi, far-nai-se, the first duke of Parma and Placentia, was the son of Pope Paul HI. by a secret marriage, before he became a cardinal. He was assassinated by his subjects, on account of his oppressive conduct, in 1547. Fabnesb, Alexander, a Roman cardinal, was the eldest son of the above. Charles V. said, that if all the members of the sacred college were like Farnese, it would be the most august assembly in the world, b. 1520; n. 15S9. Fabnesb, Alexander, third duke of Parma, and nephew of the preceding, his mother being Margaret, a princess of Austria, distin- guished himself as an able general in the service of Philip II. against the Netherlander?, and afterwards in the Catholic army in France, ir. support of the League against Henry IV. He was wounded at the siesre of Caudebec, and died soon after, at Arras, in 1592. b. 1546.— (for an account of this commander's exploits, see Motley's " Rise of the Dutch Republic") Fahnkwobth, Ellis, faru'-werth, an English divine, who obtained the rectory of Carsington, 385 Fastollf in Derbyshire, where he died, 1736. b. in Derby, shire. He translated the " Life of Pope Sixtus V." from the Italian, 1754, folio; Davila's "His- tory of the Civil Wars of France," in 1767, 2 vols. 4to ; the Works of Machiavelll, 1761, 2 vols. 4to; and Fleury's "History of the Israelites," 12mo. Fabquhar, George, far'-qtmr, an English comic writer, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and quitted that seat of learning for the boards of the Dublin theatre. Here, while playing Gdoymar, in the " Indian Emperor" of Dryden, he was so unfortunate as to stab a brother actor, when he relinquished the stage and proceeded to London, where lie received from, the earl of Orrery a lieutenancy in his lordship's regiment. He now commenced writing for the theatre, and in 169S appeared his first dramatic piece, entitled " Love in a Bottle," which met with success. This was fol- lowed, in 1700, by the "Constant Couple, or Trip to the Jubilee." The same year he was in Holland, of which country he has given a humorous description in his Letters. In 1701 appeared the comedy of " Sir Harry Wildair," and the year following, his " Miscellanies." In 1703 he brought out " The Inconstant, or the Way to Win Him." His next piece was the popular play of " The Recruiting Officer." His last comedy was " The Beau's Stratagem," which also had a great run, and is his best pro- duction, b. in Londonderry, 1678; d. 1707. Farquhar's comedies are lively, natural, and full of business ; but they are also extremely licen- tious. Cibber, in his " Lives," thus speaks of Mm and his comedies : — " He seems to have been a manof genius rather sprightly than great, rather flowery than solid. His comedies are diverting, because his characters are natural, aud such as we frequently meet with ; but he has used no art in drawing them, nor does there appear any force of thinking in his performances, or any deep penetration into nature; but rather a superficial view, pleasant enough to the eye, though capable of leaving no great impression on the mind." Fabbagut, T>nvid,far'-ra-gut, a distinguished admiral in the United States navy, born towards the close of the eighteenth century, who entered the service in 1810. He served in the Essex in the war with Great Britain, 1812-14, and had the command of the Saratoga in the Mexican war, 1845-8. In the American civil war he assisted in the reduction of New Orleans and Vicksburg, and, after suffering defeat at Wilmington m 1864, took that place and Mobile in 18G5. Farkkn, Eliza, far'-ren, countess of Derby, a celebrated actress, was the daughter of a sur- i geon at Cork, who afterwards became a pro- ' vincial actor, and died at an early age, leaving his family in difficult circumstances. Eliza | made her first appearance in 1773, appeared at the Havmarket in 1777, and subsequently at Drury Lane and Covent Garden. While con- ducting the private theatricals at the Duke of Newcastle's mansion in Privy-gardens, she became acquainted with the earl of Derby, who married her in 1797. She was of irreproachable moral character, and was received by George III. and his consoit at court, b. 1759; n. 1829. Fastolff, Sir John, fat'-tolf, a famous Eng- lish general, who served with great reputation in France, whe-c lie obtained several high posts while the English held possessions in that king- dom. In 1110 he returned to his own country, cc THE DICTIONARY Fatshan and distinguished himself as a friend to the poor, and an encourager of learning 1 . He was a con- siderable benefactor to the university of Cam- bridge, and to Magdalen College, Oxford, b. at Yarmouth, 1377; d. 1459. Though there be a strong similarity in the names, he is not to be taken for Sir John Falstaff, the knight so humorously rendered by Shakspeare in some of his historical plays and comedies. Fauchet, Claude, fo'-sha, a French antiquary, whose works are " Gaulish and French Anti- quities;" "The Liberties of the Gallican Church;" "The Origin of Knights, Armorial Bearings, and Heralds ; " " Origin of Dignities and Magistrates in France ; " all printed toge- ther at Paris, in 1610, 4to. B. 1530; d. 1601. Fauchbt, Claude, a French priest, who be- came vicar-general to the archbishop of Bruges and preacher to Louis XVI. That monarch, however, was disgusted with his excessive vanity and theatrical mode of action, which, it is said, made Fauchet a violent revolutionist. He took a leading part in storming the Bastille, and preached a thanksgiving sermon on the occasion. In another address, he designated Jesus Christ as the first sansculotte in the world. He entered among the Illuminati, and, in 1791, became what was called the constitutional bishop of Bayeux. He was also deputy for the department of Calvados to the Legislative Assembly, and afterwards a member of the Convention, b. in Dome, 1744; guillotined, 1793. His works are, "A Panegyric on St. Louis," pronounced before the French Academy ; "A Funeral Oration for the Duke of Orleans," " Enlogium on Benjamin Franklin," " Discourse on Universal Manners," &c. — There are several other French writers of this name. Faust, or Fust, John, foust, a goldsmith of Mentz, who is said by some to have been the inventor of printing. He is, however, supposed only to have assisted Guttenberg. and his own son- in-law Sehoeffer, in bringing this noble disco- very to perfection. The first production, by the new process of metallic types, was produced in 1459, and was entitled "Durandi Rationale Divinorum Officiorum," by Faust and Sehoeffer. This was succeeded by the " Catholicon Joannis Januensis." The greatest work, however, of all was the Bible, in 1462 ; previous to which they had executed two beautiful editions of the Psalter. The story of Faust's being arrested as a magician at Pans, on account of the exact- ness of the copies of the Bible which he took thither for sale, is not entitled to credit. He was there in 1466, and is supposed to have died soon after. Faust, Dr. John, a German philosopher, who, educated at Wittemberg, thence proceeded to Ingolstadt, where he studied medicine with great success, and, it is said, astrology and magic also; expending, in prosecuting his chemical experiments, a considerable fortune, left him by an uncle. His countrymen, in their ignorance, imagined him one having dealings with super- natural powers ; and this view of Faust subse- quently formed a fertile theme for the dramatist, poet, and musician, as well as for the sculptor and painter. Goethe, especially, in his " Faust," has depicted, with a rich imagination, the doctor and his sprite attendant, Mephisto- pheles. Lived in the first half of the 16th century. Fausta, Flavia Maximiana, fawtf-ta, the se- cond wife of Constantino the Great. By her accusations the emperor put his son Crispus, by sad Fawkes a former wife, to death ; but her infidelity be- coming notorious, she was suffocated in a bath, 326. Faustina, Annia Galeria, the elder, fan- sti'-na, was the daughter of Annius Verus, and the wife of Antoninus Pius. Notwithstanding her debaucheries, the emperor would not divorce her. d. 141, aged about 37. — Her daughter was the wife of Marcus Aurelius, and exceeded her mother in dissoluteness, d. 176. Favabt, Charles Simon, Jav'-ar, a French composer of operas, whose pieces are numerous and excellent. They make 10 vols, in 8vo. b. at Paris, 1710; d. there, 1792.— His wife was an admirable actress and singer. She died in 1772; B. 1727. Favre, Jules Gabriel Claude, farvfr), an emi- nent French barrister, who commenced his pub- lic life by taking part in the revolution of 1830, and soon acquired notoriety as one of the chief advocates of republicanism in France. He was under-secretary for foreign affairs in 1848, and became a determined opponent of Napoleon III. after his election to the presidency, and still more so after the coup d'etat of December 2, 1851. He was returned to the legislative assembly as one of the representatives for Paris in 1858 ; conducted the defence of Orsini for his attempt on the life of Napoleon III. in the same year; and, in 1868, was elected to fill the chair that the death of Victor Cousin left vacant in the French Academy, b. at Lyons, 1809. Fawcett, Sir William, fatc'-set, an English general, whose military predilections were early- discovered, when he offered himself as a volun- v teer to serve in Flanders, and was soon pre- sented with a pair of colours. He paid unre- mitted attention to his duty, and, in his leisure hours, studied the French and German lan- guages. While a lieutenant in the Guards, he translated from the former the " Reveries, or Memoirs upon the Art of War, by Field-Marshal Count Saxe," published in 4to, in 1757. He also translated from the German, " Regulations for the Prussian Cavalry," published the same year. This work was followed by " Regulations for the Prussian Infantry," to which was added " Prus- sian Tactics," published in 1759. On General Elliott being ordered to Germany, in the Seven Years' War, Mr. Fawcett accompanied him as aide-de-camp. Subsequently he was attached, in the same capacity, to the marquis of Granby, who sent him to England with the account of the battle of Warburgh. He was soo i after- wards promoted to a company in the Guards, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, made him flattering offers to induce him to enter into his service, whiqh, however, he declined. His services and high' character were duly valued by his king and country, and he was made knight of the Bath, colonel of the 3rd regiment of Dragoon Guards, and governor of Chelsea Hospital, b. near Halifax, Yorkshire, 1728; d. 1804, and was buried with great pomp in the chapel of Chelsea College. Fawkks, Guido, or Guy, fancies, the most active and daring conspirator in the " Gunpow- der Plot," which was designed, in 1605, to blow up king, lords, and bishops, in the House of Parliament assembled. He was of a respectable family in Yorkshire; but entered into the Spa- nish army in Flanders, and in 1598 was at the taking ol Calais by the Archduke Albert. Little OF BIOGRAPHY. Fawkes more is known of his history, beyond his con- nexion with the conspirators, who had pledged themselves by an oath to blow up the House of Lords, on account of James I. having given an assurance to his council, " that he had never any intention of granting toleration to the Catholics." Fawkes had undertaken to fire the powder which had been concealed under the devoted house; but about twelve o'clock, on the night of the 4th of November, was caught in the cellar, with matches and a dark lantern, ready to perform the deed for which he and seven others suffered on the scaffold in 1606. Fawkeb, Francis, an English poet and divine, who took his degree in arts at Jesus College, Cambridge. On entering into orders, he settled at Bramham, Yorkshire, but afterwards obtained the vicarage of Orpington, in Kent, which he exchanged for the rectory of Hayes, where he died in 1777. b. in Yorkshire, 1721. He pub- lished a volume of poems and translations of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion, Moschus, and Theo- critus. His version of the "Argonautics" of Apollonius was published in 1780. Mr. Fawkes also lent his name to an edition of the Bible with notes. It was in translation, however, that he excelled. The "Odes of Anacreon," Dr. Johnson says, are finely translated. Fat, Charles Francois de Cisternal da,fai, an eminent French naturalist and chemist, who, as superintendent of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, raised that establishment to be one of the greatest of the kind in Europe. He obtained distinction also by his researches concerning phosphoric light in the mercurial vacuum in the barometer, and in connexion with the salts of lime, the magnet, and the nature of electri- city. Buffon, through his influence, was named his successor at the Jardin des Plantes. His writings appeared in the " Transactions of the Academy of Sciences," of which he was a mem- ber, b. at Paris, 169S ; d. 1739. Faydit, Auselm,/ai'-(/e, a Provencal poet, or troubadour, who was patronized by Richard Cffiur de Lion. n. 1220. He wrote a poem on the death of Richard I., "The Palace of Love," and several comedies. Fatdit, Peter, a French priest of the congre- gation of the Oratory, whence he was compelled to remove, for publishing a book on the Carte- sian philosophy, contrary to a prohibition from his superiors. He also wrote " Illustrations of Ecclesiastical History," 8vo; "A Treatise on the Trinity," for which he was imprisoned ; and a wretched critique on Telemachus. b. 1649 ; d. 1709. Faybttb, Mary Magdalene, Countess de la. fai-et, the wife of the Count de la Fayette, wrote the romances of "Za'ide," and the "Princess of Cleves," also the "Prince Ue Montpensier," " Memoirs of the Court of France," the " History of Henrietta of Eng- land," and other works, b. 1632 ; d. 1693. Fayette, La. (See La Fayette.) Fazio, Bartolomeo, fa'-se-o, an Italian bio- grapher and historian of the loth century, was sprung from humble parents, but obtaining a knowledge of Greek and Latin, was patronized by Alfonso, king of Naples, at whose instance he translated into Latin Arrian's " History of Alexander the Great." His principal original work is entitled " De Viris Illustrious," and contains short memoirs of the most eminent of bis contemporaries, s. near Spezia, in the Gulf of Genoa, 1400; D. 1457. 387 Feckenham Feabite, Charles./eern, an English writer on jurisprudence and metaphysics, was educated at Westminster School, and became a member of the Inner Temple. He subsequently practised as a chamber counsel and conveyancer, and was emi- nently successful. He wrote a great many works on legal subjects.besides compiling cases and opi- nions on interesting causes, and was the author of a metaphysical work entitled "An Essay on Consciousness ; or, a Series of Evidences of a Distinct Mind." b. 1749; d. 1794. Featley, Daniel, feet-le, a controversial divine, who studied at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he obtained a fellowship, and was afterwards rector of Lambeth. He won distinc- tion by maintaining a controversy with two Jesuits, in recompense for which Archbishop Abbot gave him the livings of Allhallows, Bread- street, London, and Acton, Middlesex. His principal work is entitled "Clavis Mystica; a Key opening divers difficult Texts of Scripture." He held disputes likewise with the Anabaptists, and wrote a tract against them with the quaint title of " The Dipper Dipt ; or, the Anabaptist plunged over Head and Ears,' and Shrunk in the Washing." b. at Charlton-upon-Otmore, Oxfordshire, 1582; D.16J5. Febee, Philip Francois Nazaire, febr, was sprung from mean parentage, but, possessed of a restless spirit and some ability, he became successively actor, comic writer, and statesman. When sixteen, he received the prize from the French Academy for a poem called the " Study of Nature ;" and soon afterwards had awarded to him the poetical prize at the Floral Gannes of Toulouse. This prize was a golden eglantine, or wild rose, and from this circumstance he thenceforth called himself D'Eglantine. He threw himself into the revolutionary movement, and came prominently into notice in the insur- rection of the 10th of August, and shortly after- wards obtained the post of secretary to Danton, then minister of justice. He joined Danton in the schemes of the Hebertists, aided in the ruin of the Girondists, and then joined Robes- pierre against his former associate Hcbert. These intrigues, however, led to the downfall of Danton and his associates, and Febre was tried along with his chief, and guillotined in 1794. b. at Carcassone, 1775. Fbchtek, Charles Albert, fek-ier, an actor who acquired celebrity in London for his per- formance of Hamlet. He became lessee of the Lyceum theatre in 1SG3, and produced many sensational melodramas witli much success, b. in London about 1823; d. 1-79. Feckenham, John de, fek'-en-ham, the last abbotof Westminster, whose right name was How- man, but who was called Feckenham from the place of his birth. On the commencement of the Reformation, he opposed it with spirit, and was sent to the Tower, where he continued till Queen Mary's accession, when he was made abbot of Westminster. Queen Elizabeth, whose life he had saved by his remonstrances with Mary when the latter designed her death, would have made him archbishop of Canter- bury, if he would have conformed ; but he re- fused. He sat in her first parliament, and pro- tested against the Reformation; for which he was committed to the Tower. Ho continued in conlinement till 1563, and was then delivered to the care of the bishop of Winchester, b. at Feckenham, Worcestershire; d. in the castle of Wisbeach, in 1585. He was a learned and CC2 THE DICTIONARY Fedor liberal man, charitable to the poor, and the author of some controversial pieces. FsDOBl.,Ivanovich, fai'-dor, the last czar of the dynasty of Eurick, on the throne of Russia. He began his reign in 1584, and being weak, both in body and mind, assigned the govern- ment of his affairs to Godonoff, who seems to have managed them with dexterity and vigour. In his reign the peasants of Muscovy were con- verted into serfs, and attached to the land. Previously, they had enjoyed personal liberty. The conquest of Siberia was achieved in the reign of his father, Ivan IV., and many negotia- tions with foreign courts were effected; so that this period may be deemed by no means the least remarkable in the Muscovite annals, b. 1557; D. 1598. FEDOBlI.,Alexievich,czar of Russia.and eldest brother of Peter the Great, ascended the throne when only nineteen years of age, and evinced a strength of will and determination of character, which, had he lived, might have anti- cipated the reforms which his younger brother was subsequently destined to effect among the people over whom he was called to reign. Fedor's sway is rendered memorable, on account of his calling into his presence the Muscovite nobles, who desolated the country with broils about their claims to family precedence, and throwing the rolls of the "Razriad," or Arrangement, into the fire. The genealogical records, which did not relate to claims of precedence, were pre- served and properly arranged, in accordance with his will. b. 165"; d. 1632. Feith-, Rhynvis, fite, a distinguished Dutch writer in the paths of poetry, fiction, and the drama. His most successful poem, which is en- titled " Fanny," made its appearance in 1787. His novels never enjoyed a high reputation, and his best drama is named "Thirza; or, the Triumph of Religion." His muse had a reli- gious cast; and two poems of the didactic kind, entitled "Old Age," and "The Grave," were very much extolled by his countrymen. His works, in 13 volumes, were printed at the Hague, in 1825. b. at Zwolle, 1753; d. there, 1824. Felibiejt, Andre, fe-lib'-e-en, a French his- toriographer, who wrote " Entretiens sur les Vies, et sur les Ouvrages des plus excellens Peintres," 5 vols. 4to; " The Principles of Architecture, Painting, and Sculpture," 4to; and "Conferences of the Royal Academy of Painting." He became superintendent of the royal buildings at Paris, and was the friend of Kicholas Poussin, whose acquaintance he made at Rome. b. at Chartres, 1619 ; d. 1695. — His sons, John Francois and Michael, were also inge- nious men. The first succeeded him in his places, and wrote " The Lives of Celebrated Architects," 4to ; and " A Description of Ver- sailles." d. 1733. — Michael was a Benedictine of St. Maur, and wrote "The History of the Abbey of St. Denis," folio : and began " The History of Paris," which was afterwards com- pleted by Lobineau, in 5 vols, folio, d. 1679. — James Felibien, the brother of Andre - , was canon of Chartres and archdeacon of Vendome. He wrote several religious works, b. 1624; r>. 1716. Felice, Fortune" BartheMemy de, fai-le-chai, \ an indefatigable continental writer, who was originally a professor of sciences at Rome and I Naples. Compelled to quit Rome in conse- quence of an intrigue with the countess of I Fell Panzutti, he for a long time wandered in Italy and Switzerland, finally taking up his residence at Berne, where he continued his scientific labours, and connected himself with Haller. Here he embraced Protestantism and married. Subsequently he formed, at Yverdun, in the can- ton of Vaud, a large printing establishment, whence issued a number of good books, he, at the same time, successfully directing an academy. His first publications were translations, from the English and French into Italian and Latin, of those scientific works which he wished to make known to Italy ; among others, those of Newton, Descartes, Maupertuis, and D'Alembert. From 1758, he edited, with Tscharner, gome literary and scientific journals, which were held in high estimation, as also several other writings of great merit. Finally he published, from 1770 to 1780, in 48 vols. 4to, and 10 vols, of plates, the Encyclopaedia, known as that of Yverdun. In this great work, of which Diderot's formed, in some measure, the base, he had, as collabora- teurs, Euler, Haller, Lalande, and other Ger- man, French, and Italian writers. Besides the works here named, his country owes to him the production of other instructive and well-digested volumes, b. at Rome, 1723; d. at Yverdun, 1789. Felix l.,fe'-lix, succeeded Pope Dionysius in 269, and was canonized. He wrote an epistle against Sabellius and Paulus Samosatenus, which is extant, d. 275. Felix II., antipope, was placed in the papal chair in 355, by the emperor Constans, during the exile of Liberius, on the return of whom he was expelled." Constans would have had the two popes reign together; but the people exclaimed, " One God, one Christ, and one bishop!" Felix was then exiled, and died in 365. Felix III. succeeded Simplicius, in 483. He had a violent dispute with the emperor Zeno in behalf of the Western church, and died in 492. Felix IV., a native of Benevento, ascended the chair after John I., in 526. He governed the church with zeal and piety, and died in 530. Felix V. (See Amadeus VIII.) Felix, bishop of Urgella, in Catalonia, es- poused the notion of his friend Elipand, arch- bishop of Toledo, that Jesus Christ was the son of God only by adoption. For this, Charlemagne caused him to be deposed and banished to Lyons, where he died in 815. Fell, John, fel, a learned English prelate, who was educated at Christchurch, Oxford, of which his father was dean. In the civil war he was ejected from the college for his loyalty. At the Restoration he was made canon and dean of Christchurch, to which college he was a liberal benefactor. He served the office of vice- chancellor several times, and, in 1675, was made bishop of Oxford, with leave to hold the deanery in commendam. b. at Longworth, Berkshire, 1625 ; d. 16S6. His works are, " The Life of Dr. Hammond," " A Paraphrase on St. Paul's Epis- tles," editions of several ancient authors, with notes ; as Cyprian and others. The bishop's father was turned out of his deanery by the Parliamentarians, in 1647, and died of grief for the execution of the king. Fell, John, an English dissenting minister, who, from being bred a tailor, became resident tutor in the dissenting academy at Homerton. Here he had not long been, when a misunder- standing arose between him and the managers OF BIOGRAPHY. Fellenberg of that institution, which ended in his dismissal, without being heard in his own defence. Some friends then subscribed for him a yearly stipend of £100, for which he was to deliver a course of lectures on the evidences of Christianity. Four of these were given by him in 1797; but the treatment he had received brought on a eom- plaint, of which he died in that year. b. at Cockermouth, Cumberland, 1735. Mr. Fell was the author of an answer to Mr. Fanner's " Essay on the Demoniacs," and another in reply to that gentleman, "Ci the Idolatry of Greece and Rome;" an " Essay on the Love of One's Coun- try," "Genuine Protestantism," "A Letter to Mr. Burke on the Penal Lavs," " An Essay towards an English Grammar," and several other papers. FELLFyBEEG, Emanuel de, fel'-en-bairg, a Swiss nobleman, who, after taking part in the public affairs of his country during the occupa- tion of the French, which he did all in his power to resist, devoted his life and fortune to the cause of education. In 1799, he purchased an estate near Berne, where he organized a system of tuition which was designed to show what education could do for humanity. His life from this time is a continued record of benevolent enterprises, labours for the diffusion of knowledge, and the improvement of the people. He possessed singular tact in disarm- ing the opposition of interested or jealous oppo- nents, and ultimately accomplished a large measure of success for his favourite projects, b. at Berne, 1771; D.1844. Feller, Joachim Frederick, fel'-ler, a learned German, who became secretary to the duke of Weimar, and published "Monumenta Varia inedita," 1714, 4to ; " Miscellanea Leibnitiana," "Genealogy of the House of Brunswick," &c. B. 1673 ; D. 1726. Felleb, Francis Xavier, an ex-Jesuit, who published, at Luxembourg, " An Historical and Literary Journal," from 1774 to 1794, "A Geo- graphical Dictionary," and " The Historical Dic- tionary," in 8 vols. 8vo, at Liege. The editors of the last edition of the "Nouveau Diction- naire Historique" are very severe on him on account of this last work, which they call a piracy committed on their own. b. at Brussels, 1735; d. at Ratisbon, 1802. Feller also wrote "Observations on the Philosophy of Newton," "An Impartial Examination of the Epochs of Nature, by Buffon," &c. Fellows, Sir Charles, fel'-lovis, a traveller, who, in 1838, made a tour in Asia Minor, and explored the banks of the ancient Xanthus, and discovered the ruins of Xanthus, the ancient capital of Lycia, Tlos, and thirteen other cities, in all of which he found a greater or less number of works of art. A large proportion of these were ultimately transported to England, and now form the Lycian saloon in the British Museum. In 1852 he republished the journals of his travels in a cheap form, under the title of "Travels and Researches in Asia Minor; par- ticularly in the Province of Lycia." In 1845 he was knighted for his discoveries, b. at Notting- ham, 1799; D. 1860. Felton, John, fel'-ton, a Catholic gentleman, who placed the pope's bull, excommunicating Queen Elizabeth, upon the gates of the bishop of London's palace, for which he was executed, in 1570. — His son Thomas was an ecclesiastic of the order of St. Francis, and, visiting England as a missionary, was apprehended and executed, in 8M Fe'ne'lon 1588.— John Felton, grandson of the first- named, assassinated the Duke of Buckingham in 1628, for which he was tried and executed. Feltbe, Henri Jacques Guillaume Clarke, Due de,fellr, entered the French military service in 1781, and, by the time he was twenty-seven years of age, he had risen to the rank of lieu- tenant-eolonel, chiefly by the patronage of the duke of Orleans. In 1793 he was made general; and, in 1795, was sent on a secret mission to Vienna, and to the seat of war in Italy, for the purpose of watching the ambitious movements of Napoleon I. In a short time, however, he was fascinated by the rising star of that great man, entered his service, and, throughout his varying fortunes, continued with him till his fall. In 1807 he was made Minister of War, an office which he retained, through much ill-will and clamour, till 1814. In 1809 he was made duke of Feltre. After the fall of the emperor, he served Louis XVIII. ; but his merits, how- ever appreciated by the sovereign, were not proof against the continual attacks of other courtiers, and he was sent into a kind of honour- able exile at Rouen, with the command of the 3rd division, b. at Landrecies, 1765; d. at Rouen, 1818. Fe'ne'lon, Francis de Salignac de Lamothc, fai'-nai-lawng, archbishop of Cambrai, com- pleted his studies at Paris, where, when young, he distinguished himself as a preacher. In 1686 he was employed by Louis XIV. as a mis- sionary in Poitou, to convert the Protestants, and, by his persuasive eloquence, made many friends. In 1689 he became tutor to the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berri, which office he discharged so well, tbat he was preferred to the archbishopric of Cambrai. About this time he fell into trouble, on account of his book entitled " The Maxims of the Saints," which was charged with favouring the mystical principles of Madame de Guyon. Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, who was a violent enemy of that celebrated mystic, attacked the archbishop, and by his influence with the king obtained an order for him to be banished to his diocese. The book was also condemned at Rome by Pope Innocent VIII., and, to his censure, Fe'ne'lon submitted with profound deference, and even read the decree from the pulpit. He spent the remainder of his days in his diocese, and never recovered the king's favour, owing, in a great measure, to his composing, for his royal pupil, the duke of Burgundy, " Telemachus," in which Louis imagined he discovered some passages reflecting on himself. The good archbishop, however, bore his exile with the serenity of conscious integrity. His charities were unbounded, and so revered was his character, that the duke of Marlborough, and other generals of the allies, when possessed of that part of Flanders, ex- empted his lands from pillage or exaction, b. at the Castle of Fendlon, in Perigord, 1651 ; d. 1715, without money and without debt. Besides the above works, he wrote " Dialogues of the Dead," *' Dialogues on Eloquence," a " Treatise on the Education of Daughters," a " Demon- stration of the Existence of God," and " Spiri- tual Works." FeneUon is inferior in force and sublimity to his countryman Bossuet, but no author has, perhaps, surpassed him in the grace and charm of his style; he has been one of the most successful of writers in modern times in reproducing the noble simplicity of the ancients. As a man and Christian, he practised THE DICTIONARY Penn virtue, as he taught it, and caused the name and essence of religion to be loved and respected. Many of his works are lost; for, on the death of the duke of Burgundy, Louis XIV. caused several of his writings to be burned, which were found amongst the prince's papers. — His grand-nephew, the Abb6 de F^nllon, was chaplain to Maria Leczinski, wife of Louis XV., and undertook the direction of an establish- ment charitably founded for the support of the little Savoyards in Paris. In spite, however, of his virtues and benevolence, he was arrested and brought before the revolutionary tribunal, which condemned him to death. All the Savoy- ards in Paris hastened to the Convention to demand pardon for him, whom they called their " good father." Their prayers were vain ; he was executed in 1794. b. at St. Jean des Tallais, 1714. Fenn, Sir John, fen, an English antiquary, who edited the well known " Paston Letters, written during the reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., Richard 111., and Henry VII., two volumes of which were published in 1787, dedicated to George III., who, in recompense, knighted the compiler. In 1789 two more volumes appeared, illustrated with notes, b. 1739 ; d. 1794. Fbnton, Edward, fen'-ton, an English navi- gator in the time of Elizabeth, who accom- panied Sir Martin Frobisher in search of a north-west passage, and after the fail ore of Sir Martin's attempt, he, in the spring of 1582, sailed on a similar expedition, with four vessels. He did not accomplish the object of the voyage, but meeting with a Spanish squadron, he gave them battle, and after a severe conflict, sunk their vice-admiral's ship. He returned home in 1583, and had a command in the fleet opposed to the Spanish Armada in 1588, and distin- guished himself by bravery and skill in sundry encounters with the enemy. He was descended from an ancient family of Nottinghamshire, and died at Deptford in 1603, where a monument to his memory was erected by Richard, earl of Cork, who had married his niece. Fen ton, Sir Geoffrey, a writer and statesman, was the brother of the preceding, and enjoyed a large measure of the contidence of Queen Elizabeth, who employed him in Ireland, where he was the means of extinguishing more than one rebellion. He always endeavoured to per- suade Elizabeth that the Irish were only to be governed by adherence to the strict rules of justice, equality, and security in the possession of their property and personal liberty. Sir Geoffrey was the translator of Guicciardini's "History of the Wars of Italy," and wrote, besides, a vast number of works more or less of an ephemeral character, which were published at various times between 1571 and 1579. He was married to a daughter of Dr. Robert Warton, lord-chancellor of Ireland, and dean of the arches in England ; and, in 1603, his only daughter, Katherine, was married to Mr. Boyle, after- wards earl of Cork, a man of first eminence in his time. Sir Geoffrey Fenton was born in Nottinghamshire, and died at Dublin in 1608. Fenton, Elijah, an English poet, who was for some time usher of a school in Surrey, and afterwards master of one at Sevenoaks, in Kent. In 1710 he became secretary to the earl of Orrery, and tutor to his son. He afterwards lived with Lady Trumbull as tutor to her son, and died at her seat in Berkshire, in 1730. b. at Shelton, Staffordshire, 1683. He wrote some 390 Ferdinand poems ; the " Life of Milton," the tragedy of " Marianne," and assisted Pope in his transla- tion of the " Odyssey." Fbrdinand, fer-di-nand, a name derived from the German verdienen, "to merit," and which has been borne by several emperors of Germany, kings of Spain, Naples, Sicily, &c. Emperors op Germany. Ferdinand I., emperor of Germany, suc- ceeded his brother Charles V. in 1558, at which time Ferdinand was king of the Romans, and of Hungary and Bohemia. He made peace with the Turks, and died in 1564, leaving the charac- ter of a wise and humane prince, b. 1503. Ferdinand II. was the son of the archduke of Styria, and was elected king of Bohemia and of Hungary. Soon afterwards he succeeded Matthias as emperor. The Bohemian states having chosen the elector palatine Frederick to be their king, the latter raised an army of Pro- testants against the emperor, and thus was commenced the struggle known as the " Thirty Years' War," lasting from 1618 to 1648. Ferdi nand defeated Frederick at Prague in 1620, and deprived him of his states. A second league was then formed against the emperor by the Protestant princes, headed by Christian IV. of Denmark, who was defeated by Tilly, and forced to sign a treaty of peace at Lubeck, in 1629, which put an end to the war. Another league was now formed, at the head of which was Gustavus Adolphus, who defeated the Imperialists in different battles, but was him- self slain at Lutzen, in 1632. A partial peace was afterwards made between the emperor and some of the Protestant princes, but it was soon broken, and the war renewed, d. 1637. Maxi- milian of Bavaria, Tilly, and Wallenstein, were amongst Ferdinand's generals. (See those names.) Ferdinand III., the son of the above-named, was made king of Hungary in 1625, of Bohemia in 1627, and succeeded his father in 1637. Sweden and France being in alliance, pained several advantages over the Imperialists in the war carried on between the belligerents, and which terminated with the peace of West- phalia in 1648. B. 1608 ; D. 1657. Sovereigns op Spain (Castile, Leon, Aragon, &c.) Ferdinand I., king of Castile and Leon, called the Great, was the second son ol Sancho II., king of Navarre. By the death of Bermudo, in 1307, he became king of Leon. He then made war against the Moors, from whom he took several cities, and pushed his conquests a* far as Portugal. He next declared war against his brother, Gareias III., king of Navarre, in which that prince lost his kingdom and his life. x>. 1065. Ferdinand II., son of Alphonso VIII., king of Leon in 1157, gained great advantages over the Portuguese, and made their king, Alphonso Henriquez, prisoner, whom he used with moderation, d. 1188. In the reign of this prince, the military order of St. James was instituted, for the purpose of defending the dominions of the Christian powers against the Saracens. Ferdinand III., surnamed the Saint, son of Alphonso LX., obtained the crown of Castile I and Leon at the death of Henry I. in 1217. OF BIOGRAPHY. Ferdinand Ferdinand From this time these states remained united. He took many places from the Moors; but while he was projecting an expedition against Marocco, died, in 1252. He was canonized by Pope Clement X., and is regarded as the founder of the university of Salamanca. Ferdinand IV. succeeded to the throne of Castile in 1295, at the age of ten years, under the guardianship of his mother, wno governed the Kingdom with great prudence, d. 1312. His reign was marked by constant conflicts with the Moors. This prince, in a fit of anger, caused two noblemen to be precipitated from a high rock. Just before undergoing this fate, they told him that he would appear before God in thirty hours from that time. Their predic- tion was verified, and thence he obtained the name of the "Summoned." Febdinand V., called the " Catholic," son of John II., king of Aragon, married Isabella of Castile, sister of Henry IV., and thereby united the two kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. He declared war against Alphonso, king of Portu- gal, and defeated him at Toro, in 1476. He next completed the conquest of Granada, and in 1492 expelled the Moors from Spain. The most remarkable event which signalized his reign, was the discovery of America by Colum- bus. He also made himself master of part of Navarre, and by the brilliancy of his successes, placed himself generally at the head of Euro- pean princes, d. 1516. In 1481 the tribunal of the Inquisition was reorganized in Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella. Notwithstanding his great successes, he has been reproached for his instability and craft, which procured for him the surname of the " Crafty," in addition to that of the Catholic for his victories over the Moors. In all his enterprises he was ably seconded by his consort Isabella, his minister Cardinal Ximenes, and his general Gonsatvo de Cordova. (See Isabella op <\\stile and Columbus.) Febdinand VI., son of Philip V. and of Mary of Savoy, ascended the throne in 1746. This prince distinguished his reign by acts of beneficence, restoring liberty to prisoners, pro- claiming pardon to smugglers and deserters, and assigning two days in eachweek to rendering justice to his subjects. He took part in the war of 1741, and signed the peace in 174S, which confirmed to one of his brothers the crown of the Two Sicilies, and to the other the dukedom of Parma and Placentia. He re-established his marine, and reformed and promoted arts and agriculture, d. at Madrid, without issue, 1750. A singular coincidence of earthquakes oc- curred in this monarch's reign, no less than three severe shocks occurring in South America i and Europe. In 174H, Luna, the capital of Peru, was almost entirely destroyed ; Quito, in the same country, experienced a like misfortune in 1755; and seven months after this, many cities and towns in Spain suffered considerably from the earthquake which overthrew Lisbon. Febdinand VII., king of Spain and the ' Indies, was the son of Charles IV., and was, j when only six years old, recognised as prince of I Asturias. During his minority, Spain was | governed by Godoy, who vainly endeavoured to j acquire the same influence over his mind that he had gained over the minds of his parents, i In 1801 he married Maria Antonia, a princess of! Naples, possessed of great beauty and aceom- ! plishments. She, however, is supposed to have | been poisoned in 1806, when Napoleon I. begau 391 to form his designs upon Spain. With the view to disconnect Ferdinand from the projects of Godoy, the French emperor proposed a matri- monial alliance between him and the daughter of Lucien Bonaparte, which was entertained by Ferdinand, but prevented by Godoy, who in- formed Charles IV. of the design, and so exaspe- rated the king against the prince, that he was imprisoned in the Eseurial. Soon afterwards a public reconciliation took place, when the French army entered Spain, and the public indignation rose to a high pitch against Godoy, whose dismissal from the councils of his sove- reign was loudly demanded. Charles became alarmed, and, abdicating his throne, Ferdinand was proclaimed his successor, and immediately assumed the reins of government. Meanwhile the French advanced towards Madrid, when Ferdinand sent a deputation requesting the preservation of amity with Napoleon; but that sovereign replied that Charles IV. was his friend and ally, and he could not recognise the right of any other claimant to the Spanish throne. Shortly afterwards, under pretence of having an interview with Napoleon at liayonne, Ferdinand was made prisoner, when the French emperor demanded his renunciation of the Spanish crown. Charles IV., with his queen and minister Godoy, resumed possession of the throne and government, whilst the Spaniards, in all directions, were rising in arms. Napo- leon now persuaded the royal family to take refuge in Bordeaux, and there formally abdicate the crown. So soon as this was accomplished, Joseph Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon, was proclaimed king, whilst Ferdinand was placed in confinement at Valen?ay, where he and his family remained till 1813, when he was restored to t,h» exercise of his regal rights. On returning to his kingdom, ho was received with open arms by his people ; but on arriving at Madrid, he dissolved the Cortes, and assumed the powers of an absolute monarch. The Inquisition was re-established, and those liberals who had fought for the expulsion of the French from the Spanish soil, were persecuted with the utmost rigour, despoiled of their property, and forced to flee or submit to the axe of the executioner. These measures exasperated the people, who, in 1820, rebelled against Ferdinand and re-established the Cortes, who endeavoured to stay the pro- gress of the revolution, and adjust the affairs of the kingdom. In 1823 France again declared war against Spain, arid the duke of Angouleme, at the head of an army of 100,000 men, enterod the country, with the avowed purpose of restor- ing Ferdinand to all his absolute powers. The object was effected, but Ferdinand was not per- mitted to govern entirely by his own will. His despotic disposition wasehecked on onesideby the dread of the liberals, and on the other by doubts of the friendship of the more violent absolutists, who deemed even the rule of Ferdinand too moderate to satisfy their tyrannical propensities. In this position he continued to reign, though hardly to govern, till 1833, when he died, and was buried with great pomp in the vaults of the chapel of the Eseurial. n. 1784. By his will he left the crown to his daughter Isabella, under the regency of her mother, Maria Christina, to the exclusion of Don Carlos, his brother. A long and disastrous civil war was the conse- quence. (See Cablos, Don.) Ferdinand, king of Portugal, succeeded his father, l'eter, in 1367. On the death of Peter THE DICTIONARY Ferdinand the Cruel, king of Castile, he assumed the latter tifle, which produced a war between him and Henry of Traastamara, who ravaged Portugal, and forced Ferdinand to make peace and marry his daughter. This marriage he afterwards disowned, and entered into an alliance with John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, who laid claim to the Castilian throne. This war proved very disastrous to the Portuguese, and Ferdi- nand was obliged to sue for peace. Another war was entered into, in which he was sup- ported by the English, and was for a time successful, but was at last under the necessity of making peace, d. 13S3. Fbbdinand, infant of Portugal, son of John I., passed into Africa, at the age of 14, to attack the Moors, and laid siege to Tangier. He was, however, made prisoner by the Moors, and spent the remainder of his life in captivity, dying of chagrin, 1443. This prince's misfortunes have formed the subject of a great number of legends and tales. Sovereigns op Naples and Sicily, and o* AtJSTEIA. FsBDnfAin) I., king of Naples (not of Sicily), succeeded Alphonso in 1453. In his reign, a civil war raged in his kingdom ; but, uniting his arms to those of Scanderbeg, prince of Albania, he was enabled to defeat his barons in 1462. His rule, however, was again disturbed by them; when, in 1480, on the occasion of the marriage of his niece, he had many of the leading barons arrested in Naples, where they were thrown into prison, and numbers of them strangled. He was detested for his debaucheries" and cruelties ; yet he enacted many good laws, and restored the university of Naples, d. 1494. Ferdinand II. ascended the throne in the year 1495, and entered into a war with the French, who afterwards expelled his successor from Naples. His reign was short, and marked by no event of general public importance, d. at Naples, 1496. Feedinand III. is the same as Ferdinand the Catholic. (See Ferdinand V. of Spain.) Fbedinand IV. of Naples, and I. of the Two Sicilies, ascended the throne in 1759, and reigned for 30 years. On the breaking out of the French revolution, in 1792, the French de- manded that Naples should renounce all con- nexion with Great Britain ; but, on the death of Louis XVI. of France, Ferdinand joined the coalition, and participated in the general war against France, from 1793 to 1796. Two years of peace now intervened; when the victory of Nelson, at Aboukir, once more brought Ferdi- nand into the field against the French, who defeated him, drove him from his kingdom, and froclaimed the Parthenopean Republic in 1799. n the same year, however, the capital was retaken by the royalist army. In 1806 he lost his dominions again, Napoleon conferring the crown, first on his brother Joseph, and after- wards on Murat ; Ferdinand, however, by the aid of the English, continuing to reign in Sicily. In 1814, the congress of Vienna finally established Ferdinand as king of the Two Sicilies. In 1820 a revolutionary movement commenced, under the auspices of a secret society called Carbonari, which proclaimed a constitution similar to that of Spain, and con- voked a parliament at Naples. Another revolt broke out at Palermo, which was not suppressed without much bloodshed. This state of things 393 Ferdinand excited the interest of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, who would not acknowledge the new system of government established at Naples ; and resulted, in 1821, in an Austrian army crossing the Po, and moving on Naples. The Neapolitans resisted, but were defeated; and the Austrians entered the city. Ferdinand, who had quitted his capital, now returned to it, and the government again became and con- tinued absolute throughout the remainder of his reign, b. 1751 ; d. 1825. Ferdinand II., king of the Two Sicilies, surnamed "Bomba," from permitting the city of Messina to be bombarded by Filan- gieri, was the son of Francis I. and Isa- bella of Spain. He succeeded his father on the throne of Naples and Sicily in 1830. On his accession, by the introduction of a few liberal measures, the announcement of an amnesty for political offenders, and the promise to heal the wounds of this unhappy country, he was received with quite an ovation of joy and gratitude. These feelings were not destined, however, to last long. No sooner did he feel himself securely fixed in his_seat, than he, like his father, placed himself in the hands of the clergy, more especially the Jesuits, to whom he at first allowed the monopoly of instruction ; and thus they soon obtained supreme power. This they shared to some extent with the police, the latter seizing on all the highest posts in the govern- ment, without, however, being able to hinder conspiracies and risings amongst the people. The reign of king Bomba is but a long re- cital of these. Three attempts at insurrection were made in the year 1833 ; others, more serious, took place in 1837, 1841, 1844, and 1S47. The king now instituted a procedure of torture, and put a price on the heads of those who were suspected of designs against his authority ; many lost their lives, and numerous families were forced into exile. This rigorous rule served only to exasperate the people, and hasten the events of the revolution of 1848. In that year, when the thrones of Europe seemed trem- bling in the balance, the rebellion in Sicily, and the popular manifestation at Naples, forced the king to promulgate and swear to a constitution. Public opinion also forced him to send a corj>» d'armce to the support of the revolution in Lombardy ; but, after having succeeded in repressing the revolutionists at Naples, ho recalled the troops, and employed them to extinguish the insurrection in Calabria. Em- boldened by his success, he treated with contempt the parliament, which had been assembled by virtue of the new constitution, and in the early part of 1849 declared it dissolved. He then turned his attention to lite revolutionary subjects in Sicily, and at the same time under- took his unfortunate campaign against the Roman republic. Sicily being now conquered by Filangieri, and Rome occupied by the French, who had driven out the republicans, Ferdi- nand II.'s tyranny knew no bounds. Tha picture of his rule, as drawn by Mr. Gladstone, in 1851, in his famous " Letter to Lord Aber- deen," struck no one as an exaggeration. Vexatious and arbitrary proceedings substituted for the law; the civil code mutilated and defaced ; education at a standstill ; literature and science humiliated ; a rigorous and puerile censorship of the press ; relations with other countries rendered difficult, or altogether inter- dicted ; punishments multiplied ; the most OP BIOGRAPHY. Ferdinand honourable citizens exiled, — such is the his- tory of the last years of Bomba's reign. The use that be made of his power seemed to the most absolute of European sovereigns a stigma and disgrace to all government, and ?rave complaints were made at the congress of axis, in 1866, and even warnings addressed to him by the diplomatists at his court. In vain, however, all this, — he protested against the slightest interference in the internal affairs of his kingdom : and although France and Eng- land proceeded to the extremity of jointly recalling their ambassadors, it had no effect in causing a more gentle rule of the Neapolitans on the part of the king* This conduct totally alienated the affections of his subjects, and even of the army, and led to the easy over- throw of the throne of his son, Francis II., by Garibaldi, in 1860. b. at Palermo, 1810, when the throne of Naples was occupied by Murat ; D. at Naples, 1859. Ferdinand I., Emperor of Austria, son of Francis I., ascended the imperial throne in 1835, and continued to pursue the policy of his father, leaving the chief direction of affairs in the hands of Prince Metternich. In his reign the republic of Cracow was annihilated, and a portion of it added to the empire. During the revo- lutionary year of 1848 he dismissed Metternich, and declared that the new minister should be responsible, and caused him to prepare a con- stitution. The concessions not being sufficient, Vienna revolted in May, the emperor retiring to Innspruck, whence he was induced to return at the pressing solicitations of the Viennese. The city riguig again in October, Ferdinand esta- blished nimself at Olmutz, and on December 2, 1848, abdicated, having no children, in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph I. b. at Vienna, 1793. Fbbdousi, or Febdxjsi, fer-doo'-se, a cele- brated Persian poet, Whom Mahmoud commis- sioned to write the "ShahNameh," or History of the Persian Kings. The bard was employed thirty years in executing this immense work, which contains no less than 60,000 couplets j and he was to receive a thousand pieces of gold for every thousand couplets. Whilst, however, he was giving himself up to the execution of his task, his enemies at court managed to damage him in the estimation of the king, and forced him, by their calumnies, to fly the kingdom. He retired to Bagdad, where his great reputation, which had preceded him there, obtained for him the protection of the caliph. After several years' exile, Ferdousi was recalled to his country, and passed there the remainder of his days. Tlie "• Shah Nameh" was published in London, in Persian, in 1829, and was afterwards trans- lated into English, in 1831. It has also been translated into Arabic, b. at Shadab, in the proving rf Tus, about 930; d. about 1020. Febucs l.,fer J -gus, king of Scotland, was the son of Fergus, king of the Irish Scots, and was invited to Scotland to repel the Picts, and for this was chosen king. Drowned in his passage to Ireland, about 404. Fekgdsox, Adam, LL.T>.,fer , -gus-on, was the son of the Rev. Adam Ferguson, minister of Logierait, Perthshire, and was educated at the University of St. Andrew, where he greatly distinguished himself. In 1744, he entered the 42nd regiment as chaplain, the duties of which office he discharged till 1757, when he became tutor in the family of lord Bute. In 1759 he 393 Ferguson was chosen professor of natural philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, and in 1764 pro- fessor of moral philosophy. From 1773 to 1775, he travelled on the continent with the earl of Chesterfield, and in 1778 received the appoint- ment of secretary to the commissioners sent to America to endeavour to effect an amicable compromise with the Congress representing the different States. In 1785 he resigned his pro- fessorship of moral philosophy in favour of Dugald Stewart. Subsequently he retired to St. Andrews, where he passed the remainder of his days. b. at Logierait, 1724 ; d. 1816. His works are, " An Essay on the History of Civil Society;" "Institutes of Moral Philosophy;" and the " History of the Progress and Termina- tion of the Roman Republic." This last is a work of great merit. FEBQusoif, Robert, an English nonconformist, who was ejected, in 1662, from the living of Godmersham, in Kent, and afterwards distin- guished himself by his political intrigues. He joined the duke of Monmouth, whom he is supposed to have betrayed, but was never long attached to any party, d. 1714. He wrote the " Interest of Reason in Religion," 8vo ; a " Dis- course concerning Justification," &c. Febguson, James, a Scotch philosopher and astronomer, whose father was a day-labourer, and who was enabled to send him to school only for three months at a small village in the north of Scotland. When about nine years of age he was placed out as servant to a farmer, who employed him as a shepherd, in which situation he acquired a surprising knowledge of the stars. His abilities being discovered by some neighbouring gentlemen, one of them took him to his house, where he learned decimal arithmetic and the rudiments of algebra and geometry. From a description of the globes in Gordon's grammar, he made, in three weeks, one of these instruments, sufficiently accurate to enable him to work problems. He after- wards made a wooden clock and a watch, which induced the country gentry to employ him in repairing and cleaning their clocks ; and, having a taste for drawing, he earned something by designing patterns for ladies' work. He next began to paint portraits with Indian ink, by which he supported himself creditably for some years. In 1743 he went to London, where he continued to draw portraits, and published some astronomical tables and calculations. He also gave lectures in experimental philosophy, which he repeated with success throughout the kingdom. In 1754 he published a brief descrip- tion of the solar system, with an astronomieal account of the year of the crucifixion of Christ, 8vo; also an "Idea of the Material Universe, deduced from a Survey of the Solar System." His greatest work, however, is his " Astronomy explained upon Sir Isaac Newton's Principles, and made easy to those who have not studied Mathematics." It first appeared in 1756, 4to, and has frequently been reprinted. On the accession of George III., to whom he had read lectures, Mr. Ferguson obtained a pension of £50 a year. In 1763 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, without paying the admission- fee, or the annual subscriptions; the same year appeared his "Astronomical Tables and Pre- cepts," 8vo. In 1767 he published " Tables and Tracts relative to several Arts and Sciences," 8vo. Besides these, he published " Select Me- chanical Exercises-," an "Easy Introduction THE DICTIONARY Ferguson to Astronomy for Young Gentlemen and La- . dies," 1769 ; an " Introduction to Electri- city ;" the " Art of Drawing in Perspective made easy;" and several tracts and papers in the Philosophical Transactions, b. near Keith, Banffshire, 1710; d. 1776. Under the title of the " Peasant-Boy Philosopher," Mr. Henry Mayhew has most delightfully described this youth's marvellous pursuit of knowledge under real difficulties. Ferguson, William, a Scotch artist, distin- guished as a painter of dead game and still life. d. 1690. Fkbguson, Robert, a Scotch poet, who was educated for the ministry ; but habits of dissi- Eation disqualified him for that profession, and e obtained a place in the sheriff clerk's office at Edinburgh. He contributed to the pages of Ruddim-in's " Weekly Magazine,"and was greatly admired by Burns, whose own genius was stimu- lated to poetical composition by the perusal of his effusions, b. at Edinburgh, 1750; d. insane, in the lunatic asylum of that city, 1774. The poems of Ferguson consist of pastoral, humor- ous, and lyrical effusions; but his genius is greatly inferior to that of Burns, who often bewails his unhappy end, both in his prose and poetical pieces, and erected a monument to his memory in Canongate churchyard, Edinburgh. Fekgusson, James, a Scotch author and architect, was designed for a mercantile life, but, after passing a couple of years in a count- ing-house in Holland, and a like period in another in London, he went, in 1829, to India.. Here he resided for ten years, during which period, as managing partner in a large firm in Calcutta, he amassed a fortune sufficiently large to enable him to return to England, where he began to devote himself to literary and scientific pursuits. His work entitled " Ancient Topo- graphy of Jerusalem," appeared in 1847 ; but it had been preceded by the " Ancient Architecture of Hindostan." Both were illustrated. These works were considered as exquisite specimens of artistic skill, "enhanced in value by the faith- fulness with which every scene and place was recorded." In 1843 they were succeeded by an " Historical Inquiry into the True Principles ot Beauty in Art, more especially with reference to Architecture," a work highly extolled at the time of its appearance. In 1851 he produced "The Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis re- stored," which contains many things of general interest, relating to one of the most wonderful discoveries ever made in the history of the world. The principles of this work are illus- trated in the Assyrian Court at the Crystal Palace, which was planned and produced under the superintendence of Mr. Fergusson. In 1851 he illustrated, by a model, a new system of forti- fication, and subsequently issued " The Peril of Portsmouth ; or, French Fleets and English Forts," which was designed to subvert the approved systems of military engineers. A sequel to this work appeared with notes on Sebastopol, which showed that the subject was well understood by its author. Alter this, Mr. Fergusson became general superintendent of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, b. at Ayr, Scotland, 1808. Febishta, Mohammed Kasim, fer-ish'-ta, a Persian historian, author of the " History of India under the Mussulmans," portions of which have been translated into English, was born at Atttrabad, and was liberally patronized by the 394 Fernandez Mohammedan princes of India. His history If divided into twelve books, with an introduction, in which he gives a resume' of the history of India before the advent of the Mohammedans, and a narrative of the conquests of the Arabs in their progress from their native deserts to Hin- dostan. He gives an account of the geography, climate, and other physical features of Hin- dostan at the close of his work ; and is regarded as a very trustworthy writer, as he evidently took great pains in consulting authorities and verifying his statements, b. about 1570; d. shortly after 1611. Febmat, Peter de, fair'-ma, a distinguished mathematician, poet, and civilian, who wrote poetry in the Latin, French, and Spanish lan- guages. He was universally respected for his talents, and became a counsellor in the par- liament of Toulouse. His prose works were collected and published under the title of " Opera Varia Ma'hematica," in 1670, and also in 1679. B. about 1601 ; d. 1665. Febmob, William,/er / -raor, a famous Russian general, the son of a Scotchman, entered the army of fhe czar in 1720 as a common bombar- dier, and rose by his bravery, intelligence, and skill to be adjutant-general to Count von Mup- nieh in 1729. He became acquainted with Frederick William of Prussia at Dantzic, and received from him the order of La Generosity. He greatly distinguished himself in the war with Turkey in 1736, and was promoted to the rank of general, and made governor of Zolberg. As inspector of buildings, to which office he was appointed in 1746, he superintended the erection of the imperial palace at St. Petersburg; and, after the new organization of the Russian army, he was commander in St. Petersburg, Novgorod, and Finland ; and, in 1755, was commander-in- chief of the whole army. In the war with Prussia he captured the city of Memel after a severe bombardment, succeeded Count Aprax- in as general of the army, took possession of the kingdom of Prussia, of which he was made governor, and was created a count of the German empire by Francis I. In 1776 he fought the battle of Zorndorf against Frederick II. of Prussia, and led the first division, under Solti- kow, at the battle of Kunersdorf, for his bra- very at which he received large honours from the empress. He took the city of Berlin in October, 1 760, and in the same year went on an expedition to Siberia. Peter III. recalled him from the army, but after Peter's death Catharine II. made Fermor governor-general of Smolensko, and a member of the supreme senate, b. at Pleskjw, 1704; d. 1771. Febn, Fanny,J/em. Under this nom de plume, an American lady wrote some sketches of domestic life called " Fern Leaves," which in the United States andGreat Britain have attained some degree of success. She was a sister of N . P. Willis, known also as an author of some cele- brity, and was originally married, in 1837, to Dr. Eldredge, who died in 1846. She subse- quently married Mr. Farmington, from whom, however, she afterwards separated. Besides "Fern Leaves," she wrote two tales, called "Ruth Hall "and "Rose Clark." b. at Port- land, Maine, 1811. Febnandez, Juan, fair-nan' -daiz, a Spanish navigator, who, in 1563, discovered the island which bears his name. n. 1576. Febnandez, Navarrete, surnamed El Mudo, or the Dumb, was one of the most distinguished OF BIOGRAPHY. Fernel of the pupils of Titian, and became painter to Philip II. of Spain, who employed him mostly in adorning the Escurial. His principal works are a " Martyrdom of St. James," a " Nativity of Christ," " St. Jerome in the Desert," and " Abra- ham with the Three Angels." This last is esteemed his greatest work. He painted with great ease, and, on account of his colouring, was named the Spanish Titian, b. at Logrono, on the Ebro, 1526 ; d. at Segovia, 1579. Fernel, John Francis,/atr / -?ie/, physician to Henry II. of France, published a number of works on medical subjects, which have been frequently reprinted, b. 1497; d. 1558. He was surnamed the modern Galen, from the extent of his medical knowledge, and the number of works he wrote on the subject. Ferrari, Gaudenzio./air'-aw-re, a celebrated Lombard painter of the Milanese school of Leo- nardo da Vinci. He worked under Raphael at Rome, and has been called one of the seven great painters of modern times, which is an extravagant eulogy, for, although correct in design, careful in execution, and often brilliant in colouring, his works are devoid of tone, and dhow a want of appreciation of, or feeling for, harmony of colour. His principal works arc in Milan, and have all a reference to sacred sub- jects. B. 1484; D. 1549. Ferrari, a distinguished family of Milan, several of whose members became eminent in the 16th and 17th centuries for their at- tainments. Octavian Ferrari was professor of mathematics and physics at Milan and Padua successively, translated into Latin the works of Athenajus, and was the author of two treatises mi the writings of Aristotle, b. 1518 ; d. 1586. — Francesco Bernardino Ferrari was celebrated throughout Europe for his knowledge of books and literature generally. He was a doctor of the Ambrosian college at Milan, and his collection of valuable works was the foundation of the celebrated library of that name. His own wri- tings display much and profound learning, b. 1585; d. 1669. — Ottavio Ferrari, after being his- tor.ographer and professor of rhetoric at Milan, settled at Padua, and was patronized by many students and crowned heads, among the latter being Christina queen of Sweden and Louis XV. of France, the latter of whom conferred on him a pension of 500 crowns. He was distinguished for the mildness of his disposition and the sua- vity of his manners, qualities which procured him the designation or the " Pacificator." He was the author, in continuation of Scaliger, of a work entitled "Origines Linguoe Italieaj," and wrote a variety of treatises on ancient customs, manners, &c. b. 1607; d. 1682. — Besides these, there were several other distinguished Italians of this name, who do not, however, appear to have belong-.. 1 to the same family. Among them may be mentioned— 1. Giovanni Andrea Ferrari, distinguished as a painter of historical subjects, and of fruit and flower pieces, was born at Genoa, in 1599 ; d. 1609. — 2. Ludovico Ferrari, a native of Bologna, was a professor in that city, and was the discoverer of the method of resolving biquadrate equations, b. 1522; d. 1565. Feereiba, Antonio, fair 1 -rai-eer-a, a Portu- guese poet, who held the office of judge, and wrote, with considerable success, elegies, odes, comedies, tragedies, and also epics. His best piece is "Inez de Castro," one of the first complete tragedies of modern times. Hie works were 395 Festus collected at Lisbon, 1598, and his comedies were reprinted in 1621. He was in his time the chief of the classical school, and seems to have deserved his title of the Portuguese " Horace." b. at Lisbon, 1528 ; d. 1569. Ferreeas, Don Juan do, fair-rair'-ass, a learned Spanish divine, who was a member oi the Spanish Academy at its commencement, and contributed largely to the dictionary pro- duced by that body. He also wrote a " History of Spain," 10 vols. 4to, and other works, highly esteemed for their minuteness and accuracy. b. at Labaneza, 1652 ; d. 1735. As an historian of Spain, this writer is much more to be de- pended on than Mariana, whose pages, however, are more elegant and fascinating. Ferei, Ciro, fair-re, a celebrated Roman fresco painter, was the most distinguished scholar of Pietro da Cortona, and greatly assisted that artist in his extensive works both at Rome and in the Pitti Palace at Florence. After the death of his master, he took the leading position among the fresco painters of Rome, and many of his works have been engraved. B. 1634; d. 16S9. Febhiee, Miss, fer'-ri-cr, was the daughter of a writer to the signet in Edinburgh, who held an appointment in the Court of Session as the colleague of Sir Walter Scott. Her early intro- duction to the best literary society of Edinburgh gave a bias to her tastes, and she became the authoress of three excellent novels, entitled the "Marriage," the "Inheritance," and " Destiny, or the Chief's Daughter." b. at Edinburgh, 1782 ; d. 1854. At the conclusion of the " Le- gend of Montrose," Sir Walter Scott thus com- pliments the abilities of this lady : — " I retire from the field, conscious that there remains behind, not only a large harvest, but labourers capable of gathering it in. More than one writer has already displayed talents of this de- scription ; and if the present author, himself a phantom, may be permitted to distinguish a brother, or, perhaps, a sister shadow, he would mention, in particular, the author of the very lively work entitled 'Marriage.' " Miss Ferrier was a frequent guest at Abbotsford, and helped to cheer the melancholy which clouded the last moments of (he life of the great novelist. Fesch, Cardinal Joseph, fesk, a distinguished Corsican, and the half-brother of Letitia Ramo- lini, the mother of Napoleon I. After suffering considerable privations in the revolutionary period of France, he suddenly found his fortunes changed by the elevation of his nephew to the command of the Army of Italy. He became one of its commissioners, or (actors ; but, in 1802, was appointed archbishop of Lyons. In the following year he was sunt ambassador to the Holy See; and, from the court which he paid to the pope, he received a cardinal's hat, and the consent of that dignitary to visit Paris to crown Napoleon. After the coronation, he, in 1805, became imperial almoner, and received the grand cordon of the Legion of Honour. In 1801) he rejected the archbishopric of Paris, on account of the severity with which the pope was treated by the emperor; and, in 1810, actually openly rebuked Napoleon before the council of Paris. For this he was driven into exile, and took refuge in Home, where he passed the remainder of his days. B. at Ajaccio, 1763; d. at Rome, 1839. Festus, fes'-tus, a celebrated Latin gram- marian, whose age is not accurately ascertained ; THE DICTIONARY Feti but he is believed to have lived in the 3rd cen- tury. He compiled some voluminous works on his favourite science, and is classed by Scaliger amongst the best or most useful etymologists for assisting the student in understanding the language of ancient Rome. Fbti, Domenico, fai'-te, called the " Man- tuan," from being the court painter to Ferdi- nand Gonzaga, duke of Mantua, executed several works in that city, some of which have been engraved; his masterpiece being his " Feeding of the Five Thousand." B. at Rome, 1589; d. at Venice, 1624, being only thirty-five years of age. Feuebbach, Paul Joseph Anselm, foir'-hak, an eminent German writer on criminal law, who became successively professor at the uni- versities of Giessen, Jena, Kiel, and Landshut. Although he wrote a number of able papers on criminal jurisprudence, his fame did not become established till he produced his " Review of the Fundamental Principles and Ideas of Penal Law." This work, in conjunction with another which appeared shortly afterwards, exercised a great influence on German criminal legislation, and placed Feuerbach in an eminent position in the eyes of his countrymen. In 1808 he became a privy councillor in Bavaria; in 1817 second president of the court of appeal at Bamberg; and in 1821 first president of appeal at Anspach. To these offices his sphere of action was entirely confined throughout the rest of his life. b. at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 1775; d. there, 1833. Kr.LiLLi: . ,Louis,fol'-lai, aFrench astronomer, botanist, and mathematician, was a Franciscan friar, and having received orders from Louis XIV. to proceed to the Levant to make certain astronomical observations, performed the duty assigned him, and afterwards visited the Antil- les, Carthagena, Martinique, and western South America, investigating the natural productions of the various places he went to. These voyages occupied him from 1707 to 1712, when he retired to an observatory erected for him at Marseilles, where he lived during the remainder of his days. He published the results of his obser- vations in a work entitled " Journal of Physical, Botanical, and Mathematical Observations in Western Central America, and the West Indies," 2 vols, folio, with numerous plates. By his means the magnificent Datura arborea was first made known to botanists, b. in Provence, 1660 ; d. at Marseilles, 1732. Feuquieres, Isaac Manasses de Pas, Mar- quis de, Jb'-gue-aire, a brave French officer of the seventeenth century, conducted the siege of Rochelle, where he was taken prisoner, and afterwards acted as ambassador to Gustavus Adolphus in Germany; for his services on which mission he was made lieutenant-general of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and died in 1640 at Thionville, of the wounds he had received at the siege of that place the preceding year, and where he was made prisoner, b. 1590. Feuquieres, Isaac de Pas, Marquis de, son of the preceding, was also a lieutenant-general in the French army, and ambassador to Ger- many, Sweden, and Spain, and died in the last- named country, in 1688. Feuquieres, Antoine de Pas, Marquis de, son of the last-named, likewise distinguished himself in the armies of his country, having in the German campaign of 1688 performed such eminent services as to be made mars.aal-de- 306 Piclno camp. He next went to Italy, where he won the rank of lieutenant-general in 1693. Although aii excellent officer, he was very strict and severe in enforcing discipline, and was con- sequently no favourite with his troops. Indeed, it was said of him, in reference to the feeling of his men, that "he was the boldest man in Europe, since he slept amidst 100,000 of his enemies." He wrote memoirs of the generals of Louis XIV., in which he points out the faults committed by those officers on various occa- sions, enumerating no less than twelve radical blunders which the French commanders fell into at the battle of Blenheim alone. The work is regarded as one of the most able on the theory and practice of war in existence, b. at Paris, 1648 ; d. 1711. Fevre, Tannegrri le, or Tanaquil Faber, faivr, a learned critic, pensioned by Richelieu, at 2000 livres, to inspect the books printed at the Louvre ; but on the death of the cardinal his salary was stopped. He then removed to Saumur, where he embraced the reformed reli- gion, and obtained the classical professorship. b. at Caen, 1615 ; d. 1672. He was the father of the celebrated Madame Dacier, and published several comments on Greek and Latin authors ; two volumes of letters; "Lives of the Greek Poets," in French ; " Greek apd Latin Poems ;" a " Method of Education." — There are several other French writers of this name. Fummi.ngo, Arrigo,/e'-a«Jm-tn'-90, a famous artist, whose real name is unknown, but who was called Fiammingo from being a native of Flanders. He visited Italy in the time of Gre- gory XIII., and was employed by that pontiff in the Vatican. He likewise painted a picture of the " Resurrection " for the Sistine chapel, and another of St. Michael conquering Lucifer for the church of the Madonna degli Angeli, both of which are works of high merit, d. 1601. — There was another painter, named Enrico, also a native of Flanders, and called Fiammingo by the Italians, who was a pupil of Guido, and whose style resembles that of his master, except that the shadows are darker. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, feesht-e(r), a learned German, who, in 1794, became professor of philosophy at Jena, and thence promulgated his system, known as the " Doctrine of Science." Shortly afterwards, a suspicion of irreligious tendencies fell upon him, when he retired to Prussia, and, after living some time in Berlin, received the appointment of professor of philo- sophy at Erlangen. Here he continued for some time highly esteemed, but in 1814 he visited Berlin, where, in the military hospital of that city, his wife caught a fever, and com- municated it to him. She recovered, but he died, in 1814. b. at Rammenau, 1762. Ficino, Marsilio,/e-c7ie'-no, a learned Italian, whose father was physician to Cosmo de Medici, by whom M arsilio was greatly esteemed, on account of his attachment to the doctrines of Plato. Under the patronage of Cosmo ho made rapid progress in all kinds of learning, and was chosen first president of an academy founded by him at Florence. After this, he published a complete version of Plato's works in the Latin language, and translated Plotinus, Iamblichus, Proclus, and other Platonists. Lorenzo the Magnificent was also a liberal patron of Ficino, and thus Platonism revived with great splendour in Italy. Ai the age of forty-two he entered into orders, and obtained OF BIOGEAPHY. Field considerable preferment through the means of the high patronage with which he had been honoured. B. at Florence, 1433 ; d. 1499. His works were collected and printed together in two vols, folio. Field, Nathaniel, feeld, a dramatic author, who is supposed to have been a member of Shakspeare's company, and to have been one of the players at the Globe and Blackfriars theatres. He wrote "A Woman's a Weather- cock," "Amends for Ladies," and, in conjunc- tion with Massinger, "The Fatal Dowry." Lived between the reigns of James I. and Charles I. Field, Richard, D.I)., a learned English divine, who was chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, was a great favourite with James I., and wrote several works on theological subjects, the most important of which is entitled " Of the Church." He had likewise begun a book on the " Contro- versies on Religion," which he did not live to finish. He was a man of a mild and loving dis- position, and was ever anxious to heal dissen- sions in the Christian church, b. 1561 ; d. 1616. Field, Cyrus West, an American merchant, who, in 1854, took up the subject of ocean tele- graphy. After getting a cable laid between Cape Ray and Cape Breton to connect Newfoundland with the mainland of America, he turned his attention to laying a cable along the bottom of the Atlantic between Newfoundland and Ira- land. This, after some failures, was successfully accomplished in 18G6. n. 1819. Fielding, Henry, feet-ding, a celebrated Knglish author, son of lieutenant-general Field- ing', and great-grandson of William, third earl of Denbigh. After receiving the rudiments of his education at home, he went to Eton, whence he was sent to Leyden, where, for two years, he devoted himself to the investigation of civil law, and then returned to England. The nar- rowness of his father's circumstances, and the largeness of his family, prevented him from providing in a suitable manner for his son, who, in his twenty-first year, went to London, and began writing for the stage. His first piece was entitled " Love in several Masks," and met with a favourable reception; as did his next performance, called " The Temple Beau." Some of his future dramatic efforts, however, were not so successful, and he had the courage to prefix to one of them, " As it was damned at the theatre royal, Drury-lane." A large number of his plays are now, by the generality of readers, entirely unknown. In 1734 he was fortunate enough to marry Miss Charlotte Cradoek, a lady of some wealth, and, by the death of his mother, came into the possession of £200 a year. His extravagances, however, were such, that, at the age of thirty, he had reduced himself to his former condition; on which he entered the Temple, and studied the law with considerable ardour, still exercising his pen for immediate support, as assistant editor of a periodical paper called " The Champion," and by occasional con- tributions of a poetical kind. About this time he produced the "History of Jonathan Wild," a notorious character, whose story Fielding wrought up into an entertaining romance. This hasbcen pronounced to be, perhaps, the most ingeniously-arranged description of a tissue of blackguardisms which has ever been given to the world. In 1742 appeared his "Joseph Andrews," a novel full of humour and admirable delineations of human nature During the 897 Fielding rebellion of 1745 he edited the " Jacobite Journal," for which he was made a Middlesei justice, in which situation he gained consider- able reputation by his " Inquiry into the Causes of the late Increase of Robberies," and his " Proposal for the Maintenance of the Poor.'' In 1749 he published his principal work, the novel of " Tom Jones," which exhibits a great knowledge of life, and is equally rich in comic delineation and pathetic expression. His "Amelia " followed in 1751, and is more correct in sentiment, though deficient in humour and variety. For this novel he received £1000. A complication of complaints had now pro- duced a dropsy, and after undergoing the opera- tion of tapping, he went with his family to Lis- bon, where he ended his days. b. at Sharpham, Somersetshire, 1707; n. at Lisbon, 1754. His works have been printed uniformly in 12 vols. 8vo, with his life prefixed by Mr. Murphy, That Fielding had a great genius as a writer is unquestionable ; and when we consider the comparative brevity of his life, and the difficul- ties under which he almost invariably wrote, we are amazed at the number and general excel- lence of his productions. He wrote twenty- four dramatic pieces ; and although his talents were not of a decidedly theatrical cast, still it was something to escape general disapproba- tion, though he was, at times, received with indifference. Of his three great works, — "Joseph Andrews," "Amelia," and "Tom Jones," upon which his reputation rests, it must be confessed that, however they may occa- sionally err in their morality, they are extremely happy representations of those features of human nature which must always interest, simply because they are immediately recognised as genuine by every mind that has been brought into contact with the various elements at work in society at large. " Joseph Andrews," Field- ing tells us himself, was written as an imitation of the style and manner of Cervantes, and it cannot be denied that he has well succeeded in copying the humour, the gravity, and the fine, ridicule of his master. His " Amelia " is also an admirable production. " It is, perhaps, the only book," says Dr. Johnson, " of which, being printed off betimes one morning, a new edition was called for before night." lhe same stem moralist read the book through without stop- ping ; and further adds, that " Fielding's Amelia' is the most pleasing heroine of all the romances." " Tom Jones " is considered as the greatest work of Fielding, yet it has not escaped severe censure. " Sir," said Johnson, " there is more knowledge of the heart in one letter of Richardson's, than in all ' Tom Jones,'" — an opinion, however, in which few will concur. There is no novel with which we are acquainted so skilfully conducted in its fable, and evincing so much art in the development of the plot. In composition, also, Fielding is a great master. Indeed, " taking him for all in all," we believe it is the general opinion that ho is what Byron calls him, — " the prose Homer of human nature." Fielding, Sarah, was the third sister of the above great novelist, and accounted a woman of considerable learning. She wrote the novels of " David Simple" and " The Cry ;" and trans- lated "Xenophon's Memoirs of Socrates" into English ; " The Lives of Cleopatra and Oc- tavia;" "The Histoiy of the Countess of Del- win ;" *' The History of Ophelia j" and scveriu THE DICTIONAEY Fielding other works. She lived and died unmarried at Bath. b. 1714; d. 1768. Fielding, Sir John, the half-brother of Henry, the novelist, and his successor as a justice for Middlesex, was blind from his childhood, yet discharged his office with great credit, and in 1761 received the honour of knighthood, d. 1780. He laboured to reform the vicious, and published some tracts on police ; a " Charge to the Grand Jury of Westminster," &c. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, an English pain- ter, belonged to a family of artists, and first exhibited his pictures in 1810, at the Artists' Exhibition in Spring Gardens. He early became a teacher of his art, and from his great success in this vocation secured a wide circle of friends and patrons. It is as a water-colour painter that he is best known and most admired ; and there are few, if any, who have risen to the same height of popularity in representing Eng- lish scenery under the same or similar aspects in which he delighted to exhibit it. His path was one of unvarying prosperity, and for many years he held the office of president of the Society of Painters in Water-Colours. His sub- jects are generally chalky downs, stretching far away, until they are lost in the softened haze of distance. He has also represented both Scotch and Welsh mountain scenery, under peculiar atmospheric effects, and usually with the most striking success. He had great mechanical dexterity in the use of his pencil, notwithstand- ing which, he bad frequently recourse to both the sponge and the cloth to produce appear- ances, which were not entirely free from a charge of a kind of ingenious trickery, b. 1787; D. at Worthing, Sussex, 1855. Fiennes, William, Lord Say and Sele,/e'-e», was educated at New College, Oxford, and in 1624 was made a viscount. In the Rebellion he sided with the parliament, and became " very active" with Hampden and Pym, for which he was declared an outlaw by the king, after whose execution he retired to the Isle of Lundy, on 'Me coast of Devon, where he continued till Cromwell's death. At the Restoration he was made privy seal and chamberlain of the house- hold. B. in Oxfordshire, 1582; d. 1662. His lordship wrote some pamphlets against the Quakers. Clarendon pronounces him "a man of a close and reserved nature, of great parts, and the highest ambition." Fiennes, Nathaniel, second son of Lord Say and Sele, was also educated at New College, Oxford, after which he went to Geneva. On his return he was intrusted with the govern- ment of Bristol, but surrendered it to Prince Rupert, for which he was condemned to death by a council of war. His father's interest, how- ever, saved his life. Cromwell, with whom he was in great favour, made him one of his lords. He was a distinguished leader of the Inde- pendent party, and printed some speeches and pamphlets, b. 1608; d. 1669. Lord Clarendon says of this person, "If he had not encumbered himself with command in the army, to which men thought his nature not so well disposed, he had been second to none in the councils of the Parliamentarians after Mr. Hampden's death." Fieschi, Joseph Marie, fe-ex'-ke, a Corsican, and the autnor of one of the most terrible con- spiracies of which history has preserved the remembrance. In 1835, whilst Louis Philippe was king of the French, he made an attempt to destroy that sovereign and the princes of the SC3 Pilelfo royal family. Preparing an "infernal machine,** in a house on the Boulevard du Temple, he, on the 28th July, on the occasion of a grand review, discharged it as the king and staff were passing his windows. Eighteen persons lost their lives, among whom was Marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso; twenty-two others were severely wounded, the king escaping only by a miraclo. The assassin was taken and condemned to death, with Pepin and Morez, his accomplices. This man had formerly been a shepherd, then a soldier, and had been, prior to this r sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for robbery, b. in Corsica, 1790 ; executed February 19, 1836. Fiesco, Giovanni Luigi, fe-ais'-ko, a noble Genoese, who, out of hatred to the famous Andrea Giovanni Doria and his nephew, formed, in 1547, a conspiracy, with the assistance of France and Pope Paul, to revolutionize Genoa. In the attempt to seize the galleys Fiesco was drowned. The conspirators, disheartened, gave up the enterprise, and the family of Fiesco was proscribed. Filangiebi, Gaetano, fe-lavm-je-air'-e, an Italian political writer, who studied the law, but never practised it. In 1777 he entered into the service of the court, was appointed a gentleman of the bedchamber, and an officer in the marine. In 1780 he published the first volume of his work on the " Science of Legislation," which made him famous throughout Europe, and the 8th volume in 1791. It was never completed. In 1787 he obtained a place in the Royal College of Finance, which he designed to reform, but was taken ill, and died on the 24th of July, 1788. b. at Naples, 1752. His work has gone through several editions. Filangibbi, Charles, an Italian general, son of the above, having lost his father at an early age, was forced by the troubles of his country, in 1809, to leave it, and set out, on foot, with his younger brother, for France. Arriving in Paris in a state of utter destitution, the name of their father procured for them at the hands of Bonaparte, then first consul, admittance to the school of the Prytaneum. Charles afterwards served in Napoleon's army, being present at Austerlitz, and subsequently distinguished him- self as one of the first officers in the Neapolitan service. He afterwards served in Spain, and received for his signal acts of bravery advance- ment and honours from Murat. He does not appear to have been much employed from 1820 till the accession of Ferdinand II., in 1830, to the throne of the Two Sicilies. He then had the direction of the artillery and engineers con- fided to him, and in 1848 was appointed to the command of the army sent into Lombardy. (See Ferdinand II.) He was now the docile instrument of Bomba, and, at the head of the expedition directed against Sicily, took posses- sion of Messina after a bombardment of four days and a terrible slaughter. The same fate was in preparation for Palermo, but the Eng- lish and French admirals, seeing humanity so shamed in these proceedings, demanded and obtained an armistice for the suffering Sicilians. Six months later, however, hostilities again commenced, the submission of the island was completed, and Filangieri was appointed go- vernor, with the fullest powers, b. at Naples, 1783. Filelfo, Francis, or PHiLBLPHUS./e-Zaifj/b, an Italian philosopher, and one of the restorers of letters. After studying at Padua, he opened OF BIOGRAPHY. Filipepi a school of rhetoric at Venice, the state of which appointed him chancellor, and ambassador to Constantinople. Here he made himself ac- quainted with the Greek language, when, on returning to Venice, he took with him many Greek manuscripts. In 1428 he removed to Bologna, where he was appointed professor of moral philosophy ; but in 1429 he went to Flo- rence. A difference having occurred between him and Cosmo de Medici, he was forced to retire to Siena, and afterwards to various other places, "b. at Ancona, 1398; d. at Florence, 1481. He was a man of learning and abilities, but restless and quarrelsome. His epistles were printed at Venice in 1502.— His eldest son, Mario Filelfo, born at Constantinople, 1426, was also a good scholar, and died at Milan in 1480. Filtfbvi, Sandro, or Alessandro, fe'-le-pep'-e, usually called Botticelli, from the name of a goldsmith to whom he was apprenticed, hav- ing studied painting under Filippo Lippi, rose to be one of the greatest painters of his time. He executed many works for the churches of Florence, some of which still exist in the Florentine Academy. His chef-d'oeuvre was a picture representing the adoration of the kings, in which the likenesses of Cosmo, Julian, and Cosmo's son, Giovanni Medici, were taken for the kings. He also painted, for the Sistine chapel at Rome, three grand works from the history of Moses and the Israelites. He subse- quently illustrated Dante's " Inferno," and attempted to engrave his own designs, in which he failed, b. at Florence, 1437; d. there, depending on the charity of Lorenzo de Medici, 1515. Fillans, James, fil'-lans, a Scotch sculptor, who, from the humble occupation of a keeper of sheep, became a weaver in Paisley, and next a stonemason. Whilst engaged in these occupa- tions, he laboured privately to improve himself in the art of drawing, and also obtaiued a local celebrity by modelling in clay. Meeting with some success, and attracting the notice of Wil- liam Motherwell the poet, and also the editor of the " Paisley Advertiser," he was brought fur- ther into notice, and encouraged to proceed to Glasgow, where he would have a wider field to work in. Here he gradually rose in his circum- stances, until he found himself in a condition to visit Paris for the purposes of study. On his return, he settled in London, and was intro- duced to Chantrey by Allan Cunningham. He now grew into notice, and produced a " Tam O'Shantcr Jug," and " The Birth of Burns," in alto-relievo, which, although creditable per- formances, do not seem to have done much for him. His greatest works are — "The Blind Teaching the Blind," "The Boy and Fawn," and a colossal head of Professor Wilson. To these may be added a colossal statue of Sir James Shaw for the town of Kilmarnock. This work established his fame, and Fillans would have become eminent ; but his life was drawing to a close, and although he had been long engaged on a work entitled "Rachel Weeping for her Children," he did not live to finish it. b. at Wilsontown, Lanarkshire, 1808; d. at Glasgow, 1852. Filmer, Sir Robert, fll'-mer, an English writer, who was the author of the " Anarchy of a limited and mixed Monarchy," " Patriarchs," in which he proves that government was monar- chical in the patriarchal ages, but the argu- ments in which, according to iiallam, " are 800 Fingal singularly insufficient," and were admirably answered by Mr. Locke in his book on govern- ment. He also wrote the " Freeholder's Grand Inquest." b. in Kent ; d. about 1688. Finch, Heneage, finsh, son of Sir Heneage Finch, recorder of London, was bred to the bar, and was made solicitor-general by Charles II., who likewise knighted him. In 1661 he was chosen member of parliament for Oxford uni- versity; became attorney-general in 1670; in 1673 was made lord-keeper, and raised to the peerage ; in 1675 he was made lord chancellor, and in 1681 was created earl of Nottingham. His wisdom and eloquence were rated very highly, and Dryden has commemorated him under the name of Amri, in his " Absalom and AchitoDhel." b. 1621 ; d. 1682.— His son, Daniel Finch, second earl of Nottingham, was a distin- guished lawyer and statesman, who, disapprov- ing of the course pursued by James II., never went to court during that king's reign, and, on his abdication, wished for the appointment of a regency, rather than the election of anothei king. When William and Mary were put on the throne, however, though he declined the lord chancellorship, he accepted one of the principal secretaryships of state. He attended King Wil- liam at the famous congress at the Hague, and was excepted by king James, in the proclamation issued previous to his intended descent upon England, in 1692, from the general amnesty then promised to those who had supported the new order of things. Finch resigned in 1694, but was again reappointed at the accession of Queen Anne ; and when George I. came to the crown, he was one of the lords for the administration o f affairs, and was chosen president of the council. He retired from public affairs in 1716, in conse- quence of making a speech in favour of the Scots gentlemen concerned in Mar's rebellion ; and, while in retirement, wrote an eloquent reply to Whiston on the Trinity, for which the university of Oxford thanked him. b. 1647; d. 1730. Finden, William, fin' -den, an English line- engraver, who, by study and intelligence, acquired a highly-finished taste, and rose rapidly to eminence as an engraver of steel-plates. From the excellence of his line, he was chosen to engrave the royal portrait of George IV. seated on a sofa, and painted by Lawrence. For this work he received 2000 guineas, although the plate was not a large one. He also engraved the " Village Festival," by Wilkie, and the " Highlander's Return," by the same artist. Having now risen into great popularity, he commenced publishing works of art on his own account, and formed an extensive engrav- ing establishment, which he carried on in con- junction with a younger brother, also a good engraver. The result of this was the produc- tion of engraved serials, among the most popu- lar of which were the " Byron Gallery," and th« " Gallery of British xVrt." But whatever may have been the successes of Mr. Finden in this line, they could only have been transitory, as the great expense necessary to support his esta- blishment proved ultimately ruinous in a pecu- niary point of view. The lust work upon which he engaged himself was Hilton's "Crucifixion," undertaken for the Art Union, which he finished, with a broken spirit, shortly before Ids death. in 1802. u. 1787. Fingal, fin-pal, prince of Morven, m. an- eient province of Caledonia, the principal hero THE DICTIONARY Finley of Ossian's poems, where he is celebrated for his bravery, prudence, and patriotism, fought against the Romans, and made expeditions into the Orkneys, Sweden, and Ireland, s. about 282 a.d. Finlbt, John, /in'-Zai, a Scotch poet, author of " Wallace of Ellerslie," a " Life of Cervantes," and editor of a " Collection of Scottish Ballads," was born at Glasgow, in 1782, and educated at the university of liis native city. d. 1810. Fiorillo, Johann Dominik, ftf-or-el'-lo, a distinguished German painter and author, who is, however, best entitled to notice for his labours in the latter character. He was a native of Hamburg, went to Rome in 1761, where he studied under Pompeo Batoni, was elected a member of the academy of Bologna in 1769, and In 1784 was appointed professor of art in the university of Gottingen. His great works, be- sides essays on the history of modern art, are his " History of Art in Italy, France, Spain, and England," and " History of the Arts of design in Germany and the United Netherlands." Although Fiorillo continued to use his brush to the end of his life, he did not produce many great pictures. His masterpiece is a theme from Homer, "The Surrender of Briseis to the Heralds of Agamemnon." b. 1748; d. 1821. FiBMiLiAN, - /ir-mi£'-ynB, a bishop of Cesarea, in Cappadocia, who was the friend of Origen, and took part with Cyprian in the dispute con- cerning the rebaptizing of converted heretics. He presided at the first council of Antioch against Paul of Samosata, and died in 269. Fibmin, Thomas, fir'-min, a benevolent Englishman, noted for his extensive charities, began business as a linendraper in London, and amassed a considerable fortune. His piety and benevolence procured him the esteem of many of the most eminent men of his time, especially Archbishop Tillotson, who particu- larly courted his friendship. He erected a warehouse for the employment of the poor in the linen manufacture, and when the French Protestants landed in England, set up another for their use at Ipswich. He was one of the governors of Christ's and St. Thomas's hos- pitals, to which he was a liberal benefactor, as he was to almost every charitable institution brought under his notice, b. at Ipswich, Suffolk, 1632 ; d. 1697. He published, in 1678, " Some Proposals for the Employing of the Poor, and especially in and about the City of London, and for the Prevention of Begging," 4to. Donaldson, in his "Agricultural Biography," says of this pamphlet, "The author's views were sufficiently benevolent, but not very enlarged." Fischer, Karl von, fish'-er, a distinguished German architect, who, after studying at Mann- heim and Vienna, and visiting Italy, went, in 1809, to Munich, and became professor of archi- tecture in its academy. Here he superintended the erection of several mansions of great merit; but his greatest work is the "Hof Theatre," which is still one of the chief orna- ments of Munich. TMs building was com- menced in 1811, and opened in 1818; and although, in 1823, it suffered considerably by fire, it was rebuilt in accordance with the ori- ginal designs of Fischer. He is considered the founder of the Munich 6chool of architecture. B. at Mannheim, 1782 ; D. at Munich, 1820. Fish, Simon, fith, an English lawyer, who, on account of his active support of the priuci- 400 Fitzgerald pies of the Reformation, was obliged to fly to Germany, where, in conjunction with William Tyndale, he wrote the " Supplication of Beggars against Monks and Friars." This piece so pleased Henry VIII., that Fish had liberty to return. He also translated from the Dutch a little book, entitled "The Sum of the Scrip- tures." b. of the plague, 1571. The " Sup- plication of the Beggars" was a satire upon the Popish clergy, and was answered by Sir Thomas More in his "Supplications of Souls in Purgatory." Fisheb, John, fiih'-er, an English prelate, who was educated at Cambridge, and became confessor to Margaret, countess of Richmond, mother to Henry VII. By his advice the coun- tess founded St. John's and Christ's colleges, Cambridge. In 1502 he was chosen chancellor of that university, and became a liberal encou- rager of learning. In 1504 he was appointed to the bishopric of Rochester, from which he would never remove to a better see. He was a zealous opponent of the Reformation, and could not be induced by Henry VIII. to concur with that monarch's divorce of Queen Katharine. Great efforts were made to bring him to acknow- ledge the king's supremacy, which proving in- effectual, he was sent to the Tower. While in confinement, the pope made him a cardinal, which so enraged the king, that he caused him to be tried for high treason, when he was con- demned and beheaded in 1535. b. at Beverley, Yorkshire, 1459. He wrote a " Commentary on the Penitential Psalms," a "Defence of the King's Book against Luther," a " Funeral Ser- mon for the Lady Margaret," &c. A collective edition of his works was published at Wurtz- burg in 1695. Fisheb, Mary, a member of the Society of Friends, who conceived the idea of going to Constantinople to convert the grand seignor. The sultan, Mahomet IV., heard her patiently, and then caused her to be sent back to her own country, where she married a preacher of her own sect. This couple afterwards went to Languedoc, to preach the tenets of Quakerism among the Protestants there. Lived in the 17th century. Fisheb, Payne, an English poet, whose prin- cipal claim to remembrance arises from his having held the laureateship during the rule of Cromwell, notwithstanding that he had served on the royalist side in the Civil War. He had, however, abandoned the king's cause when affairs became desperate, joined the republicans, and celebrated their victories in some Latin poems. He had been a student both at Oxford and Cambridge, and, besides his poetical com- positions, wrote a "Synopsis of Heraldry." b. in Dorsetshire, 1616 ; d. in poverty, in 1693. Fitzgbbald, Lord Edward, fitt-ger'-ald, was the son of James, first duke of Leinster, and Lady Emily Lennox, daughtgr of the duke of Richmond. Entering the English army, he fought in the American war, but in 1790 quitted the service, and took his place in the Irish Par- liament. When the French revolution broke out, he supported its principles, and in 1793 hastened to Paris. Here he married Pamela, the daughter, it is said, of Louis Philippe Joseph, duke or Orleans, and Madame de Genlis. On his return to Ireland, Fitzgerald was desirous of effecting a separation or that country from England, and induced the French Directory to furnish him with a fleet and troops, A landing OF BIOGRAPHY. Fitzgibbon was attempted on several occasions; but all efforts only proved the futility of the scheme, and Fitzgerald was seized, tried, and condemned to death, but died of his wounds before the time fixed for his execution, 1793; b. October 15th, 1763.— His wife, distinguished for her wit and beauty, had been educated with the daughters of the duke of Orleans, by Madame de Genlis, and married a second time, Mr. Pitcairn, the Ame- rican consul at Hamburg, from whom, however, she separated soon afterwards, d. almost in want of common necessaries, 183.1. Fitzgiu box, John, fitt'-ffib-bon, earl of Clare, and lord chancellor of Ireland, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and at Oxford. He rapidly rose in the legal profession, till he be- came Irish chancellor, in 1789, with the title of Baron Fitzgibbon ; and in 1795 was raised to the peerage as the earl of Clare. He was an emi- nent lawyer, and an earnest promoter of the Fnion in the Irish Parliament, b. 1749; d. 1802. Fitzhebbert, Maria, jits-her'-bert, was the youngest daughter of Waller Smythe, Esq., of Brambridge, and was twice a widow before she «vas twenty-five years of age. In 1785 she be- came acquainted with George IV., then prince of Wales, and was, in the same year, privately married to him at Carlton House, in the pre- sence of her uncle and brother. This marriage was invalid by the law of the land, and the prince afterwards mai -ied the princess Caroline of Brunswick. This alliance proving unhappy, Mrs. Fitzherbert again lived for several years with the prince as his wife. His gross irregu- larities, however, drove her into retirement, and she went to Brighton, where she lived, not only in the enjoyment of the affection and respect of a large circle of friends, but retaining the good opinion of George III. and William IV. b. 1756 ; b. at Brighton, 1837. Fitzj aiies, James. (See Berwick, Duke of.) Fitzboy, Admiral Robert, E.N., Jits'-roi, an English naval officer, who, from 1828 to 1830, was employed in surveying the S. American coasts ot Patagonia, Terra del Fuego, Chili, and Peru. Another expedition was planned, and in 1831 he sailed again, and surveyed the southern shores of S. America, circumnavigated the globe, and returned after an absence of four I years. In 1841 he became member of parlia- ! ment for the city of Durham, and in 1843 was I appointed governor and commander-in-chief of | the colony of New Zealand. In 1846 he was | replaced by Sir George Grey, and, on his return to England, wrote a pamphlet in justification of the course of policy he had pursued in the colony. In 1850 he published " Sailing Direc- 1 tions for S. America, &c," accompanied by charts, which show the results of his surveys. | In 1855 he was appointed chief of the meteoro- \ logical department of the Board of Trade, a de- partment which was then established for the purpose of giving notice, on the coasts and else- where, of approaching storms, in which office he was of Immense service to fishermen and sailors. B. 1805. d. by his own hand, 1865. Fitz-Stbphex , William, fits-ste'-fen, a monk of Canterbury, who wrote the life of his master, Thomas a, Becket, in which he gives a curious description of London, and which is the earliest extant, d. 1191. Fitzwilliam, William Wentworth Fitz- william, earl, AW-william, an English states- man, who took his seat in tb* House of Lords 401 Flaminius In 1769, and for a time acted with the Whigs, but on Mr. Fox approving of the French revo- lutionary ideas, he joined the Duke of Portland and Mr. Pitt, and was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In the discharge of the duties of this office, he favoured the agitation for Catholic emancipation, and this not being approved by his colleagues, he was recalled to make way for Earl Camden. On Pitt's death, in 1806, he be- came president of the council, an office he con- tinued to hold till the Grenville administration fell, in 1807. He did not, after that time, take much share in public affairs. He was possessed of very large estates, and this, and his family connexions, gave him an immense amount of in- fluence ; to which circumstance, more, perhaps, than to his own abilities, he was indebted for the position he held in the national councils, b. 1748; d. 1833. Flaccus, Oaius Valerius, jlak'-lent, a Latin poet, who lived in the reign of Vespasian. A poem of his on the Argonautic expedition is extant, the best edition of which is that of Burman, 1724. Flaccus, or Fbancowitz, Mathias, a Lu- theran divine, who assumed the name of Flaccus Illyricus, on account of his having been born in an ancient part of Illyricum. He became a disciple of Luther and Melancthon at Witten- berg, where he taught the Hebrew and Greek languages, of which he was there appointed professor. He was the principal author of the " Centuriae Magdeburgenses," and a great de- fender of the principles of Luther against those who were for moderate doctrines ; on which account he settled at Magdeburg, and after- wards removed to other places, b. at Istria, 1520; d. at Frankfort, 1575. He wrote " Clavis Sacraa Scripture," 2 vols, folio; "Catalogus Testium Veritatis," folio; "De Translatione Imperii Bomani ad Germanos ;" and " De Elec- tione Episeoporum, quod seque ad Plebem per- tineat," 8vo. Flamel, Nicholas,_/Ja'-mrf, a notary of Paris, who accumulated, by some unknown means, a vast property, which he appropriated to bene- volent purposes and the endowment of hospitals and churches. The multitude ascribed his great wealth to his possessing the philosopher's stone; whilst others attributed to him the authorship of some works on alchemy. How- ever this may be, he certainly founded no less than four hospitals in Paris. D. 1418. Flaminio, Mereantonio, Jla-me' -ne-o, ar. eminent Italian poet, whose Latin effusions rank among the finest productions of the Italian school. He was a man of amiable temper as well as profound learning, and was held in very high esteem by his contemporaries. His poems were published in the " Carmina quinque illustrium Poetarum," which appeared at Florence in 1549, and of which they consti- tute the principal portion. He also composed Latin versions of thirty of the Psalms, and a ahort exposition of the Sacred Lyrics. He was secretary to Cardinal Pole, whom he accom- panied to the council of Trent, b. 1494; ». 1550. Flaminius, Cains, Jla-min'-i-ut, a brave and warlike Boman consul, who was drawn into a battle near the lake Thrasymenus, by the arti- flee of Hannibal. He was slain in the engage- ment, with an immense number of Romans, »'7b.c. Flaminius, or FtkiuxiXVB, Titus Quintius. D D THE DICTIONARY Flamstoed • celebrated Roman consul, who, b.c. 197, was sent against Philip, king of Macedonia, and against the Achaian league. He totally defeated Philip on the confines of Epirus, and" made all Locns, Phocis, and Thessaly tributary to the Roman power. He proclaimed all Greece inde- pendent, at the Isthmian games. This cele- brated action procured him the name of father and deliverer of Greece. He was afterwards sent ambassador to Prusias, king of Bithynia, where, by his prudence and artifice, he caused Hannibal, who had taken refuge at this court, to kill himself, rather than be given up to his enemies the Romans. Flaminius was found dead in his bed, after he had imitated, with success, the virtues of hid model, Scipio. — Lncius, the brother of the preceding, signalized himself in the wars of Greece. — Flaminius, a tribune, who. At the head of 300 men, saved the Roman army in Sicily, 258 B.C. ,by engaging the Carthaginians, and cutting them to pieces. Flamstked, flam-steed, an English astro- nomer, who, when very young, discovered a strong predilection for mathematical learning, and, in 1669, calculated an eclipse of the sun which was to happen the next year. He also calculated five appulses of the moon to the fixed stars. He sent the same to the Royal Society, for which he received the thanks of that learned body. Soon after this, he visited London, and then went to Cambridge, where he entered himself of Jesus College. One of his best friends was Sir Jonas Moore, who introduced him to the king, and in 1674 procured for him the place of astronomer royal. The same year he entered into orders. In 1675 the foundation of the royal observatory at Greenwich was laid, and he being the first resident and astronomer royal, it was called Flamsteed House. In 1725 appeared his great work, entitled " Historia Coelestis Britannica," in 3 vols, folio. In the " Philosophical Transactions" are many of his papers, and in Sir Jonas Moore's " System of Mathematics" is a tract by him on the Doctrine of the Sphere, b. at Derby, 1646 ; d. 1719. It was to the mass of lunar observations made by Flamsteed, that Newton was indebted for the means of carrying out and verifying his immor- tal discovery of gravitation. ¥iii.viAH,Jlai'-vi-an, patriarch of Antioch, in which see he was confirmed by the council of Constantinople in 382. This act, however, occa- sioned a schism, numerous bishops adhering to Paulinus, and others to Flavian. The prudence of the latter at length restored peace to the church. He was a zealous opposer of the Arians. d. 404, having governed his church twenty-three years. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople, to which he was elected on the death of Proclus, in 447. He condemned the Eutychian heresy, in a synod held at Constantinople; but the followers of Eutychius afterwards got Flavian banished to Lydia, where he died. Fljl\ita$, flav'-i-tas, patriarch of Constanti- nople. When Acacius, patriarch of Constan- tinople, died, the emperor Zeno was weak enough to leave a blank paper under the altar, in expectation that an angel would write upon it the name of a person to succeed him. Fla- vitas, by bribing the grand-chamberlain, gained admittance into the church, and inscribed his own name in the letter; on which he was chosen patriarch. He died about, three months afterwards, and the cheat being discovered, the 402 Flemming chamberlain was executed. Lived in the 5th century, FLAxkAir, John, flax-man, an eminent Eng- lish sculptor, who from his boyhood discovered a remarkable genius for modelling in clay. In 1787 he visited Rome, where, during a residence of seven years, he executed his celebrated de- signs in outline from Homer, iEschylus, and Dante. These were engraved and published, as were some which he made from Hesiod. While at Rome, he also executed the splendid group from Ovid's " Metamorphoses," entitled "The Fury of Athamas," consisting of four fieures, larger than life. For this work ho received £600, a sum insufficient to defray even the cost. It was executed for the earl of Bristol. At this time he also produced his " Cephalus and Aurora." In 1794 he returned to England, and executed the monument for Lord Mansfield, now in Westminster Abbey : for this he received £2500. After this he produced a large number of fine works, and has been pronounced " the greatest of modern sculptors." b. at York, 1755; D. in London, 1826. Byron says that "Flaxman translated Dante the best;" and Allan Cunningham says that " the progeny of his pencil and chisel were of the highest rank." Flk chies, Esprit, flat -the-ai, a famous French bishop, who was greatly admired as a preacher at Paris, and whose funeral orations placed him on a level with Bossuet. In 1679 he published his " History of Theodosius the Great;" in 1685 he was made bishop of Lavaur, on which Louis XIV. said, " I should have rewarded you much sooner, but that I was afraid of losing the pleasure of hearing your discourses." Shortly after, he was promoted to the see of Nimes. As a bishop, he was exemplary, and when a famine raged in 1709, his charity was unbounded, and manifested to all persons, without any respect to religious persuasion, b. at Pernes, near Carpentras, 1632 ; d. at Nimes, 1710. His works are, "Miscellaneous Works," 12mo; "Pane- gyrics of the Saints ;" " Funeral Orations ;" Sermons;" the lives of Cardinal Ximenes and Theodosius the Great ; " Posthumous Works." They were all published together at Nimes in 1782, in 10 vols. 8vo. Flbcknoe, Richard, fielc-no, an English poet and dramatist, noticed here, not on account so much of his own productions, as on account of his name having been borrowed by Dryden, to serve as a scourge for the punishment of Shadwell. He was poet laureate to Charles II., and wrote several miscellaneous pieces; a short treatise on the English Stage ; " Love's Domi- nion," a dramatic piece; "Ermina; or, the Chaste Lady ;" and several other performances, which are now all but forgotten, even by the antiquarians in literature. Of his birth nothing is known. He is believed to have died about 1678. Flekmiitg, or Flemittnge, Richard flem'- ming, an English prelate, who received his education at University College, Oxford, and, in 1408, obtained a prebend in the cathedral of York. He, for a time, zealously defended the doctrines of Wickliffe, but afterwards as strenu- ously opposed them. In 1420 he became bishop of Lincoln, and soon after was sent deputy to the council of Constance, where he distinguished himself by his eloquence. At his return, he executed the decree of that assembly for digging up Wickliffe'a bones and burning them. He OF BIOGRAPHY. Fleetwood wm afterwards raised to the see of York by the pope; but Henry VI. refusing to concur in his advancement, he was obliged to remain at Lincoln, b. in Yorkshire; d. at Lincoln, 1431. He founded Lincoln College, Oxford. Fleetwood, Charles, fleet' -wood, one of the parliamentary generals during the civil war, was the son of Sir William Fleetwood, cup-bearer to Charles I.; but on the breaking out of the quarrel between the king find the parliament, young Fleetwood declared for the latter. He commanded a regiment of cavalry in 1644; held the rank of lieutenant-general at the battle of Worcester, to the gaining of which, by Cromwell, he largely contributed. He married the Pro- tector's daughter after the death of her first husband, Ireton, and was appointed commander of the forces in Ireland, in 1652, and commis- sioner for the settlement of the affairs of that country, which he reduced to subjection, and was named lord-deputy there by his father-in- law. He strongly opposed Cromwell assuming the title of king in 1657, and was soon after superseded in Ireland by Henry Cromwell, the Protector's younger son. On the death of Oliver, he concurred in the appointment of Richard as his successor ; but soon after joined in inducing him to resign, and thus paved the way for the Restoration, an event, however, which he did not long survive, n. 1692. Flbetwood, William, an English prelate, became chaplain to William and Mary, was fellow of Eton, and rector of Austin's, London. He was lecturer at St. Dunstan's, was installed canon of Windsor in 1702; and in 1706 suc- ceeded bishop Beveridge in the see of St. Asaph, from whence he was translated to Ely in 1714. He was greatly admired as a preacher, and was esteemed and honoured on account of the exemplary and blameless life he lived. His lermons are the best known of his writings, although he also composed several learned works on theological subjects, and on some points of what is now known as political economy, b. in the Tower of London, 1656 ; d. at Tottenham, Middlesex, 1723. Flbtchbe, Richard, fletch'-er, an English prelate, who, in 1583, was made dean of Peter- borough ; and, in 1587. attended Mary queen of Scots at her execution, with a view of convert- ing her to the Protestant religion. In 1589 he was preferred to the bishopric of Bristol, whence he was translated to Worcester, and lastly to London. On the death of his first wife he married again, and this gave such offence to Queen Elizabeth, that she suspended him from his episcopal functions, b. in Kent ; d. 1596. Fletcher, John, an English dramatic poet, who received his education at Cambridge, and wrote several plays in conjunction with Beau- mont. We do not know whether to consider it a fair inference, that, because the plots of many of his plays were taken from works in the Spanish, Italian, and French languages, he was acquainted with these ; but be that as it may, it is certain that he possessed other merits suffi- cient to establish a fair claim to the reputation which time and posterity have alike awarded him in the literature of his country. Out of the fifty-two play* composed under the united names of Beaumont and Fletcher, it is stated that Beaumont had a share in the production of only seventeen. If such was the case, the friendship which could excite such generous conduct on the part of Fletcher was equally 403 Fleury creditable to both. In addition to his other works, he assisted Ben Jonson and Middlcton in " The Widow," and is believed to have been also a literary partner with Shakspeare, Mas- singer, and some other authors, b. 1576; d. of a plague which happened 1625, and was buried in St. Saviour's Church, Southwark. (See Beaumont.) Fletcher, Phineas, cousin to the above poet, was educated at Eton and Cambridge. In 1621 he obtained the living of Hilgay, in Norfolk, where he died in 1650. He is best known bv a poem entitled " The Purple Island," which' is an allegorical description of man, in the manner of Spenser, reprinted at London, in 1783. He also wrote a work, now very rare, entitled " Locustes, or the Apollyonists," a satire against the Jesuits, b. 1584 ; d. 1650. — His younger brother Giles was also a divine and a poet, and wrote " Christ's Victory." To this work Milton is said to have confessed that lie owed the idea of his " Paradise Lost." He was born in 15S8, and died in 1623. Fletcher, Andrew, a Scottish political writer, was the son of Sir Robert Fletcher of Saltoun, in Scotland. He was bred up under the care of Dr. Burnet, afterwards bishop of Salisbury, and became commissioner for East Lothian in the Scotch parliament, in which he so strongly opposed the court measures, that he found it expedient to withdraw to Holland. In 1685 he landed in the west of England with the duke of Monmouth, but was dismissed for shooting a gentleman who had remonstrated with him for stealing his horse. One of Fletcher's biographers says, that " he was a man of breeding and nice honour, in whose constitution anger was ex- tremely predominant." After this he was engaged in the Hungarian service against the Turks. At the Revolution he returned to his own country, and was a member of the conven- tion for settling the government of Scotland. b. at Saltoun, 1653 ; d. in London, 1716. His publications, which are wholly political, are rilled with the boldest and most honest denun- ciations of the oppressive measures beneath which his country, in his time, groaned. His character is thus given by a contemporary : "A gentleman, steady in his principles, of nice honour, with abundance of learning; brave as the sword he wears, and bold as a lion, — a sure friend and an irreconcilable enemy, — would lose his life readily to serve his country, and would not do a base thing to save it." It is in his letter to the marquis of Montrose, entitled "An Account of a Conversation," that occurs the celebrated saying erroneously attributed to the earl of Chatham : " I knew a very wise man that believed that if a man were permitted to make all the ballads, he did not care who should make all the laws of a nation." Fletcher, Abraham, an ingenious English mathematician, was bred to the business of a tobacco-pipe maker. He learned to read and write by his own application, and also taught himself arithmetic, mathematics, and botany. At the ase of thirty he became a schoolmaster, to which he added the professions of astrologer and doctor, and acquired a fortune of £3000. v. in Cumberland, 1714; n. 1793. He published a compendium of practical mathematics, under the title of the " Universal Meal ''rer," 1 vol. 8vo ; a book of merit. Fleurt, Andre llerculo de, jl»r'-e, a cardinal and prime minister of France, was, at firut, 1) D 2 THE DICTIONARY Flinders chaplain to Louis XIV., then became, in 1698, bishop of Frejus, and was nominated by the old king, when near his death, as tutor to his successor, Louis XV. Fleury gained great in- fluence over the mind of his pupil, and in 1726 succeeded the duke of Bourbon as prime minister, being in the same year also made cardinal. He showed his wisdom in the internal administra- tion of the kingdom, diminishing the taxes, and systematizing the finance department, but was not successful in maintaining the influence of Franco abroad. Stanislas, king of Poland, whose claims ought to hare been supported, was abandoned in the war which he undertook to recover his crown. By the treaty of Vienna, 1736, Fleury, however, obtained from Austria the cession to Stanislas of the duchies of Loraine and Bar, stipulating that these should, at the death of Stanislas, revert to France. In the War of Succession, 1741, the cardinal was not destined to see the arms of his country successful ; but he did not live till the end of the conflict, b. at Lodeve, Languedoc, 1653 ; D. 1743. Flinders, Captain Matthew, fiin'-deri, a dis- tinguished English navigator, who early entered into the merchant service, but quitted it soon for the navy, which he joined as a midshipman in 1795. Having distinguished himself in an exploring expedition through Bass's Straits (tee Bass), he was, on his return to England, promoted, and in 1801 sailed, as captain of the Investigator, fbr Australia, and, commencing at Cape Leeu win, surveyed the eastern coast, as far as Encounter Bay. He next sailed for Port Jackson., where, having refitted, he explored Northumberland and Cumberland islands, and the great Barrier Reef of coral rocks. Thence he proceeded to Torres Straits, examined the Gulf of Carpentaria, thence to the island of Timor, and thence to Port Jackson, where he arrived in 1803. From the rotten state of his ship, he was no longer able to continue his sur- vey j accordingly, he embarked for England in the Porpoise, for the purpose of laying the results of his investigations before the lords commissioners of the admiralty. In this ship, however, he was wrecked on a coral reef, in sailing for Torres Straits ; but, through his own intelligence and enterprise, not only saved the crew, but eventually was the means of rescuing them, when, in a vessel called the Cumberland, no larger than 29 tons, he set out for England. He crossed the Indian Ocean, and reached the Isle of France, where he and his people were made prisoners of war, notwithstanding that he held a French pass, enjoining that nis ship should be respected wherever it should be found, on account of the scientific objects in which its captain was engaged. Here he was detained a prisoner for six years. At length he was re- ctored to his liberty and his country, with all his plans and charts, excepting one of his log-books, which had been either lost, kept, or destroyed. By this time the French had issued a volume and an atlas, marking a vast number of the Earts surveyed by Flinders as those which had een visited by a navigator of their nation. Flinders, however, was enabled to assert his own rights ; but, broken in health, lived only to revise the last sheet of his work, having died on the very day that his book was pub- lished, b. at Donington, Lincolnshire, 1760; ». 1814. The work of Flinders is entitled "A Voyage to Terra Australia, in the yeare 404 Floris 1801, 1802, and 1803, in His Majesty's ship Investigator, and subsequently in the armed vessel Porpoise and Cumberland schooner," 2 vols, with atlas : London, 1814. (See Isbo wj, Dr. Robert.) Flood, Henry, flud, an Irish orator, was the son of the Right Hon. Warden Flood, chief justice of the King^s Bench, in Ireland. He received his education at Dublin and Oxford, and was, in 1752, created M.A. at the latter university. He entered the Irish parliament for the county of Kilkenny, and afterwards for the borough of Callan, where his eloquence acquired for him an uncommon popularity in his native country, which he lost when he obtained a seat in the British parliament, b. 1732 ; d. 1791. Mr. Flood published an ode to Fame; and several of his .speeches have been also printed. He bequeathed the bulk of hie property, after the death of his wife, to the university of Dublin, for the purpose of found- ing a professorship, purchasing manuscripts and books, and for granting premiums. Flobian, John Peter Claris de, fior'-e-an, a French writer, educated under Voltaire, who procured him the place of page to the duke de Penthievre, whose friendship he obtained, and who gave him a captain's commission in his regiment of dragoons. He devoted himself, however, principally to letters, and produced a number of works, chiefly of the romantic kind. His first was "Galathee," published in 1782, which was followed by his " Theatre," contain- ing "Les Deux Billets," "Le Bon Menage," " Le Bon Pere," " La Bonne Mere," and " Le Bon Fils." His " Voltaire et le Serf du Mont Jura " gained him the prize given by the French Academy, of which society he became a member. His " Estelle " is reckoned equal to " Galathee," and his " Nama Pompilius," " Gonsalvo de Cor- dova," and his " Fables," which rank next to those of La Fontaine, are also highly esteemed. For his " Numa " he was sent to prison during the reign of Robespierre. In his confinement he began a poem on the story of " William Tell," and finished another, entitled " Ebra- him." He gained his liberty after the fall of Robespierre, and died at Sceaux, 1794. b. in Languedoc, 1755. Flobian, Marcus Antonius, half-brother of the emperor Tacitus, assumed the purple after the death of the latter, and caused himself to be acknowledged by the senate. Probus, however, having been proclaimed by the legions of the East, Florian marched against him ; but expe- riencing a check in one of his first encounters, his soldiers killed him. He reigned but two months, d. 276. Flokio, John, fio'-re-o, who styled himself " The Resolute," was descended from a family of Italian refugees which had settled in London, where he was born in the reign of Henry VI1L He taught French and Italian at Magdalen Col- lege, Oxford, and was appointed tutor to Prince Henry on the accession of James I. to the English throne, and likewise held the office of clerk of the closet to the queen. He wrote a variety of works with somewhat fanciful titles, the best of which are, " First Fruits," "Second Fruits," "Garden of Recreation," and an Eng- lish and Italian Dictionary, d. 1625. Flobis, Francis, flor'-e, a Flemish historioal painter, surnamed the " Flemish Raphael." He was held in high estimation by Charles V, and Philip II, of Spain, and amassed a very Ofr BIOGRAPHY. Floras large fortune. Amongst his best works are the " Twelve Labours of Hercules," and a " Last Judgment." B. at Antwerp, 1520 j d. 1570. Floeus, Lucius Annseus, ficr-ut, a Latin historian, of the same family as Seneca and Lucan. He wrote an "Abridgment of the Roman History," in four books, which is concise and elegant, although incorrect in many points. He lived between the years 70 and 140, reaching the summit of his fame in the reigns of the emperors Trajan and Hadrian. Fw)tjbbit8, Marie Jean Pierre, Jloo'-rai, a distinguished French physiologist, universally known as one of the most distinguished taverns of his day, and as the author of many learned works on physiological science, was profes- sor of comparative physiology in the Museum of Natural History in Paris ; professor in the College of France ; peer of the Empire ; per- petual secretary of the Academy of Sciences in the same city, a member of the Royal Society of England, and of the Academies of Edinburgh, Stockholm, Munich, Madrid, Turin, and of almost every other capital in Christendom. The best and most remarkable of all the works by M. Flourens is his book on the " Duration of Human Life, and the quantity of Life on the Globe," in which he maintain that one hun- dred years is the natural duration of human life, and that by living a sober— that is, a well- ordered, well-conducted, reasonable life — men may secure that degree of longevity ; but that it is impossible to prolong existence beyond that period, use whatever means they may. b. at Mnureilhan, Herault, 1794. Fo, or Foe, /o,' the founder of a religious sect, which, in the empire of China, reckons a great number of followers, whose tenets appear to be much the same as those of Buddha. He reformed the religion of the Brahmins, denied the distinction of castes, and the superiority of any one class of men, and taught a doctrine, of which the fundamental precepts are, not to lie, to do to others as we would be done by, to kill no living creature, to abstain from wine, to avoid all impurity, and to believe in future rewards and punishments. His doctrines only began to be prevalent in China 200 years B.C. His priests are called "bonzes, and live in monas- teries, travelling also considerably about the empire, and livmg, for the most part, on alms. b. at Benares, or in Cashmere, about 1027 b.c. Fohi, fo'-he, the first Chinese emperor and legislator. He Is said to have founded that kingdom 2953 years B.C. Nothing certain is known of his reign; but there are attributed to him the institution of marriage, the invention of fishing, hunting, music, and writing. He acknowledged and worshipped a supreme deity. Lived about 3000 B.C. Foix, Gaston III., Count de, Viscount de BSarn, foito, succeeded hia father, Gaston II., at the age of twelve, and rendered himself remarkable for his valour and magnificence. He is accused, however, of possessing a violent temper, and havingcauoed the death of his own son. This young prince, unjustly suspected of having attempted to poison his father, was imprisoned by the orders of Gaston, at the instigation of Charles the Bad, and left to perish, in his dungeon, of hunger. The life of Gaston was passed in continual v;ar». In i34ohewas fighting against the English; in 1356 in Prus- sia; two years afterwards on the side of tho court against the revolt of the Jacquerie ; in 405 Folengo 1372 against the count of Armagnac ; and, 1375, against the duke de Berri. b. 1331 ; d. 1391. Foix.Gaston de.duke of Nemours.aFrenchman who, in 1512, succeeded the duke of Longueville in command of the army in Italy, and on account of his daring exploits, was called the " Thunderbolt of Italy." He raised the siege of Bologna, relieved Brescia, and laid siege to Ravenna, where, on the 11th of April, 1512, he fell in the arms of victory. Byron, in the " Childe Harold," calls him the " gallant young De Foix," and draws a moral as to the evanes- cent character of human fame, from the state of the monument raised to his memory on the spot where he fell and which, the poet says, he found with — " Weeds and ordure rankling round the base." De Foix was the son of John de Foix, Viscount Narbonne, by Ids wife, Mary of Orleans, sister of Louis XII., and was born in 14S9, and was thus only twenty-three years of age at his death. Foix, Odet de, lord of Lautrec, a famous French general, was likewise present at the battle of Ravenna, where he was wounded, and was appointed governor of Milan by Francis I. He was opposed to the famous general Colonna, who drove him out of Italy. He returned in 1528, however, and took Pavia, and besieged Naples, where he died. His body was con- veyed to Spain, and was buried, twenty years after, in the tomb of the great Gonsalvo of Cor- dova. Folard, Jean Charles de, fo'-lar, a French officer, who, in 1702, became aide-de-camp to M. de Vendome, who undertook nothing without consulting him. For his services, he was re- warded with a pension and the cross of St. Louis. He was wounded at the battle of Cas- sano, and taken prisoner by Prince Eugene some time after the battle of Blenheim. Being exchanged, he was sent to Malta, to assist in its defence against the Turks. He afterwards served under Charles XII. of Sweden, and was present at the siege of Frederickshall when that prince was killed, December 11, 1718. He then returned to France, and served under the duke of Berwick, b. at Avignon, 1669 ; d. 1752. He wrote "Commentaries upon Polybius," 6 vols. 4to ; " A Book of New Discoveries in War," and "A Treatise on the Defence of Places." Folcz, Johann, foltt, a famous German poet belonging to the class of authors called master- singers, who, in the 14th century, succeeded to the position previously occupied by the minne- singers, or Suabian bards. These master- singers, who belonged generally to the class of master-craftsmen, usually met in taverns, and their merit was to invent new species of measures, subject to certain rules and laws. Folcz was especially eminent in this line, having originated several of these styles of versifica- tion. He occupied the position of a barber in Nuremberg, and was born at Ulm in the 15th century. A collection of his pieces was printed at Nuremberg in 1474. Folengo, Thcotilo, fo-len' -go, an Italian poet of the macaronic and burlesque schools, whose poetical cognomen was Merlino Coccaie, by which name he is best known. He was of a roving disposition, which he indulged for seve- ral years, during which he chiefly occupied himself with the composition of macaronic verses, a kind of poetry deriving i(s name from the Italian dish macaroni, and which jonsisted THE DICTIONARY Foley In interweaving with a staple of Latin verse words and phrases of the vernacular tongue, and made to fit into the construction and metre by Latin terminations. In this species of composi- tion Folengo was very successful. He likewise wrote a burlesque called " Orlandino," pub- lished at Venice in 1526 ; and, returning to a settled and so-called religious life, he in 1627 printed a piece entitled " Chaos del Triperano," in prose and verse, a whimsical and licentious work, descriptive of the various incidents of his life, and ending with the record of his con- version. He subsequently, while living in a monastery in the Neapolitan dominions, com- posed a poem in ottava rima, called " La Umanita del Figlio di Dio," which appeared in 1533. b. 1491 ; d. 1544. Foley, Sir Thomas, fo'-le, a distinguished naval officer, and the friend of Nelson, was descended from an ancient family of Pembroke- shire. He was a lieutenant in the Prince Oeorge when Prince William Henry, afterwards William IV., was a midshipman on board. He was made post-captain in 1790 ; was appointed to the St. Oeorge, flag-ship of Admiral Gell, in 1794, at the commencement of the war with France and Spain. On the passage to the Medi- terranean, immediately after, he assisted at the recapture of the St. Jago, a large Spanish ship, with upwards of two millions of dollars on board. Foley afterwards served under Admiral Hotham, and distinguished himself in an action with the French Toulon fleet and in capturing the Censeur and Ca Ira ships of the line. He was captain of the Britannia in the famous battle off Cape St. Vincent, on the 14th of February, 1797, where he displayed signal bravery. In 1793 he was transferred to the Ooliat'h, which was sent to reinforce Nelson in the Mediterranean; and in the battle of the Nile, August 1, 1798, led the British line into action. Within two minutes after the first shot was fired by the French, Foley opened upon them from the Goliath, which he steered along- side of the Conquerunt, the second ship in the enemy's van, in fifteen minutes dismasted his opponent, and then aided in subduing the vessels in the rear. After assisting in the blockade of Malta, Foley was in 1800 in com- mand of the Elephant, 74, belonging to the fleet under Sir Hyde Parker, and on board of his ship Nelson hoisted his flag when about to make his celebrated attack on the Danish fleet and fortifications at Copenhagen. Foley accompanied the Admiral through the whole of the desperate action which followed. It was to Captain Foley that Nelson made the famous remark, when the signal to cease action was made by Sir Hyde : "Leave off the action ! Foley, you know I have only one eye, and am entitled to be blind some- times. I really do not see the signal," added he, putting the glass to his blind eye; and continued the battle, with what result is well known. Captain Foley was made a colonel of marines in 1807, was promoted to rear-admiral's rank in 1808; in 1811 was appointed commander-in- chief in the Downs, which position he continued to hold during the remainder of the war. In 1812 he was made vice-admiral; in 1815 was nominated knight commander of the Bath; and obtained the grand cross of the same order in 1820. On May 1, 1830, Sir Thomas was ap- pointed to the command of Portsmouth, and died there on January 3, 1831 ; b. 1757. Folet, John Henry, It. A., an eminent 406 Fontaine sculptor, who, from Dublin, went to London, in 1834, and became a student in the Royal Aca- demy. His first exhibitions were " Innocence " and " The Death of Abel ;" both of which in 1839, appeared on the walls of the Academy, and attracted much attention. Next year appeared his "Ino and the Infant Bacchus," which further increased his fame; and from that time he may be said to have taken his place amongst the best sculptors of the day. Besides those works already named, he produced " Lear and Cordelia," " Venus rescuing iEneas," " Prospero narrating his Adventures to Miranda," and several others, displaying a rich faculty of invention, and truly clas&ic taste in execution. He also produced many portraits and monu- mental memorials, which greatly helped to extend his rcpntation. In 1858 he was elected a member of the Royal Academy, b. at Dub- lin, 181S; d. 1874. Folke8, Martin, fokes, an English philoso- pher and antiquary, who, after receiving a private education, was sent to Clare Hall, Cam- bridge. At the age of twenty-three he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1723 was nominated one of the vice-presidents. In 1741 he succeeded Sir Hans Sloane as president of that learned body, and was, about the same time, elected a member of the Koyal Academy of Sciences at Paris. He was also created doctor of laws by both universities, b. at Westmin- ster, 1690; d. in London, 1754. Mr. Folkes wrote, besides a number of papers in the " Phi- losophical Transactions," " A Table of English Silver Coins, from the Norman Conquest to 1745." A second edition of this work appeared in 1763. Fonblanque, John de Grenier,/on'-A/uwH//, a distinguished English barrister, was descended from a noble family in the south of France, some members of which had emigrated to England on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. In 1793 he published a "Treatise onEquity," which was enlarged and reprinted with notes in 1799, and again in 1805. b. 1759 ; d. 1837. Fonblanque, Albany W., fon'-blanlc, son of the above, was brought up to the law, but was never called to the bar. He early began to direct his attention to political questions, and, on Leigh Hunt and his bro- ther parting with the " Examiner" newspaper, it passed into the proprietorship of Mr. Fon- blanque. In the columns of this journal Ills taients were fully displayed. In 1837 he published a selection of his papers from the " Examiner," and entitled them " England under Seven Administrations," which were much admired. In 1852 he was appointed director of the statistical department of the Board of Trade, when his superintendence of the " Examiner" may be considered to have virtually ceased, b. 17t)7; d. 1S72. Fosiaine, John de la, fon-tain, a French poet, was educated first at Rheims, and afterwards under the fathers of the Oratory. He was a man of great simplicity of manners, cre- dulous, fearful, and uncommonly absent-minded. He lived for some time with the superintendent Fouquet, who allowed him a pension. After- wards he resided in turn with the duchesses of Buu;llon and Orleans, and Mesdamesd'Hervart and de Sabliere. As an illustration of the lazi- ness of his disposition, that lady on one occa- sion, having parted with her servants, said, " I have got rid of all my animals except three — OP BIOGRAPHY. Fontaine my cat, my dog, and La Fontaine." He was married, but his wife had as little knowledge of the management of a household as himself. He wrote some licentious tales, which are little read ; but his fables are very generally put into the hands of young people. They are natural, poetical, and entertaining. He also wrote " Les Amours de Psyche," a romance, some comedies, letters, &c., to be found in his miscellanies. b. at Chateau Thierry, 1621 ; d. 1695. In his later years, La Fontaine inclined seriously to- wards religion, and many of his more unworthy works he, at the instance of his confessor, sup- Eressed. As a fable-writer he is unsurpassed, is compositions in this path being remarkable for their great simplicity and exquisite beauty. Fontainb, Nicholas, a voluminous French author, connected with the Jansenists, was the son of a scrivener at Paris, where he was born in 1625. His principal works are, " Lives of the Saints," " History of the Bible," in short chapters, which has often been reprinted under the title of the "Bible de Royaumont;" "Me- moirs of the Solitaires of Port Royal ;" and a " Translation of the Homilies of St. Chrysostom on Paul's Epistles," which latter was con- demned by de Harlai, archbishop of Paris, as teaching the Nestorian heresy, d. at Melun, 1709. Fontaine, Pierre Francois Leonard, an architect, who has been called the Father of the modern French school, early began the study of his art, and, in 1785, carried away the second prize for architecture. He now became a pen- sioner of the Academy, to be maintained at Rome, and having presented drawings of the " imperial city," as it was in the time of the Caesars, he received an extraordinary prize of 3000 francs. After the Revolution, and the elevation of Napoleon I. to the consulate, he and Pereier, a brother architect, were employed to restore Malmaison. Under the imperial rule, he was further employed to restore all the palaces and complete the Louvre and the Tui- leries, which, with numerous other works, occu- pied him and Pereier throughout the whole of the rule of Napoleon I. On the fall of the empire, he was named architect to Louis X VIII., which place he held till 1848. He next became president of the Council of the Civil Buildings, and by his vast experience was thus enabled still to direct some of the most important public works in France, b. at Pontoise, in the department of the Seine-et-Oise, 1762 ; d. in Paris, 1853. Fontana, Domenico, fon-ta'-na, an eminent architect and mechanic, who raised the Roman obelisk from the dust in the front of 8\ Peter's, a work deemed impracticable, and which many others had attempted in vain. b. at Mili.on the Lake of Como, 1543 ; n. at Naples, 1607. Fontana, Prospero, an historical painter, who was preceptor to Ludovico and Hannibal Caracci. b. at Bologna, 1512; d. at Rome, 1597. — His daughter Lavinia was also an excel- lent painter of portraits, and was patronized by PopeGregory XIII. b 1552; d.1614.— There were several otliersof this name, among whom may be mentioned — 1. Felix Fontana, an eminent natu- ralist and physical philosopher, b. at Pomarlo, in theTyrol, 1730 ; d. 1805. 2. Gregory Fontana, the brother of Felix, a mathematician, b. 1735; D. 1803. 3. Francis Fontana, an astronomer of Naples, to whom the invention of the tele- •eope was for some time erroneously ascribed. 407 Fontenelle but who made improvements in various instru- ments, b. 1580 ; n. 1656. 4. Carlo Fontana, an Italian architect of some distinction, b. 1634; n. 1714. 5. Gaetano Fontana, a Modenese astro- nomer, with whom Cassini corresponded, and by whom he was regarded as always to be depended on in his observations and calcula- tions, b. 1645; d. 1719. Fonte, Moderata, fon'-tai, a Venetian lady, who wrote two poems; one entitled " II Flori- doro," the other on the " Passion and Resurrec- tion of Jesus Christ." She also produced a work in prose, in which she asserts that women are not inferior in understanding to men. B.at Venice, 1555; d. 1592. Fontenay, Therese de Cabarrus, Marquise de, fori-te-nai, a Spanish lady, who became first the wife of M. Devin, marquis of Fontcnay, a coun- sellor in Paris, and afterwards the wife ofTal- lien. She subsequently separated from Tallien, and became the wife of prince de Chimay, not- withstanding that her first husband was still alive. The Church, however, refused to ratify her marriage, and she continued to straggle against the feelings of society, in a vain endea- vour to be received into it, until 1816, when she retired to a private retreat, where she passed the remainder of her days in tranquillity. She was very beautiful, and extremely engaging by her gre:it wit. b. at Saragossa, Spain, 1773; d. at Chimay, 1835. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de,fon'-tai- nel, a celebrated French writer, whose father was a counsellor of Rouen. Young Fontenelle was also bred to the legal profession, which, how- ever, he abandoned for literature. His first efforts were directed to the stage, and although they were superintended by his uncle Thomas Cor- neille, he did not succeed. In 1683 he published his " Dialogues of the Dead," which were well received. His conversations on the " Plurality of Worlds," which appeared in 1686, further added to his reputation; and the year following he published the " History of Oracles," which is a translation, or very nearly so, of a work on the same subject by Van Dale. He was admitted a member of the French Academy in 1691, and, in 1697, of the Academy of Sciences. He subsequently became secretary of the latter, and tilled that office with honour from 1699 to 1711. In this capacity he wrote a history of the Academy, and distinguished himself by the excellent eulogies which he composed upon its deceased members. B.at Rouen, 1657; d. at Paris, 1757. Besides the above works, ho wrote a " History of the French Theatre," " Elements of the Geometry of Infinities," "Moral Dis- courses," &c. Fontenelle is said by some critics to have been especially distinguished for the clearness and simplicity of his style, and to have possessed, in an eminent degree, the power of making scientific matters intelligible to all readers. As a man of the world, he shone by the sharpness of his wit and the smartness of his repartees; although he was also remark- able for bis moderation and reserve in an age when there was not much of these qualities. Ho would say, " If I had my ha'ndu full of truths, I should take care how I opened them." He has been severely criticised, however, by some writers. Arser.e Houssaye, in his sparkling work onthe"Men and Women oi the Eighteenth Century," says of him that " he always wanted a compliment; a slave to his vanity, ho made himself the slave of the first comer. The roof THE DICTIONARY Poote which sheltered him in this world was never other than the roof of hospitality; he passed his days here and there; with Thomas Corneille, withM.le Haguais, withM.Aube (you know him — that M. Aube celebrated by Rulhieres). Again, he always dined out— with Madame de Tencin, with Madame d'Epinay, with Madame de Lambert, with Madame d'Argenton ; in fine, everywhere except at home. This style of living could not fail of being economical. He, therefore, although a poet without patrimony, died with an income of 35,000 livres (he be- longed to all the paying Academies), without speaking of 75,000 livres m ringing coins, which, when about 87, he had concealed in his mat- tress, doubtless to repose upon in the other world. Let no one say now, that all poets are improvident — but Fontenelle was not a poet. Now I repeat, that whilst he was thus hiding away his money, his cousin, the nephew of the great Corneille — the nephew of his mother — was begging at a neighbouring door. Besides, were there not twenty other unfortunates to succour at that time in the great family of men of letters, whence he had issued so rich and I glorious ? Malfilatre dying of hunger ! And I so many other hidden miseries, which the eye | of charity always discovers ; so many other souls that were breaking their wings against ' the corners of some confined room or the • rafters of a garret. Oh ! Monsieur de Fonte- 1 nelle, you would have been pardoned for much prose, and many a verse, for some open-handed charity." On seeing his hearse pass, Piron ex- claimed, " This is the first time that M. de Fon- tenelle has left home not to go and dine in the city." Foote, Samuel, foe', an English dramatic writer and actor, whose father was justice of peace for the county of Cornwall, and whose mother was sister to Sir John Dinely Goodere, of Herefordshire. Foote wag educated at Worcester College, Oxford, whence he removed to the Temple for the purpose of studying the law ; but this he quitted for the attractions of the stage. His first performance was in the cha- racter of Othello. In 1747 he opened the " little theatre in the Haymarket " with a dra- matic piece of his own, called " The Diversions of the Morning," which had a great success, and which was a representation of real charac- ters, whose very voice, gait, and gestures were strikingly imitated. His next piece was called "An Auction of Pictures," in which he repre- sented some of the most noted individuals of the day. He still continued to play at one or other of the theatres, and frequently produced new pieces. In 1760 he brought out the '' Minor " at his own house in the Haymarket ; but, in 1766, had the misfortune to break bJ6 leg, which he was obliged to have amputated. The duke of York, out of compassion, now procured for him a patent for life for the theatre in the Haymarket. In 1776 he attacked the duchess of Kingston in a piece which was suppressed by authority. Soon after this, a charge was brought against him which broke his heart, although he was honourably acquitted by the jury. b. at Truro, Cornwall, 1720 ; d. at Dover, on his way to France, 1777. His remains were interred in Westminster Abbey. Foote had an infinite fund of comic humour, both in writing and conversation ; but he took unwarrantable liberties in mimicking persons merely on account of natural failings and peculiarities of 408 Forbes manner. His farces have procured him the title of the English Aristophanes. Dr. Johnson said, that for loud, obstreperous, broad-faced mirth, he had no equal. Foote, Sir Edward James, an English naval officer, who entered the service of his country early in life, and obtained post rank in 1794, and was at the battle of Cape St. Vincent in 1797. In 1799 Nelson committed the blockade of Naples to his charge, and in that capacity he, in concert with Cardinal Buffo, made a treaty with the insurgents, which Nelson after- wards annulled. Foote became rear-admiral in 1812, vice-admiral in 1821, and died in 1833. b. in Kent, iu 1767. Forbes, William, forbt, the first bishop of Edinburgh, after studying at several uni- versities, went to England, where he was offered the Hebrew professorship at Oxford, which he declined. When Charles I., in 1634, erected Edinburgh into an episcopal see, he appointed Dr. Forbes to fill it ; but the bishop enjoyed this dignity only three months, b. at Aberdeen, 1585; d. 1634. He wrote "Conside- rationes modestae et pacifica? Controversiarum de Justificatione," &c, 8vo, reprinted by Fabricius, at Frankfort, in 1707. Forbes, Patrick, bishop of Aberdeen, and a munificent patron of the university of that city, which owes to him the reinstitution of the pro- fessorships of theology, civil law, and medicine, which had become dormant. He was descended from a noble family, took orders in 1592, and was raised to the episcopal bench in 1618 by James VI. of Scotland and I. of England. b. 1564; n. 1635. — His second son, John Forbes of Corse, was professor of divinity and ecclesi- astical history in King's College, Aberdeen ; but in consequence of supporting the introduc- tion of episcopacy into Scotland, and his refusal to subscribe the " Solemn League and Covenant," was ejected from his chair, in 1640, and went to Holland, where he remained a few years, and afterwards returned to Scotland, and lived in retirement at his estate of Corse. He wrote " Historico-Beligious Institutions;" a work generally admired, even by those who opposed his views of church government; "Irenicum," published at Aberdeen in 1629 ; and in 1646 he printed at Amsterdam a " Commentary on the Apocalypse," which had been written by his father, b. 1593; d. 1648. Forbes, Alexander (Lord Forbes of Pitsligo), is said to have been the original of Sir Walter Scott's Baron of Bradwardine in "Waverley." He adhered to the Stuarts, led a troop of horse in the rebellion of 1745, retired to France after the battle of Culloden, but returned to his country in 1749. He was the author of" Moral and Philosophical Essays." b. 1678; i>. 1762. Forbes; Duncan, an eminent Scotch judge, and an excellent writer, who was educated first at Edinburgh, and afterwards at Utrecht, Ley- den, and Paris. In 17"9 he began to practise as an advocate at the Scotch bar, and gained considerable reputation. In 1717 he was ap- pointed solicitor-general of Scotland, in 1725 lord advocate, and in 1737, president of the Court of Session. In the rebellion of 1745 he zealously opposed the Pretender; but the in- gratitude with which he was treated by the government, who even refused to reimburse some expenses which he had incurred, preyed upon his mind and brought on a fever, of which he died, 1747. u. at Culloden, 1685. His lord- FARNESE, ALEXANDER, DUKE OF PARMA FOX, CHARLES JAMES. FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN. FREDERICK THE GRF.AT. I'late XIII. OF BIOGRAPHY. Forbes ■hip was a man of great piety and learning, and well versed in the Hebrew Scriptures, as appears from his " Letter to a Bishop on Hutchinson's Writings and Discoveries," in 1732; "Thoughts concerning Religion, Natural and Revealed," 1735; and " Reflections on Incredulity;" the whole collected into one volume, 12mo, 1750. As a man, Forbes is highly spoken of. " I knew and venerated him," says Bishop War- burton, "one of the greatest men that ever Scotland bred, both as a judge, a patriot, and a Christian." Fobbbs, Sir William, of Pitsligo, was the founder, in conjunction with Sir James Hunter Blair, of the first banking establishment in Scotland, and long known and implicitly trusted under the title of Sir William Forbes and Co.'s Bank. He was a member of the Literary Club frequented by Johnson, Garrick, and Burke, and printed an account of the life and writings of Dr. Beattie. b. 1739; d. 1806. Fobbbs, James, an Englishman engaged in the civil service of the East India Company, is noticed here on account of his work entitled " Oriental Memoirs, selected and abridged from a series of Familiar Letters, written during seventeen years' residence in India," published in 1813. This work is illus- trated by coloured plates of animals and plants, executed with great spirit and beauty. Mr. Forbes was made a fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian societies, b. in London, 1749; ». 1819. Fobbbs, Edward, an eminent naturalist, who from a child was a collector; so that by the time he was seven years of age, he was possessed of a museum of natural curiosities. For some time he was connected with the studio of the late Mr. Sass, in London, but, in 1832, went to the university of Edinburgh, where, under the instructions of Professors Jameson and Graham, he first became acquainted with the true prin- ciples of natural science. After being there some time, he made an excursion into Norway, and afterwards published his observations on the plants, rocks, and mollusca of that country, in a volume entitled "Notes of a Natural-History Tour in Norway." He now became a contri- butor to the " Magazine of Natural History," whilst pursuing his studies both in zoology and botany. In 1836 he was chiefly instrumental in establishing the Edinburgh Botanical Society, to which he became the foreign secretary. In 1837 he visited the shores of Algiers and the Mediterranean, and the next year published his "Mollusca of the Isle of Man;" in 1839, a paper on the "Mollusca of Algiers," and another on the "Distribution of thetPulmonifera of Europe." In 1841 appeared his " History of Star Fishes," and in the same year he was appointed naturalist to her Majesty's ship Beacon, commissioned to transport from Lycia the marbles discovered by Sir Charles Fellows. In this voyage he discovered the great law, that among marine animals zones of depth corre- spond to parallels of latitude. He subsequently became professor of botany in King's College, London, and, in 1844, became assistant-secretary to the Zoological Society. He was next appointed palaeontologist to the Geological Society of Britain, and professor of natural history in the School of Sciences, in Jermyn Street. In 1854 he was elected president of the Geological Society, and also professor of natural history in the university of Edinburgh. This was the 409 Ford highest object of his ambition, which, however, he seemed only to have attained to die. b. in the Isle of Man, 1815; d. at Edinburgh, 1854. Fobbbs, Sir John, a distinguished Scotch physician, who graduated at Edinburgh in 1817. After practising some time as a physician at Penzance and Chichester, he settled in London, where his translation of the works of Aven- brugger and Laennec, on the use of the stetho- scope, first brought him prominently into notice among the medical profession. In 1828 he pub- lished a work on the "Climate of Penzance," and was one of the original founders of the present British Medical Association. It is to be regretted that this association, which had for its principal object the obtaining of authentic information regarding the medical topography of England, has not been so successful in its object as might have been expected. Subse- quently, Sir John became one of the editors of the " Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine," to which he contributed largely himself. He also became the editor of the " British and Foreign Medical Review," afterwards designated the " British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review." In this capacity he laboured to spread sound views upon all medical subjects ; and by exercising an independent judgment himself, he endeavoured to induce others to do the same; so that, by the accumulation of many different views upon any speculative point, "a sound opinion might be arrived at. Whilst thus actively engaged, he was appointed physi- cian in ordinary to her Majesty's household, andphysician extraordinary to his \an royal high- ness Prince Albert. For his labours in medical science, the university of Oxford conferred upon him the degree of doctor of laws, and he was a fellow of the Royal Society. In every enter- prize which has had for its object the education of the people, or the dissemination of sound knowledge of every kind, he took an active part, and was one of the members of the com- mittee of the Society for the Dilfusion of Useful Knowledge. In 1849 he published "A Physi- cian's Holiday; or, a Month in Switzerland;" in 1852, " Memoranda of a Tour in Ireland ;" and in 1856, "Sight-Seeing in Germany and the Tyrol." All these works are marked by shrewd sense, coupled with a tine taste for the descrip- tive and picturesque, b. 1787; d. 1861. Forbin, Claude, Chevalier do, for'-bii, a French naval commander, who served in the East Indies, and was with Duquesne, in 1633, at the bombardment of Algiers. He was also admiral to the king of Siam for two years, and greatly distinguished himself afterwards in Europe, in connexion with Jean Bart, risinsr into favour with Louis XIV. b. 1656; d. 1733. His "Memoirs" were published in 1730, in 2 vols, 12mo. Force, Jacques, Duke do la, force, son of Francois, lord de la Force, was a child, in bed with his father and elder brother, when these latter were murdered in the massacre of St. Bartholomew; but being unperceived by the assassins, he escaped. Ho signalized himself under Henry IV., and afterwards joined the Protestants against Louis XIII. Subsequently, he made his submission to the king, and wat appointed marshal of France, lieutenant-general of the army, and created a duke. He took Pignerol, and defeated the Spaniards at Carig- nan, in 1630. d. 1652, aged 89. Ford, John, ford, an eminent English dro- THE DICTIONARY Ford matic poet, of whom very little is known, but that, in 1602, he became a member of the Middle Temple, and v adhered to his profession of the law. In his 20th year, he published a poem entitled " Fame's Memorial ;" but there is little in the effusion to indicate the high talent which he afterwards displayed in dramatic poetry. Subsequently, he commenced writing for the stage, for which he produced, either wholly or in conjunction with others, upwards of sixteen plays. In Charles Lamb's " Specimens of Eng- lish Dramatic Poets," the following excellent criticism appears, relative to this author : " Ford was of the first order of poets. He sought for sublimity, not by parcels, in metaphors or visible images, but directly where she has her full residence, — in the heart of man, in the actions and sufferings of the greatest minds. There is a grandeur of the soul, above mountains, seas, and the elements." Gifford also says, " I know few things more difficult to account for than the deep and lasting impression made by the more tragic portions of Ford's poetry." Others, however, are not so lavish of their praises upon his works, b. at Ilsington, Devonshire, 1586. Of his death nothing is known. It is supposed, however, that, about 1640, he retired to his native place, and there ended his days. Ford, Sir John, the son of Sir John Ford, knight, served the office of high sheriff of Sussex, and displayed his loyalty to Charles I., who knighted him at Oxford, in 1643. He commanded a troop of horse in the civil wars, and was imprisoned on suspicion of aiding the king's escape from Hampton Court, but obtained his release through the interest of general Ireton, whose sister he had married. He possessed much mechanical ingenuity, and invented a system of machines for raising the water of the Thames to the higher streets of London, which was afterwards applied to the draining of marshes, mines, &c. He projected a scheme for con- structing a river from Rickmansworth to Lon- don to supply the city with water, besides other beneficial improvements, b. in Sussex, 1605 ; D. 1670, in Ireland, where he had gone to work a patent he hud obtained to coin copper money in that part of the kingdom. Fohd, Hichard, an English writer and travel- ler, who, having graduated at Trinity College, Oxford, was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but did not practise. In 1830 he visited Spain, where he resided for some time at the Alhambra, and, on his return, took up his residence in Devonshire, and became a contributor to the "Quarterly Review." In 1845 he published "The Handbook of Spain," which was highly commended. In 1848 appeared his "Gatherings from Spain," which was, on its publication, pronounced " the best English book, beyond comparison, that has ever appeared for the illustration, not merely of the general topo- graphy and local curiosities, but of the national character and manners of Spain." In 1852 *' Tauromachia ; the Bull-tights of Spain:" 26 superb drawings by Luke Price, with descrip- tions by R. Ford, were given to the public ; but the work is rather pictorial than literary, and is certainly splendid of its kind. B. in London, 1796 ; D. 1858. Fobdujt, John 6.e,for'-dun, a Scotch historian, and priest in the church of Fordun, who wrote a history of Scotland, which was printed by Hearne at ( ixford, in 5 vols. 8vo, and by Goodall at Edinburgh, in 1 vol. folio, Camden/speaking 410 Fordyce of Fordun's history, says that " all the Scots historians who have wrote since Fordun's time have been very much beholdened to his dili- gence ; and yet there are very material differ- ences betwixt his account of several things and theirs." Lived in the 14th century. Fobdtcb, David, for 1 -dice, an ingenious Scot- tish writer, who was educated at the University of Aberdeen, and became professor of moral philosophy in the Marischal College there. Though licensed as a preacher, he never became a stated minister. In 1750 he made a tour to Italy, and on his return, the following year, was drowned on the coast of Holland, b. at Aber- deen 1711. He wrote "Dialogues concerning Education," 2 vols. 8vo ; the " Elements of Moral Philosophy," which first appeared in Dodsley's "Preceptor;" " Theodoras, a Dialogue concerning the Art of Preaching ;" the " Temple of Virtue, a Dream." His " Dialogues of Edu- cation," which have considerable merit, are written in some degree after the style of Shaftes- bury, but without being tainted with the sophis- tries of that author. Fordyce, James, an eminent Scotch divine, brother of the above, was educated at the University of Aberdeen, and was first settled as a minister at Brechin, and afterwards at Alloa. While here, he distinguished him- self by some elegant pulpit compositions, particularly one preached before the Gene- ral Assembly of the Church of Scotland, on the folly, infamy, and misery of unlawful pleasures, for which the University of Glasgow conferred on him the degree of D.D. About 1762 he removed to London, where he became assistant to Dr. Lawrence, of Monk well Street, and afterwards his successor. Here he drew crowded audiences by his eloquence and the beauty of his sermons. In 1782 he resigned his situation, and went to live first in Hampshire, and next at Bath, where he died in 1796. b. at Aberdeen, 1720. He published a " Sermon on the Eloquence of the Pulpit," printed with his brother's " Theodoras ;" "Sermons to Young Women," 2 vols. 12mo ; " Addresses to Young Men," 2 vols.; "Addresses to the Deity;" a volume of poems, and single sermons. Fordyce, Sir William, brother of James Fordyce, was an eminent surgeon, which pro- fession he practised for many years, with much success, in London. He was the author of se- veral medical works, including one on " Fever," a second on " Ulcerated Sore Throat," and a third on "The Cultivation of Rhubarb for Medicinal Purposes." e. 1724; d. 1792. Fordyce, George, an eminent Scotch physi- cian, was educated it the University of Aberdeen, where he obtained the degree of M.A. at the age of 14. In 1759 he settled in London, com- mencing lecturing on the materia medica and practice of physic, in which he acquired an unrivalled reputation. In 1770 he was chosen physician to St. Thomas's Hospital, and, in 1776, a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1787 he was elected, speeiali gratia, a fellow of the College of Physicians, a very unusual distinction, b. near Aberdeen, 1736; d. 1802. Dr. Fordyce is known by his " Es«ays on Fever," an " Essay on Digestion," " Elements of the Practice of Physic," and miscellaneous papers. He was also an excellent experimental chemist, and published " Elements of Agriculture and Vege- tation." This work has always been esteemed as a very scientific treatise. OP BIOGRAPHY. Formey Fobmey, John Henry Samuel, for'-me, a Prussian writer, who was for some years pastor of a French church in Berlin, where he became professor of philosophy in the French college. On the restoration of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, he was appointed secretary to the philosophical department, and afterwards sole secretary. He was also made a privy councillor. 3. at Berlin, 1711; d. there 1797. Formey conducted, in conjunction with Beau- sobre, the " Bibliotheque Germanique." He also wrote " Le Philosophe Chretien," " Pensees Raisonnables," " Anti-Emile," y against Rous- peau ; the " History of Philosophy Abridged," an " Abridgment of Ecclesiastical History " (these two have been translated into English), " Re- searches on the Elements of Matter," " Con- siderations, on theTusculans of Cicero," &o. f ohm ax, Simon, for'-man, a notorious astro- loger, with which profession he combined that of physician, and was connected with the infamous countess of Essex in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury. Although it does not quite appear that he directly assisted in the perpetration of the crime, it is clear, from the records of the trial, that he was consulted by the countess and Mrs. Anne Turner, as to the means of accomplishing it. b. at Quidham, Wiltshire, 1552 ; d. suddenly in a boat on the Thames, 1611. He left several MSS., some of which are in the Ashmolean Museum, and others In the British Museum. Formosus, for-mo'-tus, bishop of Porto, In Italy, succeeded Pope Stephen V. in 891. He condemned Photius, excommunicated Lambert, emoeror of Italy, and then nominated in his place. Arnoul. emperor of Germany, d. 8i)6. The fiery Stephen VI., his successor, had his body disinterred, in order to put him on his trial. He was restored to his grave in 898, under John IX. Forskal, Peter, for'-skal, a Swedish natura- list, who studied at Gottingen, and afterwards at Upsal, where he became a pupil of Linnaeus. In 1761 he went at the request of the king of Denmark, with Niebuhr and others, to Arabia, to make discoveries, but died at Jerim, in that country, in 1763. b. 1736. He printed a tract, entitled " Thoughts on Civil Liberty ;" and from his papers, Niebuhr published " Descriptiones Animalium in itinere orientali," 4to; "Flora .^Egyptiaeo-Arabica," 4to; " Icones Rerum Na- turalium quas in itinere orientali depingi curavit Forskal," 4to. Forster, John Reinhold, fom'-ter, a cele- brated German naturalist, who, in 1748, entered the University of Halle, where he studied divinity, and thence went to Russia, in expecta- tion of considerable preferment; but being dis- appointed, proceeded to England, where, for some time, he taught the French and German languages at Warrington. In 1772 he accom- panied captain Cook on his voyage round the world. On his return to England, in 1775, he was honoured by the University of Oxford with the degree of LL.D. His son having pub- lished, contrary to the engagement entered into with government, an account of plants dis- covered in this voyage, he was treated with such coolness, that he quitted England and went to Halle, where he was made professor of natural history, b. in Prussia, 1729; D. at Halle, 1798. He was the author of "Observations made in a Voyage Bound the World," " History of Voyages and Discoveries in the North," "On 411 Fortescue the Byssus of the Ancients," several Papers iii the " Philosophical Transactions," &c. Forster, John George Adam, sou of the above, accompanied his father in his voyage in 1772-6. After his return, he became professor of natural history at Cassel, whence he removed to Wilna, in Poland, and next to Mentz, where he was appointed president of the university. He was nominated by the people of Mentz tneir repre- sentative at Paris, in the beginning of the Re- volution, b. at Dantzic, 1754; d. 179'. He wrote, "A Voyage Round the World," 2 vols. 4to; a Defence of the same against Mr. Wales, 4to ; " A Philosophical and Picturesque Journey along the Banks of the Rhine," 2 vols. 8vo ; and "A Journey through England." Forster, John, a Protestant divine, who assisted Luther in the translation of the Bible, and accompanied Melancthon to the council of Trent. He was a teacher of Hebrew at Wittem- berg, and left behind him an excellent dictionary of that language, which was published at Bale in 1564. b. at Augsburg, 1494; d. 1556. Foester, Nathaniel, an eminent divine and author, received his education at Oxford, and was successively made prebend of Bristol, vicar of Rochdale, fellow of the Royal Society, and one of the royal chaplains. He wrote " Reflections on the Antiquity, Government, Arts and Sciences of Egypt," "A Dissertation on Josephus'sAccount of Christ," and edited a " Hebrew Bible without Points." B. 1717; D. 1757. Forsteb, John, a modern English writer, was bred to the bar, but, by his devotion to literature, became an eminent author and jour- nalist. For twenty-four years he was a constant contributor to the columns of the " Examiner," and for twelve of that period he had the sole charge of its editorial department. He was also a contributor to the " Edinburgh Review," the " Foreign Quarterly," and other serials, and for a short time acted as editor of the "Daily News," after the retirement of Mr. Dickens. He is, however, best known by his works, en- titled " The Statesmen of the Commonwealth of England," and "The Life and Adventures of Oliver Goldsmith." The former was rt published in the "Cabinet Cyclopaedia" of Dr. Lardner, and the latter has been much admired. He also wrote the lives of Daniel De Foe and Churchill, and in 1858 published " Historical and Bio- graplucal Essays;" "The Arrest of the Five Mem >ersbyCharlesL," in ls60; and "Sir John Eliot, a Biography," in 1864. b. at Newcastle, 1812; d. 1876. Fort, Le. (SV-e Lefort, Francis.) Fobtescue, the lit. Hon. Chichester Samuel Parkinson, took first-class honours at Oxford in 18-14, and the Chancellor's prize for the English essay in 1816. Since 1817 he has represented the county of Louth, Ireland. From 1854 to 1655 he was an Irish Lord of the Treasury; under- secretary of state for the colonies from 1857 to 1853, and from 1859 to 1865 under Lord Palrner- ston ; and chief secretary for Ireland from 1865 to 1866 under Earl Russell. In 1868 he resumed the duties of the last-named post in the admin- istration formed by Mr. Glstdstono. b. 1823. Fortescue, Sir John,/oi '•tet-hu, an English judge, who was, in 14-12, n.*de chief justice of the King's Bench. He was zealously attached to Henry VI., and accompanied him in his exile to Scotland. Henry made him chancellor, but he never exercised the office. He subsequently went to Flanders, and while abroad wrote hia THE DICTIONARY Fortune famous book entitled "De Laudibus Legum Anglise," which, however, was not published till the reign of Henry VIII. This admirable trea- tise, according to Henry, excels every work on the subject. He returned to England with Queen Margaret, and was taken prisoner at the battle of Tewkesbury, in 1471. Edward IV. granted him a pardon, on which he retired to his seat at Ebrington, in Gloucestershire, b. in Devonshire, 1395; d. 1485. Fobtuwb, Robert, for'-tune, a Scotch natu- ralist, born of humble parents, and who was sent to China for the purpose of obtaining new plants, with instructions to pay all possible attention to the horticulture and agriculture of the people of that country. This he accord- ingly did, and, in 1847, published the result in "Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China." He also published " Two Visits to the Tea Countries of China," and " A Residence among the Chinese;" all excellent works of their kind. B. at Berwick, Scotland, 1813. Fosbeookb, Thomas Dudley, fot'-brook, was educated at St. Paul's School and Pembroke College, Oxford, where he became a M.A. in 1792 In 1794 he was appointed to the living of Hor- sley, and in 1810 was made curate of Walford, and in 1830, vicar. His works are, a poem on the "Monastic Life, as it existed in England;" " British Monachism ; or, Manners and Customs of the Monks and Nuns of England ;" to which are added " Manners and Customs of Ancient Pilgrims, Anchorites and Hermits, and Women who had made Vows of Chastity." These are his principal works, which give a comprehensive view of the manners and customs of monastic life. His book on " British Monachism" is called by Sir Walter Scott "a learned work;" and Southey, in the "Quarterly Review," after no- ticing some of its errors, states, "that it would be highly unjust were we not to state that it contains a great deal of curious and recondite information; and that, wherever the subject permits, the author gives proof, in the liveliness of his expressions, of a vigorous and original mind." He also wrote several other works ; among which we may notice his " Cyclopaedia of Antiquity and Elements of Archn-ology," which, at the time of its publication, was pro- nounced a work as original as it is important, elegantly written, and full of interesting infor- mation, with which every person of liberal education ought to be acquainted, b. in London, 1770; d. at Walford, 1842. Foscaki, Francesco, fot-kaw'~re, doge of Venice, to which office he was elected in 1423, was, perhaps, the greatest and the most un- happy of all those who held the office of chief magistrate in the Venetian republic. He occu- pied the position of doge for thirty-four years, led the armies of the state in many hard-fought fields, added Brescia, Bergamo, Crema, Ravenna, and other places to the territory of the republic, besides wisely and honestly administering the government at homo. He greatly improved the city, and made the name of Venice a potent one in the community of nations ; and yet was called upon to endure the utmost ingratitude from his countrymen, and to make sacrifices of personal feeling more trying than it is possible to con- ceive. He twice wished to resign the dogeship, on each occasion being compelled to retain the office, and at last having an oath exacted from him that he would continue doge as long as he I 412 Foscolo lived. He had had four sons, one only of whom, Giacopo, remained to him, and he, with high hopes and much public rejoicing, was married to a daughter of the house of Coutarini, one of the noblest in Venice. A short time only had elapsed, however, when troubles began. Giacopo was denounced to the Council of Ten as having taken bribes from foreign powers ; was tried before his own father, and, there being no evi- dence against him, the torture was applied in order to extort a confession, the doge being compelled not only to order its application, but to stand by and see it administered. Under excruciating agony, a confession of guilt was obtained, and Giacopo was banished, first to Napoli di Romana, in Greece, but afterwards allowed to remain nearer home, but beyond the boundaries of the state. While quietly living at his appointed place of exile, a Venetian sena- tor was murdered by unknown hands. Giacopo Foscari was suspected of complicity in the crime, was again tried, again tortured by order and in presence of his father, and again ban- ished, besides being condemned to a year's im- prisonment. Unable, however, to resist the desire to return to his country, he determined to do so under any circumstances. He accord- ingly wrote a letter to Sforza, duke of Milan, imploring his intercession with the council on his behalf, and took care that this letter should be conveyed, not to Duke Sforza, but to the Council of Ten. Once more was he brought before that terrible tribunal, over which his father presided; but on this occasion he did not deny the charge made against him — that of soliciting the interference of foreigners in the affairs of the state ; but boldly declared that he had written the letter, and had contrived that it should be conveyed to the Council in order that he might be brought bi*;k to Venice, even if as a malefactor. This was dis- believed, and the torture was applied to him for the third time. All attempts to shake his firm- ness were unavailing ; he adhered to his state- ment, and a fresh sentence of banishment and imprisonment was passed upon him. Before being conveyed to his foreign gaol, however, he was allowed to see his family ; and his father, now an old man of 84, hobbled upon crutches into the dungeon where his unhappy son was confined. On Giacopo making a last appeal to him to obtain at least a commutation of the sentence to imprisonment within the walls of Venice, "Go," replied the stern magistrate, but wretched father, "go, Giacopo; submit your- self to the will of your country, and ask no more of me." The effort, however, was too great; on being carried from the room the old man swooned, never recovered, and in two days breathed his last, in 1457, in his 84th year. The son was sent to a prison at Candia, where he, too, shortly afterwards died. The charges against Giacopo are believed to have been all false, at least no real proof was ever adduced against him ; and it is most likely they had their origin in private malice, the desire of the Coun- cil of Ten to curb the power of the doge, whom it was not convenient altogether to dispense with, making that body willing to entertain the accusations against his son, in order that they might, through him, strike at the father. These incidents have furnished Lord Byron with the subject of his drama entitled "The Two Foscari." Foscolo, Ugo,fo$'-ko-U>, an eminent Ionian OF BIOGRAPHY. Fosse who received his education at Padua, and before he was twenty, product a tragedy called " n Tieste." Soon afterwards he obtained employ- ment as secretary to Bonato Battaglio, who was cent as ambassador to Bonaparte, to induce him to favour the independence of the republic of Venice. The ambassador was unsuccessful in his mission, and Foscolo went to Lombardy, where he devoted himself to the cultivation of literature, and produced his celebrated "Letters of Ortis," which established his fame. He now enrolled his name in the list of the first Italian legion that was formed, and was in Genoa during the siege of 1799. He continued with the Italian army till 1805, when he was sent to Calais with the troops professedly designed for the invasion of England ; but he soon after- wards quitted the army, and in 1809 became professor of literature in Pavia. The language of his introductory lecture, however, offended Bonaparte, and the professorship was sup- pressed. In 1812 he produced his "Ajax," which being supposed to convey a satire on Napoleon I., he deemed it prudent to withdraw to Florence. Afterwards, it is asserted, he en- gaged in a conspiracy to eject the Austrians from Italy, and was forced to take refuge in Switzerland, whence he went to England, where he was received among the literary and fashion- able circles. He continued to apply himself to literature, and published — " Essays on Pe- trarch," "Disputations and Notes on Dante," and was a contributor to the Edinburgh, Quar- terly, and other reviews, b. at Zante, about 1777; d. at Turnham Green, near London, 1827. Fossb, Charles de la. fos$, a French painter, and pupil of Le Brun, who, after study- ing in Italy, returned to Paris, and gained a great reputation by several public works. A pension was granted him, and he became rector of the Academy of Painting, in Paris. The duke of Montague invited him to England, and em- ployed him in ornamenting his house, now the British Museum, b. at Paris, 1640; d. 1716. Fossb, Antoine de la, nephew of the above, was Lord of Aubigne", from having bought the estate of that name. He was secretary to the Marquis de Crequi, and, when his patron was slain at the battle of Luzara, lie brought his heart back to Paris, and celebrated his fall in verses. He afterwards was connected with the due d'Aumont, but is chiefly known from the tragedies he wrote. One of these, " Manlius Capi- tolinus," is considered by the French as not alto- gether unworthy of Corneille ; but, as a rule, the versification of La Fosse is exceedingly laboured; indeed, he himself owned that in writing he had far more trouble in finding expressions than thoughts. He was a great master of Italian, and for an ode written in that language he was received into the Academy degli Apatisti, at Florence. He executed a translation of Anacreon, which, with some miscellaneous poems, was published in 1704. b. 1658 ; d. 1708. Foster, John, Jbs'-ter, an English architect, who, after studying abroad for a number of years, returned, and erected several works of considerable merit. The principal of these are St. John's Market, in Liverpool, several churches in that city, and the Custom-house. He was made a fellow of the Royal Society, and was considered to have a vast amount of architectural knowledge, although it was ques- Fothergill tioned whether he had the capacity to turn it to proper account, b. in Liverpool, 1787; ». 1846. _ Fosteb, James, D.D., an eminent dissenting divine, who was at first minister of an inde- pendent congregation at Exeter, where he began preaching in 1718. He subsequently be- came a Baptist, and had the charge of a chapel in that connexion at Trowbridge, Wilts, and was elected successor to Dr. John Gale, in a chapel in Barbican, London, where he officiated for about twenty years, lecturing at the same time in a chapel in the Old Jewry. When Lord Kilmarnock was executed for his share in the rebellion of 1745, Foster attended him to the scaffold, and it is said that this melancholy scene made such an impression upon him as to partially derange his faculties, from which he never altogether recovered. He was the author of several works, among which are, " A Defence of Revelation," in answer to Tindal; "Tracts on Heresy," " Discourses on Natural Religion and Social Virtue," &c. b. at Exeter, 1697: d. 1753. Foster, Sir Michael, an eminent English lawyer, was called to the bar at the Middle Temple, and in 1735 was elected recorder of Bristol. He was appointed one of the judges of the King's Bench in 1745, when he was knighted. He printed a tract on the power of the church, in reply to Bishop Gibson's Codex, and a report of the trial of the Jacobite rebels in 1746. b, at Marlborough, Wilts, 1689; ». 1763. Sir Michael Foster is entitled to remembrance for the independence and fearlessness with which he asserted the liberties of the subject. Foster, Reverend John, an English divine, who was bred a manufacturer; but disliking that line of life, he devoted himself to study, and in 1792 commenced preaching among the Baptists in various parts of the country. Forced to discontinue preaching, from a glan- dular affection of the neck, he retired to Staple- ton, near Bristol, where he devoted himself to literature, and became one of the principal con- tributors to the " Eclectic Review." Me is best known to the world, however, by his " Essays on Decision of Character;" "On the Applica- tion of the Epithet Romantic ;" and " On the Evils of Popular Ignorance.'" These works have received well-merited praise, not only for the admirable precision of the style in which they are written, but for the depth and originality of the thoughts with which they abound. " I have read with the greatest admiration," says Sir James Mackintosh, " the essays of Mr. Foster. He is one of the most profound and eloquent writers that England has produced." b. near Halifax, Yorkshire, 1770 ; j>. at Staple- ton, 1843. Foster, Birket, a modern English artist, who ably illustrated "Christmas with the Poets," " Cowper's Task," Longfellow's works, and many other volumes. As a simple, truthful, and poetical delineator of landscape, he stands de- servedly high. b. 1812, Fothebgill, John, foth'-nr-gil, an eminent English physician, who, having served his time to an apothecary, went to Edinburgh, where, in 1736, he took his doctor's degree. In the same year he became a pupil in St. Thomas's Hospital, London, and, in 1740, went abroad. On his return, he settled in the metropolis, and, in 1748, ac- quired a great reputation bv a tract entitled "An Account of Sore Throat attended with THE DICTIONARY Foucault Dicers." This disease was at that time very prevalent and fatal. In 1754 he became a member of the Edinburgh College of Physicians, and, in 1763, a fellow of the Royal Society. When the differences broke out between Eng- land and her American colonies, he laboured to prevent hostilities, and had conferences with Dr. Franklin for that purpose, but without effect, b. in Yorkshire, 1712: d. 1780. His works, consisting chiefly of medical pieces, have been printed in 3 vols. 8vo, with his life pre- fixed. He was at the expense of printing Pur- veys translation of the Bible, and of an edition of Percy's " Key to the New Testament," for a seminary of Quakers in Yorkshire. — His brother Samuel was a prominent preacher among the Quakers, and died in 1773. Foccault, John Bernard lieor\,fou-kolte', a French philosopher, who showed how an ocular proof of the rotation of the earth may be given by setting a pendulum in motion across a grad- uated circle, the earth moving under the plane of the pendulum's motion. He also invented the gyroscope, b. at Paris, 1819 ; d. 1868. FoncHi. Joseph, duke of Otranto, foo'-shai, French minister of police under Napoleon I., was settled as an advocate at Nantes when the revolution of 1789 broke out. He threw himself with ardour into the struggle against the king, and was, in 1792, elected a member of the National Convention. In November of the next year, he accompanied Collot d'Herbois (see that name) to Lyons, and was overwhelmed with accusations in regard to the frightful cruelties practised there by his colleague and himself. After the fall of the Convention, he was protected by Barras, and, on the 13th Thermnlor, year 7, he was made police minister. In this post he displayed great activity and acuteness, and rendered important services to Bonaparte on the 18th Brumaire. The latter, however, had not much confidence in his minis- ter's integrity, and dismissed him from office in 1802. restoring him, however, his portfolio in 1805, which he preserved till 1810. In this year he was superseded, although the reasons for his fall have never been clearly understood. After the Russian campaign, he was appointed by the emperor to the government of the Illy- rian provinces — a very difficult task. He there showed great moderation, and was successful in Ms mission. During the " hundred days " he again administered the police, and subsequently was appointed, after Waterloo, president of the provisional government, and, in that capacity, treated with the allied powers. Louis XVIII. retained him for a short period at the head of the police, but afterwards deputed him ambas- sador at Dresden. He was afterwards exiled, and died at Trieste, 1820; b. at Nantes, 1763. The general opinion of Fouehe' is, that he was an able, but unscrupulous minister. His " Memoirs " appeared in Paris in 1824, but were declared not to be trustworthy by his family. Fourice of my friend. Our friendship is at an end." Tn vain did Fox appeal, with tears in his eyes, tifthe memory of twenty-five years of un- interrupted intercourse. The words were pub- licly spoken, and the breach was never healed. Notwithstanding this separation, however, liurke shortly afterwards declared that Fox " was a man made to be loved." Between 1797 and 1802 Fox lived chiefly in retirement, when he formed the plan of his "History of the Reign of James II." In 1802 a dissolution of parlia- ment took place, when Fox, who had before sat for Westminster, was again returned for the game "ancient city." Shortly afterwards he visited Paris, with the view of collecting mate- rials for his historical work, when he was introduced to Napoleon I., who paid him marked attention. On the death of his great rival, Pitt, in 1806, Fox became secretary of state for foreign affairs under Lord Grenville; but his days were now numbered. Brief, however, as these were destined to be, he exerted himself for the abolition of the slave-trade, which was one of the many be- nevolent objects which lay near to his heart. He also endeavoured to negotiate a peace with France; but being afflicted with water in the chest, he did not live to accomplish his plans. B. 1749 ; d. 1806. It is upon his speeches and his statesmanship that the fame of Fox rests ; and the former of these have been highly praised, and commended to students of oratory as models for study. This has especially been the case with the first part of his speech on "the Westminster Scrutiny," which Brougham recommends to Macaulay " to pore over till he has it by heart." The criticism of Coleridge on the eloquence of Fox, is, " that his feeling was all intellect, and fcj» intellect all feeling." Sir James Mackintosh ealls him a " Demosthenian speaker;" but Brougham says, "there never was a greater mistake than the fancying a close resemblance between his eloquence and that of Demosthenes." The mother of this celebrated man was Lady Georgina Caroline, eldest daughter of Charles, second duke of Richmond, of the Lennox family. Fox, William Johnson, an eloquent English Unitarian preacher, who becoming popular as an advocate of the repeal of the corn-laws, and other liberal opinions in politics, was elected member of parliament for Oldham in 1847 and in 1852. He is best known, however, as a periodical writer, and from his connexion with the " Westminster Review ;" for which he wrote the opening article of the first number. He also wrote for the " Monthly Repository" and the " Weekly Dispatch" newspaper. His separate works are, " Lectures to the Working Classes," 4 vols, of which were published be- tween 1845 and 1851. He likewise produced a volume on " The Religious Ideas," and several other smaller performances. Mr. Fox resigned his seat in parliament, and retired from public life, in 1862. As a member of the House of Com- 417 Francia mons, he frequently brought forward motions with a view to the promotion of secular educa- tion throughout the country, b. near Wrent- ham, Suffolk, 1786; d. 1864. Foy, Maximilien Sebastien, foi, a famous French general, who began his career at the age of fifteen, after having studied at the col- lege of Soissons and the military school of La Fere. He made his first campaign as second- lieutenant of artillery under Dumouriez in 1792; made two campaigns under Moreau ; and served under Bonaparte in Italy. The peace of Campo Formio suspended his military career, and he then studied law at Strasburg. In 1798 ha asraia joined the army, and continued in active service in Italy, Switzerland, and Germany, till the peace of Amiens. He was sent to Turkey in 1807, and assisted the Porte in making prepa- rations for the defence of the Dardanelles. He next went to Portugal, where he took part in many battles, always distinguishing himself for courage and military skill, rose to the rank of li>utenant-general, succeeded Marmont as com- mander-in-chief after the battle of Salamanca, and accomplished an able retreat to the Douro. He was wounded in the battle of Orthez, and on the retirement of Bonaparte to Elba, was employed by the Bourbons. On the return of the emperor, however, he again joined him, fought bravely at Waterloo, where he received his fifteenth wound, notwithstanding which he continued at his post till the close of the engagement. Foy afterwards devoted himself to the study of history and of political and military science; and in 1819 was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies, in which assembly he distinguished himself as an orator, especially in defence of his old companions in arms, and became a great public favourite. On his death, it was found that his widow and family were left in indigent circum- stances, when a liberal subscription was made for their relief and for the erection of a statue to his memory. He left two volumes of speeches, and from his MSS. his widow after- wards published an able and impartial " History of the Peninsular War." b. at Ham, in Picardy, 1775 ; d. 1825. Fba Diavolo, fra de-a'-vo-lo, a Neapolitan robber, whose real name was Michael Pozzo, began life as a stocking-maker, after which he became a friar, and in this capacity was the leader of a gang of banditti in Calabria. In 1799 he assisted cardinal Ruffo, who headed the counter-revolutionists in favour of the Bourbons of Naples. For this he received a pardon for his crimes, and a pension of 3600 ducats, with which he was enabled to purchase an estate. He now lived in peace till 1806, when he rose again in favour of the expelled Bourbons. He entered Sperlonga, and threw open the prisons, when he was joined by largo numbers of lazzaroni; but, after a severe engagement with the Bona- partists, he was taken prisoner, condemned, and snmmarily executed in the same year, b 1769. Auber, the French musical composer, has written an opera founded on the adventures of this bandit. Fbancia, Francesco, fran'-che-a, a distin- guished Italian painter, who, from being a gold- smith and engraver on metals, rose to eminence as an artist. Having been employed by Raphael to place a picture of his in a church at Bologna, he was so struck with its beauty, and so dis- heartened at his own inferiority, that he sank EE THE DICTIONARY Francia into despair and died, 1518. b. at Bologna, 1450. His real name was Francesco Raibolini. Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez,/ra7i'-*Ae-a, the famous dictator of Paraguay, was the son of a small French proprietor in that country, his mother being a Creole. He was originally intended for the church, but, after taking his degree as doctor of laws at the university of Cordova, he devoted himself tolaw, and became in eminent and successful pleader. He con- tinued his legal avocations for thirty years, having won a high reputation for learning, honesty, and independence, occuping his leisure with philosophical and mathematical studies, to which he continued addicted all his life. Soon after the Spanish South American colonics threw off their allegiance to the parent state, Dr. Francia was, in 1811, appointed secretary to the independent junta of Paraguay ; and in 1813, on the formation of the new congress, was named consul of the republic, with Yegros for a colleague. From that time he devoted him- self to the welfare of his country, the affairs of which he administered with singular ability. He repaired the state of the finances, and main- tained peace and order in Paraguay, while the other colonies were torn with dissensions and desolated with war. In 1817, the people, in gratitude for the services he had rendered them, placed in his hands unlimited power, under the title of dictator, which he continued to exercise till his death, in lb 10. b. at Assun- cion, 1757 ; D. 1840. Fbancis I., fran'-sis, king of France, suc- ceeded to the throne in 151. %, on the death of Louis XII., who died without male issue. Scarcely had he ascended, when he, as grandson of Valentine of Milan, put himself at the head of an army to assert his rights over the Milanese. The Swiss, who opposed him in his entry into the duchy, were defeated at Marignauo (or Melegnano) September 13, 1515, and Milan fell immediately alter this victory. After a short war with England, the famous interview between Henry V11I. and Francis took place, in 1520, in Flanders, and which, for the magnificence dis- played on the occasion, was called "the Field of the Cloth of Gold." In the same year, Charles V. of Spain having inherited the empire after the death of Maximilian, Francis laid claim to the imperial dignity, and declared war against his rival. In this struggle, however, he met with nothing but reverses. After the defeat of Marshal Lautrec at Bicocca, in 1522, and Bayard's death, Francis was himself, in 1525, beaten at Pavia, and taken prisoner. The fight had been a stout one, and the king wrote to his mother, " All is lost, except honour." Led cap- tive into Spain, he only recovered his liberty at the cost ot an onerous treaty, signed at Madrid in 152(i ; but which was not entirely carried out. He immediately recommenced the war in Italy, met with fresh defeats, and concluded a second treaty at Cambrai, in 1529. He once more invaded Italy, in 1536, and, after various suc- cess, consented to a definite arrangement at Crespi in 1544, by which the French were ex- cluded from Italy, though Milan was given to the duke of Orleans, the second son of Francis. b. at Cognac, 1494; d. at the Chateau de Ram- bouillet, 1547, and was succeeded by his son, Henry II. Francis was a friend to arts and literature, which flourished during his reign ; and he was called the Father of Letters. Justice, also, began to be better administered in his 418 Francis reign in France, although the Calvinists suf- fered great persecutions. He founded the Royal College of France, the Royal Library, and built several palaces. Fbancis II., king of France, was the eldest son of Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, and succeeded his father in 1559. The year previous he had married Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, and in 1560 he died, leaving no issue. Francis, duke of Guise, and Charles, cardinal of Loraine, held the principal authority in this reign, and, by the abuses of which they were guilty, had a principal share in causing the religions" wars to which France now became a prey. Francis was succeeded by his brother, Charles IX. b. 1544. Fbancis I., emperor of Germany, was the son of Leopold, duke of Loraine. He inherited this duchy from his father, in 1729, and six years afterwards exchanged it for that of Tuscany, which the death of the last of the Medicis had rendered vacant. In 1736 he married Maria Theresa, the daughter of theemperor Charles VI. On the death of the latter, fie disputed the imperial dignity with the elector of Bavaria, whom France supported, and who took the name of Charles VI L; he was, however, de- feated, and Francis reigned peaceably for twenty years, b. 1708 ; d. 1765. His character was tarnished by avarice. He had sixteen children, amongst whom was Joseph II., who succeeded him, and the unfortunate Marie Antoinette. Fbancis II., emperor of Germany, and I. of Austria, succeeded his father, Leopold II., in 1792, as emperor of Germany, king of Bohemia, Hungary, &c. At the very commencement of his reign he had to sustain a war against France, in which he was defeated, and was, in 1797, obliged to sign the treaty of CampoFormio, which deprived him of the Netherlands and Lombardy. Another war taking place with the same power, he was not more fortunate than in the first, and was beaten at Marengo, and lost, by the treaty of Luneville, in 1801, all his possessions on the Rhine. In a third campaign, undertaken in 1805, the French were victorious over his armies at Elchingen, Ulm, and Auster- litz ; and the treaty of Presburg still further diminished his territory. Renouncing, now, the title of emperor of Germany, he took that of Austria, under the name of Francis I. He tried again the fate of battles in 1809; but the defeats of Eckmuhl and Wagram led to the peace of Schonbrunn ; to cement which more strongly, his daughter Maria Louisa was in 1810, given to Napoleon I. Notwithstanding this alliance, however, he, in 1813, joined the coalition against his son-in-law, and contributed considerably to his overthrow. The treaties of 1815 put him again in possession of the greater portion of his territory, and he reigned peaceably till his death in 1835. b. 1768. He was succeeded by his son Ferdinand, who, in his turn, abdicated in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph, in 1848. Fbancis 1., king of the Two Sicilies, was the son of Ferdinand I., and twice, during the life- time of his father, carried on the government of the kingdom under the name of viceroy ; first, in 1812, when a constitution was granted to Sicily ; and afterwards, in 1820, during the troubles which broke out in Naples and Palei -no. He mounted the throne in 1825, and died 1830, without having achieved anything remarkable. He was succeeded by Ferdinand II. (Bomba), who, dying in 1859, was followed by Francis II- who was expelled from Naples by gencm OF BIOGRAPHY. Francis Garibaldi in I860, and after taking refuge in Gaeta, which was captured by general Cialdini, the people of Naples and Sicily united them- selves to the kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel. Francis retired to Rome, where he continued to foster and encourage partisan expe- ditions into his old states, which generally resolved themselves into sanguinary brigand raids, the most atrocious murders and robberies being committed in his name. Fbancis, St., an Italian, the founder of the irder of Franciscan friars, was the son of a rich merchant, named Bernardino. He was at Arst intended by his father for commercial pursuits, and, with that view, studied the French language, which he acquired so perfectly, that he was surnamed Francis. At the age of 24, however, he gave himself up entirely to the religious life, and gained a number of followers, to whom he prescribed that they should possess nothing of their own, should live on alms, and spread themselves over the face of the globe to convert sinners and unbelievers. He himself, in 1219, departed, with this end, for Egypt and Syria. It is said that he had a remarkable vision, in which he saw an angel descend from heaven, with the marks of crucifixion on his body, and that he himself felt the pains of cruci- fixion at the same moment, and preserved the same marks in his flesh, b. at Assisi, Umbria, 1182; d. 1226.— There are other saints, in the Eoman Catholic calendar, of this name. Fbancis, Sir Philip, the supposed author of thecclebrated " Letters of Junius," was the son of a clergyman, and educated at St. Paul's School, London. When he was but sixteen, he was placed in the office of Mr. Fox, then minis- ter, and subsequently was fortunate enough to be retained by Mr. Pitt, when this statesman came into power. Afterwards, he was private secretary to general Bligh, then to the earl of Kinnoul, and, in 1763, received an appointment in the War Office, which he held nearly ten years. In 1773 he was named one of the civil members in council for the government of Bengal, and remained in India till 1780, when, having had a duel with Warren Hastings, he returned to England. Here he, in 1784, was returned to the House of Commons, and re- mained a member till 1807, when he retired from parliament, evincing his interest in public affairs by his pamphlets and newspaper contributions. In 1816, great attention was drawn to him as being the author of the " Letters of Junius," Mr. John Taylor having published an ingenious pamphlet, in which strong evidence was given in support of this opinion, b. at Dublin, 1740; D. in London, 1818. It may be added, in con- nexion with Sir Philip's supposed authorship of these celebrated letters, that Lords Brougham, Campbell, Mahon, and Macaulay, have not hesitated to declare their conviction that he was that " great unknown ;" and to these high names may be added other legal and literary authorities, who entertained the same belief. Fbanck, or Fbancken, frank. There rere several Dutch and Flemish artists of this name, among whom may be mentioned — 1. Jerome, Ambrose, and Sebastian, of the Flemish school, who flourished in the 16ih century, and obtained considerable reputation. — 2. John Bap- tist, a native of Antwerp, who painted historical •ubjects and saloon interiors with great spirit and exquisite colouring, b. 1600.— 3. Francis, two eminent Dutch painters, father and son, I 418 Franklin who were famous for their scripture subjects, executed with great beauty and fine colour. The father died in 1616 and the son in 1642. Fkanckk, Augustus Herman,/raw£, a German divine, who became professor of the Oriental languages, and afterwards of divinity, in the University of Halle. Here he laid the founda- tion of an orphan-house, which, in 1727, con- tained upwards of 2000 children and more than 130 preceptors. He also carried into effect a mission for propagating the gospel in Malabar. b. at Lubeck, 1663 ; d. 1727. His works are, Sermons and Books of Devotion; "Methodus Studii Theologici;" "Introductio ad Lectionem Prophetarum;" "Commentaria de Scopo Libro- rum Veteris et Novi Testamenti ;" "Manuductio ad Lectionem Scripture Sacra?;" "Observa- tiones Biblicse." Some of his practical books have been translated into English. Fbancklin, Thomas, frank -Hit, an English divine, who was educated at Westminster School, whence he was removed to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained the degree of D.D. He was also chosen professor of Greek in that university. In 1758 he was appointed to the vicarage of Ware, to which was afterwards added tne rectory of Brasted, in Kent. He subsequently became chaplain in ordinary to King George III. b. in London, 1721 ; d. 1784. Dr. Francklin translated Pha- laris, Sophocles, and Lucian into English, and wrote three plays : " The Earl of Warwick," and "Matilda," tragedies; and the "Contract," a comedy. He also published a volume of ser- mons on the relative duties, and permitted his name to be prefixed to a translation of Vol- taire's works. Fbancois de NEUFCHATEAU./rarc-Jfcfcaw dai neu-cha'-to, a French poet, dramatic writer, and politician, was a member of the Legislative As- sembly in 1792, and in 1797 was minister of the interior, and member of the directory. Under the rule of Napoleon he became a count, a sena- tor, and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. After the restoration of the Bourbons, he gave himself up entirely to literary pursuits. Fran- cois, who was bred a lawyer, was a man of emi- nent ability, as well in statesmanship as in the character of author, and left a variety of works behind him which are still popular in France. b. at Neufchateau, Loraine, 1750 ; d. 1828. Frank, Johann Peter, frank, a distinguished German physician, who was professor at Gottin- gen, Pavia, director-general of hospitals in Lombardy, and clinical professor at Vienna. Bonaparte invited him to France, but this he refused. He wrote a number of works on medi- cal subjects, the most important of which are his "System of Medical Police," "Choix d'Opus- cules appartenant a la M^deeine," and " De l'Art de Traiter les Maladies." These three works, making 32 vols. 8vo, are only a por- tion of the fruiis of Professor Frank's industry.. b. in the Duchy of Baden, 1745; d. 1821. Fbanklin, Benjamin, frank-lin, an Ameri- can patriot, and one of the most distinguished of modern philosophers, was the son of a soap- boiler and tallow-chandler in the city of Boston. He was designed for the ministry; but hia father requiring his assistance at home, took him from school, when only ten years old, and set the future philosopher to "the cutting of wicks for the candles, filling moulds," and other duties necessary to his business. Disliking this occupation, however, he was placed under hia EE 2 THE DICTIONARY Franklin elder brother, who was a printer in Boston, but with whom he disagreed. He then removed to New York, whence he went to Philadelphia, where, after serving as a journeyman some time, he attracted the notice of Sir William Keith, the governor, who persuaded him to commence business on his own account. With this view he proceeded, in 1725, to England, to procure printing materials; but on his arrival he round that the governor had deceived him by_ false promises; on which he worked as a journeyman in London. He now produced his " Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Plea- sure and Pain," which was the means of intro- ducing him to Mandeville, the author of " The Fable of the Bees." In 1726 he returned to America, and entered into partnership with a person named Meredith in the printing trade, which he afterwards conducted alone in the city of Philadelphia. In 1730 he was united to a lady, whom he had courted before going to England; and, about the same time, con- tributed to the forming of the public library at Philadelphia, and subsequently established an insurance office and other useful institutions in the same town. In 1732 he published his " Poor Richard's Almanac," which became noted for the pithiness of its proverbs, and wherein were inserted those maxims so generally known by the title of " The Way to Wealth." In 1736 he was appointed clerk to the General Assembly at Pennsylvania, and, in the year following, postmaster of Philadelphia. He was now a prominent member of the community. In 1742 lie established the first public library in Phila- delphia, and, two years later, proposed and carried into eil'eet a plan of association for the defence of Pennsylvania. About this time he commenced his electrical experiments, of which he published an account, and had the honour of making several discoveries in this branch of philosophy, the principal of which was the iden- tity of lightning with the electric fluid. Hence he invented the lightning-conductor. In 1747 he was chosen a representative in the General Assembly, in which he distinguished himself by several acts of public utility. By his means a militia bill was passed, and he was elected colo- nel of the Philadelphia regiment, but the honour of this appointment he declined. In 1757 he was sent to England as agent for Pennsylvania. Whilst in that country he was chosen fellow of the Royal Society, and honoured with the degree of doctor of laws by the univer- sities of St. Andrews, Edinburgh, and Oxford. In 1762 he returned to America, but two years afterwards revisited England in his former capacity, when he underwent his examination at the bar of the House of Commons concerning the Stamp Act. In 1775 he returned to America, and was elected a delegate to the Congress. In the contest between Great Britain and her transatlantic colonies, he took an active part in the declaration of independence. In 1778 he arrived in France as minister plenipotentiary from America, and signed a treaty offensive and defensive with that power, and which produced a war between France and England. In 1783 he signed the definitive treaty of peace recog- nising the independence of the United States, and in 1785 returned to America, where he was triumphantly received, and chosen p: csident of the supreme council. It was on this occasion that he received the following tribute of admi- ration from an American even still more distin- 420 Franklin guished than himself in the annals of his country : — " Mount Vernon, September 25, 1785. — Dear Sir, — Amid the public gratulations on your safe return to America after a long ab- sence, and the many eminent services you had rendered it, — for which, as a benefited person, I feel the obligation, — permit an individual to join the public voice in expressing his sense of them ; and to assure you that, as no one enter, tains more respect for your character, so "nono can salute you with more sincerity or with greater pleasure than I do on the occasion.— George Washington." From 1785 to 1788, he sat with Washington and Hamilton in the federal Convention which framed the con» stitution of the United States, b. in Boston, January 6, 1706; d. April 17, 1790. His death was sincerely mourned both in Europe and America. Besides his political, miscel- laneous, and philosophical pieces, published in 4to and 8vo, he contributed several papers to the "American Transactions," and published two volumes of essays, with his life prefixed, written by himself. Franklin, Sir John, a distinguished English navigator, who, in 1800, entered the royal navy as a midshipman. In 1806 he was present at the battle of Trafalgar, in 1814 at that of New Orleans, and in 1819 was appointed to head an overland expedition from Hudson's Bay to the Arctic Ocean. After suffering many hard- ships, and being frequently on the verge of death from hunger and fatigue, he reached home in 1822, when, in the following year, he married a Miss Porden, the daughter of an architect, and the authoress of several poetical effusions. Inl825 he submitted to Lord Bathnrst a plan " for an expedition overland to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and thence by sea to the N.W. extremity of America, with the combined object also of surveying the coast be- tween the Mackenzie and Coppermine Rivers." This proposition was accepted, and, six days after he left Liverpool ; in the same year, his wife died. In 1827 Captain Franklin arrived at Liverpool, where he was married a second time, and in 1829 had the honour of knighthood con- ferred upon him. In 1845 Sir John set out on a third expedition with two ships, called the Erebus and Terror, and spent his first winter in a cove between Cape Riley and Beeehy Island. After that period many expeditions were des- patched, both from England and America, in search of Sir John, of whom there were no tidings, and not until 1854 did the intelligence reach England that the brave navigator and his heroic companions had, in all probability, perished in the winter of 1850-51. This intelli- gence, however, wanted confirmation, and Lady Franklin, who deserves all praise for the intelli- gent persistency of her efforts, resolved to have the mystery cleared up as to whether her gallant husband had really met the fate which it was generally believed he had done. Accordingly, a last expedition was fitted out, and the me- lancholy news was, in 1857, at length confirmed by the return of Captain McClintock, in the yacht Fox, after a persevering search for the lost adventurers. This officer brought with him in- disputable proofs of the death of Sir John and the loss of his crew. Several articles belonging to the unfortunate explorers were found at Ross Cairn and Point Victory. At the latter place a record was discovered, wherein it was stated that Sir John Franklin had died on the 11th of June, OF BIOGRAPHY. Fraser 18-17. Other traces were found on the west coast Df King William's Island, as the various sur- vivors of the expedition had strayed from each other, perhaps in search of food, or the means of escaping from their dreary and desolate situa- tion. To Sir John Franklin, however, belongs the merit of having discovered the north-west passage, the first expedition in quest of which was sent out in 1553, the last being said to have terminated only with the discovery of his re- mains, b. at Spilsbury, Lincolnshire, 1786. Fraser. (See Lovat, Simon Fraser, Lord.) Frabncb, Abraham, fraunt, an English poet, educated at Cambridge, at the expense of Sir Philip Sidney, afterwards studied law at Gray's Inn, London, and was called to the bar of the Court of Marches in Wales. He is better known, however, as an author than as a lawyer. His principal writings are — " Lamentations of Amin- tas for the Death of Phillis," " The Countess of Pembroke's Ivy Church and Emanuel," and a translation of Heliodorus's " Ethiopics." The dates of his birth and death are unascertained. Fraunhofeb, Joseph, froun'-ho-fer, an emi- nent Bavarian optician, who, in his 20th year, was received into the great manufactory for the construction of mathematical and philosophical instruments, near Munich. Here he distin- guished himself by making many experiments on light, and, by his reputation, increased the resources of the establishment, which ulti- mately became his property. He was a member of several learned societies, and had conferred upon him by the king of Bavaria the order of Civil Merit, and, by the king of Denmark, that oftheDannebrog. B.atStraubing,1787;n. 1826. Fbedegonda, fred-e-gon'-di, a peasant girl in the service of Andowera, the queen of Chil- peric I., who fell in love with her and eventually married her in 5C5. Chilperic had previously divorced Andowera, and married Galowintha, whom, it is said, Fredegonda poisoned to attain her end. D. 597. Fbedebick, fred'-e-rik, the name borne by a vast number of sovereigns and rulers of difi'erent countries, the most eminent of whom were— Empebobs op Germany. Fbedebick I., surnamed Barbarossa, em- peror of Germany, the son of Frederick, duke of Suabia, succeeded to the imperial throne on the demise of his uncle, Conrad III., in 1152. He was an energetic and warlike prince, and, in the second year of his reign, settled the disputes between Canute and Sweyn, competitors for the Danish crown, the former of whom he held as his vassal. He next marched into Italy to settle the tumults which distracted that country, and was crowned at Rome by Adrian IV., who, dying in 1159, no less than three antipopes were chosen, who were all opposed by the emperor. The Milanese, profiting by these divisions, en- deavoured to shake off the imperial yoke, on Which Frederick again entered Italy, took Milan, and entering Rome, set Calixtus ou the papal throne instead of Alexander. The Venetians, however, maintained the cause of the latter with so much vigour, that Frederick was obliged to make his submission to Alexander. He next embarked against the infidels, obtained some victories, took Iconium, and penetrated into Syria, where he was drowned in 1190. b. 1121. Fbedebick II., the grandson of the preced- ing, and son of Henry VI., was elected king of the Romans in 1196, and emperor in 1210, in 421 Frederick opposition to Otho. In 1220 he was crowned by Pope Honorius III. at Rome. He afterwards went to the Holy Land, and concluded a truce with the sultan of Babylon, which so provoked Pope Gregory IX., that he anathematized him. In the city of Jerusalem he put the crown on his own head, because no priest would even say the mass. On this Frederick returned to Europe and laid siege to Rome, which originated the famous parties of the Guelphs and the Ghibel- lines, the former being on the side of the pope, and the latter on that of the emperor. Gregory was obliged to make peace, but, in 1236, he again excommunicated Frederick, and the war was renewed, which proved unsuccessful to the emperor, whoseGerman subjects revolted against him. He lost Parma by an insurrection, and was defeated before it; but he afterwards was victorious in Lombardy. b. 1194; d. at Fiorin- tino, 1250. Frederick III., called Le Beau, son of Al- bert I., duke of Austria, was chosen emperor in 1314 by some of the electors, but the majority elected Louis of Bavaria, who defeated and took prisoner Frederick at Muhldorf, in 1322. The latter then renounced his claim, and d. 1330. Some historians do not reckon Frederick as one of the emperors, but others set him down as the third Frederick. Frederick, IV., called "the Pacific," ascended the throne in 1410, and was crowned at Rome in 1452. His reign was passed in forming plans for the pacification of the empire. He is said to have died of a surfeit of melons, or in conse- quence of an amputation of his leg. He left it to his son Maximilian to carry out the device inscribed upon his palaces and books, A, E, 1,0, U; which characters are generally supposed to re- present the motto, Austria eat Imperare Orbi Univeno. b. at Innspruck, 1415; d. 1493. Kings ov Denmark, Sweden, and Poland. Frederick I., king of Denmark and Norway, succeeded his nephew Christiem, or Christian II., on the deposition of the latter, in 1523, and entered into an alliance with Gustavus I., king of Sweden. After taking Copenhagen, he gained over all the nobility, and introduced Lutheran- ism into his dominions, b. 1471 ; d. 1533. Frederick II., the son and successor of Christiem or Christian HI., was a great friend of learning, and the patron of Tycho Brahe, and other men of science. He waged a long war with Sweden, which ended in 1570, and received the order of the Garter from Elizabeth, queen of England, and gave his daughter in marriage to James VI. of Scotland and I. of England. B. 1534; D. 1588. FitEDEHicK III. succeeded his father Chris- tiem IV., in 1613. The most remarkable event of his reign was his changing the constitution from an elective to an hereditary monarchy b. 1609 ; d. 1670. Fuedeeick IV. ascended the throne on the death of Christiem V., in 1699. He leagued against Charles XII. of Sweden, who forced him to make peace ; but when Charles fled to Tur- key, Frederick drove the Swedes out of Norway, and concluded a favourable peace, retaining possession of the duchy of Schlesvvig. b. 1671 ; n. *730. Frederick V., grandson of the preceding, Cbme to the throne in 1746. The character of his reign may be inferred from the following re- mam which, on bis deathbed, he made to his THE DICTIONAKY Frederick successor, Christiern VII. : " It Is a great con- solation to me, my son, that I have not injured any person, and that my hands are not stained with one drop of blood." He was twice mar- ried : first to Louisa, daughter of George II. of England, and then to Juliana, daughter of the duke of Brunswick- WolfenbutteL b. 1723; B. 1766. Fbederick VI., king of Denmark, ascended the throne in 18J8, although, from 1784, he was associated in the government with his father, who had lost his reason. On his accession, he had to repair the damages done by the English in their bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807, and to wage a war with the Swedes, who at- tempted to possess themselves of Norway. He succeeded in defeating them, and peace was signed at Jonkoping, in 1809. Allying himself with Napoleon, Norway was, in 1814, given to Sweden, under Bernadotte ; Pomerania and the isle of Rugen falling to Denmark, b. 1768; D. 1839. Fbederick VII., kiDg of Denmark, succeeded Christian VIII. in 1843. In his reign an unsuc- cessful attempt was made, in 1849, to wrest the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein from Den- mark. B. 1808; D. 1863. Frederick, king of Sweden, was the eldest son of Charles, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. He married the sister of Charles XII., on whose death in 1718, the states of Sweden elected her queen, and, in the year 1720, consented to her resigning the crown to her husband. He had a long and unsuccessful war with Russia, which ended in a peace disadvantageous to Sweden. d. without issue, 1751. Frederick Augustus I. (See Augustus Frederick I., king of Poland. Frederick Augustus II. (See Augustus Frederick II.) Sovereigns ov Prussia. Frederick William, generally called the " Great Elector " of Brandenburg, succeeded his father, the elector George William, in 1640, and, in 1642, freed Prussia from feudal subjection to the king of Poland. He is considered as the founder of the Prussian power, and from his example much of the military spirit which characterizes that nation is believed to have sprung. In 1643 he made peace with Sweden, and subsequently entered into a league with that power in 1655 against Poland. In 1672 he joined the imperialists in opposition to Louis XIV.; but, in 1673, he made a separate treaty with France, and, in the following year, again joined the allies; on which the French prevailed upon the Swedes to attack his domi- nions. Frederick, however, defeated the in- vaders, drove them out of Prussia, and took several places from them, which, however, by the treaty of St. Germain, in 1679, he was obliged to restore. He kow turned his attention to the improvement of his states, and, by afford- ing protection to the French Protestant refu- gees, added to the industrial power of his dominions 20,000 manufacturers, and laboured to extend the agricultural arts in every direction. He founded the library at Berlin, and a univer- sity at Duisburg; and, at his death, bequeathed to his son not only a country enlarged beyond the boundaries in which I.e. round it, but a treasury well supplied, n. 1620; d. 1688. .In order to avoid the possibility of being entrapped by an immoral society, this prince fled from the 422 Frederick Hague to the camp of the prince of Orange, then at Breda, The Dutch prince was surprised at this signal instance of self-command, and received him with these words : " Cousin, youi flight is a greater proof of heroism than would be the taking of Breda. He who so early knows how to command himself, will always succeed in great deeds." These words remained for ever deeply impressed on Frederick's mind. Frederick I., king of Prussia after 1701, but as elector of Brandenburg Frederick III, suc- ceeded to his father's dominions in 1688. The great object of his ambition was to be recognised as king of Prussia, and in 1701 he attained his object. On that occasion he put ti;e crown on his own head, and on that of his royal consort. He also founded the order of the Black Eagle, and augmented his dominions partly by pur- chase, and partly by negociations with various powers, b. 1657; d. 1713. This prince founded the University of Halle, the Eoyal Society of Berlin, and the Academy of Painting, His second queen, Sophia Charlotte of Han- over, was the sister of George I., and a woman possessed of a fine understanding. Frederick William I., son of the above, and father of Frederick the Great, commenced his reign in 1713, after having married a daughter of the elector of Hanover, afterwards George I. of England. In 1715 he declared war against Charles XII. of Sweden, and in conjunction with Denmark took Stsalsund; but on the death of Charles, in 1718, he made peace, b. 1688; d. 1740. The habits of this sovereign were entirely military, and he laboured unweariedly to pro- mote the discipline of his troops. One of his strongest peculiarities was an extraordinary love for tall soldiers ; and in order to procure these sons of Anak, he had agents employed in all parts of Europe. He held science and litera- ture in profound contempt ; but money he worshipped, and men of a militaiy character after his own ideal, he respected and encouraged. The consequence was, that he left an abundant treasury and a well-appointed army of 66,000 men. Fbederick II., king of Prussia, commonly called " The Great," was the son of the preceding, and received but an indifferent education, owing to his father's contempt of letters and predilection for military discipline. On attaining the years of manhood, he evinced so strong an inclination for literature and music, that he incurred the displeasure of his parent, whose treatment induced him, in 1730, to make the attempt of escaping from Prussia. The scheme, however, being discovered, he was con- fined in the castle of Custrin, his younger companion, Katte, being executed before his face. After a confinement of several months, he obtained his pardon, although it seems well authenticated that his father had resolved to take away his life, which was only saved by the intercession of Charles VL.emperor of Germany. In 1733 he married the princess Elizabeth of Brunswick, in obedience to his father's command, when he employed himself in lite- rary pursuits, and also with the study of music, until his accession to the throne. In 1740 he succeeded to the crown, and taking advantage of the defenceless state of Maria Thuresa, queen of Hungary, he marched into Silesia, whir a was added to his dominions by the treaty of Preslau. In 1744 the war was renewed against the queen of Hungary, and the same year Frederick took OP BIOGRAPHt. Frederick Prague, which, however, he was forced to eva- cuate on the approach of a Saxon army under the prince of Loraine. In 1745 he defeated that prince at Friedburg, and then marched into Bohemia, where, at Sorr, he defeated an Austrian army superior to his own. Shortly after, he took Dresden, where, after laying it under heavy exactions, a treaty of peace was concluded, which enabled Frederick to retain possession of Silesia, and end the second Silesian war. The eleven years of peace which suc- ceeded this event were devoted by Frederick to the internal administration of his dominions, the composition of some literary works, and the framing of the " Frederician code of laws." In 1750 Voltaire visited Prussia, and was received with the most flattering marks of attention by the king; but the friendship which subsisted between them was at last broken, and the French philosopher quitted Prussia abruptly, and in disgrace. In 1756 a treaty was con- cluded between England and Prussia, which produced another between France, Austria, and Kussia. "The> Seven Years' War," as it is called, began by Frederick marching into Saxony, and taking the camp of Pirna. The following year he gained a great battle at Prague over the Austrians, on which he laid 6iege to that city, and after reducing it to great straits, he was compelled by Marshal Daun, who defeated him at Kolin, to retire into Saxony. Frederick was now surrounded by enemies : the French entered Hanover, the Russians and Swedes advanced towards Prussia, and the Imperialists pursued him into Saxony. Still undaunted, he attacked and defeated the French and Austrians at Rosbach; then marching into Silesia, beat another army at Lissa, and reco- vered Breslau. The Russians and Swedes retreated precipitately from Prussia; and the Hanoverians took the field under the prince of Brunswick. In 1758 he received a large sub- sidy from England; and the same year entered Moravia, where he laid siege to Olmutz, which was relieved by Marshal Daun. He then marched against the Russians, who had laid siege to Custrin, and defeated them, after a iloody battle, at Zorndorf. Not long after this, nowever, he was surprised and beaten by Daun, at Hochkirchen. The next year the king was defeated, after a very obstinate and doubtful engagement, at Kunnersdorf, by the Russians ; and in 1760, the confederates entered Branden- burg, and took Berlin. Frederick, however, by defeating Daun at Torgau, put a new face upon the campaign, and the Russians and Swedes were compelled to quit his territories. In 1762 peace was restored between him and Russia and Sweden, and in 1763 a treaty, much in his favour, was concluded with the empress-queen, by which Silesia was confirmed to Prussia, and which concluded the " Seven Years' War." Still ambitious of extending his dominions, in 1772 the partition of Poland was planned, and h» obtained for his share all Polish Prussia, and a large portion of Great Poland. From this period the kingdom of Prussia was divided into Kast and West Prussia. In 1778 he opposed the design of the Emperor Joseph to dismember liavaria, and marched in person against that monarch ; but no action took place, and by the treaty of Teschen, in 1779, the Austrian court renounced its design. In 1786 he concluded a treaty of amity and commerce with the United States of America; but his days were fust 423 Frederick William drawing to a close, for the same year he died, at his favourite palace of Sans Souci, in the forty- seventh year of his reign, b. 1712. Frederick was courteous in his manners, and an acute politician. His works, published in his lifetime, are in four vols. 8vo ; and since his death, fifteen more have been printed. The principal are, the "Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg;" a poem on the " Art of War;" the " History of his Own Time;" and the " History of the Seven Years' War." (For full details connected with this king and his father, see Carlyle's " Life and Times of Frederick the Great," a wirfc whi >'i gives an interesting account of the eventful times in which this monarch HvoJ Fi: e di: kick William II„ king of Prussia, was the nephew of the great Frederick, and suc- ceeded him in 1786. He gave himself up to pleasure, sacrificing his ministers and generals to the caprices of his mistresses. He also allowed himself to be cajoled by the mystical vagaries of the society of the " Illuminati," and under his feeble rule, Prussia soon lost her place amongst nations. After having played a scarcely honourable part in the war which broke out in 1787 between Turkey and Russia, he pro- posed, in 1792, a coalition against the French republic. Advancing, at the head of 80,000 men, as far as the plains of Champagne, the world was expecting to see him march on Paris when he suddenly retired, falling back on the Rhine. The following year he effected, with the aid of Russia, the second division of Poland; made peace with France in 1795, and d. 1797. b. 174-1. Frederick William III., king of Prussia, son of the above, commenced his reign in 1797 by maintaining a strict neutrality in the various alliances with and against France which re- sulted from the ambitious designs of Napoleon L In 1805, however, he yielded to the solicitations of Russia, allying himself with the ezar against the French emperor. The rapid campaign of 1806, and the defeat of the Prussians at Jena, opened the gatei of Berlin to the enemy, in whose hands it remained till 1809. In 1807 the battle of Friedland led to the humiliating peace of Tilsit, by which Frederick lost half his dominions. Restored to his capital, the king diligently endeavoured to repair the evils of war ; but new disasters overtook him, and his kingdom sufferetl greatly during the struggle from 1812 to 1814. Forced, in the former year, to contribute a force of 30,000 men to Napoleon's army, he subsequently joined his troops with those of Russia. The allies having triumphed over the French at Leipsic, Frederick William, in 1814, entered Paris with the czar Alexander. He also accompanied the latter to England in the same year. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, he once more joined the allies. After the victory of Waterloo, in which the Prussians under Blucher (which see), played an important part, Prussia, once more at peace, gradually recovered the losses she had sus- tained, under the wise and paternal sway of Frederick, whose constant efforts and modera- tion contributed greatly to the maintenance of peace. Throughout his life, he was a warm defender of the Protestant religion, and a patron of education. He never redeemed his promise, however, to bestow a representative constitution on his people. The establishment of the provincial estates only affected very slightly the absolute power, whxh. it is true, lie THE DICTIONARY Frederick William wielded with ability, and with a kind of paternal affection for his people. It may finally be said of him, that, a waverer between the absolutist party and the liberal party, he secured, as is the lot with most undecided men, the respect and adherence of neither, b. 1770; d. 1840. Frederick William IV., king of Prussia, on the death of his father, succeeded to the throne in 1840. He served, as a simple officer, in the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, and evinced, at an early period of his life, a very great love for the arts, which he preserved through- out his career. During the first years of his reign, his subjects anxiously demanded the reform of the government, requiring the liberal constitution which had been promised them in 1815, in return for the great sacrifices they had made during the continental war. In 1817, at a general diet of the Prussian states, many of these reforms were granted, and it was thought that the kingdom might escape the troubles of the next year's revolution. In March, 1848, however, the people and the troops earne into collision, the king was obliged to change the ministry, to issue a general amnesty, and to commence a war in favour of Schleswig against Denmark, and to salute from his balcony the corpses of the insurgents who had been killed in the streets of Berlin. These humiliations were somewhat softened by his hopes of becom- ing the head of a united Germany, and by the success of his army in putting down an in- surrection of the Poles in Posen. The mingled irresolution and absolutism of Frederick Wil- liam, however, led subsequently to other conflicts in June and August of the same year; and it was not until two coupa-d'etat that the king, as- sisted by his army, succeeded in retaining his authority almost unimpaired by the concessions he had made. In the war between the Western powers and Russia, Frederick William pre- served a strict neutrality, although earnestly solicited by each party to espouse its side in the conflict. In his reply to the demands of the czar, he said : " There is hardly anything I will not do for the emperor Nicholas, whom I love; but if I remember that he is my father- in-law, neither do I forget that Prussia is not the sister-in-law of Russia." In 1S56, in con- sequence of an attack on Neufchatel by some Prussian partisans, war was in danger of break- ing out between Switzerland and Prussia ; but this was avoided, and a treaty concluded, in May, 1857, in reference to the king's claims on that place. In the complications relative to the Danubian principalities, Prussia followed the lead of France and Russia as opposed to Eng- land and Austria. Towards the end of 1857, a severe illness, resulting in the loss of some of his faculties, caused the nomination as regent of Ms brother William, who, on the king's death in 1861, succeeded him as William I. b. 1795. Frederick William Nicholas Charles, prince of Prussia, the nephew of Frederick William IV., and son of William I., heir to the Prussian throne, married, in 185^, Victoria, the Princess Royal of England, b. 1831. Frederick, Colonel, son of the unfortunate Theodore, commonly called king of Corsica, was ipots," " Mathematical Discourses and Demonstrations," " Treatise on the Mundane System."— His son, Vincenzo Galilei, was the first who applied his father's discovery about the pendulum toclock work. The father of Galilei wrote some esteemed works on music. Galitzin, Basil, pa-lit'-zin, a Russian noble- man, who, in 16^0, became minister of the czar Ftidor Alexievich, whom he persuaded to abolish the titles of nobility, and to let his subjects rise THE DICTIONARY Galitzin to dignities by merit. He was in great favour with the regent, Princess Sophia, sister of the czars Peter I. and Ivan, and, during her regency, possessed supreme power. The intrigue* of the regent, however, against her brother Peter being discovered, she was confined in a monas- tery, and Galitzin exiled, b. 1633 ; d. 1713. Galitzin, Michael Michaelovich, of the same family as the above, served under Peter the Great, both by land and sea. In 1725 he was made field-marshal, and afterwards president of the College of War. b. 1674 ; d. 1730. Gall, Francis Joseph, gaull, a distinguished German physician, who founded the science of phrenology, by which the talents and tenden- cies of the mind are affirmed to be manifested by certain external developments evinced on the surface of the cranium. He settled in Vienna, and afterwards travelled through the north of Germany, Sweden, and Denmark, lec- turing upon his system. In 1807 he established himself in Paris, as being the best centre for the dissemination of his opinions, and became phy- sician to Prince Metternich. In 1810 that nobleman guaranteed the expense of publishing the phrenological work of Gall and Spurzheim, b. at Leifenbrunn, Wurtemberg, 1758; d. at Paris, 1828. Galland, Anthony, gal'-la, a learned French writer, who was sent by the French minister Colbert to the East, and on his return to France was made a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and professor of Arabic in the Koyal College of Paris. He wrote several dis- sertations' on Greek and Roman medals, and other archaeological matters ; but the work by which he is best known is the translation from t lie Arabic of the "Arabian Nights' Entertain- ments." b. in Picardy, 1646 ; d. at Paris, 1715. Gallienus, Publius Lucinius, gal'-li-e'-nus, a son of the emperor Valerian, reigned con- jointly with his father for seven years, and ascended the throne as sole emperor 260 a.d. In his youth, he evinced military genius in an expedition against the Germans and Sarmatse ; but when he came to the throne, resigned him- self to pleasure and indolence. His time was spent in the greatest debauchery ; and two of his officers at length revolted, and assumed the imperial purple. This roused him, and he marched against them, without showing the least favour either to rank, sex, or age, putting all to the sword. These cruelties irritated the people and the army; thirty of his generals, known as the Thirty Tyrants, assuming the purple. Gallienus resolved boldly to oppose his adversaries; but in the midst of his prepara- tions was assassinated at Milan by some of his officers, 268 a.d. Gallus, g&V-lui, a name common to many celebrated Komans, the most distinguished of whom are the following :— Caius, a friend of S.ipioAfricanus, was famous for his knowledge of astronomy, and his exact calculations of eclipses.— Cornelius, a Homan knight, who ren- dered himself famous by his poetical as well as military talents. He was passionately fond of the slave Lycoris, or Cytheris, and celebrated her beauty in his poetry. She proved ungrate- ful, and forsook him, which gave occasion to Virgil to write his tenth eclogue. Gallus was a favourite with Augustus, by whom he was appointed governor of Egypt ; but he forgot the benefits he had received, pillaged the province, and even conspired against his benefactor, for 433 Gama which he was banished by the emperor. This disgrace operated so powerfully upon him, that he killed himself in despair, a.d. 26. Some few fragments remain of his poetry. He particu- larly excelled in elegiac composition. — Caius VibiusTrebonianus, who succeeded Metius De- cius, slain by the Goths, 251. He became indo- lent and cruel, and beheld with the greatest in- difference the revolt of his provinces, and the invasion of his empire by the barbarians. He was at last assassinated by his soldiers, 253.— Flavius Claudius Constantius, a brother of the emperor Julian, raised to the imperial throne under the title of Csesar, by Constantius, his relation. He conspired against his benefactor, and was condemned to be beheaded, 354. Galt, John, gault, a Scotchman, who began life as a tradesman in London, but commenced the study of the law, which he forsook for the literary profession. For some time he acted in the capacity of agent to a company for esta- blishing emigrants in Canada, but quarrelled with the government, and was suspended by the Canada company. On his return to England, he devoted himself to literature, and supported himself by the labours of a most prolific pen. The bare enumeration of his works would occupy a considerable space; but the following criticism from the "Gentleman's Magazine " of 1839 will give an idea of his style, and the fields in which he worked: — "There is a thorough quaintuess of phrase and dialogue in Mr. Gait's best works, which places him apart from all other Scotch novelists; much knowledge of life, variety of character, liveliness and humour, are displayed in his novels, and render thert justly popular. The public will not soon forget his 'Ayrshire Legatees,' his 'Annals, of the Parish,' or his 'Entail.' His biographies, and many of his later works manufactured for the booksellers, are of a very different character." B.in Ayrshire, Scotland, 1779; d. 1839. GAi,VANi,Aloysio,,9a/-ra!o'-ne, the discoverer of gal van ism.was a celebrated Italian physiologist, and, in 1762, became lecturer on anatomy at Bologna, obtaining a considerable reputation. By experiments on frogs, he discovered that all animals are endued with a peculiar kind of electricity; and he followed up this discovery with so much perseverance and success, as to give his name to certain electrical properties, which have excited universal attention. His first publication on this subject was in 1791, and entitled "Aloysii Galvani de Viribus Elec- tricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius." The famous Volta followed Galvani in big researches, and discovered further wonders in this branch of science. Galvani, on the death of his wife, in 1790, fell into a state of melancholy, and d. 1798; b. at Bologna, 1737. Besides the above work, he wrote several me- moirs upon professional subjects. Gam, David, giirn, a brave Welsh officer in the army of Henry V., whom be accompanied to France. Having returned from reconnoitring the enemy on the eve of the battle of Agin- court, he reported that there were enough of the enemy to be killed, enough to be taken prisoners, and enough to run away. He was knighted by Henry on the field, but was killed defending his sovereign when exposed to immi- nent danger, 1415. Gama, Vasco or Vasquez de, ga'-ma, an illus- trious Portuguese navigator, to whom belongs the merit of having discovered the route to the OF BIOGRAPHY. Gambier East Indies by sea. In 1497 Emanuel, king of Portugal, sent him to endeavour to double the Cape of Good Hope, which he accomplished, and then sailed along the eastern coast of Africa, having proceeded as far as Calicut, where he arrived in May, 1498, and was received by the prince of that place with great pomp and ceremony. After an absence of two years, he returned to Lisbon, where he arrived in September, 1499. In 1502 he went out with twenty ships, and returned, the following year, with thirteen, which he had captured in the Indian seas. On this occasion he was created count of Vidiqueyra. In 1524 he was appointed, by John III., viceroy of Portuguese India, after the death of Albuquerque, and he sailed and took possession of his government, but did not long survive his honours after his arrival at his destination, b. at Sines, Portugal ; d. at Cochin, 1525. Camoens celebrated his adventures in the " Lusiad." Gambier, James, Lord, gam' -leer, a British admiral, who went to sea at an early age, and, in 1788, was appointed to the command of the Raleigh, 32. In this frigate he was engaged against the French in 1791, and assisted in the reduction of Charleston, S. Carolina. He was present at Lord Howe's memorable victory on the 1st of June, 1794, commanding the Defence, 74 ; and after tilling various posts, was intrusted, in July, 1807, with the command of the fleet despatched to Copenhagen. This city was bombarded for three days, when the enemy capitulated, and 19 sail of the line, 23 frigates and sloops, and 25 gunboats, were taken and conveyed to Kngland. He was now created a baron, and, in 1808, had the command of the Channel fleet. In 1809, Lord Cochrane (after- wards the earl of Dundonald), who was under Lord Gambier's orders, attacked and destroyed, with his fire-ships, several French vessels in the Basque Roads by the Isle d'Aix,aud Lord Coch- rane was desirous of completing the destruction of the remainder of the enemy's fleet, but the commander-in-chief did not consider the attempt practicable. A court-martial sat on the con- duct of the latter, but he was acquitted. In 1814 he negotiated a peace with the United States of America, at Ghent ; and, on the acces- sion of William IV., was advanced to the rank of admiral of the fleet. B.at the Bahama Isles, of which his father was lieutenant-governor, 1756 ; d. at Iver, near Uxbridge, 1833. (See "Autobiography of Lord Dundonald," and " Life of Lord Gambier," by his daughter.) Gans, Edward, gong, an eminent German iurist, who, besides being a voluminous writer m legal questions, especially the historical features of the Roman code, enjoyed the reputa- tion of being one of the best lecturers in Ger- many. He was appointed extraordinary pro- fessor at the university of Berlin in 1825, and some years afterwards attained to the position of ordinary professor in the same university. He visited France and England after the revo- lution in the former country in 1830, and becoming imbued with liberal ideas, lectured to immense audiences on themes connected with modem history, which drew upon him the dis- pleasure of the Prussian government, which subjected him to a good deal of annoyance, without, however, being able to silence him. He was the friend of Hegel, Thibaut, and other celebrated men of the time, and was regarded u one of the most learned, most witty, and 433 Garcilasso most eloquent men of Germany. No one could match him in controversy ; he confounded the most skilful of his opponents by his sarcasms, and was most ready to satirize those who held the highest positions ; and hence, probably, the bitterness with which he was persecuted. He was of Jewish extraction, but embraced Chris- tianity. His principal works are — " Scholia on Gaius's Roman Law ;" " System of the Roman Civil Law ;" " The Law of Succession, its His- torical Development, and its importance for the History of the World." He also edited the works of Hegel, b. at Berlin, 1798; d. suddenly, from an attack of apoplexy, 1839. Gandon, James, gan'-don, a distinguished English architect, who was a pupil of Sir Wil- liam Chambers, and was the first to receive the architectural gold medal of the Royal Academy. He edited the " Vitruvius Britannicus," and afterwards went to Ireland, where he remained during the rest of his life. The Four Courts, the Royal Exchange, the Custom-house, the portico of the House of Lords, and other elegant struc- tures in Dublin, were designed by him. He was a fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries and of the Irish Royal Academy, b. 1740; d. 1824. Gandt, James, gan'-de, an English painter, the pupil of Vandyck. whose style he so success- fully imitated that his pictures are considered little inferior to those of his master. The great duke of Ormond took him to Ireland under his patronage, and Gandy there executed a variety of pieces which are in the Ormond collection. b. at Exeter, 1619 ; d. 1689.— His son, William Gandy, attained to considerable eminence as a portrait painter. Gakamojtd, Claude, gar'-a-mawng, a French engraver and letter-founder, was tlie first who superseded Gothic or black-letter printing, sub- stituting in its place the Roman character, a. at Paris; d. 1561. Gakasse, Francis, ga-rass', a French Jesuit of considerable talents, but very scurrilous in his writings against many of his contempora- ries. In 1625 he published " A Summary of the Principal Truths of the Christian Religion," which was condemned by the Sorbonne. He was also the author of Latin poems, and some controversial works, d. of the plague, which he caught at Poictiers, while visiting the sick in the hospitals, 1631 ; b. at Angouleme, 1585. Garcam, Pedro Antonio Correa, gar'-kam, a Portuguese lyric poet, who is held in the highest estimation by his countrymen. He clothed his odes in the language of the 16th century, and many of them breathe the finest spirit of poetry. His epistles and satires are considered among the best in modern literature, and several plays which he wrote are conceived in excellent taste. He laboured to improve the taste of his country- men ; but an early death prevented the accom- plishment of what an earnest ambition might have achieved, b. at Lisbon, 1724; d. 1772. Garcilasso, or Garcilasso be la Vega, gar'-the-las'-so, a poet, native of Peru, who accompanied the emperor Charles V. in his military expeditions, and died of a wound which he received in Provence in 1536. It is a strange circumstance, that this poet, whose verses told only of the delights of peace and the pleasures of repose, should have lived the life and died the death he did. His poems were translated into English by Wiflien. b. at Cuzeo, Peru, 1503. His works were printed at Naples in 1664, 8vo. V F THE DICTIONARY Gardiner Gardiner, Stephen, gar'-di-ner, a distin- guished English prelate and statesman, the illegitimate son of Dr. Woodville, bishop of Salisbury, and brother to Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. He was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, whence he went into the family of the duke of Norfolk, and afterwards into that of Cardinal Wolsey, who made him his secretary. In 1527, in company with Edward Fox, he went to Rome for the purpose of persuading the pope to consent to the divorce of Queen Catharine by Henry VIII. Though unsuccessful in his mis- sion, he greatly assisted Henry in the prosecu- tion of his design, and became secretary of state, and in 1631 bishop of Winchester. He wrote " De Vera, Obediential" in defence of the king's supremacy, and drew up articles accusing Henry's last queen, Catharine Parr, of heresy ; but the queen avoided the storm, and he fell into disgrace. At the accession of Edward VI. he opposed the Reformation, and was com- mitted first to the Fleet, and afterwards to the Tower, where he remained a prisoner during the remainder of the reign : he was also de- prived of his bishopric ; but, on the accession of Mary, he was restored to his see, and, in 1553, appointed lord chancellor and prime minister. He had a deep knowledge of human nature ; but his conduct towards the Protestants was cruel and sanguinary, b. at Bury St. Edmund's, 1-183 ; d. 1555. He was a learned man, but of little principle, crafty, and ambitious. Lloyd, in his " State Worthies," says that he was to be traced like the fox, and like Hebrew, was to be read backwards. Gardiner, James, a British military officer, equally distinguished for his piety and for his bravery, entered the Dutch service at the age of 14 as an ensign, after which he obtained rank in the English army, and was present at the battle of Ramilies, where he was wounded. In 1730, he had risen to the rank of lieutenant- colonel ; an d at the head of a regiment of dragoons, of which he was the commander, he was at- tached to the army of Sir John Cope which fought, and was defeated by, the Highlanders under the Chevalier, Prince Charles Edward Stuart, at Prestonpans, near Edinburgh, on the 21st of September, 1715. Colonel Gardiner en- deavoured to stop the panic which seized the royal troops, and was killed. He is said in early life to have been somewhat licentious in his habits, and to have been converted to religious views by reading a Calvinistic treatise entitled " Heaven taken by Storm." It is also asserted that he had received a supernatural intimation of his approaching death. Three of his nearest relatives, including his father, like himself, fell in battle. Dr. Doddridge has written a Life of Colonel Gardiner, b. at Carri- den, Linlithgowshire, Scotland, 1688. Gardner, Alan, Lord, gard'-ner, a British admiral, son of a military officer resident in the north of England. Alan entered the navy as a midshipman at the age of 13, and after passing through the various subordinate grades, ob- tained po^t-captain's rank in 1766, when he hoisted his pennant on board the Preston of 50 guns, in which he served some time on the Jamaica station, lie commanded the Maidstone frigate in the American war, and afterwards the Sultan, 74, in which last-named ship he served under Admiral Byron. He was then transferred to the Duke, 98, in which he was the first to break the enemy's line on the 12th of April, 1782, 434 Garibaldi for his conduct on which occasion he was highly applauded by his chief, Admiral Rodney. Gard- ner hoisted his flag as rear-admiral on board the Queen in 1793, and, as commander on the Leeward Islands station, made an unsuccessful attempt on Martinique. His next important service was under Lord Howe, and on the me- morable 1st of June, 1794, displayed signal bravery, and was shortly afterwards made a baronet and major-general of marines. A mutiny having broken out in the fleet at Ports- mouth early in 1797, Gardner went there with the view of suppressing it, but losing his temper, and having recourse to severe measures, the mutineers became exasperated, and he had dif- ficulty in escaping with his life. He was created an Irish peer in 1800, and in 1807 took the com- mand of the Channel fleet as the successor of Earl St. Vincent. Gardner was a member of three successive parliaments: first for Plymouth, in 1790, and in 1796 and 1802 for Westminster, with Fox for his colleague. He was created a British peer by the title of baron Uttoxeter, and died at Bath in 1809; b. 1742. Garibaldi, Joseph, ga'-re-bal'-de, a modern Italian patriot and general, was brought up at Nice among sailors and fishermen, and, at an early age, in his father's coasting vessel, dis- tinguished himself by his courage and coolness. Implicated, in 1834, in the Italian insurrectional movement, he was compelled to fly, and take re- fuge in Marseilles. After passing two years here, chiefly in the pursuit of mathematical studies, he embarked in an Egyptian corvette, to serve as a naval officer in the fleet of the Bey of Tunis. Disappointed in his expectations, however, he set out for Rio Janeiro, and fought, with great bravery and success, in the service of the government of Uruguay against Buenos Ayres. His influence over his troops was something wonderful; and for the bravery he and his Italian followers displayed at Sal to, the govern- ment of Montevideo decreed that the Italian legion should take the right, the post of honour, even when with native troops, in every engage- ment. The war in Italy, in 1848, brought Gari- baldi back to Nice. Aportionofhis legion accom- panied him, and took a prominent part in the campaign against the Austriansin the Southern Tyrol. At Rome he was the soul of the resist- ance; and Marshal Vaillant, the French com- mander, in his report of the operations during the siege of that city, did justice to the energy and skill of his adversary. On May 9, at Pales- trina, he defeated the Neapolitan army, though vastly superior in numbers to his own. A few days later, at Velletri, where he was severely wounded, he again won the honours of the day. Finally he sustained, by his courage and resources, for a whole month, the attacks of the French army. In the last council of war held at Rome, Garibaldi proposed the employment of extreme measures, but they were not approved. He then left the sacred city with the remnant of his little army, traversed the enemy's lines, and withdrew to the neighbourhood of San Marino. There his troops disbanded ; his wife, who was with him, died ; and he himself escaped with difficulty to Genoa. After a few months he returned to America, where he engaged energetically in trade and industry, becoming a manufacturer of soap and candles in Slaten Island, New York. In 1854 he returned to his native land, and for five years he now lived in retuemeat with his sons on the isle of OF BIOGRAPHY. Garnet Caprera, off the coast of Sardinia, where he farmed on a small scale. In the Italian war of 1859, he played a conspicuous part against the Austrians, and seemed to be ubiquitous, by the marvellous rapidity of his operations. After the peace, the preliminaries of which were signed at Villafranca, he had the command of the army of Central Italy, but subsequently retired from the field, and laid down his arms. He was, however, soon recalled from his re- tirement, having been elected a member of the Parliament at Turin. In May, 1860, Garibaldi landed at Marsala, in Sicily, at the head of 1000 volunteers, was speedily joined by a large num- ber of the inhabitants of the island, and after defeating the Neapolitan troops at Calatafimi, took Palermo- He then passed over to the mainland, lauding near Reggio, and in a few days entered Naples almost alone, his approach having been sufficient to induce Francis II. to quit the city. The king took refuge in Gaeta, Garibaldi was proclaimed dictator; the people soon voted themselves subjects of Victor Emmanuel, and the latter having been met by Garibaldi on his way to attack the fortress of the deposed monarch, was saluted by him as "King of Italy" — a title afterwards confirmed by the Italian Parliament, and acknowledged by the Earopeau Powers. After this, Garibaldi again retired to Caprera, whence he issued in 1862, and proceeding from Sicily, made an attempt to reach the frontier through Naples, in order to march upon Rome ; but this was in opposition to the wish of the government, and Garibaldi was attacked at Aspromonte by a party of Italian troops, wounded, taken prisoner, his followers dispersed, and himself conveyed a prisoner to the fortress of Varignano, near Spezzia. This event produced a profound sen- sation throughout Europe; the warmest sym- pathy was expressed for the illustrious captive, and some oi the mest eminent surgeons in the world — English, French, German, Russian, and Italii'.n — attended him. An amnesty was shortly after granted to Garibaldi and his followers, who were set at liberty. In 1S61 he visited England, where he met with an enthusiastic reception. In 1866 he took part in the brief war between Italy and Austria, and, in 1867, engaged in an ill-ad vised and unsuccessful attempt to free Rome from the Papal government, b. at Nice, 1807. Gaexet, Henry, gar -net, an English Jesuit, memorable for being concerned in the Gun- powder plot, was educated at Winchester school. He took the Jesuit's habit at Rome in 1675, and returned to England in 1586, as pro- vincial of his order. He was executed for high treason in 1606. He confessed the crime for which he suffered, but was placed by the Jesuits among their martyrs. Gabhick, David, gar'-rik, , a celebrated English »ctor, descended from a French family of the name of Garric or Garique, who fled to England on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father, Peter Garrick, was a captain in the army, and generally resided at Lichfield. David received his education partly at the grammar- school at Lichfield, and partly under Dr. Johnson, with whom, in 1737, he went to Lon- don to seek his fortune. He was for some time under Mr. Colson, an eminent mathema- tician, and afterwards entered into partnership with an elder brother in the wine trade. This business he soon quitted for the stage. His firit appearance was at Ipswich, in 1711, where. 435 Garth under the assumed name of LyddaL he ap- peared as Aboan, in the tragedy of "Oroo- noko." The applause he met with induced him to make his appearance In London, at the theatre in Goodman's Fields, where, in the character of Richard III., he appeared in 1741, and achieved a decided success. The other theatres were quickly deserted, and Goodman's Fields became the resort of the people of fashion, even from the west-end, till that theatre was shut up. He next formed an engagement with Fleetwood, the patentee of Drufy-lane, and, in 1742, appeared for three nights as Bayes, Lear, and Kichard III. In the summer of 1743 he played in Dublin, with Mrs. \\ offing- ton, to such full houses, that the heat of the weather and the crowds occasioned a fever, which was called the Garrick fever. In 1747 he became joint-patentee of Drury-lane Theatre, and, in 1749, married Mademoiselle Violetti, an Italian stage-dancer. In 1763 he and Mrs. Gar- rick made a visit to Italy, and at Paris he saw the celebrated Mademoiselle Clairon, whose future eminence he predicted. He returned to England in 1765, and, in 1766, brought Out the "Clandestine Marriage," a comedy written by him in conjunction with the elder Colnian. In 1769 he celebrated a fete in honour of Shakspeare, called "The J ubilee," at Stratford-upon-Avon, and after- wards made an entertainment of it at Drury- lane, urjder the same title, where it had a pro- digious run. In 1776 he sold his interest in the theatre for £35,000. The last character he performed was Don Felix in the " Wonder," which he acted in 1776 for the benefit of de- cayed actors, b. at Hereford, 1716; d. in Lon- don, January 20, 1779, and was buried in West- minster Abbey, where a handsome monument was erected to his memory by pri ite friendship. Mr. Garrick was hospitable and generous, but vain and fond of flattery. He wrote several dramatic pieces, prologues, epilogues, sonsrs, and epigrams. In the last he excelled. It is, how- ever, upon his skill in histrionic representation that his fame rests. In this he has never been equalled. " That young man," said Pope, after seeing his Richard III., " never had his equal as an actor, and will never have a rival." In tragedy and comedy he was alike at home, and certainly possessed a matchless versatility of genius for the exhibition of passion. " His appearance," says Sclilegel, in his " Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature," " forms an epoch in the history of the English theatre, as he chiefly dedicated his talents to the great charao ters of Shakspeare, and built his own fame oi the growing admiration for the poet. Befort his time, Shakspeare had only been brought or the stage in mutilated and disfigured alter* tions. Garrick returned, on the whole, to tb> true originals, though he still allowed himseL to make some very unfortunate changes. . . . Whether he always conceived the parts of Shakspeare in the sense of the poet, I, from the very circumstances stated in the eulogies on his acting, should be inclined to doubt. He excited, however, a noble emulation to repre- sent worthily the great national poet. This has ever since been the highest aim of actors, and even at present the stage can boast of men whose histrionic talents are deservedly famous." Mrs. Garrick survived her husband forty-three years, and died at her house in the Adelphi, 1822, in the 98th year of her age. Gabih, Sir Samuel, garth, an English poet THE DICTIONARY Gascoigne and physician, who greatly contributed to the establishment of dispensaries ; but was opposed by the apothecaries, whom he severely lashed in his poem of the " Dispensary," for their venal spirit. In 1697 he spoke the Harveian oration before the college. On the accession of George I. he was knighted, and appointed king's phy- sician in ordinary, and physician-general to the army. b. in Yorkshire, 1671; d. 1719. His poems do not possess any extraordinary merit. Gascoigne, Sir William, gds'-koin, "an emi- nent English judge, who rose to be chief justice of the King's Bench in the reign of Henry IV. He was a man of integrity and independence, refusing to pass sentence on Archbishop Scroope, as a traitor, and sentencing the prince of Wales, afterwards Henry V., to be imprisoned for indecorous conduct before him on the bench, b. at Gawthorpe, Yorkshire, 1350: s. 1413. Gascoigne, George, an old English poet, who served under the prince of Orange in the wars of the Low Countries. He wrote masques of the progresses of Queen Elizabeth, and some of his poems are not without merit, d. at Stam- ford, 1577. Gaskkh, Mary Elizabeth, gds'-kel, the wife of the Kev. William Gaskell, a Unitarian minis- ter, resident at Manchester, at once made her- self popular by her first novel, entitled "Mary Barton," which appeared in 1S48. This fiction forcibly depicted the struggles of the working cotton-spinner with the evils of poverty, and contrasted the splendid condition of the mill- owner with that of the worker. It also illus- trated the evil of strikes, and presented such a vivid image of real life in one particular phase of society, that the authoress was at once raised into fame. After this Mrs. Gaskell became a contributor to " Household Words " and other periodicals, and in 1850 published her Christmas story of "The Moorland Cottage." In 1853 appeared "Ruth," her second novel, and in 1S55, "North and South," an almost verbatim reprint from " Household Words." She also published other collections of her writings, all of which have enjoyed great popularity, and given her a prominent place among the writers of fiction of the 19th century. She likewise wrote •memoir of herfriendMiss Bronte (Currer Bell), the author of " Jane Eyre," and contributed to the columnsof the "Daily News." Her maiden name was Stromkin. b. about 1822 ; d. 1865. Gassicouet, Charles Louis, Cadet de, gus'-se- koor, a French writer on chemistry, natural history, and other subjects, was educated for the bar, and in early life wrote several political treatises, one of which was on the " Theory of Elections," and another on "The Private Life of Mirabeau." He subsequently occupied him- self principally in the study of chemistry and physics, and in 1803, published a "New Dic- tionary of Chemistry," which'became a text-book in the Polytechnic school. He accompanied the French army into Austria in 1809, and wrote an account of the campaign ; and also some " Letters on the English Nation," and a trea- tise on the application of physical sciences to military purposes. He was reporting secretary to the Board of Health, of which he was the principal organizer, and likewise assisted in in- stituting the Lyceum, afterwards the Athc- nseum, at Paris, b. 1709; d. 1823. Gassexdt, Peter, gas-sen'-de, a celebrated French philosopher and mathematician, who. Gates at a very early age, discovered an acute and in- quisitive mind, and made such progress in learning, as to be appointed teacher of rhetoric at Digne before he was 18. Two years after- wards, he became professor of divinity and philosophy at Aix, when he ventured to oppose the system of Aristotle, aud his lectures were published under the title of " Exercitationes Paradoxicas adversus Aristotelem." Tins work procured him the friendship of the celebrated Peirese, president of the university of Aix, by whose interest he was preferred to a canonry in the cathedral of Digne. In 1628 he visited Hol- land, with the avowed object of cultivating the friendship of the philosophers of that country ; and, on his return, applied himself ardently to astronomical studies. In 1631 he was the first to observe a transit of the planet Mercury over the disc of the sun, which had previously been calculated by Kepler. In 1645 he was appointed royal professor of mathematics at Paris, where he applied so intensely to his studies and to astronomical observations, that an illness was the consequence, and he was forced to retire to Digne for the restoration of his health. In 1647 he published liis principal work, entitled " De Vita et Moribus Epicuri." This was, in 1649, followed by his " Syntagma Philosophise Epi curea>," which was an attempt to reconstruct the Epicurean system of philosophy out of the remains left by its masters. In 1653 he went back to Paris; but his labours brought a return of his disease, of which he died, in 1655. b. at Chautersier, near Digne, 1592. Gassendi is deservedly ranked among the first mathema- ticians of his age. He opposed the philosophy of Descartes with success, and obtained a num- ber of followers, who were called after his name. His other works are, the Lives of Tycho Brahe, Copernicus, Purbachius, and Regiomon- tanus ; a " Commentary on Diogenes Laertius ;" and astronomical and philosophical pieces, the whole collected into 6 vols, folio, 1658. Gastreli, Francis, gas'-trel, an English pre- late and able polemical writer, was a native of Northamptonshire, and was educated at West- minster School, and Christ Church, Oxford. He was Boyle lecturer, and preacher at Lincoln's Inn; took his degree of D.D. in 1700; was chaplain to Harlcy, speaker of the House of Commons, and became canon of Christ Church in 1702. He was chaplain to the queen in 1711, and was raised to the episcopal bench, in 1714, as bishop of Chester. His Boyle's lectures he published, in 1099, as one discourse, as a defence of Christianity against the Deists; and was also the author of a useful religious manual called the " Christian Institutes," and of a work entitled "Conversations concerning the Trinity," and several others, b. 1662; d. 1725. Gates, Horatio, an American general, who received his military tuition in England, and served in the West Indies, and also in Ohio, under General Braddock. Being wounded, he retired for sometime from the army, and settled on an estate which he purchased in Virginia. When the war of American independence com- menced, he espoused the cause of the revolu- tionists, and received the appointment of adjutant-general in the army. In 1776 he was appointed to the command of the army operat- ing on Lake Champlain ; but, in the following year, he was superseded, although, in a few months afterwards, he was again appointed to oppose General Burgoyne, wnom ho defeated. OF BIOGRAPHY. Gattaker and, at Saratoga, forced to capitulate with his whole army. This success surrounded Gates with a halo of popularity, and attempts were made to place him above Washington. These, however, were frustrated, and, in 1780, he was appointed to the command of the southern army. He met Cornwallis at Camden, in South Carolina, and suffered a complete de- feat. For this he was superseded, and his conduct subjected to a court of inquiry ; he was, however, honourably acquitted. After this he retired to his estate in Virginia, where he resided till 1800, when he removed to New York, where the freedom of the city was conferred on him. He now became a member of the legislature; but, before he quitted Vir- ginia, he emancipated his slaves, and conferred upon the necessitous and infirm a provision for life. This was a noble act, and redounds more to his glory than the capturing of Burgoyne at Saratoga, b. in England, 1728 ; d. 1806. Gattakek, Thomas, gat'-tak-er, a learned divine, received his education at St. John's College, Cambridge, was preacher at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1611 was appointed to the rectory of Rotherhithe. He published in 1619 a singular treatise on Ifhe ".Nature and Use of Lots," which excited a great deal of controversy, and which he had to defend by another work, pub- lished in 1623. He was oil'ered the mastership of Trinity College, Cambridge, but his infirm health made it impossible for him to accept the post. He travelled in the Low Countries, and zealously defended the reformed doctrines against the Catholics, especially in his treatise entitled " Transubstantiation declared by the Confession of Popish Writers to have no Foun- dation in God's Word." He wrote a great many works on Biblical subjects ; and though a popular and eloquent preacher, was forced to abandon the pulpit from a spitting of blood to which he was liable. He was one of the famous assembly of divines at Westminster; but dis- approved of the introduction of the Covenant, and declared for episcopacy. He likewise strenu- ously opposed the execution of Charles I. b. in London, 1574; d. at Rotherhithe, 1654. His son, Charles Gattaker, was also an eminent divine, held the rectory of Hoggeston, Rucks, and wrote a variety of polemical works espe- cially directed against the Papists, the titles of most of which are distinguished by the prolix and quaint phraseology so much in vogue at the time. b. 1614 ; d. 1680. Gaubil, Antoine, go'-beel, a learned French missionary, who, in 1723, was sent to China, and there acquired the Chinese and Mantchoo languages, becoming interpreter at the court of Pekiu. He held this position thirty years, and gained the respect and esteem of the emperor. B. at Gaillac, near Alby, 1689; d. at Pekin, 1759. No European, perhaps, was better ac- quainted with Chinese literature than Gaubil. He wrote an " Historical and Critical Treatise on Chinese Astronomy," and a " History of Genghis Khan." He also translated the "Chou King," which comprises the historical tradi- tions of China and its sovereigns, and produced other works. Gaobius, Jerome David, gou'-he-oos, a cele- brated German physician, who contracted an intimate friendship with Boerhaave, and succeeded him as lecturer on botany and chemistry at Leyden, in 1731, and in 1731 obtained the medical professorship. His prin- 437 Gavarnl cipal works are a treatise on the " Method of Prescribing, or of Writing Recipes;" "Prin- ciples of Nosology;" and " Institutiones Patho- logise Medicinalis." b. at Heidelberg, 1705 ; ». at Leyden, 1780. Gauden, John, gaw'-den, an English bishop, who, being appointed chaplain to Robert, earl of Warwick, preached before the House of Com- mons in 1640, and gave so much satisfaction to the members, that they presented him with a silver tankard, and added to it, in the following year, the rich living of Booking, in Essex. In 1643 he was nominated one of the assembly of divines at Westminster, but did not sit among them. He wrote against the Covenant, but complied with it to keep his preferment. In 1648 he published a pamphlet against bringing the king to trial. He had also committed to his care the collating and publishing of the king's meditations, to which he gave the name of " Eikw BacriXiKi), or the Portraiture of his Sacred Majesty in his Solitude and Sufferings." This book had a wonderful effect upon the public mind ; but it has been doubted, and still is, whether it was the production of Gauden or of the monarch himself. Macaulay, however, says : — " In that year (1692) an honest old clergyman, named Walker, who had, in the time of the Commonwealth, been Gauden's curate, wrote a book which convinced all sensible and dispassionate readers that Gauden, and not Charles I., was the author of the ' Icon Basilike.' " In 1659 he became preacher at the Temple; and when Charles II. was restored, lie was preferred to the see of Exeter, and in 1062, to that of Worcester, where he passed the remainder of his days. b. at Mayland, Essex, 1605 ; d. at Worcester, 1662. Besides the above, Gauden wrote several other works on the hier- archy of the Church of England, and sermons. Gaultier, Aloisius Edouard Camille, gole'- te-ai, a French abbe" and educational writer, who was ordained a priest at Rome, and went, in 1780, to Paris, where he occupied himself entirely with the instruction of the young. In order to diminish, to those of tender age, the difficulty of learning scientific subjects, he reduced the elementary studies to a kind of game, and afterwards adopted the plan of mutual instruction, the same as that used by Lancaster and Bell. During the Revolution he took refuge in England, and his system was very successful there. He returned to France in 1802 where he continued the application of his principles, b. in Italy, of French parents, 1740 ; d. at Paris, 1818. He Is the author of a complete course of elementary education ; amongst which are, " Geographical Lessons by Means of a Game," "A Reasonable and Moral Game for Children," " A Complete Course of Instructive Games for Children." Gautieb, Theophile, go'-te-ai, a modem French poet and litterateur, who in 1830 pro- duced his first volume of verses. He afterwardx became connected with some of the foremost publications in Paris — " Figaro," " Revue de Paris," " Presse," " Revue des deux Mondes," and the " .VI usee des Families." Many poems also have been written by him, and he was also engaged on the " History of the Painters." He subsequently became the editor of the literary feititleton of the "Moniteur." b. at Tarbes, 1808; ]>. 1S72. Gavaeni, ga-var'-ne, the name by which one of the most popular of French caricatu- THE DICTIONARY Gaveston ristsis known. His real name was Paul Chevalier, and he began life as a mechanical draughts- man, but in 1835 discovered his genius for burlesque, in hitting off the peculiarities of manners and persons. He at once rose into fame, and taking the passing and ever-varying modes of Parisian life for his subjects, pro- duced an endless variety of caricatures, unequal- led for the originality and tone they display. He visited England for the purpose of sketching the lower classes in London, and depicting the strange asd unsightly scenes in which they too often form the most prominent part of the picture ; but he altogether failed in his object. Besides illustrating the universally-known pages of " Charivari," and other periodicals, he lent the aid of his pencil to the works of popular authors. The most successful of these were the designs for the " Wandering Jew" of Eugene Sue, and the " Diable a Paris" of Balzac. A selec- tion from his "Sketches of Parisian Life" was made and published in Paris in 1846. They are comprised in 4 vols. 8vo, to which notes were appended by Theophile Gautier and others, b. at Paris, 1801 ; b. 1866. Ga-veston, Piers, paiv'-ston, a favourite of Edward II., whose pride and prodigality raised the ire of the English nubility. The king was forced to send him into exile, but recalled him. He was the son of a gentleman of Gaseony, and the fact of his being a foreigner embittered the hatred raised by his own misconduct. Beheaded in 1312. Gat, John, gai, an English poet, who received his education under a Mr. Luck, a man of wit and a poet, in the town of Barnstaple. He was afterwards apprenticed to a silk-mercer in Lon- don, but disliking the occupation in a few years, he bought the remainder of his time. His first poem, entitled "Rural Sports," appeared in 1711, was dedicated to Mr. Pope, and gained him the friendship of that poet, which lasted till death. In the following year he was ap- pointed secretary to the duchess of Monmouth, and, two years later, produced "The Fair," a poem. About the same time he printed his mock heroic, entitled " Trivia, or the A rt of Wal kins the Streets of London," in the composition of which he was assisted by Swift. In 1714 appeared his "Shepherd's Week," a series of pastorals, intended to ridicule Philips, but which possess more merit as a genuine picture of rustic life than as a satire. The same year he became secretary to the earl of Clarendon, and accompanied that nobleman on his embassy to Hanover. On the death of Queen Anne, he returned to England, but his expectations of preferment from the new court were doomed to disappointment. In 1720 he published his poems by subscription, which produced him £1000; but embarking in the famous South-Sea bubble, he lost the whole, »nd was reduced to such a state of despondency as to prove nearly fatal to his health. He next produced the tragedy of the " Captive," which met with a favourable reception, and occasioned his being employed by the princess of Wales to write his Fables for the young duke of Cumber- land. In 1727 appeared his " Beggar's Opera," which had a success considered by many infi- nitely beyond what it deserved both in a dra- matic and moral point of view. It ran for sixty- three nights, and threw the author and his friends into ecstasies. Though it was a favourite with the town, however, it was not so at court : and when he produced his sequel 438 G-ay-Lussac to it, under the title of " Polly," it was pro- hibited by the lord-chamberlain. Of the bad effect of the " Beggar's Opera" upon the public morals of the period, there can be no doubt. Indeed, the following fact is one of the strongest attestations of the truth of this that could be given. " In the year 1773 Sir John Fielding told the bench of justices that he had written to Mr. Garrick concerning the impropriety of performing the ' Beggar's Opera,' which never was represented without creating an additional number of thieves; and they particularly requested that he would desist from performing that opera on Saturday evening. Such also were the fears of the church as to the effect of this play, that Dr. Herring, then archbishop of Canterbury, preached a ser- mon against it." T^hilst these fears were at work, however, Dean Swift was writing in favour of it in the " Intelligencer." Although the " Polly" was prohibited, Gay was no loser by it; on the contrary, by its publication he put into his pocket about £1200, and was adopted as a member of the family of the duke and duchess of Queensberry. b. at Barnstaple, Devonshire, 1688; n. Dec. 11, 1732, and was interred in Westminster Abbey,^ where a monument was erected to bis memory by his patrons, with an epitaph written by Pope. Besides the works already mentioned, Gay wrote some lesser dra- matic pieces, ballads, and poems, making 2 vols. 12mo. Hazlitt thus sums up the merits of Gay , as displayed in his principal productions: — "His fables are certainly a work of great merit, both as to the quantity of invention employed, and as to the elegance and facility of the execution. They are, however, spun out too long. The descrip- tion and narrative are too diffusive and desul- tory, and the moral is sometimes without point. They are more like talcs than fables. His pastorals are pleasing and poetical, but his capital work is his ' Beggar's Opera.' " Dr. Johnson says, "he had not in any degree the mens divinior, the divinity of genius." Gay, however, was the originator of a new species of composition; for we owe to him the ballad opera. Gayangos, Pasquale &e,ga-ya.n'-qo«, a distin- guished modern Spaniard, who early began to devote himself to the study of Oriental litera- ture, and with a view to realize a complete ac- quaintance with the mediaeval history of his country, applied himself ardently to the Arabic. Dui ing a visit to Algiers, he married an English lady, a circumstance which doubtless led him to make himself well acquainted with the Eng- lish language, in which the most important of his works were composed. In 1834 he became a contributor to the " Westminster Review," and subsequently to the Edinburgh and other re- views. He also lent his aid to the " Penny Cy- clopaedia," and wrote some of the articles for the Biographical Dictionary of the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge Society. For several years he resided in England, and there published his " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties iu Spain," &c, which was a translation of a na« tive work from copies in the British Museum. On his leaving England, he proceeded to Spain, where he became professor of Arabic at the Athcnanim of Madrid, n. 1809. Gat-Lussac, Nicholas Francois, qai-loos'-sak, a celebrated French philosopher, who, in con- junction with M. liiot, ascended in a balloon, lent by the goveromant of France for the pur. OF BIOGRAPHY. Gayton pose, to the height of 13,000 feet above the Seine, and ascertained that the influence of ter- restrial magnetism there is nearly as great as it is on the earth; that the electricity of the atmosphere increased as they rose, and was always negative; that the hygrometer disco- vered increased dryness, and that the thermo; meter sank from 64° Fahrenheit on the earth, to 51°. He made another ascent alone, and attained an elevation of 1\ miles, where he had great difficulty in breathing, and the thermo- meter fell to 20° Fahrenheit. After sailing six hdhrs through the atmosphere, he descended at a village twenty miles from Rouen. The re- sult of this aerial flight was the discovery that air obtained at the highest point, was composed of the same elements as that found on the sur- face of the earth. These experiments brought Gay-Lussac greatly into notice, and he rose both in fame and position. In 1804 he became a member of the society of Arcueil, and was intro- duced to Humboldt, with whom he prosecuted an investigation of the polarization of light and other subjects. He also devoted much of his time to the study of chemistry, and to him we are indebted for the discovery of the hydro-sul- phuric and oxyehloride acids. In 1830 he be- came a member of the Chamber of Deputies, and, in 1839, was created a peer of France. He enjoyed several official appointments, and was professor of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi. b. at St. Leonard, Haute Vienne, 1778; d. at Paris, 1850. Gayton, Edmund, gai'-ion, a humorous writer, was a native of London, and educated at Merchant Taylors' School and St. John's Col- lege, Oxford, of which he became a fellow. He wrote a variety of works, among which were " Pleasant Notes on Don Quixote," which have often been reprinted, and possess considerable humour; "The Art of Longevity, or a Die- tetieal Institution," " Wit Revised, or New Ex- cellent Way of Divertissement," arranged in questions and answers, and originally published under the name of Asdryasdust Tossoffacan. b. 1609; d. at Oxford, 1666. Gaza, Theodore, ga'-za, a Greek grammarian, who, when his native place was taken by the Turks, in 1430, escaped to Italy, where he studied the Latin language with so much assi- duity, that he became an elegant writer and speaker of it. He was, for several years, a pro- fessor at Ferrara, and became rector of that uni- versity. Thence he went to Rome, under the patronage of Pope Nicholas V. and Cardinal fiessarion. b. at Thessalonica, about 1405; d. at Rome, 1478. He wrote a Greek grammar, a treatise on the Grecian months ; translated Aristotle on Animals, Hippocrates' Aphorisms, and other works into Latin ; and some of Cicero's into Greek. Gebeb, ge'-ler, an Arabian, or according to other writers a Greek,phy sician and astronomer, who wrote a commentary on the " Syntaxis Megale " of Ptolemy, and other works which were chiefly on alchemy. Dr. Johnson supposes that the word "gibberish" is derived from the cant of Geber and his followers. Lived about the 8th century. Gbd, William, ged, a goldsmith of Edinburgh, who, in 1725, endeavoured to introduce a method of printing with blocks and plates, containing letters for a whole page or sheet, now known as stereotype plates. He entered into an engage- ment with the university of Cambridge, to print 438 Geijer Bibles and Prayer-books by thl» means; but the project failed. On his return to Scotland, however, he printed an edition of Sallust with his plates. The plan was subsequently success- fully adopted by M. Didot of Paris, and is now in universal use amongst printers in England. D. 1749. Gkddes, Alexander, ged'-dez, a Roman Ca- tholic divine, who was educated at aD obscure school in the Highlands of Scotland, and, in 1758, removed to the Scottish college at Paris. In 1764 he returned to his native country, and officiated to a congregation in the county of Angus, but, the year following, became chaplain in the family of the earl of Traquair. In 1769 he undertook the charge of a congregation at Auchinhalrig, in Banffshire; and, after various changes, went to London, where, in 1788, he published proposals for anew Translation of the Bible. In 1790 he gave a general answer to the queries, counsels, and criticisms communicated to him since the publication of his proposals. In this undertaking he was liberally supported by Lord Petre. The first volume of this work appeared in 1792, comprising the Pentateuch and the book of Joshua; but the translator had taken such unwarrantable liberties with the text, and treated many important subjects with so much indecency, that he was suspended from his ecclesiastical functions. To these he re- plied in pamphlets written with coarseness and illiberality. In 1797 appeared the second volume of his version. In 1S00 he published "Critical Remarks," in vindication of his work, and about the same time appeared his " Apology for the Roman Catholics of Great Britain," which is now forgotten, b. in Ruthven, Banff- shire, 1737 ; D. 1802. Geefs, William, geefs, a distinguished modern Belgian sculptor, who studied at Paris, and in 1830 exhibited his first work, entitled " A Young Herdsman of the Early Christian Times strew- ing Flowers upon a Tomb." The performance gave high promise, and he did not disappoint the expectations which had been formed of his genius. He obtained commissions from the Belgian government for several monuments to those who fell in the struggle for Belgian inde- pendence, and, by his admirable execution of the works intrusted to him, added to his fame. These are his greatest performances; but he also employed his chisel in imaginative paths, and executed a " Group of Sleeping Children," pur- chased by Queen Victoria ; the " Infant St. John;" "Melancholy;" "The Lion in Love," which was greatly admh-ed in the Great Exhibi- tion of 1851; "Paul and Virginia," and several other works, b. at Antwerp, 1805; D.1860. Geffkard, Fabre, jef-frar', a negro, son of Nicholas Gefl'rard, one of the founders of the independence of Hayti. He joined the rebel- lion against Boyer in 18J3, and two years later was made general of division. During the whole of his career he shewed great military talent. This drew on him the en- mity of Faustin Solouque, emperor of Hayti, 18J2-1S58, and Geffrard, fearing arrest, con- spired against him, drove him from the throne, and was made president in 1859. b. 1S06. Geijeb, Erik Gustaf, yi'-jer, a Swedish his- torian, who for many years was the principal ornament of the university of L'psal. In 1810 he visited England with strong prejudices against the peop!e of that country; but, in a THE DICTIONARY GelasiuB letter printed in 1855, he says:— "I came to England with strong prejudices against the people but there is nohonester man in the world than the selfish, industrious English- man, from the merchant to the day-labourer." He edited several periodicals, in one of which, the " Iduna," appeared his poems of " The Viking" and "The Last Champion," which still hold their place among the best selections of Swedish poetry. In 1817 he became professor of history at the university of Upsal, which situation he held till 1846, when he resigned it. b. in the province of Wermeland, 1783; d. at Stockholm, 18*7. The most important work of Geijer is his " Svenska Folkets Historia," which has been translated into English by Mr. J. H. Turner, and published in London. Gela.hius I., Pope, je-lai'-se-us, succeeded Felix Hi . in 492. He had an acrimonious contest with the patriarch of Constantinople, and con- demned the practice of communicating only with bread, as was the custom of the Mani- cha>an sect, and made it imperative on the laity to use both bread and wine in the Lord's Supper. d. 496. Gelasius II. succeeded Pascal IT. as pope in 1118. Ceneio, marquis di Frangipani, consul of Rome, aided by the emperor Henry V., drove him from Home, and Maurice Bourdin, as Gregory VIII., was elected in his stead. Gela- sius, after an unsuccessful attempt to regain the pontificate, retired to France, d. at the abbey of Cluny, 1119. Gell, Sir William, jel, a learned classical antiquary, was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, of which he afterwards became a fellow. He was knighted in 1803, on his return from a mission to the Ionian Islands; in 1820 he was appointed chamberlain to Queen Caro- line, and shortly afterwards went to Italy, where he remained during the rest of his life, residing partly at Rome and partly at Naples. He was the author of " Topography of Troy and its Vicinity," illustrated and explained by draw- ings ; " The Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca;" " Itinerary of Greece;" " Itinerary of the Morea;" " Pompeiana, or Observations upon the Topography, Edifices, and Ornaments of Pompeii ;" " The Topography of Rome," &a. B. 1777; D. 1836. Gellert, Christian Furchtegott, gel'-Iert, a 3erman divine and poet, who supported himself for many years as tutor in private families, but afterwards became professor of philosophy at Leipsic. He is best known by his fables and tales, which are very pleasing. His works have been collected in 10* vols. 8vo. b. at Haynichen, Saxony, 1715; d. 1769. Gellibrand, Henrys jel'-le-brand, an emi- nent mathematician, was born in London, edu- cated at Trinity College, Oxford ; took orders, but devoting himself to mathematical studies, was, in 1627, elected professor of astronomy at Gresham college. In 1631 he was brought before the court of High Commission for pub- lishing an almanac in which he had substituted the names of Protestant martyrs for those of the saints; but the information was dismissed, similar almanacs having been printed before. He was the author of some valuable works on longitude, on the variations of the magnetic needle, on navigation, and on trigonometry. B. 1597; D. 1636. Gellius, Aulus, jel'-le-us, a Pioman gram- marian, who published a work which he called 440 Genghis Khan " Noctes Atticse," because written at Athens during the winter nights. It was originally composed for the improvement of his children, and abounds with many grammatical remarks. Lived in the 2nd century, a.d. Gelo, or Gelon, je'-lo, the most celebrated of this name was a son of Dinomenes, who made himself absolute at Syracuse, 485 years before the Christian era. He conquered the Cartha- ginians at Himera, and became very popular by his great equity and moderation. He reigned seven years, and his death was universally lamented at Syracuse. His brother Hiero suc- ceeded him. Gemelli Carrbbi, Francesco.j'at-mair'-Ze Tcar- rair'-e, an Italian traveller, who, from 1680 to 1698, made long and difficult voyages to all parts of the world. He visited Europe, Asia, and Africa, advancing as far as the great wall of China, and travelled through Mexico. In 1699 he published an account of his travels, under the title of " Giro del Mondo," (a Tour of the World.) b. at Naples, 1651 ; d. 1725. Gemimaxi, Francesco, jem'-in-e-a'-ne, a distinguished musical composer and finished performer on the violin, was the pupil of Scar- latti and Corelli, and went to London in 1714, where he received the patronage of George I., before whom he performed several of his own compositions, with Handel accompanying him on the harpsichord. He composed a great variety of musical pieces, all of them distin- guished for their excellence and for the skill required in their execution. He had a great passion for buying pictures, but, being poor, he had often to part with his purchases at a loss — which of course still further increased his difficulties. He was an author as well as a composer, and published, among other works, "A Sure Guide to Harmony and Modulation," "A Treatise on Good Taste," "Rules for Play- ing in Good Taste," " The Art of Playing on the Violin," &c. b. at Lucca, about 16o0; d. at Dublin, 1762. Geminxs, jem'-i-mis, an astronomer and mathematician of Rhodes, who flourished about 70 B.C. Gemisthcs, George, je-mir'-tkiu, surnamed Pletho, a learned Greek philosopher, who ably defended the followers of Plato against those of Aristotle, and the Greek Church against the Latin. He wrote various controversial and theological works, and d. 1491. b. 1390. Gemua, Heinier, commonly called Fbisifs, gem'-ma, a Dutch physician and mathematician, who became medical professor at Louvain. He wrote a number of works on mathematics, geometry, and medicine, b. at Dockum, Fries- land, 1508; d. at I.ouvain, 1555. — His son Cor- nelius also wrote on the same subjects. Genghis Khan, jen'-gis lean, the son of a petty Mongolian prince, who, alter some years of desultory warfare with various Tartar tribes, in 1210 invaded the Chinese empire, and took its capital by storm. In 1218 he led his army into Turkestan, and succeeded in capturing the cities of Samarcand and Bokhara, which he pillaged and burned, and destroyed upwards of 200,000 individuals. Continuing his career of savage devastation for several years, in 1225 he went against the sovereign "of Tangut, to whom he gave battle on a plain of ice, formed by a frozen lake, defeated him, and slew 300,000 of his men. Conqueringwhereverhe went, Genghis extended his territory until it not OP BIOGRAPHY. Genlis only comprised within its boundaries Northern China, but Eastern Persia, and the whole of Tartary. In achieving the conquest of these "barren acres," it is computed that this warrior destroyed upwards of 5,000,000 of the human race. b. in Tartary, 1163 ; d. 1227. Gbklis, Felicite" Stephanie, Countess de, then'-le, celebrated for her literary talents, became, at four years of age, a canoness in the coble chapter of Aix. Prom this time she was called la Comtesse de Lancy. At the age of seventeen, a letter which she had written accidentally came into the hands of Count de Genlis, who was so charmed with the beauty of its composition, that he made her an offer of his hand and fortune, which she accepted. Through this union she became niece to Madame de Montesson, who was privately married to the duke of Orleans, whose son, the dukeof Chartres, in 1782, chose Madame de Genlis to superintend the education of his children. About this period 6he produced " Adela and Theodore," " The Evenings of the Castle," " Annals of Virtue," and "The Theatre of Education," all of which were well received. In 1791 she paid a visit to England with her pupil, Mademoiselle d'Or- ldans, but on their return to France, they were ordered immediately to quit the territory. After a short time they went to Switzerland ; but, driven from thence, they at length found an asylum in the convent of St. Clair. In 1800 Madame de Genlis returned to her own country, ami, in 1805, Napoleon I. gave her apartments in the arsenal at Paris, withapension. On tliefall of the empire and the return of the Bourbons, her affection for her former friends returned; and when Louis Philippe ascended the throne, every attention was paid to her wants and com- forts. She employed herself almost continually in writing, and her works are very numerous, embracing nearly every style of literature. B. near Autun, 1746 ; d. 1830. Gennabo, Joseph Aurelius ,jen-na'-ro, an emi- nent Neapolitan lawyer, who, after practising at the bar, became the chief magistrate of his native city. He wrote on legal subjects, and bis works are remarkable for their purity of style and depth of erudition. His principal production is "Respublica Juriseonsultoruin," which ingeniously teaches, in the form of a novel, the dry and intricate system of civil law. B. at Naples, 1701; d. 1762. Gennaro was one of the commission appointed by the minister Tanucci to prepare a uniform code, called the " Carolin Code," for the whole kingdom. Genovesi, Antonio, jen'-o-vai-se, an Italian philosopher, who for some time read lectures in philosophy at Naples, with great reputation. He was attacked, however, by numerous ene- mies for publishing his " Metaphysics," in which he expressed his admiration of the works of Galileo, Grotius, and Newton. Galliani, archbishop of Tarento, protected him; anil Bartolomeo Intieri, a wealthy Italian, esta- blished for him a professorship of political philosophy, b. at Castiglione, 1712; d. 1760. Genskbic, jen'-se-rik, a famous Vandal Erince, who passed from Spain to Africa, where e took Carthage. He laid the foundation, in Africa, of the Vandal kingdom, which was com- posed of Numidia, Mauritania, Carthage, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. In the course of his military expeditions, he in- vaded Italy, and sacked Rome in 455. B. at Seville about 406 ; d. 477. 441 George I. Gensonne, Armand, zhen-son'-ne, an advocate of Bourdeaux, who, at the Revolution, assailed the government with great vehemence, and was the first to enunciate the vile doctrine that suspicion was a sufficient ground on which to condemn a person to death. Having, however, voted for referring the sentence of the king to the primary assemblies, and had the courage to demand punishment for the assassins of Sep- tember, Gensonne incurred the hatred of Robes- pierre, and was included in the destruction which overtook the whole Girondist party, having been guillotined, with twenty-one of his colleagues, on October 31, 1793. b. 1758. Gentilbschi, Horatio, jen'-te-les'-ke, an Italian artist, who painted the ceilings in Greenwich Hospital, b. at Pisa, 1563 ; d. in England, 1647. — His daughter Artemisia was also a good artist. She lived chiefly at Naples. GBnmivs,jen'-te-us, a king of Illyrieum, who imprisoned the Roman ambassadors at the request of Perseus, king of Macedonia. This offence was highly resented by the Romans, and Gentius was conquered by Anicius, and led in triumph with his family. Gentleman, Francis, jen'-tel-inan, an actor and dramatic writer, was a native of Ireland, who played first in Dublin, and afterwards at Bath, Edinburgh, Manchester, Liverpool, and Chester successively. Foote engaged him at the Haymarket, London, where he appeared during three seasons, when he was dismissed, and returned to Dublin. He wrote a variety of dramatic pieces, besides " The Dramatic Cen- sor," " Character : an Epistle," " Royal Fables," in imitation of Gay, and other poetical effusions of considerable merit, b. 1728; d. 1784. Geoffrey of Monmouth,, jef-fre, author of the " Chronicon, sive Historia Britonum," a singular work, but full of legendary tales about the early kings of Britain. Geoffrey was arch- deacon of Monmouth, and was made bishop of St. Asaph in 1152; but afterwards retired to Abingdon monastery, of which he was abbot. The first edition of his History was published at Paris in 1508, in quarto, and reprinted there in 1517, and at Heidelberg in 1587; an English translation, by Aaron Thompson, of Queen's College, Oxford, was published in London in 1718. Geoffrey died in 1154. Geoffiun, Madame, zhef'-fra, a French lady, who married, when fifteen years of age, a wealthy plate-glass manufacturer, who in a short time left her a widow. Endowed with high graces of person and mind, her house became the rendezvous of all the most cele- brated persons of the age, and to many literary men she rendered important services. Stanislas Poniatowski, who saluted her as his mother, caused her to go to Warsaw, after his accession to the Polish throne. She expended large sums of money to support the " Encyclopaedia," and many acts of delicate generosity are recorded of her. b. at Paris, 1G99 ; d. 1777. Georgk I., (Lewis) kingof Great Britain, was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Frederic, elector Pala- tine, and grand-daughter of James I. of Eng- land. He was created duke of Cambridge in 1700, and succeeded Queen Anne in 1714. In the following year a rebellion broke out in Scotland in favour of the Pretender, which wag soon suppressed, and several of its leaders for- feited their lives upon the scaffold. In 1718 a war was threatened with Charles XII, o( THE DICTIONARY George II. Sweden, on account of the king of England having purchased from the Danes the duchies of Bremen and Verden, which had been taken from Sweden in 1712. The death of Charles, however, prevented the rupture taking place. In the previous year parliaments were made septen- nial. In 1720 the failure of the famous South-Sea scheme occurred, and thousands of families were ruined. This caused disturbances among the people, and the king, who was then on a visit to his Hanoverian possessions, had to be hastily recalled. In 1722 a conspiracy against the government was discovered. It nadj been planned for the purpose of bringing in the Pretender; and Atterbury, the bishop of Ro- chester, was involved in it. In 1725 war was rekindled, between the king of Spain and the emperor on one side, and England, France, Prussia, and afterwards Sweden, on the other. In 1726 the siege of Gibraltar was commenced; but the dispute was soon terminated by nego- tiation, when George proceeded on a journey to the continent. He was on his way to his Hanoverian dominions, but had only reached Osnaburg when he was struck down with apo- plexy, b. 1660 ; d. at Osnaburg, 1727. George I. was a person of plain and simple tastes, of a grave carriage in public, but sufficiently gay and familiar in his private intercourse. His marriage was unhappy, and his unfortunate queen, Sophia Dorothea, a daughter of the duke of Zell, was immured in the castle of Ahlen, in Hanover, from 1694 till 1726, when she died, on a charge never proved, and gene- rally disbelieved, of an intrigue with Count Konigsmark. He left by her one son, George, by whom he was succeeded, and one daughter, Sophia Dorothea, who, in 1706, was married to Frederic II. of Prussia. George II., (Augustus) son of George I., mar- ried, in 1705, Princess Caroline, of Branden- burgh-Anspach, who died in 1737. In 1714 he came to England with his father, and was, pre- vious to his accession to the throne in 1727, created Prince of Wales. At this period, the country was in a state of great prosperity ; and peace being restored in 1729, the administration of the internal affairs of the kingdom occupied a large share of attention. In 1739, however, war was declared against Spain, when Admiral Vernon was sent with a squadron to the West Indies, where he demolished Porto Bello, but failed in his attempt on Carihagena. In 1743 the king headed his army on the continent, and gained the battle of Dettingen. In 1745 the Pretender's eldest son, Prince Charles-Edward Stuart, landed in the Highlands of Scotland, and was joined by several of the elans; but, after obtaining various successes, his followers were defeated by the duke of Cumberland at Culloden, in 1746. This episode in British his- tory has been a prolific theme with Jacobite lyrists. Whilst it continued, however, the people of England testified their attachment to the Hanoverian dynasty by numerous public de- monstrations of loyalty. In 1748 the war with Spain was ended by a treaty of peace, con- cluded at Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1751 died Fre- derick, prince of Wales, between whom and his Cither there never existed any cordiality. In 1755 war broke out between England and France, which was at first very unpromising; Braddock was defeated and killed in North America, and Minorca was taken, in theMediter- ranean, for allowing which Admiral Byng, who 442 George III. was sent to relieve it, was shot. About this time, Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, became prime minister, and public affairs began to assume a much more promising aspect. In 1758 a treaty was entered into between Eng- land and Prussia, and the French power waa nearly destroyed in the East Indies. In America Louisburgwas taken, and the capture of Quebec, where Wolfe fell, was followed by the conquest of Canada. Cape Breton had already been re- covered; in the East, Clive had captured Cal- cutta, won the battle of Plassy, and was driving the French from every possession which they held in that quarter. The island of Guadaloupe and the settlement of the Senegal were taken. Admiral Hawke defeated the French fleet under Conflans, and the British flag waved trium- phant in every part of the world. In the midst of this blaze of glory, George II. died suddenly, at Kensington, by the bursting of the right ventricle of the heart, 1760. b. at Hanover, 1683. Geobgb III. (William Frederick), king of Great Britain, was the grandson of George II. and the eldest son of Frederick, prince of- Wales. He was the first sovereign of the Hanoverian dynasty born in England, and as- cended the throne on the death of his grand- father, in 1760. At an extraordinary council in the following year, he stated that, " ever since his accession to the throne he had turned his thoughts towards a princess for his consort; and that, after mature deliberation, he had come to a resolution to demand in marriage the Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz." He was accordingly married in the same year, and the joint coronation of the king and queen took place on the 8th of September. From this period till 1763, when Lord Bute retired from the administration of the country, the public mind was kept in a constant state of agitation by political squibs, pamphlets, and libels, which, on the whole, may be considered to have been favourable to religious liberty. In that year, however, Mr. Grenville was appointed premier, when he brought in those measures relative to the American colonies which finally resulted in their independence and the formation of the federal government of the United States. At this time the king had his first attack of that illness which ultimately obscured his latter days, and led to a legislative enactment, which, by sign manual, empowered the queen, or some other member of the royal family, to assume the guardianship of the heir-apparent, and be re- gent of the kingdom. This measure caused a change in the administration, when the mar- quis of Rockingham was placed at the head of the Treasury. His cabinet, however, was dis- solved in 1766, and the duke of Grafton suc- ceeded to the head of affairs. In 1770 the duke of Grafton was succeeded by Lord North, and, in 1772, on account of the duke of Cumberland marrying Mrs. Horton, the Royal Marriage Act was passed. This act prevented the members of the royal family from marrying before the age of twenty-five, without the approval of the king, and, even after that age, without the approba- tion of both houses of Parliament. In 1782 Lord North resigned, and the Rockingham party again took office ; but this administration enjoyed but a short tenure of power, when Lord Shelburne was placed at the head of aft'airs, with Mr. Pitt, the son of the earl of Chatham, as chancellor of the Exchequer. In the followiug OF BIOGRAPHY. George III. year the Coalition ministry, respectively headed by Mr. Fox and Lord North, pushed themselves into office ; but the king was so averse to them, that when the famous India bill of Mr. Fox was thrown out by the Lords, he commanded Mr. Fox and Lord North, by messenger, as a personal interview with them would be offensive to him, at once to deliver up their seals of office. This bold act of the king, along with the energy and firmness he displayed, ob- tained for him considerable popularity. In 1786 a woman named Margaret Nicholson made an attempt with a knife to assassinate his majesty at the garden entrance of St. James's palace. The coolness of the king on this occasion was a subject of general admiration. The woman was found to be insane, and was sent to Bedlam. In 1789 he had a return of his mental malady, which lasted for three months, and when the cloud had passed off, the king, with his family, and amid the acclamations of the people, proceeded to St. Paul's, to return solemn thanks for his recovery. In 1795 another at- tempt was made to assassinate him whilst f>roceeding to the House of Lords to open Par- iament in person ; a small bullet passed through the window of his carriage, but he sustained no injury from it. In 1798 the Irish rebellion broke out, and the distress of the people had reached its height. The dissatisfaction of that country was very great, and another attempt was made upon the life of the king. This oc- curred in the theatre of Drury-lane. He had just entered his box, and was in the act of bowing to the audience, when a man who sat in the middle of the pit, near the orchestra, fired a pistol at him, and the bullet entered the roof of the royal box. On this occasion the loyalty of the audience rose to the acme of enthusiasm. Amid repeated cheers, "God save the King," was three times sung by the whole house, with the following additional impromptu stanza made by Sheridan : — From every latent foe, From the assassin's blow, God save the king ! O'er him Thine arm extend, For Britain's sake defend Our father, prince, and friend, — God save the king ! The man who perpetrated this act was called Hatfield, had been in the army, had received eight sabre-wounds in the head, was proved to be insane, and was discharged, and admitted an out-pensioner of Chelsea Hospital. He was subsequently, however, transferred to Bethlem Hospital. In 1800 the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland was passed ; but the sovereign strenuously opposed the admission of Roman Cat holies to political power. This caused the retirement of Mr. Pitt from office, when the Addington ministry assumed the government of the country. In 1804 Mr. Pitt again came into power, but in 1806 he died, when the Grenville party, with Mr. Fox, once more entered into office. In the following year this administration endeavoured to effect a change in the sentiments Dftheking regarding Catholic emancipation; but his majesty remained immovable. "Although I have firmness," said he, " sufficient to quit my throne and retire to a cottage, or place my ne^k on a block if my people desired it, yet I have not resolution to break the oath I have taken, in the most solemn manner, at my corona- tion." This led to the downfall of the Gren- 4 VI George IV. ville and Fox administration, and the accession of Perceval to power. In 1810 the king com menced the 60th year of his reign, when a jubilee of great splendour took place. His faculties now rapidly began to decay. In the following year he lost the frmcess Amelia, his favourite daughter, an event which seriously affected his spirits, whilst his former malady returned with greatly increased severity. In 1811 a regency bill was passed; and, from that time, the life of the king may be regarded as little more than mere existence. In 1818 his queen died ; but with this event he was never made acquainted, and the duke of York was appointed to the office of cus'tos to his person. At the close of 1819 his appetite became weak, and every symptom of a coming dissolution began to exhibit itself. He had, however, already been dead to the world, having, for some years, been deprived of intellectual con- sciousness, b. 1738; d. 1820, in the 60th year of his reign. George III. was religious and sincere, temperate in his habits, and inflexible in his will. His tastes were of patriarchal sim- plicity. He loved music, and patronized its professors; he appreciated art, and knighted Sir Joshua Reynolds ; he assisted science, and afforded encouragement to Byron and Cook, the navigators. Ho was a good king, a con- siderate husband, and a kind father ; whilst the morality of his court produced the happiest effects upon the manners and customs of the people over whose destinies he so long swayed the sceptre. Georgb IV. (Augustus Frederick), was the eldest son of the preceding monarch, by Queen Charlotte. Notwithstandingtheexcellentexamplc of his father, and the strictness with which his education had been conducted, George IV., when prince of Wales, fell early into habits of dissipation, which debased the better parts of his nature and greatly marred the intellectual endowments with which he was gifted. In his eighteenth year he began to associate with the Whig nohility, and formed political connexions with Fox, Sheridan, and others, who led him into scenes of gallantry, which. soon made hig name notorious in the mouths of the people. His first attachment was to aMrs. Robinson, an actress, with whom he fell in love when she was performing Perdita in the " Winter's Tale." Of this scandalous connexion the public prints were full, when, on a sudden, he abandoned this lady for another, and this for another, until he met with Mrs. Fit aherbert, a Catholic widow lady of good family, with whom he formed a more permanent connexion. She, however, wag seven years older than himself, and is 6aid to hav e been privately married to him. (See Fitz- herbert.) His dissipation, and the building of Carlton House, had now steeped him to the lips in debt, when he was driven into mean expe- dients for the purpose of putting off, or meeting • the pressing demands of his creditors. These however, were insufficient for his purposes! when he determined to apply to his father, \vho> however, was so exasperated at his conduct, that he refused to render him the smallest assist- anee. He, therefore, curtailed his expenditure, and for nearly twelve months persevered in his virtuous resolution. He sold off his racing stud, and lived in retirement till 1787, when his circumstances were brought under the notice of Parliament. On this occasion the house voted £101,000 to satisfy his creditors, £20,000 to THE DICTIONARY George IV. finish Carlton House, and the king added, from the civil list, £10,000 per annum to his son's income. Relieved, for a time, from his pecu- niary embarrassments, he once more assumed his habits of extravagance. For Mrs. Fitz- herbert he had built a splendid mansion at Brighton, which place he raised from obscurity into a fashionable watering-place, and sur- rounded himself with many notorious charac- ters ; among whom the most prominent was the countess of Jersey. Under these circumstances the king and his ministers were desirous that the prince should marry; and as he was again weighed down by debt, he consented to an alliance with his cousin, the Princess Caroline Amelia Elizabeth, daughter of the duke of Brunswick. The marriage occurred in the April of 1795, and a place was provided in the household for Lady Jersey. The princess soon discovered the nature of her husband's con- nexions, not only with the countess of Jersey, but also with Mrs. Fitzherbert, which naturally excited her resentment, when scenes of discord, and mutual recrimination and dislike, were the result. In 1796 the princess of Wales gave birth to a daughter, and, shortly afterwards, the prince sent her proposals for a separation. These were at once acceded to, and George 111. undertook the guardianship of the young prin- cess, whilst her unhappy mother retired to a private residence at Blackheath. The conduct of the prince had now so effectually estranged the affections of his father from him, that, when Napoleon I. threatened the invasion of England, he allowed him only the colonelcy of a regiment of dragoons ; but, when the incapacity of George 111. occurred, he was permitted to assume all the rights of royalty. In 1814 the prince received a visit from the emperor of Russia, the king of Prussia, and other foreign potentates, and treated them with truly royal hospitality. In 1816 his daughter, the princess Charlotte, was married to prince Leopold, of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king of the Belgians ; but she died in the following year. In 1817 an unsuccessful attempt was made upon the life of the prince-regent, when on his way to open the session of Parliament; and in 1820 the Cato- 6treet conspirators were tried and executed for plotting against his life and the lives of the leading members of the administration. On the death of his father, in 1820, he ascended the throne as George IV., and, in the following year, was crowned, with great magnificence, in West- minster Abbey. Previous to this, a process had been instituted in the House of Lords for the purpose of depriving his wife of her rights and privileges as queen of England. This circum- stance, for a time, brought him into great un- popularity. In the same year ofhis coronation, he paid a visit to Ireland and Hanover; and, in the following year, similarly visited Scotland. The great public event of his reign, however, was the passing of the bill for abolishing the political disabilities of the Roman Catholics, which took place in 1829. During the latter part of the king's life, he lived much in retire- ment, and ultimately held his courts entirely at Windsor. As old age came upon him, he suffered much from gout and other infirmities, always exhibiting an excessive abhorrence if in the least exposed to the public gaze. b. August 12, 1762; d. at Windsor Castle, June 26, 1830. On the same day proclamation was made of the ancccssion of William IV. 444 Gerard Gbobob or Denui.be, Princk, was the husband of Queen Anne of England, and was married to her in 1683. There is little to be said of him. Lord Dartmouth observes, in his notes to " Burnet's History," "that his behaviour at the Revolution showed he could be made a tool of upon occasions, but King William treated him with the utmost contempt. When Queen Anne came to the throne, she showed him little respect, but expected everybody else should give him more than his due." Again — " After thirty years living in England, he died of eating and drinking, without any man's thinking himself obliged to him ; but I have been told that he would sometimes do ill offices, though he never did a good one." Anne bore him nineteen children, of whom only five lived to be baptized. b. in Denmark, 1663; d. at Kensington Palace, 1708. George, St., was, according to tradition, a young and handsome prince of Cappadocia, who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian. He has been made a kind of Christian Perseus, and a thousand prodigies are reported of him. He slew an immense and powerful dragon, and saved a king's daughter, as the monster was aboHt to devour her. It is in the performance of this deed that he is represented, on horseback, armed with a lance, and piercing a dragon. He was famous in the East, and it was thence that his fame came to the West. This legendary saint is more particularly honoured in England, Russia, and Genoa. The English and Genoese take him as their patron, whilst the Russians adopt St. George and the Dragon as the principal figure in their arsenals and armories, and have given his name to the first of their military orders. Gerard, Thorn, jai'-rard, the founder and first grand master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, or the Knights of Malta, b. at Amalfi, Naples, or, according to others, at Mar- tigues, Provence, about 1040; d. about 1121. Gerard, Balthazar, zhai'-rard, the assassin of William I., prince of Orange. He meditated this design seven years, and at last shot the prince with a pistol at Delft. He declared he committed the murder "to expiate his sins," the prince being at the head of the Protestants. b. at Villefans, Burgundy, 1558 ; executed 1584. The reward of Gerard's crime was paid to his heirs by Philip II. of Spain, the duke of Parma informing that sovereign, that though the " poor man" was dead, his parents deserved the pay- ment of that " merced, the laudable and generous deed had so well deserved." The sentence pro- nounced upon Gerard was that his right hand should be burned off, that his flesh should be torn from his bones in six different places.that he should be disembowelled alive, that his heart should be torn from his bosom and flung in his face, and his head chopped off. This sentence was exe- cuted to the letter. Gerard, Francois Pascal Simon, a cele- brated modern painter, who went from Italy to Paris, where he became a pupil of M. David. From 1795 to 1810, appeared his " Belisarius," "Psyche receiving the first Kiss of Love," " The Three Ages," the " Battle of Austerlitz," and " Ossian." All the first men and women of the French empire were painted by him; and, in the space of thirty years, he executed more than a hundred full-length portraits, be- sides an immense number of less size. Amongst others who sat to him were Moreau, Murat, OF BIOGRAPHY. Gerard Letitia Bonaparte, Mesdames Tallien and Reca- mier, the emperors Napoleon I. and Alexander of Russia, Prince Talleyrand, Louis Bonaparte, and the empress Josephine. He left behind him several unfinished works, b. at Rome, 1770 ; D. at Paris, 1837. Gerakd, io\va,jer'-ard, an English botanist, who, bred a surgeon, settled in London, and became gardener to Lord Burleigh. He com- piled a " Catalogus Arborum, Fruticum, et Plantarum, tam indigenarum quam exoticarum, in horto Joh. Gerardi," and is the author of the " Herbal, or General History of Plants," published first in 1597, and afterwards several times reprinted, b. at Nantwich, Cheshire, 1545; d. 1607. Gebbieb, Sir Balthasar, jer'-be-ai, a painte r who excelled in miniature, was a native of Antwerp, but, being patronised by George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, came to England, was employed by the royal family, and was knighted by Charles I., who entrusted him with a mission to Brussels. He retired to Holland during the civil war, but returned to England at the Restoration, and died in 1667. b. 1592. GKHBiLioif, Jean Francois, zhair-bee'-yawng, one of the most celebrated of the French Jesuit missionaries in China. He wrote " Historical Observations on Great Tartary;" and accounts of some of his travels are inserted in Du Halde's " History of China." He was in great favour with the Chinese emperor, to whom he was appointed mathematical instructor, and wrote two books on geometry, which were printed at I'ekin in the Chinese and Tartar languages. b. at Verdun, 1654 ; d. at Pekin, 1707, superior- general of ihe French missions in China. Gkkmaxicus, Caesar, jer-mtiri-i-kus, son of Drusus and Aiitonia, niece of the emperor Augustus, was adopted by his uncle Tiberius, and was married to Agrippina, daughter of Agrippa and grand-daughter of Augustus. He was raised to the most important offices of the state, and when Augustus died, having the com- mand of the army in Germany, the affec- tion of the soldiers led them to unanimously salute him emperor. He refused this honour, continued his wars, defeated the celebrated Arminius, and was rewarded with a triumph at his return to Rome. Tiberius declared him emperor of the East, and sent him to appease the seditions of the Arminians. But the success of Germanicus here was soon looked upon with an envious eye by Tiberius ; and he was secretly poisoned at Daphne, by Piso, a.d. 19, in the 31th year of his age. The news of his death was received with the greatest grief. He had had nin; children by Agrippina, a woman of eminent virtue. One of these, Caligula, disgraced the name of his illustrious father. Germanicus has been commended, not only for his military accomplishments, but also for his learning, humanity, and extensive benevolence. Gerrabd, of Haerlem, jer'-ard, one of the early Dutch painters, and one of the first, after John van Eyck, who worked in oil. He was accurate in design, and an excellent colourist. B. at Haerlem, 1460; D.1488, when only 28 years of age. Gbbsow, John Charlier de, ehair-mwng, an eminent French divine, who was educated in the college of Navarre, and became chancellor and canon of the church of Paris. He was deputed to go to the aouncil of Pisa, where he largely contributed to the election of Pope Alexanderv, 446 Gesner He energetically denounced the murder of the duke of Orleans by the powerful duke of Bur- gundy, and distinguished himself at the council of Constance, b. at Gerson, Champagne, 1365 ; d. 1429. His works, amongst which are " Con- solations of Theology," and "Mystical The- ology," are highly and deservedly valued. They were published in 1706, in 5 vols, folio. Gebstackeb, Friedrich, ger'-stek-er, a modern German writer, the son of an actor, was appren- ticed to a merchant at Cassel. Having been used, however, to a more exciting life, he re- solved to emigrate to America, and having studied agriculture for two years, embarked at Bremen for New York. After some months' stay in that city, he found it necessary to put his hand to anything that offered, and was by turns a stoker in a steamboat, sailor, farmer, silversmith, woodcutter, and innkeeper. Re- turning to Germany, after an absence of six years, he published several books recounting his experience in the United States, many of which were translated both into English and French. In 1849 he undertook a new voyage, with the twofold object of collecting information for emigrants, and new materials for his writings. This time he visited Rio Janeiro, Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso, and California, and went back to his " Vaterland" in 1852, after having touched at the Sandwich and Society Islands, and seen a great deal of Australia. These new travels were published, first in the journals, and after- wards in a collected form, under the title of " Voyages." Gerstacker is one of the closest observers and most interesting writers of Ger- many; his tales and travels have met with universal favour, and translations of his best productions have appeared, from time to time, in the " Boy's Own Magazine," and other popu- lar periodicals, b. at Hamburg, 1816; d. 1872. Gkevaise, Nicholas, zhair'-vaise, a French missionary, who went to Siam, and, on his re- turn, published the natural and political history of that country. About 1724 he visited Rome, and was appointed bishop of Horren. He then set out for Guiana, where, with all the other members of the mission, he was murdered by the natives, 1729. b. at Paris, 1662. — His bro- ther, Armand Francois, was abbot of La Trappe, and wrote, amongst other biographical and theological works, the " Lives of Abelard and Heloise." b. at Paris, 16G0; d. 1755. Gervas, of Canterbury, jer'-van, an historian of the thirteenth century, was a monk, and wrote a " Chronicle of the Kings of England," from 1120 to 1200, and a "History of the Arch- bishops of Canterbury," from St. Augustine to Archbishop Hubert, who died 1205. Gebtase, of Tilbury, jer'-vaise, an historian of the thirteenth century, was a native of Til- bury, in Essex, and is supposed to have been the nephew of Henry II. lie composed a commen- tary on Geoffrey of Monmouth's chronicle; a tripartite "History of England;" a " History of the Holy Land;" "Origines Burgundiorum;" " Mirabilia," and a chronicle with the title " Ostiis Imperialibus." He was marshal of the kingdom of Aries, which office he obtained throng!: the interest of Otho IV. Ges.vek, Conrad, ges'-ner, an eminent Ger- man physician and naturalist, whose parents were too poor to give him an education, which he acquired by the liberality of some of his fellow-citizens. After studying at Stuttgart, he went to Paris, and supported himself by teach- THE DICTIONARY Gesner ing grammar. He subsequently became Greek professor at Lausanne, and at Bale took his doctor's degree in physic, and then returned to Zurich, where he practised as a physician, and gave lectures in philosophy. His fame as a naturalist circulated over Europe, and he main- tained a correspondence with learned men of all countries. He wrote " On the Collection of Plants," a work of great merit; "Historia Animalium," which is considered his greatest performance, and procured him the name of the "Modern Pliny;" "Bibliotheca Univer- salis," which has gone through several editions; and produced other works on botany and medicine, b. at Zurich, Switzerland, 1516; B. 1565. Gesner, Solomon, a Swiss poet and painter, whose father was a bookseller and printer, and brought him up to the same business. In 1753 ne published a short piece, in poetic prose, entitled " Night," which was followed by the pastoral of " Daphnis." His next work was the " Idylls ;" and his reputation was increased and extended by his poem of the " Death of Abel," which has been translated into several lan- guages. Besides his great merit in poesy, he was a good painter and engraver, and, in "1765, published ten landscapes, engraved by himself from his own designs. These were followed by others. He was also the author of a " Letter on Landscape-Painting," poems, &c. b. at Zurich, 1730; d. 1788. Gesnkr, John Matthias, a profound German scholar and critic, who, on the recommendation of Buddaeus, was appointed rector of the school at Weimar, whicli situation he filled eleven years. Thence he removed to Leipsic, and lastly to Gottingen, where, on the foundation of its university, he was made professor of rhe- toric, librarian, and inspector of public schools. His most esteemed works are editions of some of the classics, and an excellent Latin " The- saurus," 4 vols, folio, b. at Both, Anspaeh, 1691 ; d. 1761. Geta, ge'-ta, a son of the emperor Severus, brother to Caracalla. After his father's death, in 211, he reigned at Borne, conjointly with his brother; but CaracaUa, envious of his virtues, murdered him in the arms of their mother Julia, in the game year. Gethin, Grace, ge'-fhin, an ingenious English lady, was early married to Sir Richard Gethin, of Gethin Grott, Ireland. Soon after her mar- riage she died, in 1697, and her remains were interred in Westminster Abbey, where a beauti- ful monument was erected to her memory. After her death appeared a work entitled " l!e- jquiae Getbinianse; or, some Remains of the most ingenious and excellent Lady Grace Gethin, lately deceased," &c. 1700, 4to. Provision was made for a sermon to be preached in the abbey, annually, on Ash- Wednesday, to commemorate her memory, and Mr. Congreve wrote a poem to her honour. ■ She was the daughter of Sir George Norton, of Abbotsleigh, Somerset. B. 1676; D. 1697. Ghiklandajo, Domcnico, geer'-lan-da'-jo, a Florentine painter, was intended for a gold- smith, but, having a strong passion for paint- ing, cultivated that art with success. At Flo- rence, in the church oPSanta Maria Novcllo, is his picture of the "Massacre of the Innocents," and in the gallery of the Louvre at Paris, " The Visitation of St. Ann to the Virgin j" but, per- haps, he deserves moat to be celebrated tor m G-ibbon being the tutor of Michael Angelo. b. 1448 ; d. 1498. — His two brothers, Benedetto and David, and his son Ridolfo, equally distinguished them- selves as painters. Gibbon, Edward, gib'-bon, one of the most distinguished of English historians, was de- scended from an ancient family of Kent. He was first placed at a private school at Kingston, and next at Westminster school, whence he was removed to Magdalen College, Oxford. While there, he read books of c «t 'cversial divinity, particularly those between the Papists and Protestants, and conceived that the truth lay on the side of the Romanists. Accordingly, in 1753, he renounced heresy at the feet of a Roman Catholic priest in London. His father was greatly concerned at this, and to reclaim him sen! him to Lausanne, in Switzerland, under the care of Mr. Pavilliard, a Calvinist minister, by whose instructions he was convinced of the errors of the Romish church, and on the Christ- mas-day of 1754, just eighteen months after his conversion to Romanism, received the sacrament according to the Reformed communion. While at Lausanne he pursued his classical studies with ardour, labouring to acquire, at least, a creditable acquaintance with the Greek, Latin, and French languages. He here fell in love with the daughter of a minister, a charming creature, called Susan Curchod, but was dissuaded from entering into the married state by the force of paternal remonstrance; and he lived single the remainder of his life. The lady afterwards became the wife of the famous Necker and the mother of Madame de Stael. In 1753 he re- turned to England, where he began to collect a noble library ; and in 1761 he published, in French, a small volume entitled " Essai sur l'Etude de la Litterature." This production was not much noticed in England at the time , but he says in his "Autobiography" — "The publication of my history, fifteen years after- wards, revived the memory of my first produc- tion, and the essay was eagerly sought for in the shops; but I refused the permission of reprinting it, and when a copy has been dis- covered at a sale, the primitive value of 2s. 6d. has risen to the fanciful price of 20 or 30 shil- lings." He was, at this time, a captain in the Hampshire militia, which he resigned at the peace of 1763, when he visited Paris, and thence went again to Lausanne. He next travelled into Italy; and in 1767 assisted M. Dcyverdun in writingthe"MemoiresLitterairesdelaGrande Bretagne." Of these memoirs he says, "I will presume to say that their merit was superior to their reputation ; but it is not less true that they were productive of more reputation than emolu- ment." In 1770, he published in English a pamphlet, entitled " Critical Observations on the Sixth Book of the .Eneid ;" the design of which was to refute Bishop Warburton's hypo- thesis as to the descent of .Eneas. The same year, by the death of his father, he came into the possession of the family estate ; but it was much involved. In 1774 he was returned to Parliament for Liskeard ; but though he sat eight years, he never distinguished himself as s speaker, always giving a silent vote for the minister. In 1776 appeared the first volume ol his great work, the " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," which was afterwards ex- tended to »ix volumes 4to. " It was at Rome," he tella us, " on the 15th October, 1764, as I sat musing amidst toe ruin* »f the Capitol, while. OF BIOGRAPHY. Gibbona tr* barefooted friars were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter, that the idea of writing the decline and fall of the city first started to my mind." Splendid, however, as is this his- tory, it must be observed that its author opened a masked battery against Christianity in several places, but especially in two chapters of the first volume, on the growth and progress of that religion. Several writers attacked the historian, to one of whom only, Mr. Davis, who had charged the author with want of fidelity, Mr. Gibbon vouchsafed a reply. He was employed by ministers in writing a memoir in justifica- tion of this country's going to war with France, for the part taken by that court in the American contest. Tins piece was written in French, and was greatly admired. For this he obtained a seat at the Board of Trade, which he lost on the abolition of that board by Mr. Burke's bill. In 1783 he returned once more to Lausanne, where he employed himself in completing his history. When he had concluded a work so grand in its subject, and so majestic in its treatment, he thus beautifully describes his emotions : — " It was on the day, or rather night, of the 27th of June, 1787, between the hours of eleven and twelve, that I wrote the last lines of the last page in a summer-house in my garden. After laying down my pen, I took several turns in a bureau, or covered walk of acacias, which commands a prospect of the country, the lake, and the moun- tains. The air was temperate, the sky was serene, the silver orb of the moon was reiiected from the waters, and all nature was silent. I will not dissemble the first emotions of joy on the recovery of my freedom, and, perhaps, the estab- lishment of my fame. But my pride was soon humbled, and a sober melancholy was spread over ray mind by the idea that I had taken an everlasting leave of an old and agreeable com- panion, and that, whatsoever might be the fu- ture fate of my history, the life of the historian must be short and precarious." The French revolution now began to disturb the neighbour- ing states, asd Mr. Gibbon returned to England, and died in London, 1794. b. at Putney, 1737. After his death appeared his posthumous works, with his memoirs, written by himself, and finished by his friend Lord Sheffield, 2 vols. 4io. Gibbons, Grinling, an eminent English carver in wood, was the son of a Dutchman who settled in England. Grinling was appointed by Charles II. to a place under the Board of Works, and he was employed in ornamenting several of the royal palaces. He carved the foliage in the chapel of Windsor, the choir of St. Paul's Ca- I thedral, and the admirable font in St. James's Church, Westminster. There is some of his carving in St. James's Church, Piccadilly; but his principal performance is said to be at Pet- worth, d. 1721. Gibbons, Orlando, an eminent English mu- sician, who became organist of the Chapel tioyal at the age of 21 ; and, in 1622, was created doctor of music by the university of Oxford. b. at Cambridge, 1583 ; d. at Canterbury, 1625. He was the best church music composer of his time, and also published madrigals.— His two brothers and son were likewise good mu- sicians. Gibbs, James, gibs, a Scotch architect, who designed the churches of St. Martin's and St. Mary le Strand, London; the senate-house, and the improvements of King's College, Cam- 447 Gibson bridge, and other works, b. at Aberdeen, 1683 ; d. 1754. Gibbs, Sir Vicary, was educated at Eton, and at King's College, Cambridge, studied law at Lincolrrs Inn, and, through the friendship of Dunning, afterwards Lord Ashburton, became a leading counsel on the Western circuit, and was elected recorder of Bristol. He was engaged in the trial of Home Tooke, Hardy, and others, for high treason, in 1794, and made himself con- spicuous for his talents. He was appointed solicitor-general to the prince of Wales in 1795 ; soon after became king's counsel ; in 1807, was elected to Parliament for Cambridge ; was made chief justice of Chester, solicitor and attorney- general, and obtained the honour of knighthood. He was made a puisne judge of the Common Pleas in 1812, and chief justice next year. In 1818 he resigned from increasing infirmities. B. at Exeter, 1752 ; d. 1820. Gibson, Edmund, gib'-son, a learned prelate, who, being sent to Queen's College, Oxford, ap- plied himself particularly to tie study of the northern languages. In 1691 l.o published a new edition of Drummond's " Polemo-Mid- diana," and James V. of Scotland's " Cantilena Rustica," with curious notes. The next year he published a Latin version of the " Chronicon Saxonicum," with notes. These works were fol- lowed by another volume, entitled " Librorum Manuscriptorum in duabus Insignibus Biblio- thecis, altera Dugdaliana Oxonii, Catalogus," dedicated to Bishop Tenison, which procured him the patronage of that prelate, who appointed him his chaplain. Three years afterwards, his edition of Camden's " Britannia" appeared, with considerable additions; and in 1713 he pub- lished his "Codex Juris Ecclcsiastici Anglicani," in folio, which procured him the applause of the friends of the church, and much censure from those opposed to it. In 1715, Dr. Gibson was made bishop of Lincoln, and in 1723 trans- lated to London, b. at Brampton, Westmore- land, 1669 ; d. at Bath, 1748. Gibson, Richard, known by the name of the "dwarf," an English painter, who studied the manner of Sir Peter Lely. In his youth he was servant to a lady at Mortlake, who, perceiving his taste for painting, put him under De Cleyn for instruction. He subsequently became page to Charles 1., and when he married Mrs. Anne Shepherd, who was also a dwarf, the king honoured the wedding with his presence, and gave away the bride. The bride and bridegroom were of equal stature, each measuring three feet ten inches. They had nine children, five of whom arrived at years of maturity, and were of or- dinary stature. Gibson died in 1690, in his 75th year, and his wife in 1709, at the age of 89. Gibson, John, R.A., an eminent English sculptor, who, at the age of 14, was appren. ticcd to a cabinet-maker, but afterwards became a wood-carver. At the age of 16, however, he quitted this employment, for the marble works of Messrs. Francis, in Liverpool, who purchased the remaining portion of his time at the wood- carving for £70. He was now in a congenial atmosphere, and commenced modelling, and working with the chisel. His genius soon began to develop itself, when he was sent, by means of a private subscription, to Rome, for the purpose of studying the works of the great masters. In 1817 he arrived at the "ancient Capitol," with letters of introduction to Canova, who gave him a kind reception. He entered the studio of THE DICTIONARY Gibson this great artist, and, in 1821, took a studio for himself. From that period he resided in Rome, making few visits to his native country. His first work was a group of "Mars and Cupid," which brought him a commission for it to be executed in marble for the duke of Devonshire. It now forms one of the principal features in the Chatsworth collection. From this time his fame rose : but, to render it the more certain and lasting, he took lessons from Thorwaldsen, the great Danish sculptor. Having, by close application, completely mastered his art, Gibson worked most in the poetical field of sculpture, and produced many fine pieces. He also, how- ever, executed several portrait-statues of great merit ; among which may be noticed one of Sir Bobert Peel for Westminster Abbey, another of George Stephenson, and another of her Majesty Queen Victoria for Buckingham Palace. He was the first modern sculptor to introduce the practice of colouring his statues, an innovation which has occasioned much discussion, but which he defends by instancing Grecian prece- dents. His tinted Venus, shown at the Inter- national Exhibition of 1862, was the subject of much criticism, but was, on the whole, ap- proved. In 1833 he was elected an A.R.A., and in 1836 a B.A. Liverpool is especially rich in his works, which are too numerous to admit of recapitulation here. b. at Conway, North Wales, 1791; d. at Borne, 1866. Gibson-, the Eight Honourable Thomas Milner, M.P., a modern English statesman, who, in 1837, entered the House of Commons for Ipswich, as a supporter of the government of Sir Bobert Peel. In 1839 he became a convert to liberal opinions, and resigned his seat. He then devoted himself to the cause of free trade, and in 1841 was returned for Manchester. In 1846 he became a member of the Privy Council, and vice-president of the Board of Trade. In 1848 he quitted office, and once more became an effective independent member of the House of Commons; and in 1859 again entered the cabinet as president of the Board of Trade in Lord Palmerston's administration. It was to his persevering efforts that the country is chiefly indebted for the remission of three great duties, which considerably tended to circumscribe the dissemination of knowledge throughout the country. These were the stamp on newspapers, the tax on advertisements, and the paper duty, the remission of which Mr. Gladstone announced in his budget of 1860 ; and although he failed in that year, the repeal was effected in 1861. B. 1807. Giffobd, William, gif-ford, a modern Eng- lish writer, was the son of poor parents, and was left an orphan before he had reached his 13th year. He was apprenticed to the sea; but, disliking that occupation, was put to shoe- naking, at which employment he continued /ill he was 20 years of age. By that time he had displayed some indications of genius, when a Mr. Cookesley, a surgeon of Ashburton, sent him to Oxford. After leaving college, he made the tour of Europe, as the travelling companion of Lord Belgrave; and, on his return to Eng- land, settled in London as a literary man. In 1794 he published his " Baviad," a poetical satire, which annihilated the Delia Crusca school of poets, of which Mrs. Piozzi formed a leading member. In the following year his "Matviad" appeared, and exposed the low state to which dramatic authorsliip had then fallen. 448 Gilbert In 1797 he became the editor of the " Anti- Jaco- bin," established by Mr. Canning and other gentlemen, and got entangled in a quarrel with Dr. Wolcot, to whom, as " Peter Pindar," he wrote a poetical epistle. In 1802 he published hia translation of Juvenal, which Sir Walter Scott says " is the best version ever made of a classical author." In 1805 his edition of Mas- singer appeared, and, in 1816, that of Ben Jon- son. Subsequently, editions both of Ford and Shirley were published, but not entirely edited by him, his death having taken place before he had completed them. In 1809 he became the editor of the London " Quarterly Beview ;" and it is in this capacity that he is best known. As a critic, he has been much censured for his se- verity, with which he mingled no inconsiderable degree of injustice. " He was a man with whom I had no literary sympathies," says Southey; "perhaps there was nothing upon which we agreed, except great political questions. . . . He had a heart full of kindness for all living creatures except authors ; them he regarded as a fishmonger regards eels, or as Isaac Walton did worms, slugs, and frogs. I always protested against the indulgence of that temper in his Beview." Scott says he was good " as a com- mentator ;" but, as a critic, the " fault of ex- treme severity went through his critical labours ; and, in general, he flagellated with so little pity, that people lost their sense of the criminal's 'guilt in dislike of the savage pleasure which the executioner seemed to take in inflicting pun- ishment." He held the editorship of the Re- view till 1824. B. at Ashburton, Devonshire, 1756; n. 1826. Giffobd, Andrew, an English dissenting minister and learned antiquary, who was assistant librarian of the British Museum many years. He formed a good library, and bequeathed it to the Baptist academy at Bristol. b. 1700; d. 1784. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, gil'-berf, an English navigator, whose mother becoming a widow, married a Mr. Raleigh, by whom she had the cele- brated Sir Walter. Humphrey served with reputa- tion in Ireland, and for his services there was knighted. In 1576 he published a discourse to prove the existence of a passage by the N.W. to Cathay and the East Indies. Two years after- wards, he obtained a patent for establishing settlements in North America, and, in 15S3, took possession of Newfoundland, where he thought to find silver-mines. On his return from a second voyage thither, the vessel foun- dered, and all on board perished, September 9, 1584. b. at Dartmouth, 1539. Gilbert, William, a physician, who discovered several of the properties of the loadstone. He was elected a fellow of the College of Physi- cians, and became physician to Queen Elizabeth. In 1600 he published a work, entitled " De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure, Physiologia Nova," in which are many important suggestions for the improvement of navigation. Indeed, this work contains the history of all that had been written on the subject of the magnet before his time, and forms the first regular system upon it. It may be viewed as he parent of all the im- provements that have been therein since made. Lord Bacon, in his " Advancement of Learn- ing," calls it "a painful and experimental work." B. at Colche3ter, 1540; d. 1603. Gilbeki Davies, a distinguished antiquary OF BIOGRAPHY. Gildas and man of science, who was president of the Royal Society, and the early and liberal patron of Sir Humphry Davy. His paternal name was Giddy, but he took the name of Gilbert in 1817, on his marriage with the only daughter of Thomas Gilbert, Ksq., of Eastbourne, Sussex. He was a man of considerable wealth, which he freely expended on the promotion of science and the encouragement of learning. He was elected member of parliament for Helston in 1804, and subsequently sat for Bodmin from 1806 till 1832. He wrote a tract entitled " A Plain Statement of the Bullion Question," which appeared in 1811. He was chosen treasurer of the Royal Society in 1820, and succeeded Sir Humphry Davy, at his death in 1829, as president, which office he held till 1831, when he resigned. He contributed to the Antiquarian Society, of which he was a fellow, several curious and in- teresting papers, particularly in reference to the topography of Cornwall, b. 1767 ; d. 1839. Gildas, gil'-dds, a British monk, of whose works there is nothing extant but a treatise on the early history of Britain, the best edition of which is that by Gale, in 1687. Lived in the 6th century ; but his history is involved in doubt and obscurity. — Bishop Bale mentions another Gildas, who was a native of Wales, and flourished about 820. He was a monk, and wrote a calendar of saiats, yet extant in MS. ; and Leland notices a poet of the same name, who drew up the prophecies of Merlin in Latin verse. Gilfillait, George, gil-Jil'-lan, a modern English critic and author, was the son of a minister of the Secession Church in Scotland, and being educated for the ministry, was, about 1837, appointed to the charge of a congregation in Dundee. In 1851 he published, under the title of " A Gallery of Literary Portraits," a series of critical sketches, which had formerly ap- peared in the " Dumfries Herald." Besides this, he produced a volume of " Poems and Songs," "The Bards of the Bible," "Martyrs and Heroes of the Scottish Covenant" "The History of a Man," &c. b. at Comi-ie, Perthshire, 1813. Gilimek, or Gelimeb, gil'-l-mer, last king of the Vandals in Africa, and a descendant of Genseric, took possession of the throne in 531, having deposed his cousin, the feeble Hilderic. Justinian, the emperor of the East, wishing to avenge his ally, or make use of this pretext to attack the Vandals, sent Pclisarius against the usurper. This general took possession of Carthaie, defeated Gilimer in 534, at the battle of Tricameron, and captured the king, who was conducted in triumph to Constantinople, re- peatedly exclaiming, as he was led along, " Vanity of vanities, all is vanity." Justinian made of the kingdom of the Vandals a province of his empire, but gave Gilimer a large domain in Galatia. Lived in the 6th century. Gill, Alexander, gil, a famous English school- master, who, in 1608, became master of St. Paul's school, where he educated many eminent persons, and, among the rest, the celebrated Milton. lie was the author of several religious treatises and commentaries, u. in Lincoln- shire, 1561; i>. 1635. Gill, Alexander, son of Hie preceding, whom he first assisted as usher at St. Paul's school, and ultimately succeeded. Ho retained the position orly five years, having been dismissed, it is said, for excessive severity. Ho thou 4-9 Gilpin established a private school in Aldersgate Street, which he lived to conduct for two years only. He was eminent for the composition of Latin poetry, and published a volume of his pieces in 1632, under the title of " Poetici Conatus." He contracted a friendship with Milton, and three letters from the great poet to him are extant, and express sentiments of much esteem. B. 1597; D. 1612. Gill, John, a Baptist divine, who was sprung from parents in humble circumstances, received a very limited education, but by close applica- tion to study, made himself a good rabbinical and classical scholar. He was first established as a preacher at Higham-Ferrars, and then removed to a congregation at Horselydown, South wark. He wrote a variety of works on divinity, the principal of which are — " Exposi- tion of the Song of Solomon," "The Cause of God and Truth," and an " Exposition of the Bible," in 10 vols. 4to, the last-named being his great work. b. at Kettering, Northamptonshire, 1697; d. 1771. Gilles, Peter, zheeh, a French naturalist, one of the first who made useful researches into the natural sciences. He visited the shores of the Adriatic and Mediterranean, was sent to the Levant by order of Francis I., explored the ruins of Chalcedon, and returned from Constan- tinople with the French ambassador in 1550. b. at Albi, 1490; d. at Borne, 1555. He wrote " De Vi ct Natura. Animalium," " De Bosphoro Thracio," and " De Topographia Constantino- poleos." Gillies, John, LL.D., gil'-let, was educated at the university of Glasgow, and was for some time a travelling tutor to the sons of the earl of Hopetoun. On the death of Dr. Robertson, however, he was appointed historiographer for Scotland, and distinguished himself by his lite- rary labours. His principal work is a " History of Greece," which, in point of style, has been pronounced superior to that of Mr. Mitlord. His other works are a translation of the "Ethics and Polities of Aristotle," "A View of the Reign of Frederick II. of Prussia," and the " Orations of Isocrates and Lysias." b. at Bre- chin, Scotland, 1747; D. 1836. Gilpin, Bernard, gil'-pin, an English divine, who, from perusing the works of Erasmus, was one of the first who embraced the principles of the Reformation. Having travelled on the continent for some time, he returned to Eng- land in 1556, and was presented by his uncle, bishop Tonstal, to the archdeaconry of Dur- ham and the rectory of Easington. Being next presented to the rectory of Houghton-le-Spring, his labours there, in promoting the reformed religion, became so notorious, that bishor Bonner gave orders for him to be arrested and sent to London. Gilpin prepared himself foi the stake, but before he reached London, new-. came of Mary's death ; on which he returned tc his parish, to the great joy of his people. Queen Elizabeth subsequently offered him the bishopric of Carlisle, which he refused, b. in Westmore- land, 1517; d. 1583. Gilpin, William, an English divine an<" writer, who was the master, for many years, o; a school at Cheam, in Surrey, and afterward* became vicar of Doldrc, in Hampshire, and pre- bendary of Salisbury. Amongst other works, he wrote "The Life of Bernard Gilpin," hie ancestor, above mentioned; "The Lives T E,OrGEORGIoBARBARELLI,d/or-<7/V- uot, one of the earliest painters of the Venetian ichool, who executed a great number of frescoes, .a Inch time has destroyed. It is said that Titian worked under him to obtain his manner of colouring, but Giorgione perceiving his design, dismissed him. His finest work is a painting _>f " Christ carrying his Cross," at Venice. B. it Castcl Franco, 1477; b. 1511. Giotto, or Angiol vito, djvt'-to, an Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, was in his jouth a keeper of sheep, but Cimabue (ree Oijiadue) discovered his talent, and took him as a pupil. Giotto, following his master in the study of nature, clothed her in more noble forms than he, and was thus the precursor of Rafaelle. Amongst the numerous works of this painter may be mentioned a mosaic repre- senting " l'cter walking on the Water," in St. Peter's at Rome, and a "St. Francis," in the 4qD Girardin Louvre at Paris. In 1331 he superintended the erection of the fortifications at Florence, b, at Vespignano, 1276 ; b. 1336. Giotto was the friend of Dante, and has transmitted the features of the poet in a little picture. In return, the author dedicated to the painter some verses in his " Divina Commedia." One of the Medici family erected a tomb to his memory in a church at Florence, and at the foot of his bust placed this line of Poliziauo : — " Hie ego sum per quern pietura extincta rc- vixit." (I am he through whom the extinct art of painting revived.) Gikalbt, Lilio Gregorio, je-rat-de, an eminent Italian writer, the most esteemed of whose works are, " Syntagma dc Diis Gentium," which is the first treatise on Mythology ever written, and " A History of the Greek and Latin Poets." b. at Ferrara, 1479 ; n. 1552. Giraldi, John Baptist Cintio, an Italian poet and physician, who became secretary to the duko of Ferrara, and professor of rhetoric at Pavia. He wrote tragedies, poems, and histories ; but his principal work is entitled "Ecatomiti; or, A Hundred Novels." b. at Ferrara, 1504; b. 1573. Gisalbus Cambrensis, jir-til'-dus kam-lrcn- sis, an old English writer, whose real name was Gerald Barri. He was appointed to several rich benefices under Henry II. and Richard I., and administered the bishopric of St. David, which he vainly endeavoured to obtain for him- self. When Richard Cccur de Lion was setting out onhis crusade, Giraldus was named governor of the kingdom in his absence. His principal works arc, " Topographia: Ilibernkc," "Itinera- rium Cambrite," " be Kebtis a se gestis," which is a journal of his life, and displays no incon- siderable amount of vanity; "Ecelesiaj Specu- lum," in which he censures the manners of the monks, b. near Pembroke, about 1110; b. at St. David's, about 1220. Girard, Gabriel, zhc-rard, a French abbe, author of a " Dictionary of French Syno- nyms," a work which has been reprinted, with additions, many times. He was almoner to the duchess de Berri, and the king's interpreter for the Russian and Slavonian languages. Besides the above, he wrote other works ; among which the best known is " Principes de la Langue Franijaisc.' b. at Clermont, Auvergne, 1677; b. 1743. Girarb, Stephen, an American millionaire, who came of poor French parents, and being driven from his home, embarked as a cabin-boy at Bordeaux, and landed at New York. Thence he went to Philadelphia, where ho got into business, and by his industry and intelligence, combined with his penurious habits, amassed an immense fortune. He left behind him nearly £3,000,000 sterling ; and, by Ids will, did net leave his fortune to his family, but to found 3 college at Philadelphia, from which all minis- ters of religion were to be excluded, n. at Peri- gucux, 1750; n u at Philadelphia, 1831. Uirarbin", Emile de, zhe'-rar-da, a cele- brated modern French publicist, who was, up to his 25th year, known as Emile Delamcthe. In 1S27, however, he claimed the name by which he was afterwards to be known, and, in the same year, produced his first essay in lite- rature, under the title of " Emile." This was followed, in the next jc.ir, by " Aa He.suid, OP BIOGRAPHY. Girardin Fragmens sans Suite d'une Histoire sans Fin." This Is the romance of his birth and his early vcars. Soon after, he founded two journals— " Le Voleur," and " La Mode." After 1830, M. de Girardin published successively the " Jour- nal des Connaissances Utiles," which attained, in a few months, a circulation of 120,000 ; the " Journal des Institutcurs Primaircs," of which more than a million copies were sold ; an " Atlas de France," and a " Universal Atlas," at a halfpenny a map. All these were published as emanating from " A National Society for Intel- lectual Freedom," and had considerable influ- ence on the progress of popular education. All this, however, did not suffice for his restless activity ; and, in 1836, " La Presse" was started, as an organ of conservative policy. The ap- pearance of this paper caused a complete change in Parisian journalism, and, attacked on all sides, M. dc Girardin fought a duel with Armand Carrel (gee that name), the editor of the "Na- tional," which ended fatally lor the latter. In 1831 he was elected deputy by the college of Bourganeuf (Creuze), and was accused of elec- toral corruption. In 1839 he supported the minister Mole against the coalition, and, during the greater partof his career, Guizot had the support of the " Presse." In 1816 this great journalist was excluded from the French cham- ber, under the pretext that he was not a French- man. InFebruary.lSIS, he aided the revolution, and penetrating into the Tuilcrics, presented to Louis Philippe a notice demanding his abdica- tion and the regency of the duchess of Orleans. After the revolution, M. de Girardin was re- turned to the Assembly for the Lower Rhine, and voted with the " Mountain" party. To him is due, it is said, the gaining over of Victor Hugo to the republican cause; the poet being, with him, the principal editor of " L'Avenc- ment." After Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat of December 2, 1851, M. de Girardin was banished from France; but, two months after, was allowed to return. He again undertook the management of his journal, which he retained till the end of 1S56, when he parted with his portion of the property for a sum which amounted to nearly £33,000 sterling. In 1828 he married Mdllc. Dclphine Gay (see Madame db Gibardin), who died in 1855. M. de Girardin has left no trace behind him in cham- ber or assembly ; for he is neither the leader of a party, and still less is ho an orator; he is a publicist, a journalist, a ereat mover of ideas, and his place was in the journal which he created and rendered formidable to every party. There, in " La Presse," one saw M. Guizot, as well as the provisional government, each in their turn, supported and opposed. So, too, were the reactionists' movements and the republicans'. General Cavaignac was savagely treated in its columns; Louis Napoleon's can- didature for the presidency was there proposed, and supported by every means that could be brought to bear; and once more there was a change in the journal's tone, and it fought hard in the ranks of the socialists and revolutionists. Thus did Girardin raise against himself violent animosities in every party, which he repaid, it is said, by a great contempt for men. In spite, however, of all these changes of opinion, the "Presse" was no less read; and it remained, with all its varying shades, during the twenty years 7 Gordon ance. Maximinus marched against him with the greatest indignation ; and Gordian sent his son with whom he shared the imperial dignity to oppose the enemy. Young Gordian was killed in battle the 25th of June, 237 a.b., and the father strangled himself at Carthage before he had been six weeks at the head of "the empire, 237 a.d. He was universally lamented by the army and people. — M. Antoninus Pius, grand- son of the first Gordian, was but twelve years old when he was honoured with the title of Ca;sar. He was proclaimed emperor in his six- teenth year, and his election was attended with universal approbation. In his eighteenth year he married FuriaSabina Tranquillina, daughter of Misitheus, a man celebrated for his eloquence and public virtues. Gordian conquered Sapor, king of Persia, who had invaded the Roman provinces, and took many flourishing cities in the East. For this success the scnatedecreed him a triumph, and saluted Misitheus, his father-in- law, as the guardian of the republic. Assassi- nated in the East, 211 a.d. Gordius, gor'-de-us, a Phrygian, who, though originally a peasant, was raised to the throne in consequence of an oracle having told the Phrygians to give the crown to the first :nan they met going to the temple of Jupiter, mounted on a chariot. The famous Gordian knot took its origin from this chariot. The knot which tied the yoke to the draught-tree was made in such an artful manner that the ends of the cord could not be perceived. From this circumstance a report was spread that the empire of Asia was promised, by the oracle, to him who could untie the Gordian knot. Alexander, in his conquest of Asia, passed by Gordium, and as he wished to inspire his sol- diers with courage, and make his enemies be- lieve that he was born to conquer Asia, he cut the knot with his sword, and asserted that the oracle was then fulfilled, and that his claims to universal empire were fully justified. GonDoy, George, gor'-don, commonly called Lord George Gordon, was the son of Cosmo George, duke of Gordon. At an early age he entered the navy, but subsequently quitted it on account of some dispute with Lord Sand- wich. He afterwards sat in parliament for Lug- gcrshall, and brought himself into notice by his opposition to the bill for granting further tole- ration to Roman Catholics. His intemperance on this occasion proved the cause of the riots in 1780, for which he was tried and acquitted. In 1780 he was excommunicated for not appearing as a witness in a cause. In 1783 he was found guilty of publishing a libel against the queen of France, on which he fled to Holland. A little after this he returned to England, and was captured in the disguise of a Jew, which profes- sion he had adopted, and committed to Newgate, where he died in 1703. b. 1750. GoiiDoy, Sir John Watson, a distinguished portrait painter, who acquired his first acquaint- ance with the art of painting at the Academy of the Trustees for the Encouragement of Manu- factures in Scotland, then under thodircction of John Graham, the master of Wilkie, afterwards succeeded in his office by Sir William Allan. During the four years that young Gordon studied under Graham, he had the natural desire to become an historical painter, but was finally induced to devote his talents to portrait- painting. During the entire progress of the Scottish Academy, John Watson Gordon exerted THE DICTIONARY Gore himself with commendable zeal to make it what it is. It was not until 1827 that Gordon first exhibited in the Eoyal Academy; continuing his contributions at infrequent intervals until 1835, when he became a regular and important exhibitor. In 1841 he was elected associate of the London Koyal Academy. On the death of Sir William Allan in 1850, Mr. Watson Gordon was unanimously elected to the presidential chair of the Scottish Academy, and was soon afterwards knighted by Her Majesty, and elected Royal Academician. Sir John exercised .■is pencil in delineating the features of some of the most distinguished men of his time, among whom may be mentioned Sir Walter Scott, Dr. Chalmers, Mr. Do Quincey, the late earl of Hopetoun, the late earl of Dalhousie, the Lord Justice-general Hope, the duke of Buccleugh, Principal Lee, the right hon. C. Shaw Lefevre, ihe late earl of Aberdeen, Lord Cockhurn, &c. b. about 1790; D. 1864. Gore, Mrs. Catherine Frances, yore, a distin- guished English novelist, who, by her works, did more to familiarize the public mindwith the tone of fashionable manners and conversation than any other writer of her day. Her novels and other works extend to upwards of 150 volumes. D. in Nottinghamshire, 1800; d. 1861. Gokgm, Arthur, gor'-ge, a Hungarian, who, in 1837, entered the Hungarian life-guards, and, in 1812, was attached to the hussars of the Palatinate ; but, in 1845, quitted the army and retired to his own estates, where he lived a quiet life, devoting himself principally to the study of the sciences. In 1848 he appeared as a volunteer in the field, in defence of his coun- try against the Croatians and Slavonians, and was invested with the rank of captain. His time was, at first, chiefly occupied in organizing the Hungarian forces ; and, having been sent to operate in the neighbourhood of Pestb, on the Danube, he obtained full powers from the Hungarian prime-minister, Count Batthyaui, to adjudicate upon cases of treason and other crimes in a court-martial. This power was first exercised upon Count Eugene Zichy, who had been found guilty of communicating with Jellachich, and upon whom the sentence of death was passed and carried into execution. Gorgei was subsequently called upon to act against General Roth, and was so far successful as to cause that general to lay down his arms. For this Gorgei obtained the rank of colonel. Subsequently he was defeated at the battle of Schwechat, notwithstanding which, he was ap- pointed by Kossuth as commander-in-chief of the Hungarian armies. Fortune, however, did not smile upon him in the field, and he was shortly afterwards superseded in the command, but had it again conferred upon him. He then won the battle of Nagy-sarlo, and relieved the garrison of Komorn. Hungary was now de- clared an independent state, with Kossuth for its governor, and Gorgei for its minister-at- war. He next took ISuda, but was subsequently forced to retreat before General Haynau. He next rose to be dictator of Hungary; but dis- aster attended the arms of the patriots, and he submitted to the emperor of Austria, and retired to Klagcnturt. b. at Toporcz, 1818. GoBGiAS.of Leontinum,^or--;>-os, a celebrated orator of the school of Empedocles, was a native of Leontinuro, in Sicily. A. golden statue was erected to hishonour at Delphi. Plato has given his name to one of his dialogues. Lived liX) B.C. 4M Gcthe Gorio, Antony Francesco, go'-re-o, a learned Italian antiquary, the author of "Musaeum Florentinum," or a description of the cabinet of the grand duke of Florence, 11 vols, fol.; "Musajuni Etruscum," 8 vols, folio; " Musaeum Cortenese," folio ; " Ancient Inscriptions in the Towns of Tuscany," 3 vols, folio, b. in Florence ; d. 1757. Gortsciiakoff, gort -sha-Tcof, the name of a noble Russian family, several members of which have played prominent parts in the his- tory of that country. Of late years, three bro- thers of this house "have figured conspicuously before the world, of whom the following parti- culars may be given : — Gortsciiakoff, Prince Peter, a military com- mander, took part in the Russian wars against Turkey, and, in 1&39, was made governor of Eastern Siberia. In 1843 he became general of infantry, and, in 1851, retired from service, b. 1790. Gobtschakoff, Prince Michael, played a pro- minent part in many of the Russian wars, and, iu 1855, succeeded Prince Menschikofl' in the command of the Russian forces in the Crimea. He superintended the defence of Sebastopol, which, however, he was at last forced to evacu- ate, making a masterly retreat, b. 1795; d. 1881. Gortschakoff, Prince Alexander, a diplo- matist, represented Russia at various European courts, and, iu 1855, negotiated the peace be- tween Russia and the Western Powers. He suc- ceeded Count Nesselrodc as head of the chancel- lerie for foreign affairs, b. 1793. Gossec, Francois Joseph, got'-saik, a distin- guished French musical composer, the character of whose music is light, pleasing, and spirited. He founded the Concert of Amateurs, in 1770, at which the Chevalier de St. George played the first violin. He composed the apotheoses of Voltaire and J. J. Rousseau, and the funeral hymn for Mirabeau. n. 1753 ; d. 1829. Gossox, Stephen, gos'-son, an English divine and poet, was educated at Christchurch, Ox- ford ; and held the living of St. Botolph, Bishopsgate. He wrote three dramatic pieces ; notwithstanding which, he published " Play confuted in Five several Actions," and " The School of Abuse," against poets and actors. b. 1554; d. 1623. Gothe, John Wolfgang von, ge(r)te(r), the most distinguished name in the modern litera- ture of Germany, was in his fifteenth year sent to the university of Leipsic, where, however, he rather indulged in a desultory than a regular course of study. In 1768 he left the university of Leipsic, and went to that of Strasburg, with a view to the legal profession; but chemistry, anatomy, and other kindred sciences commanded more of his attention than the law. In 1771, however, he took the degree of doctor of juris- prudence, and went to Wetzlar, where love for a betrothed lady, and the suicide of a young man named Jerusalem, supplied him with sub- jects for speculation, which resulted in the pro- duction of " Werther." This work appeared in 1774, and immediately fixed public attention upon its author. In 1779 he entered the service of the duke of Saxe-Weimar, to whom he had been introduced, and who loaded him with honours. He was made president of the coun- cil-chamber, and ennobled. Ho took up his residence at Weimar, where he was surrounded by some of the first minds of Germany, and where the direction of the theatre was confided OF BIOGRAPHY. Gottsched to his care. Hero he brought out the chefs- d centre of Schiller, with splendid effect, and also •jroduced several of his own dramatic poems. Of these we may mention his " Faust," — his greatest work ; " Goetz von Berlichingen," " Taeso," " lphigenia in Tauris," " Stella," and " Count Egmont." In 1786 he left Weimar for I taly, and was absent two years, visiting Sicily, \nd remaining a considerable time in Rome. In 1792 he accompanied his prince in the cam- paign in Champagne, and was afterwards created minister. In 1807 he received from the emperor Alexander of Russia the order of Alexander Nevskv, and from Napoleon I. the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. His writings are too voluminous to be enumerated here ; but we must not forget to mention his " Wilhelm Meister," a moral Action ; and his "Herman and Dorothea." The lyrics of Gothe are especially beautiful ; but his " Faust " is a poem pre-eminently philosophical, b. at Frank- furt-on-the-Main, 1749; d. at Weimar, 1832. Gottsched, John Christopher, gof-shed, a German poet and pliilosophical writer, who became professor of philosophy, logic, and metaphysics, at Leipsic. He greatly improved the German language by his works, the princi- pal of which are, " Essay towards a Critical History of Poetry for the Germans;" the "Death of Cato," a tragedy ; " Collections towards a Critical History of the German Language, Poetry, and Eloquence ;" " The First Principles of General Philosophy ;" " The German Theatre ;" " The Principles of the German Language ;" " Poems," &e. b. at Konigsberg, 1700; d. at Leipsic, 1766. — Madame Gottsched was also a good dramatic writer, n. in 1762. Goudelin, or Goudouli, Peter, goo'-de-lii, a Gascon poet, whose verses have great spright- linoss and a delicate simplicity. His works, which are much admired by his countrymen, have gone through numerous editions, b. at Toulouse, 1579 ; d. there, 1629. Gouffieb, Marie Gabriel Auguste Laurent, count de Choiseul, goo'-fe-ai, at the age of twenty-two travelled through Greece and the neighbouring islands ; and on his return to France published a beautiful work, entitled ' Voyage Pittorcsque de la Grece," splendidly illustrated. In 1781, he was appointed ambas- sador to Constantinople ; but the French revo- lution having disarranged his projects for the continuation of his great work, he went to Russia, where he was made a privy councillor, director of the Academy of Arts, and superinten- dent of the imperial libraries. In 1802 he returned to France, and the year following was chosen a member of the National Institute. He now gave to the world a continuation of his work upon Greece ; but became involved in disputes with Lc Chevalier and Las Casas, who had, as he conceived, injured him by publishing their works on the same subject, after having been employed under his auspices. He was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII. b. 1752; o. 1817. Gouoir, Richard, gof, an eminent antiquary and topographer, the son of a London merchant, at the age of eleven years translated from the French a "History of the Bible," of which twenty-five copies were printed at the expense of his mother, who made presents of them to her friends. This was followed by a translation of Fleury's treatise on " The Customs of the Israelites," when he was only fifteen. He after- 4D9 Goujon wards studied at Cambridge, and, besides papers in the " Arclweologia," the "Gentleman's Magazine," and other publications, he wrote "Anecdotes of British Topography," 2 vols. 4to; "The Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain," 2 vols, folio ; an enlarged edition of Camden's " Britannia," &c. b. 1735; d. 1809. Gough, Hugh, Viscount, G.C.B., entered the army in 179-1, and, in the following year, was sent with his regiment to the Cape of Good Hope, which he assisted to capture, and subse- quently served in the West Indies. In 1809, as major of the 87th regiment, he was despatched to the Peninsula, where he commanded his corps at the battles of Talavera, Barossa, Vit- toria, Nivelle, Cadiz, and Tarifa. For his bravery in these engagements, his armorial bearings were augmented by an additional heraldic device. At Talavera, he was wounded, and had a horse shot under him ; but his gal- lantry was so conspicuous that, on the recom- mendation of the duke of Wellington, he re- ceived brevet rank for services performed in the field, and became lieutenant-colonel. In 1830 he was made a major-general, and, in 1837, took command of a division of the Indian army. He had not been long at his post, however, when he was ordered to China, where ho took the command of the British troops, when his con- duct in the attack on Canton caused him to be made a G.C.B. On the close of the Chinese war, in 1812, he was created a baronet, and re- ceived the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. Returning to India, h« became commander-in- chief of the British forces, and entered on the last Mahratta war. After gaining the battle of Maharajpore, and terminating the war, he in 1845 encountered the Sikhs, whom, with the assistance of the governor-general, Lord Har- dinge, he successively defeated at Moodkee, Ferozeshah, and Sobraon. For his services in this war he again received a vote of thanks from both Houses of Parliament, and, in 1816, was raised to the peerage as Baron Gough. In 1818-49 he was once more engaged against the same enemy, and finally defeated them at Goo- jerat, though at a great sacrifice of life. For this victory he was again thanked by both Houses of Parliament, created a viscount, with a pension of £2000 per annum from the legisla- ture, and a like sum from the Fast India Com- pany. In 1849 he returned to England, and retired from active service. In 1854, on the death of the marquis of Anglesey, he became colonel of the Royal Horse-guards ; and in 1862 received the baton of a field-marshal on the occasion of the Prince of Wales coming of age. n. near Limerick, Ireland, 1779; d. 1869. Goi'Gn, John B., a celebrated lecturer upon temperance, who, in his twelfth year, emigrated to America, and became a bookbinder. Having fallen into habits of intemperance, however, he sank to the lowest state of degradation, from which he was ultimately rescued by taking the total-abstinence pledge. He now devoted him- self to the dissemination of those principles by which he had felt himself benefited; and ac- quired a wide-spread fame, both in America and Great Britain, by the dramatic style of advocacy which he adopted in setting forth, upon the platform, the principles he had espoused, b. at Sandgate, Kent, 1817. Goujon, Jean, goo'-zkaicng, a French sculptor and architect, who designed the fine facade of the old Louvre, and other works, which pro- THE DICTIONARY Gournai cured him the title of the French Phidias. He was a Protestant, and was murdered in the massacre of St. Bartholomew in 1572. Gournai, Mary de Jars, goor'-nai, a French lady, famous for her wit and talents. She was adopted by the celebrated Montaigne, for whose works, which she edited, she had an enthusiastic admiration, b. at Paris, 1566; D. there, 1615. Her writings were published in one volume 4to. Gower, John, gour, an early English poet, became eminent as a professor of law in the Inner Temple, and is supposed to have been chief justice of the Common Pleas. He was a liberal benefactor to the church of St. Saviour, Southwark, where his monument still remains. B. in Yorkshire, 1325 ; d. in London, 1402. His works are of the grave kind ; whence his friend Chaucer styles him the " Moral Gower." They consist of three parts — " Speculum Meditantis," " Vox Clamantis," " Confessio Amantis." They were printed first by Caxton in 1483. The " Confessio Amantis" is said to have been written by command of Kiehard II., who, "meeting our poet Gower rowing in the Thames, near London, invited him into the royal barge, and, after much conversation, requested him to ' book some new thing.' " Gower, although hardly a poet by nature, had some effect in exciting a taste for verse. Ac- cording to himself, Chaucer was his disciple, but far excelled him in the true spirit of poesy. Goyen, John van, go'-yain, a painter of laud- scapes, cattle, and sea-pieces, was a pupil of Vandervelde, and possessed great facility and freedom. His works are in consequence more general throughout Europe than those of almost any other master, and such of them as are linished and remain undamaged are highly valued, b. at Leyden, 1596 ; d. 1656. Goyon, Charles Marie Ausruste, go-yau->ig,'\vsiS educated at the Military College of St. Cyr, and in 1821 obtained the commission of sous-lieu- tenant in a regiment of chasseurs, from which he was transferred to a regiment of cuirassiers. He gained no promotion under the government of the restoration, but, after the establishment of the Orleans dynasty, Louis Philippe gave Goyon a captain's commission in a regiment of cavalry ; and in 1846 he became colonel of the 2nd Regi- ment of Dragoons. Goyon was thus practically ac- quainted with the duties of every branch of the cavalry service, but he had never yet been called into the field. It was not till the revolution of 1848 that he first faced an enemy's fire. He ably defended the streets of the Faubourg du Temple, and prevented various parties of the insurgents from effecting a junction at that point. From the time when Louis Napoleon was elected President of the French Republic, Goyon became his most confidential friend, and it may fairly be inferred that the high consideration in which Goyon was held enabled him to obtain for the President many personal adherents among the superior officers of the French army. In 1850 Goyon was made a general of brigade, and in 1853 was raised to the rank of a general of division. He was appointed adjutant to Napoleon III., in which capacity his duties brought him into frequent personal communication with the Em- peror. In November, 1856, General Goyon was appointed commander-in-chief of the French furies in Rome, which he continued to hold till Wj^, notwithstanding considerable dissatisfac- tion with his conduct both on the part of the 460 Graham Pope and cardinals and the populace of Rome. In the year mentioned he was recalled, and raised to the dignity of senator, b. 1802. Gracchus, T. Sempronius, graV-kus, father of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, was twice consul and once censor. He made war in Gaul, and met with much success in Spain. He married Cornelia, of the family of the Scipios, a woman of great virtue. Their sons, Tiberius and Caius, under the watchful eye of their mother, rendered themselves famous by their attachment to the interests of the populace, which course at last proved fatal to them. With a winning eloquence anduncommon popularity, Tiberius began to agitate for the agrarian law, which, by means of violence, was enacted. Being himself appointed one of the commis- sioners for carrying the law into execution, he was assassinated in the office by PubliusNasiea; and Caius, after his death, with more vehe- mence but less moderation, endeavoured to carry out what his brother had left unaccomplished. This, in the end, increased the sedition, and he was murdered by order of the consul Opimius, 121 B.C., about 13 years after the unfortunate end of Tiberius. His body was thrown into the Tiber. Caius has been accused of having mur- dered Scipio Africanus the younger. — Sempro- nius, a Roman, banished to the coast of Africa for his adulteries with Julia, the daughter of Augustus. He was assassinated by order of Tiberius, after he had been banished 14 years. Julia also shared his fate. — There were others of this name, but they are of inferior note. Grafton, Augustus Henry Fitzroy, duke of, graj'-ton, succeeded his grandfather in the family honours in 1757; and in 1765 was ap- pointed secretary of state ; but the year follow- ing ^relinquished that station, and soon after became first lord of the Treasury, which he held till 1770. During his administration, ho was virulently attacked by "Junius." In 1771 the duke was nominated lord privy seal, which office he resigned in 1775, and acted in opposition to the court till 1782, when he was again in office for a short time. After this, he was uniformly an opponent of ministers, till his death. He was the author of a volume of theological essays, &e. b. 1736; d. 1811. Grafton, Richard, an English historian, who greatly assisted in the compilation of Hall's "Chronicle," and also produced another, entitled " A Chronicle at large of the Afl'ayres of England from the Creation of the Worlde unto Queena Elizabeth," the latter of which was republished, in 2 vols. 4to, in 1809. Grafton was a printer, and carried on that business on an extensive scale, for the time, in London, in the 16th century. Gbaggini, Antonio Francesco, grarfj-ne, an Italian poet, who was the originator of the Delia Crusea Academy ; and the author of poems and tales, the latter rivalling, in purity of style, those of Boccaccio, b. at Florence, 1503; d. 1583. Graham, Sir J., grai-ham, the faithful com- panion and fellow-patriot of Sir W. Wallace. He fell at the battle of Falkirk, July 22, 1298. Graham, George, an eminent mechanic, who was journeyman and successor to Tompion, the celebrated clockmaker. He distinguished him- self not only by the accuracy of his timepieces, but by the invention of several valuable instru- ments for astronomical observations. The great mural arch in the observatory of Greenwich OF BIOGRAPHY. Graham was made under his inspection, and divided by his own hand. He invented the sector, with which Dr. Bradley discovered two new motions in the fixed stars. He furnished the members of the French Academy, who were sent to the north to measure a degree of the meridian, with the instruments for that purpose, and was a member of the Koyal Society, to which he com- municated several useful discoveries, b. in Cumberland, 1675; ». in London, 1751, and was interred in Westminster Abbey. Gbaham, Right Honourable Sir James Robert George, bart, was the eldest son of Thomas Graham, Esq., of Netherby, who, in 1782, was created a baronet. Sir James re- ceived his education at Westminster, and at Queen's College, Cambridge, where he displayed considerable ability, and, at an early age, especially distinguished himself by that kind of practical business capacity for which ho was afterwards celebrated. He entered public life as secretary to Lord Montgomerie, in Sicily, which situation he continued to hold under Lord William Bentinck, and was the principal in negotiating an armistice with Murat at Naples. In 1818 he was returned member of Parliament for Hull, upon extreme liberal prin- ciples, but did not long retain his seat. In 1823 he succeeded to his father's baronetcy, and in 1826 was returned member for Carlisle. In 1830 he took office under Earl Grey, as first lord of the Admiralty ; in 1831 he assisted in framing the Reform Bill of Earl Grey; and, in 1834, resigned, on account of disagreeing with his colleagues on the appropriation clause in the Irish Church Temporalities Bill. For some years he now held an independent position ; but, when Sir Robert Peel, in 1841, came into power, he accepted the home secretaryship. In 1811 he suffered greatly in public opinion, by ordering letters addressed to M. Mazzini to be opened and copied at the General Post-office. His popularity, however, soon rose again by the active and firm part lie took with Sir Robert Peel in carrying the repeal of the corn-laws. Shortly afterwards, the government were driven from office on the Irish Coercion Bill. Sir James continued out of place till 1853, when lie became again, under the administration of Lord Aberdeen, first lord of the Admiralty, which he retained till the close of the following year. In 1855 he held the same office for a few days under Lord Palmerston, but finally resigned, b. in Cumberland, 1792; d. 1861. Grahame, John, of Clavcrhouse, Viscount Dundee, was " a soldier of distinguished courage and professional skill, but rapacious and pro- fane, of violent temper, and obdurate heart," whose name, " wherever the Scottish race is settled on the face of the globe, is mentioned with a peculiar energy of hatred." Ho com- menced his career in arms as a soldier of fortune in France; subsequently entered the Dutch service; and on his return to Scotland in 1077, was nominated to the command of a regiment of horse that had been raised against the Covenanters, whom he hunted with the utmost energy and vindictiveness. Among other cruel instruments of a tyrannous sovereign, Gra- hame made himself conspicuous by his bar- barity, and has obtained an unenviable noto- riety in history, romance, and local tradition. The services which he rendered to his sovereign were rewarded from time to time by various high i. fliers; an4 he was finally raised to the Ml Grant peerage by the title of viscount Dundee, b. 1650 ; killed at Killicrankie, in the hour of vic- tory, in 1689. Grahame, James, was educated at the uni- versity of Glasgow, and became curate of Ship- ton, in Gloucestershire, and also of Sedgelield, in Durham. He wrote " The Sabbath," a poem variously criticised ; but, however heavy it may be to some, none can dispute the excellent spirit in which it is composed. He also wrote " Bibli- cal Pictures," " liritish Georgics," and several other poems. Lord Jeffrey, in the " Edinburgh Review," treated his effusions with considerable severity, and Lord Byron calls him " sepulchral Grahame ;" but equal judges of true poetry have pronounced different verdicts upon his Muse. Thus Professor Wilson :— " Such glory, Grahame ! thou .... With loftier aspirations and an aim More worthy man's immortal nature, thou, That holiest spirit, that still loves to dwell In the upright heart and pure, at noon of night Didst fervently invoke ; and, led by her Above the Aonian mount, send from the stars Of heaven such soul-subduing melody As Bethlehem shepherds heard when Christ was born." b. in Glasgow, 1765; D. 1811. Grainger, James, grairi-jer, a poet and physician, who served his apprenticeship to a surgeon at Edinburgh. He afterwards acted in that capacity in the army, and, in 1748, took his doctor's degree, and settled in London. His practice, however, was not considerable, and he engaged as tutor to a young gentleman, whom he accompanied to the island of St. Kitt's, in the West Indies, where he died in 1767. b. at Dunse, Scotland, 1723. He wrote— an " Ode on Solitude," " Bryan and Pcreene," a ballad, the "Sugar-cane," in blank verse, and translated the " Elegies" of Tibullus into English verse. His medical works are — " Historia Febris Ano- mala) Batavse, an. 1764;" and a treatise on the West India diseases, Svo. Gramont, Anthony, duke of, gra'-mawng, marshal of France, an illustrious warrior aiid courtier of the reign of Louis XI V., was descended from the noble family of Gramont of Navarre, and related to Cardinal Richelieu by marriage r>. 1673. — His son Philibert, Count de Gramont, wrote two vols, of " Memoirs," — still popular. Ghanby, John Manners, Marquis of, grari-be, a famous English general, was the eldest son of the Duke of Rutland, and commanded with honour during the seven years' war in Germany. After the peace of 1763, he retired into private life, greatly beloved by all ranks for his many virtues, b. 1720; d. 177i'. Granger, 3amcs,gran'-jer, an English divine, who published a valuable work, entitled " The Biographical History of England," in 4 vols. Svo. He was vicar of Sbiplakc, in Oxfordshire, and was seized with an apoplectic fit while adminis- tering the Lord's Supper in his church, and died the next morning, 1776. u. 171fi. Grant, Anne, grant, usually designated Mrs Grant of Laggan, a popular and instructive miscellaneous writer, whose maiden name was M'Viear, her father, after passim: some years in America, having been barrack-master at Fort Augustus, in the Scottish Highlands. Ik 1779 she was married to the Rev. .lam's Grant, who had been appointed minister of '.lie pariib THE DICTIONARY Grant ofLaggan, Inverness-shire. She was left a widow, however, in 1801, and having a large family to support on but scanty means, was induced to publish a volume of poems, which proved successful beyond her most ardent ex- pectations. She now adopted literature as a profession, and at various periods produced her " Letters from the Mountains" (which have been often reprinted), "Memoirs of an American Lady," " Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of Scotland," "Popular Models and impressive Warnings from the Sons and Daughters of Industry," &c. Nearly the last 30 years of her life were spent in Edinburgh, where she formed the centre of a highly accom- plished circle, numbering among her friends Sir Walter Scott, Lord Jeffrey, Henry Mac- kenzie, and all the Scotch "notables" of the day ; and where her amiable eharaetcr, no less than her literary celebrity, procured her general esteem and regard, n. at Glasgow, 1755; d. 1838. Her "Memoirs and Correspondence" have since been published. Grant, Sir Francis, R.A., an artist who spent his en! ire fortune, and then devoted himself to his art. He became one of the best portrait painters of fashionable life, and was warmly encouraged by Sir Walter Scott. At the com- mencement of his career he applied himself to the painting of sporting pieces, some of which were engraved and extensively patronized by sporting men ; but he subsequently abandoned this "branch of art, and applied himself to por- trait-painting, and became, par excellence, the artist of "good society." In 1812 he was chosen an A.R.A., and, in 1851, a R.A. In 1866 he was elected president of the Royal Academy, and was knighted shortly after, b. at Kilgraston, Scotland, about 1800; d. 1S7S. Grant, Robert Edmund, M.D., a celebrated zoologist and comparative anatomist, who was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself in Greek and geometry. In 1803 he entered the literary classes of the university, and, in 1812, was elected president of the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh. In 1811 he became president of the Royal .Me- dical Society, and, in the same year, graduated as M.D. His father having now died, he passed eome time in visiting the principal capitals of the continent, and, after his return, commenced the practice of his profession in Edinburgh, in 1820. In 1821, in conjunction with Hr. Barclay, he delivered lectures on comparative anatomy, and, during his vacations, devoted himself to original researches upon the animals of the coasts of Scotland. The result of these appeared in the " Transactions of the Wcrnerian Society." In 1327 he' was admitted a licentiate of the Koyal College of Physicians at Edinburgh, and, in the following year, was called upon to till the post of lecturer on comparative anatomy and zoology at the University College, London. From that time lie continued to lecture at that institution, and was a large contributor to zoological literature. Was fellow of the Royal, Linmcaii, Zoological, Geological, & Entomolo- gical Societies, li.at Edinburgh, 17 Jj ; n. 1374. Grant, Lieut. -General Ulysses S., entered the United States Military Academy, at West Point, iu 1S39, where he graduated with honours in 1831, and was attached as brevet second lieu- tenant to the 4th Infantry. He was promoted second lieutenant in September, 1345, and served as such through Mexico, under Geueial Taylor, 462 Granville at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Monterey, and under General Scott from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico, and was twice promoted for his bravery. He was made regimental quarter- master April 1, 1847; and when he resigned the service, on the 31st of July, 1854, he was a full captain in the 4th Infantry of Regulars. After his resignation he settled in St. Louis County, Missouri, and moved from there to Galena, Illi- nois, in 1880. Upon the breaking out of the war of secession, he otfered his services to Go- vernor Yates, and was appointed colonel of the 21st Regiment of Illinois Volunteers, and served with his regiment until promoted to be a brigadier-general, with commission and rank from the 17th of May, 1S61. He was engaged as colonel and acting brigadier-general in seve- ral of the contests in south-eastern Missouri ; and among his most noteworthy acts was the occupation of Padueah, and stoppage of com- munication and supplies to the Confederates via the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. The manner in which he conducted the battle of Belmont was highly commended by his own government. After the capture of Port Henry a new district was created under the denomination of the district of West Ten- nessee, and General Grant was assigned to the command of it. He subsequently captured Fort Donelson, an important position, where from 7000 to 9000 prisc-aers were taken, and for which he was made major-general. Subsequently he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general, and, in 1S65, terminated the war by the defeat of Lee and the capture of Richmond. In 1363 he was elected president of the United States, as successor to Andrew Johnson, n. in Clairmont County, Ohio, 1S22. Granville, George, Baron Lansdowne, gran - vil, a nobleman of considerable talents, who in 1635 wrote some poetical pieces on the accession of James II. After the Revolution, he lived re- tired for a considerable time, amusing himself with literary composition. In 1636 was acted, with great applause, his tragedy of " Heroic Love," which was followed by the dramatic poem of " The British Enchanters." On the accession of Queen Anne, he obtained a seat in Parliament, and, in 1710, was made seeretary-at- war. The same year, he married a daughter of the earl of Jersey, and was soon after created a peer, by the title of Lord Lansdowne, baron of Bideford. The accession of George I. deprived him of his place, and in 1715 he was sent to the Tower, on suspicion of being concerned in a plot against the government. He obtained his re- lease in 1717, and afterwards went to France, where he resided some years, b. in Cornwall, 1667; D. 1735. His works were published in 2 vols. 4to, 1732, and included, besides those men- tioned above, several other plays and poems. Granville, John Carteret," Earl of, was the eldest son of George, Lord Carteret, and succeeded to this title at the age of five years. He received his education at West- minster School and Christehurch College, Ox- ford, and. in 1711, took his seat in the House "f Lords. Here he distinguished himself by his earnest support of the succession of the Hanover family, which recommended him to George I., who gave him several important place.-. In 1719 he was sent ambassador to Sweden, and effected the treaty between that power and Denmark. In 1721 lie became secretary of state, aud, in 1724, was appointed viceroy of Ireland, OF BIOGRAPHY. Granville where his administration, in a trying season, was generally applauded. He was again no- minated to that office, after the accession of George II., and governed that kingdom with great wisdom till 1730. He was the enemy of Walpole's administration, and moved, in 1741, for the removal of that minister. When this was effected, Lord Carteret became secretary of state, and in 1741, on the death of his mother, succeeded to the titles of Viscount Carteret and Earl Granville, d. 1763. He was a pleasant companion, and a great encourager of learned nan. Ghantili/b, Granville Geo. Leveson Gower, Karl, educated at Eton and Christchurch, Oxford, took his degree in 1834. In the follow- ing year he was attached to his father's embassy in Paris, and in 1836, and also in 1837, on a new election, was returned member of Parliament for Morpeth. He was now on the high road to power, and in a short time was appointed under-seerctary for foreign affairs. In 1840 lie was attached to the Russian embassy, and at the subsequent general election, was, in 1841, returned member for Lichfield. In 1846 he was summoned, by the death of his father, to the House of Peers, and, in the administration of Lord John Russell, became master of her Ma- jesty's buckhounds. He subsequently became vice-president of the Board of Trade, and, in 1851, took a large share in "getting up" the Great Exhibition. Under Lord Aberdeen, he became president of the Board of Trade, and tinder Lord Palmcrston, in 1855, filled the same post. He also held several other important posts. #n 1856 he represented her majesty at the coronation of the emperor of Russia, and, under the Palmerston administration of 1859, held the office of president of the council. In 1S6S he became secretary of state for the colonics under Mr. Gladstone, n. 1815. Grassk, Francis Joseph Paul, Count de, grass, a celebrated French admiral, who played ii con- spicuous part in the naval wars of thelSth cen- tury. When a youth he was captured by Anson, and remained in England for two years a pri- soner. After many battles with the English in the West Indies, and on the coast of North America, he was defeated by Hood off St. Chris- topher's in 1782. This reverse was followed in the same year by the defeat and capture of his vessel, the Yille de Paris, by Admiral Rodney, when on his way with a large fleet to attack Jamaica, b. 1723 ; d. 1788. Gbatiax, grai'-the-an, a Roman emperor, eldest son of the emperor Valentinian I., wa» raised to the throne, conjointly with his father, 1 hough only eight years old. Afterwards, he be- came solo emperor, in the 16th year of his age. lie took as his colleague, Theodosius, whom he appointed over the eastern parts of the empire. His courage in the field was as remarkable as '•is love of learning and philosophy. He slew 30,000 Germans in a battle, and supported the tittering state by his prudence and intrepidity. ills enmity to the pagan superstition of his subjects ultimately proved his ruin. He was forsaken by his troops in the field of battle, righting against Maximus in Gaul, and mur- dered by the rebels, 383 a.d., in the 24th year of his age. Gkaiian, a Benedictine monk, who lived in the twelfth century, a native of Tuscany, who is noted foi his collection of the canon laws of the Church, known as Gratian's "Decretals." 4 JJ Gray Gkaiius Falisctjs, grai'-$ke-us fci-Us'-kus, a Latin poet, contemporary with Ovid. He wrote a poem on coursing, called "Cynegeti- con," much commended for its elegance and per- spicuity. G rattan", Right Honourable Henry, grat'-tan, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he distinguished himself by his ability, and, after taking his degree, went to London, for the purpose of following the profession of the law. In 1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and, in 1775, was returned to the Irish Parliament, where his fervid eloquence not only procured him the admiration but the love and veneration of his countrymen, whose enthusiasm he raised to the highest pitch. The first public benefit which he was instrumental in conferring on his countrymen, was the partial liberation of Irish commerce which had hitherto been greatly trammelled by vexatious restrictions. In 1780 he obtained from the Irish Parliament the resolution "that the king's most excellent majesty, and the lords and commons of Ireland, are the only power competent to make laws to bind Ireland." His speech on this occasion, especially its closing passages, is a fine speci- men of eloquence. The Irish nation now voted him £100,000 " as a testimony of its gratitude" for national services; but, at Grattan's own re- quest, it was made £50,000, which he received. After the union of Ireland with Great Britain, he was chosen member for Malton, and subse- quently sat in the Imperial Parliament as the representative for Dublin. He is only now re- membered for his eloquence; but Lord Brougham, in a speech delivered in the House of Commons in 1823, says — "He was a man of singular candour, and of great moderation ; and from his entrance into public life, to the close of his illustrious career, gave signal proofs of his moderation, of his extreme forbearance, nay, of his gentleness.'' " The purity of his life was the brightness of his glory," says Sir James Mackintosh, n. in Dublin, 1750; n. in London, 1820, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. GuAUtf, Karl Heinrich, groon, an eminent German musician, who was chapel-master to Frederic the Great. He enjoyed a reputation in Germany scarcely inferior to that which Handel enjoyed in England ; and was the author of an immense number of masses, ora- torios, and other musical compositions, b.1701; d. 1759. Gray, Thomas, grai, an English poet, was the son of a money-scrivener in London, and was educated at Eton, whence ho removed to Peter- house, Cambridge. In 1738 lie entered at the Inner Temple, but never engaged much in the study of the law. The year following, he accom- panied Mr. Horace Walpolo in the tour of Europe; but a difference arising between them, they parted in Italy, in 1741, and Mr. Gray returned to England, where his father died soon after. He now took up his residence chiefly at Cambridge, where, in 1768, he became professor of modern history. n. in London, 1716; «. 1771, and was buried in the family vault at Stuke l'ogis, in Buckinghamshire. "The odes of Gray possess uncommon merit, and his "Elegy in a Country Churchyard" has long been considered as one of the finest poems in the English language. General Wolfe, the night be- fore he made his attack on Quebec, whore he fell, declared to his fellow-soldiers, "Now, gentle- men, I would rather be the author of thai' r.c era THE DICTIONARY Greaves? than take Quebec." " I know not," says Sir Egerton Brydges, " what there is of spell in the following simple line — ' The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep ;' I'ut no frequency of repetition can exhaust its touching charm." There are other lines in this delightful poem which we could point out equally charming. " Had Gray written nothing hut his Elegy," says Byron, " high as he stands, I am not sure that he would not stand higher. It is the corner-stone of his glory. . . . Gray's Elegy pleases instantly and eternally." Greaves, John, greeves, a mathematician and antiquary, who, after receiving a gramma- tical education in his native county, was removed to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1621 he was chosen fellow of Merton College, and, in 1628, took the degree of M.A. In 1630 he became professor of geometry in Gresham College, and was soon afterwards sent by Archbishop Laud to the East, where he made a large collection of oriental MSS., coins, and medals. He also took a careful survey and measurement of the Egyptian pyramids, and made many astrono- mical observations. After his return, in 1640, lie was chosen Savilian professor of astronomy atOxford; but was obliged to resign his situation, from the persecution of theparliamentary visitors. b. in Hampshire, 1602; D. 1052. He wrote " Pyramidographia ; or, a Description of the Pyramids in Egypt ;" " A Discourse on the Roman Foot and Denarius;" and other valuable works. Green, Robert, green, an English poet, was a man of wit and talents, but noted alike for his good advice and bad example. He is said to have been the first Englishman who wrote for bread; but whether this be the case or not, he had great vivacity of mind, and a fertile imagina- tion, which he had increased by extensive read- ing. He crowded simile upon simile, and wrote in~accordance with the principles of the Euphean sect, fashionable in his time. The criticism of Hallam, inhis "Literary History of Europe," is, that " Green succeeds pretty well in that llorid and gay style, a little redundant in images, which Shakspcare frequently gives to his princes and courtiers, and which renders some unimpas- sioned scenes in his historic plays effective and brilliant." The same critic speaks of his novels, however, as " deplorable specimens." b. at Ipswich, 1500; d. in London, 1592. Greek, Matthew, an English poet, who was bred a dissenter, which sect he quitted, and ridiculed in his poem of "The Spleen." He obtained a place in the Custom-house, u. in London, 1690; d. 1737. His poems, which pos- sess great merit, were published in Dodslcy's collection, and together, in 1 vol. in 1796. Green-, Valentine, a distinguished engraver in mezzotinto, was intended for the legal pro- fession ; but left it for the art in which he after- wards excelled. Ho settled in London in 1765; was keeper of the Royal Institution, and associate of the Royal Academy ; and produced many f.ne engravings from Reynolds, West, the Dusseldorf Gallery, &c. Ho was also known as the author of a '"History of Worcester," and some other works, b. in Warwickshire; d. 1813. Greene, Maurice, Mus. Doc, a celebrated composer of church music, who received his education in St. Paul's choir, under Blind, the organist. He first became organist of St. Dunstan's In the West, and subsequently suc- ceeded ltb'> forcnsr rr.. -ter as organist cf St, 464 Gregory Paul's Cathedral. On the death of Dr. Croft, ho became organist and composer to the Chapel Royal, and in 1736 was appointed master of his majesty's band. Previous to this appointment, he had the degree of Doctor of Music conferred on him at Cambridge, for his exercise on Pope's " Ode on St. Cecilia's Day." The fame of Doctor Greene rests on his " Forty Anthems, for one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, and eight voices." These place him at the top of English ecclesiastical music composers, u. in London 1694; l). 1755. Gueenough, Horatio, green-uf, a distin- guished American sculptor, who, at an early age, displayed a talent for drawing and model- ling, and adopted sculpture for his profession. With the view of studying his art at its source, he proceeded to Rome, where he remained for some years ; but his health giving way, he was forced to revisit his native country, lie soon returned to Europe, however, and, fitting up a studio at Florence, devoted himself to his art. Here he produced his colossal statue of Wash- ington, now in the grounds of the Capitol at Washington, and the " Pioneer's Struggle," now in the Capitol itself. In 1851 he returned to America to erect his group of the " Rescue," but his health was such as gave no prospect of his being able to continue his professional studies, b. at Boston, Massachusetts, 1805; n. 1852. Greenville, Sir Richard, grecn'-vil, a gallant English officer, who served in the imperial army in Hungary, against the Turks, and, on his return, engaged in the reduction of Ireland. In 1551 bo represented Cornwall in ParMunent, about which time ho received the honour of knighthood. In 15S5 he undertook an expedi- tion to America, and in 1591 was appointed vice-admiral of a squadron sent out to inter- cept a rich Spanish fleet. He proceeded as far as the Western Islands, and while there, a power- ful squadron was sent from Spain to escort the plate fleet. On their approach the English admiral, Thomas Howard, proceeded to "sea; but Greenville, in the Kecenge, staying to take on board some of his sick crew, was surrounded by the whole Spanish fleet. He defended his ship with the utmost bravery, and, after receiving several wounds, was about to sink her, but was carried on board the Spanish admiral's ship, where ho died three days after. B. in Devonshire, 1510. Gregory, greg'-o-re, king of Scotland, con- temporary with Alfred, succeeded to the throne in 876. He delivered his country from the Danes, acquired the counties of Cumberland and West- moreland, performed many brilliant exploits in Ireland, and built the city 'of Aberdeen, d. 893. Gregory the Great, Pope, was ap- pointed prefect of the city of Rome, and held other civil dignities; but, being inclined to a religious life, he retired to the monastery of St. Andrew, of which he became abbot. On the death i if Pelagius 1 1:, in 590, he was elected pope. B. 514 ; n. 604. He sent Augustin the monk to convert the English to Christianity. Gregory II., St., succeeded Constantino in the pontificate in 715, and died in 731. Gregory III., a native of Syria, succeeded to the pontificate in 731, and died in 741. He sent legates toCharles Mattel to demand succour against the Lombards, which embassy is con- sidered to be the origin of the apostolic nuncios in France, GARIBALDI, JOSEPH. GRANVILLE, EARL. GOETHE, JOHN WOLFGANG VON. GUSTAVUS ADOI.I'IIL'S OK SWEDEN. OF BIOGRAPHY. Gregory Gbegoby IV., a native of Borne, succeeded to the pontificate in 827, and was greatly esteemed for his learning and piety, d. 844. Obegobt V., a native of Germany, and a kinsman of the emperor Otho, was elevated to the pontificate in 996. An anti-pope, named John XVII., was set up against him by Cresccn- tius, consul of Rome, but was expelled by the emperor, d. in 999. Gregory VI., a native of Home, was elected pope in 1044. Finding the lands and revenues of the church greatly diminished by usurpa- tions, and the roads infested by robbers, he acted with such vigour, that a powerful party was raised against him by those who had been accustomed to live by plunder. At a council held at Sutri in 1016, Gregory abdicated the pontificate. Gregory VII. was the son of a carpenter of Soano, in Tuscany, and succeeded to the pontifi- cate in 1073. This pope formed vast projects for the reform of the church, and in attempting to execute them assumed unexampled powers. But he was embroiled with the emperor Henry IV., and after a violent struggle, retired to Sa- lerno, where he died in 1085. Gregory VIII. succeeded Urban III. in 1187, and died the same year, after having exhorted the Christian princes to undertake a new cru- sade. He is not to be confounded with the anti-pope Bourdin, who assumed the same name in 1118. b. at Benevento. Gregorv IX. was nephew of Innocent III., of the family of the counts of Segui. He was elected pope in 1227, and caused a new crusade to be undertaken, in which the emperor Frederick II. engaged, notwithstanding which he twice excommunicated that prince, d. 12-11. Gregory X., of the illustrious family of Vis- eonti, was elected pope in 1271, at which time he was in the Holy Land. He assembled a council at Lyons, to promote a union between the Lastern and Western churches, and other objects, d. 1276. Gregory XL, Peter Boger, a native of Limousin, in France, was a nephew of Clement VI., and son of the count of Beaufort. He was elevated to the pontificate in 1370, was a patron of learning, and endeavoured to reconcile the princes of Christendom, and to reform the reli- gious societies. He transferred the papal see from Avignon to Home, where he died, 1378. Gregory XII., Angclo Corario, a native of Venice, was raised to the pontificate in 1406, during the schism in the East; Benedict XI 11. being the other pope. Both were deposed by a council held at Pisa, and Alexander V. elected m their stead. Gregory submitted, and laid aside the pontifical dignity, d. 1417. Gregory XIII., a native of Bologna, suc- ceeded Pius V. in 1572. He embellished Home with miny fine buildings ; but that which more particularly marks his government, is the reform of the calendar which goes by his name. He contributed greatly to correct and amend Gra- tian's " Decretals," which he enriched with learned notes, d. 15S5. Grrgory XIV., Nicholas Sfondrate, suc- ceeded Urban VII. in 1590. He was the son of a senator of Milan, and involved himself in an unsuccessful war against Henry IV. of r'rance. d. in 1591. Gregory XV., Alexander Ludovisio, a Bo- lognese, descended of an ancient family, was elected pope in 1621. lie wrote several works, 465 Gregory among which is one entitled " Epistola ad Begem Persarum, Schah Abbas, cum Notis Hegalsoni," 8vo, 1627. d. 1623. Gbegory XVI., Mauro Capellari, was elected pope in 1831 . He was a man of respectable cha- racter, but bigoted and exclusive, d. 1846, and was succeeded by Pius IX. Gbegoby, George Florence, commonly called Gregory of Tours, a Komish saint, was chosen bishop of Tours in 573, and, in 578, distinguished himself in a council at Paris. He is said to have converted Chilperic from Pelagianism. b. at Auvergne, 544; d. 595. Gregory 'was the author of a History of the Franks, in 10 books; and other works. Gbegoby Nazianzeit, bishop of Constantino- ple, wrote poems to furnish the Christian youth with subjects for study when Julian prohibited Christians from reading the books of the Gen- tiles. In 378 he was appointed by the council of Antioch, to go to Constantinople to suppress Ariamsm, and was there choseu bishop. He afterwards resigned that see and retired to his native country, where he died, in 389. b. about 32r>, nearNazianzus, in Cappadocia. Gbegoby Nyssen, the younger brother of St. Basil, was bishop of Nyssa, in Cappadocia, but was deposed by the Arian faction. He drew up the Nicene creed, by order of the council of Constantinople, d. about 395. His works were published at Paris in 1615, in 2 vols, folio. Gbegoby, James, a celebrated mathematician, who, at an early age, discovered a genius for the mathematics, winch he cultivated with eager- ness in the Marisehal college of Aberdeen. In 1663 he published his "Optica Promota," in which he announced the invention of the re- flecting telescope, which spread his name over Europe. Soon "*ter this he made a tour to Italy, and resided some years at Padua, where he published his " Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura," &c, in which appeared an account of his discovery of an infinitely converging series for the areas of the circle and hyperbola, and the mode of computing them. Soon after his return to England he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, and engaged in a controversy with Huygens on the subject of his treatise on the quadrature of the circle. In 1663 he was appointed professor of mathematics in the uni- versity of St. Andrew's. He had an amicable controversy with Newton concerning the re- flecting telescope ; in the course of which he suggested the idea of a burning concave^mirror, which came into universal repute. In 1674 he became professor of mathematics at Edinburgh, where he died in the year following, alter being struck with sudden blindness as he was lec- turing, is. at Aberdeen, 1633. His "Optics" were translated into English by Dr. Desaguliers, and several of his papers are in the "Philosophi- cal Transactions." Gregory, David, nephew of the above, com pleted his education at Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.A., and in 16^4 became professor of mathematics in that university. In 1691, by the recommendation of Newton, he was chosen a member of the Royal Society, and elected Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. In 1695 he published his " Catoptrics et Dioptricu; Spherics Elementa," 8vo. His de- monstration of the curve called the catenarian, appeared in 1697, in the " Philosophical Trans- actions ;" hut his greatest work was published HH THE DICTIONARY Gregory in 1702, and entitled "Astronomke Physics ct Geometries Elements," folio. It was after- wards translated into English in 2 vols. 8vo. In 1703 he published a splendid edition of Euclid's works iu folio, b. at Aberdeen, 1661 ; d. while engaged in superintending an edition of "Apollonius's Conies," in 1710. After his death appeared a treatise on logarithms, and another on practical geometry. — His brother James, when David was made Savilian professor at Oxford, as mentioned above, became professor of mathematics atEdinburgh, and held the post for thirty-three years. His other brother, Charles, was professor of mathematics at St. Andrew's thirty-two years, and was succeeded by his son, David, who published a system of arithmetic and algebra in Latin. Of this family, sixteen have held British professorships. There are few names, therefore, more illustrious in -the annals of science and literature. Gregory, John, a physician, the son of Dr. James Gregory, professor of medicine in King's College, Aberdeen. After studying at his native place, he removed to Edinburgh, and thence to Leyden. In 1745 he obtained the degree of doctor of physic, and became professor of phi- losophy at Aberdeen, which he exchanged in 1740 fur that of physic. About 1751 he seltled in London, and was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society. Inl7Gihe went back to Edinburgh, where, in 1766, he also became professor of physic, b. at Aberdeen, 1724; D. at Edinburgh, 1773. His works are, on the " Duties Mid Offices of a Physician," 8vo; "Elements of the Practice of Physic," 8vo; "A Father's Legacy to his Daughters," 12mo. Ali his productions have been collected into four volumes. Gregory, Olinthus, LL.D., commenced his literary career at the age of nineteen; but the works which chiefly brought him into notice were his "Treatise on Astronomy" and the " Pantnlogia," a comprehensive dictionary of the arts and sciences, of which he undertook the general editorship. Through the interest of Dr. Hutton, he was nominated, in 1S02, mathe- matical master at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in which establishment he eventually obtained the professor's chair, filling it with reputation until he was obliged through ill- health to resign it in 1838. Besides the works above mentioned, and many others, Dr. Gregory wrote " Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigo- nometry," " Mathematics for Practical Men," " Letters to a Friend, on the Evidences, Doc- trines, and Duties of Jie Christian Religion," 2 vols.; and "Memoirs of the Life, Writings, &c, of the late John Mason Good, M..D." b. in Huntingdonshire, 1774; d. 1841. Ghegoire, Henry, Count, bishop of Blois, grai-gicire, a French prelate, was nominated by the clergy of his province a member of the states-general ; and in the constituent assembly distinguished himself by the boldness of his opinions relative to civil and religious liberty, lie was among the first of the clergy who swore fidelity to the constitution; but during the Reign of Terror, when the bishop of Paris abdi- cated bis office, and several of the clergy abjured Christianity, the bishop of Blois stood forward as the supporter of the religion of his country. He also opposed the accession of the first con- sul to the throne of France, and, alone, ob- jected to the obsequious address of the senate to the new sovereign. On the restoration of the Bourbons, he was excluded from the Insti- 160 Gresl.am tute, and deprived of his bishopric, and spent the remainder of his life in retirement. The bishop of Blois was also distinguished as a literary character. Among his writings are " Essai sur l'Am^lioration Politique, Physique, et Morale des Juifs," " Memoires en favcur des Gens de Conleur, ou Sang-niel<5s de St. Do- minique ;" "Essai Historique sur les Liberies de l'Eglise Gallicane," "Les Ruines de Port Royal," &o. b. 1750; d. 1831. Greig, Samuel Carlowitz, greeg, a distin- guished naval officer in the Russian service, was a native of Scotland, and first served in the navy of Great Britain. He distinguished himself at the defeat of Conflans by Admiral Hawke, the taking of the Havannah, and on other occasions. After the peace of 1763, ho entered the Russian service; and, at the buttle of Chio, contributed greatly to the destruction of the whole of the Turkish fleet. The empress promoted him to the chief command of the Russian navy, gave him an estate in Livonia, and honoured him with many other marks of her favour, d. 1788. Grenville, George, greri-til, a British statesman in the reigns of George II. and George III., entered Parliament as member for Buck- inghamshire, and was distinguished for his elo- quence. He filled successively the situations of treasurer of the navy, first lord of the Admi- ralty, and first lord of the Treasury. In 1763 he became chancellor of the Exchequer, but, in 1765, he resigned his post to the Marquis of Rockingham. He published " Considerations on the Commerce and Finances of England, and on the Measures taken by the Ministers," &c, in reply to attacks made on I. is administration by the press, d. 1770. He was a younger bro- ther of Richard Grenville, Earl Temple, and was the father of Lord Grenville. Grenville, William Wyndham, Lord, .was the third son of the Right Honourable George Grenville, and studied at Eton College and Ox- ford University, In 1782 he became a member of the House of Commons; and Mr. Pitt, sub- sequently, gave him the olfiee of paymaster of the army. In 1789 he was elected speaker of the House of Commons, and the following year became secretary of slate for the home depart- ment. At the same time he was created Baron Grenville. In 1791 ho became secretary of state fur foreign affairs. For some years after (his he was out of office; but, on thedcathof Mr. Pitt, he became first lord of the 'treasury. In 1809 he was chosen chancellor of the university of Oxford, and, up to 1815, usually acted in eon- junction with Earl Grey. Towards the latter part of his life, he retired from the public eye, and died at Dropmorc Lodge, Buckinghamshire, 1834; B. 1750. Gresham, Sir Thomas, gre»V-am, was a mer- chant of the days of Queen Elizabeth, and amassed a large fortune. In 1559 he received the honour of knighthood from Ins sovereign, and was frequently consulted by her in her political and commercial concerns. He founded the Royal Exchange-, and in January, 1570, the queen dined at his house, and caused the building to be so named, and had it pro- claimed by sound of trumpet. The original structure was burned in the great fire of 1666 j but it was rebuilt on a larger scale. It was, in 1833, again destroyed by fire ; but was replaced by the present building, which was opened by Queen Victoria in 1814. b. in London, 1519; B, 1579. OF BIOGRAPHY. Gretry Gbetry, Andre Ernest Modesto, grai'-trc, a French musical composer, who, in early youth, discovered a great passion for music, and went to study in Italy. Returning thence, he brought with him the knowledge of a pure and simple melody, lively but graceful. The true comic accent was given by him to the language of music, and he deserved his surname of the "Moliere of Music." Amongst Gretry's numerous operas may be named " The Huron," which commenced his reputation, and of which the libretto was written by Marmontel ; " L'Amant Jaloux," " La Caravane," and "Kichaid Cautr de Lion." He also produced an essay on music, in which he described his method, b. at Liege, 1741 ; d. at Rousseau's hermitage at Montmo- renci, which had become his property, 1813, — He came of a family of musicians ; and his nephew, Andre Joseph, wrote some comic operas, comedies and romances, which had, however, little success, b. at Boulogne, 1774; ■d. 1826. Gbetsch, or Grech, Nichojas, gretch, a Rus- sian litterateur, who edited several influential periodicals, among which may be named the "Northern Bee" and the " Circulating Library." In 1835 he started the great " Russian Ency- clopaedia," but seceded from it in its 7th volume. In 1822, he published a " History of Russian Literature," which is one of the best works of the kind that has yet appeared. He also published some grammars of the Russian language, which, for practical purposes, are esteemed the best. b. 1787. Gbeville, Fulke, Lord Brooke, grev'-il, a patron of letters and an ingenious writer, was in great favour with Elizabeth. He was created Lord Brooke by James I., who gave him War- wick Castle. He founded a history lecture at Cambridge, b. at Beauchamp Court, Warwick- shire, 1554; stabbed by a servant whom he had reprimanded for an insolent expression, 1628. The man put an end to himself with the same weapon. After his lordship's death ap- peared several of his poetical works, and the Life of Sir Philip Sidney, written by him. Hallam calls him " of all our poets the most obscure." Gbey, Jane, gray, a celebrated and unfortu- nate English lady, was the daughter of Henry Grey, marquis of Dorset, by Frances Brandon, daughter of the duke of Suffolk and Mary, queen dowager of France and sister to Henry VIII. From her childhood she evinced an intelligent and amiable turn of mind, and was so far advanced in her education at the age of fourteen, that when the learned Ascham visited her family, he found her reading Plato's " Phsedo " in Greek. She was also well acquainted with several modern languages. Her religious prin- ciples were those of the Reformation, and her virtue and modesty equalled her other accom- plishments. When the health of Edward VI. began to decline, Dudley, duke of Northumber- land, persuaded him, "from a pretended con- cern for the interests of religion, to bequeath his crown to Lady Jane; thus setting aside Lis sisters Mary and Elizabeth. About the fame time, the duke effected a marriage between his son, Lord Guilford Dudley, and Lady Jans (ircy. On the death of Edward, her father and the duke of Northumberland, much against her own wishes, paid homage to her as queen, and had her proclaimed in London with the usual formalities. Thispageantry.howcver.only lasted 467 Grey a few days ; for Mary proved successful, and the duke of Northumberland was beheaded, and Lady Jane and her husband sent to the Tower. After being confined some time, the council resolved to put these innocent victims of their father's ambition to death. Lord Guildford suffered first, and as he passed her window, his lady gave him her last adieu. Immediately afterwards, she was executed on the same scaffold, suffering with calm resignation, and a firm attachment to the Protestant faith, 1554. b. 1537. Fuller, in his " Holy State," says, " she had the innocency of childhood, the beauty of youth, the solidity of middle, the gravity of old age. . . . the birth of a princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of a saint, yet the death of a martyr, for her parent's offences." Grey, Charles, Earl, was educated at Eton and Cambridge, after which he proceeded on a tour to the continent, and on his return, in 1786, became a member of Parliament for the county of Northumberland. He took the liberal side, and in 1792, was one of the founders and most active members of the " Society of the Friends of the People." In 1797 he brought forward a motion for parliamentary reform, for which he continued to labour strenuously, although he was, for many years, unsuccessful in carrying the object of his wishes. When Lord Grenville, in 1806, came into office, he, as Lord Howick, from the elevation of his father to the peerage, became first lord of the Admi- ralty, and, as one of the leaders of the House of Commons, carried the act for the abolition of the slave trade. In the following year, the cabinet was broken up, and he, in the same year, succeeded to the title, by the death of his father. In the House of Lords he became one of the leaders of the opposition. For many years he remained out of office; but, in 1830, ho was called upon by William IV. to form a new cabinet, after the fall of the Wellington admi- nistration. He accordingly became prime minister, and announced "peace, retrenchment, and reform," as the objects of his policy. In 1831 the Reform Bill was introduced by Lord John Russell into the House of Commons ; but, in the following year, the ministers resigned, on account of a motion of Lord Lyndhurst. They were restored to power, however, and, in the same year, the bill was passed. In the succeeding year, Earl Grey resigned, and, after about a couple of years, retired from public life. b. at Fallowden, near Alnwick, 1764; d. at Howick House, Northumberland, 1845. Grey, Henry George, third earl, the eldest son of the above, received his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, and, in 1829, en- tered Parliament as member for the now disfran- chised borough of Winchelsea. In 1831 he represented the county of Northumberland, and, in the previous year, filled the office of under- secretary of state for the colonies. In 1834 ho became under-secret ary for the homo depart- ment, and in the following year, under the Mel- bourne administration, was appointed secretary- at-war. In July, 1815, his father died, when he was called to the House of Lords, and became colonial secretary in the administration of Lord John Russell. At this period the colonies were demanding a representative government, which Karl Grey opposed, and which led to consider- able misunderstandings in (ho ;olonial-olfice. In 1852 he retired from his post, and vindicated iiis administration in a treatise of considerable 11 II 2 THE DICTIONARY Grey- length. In 1853 lie declined to serve under Lord Aberdeen, and assumed an independent position in polities, b. 1802. Grey, Sir George, K.C.B., entered the army, and rose to the rank of captain, when, in 1836, he offered himself, in conjunction with Lieu- tenant Lushington, to Lord Glenelg, then colonial secretary, to undertake a journey of discovery in Australia. In the following year, he proceeded on his expedition, and, after an absence of four years, arrived in England, and published the journals of his discoveries. He was now appointed lieutenant-governor of South Australia, and produced " A Vocabulary of the Dialect of South- Western Australia." In 1846 he became governor of New Zealand, and published a work entitled " Polynesian Mythology, and Ancient Traditional History of the New Zealand Race." In 1848 he was created a knight-commander of the Bath, and in 1854 he was appointed governor and com- mander-in-chief at the Cape of Good Hope. He was subsequently appointed governor of New Zealand, and put down the Maori insurrec- tion of 1863-4. b. 1812. — There are some others of this name, known as legislators and adminis- trators, connected with the English govern- ment. Grey, Dr. Zachary, an English divine, well known for his edition of "Hudibras," accom- panied with a great number of curious and en- tertaining notes, 2 vols. Of these notes, War- burton says, that " he hardly thinks there ever appeared, in any learned language, so execrable a heap of nonsense, under the name of commen- taries, as hath lately been given us on this satiric poet." He also published Notes on Shakspeare, 2 vols. ; and an Answer to Neale's History of the Puritans, in 3 vols. 8vo. B. 1687; D. 1766. Griesbach, John James, greet' -bale, a dis- tinguished GermM theologian, who studied successively at Frankfort, Tubingen, Halle, and Leipsie. He subsequently became rector of the university of Jena, and ecclesiastical privy councillor to the duke of Saxe-Weimar. His works are very numerous ; but the principal is an edition of the Greek Testament, with various readings, b. at Butzbach, 1745; d. 1812. Griffier, John, gre'-fe-er, known by the appellation of Old Griffier, an eminent painter, succeeded chiefly in landscapes, and painted several views on the Thames. He also etched prints of birds and beasts, b. at Amsterdam, 1658; d. in London, 1718. — His son Robert, called the Younger Griflier, born in England, was also a good landscape painter, though not equal to his father. Griffin, Gerald, grif-fin, a popular Irish novelist, author of "The Collegians" and other works. In 1830 he relinquished the pen, and joined a religious society at Cork. b. at Lime- rick, 1803 ; ». 1840. Griffiths, Ralph, grif-fiths, a man of letters, who was born in Shropshire, and settled in Lon- don as a bookseller. In 1749 he commenced the " Monthly Review," the success of which was very slow for a considerable time; but it made its way gradually toaleadingplaceamongpcriodical journals. Of this work he was both proprietor and editor, being powerfully assisted, from time to time, by men of first-rate talents. r>. 1803. Grimaldi, Joseph, grim'-al-de, the famous pantomimic clown, was the son of Sif? or Gri- maldi, an artiste, noted for his humour and 468 Grose eccentricities, who by day followed the profes- sion of a dentist, and by night that of ballet- master at Drury Lane. For a period of forty years, " Grimaldi the clown " delighted the laughter-loving audiences of Drury Lane, Covent Garden, and Sadler's Wells, with a rich species of buffoonery, peculiarly his own — pour- traying to the life all that is grotesque in man- ners, or droll in human action. Grimaldi, how- ever, was not a mere clown, even of the most refined class; he was a man of intellect, a wit, and, in private life, an estimable gentleman, b. 1779 ; d. 1837. Grimm, Jacob Ludwig Carl and Wilhelm Carl, grim, two brothers, whose devotion to German literature was distinguished by a rare communion of fellowship between then?. The nature of their labours is, perhaps, sufficiently indicated in the following quotation from the works of Jacob : "All my labours," he says, "have been, either directly or indirectly, devoted to re- searches into our ancient language, poetry, and laws. These studies may seem useless to many; but to me they have always appeared a serious and dignified ta6k, firmly and distinctly connected with our common fatherland, and calculated to foster the love of it. 1 have esteemed nothing trifling in those inquiries, but have used the small for the elucidation of the great, — popular traditions for the elucidation of written docu- ments. Several of my books have been pub- lished in common with my brother William. We lived, from our youth up, in brotherly com- munity of goods — money, books, and collectanea belonging to us in common ; and it was natural to combine our labours." These brothers are the authors of a valuable and large German diction- ary. Jacob, b. at Hanau, 1785; d. 1863: "Wil- liam, B. at Hanover, 1786; d. 1859. Grimston, Sir Harbottle, grim'-tton, a dis- tinguished lawyer of the time of the Common- wealth, studied at Lincoln's Inn, became re- corder of Colchester in 1638, and in 1640 was elected member of Parliament for that borough. He at first took part in the opposition offered to the measures of the king, but disapproving the extreme proceedings adopted by his party, went abroad after Charles's execution. He sub- sequently returned, however, and in 1660 was chosen speaker of what was designated the " Healing Parliament," and was one of the commissioners sent to Charles II. at Breda. At, the Restoration he was made master of the Rolls. The " Reports " of Sir George Croke were published under Sir Harbottle's superin- tendence. B. about 1594; D. 1683. Grindal, Edmund, grin'-dal, archbishop of Canterbury, was educated at Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship in Pembroke Hall. Being attached to the principles ol the Reforma- tion, he became chaplain to the king, and pre- bendary of Westminster : but on the accession of Mary, he retired to Germany, and settled at Strasburg. When Elizabeth ascended the throne, he returned, and ultimately, in 1575, was made archbishop of Canterbury ; but lost the royal favour, and was suspended for a time. b. in Cumberland, 1519 ; d. at Croydon, 1583. He contributed to Fox's "Acts and Monu- ments." Grose, Francis, grote, an eminent English antiquary, who illustrated the antiquities of England and Wales, in 4 vols., and those of Scotland, in 2 vols. He was executing a work of the same kind relative to Ireland, when hs OF BIOGRAPHY. Grosseteste died in Dublin, in 1791. b. at Greenford, Mid- dlesex, 1731. Besides the above, he published a "Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue," also a volume of " Miscellanies," 8vo, and " Military Antiquities," 4to. , Gbosseteste, Gbostete, or Gbeathead, Robert, grose-tait, an English prelate, who re- ceived his education at Oxford and Paris. After enjoying several preferments with great reputation, he was chosen bishop of Lincoln in 1234. He successfully resisted the encroach- ments of the papal power, and was a great en- courager of learning, b. at Stradbrook, Suf- folk, 1175; D, 1253. His "Opuscula Varia" were published at Venice in 1514, and his " Compendium Spha?ra Mundi" in 1508. Some of his discourses and letters are extant. " He was a very learned man, and had a knowledge of Greek ; but by a knowledge of Greek," says Hallam, " when we find it asserted of some media:val theologian like Grostete, we are not to understand an acquaintance with the great classical authors, who were latent in Eastern monasteries, but the power of reading some petty treatise of the fathers (or, as in this in- stance, a translation of the Testament of the twelve patriarchs from Greek into Latin), an apocryphal legend, or, at best, perhaps some of the later commentators on Aristotle. Grostete was a man of considerable merit, but has had his share of applause." Geote, George, grote, the historian of Greece, was the son of Mr. Grote, a banker, and was for some time a clerk in his father's banking-house. He began to devote himself to literature and politics, and, in 1832, became member of parlia- ment for the city of London. Jn 1841 he re- signed his seat, to apply himself exclusively to his great work, " The History of Greece," which has received universal commendation. Besides his History, Mr. Grote was a contributor to several of the Reviews, b. near Beekenham, Kent, 1794; d. 1871. Grotius, Hugo, gro'-sTie-ut, an illustrious writer, was the son of a burgomaster of Delft, and, at the age of eight years, composed Latin ' verses of great merit. In his twelfth year, he was sent to Lcyden, and, in 1593, accompanied the ambassador Barneveldt to the court of Henry IV. of France, who was so pleased with Grotius, that he gave him his picture and a gold' chain. 'While in France he took the degree of doctor of laws. The year following, he com- menced practice as an advocate, and pleaded his first cause at Delft. Soon afterwards, he published an edition of Martianus Capella, which was followed by a translation of a work Of Stevinus, on finding a ship's place at sea. His edition of the "Phenomena" of Aratus appeared in 1600, and, about the same time, he composed Latin tragedies on sacred subjects. He was now appointed historiographer of the United Provinces, and advocate-general of the treasury for Holland and Zealand. In 1613 he accepted the post of pensioner of Rotterdam, by which means he obtained a seat in the States of Holland, and was sent to England to settle a dispute on the subject of the Greenland fishery. During the contests which arose in Holland on account of religion, Grotius sided with the Arminians, for which he was con- demned to perpetual imprisonment in the castle of Loevestein, whence lie was delivered by his wife in 1621. He found his way to Antwerp, and afterwards to France, where he obtained a 469 Grouchy- pension. In 1622 he published his " Apology," which so stung the States, that they ordered it to be burnt, and the author to be seized wher- ever he could be found. In 1625 he finished his famous book, " De Jure Belli et Pacis," which greatly extended his reputation. In 1613 he accepted an invitation from Count Oxcnstiern, and went to Stockholm, where he was appointed counsellor of state and ambassador to the court of France. He filled this important station, amidst circumstances of extreme difficulty, with honour to himself and satisfaction to the court which he represented. In 1645 he quitted France, and went to Holland, where he was honourably received. From Amsterdam he sailed to Sweden, and was welcomed in a cordial manner by Queen Christina, b. at Delft, 1583 ; d. on his journey to Holland, at Rostock, 1645. His remains were interred at Delft. The works of Grotius are too many to be enumerated here ; but we must mention his treatise on the " Truth of the Christian Religion," which has become a standard book in all universities for students in divinity ; his " Annales et Historiae de Rebus Belgicis," and his "Commentaries on the Scriptures :" these last are an immortal monu- ment of learning. In his religious sentiments he coincided with the church of England, and advised his wife to join in communion with it. — His sons Cornelius and Diederic entered into the army ; Peter was bred to the law, and be- came pensionary of Amsterdam: his brother William was a learned man, and wrote some books on legal subjects. Grouchy, Emanuel, marquis of, groo'-zhai, a distinguished marshal of France, and a scion of a noble Norman family, was a sub-lieutenant of the royal gardes du corps in 1789; but em- bracing revolutionary ideas, he took part in the wars of the republic, and gained great distinc- tion, especially in the Alps and La Vendee, where he was named general of division in 1793. The decree which deprived all the nobles of France of military rank stripped him of his commission and position, but, joining the army as a private, his distinguished gallantry soon led to his restoration. Despatched in 1798 to the army of Italy, under the command of Jou- bcrt, he arranged the abdication of the king of Sardinia, and thus united Piedmont to France. He took a prominent part in the battle of Xovi, where he received fourteen wounds, and was taken prisoner by the enemy. Grouchy's bravery was no less conspicuous on the fields of Hohen- linden, Eylau, Friedland, Wagram, Moscow, &c.; and he obtained the marshal's baton from the hands of Napoleon shortly before his abdication. During the Hundred Days he was opposed to the Duke d'Angouleme in the south, and made him prisoner, lie was then summoned into Belgium, and took a prominent part in the brief campaign which finally decided the fate of his imperial master. He had carried the villages of Fleurus (June 16) and Ligny (June 17), and was march- ing according to his instructions in pursuit of Blucher with a body of 30,000 men, when the battle of Waterloo was fought. Instructions not having reached him in time, he could not take part in the battle, and his absence probably contributed to decide the fortune of the day. ISonaparte, while at St. Helena, accused both Grouchy and Vandamme of disobedience to orders in not bringing up their corps in time to take part in the action. This, however, is be- lieved to have been an unfounded charge. At th-j THE DICTIONARY Gruter restoration, Grouchy's title of marshal was- not acknowledged, and remained so till 1330, when it was restored. He was created a peer in 1S32. B. 1766; D. 18-17. Gbuter, or Gbtjterus, John, groo'-tair, a distinguished philologist, whose father was a burgomaster of Antwerp, and fled to England, on account of his religion, taking his son, who wasan infant, with him. Here John was educated at Cambridge, and afterwards went to Leyden, where he took his degrees in law. He became a professor at Heidelberg, but lost his valuable library when that city was sacked in 1622. b. at Antwerp, 1560; d. at Heidelberg, 1627. His principal works are, " A Collection of Ancient Inscriptions," folio, 1601; "Thesaurus Criti- cus," 6 vols. 8vo; "Deliciaj Poetarum Gallo- rum, Italorum, &c," 18 vols. Grtllus, gril'-lus, a son of Xenophon, who killed Epaminondas, and was himself slain at the battle of Mantinea, 362 B.C. His father, upon receiving the news of his death, observed that it ought to be celebrated with every demon- stration Of joy, rather than of lamentation. Gbt>*.i:us, Simon, gri-ne'-us, a learned Ger- man, and the son of a peasant in Suabia, became Greek iirofessor at Vienna, and after- wards at Heidelberg. In 1531 he visited Eng- land, where his classical acquirements procured him many friends. The learned are indebted to him for editions of several of the ancients, enriched with prefaces and commentaries, b. at Vcringen, in Hohcnzollern, 1493; D.at Bale, 1541. GiiTpnius, Andrew, gri'-fe-us, a German dra- matic writer, whose tragedies were greatly admired. He also wrote a critique, in which he ridiculed the ancient comedies of the Ger- mans, b. at Glogau, 1616 ; d. 16G4. GitTrnirs, Christian, son of the preceding, and a man of great erudition, became professor of eloquence at Breslau, principal of the college of Magdalen, and librarian. His works are "German Poems," " History of the Orders of Knighthood," "Treatise on the German Lan- guage," &e. b. 1619; d. 1706. Guarino, surnamed Veronese, goo-a-re'-no, an eminent reviver of learning, and the first who reintroduced Greek into Italy. He became professor of the learned languages at Ferrara, and translated " Plutarch's Lives," part of Strabo, and other works, b. 1370 ; d. 1460. — His son Batista was also a learned man, and became an eminent professor at Ferrara. He translated into Italian some of Plautus's come- dies, and wrote Latin poems and other works. Guabino, Batista, an Italian poet, grcat- grandsan of the preceding, passed the greatest part of his life in courts, being in the ser- vice of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara, and other princes. In these situations, however, he seems to have been a prey to continual dis- gusts. He wrote several poems, and a pastoral piece called " 1'astor Fido," which gained him tonsiderable reputation. lie, however, con- temned the title of poet, which he thought beneath the dignity of a gentleman, b. at Ferrara, 1537; i>. at Venice, 1612. Guelf, or Gi'KLi'ii, gtcelf, a distinguished family which had its scat at first in Italy, from which it was transferred in the 11th century to Germany, where it became the ruling race in several provinces. The family is still continued in the two lines of the house of Brunswick — the royal in England, and the ducal in Germany, Guibert and is connected by marriage with most of the ruling races in Europe. The memory of this ancient name was revived by the institution of the Royal Guelphie Order of Hanover. Guericke, Otto von, ger'-ik-e(r), a German philosopher, who was counsellor to the elector of Brandenburg, and burgomaster of Magdeburg. He invented the air-pump and weather-glass, and published some treatises on experimental philosophy, b. 1602 ; b. 1686. Guerre, Martin, gair, a Frenchman, ren- dered famous by an extraordinary imposture, practised by Arnaud du Thil, his friends Martin married Bertrande du Rols, and, after living with her about ten years, left her, and entered into the service of Spain. Eight years after, Du Thil presented himself to Bertrande as her husband, and so imposed upon her, by relating various facts, that he lived with her. An uncle of Martin prosecuted Du Thil, and he was con- demned to be hanged. Du Thil appealed to the parliament of Toulouse, the members of which were greatly divided, when Martin returned home; on which his treacherous friend was hanged and burned, in 1560. Guebbebo, Vicente, goo'-er-rai-ro, chosen president of the Mexican States, in 1829, was by birth a Creole. At the commencement of the revolution in Mexico he took arms against the Spaniards, and ever after continued wb play a prominent part in the affairs of that country. On numerous occasions, from 1819 to 1828, general Guerrero became the rallying point of the popular party, the Yorkinos, and was re- peatedly called into active service in his military capacity. Having been successful in various contests with the aristocratical faction, he at length, in 1829, was elected to the presidency. The expedition of Barradas soon gave employ- ment to the new government; and the better to enable the president to meet the exigency, he was invested with extraordinary powers; but after the victory over the Spanish troops, and when the invading expedition was de- stroyed, Guerrero evinced an unwillingness to relinquish the dictatorship, which became the pretext of another revolution ; and Bustamente, the vice-president, assumed the reins of govern- ment. Guerrero, however, was not to be so set aside : in September, 1S30, he collected a large force at Valladolid, and established a form of government in opposition to that of Bustamente, and the whole country was agitated by bodies of men in arms. Guerrero's course, however, was nearly run. In February, 1831, he was taken prisoner by his opponents, and shot. Guesclix, Bertrand du, ges'-la, constable of France, and an illustrious warrior who gained many victories over the English, and defeated the troops of the king of Navarre. He was very strong, and also very unprepossessing. " 1 am very ugly," he would say, " and shall never be a favourite with the ladies ; but, by the enemies of my king, I shall be held in terror." n. in Brittany, 1314; d. while besieging Randam, 1380. Guevara, Louis Velezdc, gwai-va'-ra, a Span- ish comic poet, who wrote many comedies, and a celebrated work entitled "ElDiaboloCojuelo," which furnished the foundation for "Le Diable Boitcux" of Le Sage. He was a native of Anda- lusia, and died 16W>. Guibebt, Jacques Anthony Hippolite^e-JaiV, a writer on military affairs, who served in Ger- many, and afterwards in Corsica, where lie was OF BIOGRAPHY. Guicciardini made a colonel. In 1770, he published his great work, " Kssai General de Tactiquc." After- wards he directed his attention to dramatic composition, and produced several tragedies. He also wrote the Elogies ol Catinat and LTIopital. The French Academy elected him a member, in the room of M. Thomas, u. at ilontauban, 1743; d. 1790. Besides the above works, he wrote the clogy of Frederick the Great, king of Prussia. Guicciardini, goo'-etck-e-ar-de'-ve, an emi- nent historian, who was descended from a noble family of Florence, lie practised in early life as a lawyer, and fdled several high offices in his profession. Afterwards he was employed in affairs of state for his native city. From this situation be passed into the service of Leo X. and the two immediate successors of that prince, and was raised by them to the highest civil and military dignities. His "History of Italy," in twenty books, is a valuable performance, b. in Florence, 1482; d. at his country sent at Arcetri, 1510. When the courtiers of Charles V. complained of the favour he showed to Guicciar- dini and other Florentines, he said, " I can make a hundred Spanish grandees in a minute, but I cannot make one Guicciardini in a hundred years." Guicciardini, Luigi, nephew of the preced- ing, wrote, among other works, a " Description of the Low Countries," folio, b. at Florence, 1523; D. at Antwerp, 15S9. Guido d'Arezzo, ge'-dc da-ret'-so, an Italian musician, who invented the lines and spaces, or staff, reformed the scale, suggested the mode of notation, and the art of solmisation. Lived in the 11th century. Guido Reni, an illustrious Italian pnintcr, whose father was a musician, and who in- tended him fur the same profession ; but Reni conceiving an early attachment for painting, was placed under Denis Calvert, a Flemish master. He afterwards studied under the Caracci, and soon rose to higher fame than any of his contemporaries Honours were heaped upon him by several crowned heads, and riches flowed upon him in abundance. He was unfor- tunate only in an immoderate love of gaming, which reduced him to such distress, that a languishing disease ensued, of which he died. His heads are beautiful, and considered by many « equal those of Raffaelle. His draperies are also much admired. His ideal of female beauty was founded on the antique, as he took the " Venus de Medici," and the " Daughters of Niobe" for his standard, n. at Bologi.a, 1575; d. 1612. The greatest work of Gu_;do is the " Penitence of St. Peter after Denying Christ," ! ,n the Zampieri palace, at Bologna. Guidotti, Paul, ge-dot'-te, an Italirn painter, sculptor, and architect, who made vrings with which he imagined he could fly ; but, in making I he attempt at Lucca, he fell, and received great injury, b. at Lucca, 1500; n. 1829. Guignes, Joseph &e,gween, a learned French writer, who studied the Oriental languages under Stephen Fouimont, and was appointed inter- preter to the king in 1711, and member of the Academy of Belles Lettres in 1753. He parti- cularly applied himself to the study of the Chi- nese characters, and had, for thirty-five years, a principal interest in the " Journal des Savans." The Revolution reduced him to poverty, n. at Pontoise, 1721; d. at Paris, 1800. He wrote the Life of Fourmont. "General History of the 471 Guise Huns, Turks, Moguls, and Tartars," 5 vols. 4to; Memoir proving that the Chinese were an Egyptian colony; " Le Choo-King," 4to; "The Military Art of the Chinese," " Historical Essay upon the Oriental and Greek Topography," " Principles of Typographical Composition," "Memoirs in the Academy of Inscriptions," &c. Gjillotin, Joseph Ignatius, geel'-o-teen, a Freneh physician, who, during the first Revolu- tion, proposed the introduction of an instru- ment of decapitation, made after the fashion of the more ancient one, the maiden, used on the Scottish borders in the 16th century. The proposal was adopted, and the engine named after its inventor. Mons. Guillotin practised medicine in Paris many years, and was much respected. He was a momber of the National Assembly, where his political principles were distinguished by moderation ; and his introduc- tion of his famous instrument of death was from a humane motive — that of rendering capital punishment less painful. He was not, as has been asserted, the victim of his own contrivance, though he was greatly annoyed by its being called by his name. He died, in tranquil re- tirement, in 181 1; b. 1738. G uiscard, Robert, gees' -kar, a brave Norman knight, and son of Tancred de Hauteville, one of the warriors who conquered Naples from the Saracens, and acquired the dukedom of Apulia and Calabria, d. in the island of Corfu, 1035. GuiscnARD, Charles Gottlieb, ge'-shar, ;, Prussian officer, who fought with great reputa- tion in the service of the Stadtholder, and after- wards in that of Frederick II. of Prussia, who gave him the name of Quintus Icilius, and a regi- ment, b. at Magdeburg, 1742; d. 1775. His works are " Memoircs Militaircs sur les Grecs ct les Romains," 4to ; " Memoires Critiques et Historiqucs sur plusieurs Points d'Antiquites Militaircs," 4 vols. 8vo. Guise, Claude de Lorainc, duke of, gees, was the fifth son of Rene II., duke of Loraine. He settled in France, where he married Antoinette de Bourbon, a princess of the blood, in 1513. At the battle of Marignan, when he was but 22 years of age, he received more than twenty wounds. D. 1550. Guise, Francis de Loraine, duke of, eldest son of the above, was a ma'i of great talents and valour, and, during the greater part of his life, enjoyed almost unbounded power in France. With him began the famous factions of Conde and Guise. The duke of Guise was at the head of the Catholic party, and a great zealot. Shot with a pistol, in 1563, by a Protestant gentleman named Poltrot de Mere. b 1519. Guise, Henry, duke of, eldest son of the pre- ceding, was a good soldier, but of a turbulent temper, and formed the association called the League, on the pretence of defending the Catholic religion, and the liberty of the state. With its aid the duke of Guise long controlled Henry I II., "and even was in open rebellion against him. On the celebrated day of the bar- ricades, the king, having escaped from the duke to Blois, convened the states there, where Guise was assassinated in 1588. b. 1550. Guise, Charles, duke of, eldest son of the above, on his father's death, was shut up in the castle of Tours, from which he escaped in 1591. Proceeding to Paris, he was received with the greatest joy by the partisans of a league THE DICTIONARY Guise which had !>cen formed against Henry IV. He afterwards became governor of Provence ; but, under the reign of Louis XIII., he was forced to leave France, on account of the jealousy of Car- dinal Kichelieu. He went into Tuscany, where le died, in 1610. b. 1571.— His son, Henry II., was brought up to the church, which, on the death of his father, ho quitted, and assumed the title of duke of Guise. He conspired against Cardinal Richelieu, and, in 1617, put himself at the head of the revolted Neapalitans, but was taken prisoner by the Spaniards. On being set free, he returned to France, where he died, without issue, in 1631. — His younger brother, Louis, left a son, Louis Joseph, of Lorainc, duke of Guise, who died in 1671, leaving an infant son, who died in 1675, and in whom the line of the Guises became extinct. Guise, Charles de, usually called the Cardinal of Lorainc, was the minister of Francis II. and Charles IX. He was notorious for his violent and intolerant spirit, and his memory will ever be held in execration forthe furious persecution he promoted against tho Protestants of France. B. 1525 ; D. 1574. GurzoT, Francois-Pierre Guillaume, ge'-zo, was the son of an eminent French advocate, who was executed in 1791. Young Guizot and another brother were taken by their mother to Geneva, where they were educated in the Gym- nasium, and where Francois acquired a know- ledge of the Latin, Greek, English, German, and Italian languages. In 1805 he went to Paris for the purpose of studying law, but entered as tutor the family of the Swiss ambassador, and, through his means, was introduced to many distinguished literary men. In 1809 he pub- lished his " Dictionary of Synonyms," which was iuccceded by " Lives of the Poet.-," " Gibbon's Roman Empire," and other works. In 1812 he became assistant professor of history in the Faculty of Letters, and, shortly afterwards, was appointed professor of modem history. In the same year he married Mademoiselle Pauline de Meulan.alady who was considerably older than himself, and who supported herself and family by literary work. In 1811, under Louis XVIII., Guizot became secretary-general; but, on the return of Napoleon 1. from Elba, he was driven from his office, and once more resumed his duties as professor of history. On the over- throw of the empire, he became secretary- general to the minister of justice, adopting tho principles of a constitutional royalist. He now produced several political and educational pamphlets, and in 1818 was chosen a councillor of state. In 1820 he was expelled from office, and once more entered the field as a pamph- leteer. He also gave lectures at the Sorbonnc; but the freedom of his expressions caused them to be suppressed. Between 1822 and 1827 he produced his "History of the English Revolu- tion," " Essays on the History of France," and his " Historical Essays on Shakspeare." He also established the " French Review," and assisted in founding the society called " Assist thyself, and Heaven will assist thee," designed to secure the freedom of elections. In 1828 he was per- mitted to resume his lectures at the Sorbonnc, r"d, in the same year, married the niece of his firsi wife, who had recommended the union on her dei^h-bed. In the following year he was re- appointed <* councillor of state, and became one of the editor, of the "Journal des Debats," and of "Le Temps. In 1830 he was elected a Garwood member for the Chamber of Deputies, and assisted in accomplishing the revolution which expelled Charles X. from his throne. He now became successively minister of public instruc- tion and minister of the interior ; but, in the same year, was driven from office. In 1832 he returned to office, as minister of public instruc- tion, under the administration of Marshal Soult, and continued to hold his place till 1836, when he was appointed on an embassy to England. Here he concluded the treaty of 1810, which filled France with dissatisfaction. In that year, however, he was appointed minister of foreign affairs, which he held till the abdication of Louis-Philippe, in 1818. At that time he fled from France in the disguise of a workman, but returned in the following year, and again en- tered the political arena. He now became active with his pen, and produced many more works ; among which we may notice his " History of Civilization," " History of Oliver Cromwell," " History of Richard Cromwell and the Resto- ration of Charles II.," "Shakspeare and his Times," and "Studies of the Fine Arts in general." b. at Niuies, in the department Card, 1787. Gundling, Nicholas Jerom, gooncC-ling, a German writer on jurisprudence, history, and politics, who was successively professor of philo- sophy, eloquence, and civil law at Halle, b. at Nuremberg, 1671 ; d. at Halle, 1729. Gundulf, gun'-doolf, bishop of Rochester, was one of the Norman ecclesiastics brought over by William the Conqueror. He was a skilful architect; and built that part of the Tower of London called the White Tower, lie also erected Rochester Castle, and rebuilt the cathedral. Died 1108. Gunnt-rus, John Ernest, qoon'-ne-rus, a Nor- wegian divine, who was made bishop of Dron- theirn, in 1758, where he founded the Royal Nor- wegian Society, principally for the encourage- ment of the study of natural history. Linnaeus gave the name of Gunnera to a plant in his vegetable system, n. at Christiana, 1718; d. at Christiansund, 1773. He published " Flora Norwegian," &.c. Gunteb, Edmund, gun-ter, an English phi- losopher, whose genius led him to the study of mathematics, and he became professor of astronomy in Grcsham College. He invented a portable quadrant, which goes by his name, and a scale used by navigators. He also dis- covered the variation of the magnetic needle. B. in Herefordshire, 1581 ; d. in Oxford, 1U2C. lie published " Canon Triangulorum, sive Ta- buhe Sinuum Artificialium," &c. His works were collected into one volume Ito, 1673. Guewood, John, gur'-wood, entered the Bri- tish army in 13j8, and served in the Peninsular war under the duke of Wellington. At the storming of Ciudad Uodrigo, in 1812, he volun- teered to lead the forlorn hope, and took general Barric, the governor, prisoner, whom he carried to the duke of Wellington. " Did you take him?" asked the duke. "Yes," was the rcplj. " Then it is to you that the sword of the general should belong," said the duke, at the same time handing to Gurwood Uarrie's sword. This weapon he wore ever afterwards, and he became a distinguished officer. About 1830 he became private secretary to the duke of Wellington, and, in 1831, commenced issuing "The De- spatches of Field-Marshal the Duke of Welling ton, K.G., during his various Campaigns in OF BIOGRAPHY. Gustavus India, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, the Low Countries, and France, from 1799 to 1813, com- piled from Official and Authentic Documents by Lieutenant-Colonel Gurwood." This work was a decided success, notwithstanding that it ex- tended to thirteen volumes. In 1841 Gurwood Aas made a full colonel, and subsequently be- came deputy-governor of the Tower, b. 179!) ; d. by his own hand, in a fit of insanity, arising from a wound in his head received at Ciudad Eodrigo, 1845. Gustavus I., gus-ta'-vus, king of Sweden, known by the name of Gustavus Vasa, was the son of Eric Vasa, duke of Gripsholm, who was descended from the ancient kings of Sweden, and who was beheaded by the Danish tyrant, Christian II. This sovereign also got Gustavus into his hands, and, in the war in which he re- duced Sweden, kept him several years a prisoner at Copenhagen. At length he made his escape, and having prevailed on the Daleearllans to throw off the Danish yoke, in May, 1521, he found himself at the head of 15,000 men. After various fortunes, he recovered the whole of Sweden from the tyranny of Christian. In 1527 he was crowned king of Sweden, and the crown made hereditary in his family. Luther- anism was established as the national religion of Sweden in his reign, b. at Ockcstadt, near Stockholm, 1190 ; d. in 1559. His name is still revered by every Swede. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, as- cended the throne in 1611, when only in his seventeenth year. Notwithstanding his youth, he displayed great discernment in the choice of able ministers, and distinguished himself in the field, in a war with Denmark, Russia, and Poland. He subsequently rendered his name immortal, by his illustrious achievements in the war he carried on at the head of the German Protestants against the house of Austria. He penetrated from the Vistula to the Danube, and twice defeated the celebrated Tilly. He was a patron of the sciences, enriching the university of Upsal, founding a royal academy at Abo, and a university at Dorpat, in Livonia. This great prince fell in the battle of Lutzen, in 1632, not without suspicion of having been assassinated by the hand of Lawenburg, one of his generals, b. at Stockholm, 1594. There is something sublime in the conduct of Gustavus immediately before en- gaging in the battle at Lntzen. He himself sang a hymn of Luther's, and was followed in chorus by the whole of his troops. After this, he led the attack in person, and slew the fore- most of the enemy with a lance; thus giving promise of the victory which his army obtained, although at an immense sacriiice, over the forces of Wallcnstein, one of the most extraordinary men of his time. Gustavus III., king of Sweden, was the son of Adolphus Frederick and Louisa Ulrica, sister of Frederick II., king of Prussia. He was edu- cated under Count Tessin, whose letters to his royal pupil arewell known. He succeeded his father in 1771, at which time a corrupt senate, composed of two aristocratic factions, called the Hats and Caps, possessed the government, and treated the king as a mere cipher. Gustavus, in the following year, effected a revolution without bloodshed, and established a new constitution. He abolished the practice of torture, and intro- duced other good regulations in the administra- tion of justice. He also formed a college of commerce, reformed his army and navy, caused 473 Guthrie a new translation to be made of the Bible, and greatly encouraged agriculture, arts, and litera- ture. In 1777 he paid a visit to the empress of Russia, and was entertained in a magnificent manner. In 1783 he made a tour for his health to France and Italy, and was absent ten months. He afterwards entered into a war with Russia and Denmark. He headed his army himself, and stormed the defences of Fredericksham, where he took and destroyed a great number of vessels. Encouraged by this success, he made an attack on the Russian squadron and arsenal of Revel, but was obliged to retire. He was equally unfortunate in an attempt on vVybnrg; but, on July 9, 1790, the Swedish fleet, com- manded by the king, gained a victory over the Russians, who lost, forty-five vessels and a great number of men. This was followed by an im- mediate peace. On the breaking out of the French revolution, a coalition was formed be- tween the northern powers and Spain, by which it was agreed that Gustavus should march against France at the head of a considerable army ; but while preparations were making, ho was shot at a masquerade, by Ankarstroem, a disbanded officer of the army. b. 1743 ; assassi- nated 1792. Gustavus wrote some plays, and political pieces of merit. Gustavus IV., king of Sweden, after the as- sassination of his father, ascended the throne, in 1792. His reign was remarkable for the ca- price with which he was permitted to govern, for several years, a brave people. His hatred to Napoleon 1. was of the most intense description, and his avowed attachment to the principles of legitimacy led him to endeavour to restore the Bourbon dynasty to the crown of France. In 1809 he was arrested as a traitor in the name of the nation, and forced to abdicate his crown in favour of Duke Charles of Sudermania, who ascended the vacant throne as Charles XIII. b. 1778 ; d. at St. Gall, Switzerland, 1837. After abdicating his throne, he retired to St. Gall, where he mostly lived afterwards, supporting himself by his writings as an author and his pension as a colonel. He refused all assistance from his family and the people over whom he had reigned. Guicn, John, gutch, an antiquarian writer, who was registrar of the university of Oxford, rector of St. Clement's, and chaplain of All Souls College, published " Collectanea Curiosa," from the MSS. of Archbishop Sancroft, 2 vols. ; "The History and Antiquities of the Colleges, &c., from MSS. in the Bodleian Library, written by Anthony Wood ;" "The Antiquities and Annals of the University," &c. b. 1745; d. 1831. Guthrie, William, guth'-re, a native of Scot- land, and educated at Aberdeen, whose most esteemed work is his geographical grammar. b. 1701 ; d. 1770. He also wrote a " History of Scotland," "A History of the Peerage," "the Friends," a novel; " Remarks on English Tra- gedy," and several other works. Guthrik, Thomas, D.D., an eminent Scottish clergyman and philanthropist, the son of an influential merchant and banker in Brechin, Forfarshire, studied for the church of Scotland at the university of Edinburgh, and after having been licensed to preach by the presbytery of Brechin proceeded to Paris, where he acquired a knowledge of medicine, with the view of being able to assist the poor medically, when engaged in his pastoral duties. On his return to Scotland, he went for a time into his father's banking- THE DICTIONARY Guttenburg house, and in 1830 was ordained minister of the parish of Arbirlot, in his native county. He was afterwards translated to the collegiate church of old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and in 1840 to St. John's, a new church and parish in that city, erected chiefly in consequence of his popularity. He took a prominent part in the non-intrusion controversy, and other ecclesiasti- cal questions, which ended in the disruption of the Established Church of Scotland in 1843, and the institution of the Free Church of that country. He was one of the four leading men of that important movement, the other three being Drs. Chalmers, Cunningham, and Candlish. In 1817, his fervent and heart- stirring appeals to the benevolent, on behalf of the destitute and homeless children of the Scottish capital, led to the establishment of the Edinburgh Original Ragged or Industrial School, which has been productive of incalculable benefit to the poorer classes of that city. B. 1803; n. 1S73. GUTTEIfBERG, Or GUTENBERG, John, goot'-teil- lairg, one of those to whom the invention of the art of printing is attributed, was descended of a noble German family. If he did not invent printing, it is probable he was the first who con- ceived the idea of printing a book, which he executed, first with blocks of wood engraved, and afterwards with separate letters cut in wood. He took, for a partner, John Faust, from whom lie separated, and then printed for himself. There are few particulars of his life and habits, further than that he seems to have been fre- quently in litigation, and to have been a man of considerable ingenuity, b. at Mentz, about 1100; d. there, 1468. In 1837 a splendid monu- ment in bronze was erected to his memory in Mentz, and the Guttenberg Society, with which the writers of the Rhenish provinces are con- nected, hold an annual meeting in Mentz, or Mayence, to. celebrate his great discovery, and in honour of his memory. Guy, Thomas, gi, the humane and charitable founder of Guy's Hospital, was the son of Thomas Guy, a lighterman and coal-dealer in Horsclydown, Southwark. He was bred a book- " seller, "and began trade with only £200. The bulk of his fortune, however, was made by pur- chasing seamen's tickets during Queen Anne's wars, and by speculations in South-Sea stock in the memorable year 1720. Besides the well- known hospital, he erected an almshouse at Tamworth. b. 16 <3; d. 1724, worth £300,003. Guyard, De Berville, ge'-yar, a French writer, who, after a life of extreme distress, died in the prison of the Bicdtre, at the age of 73. b. 1697. lie wrote the lives of Bertrand du Guesclin and of the Chevalier Ilayard. He is not to be oon- founded with Anthony Guyard, a Benedictine monk, who died at Dijon in 1770, and wrote " Political Observations on the Administration of Benefices," &e. Gr/yoy, Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Mothe, ge'-yan-ng, a famous enthusiast, who, at sixteen, married, and became a widow at the age of twenty-eight. She afterwards devoted herself to religious meditation, and imbibed all the mystical conceits of quietism, till she worked herself up into the belief that she was the preg- nantwoman in theApocalypse,andthedestined foundress of a new church. Having gained many followers, she was confined in a convent ; but was released, at the instance of Madame Maintcnon. After this, she was befriended by the 471 Gwynne illustrious Fenelon ; but was treated with great severity by Bossuet of Meaux, by whose means she was sent to the Bastile, whence she was liberated in 1702. b. at Montargis, 1643 ; d. at Blois, 1717. Her works are numerous, and still admired by those who arc fond of mys- ticism. Guyon, General Richard Debaufre, a distin- guished English general in the Hungarian ser- vice. In 1848 he became major of the Honvcds, or national guards of Hungary, and at the battle of Schwech at, fought near Vienna, he was, fof his gallantry, made a colonel on the field Subsequently, at Debreczin, he was raised ta the rank of general. He continued to fight in the cause of Hungary, against the Austrians, throughout the war of 1843-49; but when Gor- gei made an unconditional surrender, he, with Bern, Dembinski, and Kmety, took refuge in Turkey. Here ho remained, protected by the sultan^ and accepted service under his govern- ment. He rose to the rank of lieutenant-general on the staff, and received the title of Kourschid Pasha. In 1853 he was sent to Damascus, and thence proceeded to Kars, where he organized the army, and constructed the defences which subsequently formed a basis for the opcraiions of SirFcnwick Williams in that place, b. near Bath, Somersetshire, 1813 ; d. 185G. Gctyion de Moeveatj, Louis Bernard, ge'- tatcng dai mor'-vo, an eminent French chemist, the son of a lawyer at Dijon, was educated for the bar, and became advocate-general to the parliament of his native city; but applied himself chiefly to natural philosophy and che- mistry, in which latter science he made many discoveries. In 1777 he was appointed to ex- amine the coal-mines of Burgundy, on which he made a mineralogical tour of that province ; and, in the course of these inquiries, he disco- vered a rich lead mine. Soon after this he wrote the articles on chemistry in the "Encyclopedic Methodique;" in 1782 he published "his new chemical nomenclature, paid great attention to the science of aerostation, and by various dis- coveries materially promoted the advance of science. He was one of the earliest and most violent of the revolutionists; nourished a de- termined aversion to the kingly authority and the priesthood ; became successively a member of the Legislative Assembly, the Convention, the Committee of Public Safety, and the Council of Five Hundred, lie was made a member of the Legion of Honour.and a baron of the empire, by Bonaparte ; and was director of the Polytechnic School and administrator of the mint. Besides his share in the " Encyclopedic Methodique," he was one of the principal editors of the "Annals of Chemistry," and wrote some other chemical works, b. 1737; n. 1816. Gwilt, Joseph, gicilt, an eminent English architect, who wrote largely on his profession, and published, with other works, "An Encyclo- paedia of Architecture, Historica], Theoretical, and Practical." He also wrote " Rudiments of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue," and the article on music in the "Encyclopaedia Metropolitana." He held, for thirty years, the appointment of architect to the Grocers' Company, and was, for forty years, one of the surveyors' of the sewers in Surrey, b. in Surrey, J 781; d. 1863. Gwynne, Nell, gmn, an actress, famous for the circumstance of her rising from the lowest situation to be patronized by Charles II. In the early part of her life she entertained companies OV BIOGRAPHY. Gylippus at taverns by singing; and, previous to her winning the affections of the "Merry Monarch," she had formed various questionable connexions. d. 1687. Gylippus, ji-lip'-pus, a Lacedaemonian, sent by his countrymen to assist Syracuse against Jhe Athenians. He obtained a celebrated victory over Nicias and Demosthenes, and obliged them to surrender. After the capture of Athens by Lysander, he was intrusted by the conqueror with the money taken in the plunder, to convey it to Sparta,; but he stole from it three hundred talents. His theft was discovered, and, to avoid the punishment which he deserved, he fled from his country, and tarnished the glory of his vic- torious actions. This, from the establishment of the laws of Lycurgus, was the first instance of any Spartan being infected by a corrupt desire for money. Lived in the 5th century b.c. H Haak, Theodore, hawk, a German writer, who studied at Oxford ; translated the Dutch "An- notations of the Bible," 2 vols., and was one of the founders of the Royal Society, b. at New- hausen, 1605; d. 1690. Haas, William, hawz, a Swiss type-founder and printer, who was the first in Germany and Switzerland to successfully engrave a French type in the style of Baskerville. He invented a new printing-press, also the art of printing geographical charts witii moveable characters. b. at Bale, 1741 ; d. in the canton of Lucerne, 1800. Habingtok, William, hab'-ing-ton, an Eng- lish writer, who was educated in France. He wrote some poems, a play called " Tho Queen of Aragon," and the History of Edward IV. b. in Worcestershire, 1605; d. 1645. The poetry of Habington has both great elegance and poetical fancy: it shows the author to have been possessed, according to Hallam, of a " pure and amiable mind, turned to versification by the custom of the day, during a real passion for a lady of birth and virtue, the Castara whom he afterwards married." Hackaert, John, haV-art, a Dutch artist, who greatly excelled in landscape-painting. b. at Amsterdam, about 1035. Hackeei, Philip, a celebrated German land- scape painter, who was also good at marine subjects, was a native of Prenzlau, in Prussia. His first work of importance was a scries of six large pictures, representing the naval victory of the Russians over the Turks at Tschesine, and *.he burning of the fleet of the latter power in 1770, by Count Orloff, for which the Empress Catharine II. paid the artist £1350. The pic- tures were sent to Count Orlotf, who, being dissatisfied with the way in which the blowing- up of a ship was depicted, ordered one of his ships to be blown up in the roads of Leghorn in order to let the painter see what such a scene was really like. The experiment, though costly, was not lost, for Hackert altered and greatly improved the picture. He was subsequently much engaged in painting scenes on the coast of Italy, particularly Naples and Sicily, many of which he executed fur the king. His drawings are very numerous, and his paintings are not scarce: many of them have been engraved, lie painted in oil, encaustic, and in body water- colour, i). 1737; l). 1807. 4JH Haghe Hacket, John, D.D., hak'-et, an English divine, who was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1661 he became bishop of Lich - field and Coventry, and wrote a Latin comedv, twice acted before James I.; a Life of Arch- bishop Williams, and " Christian Consolations." " What a delightful and instructive book Bishop Hacket's ' Life of Archbishop Williams' is !" exclaims Coleridge ; " you learn more from it of that which is valuable towards an insight into the times preceding the civil wars, than from all the ponderous histories and memoirs now composed about that period." b. in London, 1592 ; d. 1670. Haddik, Andrew, Count von, had'-ik, a Ger- man field-marshal, who distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war, and who, in 1789, had the chief command of the Austrian forces against the Turks. He was equally renowned for his bra- very and skill, and has rarely been equalled as a commander of cavalry, b. 1710; d. 1790. Haddost, Walter, hud'-don, an English lawyer, who, on the deprivation of Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, from the mastership of Trinity Hall, was selected to fill the vacant office. He was afterwards president of Magdalen College, Oxford ; but during the reign of Mary was com- pelled to seek retirement. Under Elizabeth he became judge of the prerogative court; and was one of the three commissioners who met at Bruges in 1566, to arrange a treaty of commerce between England and the Netherlands. He was otherwise much employed by the govern- ment ; particularly in drawing up the celebrated code, " Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum." He wrote various poems and treatises in Latin, the purity and elegance of which are highly commended, b. 1516; d. 1572. Hadley, John, htid'-le, the author of seve- ral philosophical papers which appeared in the " Transactions of the Royal Society," and the reputed inventor of the sextant which bears his name. Being on intimate terms with Sir Isaac Newton, it is generally believed that lie borrowed the idea of the sextant from that great man, an account of which was commu- nicated by Hadley to the "Philosophical Trans- actions" for 1731. Hadley became a member of tho Royal Society in 1717, and died in 1711. Hadrian. (See Adrian.) Hjjmon, he'-mon, a Theban youth, son of Creon, who was so captivated with the beauty of Antigone, that lie killed himself on her tomb when he heard that she had been put to death by his father's orders. Hafiz, Mohammed-Shems-Eddin, hii'-fiz, a celebrated Persian poet, whose muse delighted to depict the pleasures of love and wine. He was invited to the court of the sultan of Bagdad, but he seems to have passed the greater portion of his life in his native town. His effusions principally consist of odes and elegies, and were, after his death, given to the world under the title of " The Divan." b. at Shiraz, about the beginning of the 14th century; d. about 1333. Haghe, Louis, hag, a distinguished Belgian lithographer, who went t.o London, and, in con- nexion with Mr. Day, under the linn of Day and Haghe, issued many superior works. Among these may be noticed "Roberts' Sketches in the Holy Land, Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia." Subsequently, Mr. Haghe "devoted himself to water-colour painting, and became a leading member of the New Society of Painters in Water-colours. Many of his works consist of THE DICTIONARY Hagedorn the antique interiors of Flemish town-halls and churches, which have received well-merited admiration, b. in Belgium, 1802. Hagedobn, Frederic, hag'-dorn, an eminent German poet, was educated in the college of Hamburg ; came to London in the suite of the Danish ambassador ; and, in 1733, was ap- pointed secretary to the English factory at Hamburg. He was the author of fables, songs, tales, and moral poems ; in all of which there is considerable originality, and many of them are very graceful, b. 1708; d. 1754. Hageb, Joseph von, ha'-jer, professor of the oriental languages in the university of Pavia, who devoted himself to the acquisition of a critical knowledge of the Chinese tongue. He resided some time in London, and afterwards in Paris, in both of which cities he published books explanatory of the Chinese language. Among his works are, " The Chinese Pantheon," " An Explanation of the Elementary Characters of the Chinese Language," " A Dissertation on the newly-discovered Rabylonian Inscriptions," &e. B. at Milan, 1750; d. there, 1820. Hague, Dr. Charles, haig, an eminent mu- sician, who, in 1799, succeeded Dr. Randall in the professorship of music at Cambridge. He composed a variety of excellent glees aiid other pieces, all remarkable for purity and good taste. B. 1760; D. 1821. Hahnemann, Samuel, han'-man, a German physician, the founde*-*! the system of medi- cinal practice to which he gave the name of the " Homoeopathic," and, after years of study, succeeded in establishing himself at Leipsic, where he was successful in gaining numerous adherents to his system. As he was ruining the apothecaries, however, they rose against him, and in a court of law, it was decided, by an old decree, that no physician could dispense his own prescriptions. Accordingly, he quitted Leipsic, and found an asylum in the dominions of the duke of Anhalt-Cothen, where, at Cothcn, he obtained a new practice. In 1829 his dis- ciples in that place struck a medal in honour of him. In 1835 he married a French lady, with whom he removed to Paris, where, to com- memorate his arrival in the French capital, another medal was struck, in gold, silver, and bronze. Here he enjoyed a wide reputation up to the time of his death, b. in Saxony, 1755; d. at Paris, 1813. IIakewill, George, hake'-Kill, an English divine, studied at Alban Hall, Oxford, alter which he became fellow of Exeter College. Having taken his degree of D.D., he was made chaplain to Prince Charles, and archdeacon of Surrey; but never rose higher in the church, owing to his writing a tract against the pro- posed marriage of his patron with the infanta of Spain. For this he not only lost his chap- laincy, but was sent to prison, though he soon obtained his release. Some time after, he was elected rector of Exeter College, which he held with the living of Heanton, in Devonshire. His greatest work is entitled "An Apology or Declaration of the Power and Providence of God in the Government of the World." b. 1579 ; D. 1649. Hakltttt, Richard, liaV-Ute, an English divine, who was distinguished for his skill in cosmography.and published a curious collection of voyages, in 3 vols, folio. In 1605 he was made prebendary of Westminster, besides which he had the benefice of Wetheringsett, in Suffolk. 476 Hale B. in London or its vicinity, 1553 ; d. 1616. Ilia countrymen, out of rcspsct to his labours, named a promontory on the coast of Greenland Hakluyt's Headland. Of "Hakluyt's Voyages" it has been said that they redound as much to the glory of the English nation as any book that ever was published in it. In the first edition is a map, says Hallam, which " represents the utmost limit of geographical knowledge at the close of the sixteenth century, and far excels the maps in the edition of Orellius at Antwerp, in 1558." Haldane, Robert and James Alexander, haul-dane, two brothers, the sons of Captain James II aldane, the representative of the barons of Gleneagles, in Perthshire, by the sister of Ad- miral Duncan, Lord Camperdown, both of whom played a prominent part in the religious move- ments of the beginuing of the 19th century. They both began life as seamen, Robert in the royal navy, and James in the service of the Fast India Company. They soon, however, quitted the naval profession, and devoted themselves to the propagation of religion, Robert directinghis attention to the spread of the gospel among the natives of India, to which work he not only gave his time and his labours, but spent almost his entire patrimony in the effort; while James became an itinerant preacher in Scotland, over the whole of which he travelled, addressing large audiences, and producing a profound im- pression by his stirring and animated appeals to the consciences of his hearers. The vehe- mence of his style of preaching procured him the title of the " Scottish Boanerges." These brothers were both held in high esteem by a portion of the religious public for their benevo- lent efforts ; though it is also true that James met with considerableopposition from asectionof the clergy, and was ridiculed by some of the laity for the extravagance of language in which he occasionally indulged. Both, however, were well- meaning men, though perhaps over-enthusiastic and a little visionary. They were each authors of various works : Robert of an " Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans," " On the Evidences and Authority of Divine Revelation," " On the Inspiration of Scripture;" and James, of a " Treatise on the Doctrine of the Atonement," &e. Robert died in 1812, aged 79; and James in 1851. Hale, Sir Matthew, hail, an English judge, who was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, whence he removed to Lincoln's Inn, where he followed the study of the law with great appli- cation. He was one of Archbishop Laud's counsel, and acted in the same capacity for Charles I. He took, however, the Covenant and Engagement, and accepted of a judge's place on the common bench, from Cromwell. On the death of Oliver, he refused to act under his son Richard. In the parliament which recalled Charles II. he sat for his native county, and after the Restoration, was, in 1G60, made" chief baron of the Exchequer; whence, in 1671, he was advanced to the chief-justiceship of the King's Bench. He resigned his office in 1675, and died the next year. n. at Alderley, Glou- cestershire, 1609. Cowpcr, in his " Task,"" speaks of him as — " Immortal Hale ! for deep discernment praised And sound integrity, not more than famed For sanctity of manners undelilcd." His writings are numerous on theological, plu« losophical, and legal subjects. OF BIOGRAPHY. Hale Hall Hale, Mrs. Sarah, an American authoress, who wrote several novels, and other works of merit. She edited " The Ladies' Magazine," at Boston ; " The Ladies' New Book of Cookery ;" and produced " Woman's Reeord.or Sketches of distinguished Women, from the Beginning till 1850 a.d." b. at Newport, New Hampshire, 1795. Hales, John, hails, commonly called "the ever-memorable," suffered great hardships in the rebellion, and was a man of learning and skill in argument, as appears from his works, which were collected after his death, and pub- lished under the title of " Golden Remains of the ever-memorable Mr. John Hales, of Eton College," 3 vols. b. at Bath, 1584; d. 1656. Hales, Stephen, an English divine and natu- ral philosopher of great eminence, was brought up at Benet College, Cambridge, of which he became fellow in 1703. He ardently entered upon the study of botany and experimental philosophy, and invented a machine for demon- strating the motions of the planets, nearly similar to the orrery. In 1741 he made public his system of ventilating close and unhealthy places, which was at last introduced into New- gate, and greatly reduced the mortality there. He was greatly esteemed by Frederick, prince of Wales, and was almoner to the princess. B.in Kent, 1677 ; d. 1761. His communications to the " Philosophical Transactions" were nume- rous; besides which, he published two volumes of " Statical Essays," &c, and was an early ad- vocate of temperance. His " Friendly Admoni- tion to the Drinkers of Gin" was first published in 1734, and has frequently been reprinted. Halfokd, Sir Henry, M.D., hat-ford, was the physician of four successive British sove- reigns—George III., George IV., William IV., and Queen Victoria. He was president of the Royal College of Physicians from 1820 till the time of his death. In 1831 a collective edition of his essays and orations was published, and pronounced by the " London Quarterly Review" to be " a delightful compound of professional knowledge and literary taste. Handled with skill and feeling such as his, subjects of medical research have not only nothing dry or repulsive about them, but are of deep and universal interest and attraction." The original name of Sir Henry was Vaughan, which, on coming into the pos- session of a large fortune by the death of Sir Charles H afford, his mother's cousin, he ex- ihanged for that name. b. at Leicester, 1766; D. 1844. Hai.hed, Nathaniel Brassey, hal'-hed, a dis- tinguished oriental scholar, was educated at Harrow School, and afterwards became a civil officer in the East India Company's service. He published "A Code of Gentoo Laws on Ordina- tions of the Pundits, from a Persian Transla- tion ;" " A Grammar of the Bengal Language;" and " A Narrative of the Events which have happened in Bombay and Bengal, relative to the Mahratta Empire, since July, 1777." He subsequently returned to Englaud, and was chosen member of Parliament for Lymington ; and became somewhat notorious in consequence of having patronized and dclended a lunatic prophet named Brothers, whose confinement in Bedlam he denounced in Parliament as an in- stance of tyranny and oppression, b. 1751 ; d. 1830 HALiBUBTON.Thomas Chandler, h&l'-i-bur-ton, popularly known by the name of "Sam Slick," v,aj lor a long time a judge of Nova Scotia. In 477 1835 he contributed a series of essays to a weekly paper in that country, professing to paint the peculiarities of Yankee character. These were well received, and, in 1837, they were collected and published under the title of the " Clock- maker; or, the Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville." A second series appeared in 1838, and a third in 184' >. In 1842 he visited England as an attache to the American legation, and, in the following year, embodied, in a work called " The Attache," the results of his obser- vations made in that country. This went through several editions. Besides these works, Mr. Haliburton published " Bubbles of Canada;" " An Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia;" "The Old Judge; or, Life in a Colony;" "Traits of American Humour;" " Yankee Stories ;" " Nature, and Human Na- ture;" and a few others. In 1859 he was re- turned to the House of Commons, as member for Launceston. b. in Nova Scotia, 1796 ; d. at Isleworth, 1865. Halifax, George Savilc, Marquis of, hal'-e- faks, an eminent English statesman, who was created marquis in 1682. Charles II. made him a privy councillor, and lord privy seal. He was also offered the post of secretary of state, and that of lord-lieutenant of Ireland, but declined both. On the accession of James II., he was appointed president of the council, from which he was dismissed for refusing his consent to a repeal of the tests. In the Convention Parliament he- was chosen speaker of the House of Lords, and, at the accession of William and Mary, was made lord privy seal. In 1639 he resigned that office, and became an opponent of the government. b. 1630; d. 1695. His lordship wrote an excel- lent piece, entitled "Advice to a Daughter." Macaulay says of Halifax, that at the inroads made by James on the constitution, when oppo- sition first appeared in the cabinet, Halifax courageously gave utterance to those feelings which, as it soon appeared, pervaded the whole nation. Halifax, George Montagu, Karl of, a states- man in the reigns of William III. and Anne assisted Prioi in the composition of the "Story of the Country Mouse and the City Mouse," designed to ridicule Dryden's " Hind and Panther." He also wrote several other pieces. He is believed to be the person satirized by Pope, under the name of Buffo, in the " Prologue to the Satires." b. in Northampton- shire, 1661 ; d. 1715. Halkkt, Lady Anna, hal'-ket, an English lady, the daughter of Robert Murray, preceptor to Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I. In 1656 she married Sir James Halket. She pro- duced twenty-one volumes, in folio and 4to, on religious subjects. From these, a volume of Meditations was printed at Edinburgh, in 1701. b. in London, 1622; D. 1699. Hall, Edward, hawl, an old English chro- nicler, who^c works rank with those of Holin- shed and r-towe, was a native of London, and being a lawyer by profession, attained the rank ofa judge m the sberitf's court. As affording delineations of the manners, dress, and customs of the age, his "Chronicle," which was com- pleted by (i raft on. is very curious, d. 1547. Hall, Kichard, an English divine of the Romish church, who, in the reign of Elizabeth, went to Flanders, and became professor of divinity at Douay, and canon of St. Omer. He published, among other works, a "History of THE DICTIONARY Hall the Troubles of his Time," in which he is very severe on the Protestants. ». 1604. Hall, Joseph, an English prelate and distin- guished scholar, was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellow- ship. In 1597 he published his " Virgidemia- rura Liber," a series of satires, which were re- printed at Oxford in 1753. Of this wort Pope said, "it was the best poetry and the truest satire in the English language." He professed himself to be the first English satirist, as is evident by the following egotistic couplet : — " I first adventure ; follow me who list, And be the second English satirist." Hallam, however, questions his claim to be the first English satirist, and puts Gascoigne before him. About 1603 he was presented to the rectory of Hawsted, in Suffolk, which he re- signed on obtaining Waltham, in Essex. Henry Prince of Wales appointed him his chaplain, and had a great regard for him. In 1610 he obtained the deanery of Worcester, and two years afterwards was appointed one of the Eng- lish divines at the synod of Dort. In 1627 he was promoted to the bishopric of Exeter, whence, in 1641, he was translated to Norwich. b. at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 1574; n.near Norwich, 1656. His works have been published in three vols, folio, and abound in fine thoughts, ex- pressed in excellent language. He has been generally called the English Seneca. A great authority, speaking of the works of this writer, says — " His ' Art of Divine Meditation,' his 'Contemplations,' and, indeed, many of his writings, remind us frequently of Taylor. Both had equally pious and devotional tempers ; both were full of learning ; both fertile of illustra- tion; both may be said to have strong imagi- nation and poetical genius, though Taylcr let his predominate a little more. Taylor is also more subtle and argumentative. ... I do not know that any third writer comes close to either." Hall, Captain Basil, R.N., was the son of Sir James Hall, the fourth baronet of Dunglass, and, in 1802, entered the British navy. For many years he was actively engaged in various parts of the globe, but is principally known by his popular books of voyages and travels, the titles of the most esteemed of which are " Voyage to the West Coast of the Corea and the Great Loo-Choo Island," which was fa- vourably received; "Travels in North America;" " Fragments of Voyages and Travels," of which appeared several series, and which met with general favour. These, however, are but a few of his numerous writings, which embrace a con- siderable variety of subjects. These works ex- tend to numerous volumes ; but, as a general estimate of his talents as a writer, the following criticism appeared in the " London Quarterly Beview :" — " Few writers lay themselves more open to quizzing ; few can prese and bore more successfully than he does now and then; but the captain's merit is real and great; he imparts a freshness to whatever he touches, and carries the reader with untiring good-humour cheerily along with him. Turn where we will, we have posies of variegated flowers presented to us, and we are sure to find in every one of them, whether sombre or gay, a sprig of Basil." He wrote with great facility. Some time before his death he was deprived of the use of his reason, b. in Edinburgh, 17S3; d. in confine- ment, 184k 478 Haller Hall, Robert, one of the most distinguished of modern divines in the Baptist connexion. His ministerial duties were performed during life in Cambridge, Leicester, and Bristol, where he died, 1831. b. at Arnsby, Leicestershire, 1764. As a preacher, Mr. Hall had a great reputation. " In the eloquence of the pulpit," says Lord Brougham, "Robert Hall comes nearer Massillon than either Cicero or jEschines to Demos- thenes." As a writer, he stands equally high. " Whoever wishes to see the English language in its perfection," says Dugald Stewart, " must read the writings of that great divine, Robert Hall. He combines the beauties of Johnson, Addison, and Burke, without their imperfec- tions." Hall, Samuel Carter, a modern litterateur and lecturer, successfully edited several periodi- cals; among which we may mention "The New Monthly Magazine," "The Amulet," " The Book of Gems," and " The Art Journal." He is best known, however, by his share in an illustrated work on Ireland, written in conjunc- tion with his wife. b. at Topsham, Devonshire, 1801. Hall, Anna Maria, the wife of the above, whose maiden name was Fielding, is a native of Ireland, and well known by her admirable de- lineations of Irish life and humour. She has written many works of fiction, and composed some minor dramas, besides being a large con- tributor to the periodical literature of the day. B. in Dublin in the present century. Hallam, Henry, LL.D., hal'-lam, one of the most distinguished of modern writers, was educated at Eton and Oxford, after which he took up his residence in London, where he ever afterwards principally lived. He was the esteemed friend of Sir Walter Scott, and, about the same period, was engaged with him as a contributor to the pages of the " Edinburgh Review." He greatly assisted in achieving the abolition of the slave-trade, and became a foreign associate of the Institute of France. In 1830 he received one of the two fifty-guinea gold medals awarded by George IV. for emi- nence in historical composition, whilst Wash- ington Irving, the American writer, received the other. He wrote three great works, of which it is unnecessary to say more than that cither of them is sufficiently meritorious to con- fer literary immortality upon the author. They arc entitled — 1. "A View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages;" 2. "The Constitu- tional History of England from the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George II.;" 3. "An Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seven- teenth Centuries." In 1862 a monumental statue of this great writer was erected in St. Paul's Cathedral, London, by public subscrip- tion, b. 1778; d. 1859. Henry Hallam was singularly unfortunate in seeing his two sons, young men of great promise, die before the hand of death was laid upon the father. It was to the memory of one of these loved friends that Tennyson wrote the poem of " In Jlemo- riam." Halleu, Albert von, hal'-hr, a famous phy- sician, who, at a very early age, indicated the possession of considerable genius, particularly lor poetry. His reputation procured him a medical professorship at Gottingen, where he afterwards became president of the Academj. He was also a member of most of the l«arned OF BIOGRAPHY. Halley societies in Europe, b. at Berne, 1708; d. there, 1777. The poems of Haller are descriptive and slegant. Besides these, he published a number of works on medical subjects.— His son, who followed in his father's footsteps, produced an esieemed work, entitled "A Literary Biography of the Swiss." d. 1786. Halley, Edmund, LL.D., hal'-le, a celebrated English astronomer, was educated at St. Paul's School, whence he was sent to Queen's College, Oxford, where he applied himself principally to the study of mathematics and astronomy. He made a number of observations, and having formed the design of completing the scheme of the heavens by the addition of the stars near the south pole, he went to St. Helena in 1676, and finished his catalogue. On his return he was chosen a fellow of the lloyal Society, and in 1679 went to Dantzie, to confer with Hevelius about the dispute between him and Dr. Hooke, respecting the preference of plain or glass sights in astronomical instruments. In 1630 appeared the great comet, known as Halley's comet, and which he first observed in his pas- sage from Dover to Calais. He afterwards com- pleted his observations upon it at the Royal Observatory at Paris. In 1636 Sir Isaac Newton committed to his care the publication of his " Principia," to which Halley prefixed some Latin verses. In 1698 he sailed along the coasts of Africa, America, &e., for the pur- pose of trying his theory of the variation of the compass. The year following ho made another voyage with the same design, and, from his ob- servations, constructed his general chart, ex- hibiting the variation of the compass in most parts of the ocean. He was subsequently sent on a third voyage to ascertain the course of the tides in the British Channel ; and of these he also published a chart. Soon after he went, at the request of the emperor of Germany, to survey the Adriatic, and to examine two ports which the emperor intended to establish there. On his return, in 1703, the degree of doctor of laws was conferred on him by the university of Oxford. He was also appointed Savilian pro- fessor of geometry at Oxford, and had the half- pay of a captain in the navy settled on him. In 1713 he was chosen secretary to the Royal Society, and in 1719 made astronomer royal. b. in London, 1656; n. 1743. Dr. Halley pub- lished several papers in the " Philosophical Transactions," a set of Astronomical Tables, and an edition of Apollonius's works, folio, 1710. He excelled in many departments of learning and scientific research. Halliwell, James Orchard, hal'-U-wel, an eminent English author, who produced and edited many valuable works, chiefly illustrative of past ages. Their number is too great to be enumerated here, but his greatest work is a grand edition of Shakspeare, with a new colla- tion of the early editions, and with all the original tales and novels on which the plays are founded. Copious archaeological illustrations accompany each play, and a life of the poet is given. A copy of this work costs £63. The edition was limited to 150 copies, b. in Surrey, 1S20. Hamilcar Bahcas, ha-mil'-lcar, a celebrated Carthaginian general, who commanded the Car- thaginians in the 18th year of the first Punic war. Fell in a battle against the natives of fcpain, 229 b.c. HAsriLTON,Patrick,fc his justice and skill as lord chancellor. In 484 Hare 1719 he was elected into Parliament for Lewes, in Sussex ; after serving the offices ol solicitor and attorney-general, he was, in 1733, appointed chief justice of the King's Bench, and created a peer. In 1736 he was madt; lord chancellor, which situation he held twenty years. In 1751 he was created earl of Hariwicke. In all his offices, particularly the last, he so conducted himself as to acquire the esteem ot all parties, and the veneration of posterity b. -it Dover, 1690 ; D. 1764. Haedt, Sir Charles, har'-di, nn English ad- miral, and the grandson ci an eminent uavji commander of the same name, in the reigc of Queen Anne. He had the command or the Channel fleet in 1779, and died the same vcar. Habdy, Vice-admiral Sir Thomas, G.C.B., a gallant naval officer, the friend and brother-in- arms of Nelson, whose last breath he received on board the Victory. Hardy entered the navy as a midshipman on board the Helena, Ot 3 J guns, at twelve years of age, and in November, 1793, was made lieutenant in the Mcleaqer, be- longing to the squadron commanded by Nelson, under whose notice he was thus brought. He was thenceforth constantly employed under England's great naval hero, who, in 1797, pro- moted him to the command of the brig La Miitine, to the capture of which he had mainly contributed. His unvarying bravery and skill, and particularly his conduct at the battle of the Nile, in which his vessel, La Mtitine, was the only single decker present, induced Nelson to select him for the command of the Vanguard. In July, 1803, he became flag-captain to Nelson. on board the Victor;/, and he it was who, on the fatal but glorious 21st of October, 1805, received the last orders of the greatest naval warrior that ever lived. For his services at Trafalgar Hardy was created a baronet; and after thirty- six years of arduous and efficient service in every quarter of the globe, he was, in 1831, appointed to the honourable post of governor of Greenwich Hospital, where he constantly resided till the close of his valuable life. b. 1768; d. 1839. Hahdt, Rt. Hon. Gathorne, under-secretary for the home department under Lord Derby in 1858, and secretary of state for the home depart- ment from May, 1807, to December, 1303. b. at Bradford, 1814. Haedyng, John, har'-ding, an old English historian, who, entering in his youth the service of Sir Henry Percy, eldest son of the duke of Northumberland, surnamed Hotspur, fought under his banner at the battles of Homildon and Cokelawe. In 1105 he was made constable of Warkworth Castle, in Northumberland ; in 1415 he accompanied King Henry to Harlieur; and his account of the march which preceded the battle of Agincourt forms one of the most striking episodes in his metrical "Chronicle;" the composition of which was the scle occupa- tion of his old age. It has been edited by Sir Henry Ellis, n. 1378; d. about 1465. Hare, Julius Charles, hair, a distinguished English divine and essayist, and one of the leaders of that section of the Church called "Broad Church." In conjunction with his bro- ther Augustus William, and others, he wrote "Guesses at Truth," a book which has strongly affected thinkers and scholars. He assisted Bishop Thirlwall in translating Niebuhr's "History of Rome." In 1848 he edited the re- mains of John Sterling, and was fellow of OF BIOGRAPHY. Har graves Trinity College, Cambridge, rector of Hurst- moneeux, and chaplain to the queen. His life was spent in earnestly searching after truth, many short works on philosophy, divinity, ser- mons, &c, attesting his industry, b. 1796; D. 1855. Hargbaves, Edmund Hammond, kar'-graivs, an English traveller, celebrated for having first pointed out the existence of gold in Australia, served for some time on board a merchant vessel, but emigrated to Australia in 1833. In 1849 he went to California, where, while search- ing for " placers," he was struck with the simi- larity of the Californian soil to that which he had left. Strongly impressed with the idea, he, on his return to Sydney, in 1851, set out to- wards the Blue Mountains. Accompanied by a young guide, he reached the Macquarrie river, and there saw traces of the precious metal. Returning to Sydney, he induced the authorities to organize an expedition to search for gold. Hardly had it reached the place he had pointed out, when a large quantity of gold was disco- vered. The gold fever immediately set in. The colony he had enriched by his sagacity and dis- interested perseverance has marked its grati- tude by conferring on him a handsome pension. He was the author of "Australia and its Gold Fields." b. at Gosport, Sussex, 1815. Hargreaves, James, har'-greeves, a cele- brated English mechanician, who, while work- ing as a poor weaver at Stanhill, Lancashire, conceived the idea of imitating, by machinery, the action of the spinner seated at her wool- wheel; by means of which, the "roving" of wool could be extended indefinitely; and, after having been twisted, wound on the c*pe or spindle. This was the origin of the celebrated " spinning jenny ;" and even at the period of its first construction (1768), it produced more work than the combined efforts of thirty spin- ners with the old wheel. Arkwright and others have since completed the invention ; the machinery of cotton-spinning being, at the pre- sent day, among the very best and simplest of all mechanical contrivances. The cotton- spinners, who had hitherto worked by hand, imagining that their trade would be ruined by the new machine, besieged the house of the inventor, and endeavoured to destroy his "jen- nies." He removed to Nottingham, and very shortly after, his invention was superseded by the improvements effected by lUchard Ark- wright ; and he died in poverty, about 1770. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, har'-le, a distinguished statesman during the reign of Queen Anne, whose weak mind was alternately swayed by him and the celebrated duchess of Marlborough. He was a patron of literature, as well as a great collector of literary treasures. His collection of MSS., which was purchased for the British Museum for ±10,000, contains sources of information on almost every subject, and has been freely referred to in Macaulay's " History of England." Impeached for treason by the Whig party, in the year 1715, he was confined in the Tower during two years ; but on the Commons declining to prosecute, on his own petition he was released in 1717, and re- tired into privacy, when ho brought together the splendid collection known as the " Harleian Manuscripts." b. in London, 1661 ; d. 1724. Harlow, George Henry, kar'-lo, an English portrait and historical painter, who possessed a remarkable facility for drawing and colouring. 430 Harrington He worked for some time in Sir Thomas Law- rence's studio, which was all the training ho received in his art. When at Rome, he finished a copy of Raffaelle's "Transfiguration" in eighteen days ; Canova said it looked more like trie work of eighteen weeks. The most cele- brated of his historical pieces is " The Trial of Queen Catharine," in which Mrs. Siddons is drawn as the queen, and all the principal cha- racters arc portraits of the Kemble family. Although he died almost as soon as he had reached manhood, he achieved a very great deal in his profession, b. in London, 1787; d. 1819. Harmodius. (See Aristogiton.) Harold I., har -old, surnamed Harefoot, king of England, was the son of Canute I. ; but his legitimacy being questioned, Egelnoth, archbis- hop of Canterbury .refused to consecrate any but the sons of Emma. Harold, however, seized upon the throne in 1035, and divided the king- dom with his brother Hardicanute {see Hardi- canute), and in 1037 he was crowned king of all England, d. 1040. Harold II., was the second son of Godwin, earl of Kent, who had been the favourite during the preceding reign. On the death of Edward the Confessor, in 1066, he seized on the throne. His younger brother, Tostig, at the head of the king of Norway's army, invaded the kingdom; Harold met him, however, in 1066, when a battle ensued on the Derwent, and Tostisr was killed. Scarcely had he disposed of this foe, when his kingdom was invaded by William duke of Normandy, known as William the Conqueror, and, in "the celebrated battle of Hastings, Harold fell, pierced through the head by an arrow, b. a few years before the close of the 10th century ; killed 1006. Haeoun-al-Rasciiid, ha'-roon al rnsh'-id (" the Dispenser of Justice"), a celebrated Eastern caliph, who was the great patron of arts and letters in his time, and the magnificence of whose court is constantly referred to in Eastern literature to this day. b. 756 ; d. 809. Harpalus, har'-pa-lus, a Grecian astronomer, who corrected the cycle of eight years, which was invented by Cleostratus, and adopted one of nine, which was afterwards improved by Meton. Lived in the 5th century b.c. Harpalus, a Macedonian chieftain, to whom Alexander committed the charge of the treasures at Babylon, when he went to the East. He squandered away a large part of the riches, and tied with the remainder. Assassinated at Crete, 325 B.C. Hakpe, John Francis do la, harp, a celebrated writer and critic, who, after publishing some lesser pieces, brought forth, in 1764, his tragedy of" The Earl of Warwick," which was received with applause. This was followed by a number of dramatic pieces of great merit; also poems, which gained prizes from different academies. His ulogcs on Fen^lon, Racine, Catinat, and Charles V., wore also greatly admired; but his principal work is his "Lycie," or "Complete Course of Literature." b. 1739; d. 1S08. Harrington, Sir John, har 1 -ring-ton, an English poet, wit, and satirist. He published a translation of Ariosto's " Orlando Furioso," and received the honour of knighthood on the field from the earl of Essex; and in the reitrn of James I. was made a knight of the Bath. B. 1561 ; D. 1612. Harrington, James, a political writer. On leaving Trinity College, Oxford, he at first THE DICTIONARY Harriot joined the parliamentary forces against. Charles I., but afterwards became an attendant on his majesty. On the king's death, he devoted his time to study, and composed his " Oceana," a political romance, in which he defended repub- licanism. Tins work occasioned a great con- troversy, and the author formed a society upon its principles. In 1661 he was sent, on a charge of treason, to the Tower; whence he was re- moved to St. Nicholas's Island, near Plymouth, but was afterwards released on bail. u. 1611; D. 1677. Harriot, Thomas, har-re-ot, an eminent astronomer and mathematician, who accompa- nied Sir Walter Raleigh to Virginia, which country he surveyed and mapped. Documents, found after his death, prove him to have disco- vered the solar spots prior to their being de- scribed by Galileo ; he is also said to have first observedthe satellites of Jupiter, although this discovery has been assigned to Galileo, b. at Oxford, 1560; d. 1621. Harris, John, har'-ris, an English divine and mathematician, who was secretary to the Royal Society. He published a translation of Pardie's "Elements of Geometry," but is best known by having first projected a cyclopaedia or dic- tionary of sciences. This work appeared in 1710, in 2 vols, folio, entitled, "Lexicon Tech- nologicum ; " and a supplementary volume was added to it in 1736. b. about 1667 ; d. 1719. Harris, James, a philosophical writer, who, after leaving Wadham College, Oxford, sat in Parliament for Christ Church, Hampshire, and in 1763 was appointed commissioner of the Ad- miralty, but was afterwards removed to the Treasury board. In 1774 he was made secretary and comptroller to the queen. He wrote three treatises, entitled, "Art," "Music, Painting, and Poetry," and " Happiness ;" " Hermes, or a Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar;" and several other phisological works. B. 1709; D. 1780. Harris, General Lord George, entered the army as a cadet in the royal artillery, before he was thirteen years of age, in 1759. He served during the campaign in America, and received a wound in the head at the battle of Bunker's Hill, which obliged him to be soithome; but he returned in time to take the field previously 'jO the army landing on Long Island. He sub- sequently distinguished himself in India, and continued in active service until the capture of Seringapatam ; when his services were rewarded with the honours of the Bath and a British peerage. He was colonel of the 73rd Kegiment, and governor of Dumbarton Castle, d. 1829. Harris, Sir William Snow, a distinguished na- tural philosopher and electrician, who introduced an improved form of lightning-conductor into the British navy; he also invented a new steering-compass; received one of the gold medals of the Royal Society, of which he was a fellow, and was knighted in 1817 for his emi- nent scientific services. He was the author of several volumes and pamphlets on electricity and magnetism ; a large work on thunderstorms ; and many valuable reports by him are included in the Transactions of the learned societies. B. at Plymouth, 1791 ; d. 1867. Harbison, John, har'-ri-son, one of the mem- bers of the High Court of Justice which sat in judgment on Charles I., and condemned him to death. He was the son of a butcher, and rose by bravery and merit to the rank of colonel in 483 Harvey the parliamentary army. He was executed, with nine others of those who signed the king's death warrant, at the Restoration, 1660. Harrison, John, an eminent mechanician, who, though he began life as a carpenter, dis- played such great mechanical powers, that a wooden clock he had constructed was universally admired for its accuracy. Encouraged by his success, he constructed a time-keeper, with which he, in 1735, travelled from Lincolnshire to London. Halley, Graham, and other eminent astronomers admitted its excellence, and pro- cured him a passage to Lisbon in a man-of-war, with the view of correcting the longitude by its means. An act had been passed in 1714, offer- ing £20,000 for a method of ascertaining the longitude within thirty miles. By means of his instrument Harrison had ascertained the longi- tude within eighteen miles, and he accordingly claimed the reward. After a long delay, and con- siderable discussion, he received the whole of the £20,000 in 1767. Though he possessed the greatest scientific abilities, he was almost inca- pable of communicating his knowledge clearly in writing or speaking, b. near Pontefract, 1693; d. in London, 1776. Harrison, William Henry, one of the presi- dents of the United States, who, by reason of his military and civil services, acquired great popularity, and was elected president in 1840, but died only one month after his installa- tion, being the first president who died in office. He communicated a valuable essay on the " Aborigines of the Ohio Valley" to the Philoso- phical Society of Ohio. b. in Virginia, 1773 ; d. at Washington, 1841. Harrison, Thomas, an architect, who, be- sides erecting a number of public buildings in Liverpool, Manchester, Chester, and other towns, designed for the late earl of Elgin the mansion of Broomhall, in Scotland. It is in the Grecian- Doric style, and has been pronounced a very fine specimen of the classical taste of the archi- tect. B. 1744; D. 1819. Hart, Solomon Alexander, R.A., hart, professor of painting in the Royal Academy, began his career as a miniature-painter, but in 18"i3 abandoned it for oil-painting, on meeting with some success in the latter walk. The first work which attracted general notice was " The Elevation of the Law," a representation of a circumstance of Jewish worship. He has since painted several pictures of the same nature. His style is marked by carefulness and correct drawing. He also painted many large por- traits, b. at Plymouth, 1806. Hartington, theRt. Hon. Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquis of, har' -ting-ton, eldest son of the duke of Devonshire, returned for North Lancashire in 1857, and in April, 1S63, became under-scerctary of state for war. He held office as secretary of slate for war in Earl Russell's short-lived administration of 1866. The general election of 1868 left him with- out a seat in the House of Commons, b. 1833. Harvey, William, hai J -ve, a celebrated phy- sician, who received his education at Cambridge, and then went to Padua, where he took his doctor's degree in physic. In 1607 he was ad- mitted fellow of the College of Physicians, and in 1615 anatomical reader. This appointment was probably the more immediate cause of the publication of his great discovery of the circu- lation of the blood, which ho mado known to OF BIOGRAPHY. Harvey the world in his treatise " On the Circulation of the Blood," published in 1638. This discovery effected a revolution in medical science, was for a long time opposed in the most violent manner, and even when its truth was admitted, many foreign practitioners endeavoured to rob the author of his due honour, by ascribing it to other persons ; but the right of Harvey to the discovery has long since been fully established. In 1632 he was made physician to Charles I., and, it is stated, frequently exhibited to him and his courtiers the motions of the heart and other Ehenomena upon which his doctrines were ased. In 1643 he was chosen warden of Mer- ton College, Oxford; but, when the parlia- mentary party were in the ascendant, he left it for London, and was elected president of the College of Physicians, but declined the office on account of his infirmities. After his death, he left his estate to the college, for which he had built a library and museum. A handsome edi- tion of his works, all of which were composed in correct and elegant Latin, was published by the College of Physicians in 1766. b. at Folk- etone, Kent, 1578; d. 1657. Hakvkt, Gideon, an English physician and writer on medicine, who, after completing his studies at Leyden, became a fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, and was physician to Charles II. in his exile, and to the English army in Flanders, d. about 1700. Habvey, William, a clever English designer, principally on wood, at the age of fourteen was apprenticed at Newcastle to the celebrated Thomas Bewick, called " the reviver of wood- engraving," he having renewed the practice of it after it had almost become a lost art. Besides becoming one of Bewick's cleverest engravers, he drew many of the desisrns upon wood of the celebrated "Fables" published by his master. In 1817 he came to London, and entered the studio of Haydon, where, in company with the Landsecrs, Lance, and others, he received in- struction in drawing and anatomy, maintaining himself by working as an engraver and designer on his favourite material, though at this time there was little demand for wood-engravings, almost the only ones required being for the illus- tration of primers and elementary school-books. In 182-1 he began his career as a designer on wood, and continued to be one of the most skilful and prolific workers in this department of an art which has now reached extraordinary excellence, and has grown to be one of the most universal elements of delight and instruction. Like his master Bewick, he made engravings, almost at the outset of the renewed practice of wood- engraving, which arc hardly excelled even in the present day. One of these, a copy of Haydon's picture of" Dcntatus," is constantly referred to by modern engravers as a work remarkable for its size, breadth, and finish. Among his best works are "The Tower Menagerie," "The Zoo- logical Gardens," " Northcote's Fables," and, later, "The Pilgrim's Progress." His designs »or Mr. Lane's translation of " The Thousand and One Nights" stamp him as a true artist, whose luxuriant fancy and skilful graver have embellished a standard work. Many of the best designs in Charles Knight's "Pictorial Shakspere" owe their origin to his facile pencil. B. at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1800; d. 1800. Hassall, Arthur Hill, hiit'-sal, an eminent English physician and experimental philoso- pher, who, after studying medicine at Dublin •137 Hastings under his uncle, Sir James Murray, and during the period of his studentship contributing seve- ral papers to the " Annals of Natural History," became a member of the Royal College of Sur- geons in 1839. Shortly after, he received his diploma as doctor of medicine. His first works were "A History of the British Fresh-water Alga;," " The Microscopical Anatomy of the Human Body in Health and Disease," the latter being embellished with about 500 coloured plates. His enfeebled health compelling him to abandon this arduous line of research, ho commenced an investigation into the chemical properties of the articles of food. He was re- quested by the editor of the "Lancet" to com- municate a series of articles on the " Adultera- tions of Food" to that journal. In 1855 he re- published these articles under the title of " Food and its Adulterations." This was followed by another in 1856, — " Adulterations Detected." His labours, and those of others associated with him, have proved a great boon to the British public, he having analysed and pointed out the means of detecting the adulterations to be found in almost every article of an alimentary nature, as well as in drugs and pharmaceutical preparations, b. at Teddington, 1817. Hassan Pacha, has'-san pa-shaw', grand vizier of the Ottoman empire, was an African by birth, and when young, served in the Alge- rine navy. Being taken prisoner by the Spa- niards, and sent to Naples, he found means of obtaining his liberty, went to Constantinople, and entered into the Turkish service. Here ho soon distinguished himself by his superior skill and bravery, and was appointed capitan pacha, or high admiral. He vanquished the Egyptian insurgents; took Gaza, Jaffa, and Acre ; and beheaded Daher, sheik of the latter city, who had for years defied the power of the Porte. He twice reduced the beys of Egypt to subjection, and carried with him vast treasures to Constantinople. In the war between Turkey and Russia, in 1788, although Hassan was then 85 years old, he was appointed to the supreme command of all the forces, and made grand vizier ; but though there was no want of energv on his part, age had impaired his abilities, anil the Ottoman forces were subjected to repeated discomfiture. The vizier was accordingly dis- missed from his high command, and died in 1790. Hasse, Adolph, hass, a celebrated musical composer, who in his youth had been an excel- lent tenor vocalist. After studying in Italy under the best masters, he produced his opera " Sesostrate," at Naples, in 1725. In 1733 he was chosen by a section of the English nobility hostile to Handel to compose an Italian opera in opposition to that great master ; but after meeting with some success in London, he re- tired to Dresden in 1745, and became the favourite composer of Frederick of Prussia, u. 1699; D. at Vienna, 1783. Hastings, Warren, hais'-tings, a remarkable English statesman, who, after receiving his education at Westminster School, went out, in 1750, as writer in the service of the East-India Company. Having mastered the Persian and Hindustani languages, which, till his time, had been generally neglected, he was sent on moro than one diplomatieand commercial mission into the interior, and in fourteen years he returned to England with a competent fortune, intend- ing, henceforth, to live a life of retirement THE DICTIONARY Hastings In 1769, however, he was appointed second in the council of Madras, and in 1772 was ad- vanced to the highest civil post in the Com- pany's service, — president of the Supreme Council of Bengal. An act of Parliament alter- ing the constitution of the Indian government made Hastings governor-general. The terri- toriesof the Company, although greatly enlarged by the victories of Clive and others, were at this time in a very disorganized condition, and were in imminent danger from the per- severing enmity of Hyder All, rajah of Mysore, supported by the Mahrattas and other native powers. But he vanquished the enemies of the Company, consolidated its power, and increased its revenue; the English people, however, were informed that all this had been accomplished by cruelty, corruption, and unlimited aggression, while the Court of Directors deemed that he acted in too independent a manner. The Court of Proprietors, however, supported him, and he commenced to wield absolute and irre- sponsible power, overruling the authority of the council, and refusing to obey orders, from whatever source transmitted. In 1785 he re- signed, and on arriving in England was im- peached, after long preparation, before the House of Lords, in Westminster Hall. Edmund Burke, in a speech which lasted more than three days, charged him with injustice and op- pression* towards the native princes, and illegally receiving presents himself, and with enriching His dependents and followers, by bribery and a wasteful expenditure of the Company's re- venue. Three sessions were consumed in stating the case for the prosecution, and in the fourth several of the charges were abandoned, in order to bring the trial to a close. His defence was not finished till the 17th of April, 1795, where- upon he was acquitted on each charge brought against him. The historians of India, without palliating the vices of his administration, have sought an apology for his conduct in the diffi- culties of his situation, and the lax tone of mo- rality prevalent among Indian officials at that period. It is universally admitted that his talents were remarkable and services great. The law expenses of his defence amounted to £76,030. In 1796 the Company granted him a pension of £1000 per annum for 28 years, and lent him £50,000 for 18 years without interest. He retired to Daylesford, an estate which his family had formerly owned, and which he had repurchased, b. 1733 ; d. 1818. Hastings, Francis Eawdon, Marquis of, son of the Earl of Moira, entered the army in 1771. He distinguished himself in the American war ; was appointed, in 1778, adjutant-general of the British forces there, and rose to the rank of a brigadier-general; but a severe illness com- pelled him to return home before the conclusion of hostilities, when he was made aide-de-camp to the king and created an English peer. Ad- vanced to the rank of a major-general in the summer of 1794, he was sent, with a reinforce- ment of 10,000 men, to join the duke of York in Holland, and helped to mitigate the dis- asters of that memorable campaign. In 1S06, he was nominated master-general of the ord- nance, which post he resigned on the fall of the "Whig party. In 1813 he obtained the governor- generalship of India, which he held till 1823; and during the ten years of his sway, over- came the Xepaulcsc, the Pindarees, and other native powers, and rendered the British autho- rs Havelock rity supreme in India. While absent he was created Marquis of Hastings. Ill health com- pelled him to return ; and in 1821 he was ap- pointed governor of Malta; but his health growing worse, his lordship proceeded to Naples, and died on board the Revenge, in Baia Bay. Lord Hastings was an able officer, an acuto statesman, and a man of a frank and generous disposition. In accordance with his own re- quest, his right haud was cut off, preserved till the death of the marchioness, and buried with her. b. 1754 ; d. 1825. Hatton, Sir Christopher, hat-ton, an emi- nent statesman, and lord chancellor of England, was educated at St. Mary's Hall, Oxford ; and studied at the Inner Temple. But instead of following the law, he became a courtier, and attracted Elizabeth's notice by his graceful dancing in a masque. He now rose in the queen's favour, and, in 1587, was made both chancellor and knight of the garter. His inex- perience created much prejudice against him at first, but his natural capacity and sound judg- ment enabled him to acquit himself with toler- able credit. His death was the result of a broken heart, occasioned, as some historians affirm, by the queen's demanding a debt, which he was unable to pay. He wrote the Fourth Act in the tragedy of "Tancred and Sigismunda," and "A Treatise concerning Statutes or Acts of Parlia- ment " is ascribed to him. b. 1540; n. 1591. Hatherlet, William Page Wood, Lord, hath- er-le, was called to the bar in 1827, sat for the city of Oxford from 1847 to 1352,became solicitor- general in 1851, a vice-chancellor in the court of Chancery in 1852, and lord-chancellor under Mr. Gladstone in December, 1868, when he was raised to the peerage, b. 1801. Hauy, Rene Just, ho'-e, a French abbe, who discovered and promulgated the geometrical law of crystallization, and was the author of many treatises on natural philosophy and crystallography, n. at St. Just, Picardv, 1743; D. at Paris, 1822. Havelock, Sir Henry, hav'-loJc, a gallant British soldier, whose exploits have filled the world with his fame, was born at Bishopwear- mouth, and educated at the Charter House, London. He was subsequently entered of the Middle Temple, but, yielding to his strong desire to join the army, he sought and obtained a commission as a second lieutenant in the rifle brigade (the 95th), where his military training was assisted by Captain (afterwards Sir) Harry Smith, the victor of Aliwal. After serving in England, Scotland, and Ireland, Havelock ex- changed into the 13th Light Infantry, and em- barked for India in 1823. On the breaking out of the first, Burmese war, he was appointed deputy-assistant-adjutant-general, and was pre- sent at the actions of Napadee, Patanagoh, and Paghan. In 1827 he published the " History of the Ava Campaigns," and in that year was ap- pointed adjutant of the military depot formed at Chinsurah by LordCombermere. In 1838 he was promoted to a company, after having served 23 years as a .subaltern. In the first Afl'ghan cam- paign he was present at the storming of Uhuzuee and the occupation of Cabul, and having ob- tained leave to visit the Presidency, he prepared a " Memoir of the Affghan Campaign," which, was soon after printed in London. When the Eastern Ghilzies rose and blockaded Cabu 1 ., Havelock was sent to join Sir Robert Sale, then marching back to India, and was present at the OF BIOGRAPHY Havelock forcing of the Khoord Cabul pass, at the action of Tezccn, and all the other engagements of that force till it reached Jellalabad. In the final attack on Mahomed Akbar, in April, 1S42, which obliged that chief to, raise the siege, Havelock commanded the right column, and defeated Akbar before the other columns could come up. For this he was promoted to a brevet majority, and was made companion of the Bath. He was then nominated Persian interpreter to General Pollock, and was present at the action of Hanoo Keil, and the second engagement at Tczecn. He then proceeded with Sir John M'Coskill's force into Kohistan, and had an impoHant share in the brilliant affair at Istaliff. Next year he was promoted to a regimental majority, and nominated Persian interpreter to fhe commander-in-chief, Sir Hugh Gough. At the close of 1843 he accompanied the army to Gwclior, and was engaged in the battle of Maharajporc. In 1811 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel by brevet. In 1845 he accompanied the army to meet the invasion of the Sikhs, and was actively engaged in the battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshah, and Sobraon. On the conclusion of the Sutlej campaign, he was appointed deputy adjutant-general of the queen's troops at Bombay. During the second Sikh war, ho quitted his staff employment at Bombay in order to join his own regiment, which had been ordered to take the field, and had pro- ceeded as far as Indore when his further progress was countermanded, and he returned to his post. He had now been 25 years in India, and his medical advisers, in 1849, ordered him to Europe for two years to recruit his health. He returned to Bombay in 1851, and was soon afier made brevet-colonel, and appointed quarter- master-general, and then adjutant-general, of the queen's troops in India. In the expedition to Persia in 1356 he was appointed to the second division, and commanded the troops at Moham- merah, the success of which action was, how- ever, achieved by the naval force. On the conclusion of peace he returned to Bombay, and embarked for Calcutta, but was wrecked off the coast of Ceylon. He proceeded, however, in a few days, and, on reaching Calcutta, was imme- diately sent up to Allahabad as brigadier-general, to command the movable column appointed to traverse Bengal, after the breaking out of the formidable Sepoy insurrection in 1857. Willi the greater portion of the 64th and 78th Regi- ments he first attacked the mutineers at Futtch- pore, on the 12th of July, and on the 15th, at Aoung and at Pandoo Xuddee ; on the 16th at Cawnpore, where he had a horse shot under him, and where the enemy lost 23 guns. Ad- vancing from Cawnpore on the 29th, he captured Oonao and Bussccrut Gunge and 19 guns. This position he was obliged to give up, but retook it on the 5th of August, inflicting great slaughter. On the 12th of August he again defeated the mutineers, and on the Kith attacked them at Bithoor. Soon afterwards, on receiving reinforcements under Sir James Outram, he en- tered Lucknowon the 25th of September, having in the short space of two months gained no less than nine victories over forces five, eight, and ten times more numerous than his own, and capturing during these operations 70 pieces of cannon. At Lueknow he gallantly held his ground until the garrison was finally relieved by Sir Colin Campbell, on November 6th ; but his constitution was now worn out by anxiety, Hawkins fatigue, wounds, and hard service, and he sunk under an attack of dysentery shortly after- wards. Sir Henry was always as remarkable for unostentatious earnestr.e-ii as aChristian.as for his bravery and devotion to his duty as a soldier ; and he left behind him a name asso- ciated with all that is expressed in the words, noble, good, and courageous, n. 1795; d. 1857. Hawes, Stephen, hairs, an English poet, well versed in French and Italian poetry, was groom of the privy chamber to Henry VII. His works are, "The Temple of Glass," which is a copy of Chaucer's " House of Fame ;" " The Passetyme of Pleasure," which was finished in 1506, and printed in 1517, 4to, by Wynkyn de Wordc, with woodcuts. Hawes, William, an English physician, studied medicine, and followed the profession of an apothecary, which he practised in the Strand, until 1780, when he took his degree as a physician. Before this, however, he h?.d become popular by his exertions in the establishment of the Humane Society, to the benefits of which institution he may truly be said to have devoted the best part of his life. He wrote several useful tracts, and among others, " An Examination of the Rev. John Wesley's Primitive Physic," being at once an ironical and serious exposure of the crudities of that production, b. at Islington, London, 1736; d. 1808. Hawke, Edward, Lord, hawk, a gallant Eng- lish admiral, the son of a barrister, entered the navy at an early age. In 1734 he obtained the command of a ship, and distinguished him- self in the famous battlo of 1741, when the English fleet was commanded by Matthews, Lestock, and Rowley. In 1747 ho was made rear-admiral of the White, and in the same year defeated a large French fleet, and captured five sail of the line. For this he was created a knight of the Bath, hi 1759 he defeated Con^ flans, and was rewarded with a pension of £2000 a year. In 1765 he was made vice- admiral, and first lord of the Admiralty, and, in the following year, was created a peer. b. 1715; d. at his seat of Shcpperton, in Middlesex, 1781. Hawkeswoeih, John, hutcks'-wertk, an able writer in the 18th century, who succeeded Dr. Johnson in compiling the parliamentary de- bates. He is stated to have been brought up a watchmaker, but afterwards applied himself to literature with considerable success. " The Adventurer," which he wrote with Dr. Johnson and others, is his principal work, and which caused him to obtain the degree of LL.D. He published the Life and Works of Swift, and was employed to compile an account of the dis- coveries made by Captain Cook and others in the South Seas, for which he received the sum of £6000. He afterwards became an East-India director. lie translated " Telemachus," wrote "Almoranand Hamct, an Oriental Tale," and other pieces of a like kind, very popular in their dav. b. between 1715 and 1719; n. at Bromley, Kent, 1773. Hawkins, Sir John, haic'-Jcins, a gallant admiral of the Elizabethan age, who came of a good family, and went early to sea in the mer- chant service. In 1562 he sailed with three ships from London for the coast of Africa, where he procured a cargo of slaves, which ho disposed of in the West India islands. He made several other voyages to Guinea and the West Indies, and experienced a variety of adventures, which are detailed in "Hakluyt's Voyages." In 1588 THE DICTIONARY Hawkins he was appointed rear-admiral, and knighted for his services in the defeat of the Spanish armada, b. at Plymouth, 1520; d. off Porto Rico, 1595. Sir John Hawkins founded an hospital at Chatham. Hawkins, Sir Richard, son of the above, dis- tinguished himself in the engagement with the invincible armada, and in 1593 obtained a com- mission under the great seal to attack the Spanish settlements in South America, where, after an obstinate conflict with a superior force, the English were beaten and taken prisoners. Sir Richard, who was severely wounded in the action, was detained a prisoner in America a considerable time, and was then sent to Spain, where he remained some years. On his return to England, he employed himself in writing the history of his own life. b. at Plymouth, about 1560; d. 1622, of an attack of apoplexy while attending the privy council. Hawkins, Sir John, a writer and magistrate, and the historian of music, was apprenticed to an attorney, and acquired a considerable know- ledge of the law. At the same time he did not neglect other studies. He formed an early intimacy with Dr. Johnson, which lasted through life. He wrote several pieces in various publications, particularly the " Gentleman's Magazine," and, in 1760, printed a good edition of Walton's "Angler." In 1772 he received the honour of knighthood, for suppressing a riot in Spital- fields. In 1776 he published his " History of Music," 5 vols., after having spent 16 years in its composition. His " Life of Dr. Johnson " was written at the request of the booksellers, but not to the satisfaction of the public, b. in London, 1719; d. 1789. Hawthoune, Nathaniel, kaw'-thom, a distin- guished American novelist, who, a few years after leaving Bowdoin College, Massachusetts, published an anonymous novel, which he has never thought proper to claim. In 1837 he published a volume of sketches and tales, which had formerly appeared in the American periodi- cals, under the title of " Twice-told Tales." In 1845 he edited the "Journal of an African Cruiser," the MS. of whfth was supplied to him by an officer of the U. S. navy. His retiring habits led him to take up his residence in an old manse at Concord, where, for three years, he occupied himself in composing some charming talcs and sketches, which he afterwards pub- lished under the title of " Mosses from an Old Manse," and in the introduction to which some interesting autobiographical passages are to be found. In 1816, while his friend Mr. Bancroft was at the head of the Boston custom-house, he acted as surveyor to the department, and his mode of life therein forms the introduction to his extraordinary romance of " The Scarlet Letter," published in 1850. In 1851 "The House of Seven Gables," and in 1S52 "The Blithesdale Romance," were produced, the chief incidents in the latter work being founded upon his experience as a member of the " Brook /arm Community." A third collection of his contributions to the periodicals, under the title of " The Snow Image," and a " Lite of General Pierce, President of the United States," were his next productions. lie also wrote some excellent works for the young, the chief of which are " True Stories from History and Biography," " The Wonder-Book," and " Tanglewood Tales." From 1852 to 1857 he acted as American consul at Liverpool. A later work by Hawthorne is •190 Haydn called " Transformation," in which a luxuriant imagination and an unusual graphic power are displayed, b. at Salem, Massachusetts, 1804; d. at Plymouth, New Hampshire, 1861. Hay, James, kai, earl of Carlisle, eame to England with James I., and was the first Scotch- man created an English peer. His first title was Baron Hay; he was afterwards made "Viscount Doncaster, and, lastly, earl of Carlisle. James I. employed him fci several embassies, particularly to France, to mediate on behalf of the Protestants, and to negotiate a marriage between the Prince of Wales and Princess Hen- rietta Maria, d. 1636. Hay, David Bamsay, a distinguished decora- tive artist and writer on art, began life as a reading-boy in a printing-office, but was afterwards apprenticed to a house-painter in Edinburgh, lie occupied all his leisure moments in copying and painting pictures, one of which met the eye of Sir Walter Scott, who engaged him to paint a portrait of his favourite cat, and advised him to devote himself to decorative house-painting, promising him the painting of his house at Abbotsford, then being built. In 1828 he commenced business as a decorative painter, and published his first work — " The Laws of Harmonious Colouring." This was followed by " An Essay on Ornamental Design," " A Nomenclature of Colours," and numerous other works on art, full of suggestion and prac- tical knowledge. He decorated the hall of the Society of Arts in London, in 1846. b. in Edin- burgh, 1798; d. 1866. Haydn, Joseph, haiiln, a celebrated musical composer, of a most original and prolific genius, was the son of a small wheelwright in the village of Rohrau, 45 miles from Vienna, his mother having been cook to the chief man of the village previous to her marriage. Both were musical, and being early taught to sing, Haydn was heard by the chapel-master of St. Stephen's Cathedral at Vienna, who immediately engaged him as a chorister for that church. At the age of 17 his treble voice broke, and he was left without any means of obtaining a livelihood; but a friendly wigmaker took him into his house, and he was thus enabled to pursue his studies as a composer. After a time, he married the daughter df his hospitable friend; but the union was an unhappy one, and a separation soon followed. Fortune conducted him to the house of the Italian poet laureate, Metastasio, whose niece he instructed in music. His connexion with the court poet brought him into acquaintance with the wealthy Prince Estcrhazy, who, in 1761, made him his chapel-master, an office he held to the end of his Hie. Comfortably located in theprince's palace in Hungary, Haydn, for thirty years, composed and played over his magnificent works. In 1791 he was induced to visit London, where he produced six of his twelve " Grand Symphonies," causing the utmost possible ex- citement among the English musical public. In 1794 he again visited England, meeting with a most flattering reception, receiving for his ser- vices a sum amounting to £1550, and becoming a doctor of music of the Oxford university, and the guest of royalty. In his 64th year he com- posed his greatest work, " The Creation ;" and two years later, "The Seasons." Like Handel, he was remarkable for his fertility: besides smaller works, he wrote 116 symphonies, 83 violin quartetts, 15 masses, 4 oratorios, a Te Deum, a Stabat Mater and 14 Italian and Gcr- OF BIOGRAPHY. Haydon Hay man man operas. His death is said to have heen due to 1 he shock caused by the bombardment of Vienna, although Napoleon gave orders that the great, musician's house should be respected ; and when the F»cnch troops entered the city, a guard was placed at his door to protect him. b. at Eohrau 1732; d. at Vienna, 1809. Hatdox, Benjamin Robert, hai'-don, a great but unfortunate English historical painter and writer on art, was educated at the Plympton grammar-school, where Sir Joshua Reynolds had previously been a scholar. His father was a bookseller, and apprenticed his son to the same business ; but he was greatly averse to it, and at the same time displayed a strong predi- lection for art. His father's opposition to his son becoming an artist was at length overcome, and Haydon started for London in May, 1804, to enter as a student of the Royal Academy. It was at this period that enthusiasm for the grand " high art," as it is called, was first awakened in his breast. It caused him to become a great painter ; but his inflexible pursuit of this line of art, rather than paint what was more popular and remunerative, caused him many troubles through life, and greatly contributed to bring about his melancholy end. Although he was a student with such men as Wilkie and Jackson, he was regarded as a young man of great pro- mise. In 1807 he exhibited his first painting at the Royal Academy : its title will show the young painter's ambition — "Joseph and Mary resting with our Saviour after a day's journey on the road to Egypt." It was sold ; and the next year he exhibited the celebrated " Denta- tus," which he considered badly hung by the Royal Academicians, and forthwith proceeded to make er^mies of those forty potentates of art— a most imprudent step for so young a man to take. Lord M ulgrave bought the " Dc-ntatus," and it was shown at the British Institution, gained the prize of the committee, and became very popular. The sanguine and ambitious young painter's prospects were now of the most encouraging nature. The Elgin marbles arriv- ing in England about the same time, he wrote and talked about them enthusiastically and elo- quently, and mainly contributed to get them purchased for the nation. He painted the "Judgment of Solomon," and sold it for 700 guineas; and "Alexander returning in Triumph," which produced him 500 guineas : but his second application for admission to the Royal Academy was refused. In 1814 he com- menced another great work — " Christ's Entry into Jerusalem," which was exhibited by him- self in Bond-street, in 1820, but could not find a purchaser; he, however, added two more works of the same class to his list — "Christ in the Garden," and " Christ Rejected." In 1S21 he married; and in 1323 painted the "Raising of Lazarus," now hanging in the Pantheon. A few years before, he had opened a school for the purpose of "establishing a better and more regular system of instruction than even the Academy oflcred ;" and had for pupils Edwin, Charles, and Thomas Landseer, Lance, Har- vey, and others of our best draughtsmen and painters, lie also continued to contribute to " The Annals of the Fine Arts" criticisms upon the Royal Academy; but this made him unpo- pular in his profession, and his large pictures being often left on his hands, caused him to be involved in pecuniary difficulties, which still increasing, he was incarcerated in the Kiug's ■ittl Bench prison for debt. Here he was witness of a scene which he afterwards reproduced in a popular picture, " The Mock Election," which George IV. purchased for 500 guineas. A con- tinuation of the same subject—" Chairing the Members," was sold for 300 guineas. About this time his friends procured his release, and he painted "Pharaoh dismissing Moses," which sold for 500 guineas. A great failure and a great success followed: the first was " The Great Banquet at Guildhall, after the passing of the Reform Bill;" the second, "Xapo- leon musing at St. Helena." A second picture of the same character — " The Duke on the Field of Waterloo," was unsuccessful, and his debts again overpowering him, he was once more an inmate of the King's Bench. On his release, he commenced lecturing on the fine arts at the mechanics' institutions in the metropolis and in the provinces, meeting everywhere with the greatest success. Perhaps the severest blow he ever received was now awaiting him. For a long time he had been petition- ing, writing, and lecturing on having the inte- riors of our large public buildings decorated with paintings. The government decided to embellish the interior of the new Houses of Par- liament with cartoons. He set to work, pre- pared his design, and the judges left his name out of the list of successful competitors, not even giving it a place among the third class. It is said he never completely recovered the shock this disappointment caused him. His last works were "Uriel and Satan," " Curtius leaping into the Gulf," "Alfred and the Trial by Jury," " The Burning of Rome." In 1846 he exhibited this last-named work, and " The Banishment of Aristides," at the Egyptian Hall, "General Tom Thumb" holding his levees at the hall at the same time. The degree of success which awaited each of the exhibitors is thus chronicled by Haydon in his diary : — " Tom Thumb had 12,000 people last week ; B. R. Haydon, 13i'i (the \ a little girl). Exquisite taste of the Eng- lish people !" The exhibition was a failure, and Haydon'smind gave way under his accumulated embarrassments, and he ended his life by his owu hand, in 1816. b. at Plymouth, 1786. Though far from being generally admitted to be a great his- torical painter, it must be allowed that Haydon did much, both by his works and writings, to elevate the character of English art. His quick temper, love of controversy, and readiness to charge every person that differed from him in opinion with mean motives, combined with his obstinate refusal to paint, as otiier and wiser artists have been forced to do, for the popular taste, marred the character and career of a virtuous, earnest, and eloquent lover of art, and brought his life to a sad termination, after causing him long years of embarrassment. Hayi.ey, William, hai'-le, the friend and biographer of Cowper, and philosophical essay- ist. Abandoning the profession of the law, for which he had been educated, he retired to his estate in Sussex, and spent his life in lettered ease. Among his best works are, " Essays on Painting, Sculpture, and Epic Poetry," " Life and Poetical Works of Milton," "Lite of Cow- per." b. at Chichester, 1715 ; d. 1820. Hayma>-, Francis, hai'-man, an English painter, and one of the first members of tho Royal Academy, went to London when young, and was employed as a scene-painter at Drury- lane Theatre. The principal productions of lu3 THE DICTIONARY Haywood pencil are historical paintings, with which he decorated some of the apartments of Vauxhall. J!e also furnished designs for illustrations of the works of Shakspeare, Milton, Pope, Cer- vantes, &c. b. at Exeter, 1708; d. 1776. Haywood, Elizabeth, hai'-wood, an ingenious writer, who published "The Female Spectator," 4 vols. ; " Epistles for the Ladies," 2 vols. ; "Fortunate Foundling," "Adventures of Na- ture," "Jemmy and Jenny Jessamy," 3 vols.; " Invisible Spy," 2 vols. ; " Husband and Wife," 2 vols.; " Betsy Thoughtless," and "A Present for a Servant-maid." b. 1693; d. 1756. Hazlitt, William, haz'-litt, a distinguished English essayist and critic of literature and the fine arts, was the son of a Unitarian minister, who, in 1783, emigrated with his family to the United States, but returned two years later, and fixed his residence in Shropshire, where William commenced his education. In 1793 he was sent to the Unitarian college at Hackney, to be educated for the profession of his father, but neglected theology for moral and political philosophy. From an early age he had shown a great predilection for drawing, and, in the year 1802, visited Paris for the purpose of copying the pictures in the Louvre, and, on his return, met with some success as portrait- painter in London and the provinces; but abandoned the pursuit for that of literature, in 1S03, displaying great industry and talent in the latter profession. In 1813 he delivered a course of lectures on the history of English phi- losophy, at the Russell Institution, and, after- wards, on the " Comic Poets" and the " Poets of the Elizabethan Age." He also wrote for the "Morning Chronicle," the "Examiner," and, in the latter part of his life, for the " Edin- burgh Review" and the " Encyclopaedia Britan- nica." His principal works are "The Round Table," the "Table-Talk," "Characters of Shakspeare's Plays." The articles "Fine Arts" and " The Life of Titian," in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," are from his pen. b. at Maidstone, 1778; d. 1830. Head, Sir George, heel, knight, and author of several interesting books of travel. After having served as captain in the West Kent mi- litia in 1802, he joined the British army in the Peninsula, and served as commissariat clerk at Badajoz, and afterwards rose to the rank of deputy-assistant commissary-general "to the Peninsular army, with which he served through- out the campaign. He was sent to superintend the commissariat department in Canada, where he remained for several years. He has described his adventures and experience there, in his " Forest Scenes and Incidents in the Wilds of Korth America," and his "Residence on the Borders of Lakes Huron and Simcoe." In 1831 he was knighted. He also wrote many other excellent books, among the chief of which is "A Home Tour through the Manufacturing Districts." He likewise contributed several articles to the "Quarterly Review." b. 1782; d. in London, 1855. Head, Sir Francis Bond, a clever and hu- morous writer of books of travel, began his career in the British army, but went out to South America in the year 1825, at the head of a mining association. Leaving his party at the foot of the Andes, he returned alone, on horse- back, across the Pampas to Buenos Ayres, a distance of 1000 miles, and performed several jourucys in the same manner, riding over up- 492 Heber wards of 6000 miles, living on dried beef and water, and sleeping on the ground. On his return to London, he published "Rough Notes of some Rapid Journeys across the Pampas," in 1828. In 1835 he was made lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, during which appointment the Canadian insurrection broke out and was suppressed. He resigned in 1837, and on his return to England, in 1838, published a " Narrative" justifying his conduct. In 1S50 he produced a pamphlet on " The Defenceless State of England," which excited a great deal of interest. He afterwards principally employed his leisure in composing light, humorous, and graphic sketches of tours made in the United Kingdom and on the continent. "A Faggot of French Sticks," "A Fortnight in Ireland," " The Royal Engineer," were among his latest productions, as the "Bubbles from the Brunnens of Nassau" formed one of his earliest, b. at Rochester, Kent, 1793; d. 1875. Heaphy, Thomas, keep -e, a famous painter in water colours, and the first president of the Society of British Artists, whose pictures are well known, b. about 1775 ; d. 1835. Heakne, Thomas, hern, a learned antiquary, and editor of old MSS., had been a domestic servant to Mr. Cherry, of Shottesbrooke, who took him into his family, and gave him a liberal education. In 1695 he entered at Edmund Hall, Oxford, where he applied himself to the study of antiquities. In 1703 he took his degree of MA., and in 1714 was appointed under-librarian of the university. He edited and published several ancient MSS. and old books; among others, the "Life of Alfred," bySpelman; Lelaud's "Itine« rary," 9 vols. 8vo ; and a collection of curious Discourses written by eminent antiquaries, b. at White Waltham, Berkshire, 1678; d. 1735. Heabne, Thomas, an artist of considerable eminence, born at Marshfield, in Glouces- tershire, was eminent as a topographical designer ; but his principal talent lay in land- scape painting in water colours — a branch of the art which he may be said to have been the first who successfully practised, b. 1741; d. 1817. Heath, Charles, hee/h, a famous line en- graver, whose taste for art was fostered and formed under the tuition of his father, James Heath, also an engraver, whose plates are fa- miliar to print collectors. Charles Heath's ar- tistic publications, the "Book of Beauty," the " Keepsake," &c, established his fame as a first-rate engraver, and did much to inculcate a popular taste for the fine arts. b. 1781; d. 1818. Heathfiet.d, Lord. (See Eliott, Gen. G. A.) Hebeh, Reginald, he'-ber, bishop of Calcutta, a learned, pious, and accomplished divine, after a brilliant career at college, composed his prize poem, "Palestine," which, unlike simi- lar productions, has found a permanent place in English literature. In 1805, he set out on an extended continental tour, and visited Russia, the Crimea, Hungary, Austria, &c. He took holy orders in 1807, contributed during the few subsequent years to the " Quarterly Review," and worked at a Dictionary of the Bible, which, however, was never published. He had long considered that devotional poetry stood in need of improvement, and, with a view to raise the standard of this department of sacred literature, composed a volume of " Poems and Transla- tions for Weekly Church Service." In 1819 ho OF BIOGRAPHY. Hebert edited Jeremy Taylor's works, and in 1822 was made preacher of Lincoln's Inn. After twice refusing the appointment, he was ordained, in June, 1823, bishop of Calcutta, which diocese, in his day, extended over the whole of India, Ceylon, and Australasia. In June, 1824, he began the visitation of this immense diocese, and travelled through Bengal, and, after an eleven months* journey, arrived at Bombay, sleeping, for the most of the time, in a tent or cabin. "His journal was published in three 8vo volumes, and now forms two volumes of Murray's " Home and Colonial Library." In it nc describes, with the utmost clearness and pic- turesqueness, the strange provinces he visited, and graphically details the manners and cus- toms of the natives of India. After having visited Ceylon, he left Calcutta on a journey to Madras, and reached Trichinopoly, where, after Confirming a number of the natives, he retired to take a cold bath, in which he was found dead & short time afterwards. His life has been pub- lished by his widow, n. at Malpas, Cheshire, 1783; D.at Trichinopoly, 1826. Hebert, Jacques Rlne, he-lair, commonly called Pere Duchene (from the title of a Jacobin paper of which he was the editor), was one of the most violent advocates for the French revo- lution, and one of the most unprincipled. He was made a member of the commune for his assistance in the massacres which took place in September, and the cruel murder of the Prin- cess do Lamballe. it was Hebert who so grossly insulted Marie Antoinette by the vilest of all accusations; and put questions to the children of Louis XVI., which, when reported to Robespierre, called forth reproaches even from him. Having dared to oppose his col- leagues and masters, they hurled him from his position, and accomplished his destruction with a piomptitude that astonished him. He was guillotined amid the hisses of the populace, March 24, 1794. b. at Alen?on, 1755. Hecqcet, Philip, hek'-ai, a French physician, who was a great advocate for the use of warm water and bleeding, and, in consequence, was ridiculed by Le Sage, in his novel of " Gil Bias," under the name of Dr. Sangrado. He was, how- ever a man of skill and piety, and wrote several medical books, b, at Abbeville, 1661 ; d. 1737. Heemskerk, James, heems'-kerk, a Dutch admiral, who sailed with Barentien to discover a north-east passage to Asia, in which voyage the commander died, but Heemskerk brought back the ships safe to Holland. In 1607 he was made vice-admiral, and sent against the Span- iards in the Mediterranean, where he defeated a superior force, and took the Spanish admiral prisoner, but was himself slain in another action in 1607. Hebrew, Arnold Hermann Ludwig, heer'-en, an eminent German philologist and historian, who, after travelling in Germany, France, and Italy, was appointed professor of philosophy at Ciottingen in 1787, when he devoted the re- mainder of his life to learning and research. Mis "Manual of Ancient History,' "Handbook of Modern History," and " Essay on the Influ- ence of the Crusades,'' are considered to rank pmong the best productions of their class. He was elected a member of nearly every Kuropean learned society, b. near Bremen, 1760; i>. at Gottingen, March, 1842. Hegel, George William Frederick, hai'-oel, a celebrated German philosopher, studied 493 Heine with Schelling at Tubingen, and afterwards at Jena, where Fichte taught. He at first em- braced the doctrines of "that philosopher, but afterwards those of Schelling, and finally pro- ceeded to propound a system of his own. In 1806 he became professor at Jena, and from 1808 to 1816 was director of the college of Nurem- berg. In 1818 he replaced his former master Fichte in the chair of philosophy at Berlin, where he taught till the time of his death. An account of his system of metaphysics, and a comparison of Us philosophy with that of Fichte and Se> tiling, would be out of place here. It will Xa sufficient to say that he ranks very high among German philosophers. His works, comprised in nineteen 8vo volumes, were published at Berlin between the years 1832-45, and have been translated in part both into French and English, b. at Stuttgait, 1770; d. of cholera, at Berlin, 1831. Heiberg, Johann Ludwig, hl-bairg, an emi- nent Danish metaphysician and comicdramatist, who, after receiving a good education, was un- decided, at the age of 27, as to nls choice of a profession; but the Danish government granted him a travelling pension; whereupon he went to London, and afterwards spent three years in Paris in the society of his father, who had been banished thither, and mixed in the best French society. On returning to his native country, he was made professor of the Danish language at the university of Kiel, in Holstein. After spend ing some y'flars in this occupation, he commenced writing for the stage, and endeavoured to in- troduce among the Danes pieces written upon the model of the lightest French comedies. " King Solomon^nd the Hatter" was his first production, which met with the greatest suc- cess. " The Danes in Paris" succeeded ; and in 1829 he was appointed royal dramatic poet and translator, and soon auer married a lady, who, as Madame Heiberg, was accounted the most brilliant Danish actress of her time. Many other dramas, and some philosophical works, were next published by him. In 1827-23 he edited the " Copenhagen Flying Post," in which appeared the " Everyday Story," considered as one of the best Danish'novels, and which was long thought to be his composition, but which has been ascertained to be the production of his mother, b. at Copenhagen, 1791 ; i>. 1860. Heidegger, John James, hi-deg'-ger, a native of Zurich, in Switzerland, who went to England in 1708, and by his address and ingenuity, be- came the leader of fashion among the English upper classes, and manager of the opera-house, by which means he contrived to gain £5000 a year. He was an amiable and liberal man. b. about 1660; n. 1749. Heik, Peter, hine, an obscure sailor, who rose by his bravery to the command of the Dutch fleet, with which he defeated the Spaniards oil the coast of Brazil, in 1626. He was slain in fighting with the French otf Dunkirk. When the news arrived, the States sent a deputation to condole with his mother on the melancholy occasion ; but the old woman only replied, " Ah, I always said Peter was an unlucky dog, and would come to an untimely end." Heine, Heinrich, hi'-ne, a celebrated French- German poet, essayist, and satirist, was born of Jewish parents, at Dusseldorf, on the 1st of January, 1S00, "Which makes me," he wrote, " the first man of my century." He embraced the Protestant faith in 1825, to prevent, he said, THE DICTIONARY Heinsius " M. de Rothschild's treating him with fami- liarity." He studied jurisprudence successively at Bonn, lierlin, and Gottingen, in which lat- ter city he received the degree of doctor of laws, and while resident there, in 1824, made a tour in the Harz Mountains, an account of which he published at Hamburg. England, South Germany, and Italy, were next visited ; and a description of these countries was written by him, and published under the title of " Keisebilder " (Pictures of Travel), between the years 1S26-31, a French translation of which, by himself, under the title of " Impressions de Voyages," made him as celebrated in France as he already was in Germany. The brilliant wit, combined with the bold political addresses to the sovereigns of Germany and the whole of Europe, contained in this volume, established his fame. His " Book of Songs," published at Hamburg in 1827, placed him at the head of that political and literary section of his country- men called " The Young German School," and, from its satirical humour, caused him so many enemies in Germany, that he withdrew to Paris, where he became, as much from temperament as from the natural bent of his genius, more a Frenchman than a German. During the last twenty-five years of his life, he continued to re- side in the French capital, making only a few furtive visits to his native land. In 1847 he was attacked with paralysis, by which he lost the sight of one eye ; and, in the following year, lie had a second attack, which, although it left his mental faculties unimpaired, deprived him of the use of his other eye, and made him a cripple for life, besides subjecting him, at in- tervals, to intense bodily suffering. Though he was never again able to quit his chamber, he continued to embody in prose and verse the rich and fertile creations of his brain, by the aid of an amanuensis. A translation of his poems into French was made by Gerard de Nerval, under his superintendence, in 1855. In addi- tion to the works we have quoted, he wrote many volumes of poetry, sketches, and satirical pieces. As a satirical wit, he is worthy to be classed with Cervantes, Swift, and Voltaire; while his poems are characterized by tender- ness, originality, and rare beauty of versifica- tion. B. 1800; D. at Paris, 1856. Heinsius, Daniel, hine'-se-tia, an eminent Dutch philologist and critic, was made Greek professor at Ley den, when he was but 18, ind afterwards succeeded his master, Joseph Scaliger, in the professorship of politics and history. Besides annotating several of the classic authors, he wrote some excellent works in prose and verse, b. at Ghent, 1580; d. 1655. Heinsius, Nicholas, son of the preceding, was an eminent Latin poet, and editor of several editions of Virgil, Ovid, and Claudian, and other classic authors, b. 1620; d. 1081. Heinsius, Anthony, a distinguished Dutch statesman, who for forty years filled the high station of grand pensionary; and whose pru- dence, skill, and probity gained him the confi- dence and regard of William 1 II., Marlborough, and Prince Eugene. In the intervals between theircampaigns.Marlborough and Prince Eugene were in the habit of retiring to the Hague, and, in concert with Heinsius, planning future ope- rations; in the catrying out of which their military enterprise in the field was ably seconded by Heinsius in the cabinet, b. 10-11; d. 1720. .; Helena, St., he'-le-ni, a native of Hithynia, 49 i Helmers of obscure origin, but of an accomplished mind and handsome person, became the wife of Con- stantine Chlorus, and was the mother of Constantine the Great. When her husband espoused the daughter of Maximianus Hercules, in 292, he divorced Helena ; but, on the acces- sion of her son, she was recalled to court, and treated with the honours due to her rank. She visited the Holy Land, where she is said to have discovered the true cross. She founded several churches, and bestowed immense sums in cha- rity, b. about 247 ; d. 327. Heliodorus, he-li-od'-or-u», a native of Emcsa, in Phoenicia, and who lived near the end of the 4th century, was bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, but deposed towards the close of his life. His youthful work, " yEthiopica, or the Loves of Theagenes and Charielea," in poetical prose, is distinguished by its strict morality from the other Greek romances. It is said that the alternative of burning his romance, or re- signing his bishopric, being given him, he pre- ferred the latter. IIeliogabalus, M. Aurelius Antonius, he 1 - le-o-gab'-a-lus, a Roman emperor, so called because he had been a priest of the sun, was, at the age of 14, chosen emperor, after the death of Macrinus, and associated with himself in the government his grandmother Msesa, and his mother Soamiias, and chose a senate of women, over whom the latter presided. He afterwards fell into every kind of cruelty and debauchery, raised his horse to the consular dignity, and caused divine honours to be paid to himself. He was assassinated in 222. Hell, Maximilian, lie!, an eminent German Jesuit, who, at twenty-live years of age, was engaged as an assistant in the Jesuits' observa- tory at Vienna. In 1751 he was made professor of mathematics in Transylvania; but, after some years, he returned to Vienna, and there became head of an observatory, erected after his own designs. He left Vienna for Lapland in 1768 to observe the transit of Venus across the sun's disc. His observation was conducted under very favourable atmospheric conditions, and his report of the phenomena was so accu- rate and complete, that astronomical science was greatly advanced by it. His report also contained some valuable information relating to the natural history, the geography, and the meteorology of Lapland. Ho wrote many ex- cellent mathematical and astronomical works, as well as editing the astronomical observations made by the Jesuits at Pekin, between the years 1717 and 1752. b. in Hungary, 1720; z>. at Vienna, 1792. Hellaniccs, hel-liin'-i-hi*, an early Greek prose writer, who composeda"Historyof Argos," and other works which have been quoted by ancient authors, b. at Mitylcnc, 496 B.C. ; D. Ill B.C. Hellot, John, hel'-lo, a French chemist, who was a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, and of the Royal Society at London. He wrote some treatises on dyeing, and several dis- sertations in "The Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences ;" besides other chemical works of merit. He also conducted, for many years, the " Gazette de franco." d. 1766. Helmebs, Jan Frederik, kel'-mers, a Dutch poet, chiefly remarkable for his hyperbolical laudation of his native country. After stating that the Dutch nation left every ether immeasur« ably behind in morality, heroism, science, and OF BIOGRAPHY. Heloise the fine arts, he makes a comparison between Yondel, a Dutch poet, and Shakspeare, to the disadvantage of the latter, who is pronounced to be "barbarous." b. at Amsterdam, 1767; d. 1813. Heloise. (See Abelaed.) Helps, Arthur, helps, a distinguished Eng- lish essayist and historian, whose first work was published anonymously, in 1841, under the title of "Essays written in the Intervals of Business." "Catherine Douglas," a tragedy, and '" King Henry the Second," an historical drama, followed, in 1843. Two short works on " The Claims of Labour," and on " The Means of Improving the Health, &c, of the Labouring Classes," were his next productions. " Friends in Council," a work which has been extensively read, was published by him in 1845. " Compa- nions of my Solitude," a sequel to the former, appeared in 1851, and, like its predecessor, was universally admired. He published all these works anonymously ; but it was well known in literary circles that he was the author of them. After having graduated B.A. at Cambridge, in 1S35, he entered one of the chief departments of the Civil Service; and rose gradually till, 1S59, he became clerk to her Majesty's Privy Council. He now resided principally at his patrimonial estate, near Bishop's Waltham, in Hampshire, and about this time published his greatest work, "The Spanish Conquest in America, and its Kelations to the History of Slavery," upon the title-page of which he placed his name. Among his latest works may be named a "Life of Columbus," a "Life of LasCasas, the Apostle of the Indies," and "Realrnah," a story which first appeared in Macmillau's Magazine. e. about 1817; d. 1875. Helst, Bartholomew van der, heist, an ad- mirable Dutch painter, excelling in portraits, but also great in landscapes and historical sub- jects, e. at Haerlcm, 1613; n. 1670. Helvetius, Adrien, hel-ve'-she-us, a Dutch physician, who, being at Paris while the dysen- tery was raging in that city, arrested its pro- gress by administering ipecacuanha, and was rewarded with 1000 louis d'ors, and made inspec- tor of the military hospitals, b. 1061 ; d. 1727. Helvetius, Claude Adrien, in 1758, produced his celebrated work, entitled " De l'Esprit," which for its atheistical principles, was con- demned by the parliament of Paris. On this he went to England, and thence to Prussia, where lie was well received by Frederick the Great. On his return to France, he led a retired life, and wrote " Le Bonhcur," a poem, and a philo- sophical work on " Man," of the same nature as his first performance. B. at Paris, in 1715; d. there, 1771. Hemans, Mrs. Felicia Dorothea, he -mans, a distinguished English'poetess, was the daughter of Mr. Browne, who, dying while she was quite young, left her, with her mother, an inmate of a % ilitary old mansion in North Wales. She com- menced writing verses when but nine years of Ire, and printed a volume of poems, called * Early Blossoms," before she was fifteen. In H12 she was married to Captain Hemans, of the 4th regiment, whose health had, however, become so shattered bv his service in the S'cninsular war, and in the ill-fated Wal- chcren expedition, that, in a few years, he was compelled to leave his young wife and five sons and proceed to Italy, with a view to its recovery. Shortly after arriv in™ there, he 405 Henderson died. Strongly imbued with a love of poetry and literature, Mrs. Hemans studied Latin, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and German ; made trans- lations from Horace, Herrera, and Camoens, and wrote a series of articles on foreign litera- ture for the " Edinburgh Magazine." She pub- lished " The Restoration of the Works of Art to Italy," in 1815 ; "Tales and Historic Scenes," in 1819; and obtained the prize from the Royal Society of Literature, for her poem of " Dart- moor," in 1821. Becoming acquainted with Bishop Heber, she wrote, at his suggestion, the "Vespers of Palermo," a drama, which was produced at Covent Garden Theatre in 1823, when it was unsuccessful, but was afterwards more popular at the Edinburgh theatre, upon which occasion Sir Walter Scott wrote an epi- logue for it. In 1825 she contributed her " Lays of Many Lands" to the "New Monthly Maga- zine," then edited by the poet Thomas Camp- bell. " The Forest Sanctuary," and " The Re- cords of Women," followed. The "Songs of the Affections" were published in 1830. In the spring of 1831, her health being very weak, she changed her residence to Dublin, where, while preparing a collected edition of her poems, she died. b. at Liverpool, 1794; d. 1835. Hemingfobd, Walter de, hem'-ing-fonl, canon of an Austin priory, Yorkshire, an English chro- nicler of the 14th century, whose history extends from the Norman conquest to the reign of Edward II. d. 1347. Hemskerck, Martin van, hems'-lcerlc, a Dutch painter, surnamed the " RaiYaelle of Holland," was the son of a mason, who brought hirr up to the same trade ; but evincing a talent for design, he left his father's house and travelled to Italy. On his return he enriched his native country with his productions, most of which were destroyed by fire on the taking of Haerlem by the Spaniards in 1572. b. at Hemskerck, 1498 ; D. 157-L Hendebson, John, hen'-der-son, a celebrated English actor, who, evincing in his youth a taste for drawing, was placed under Mr. Four- nier, an artist of ability, but of eccentric character, with whom he did not continue long. He next lived with a silversmith, on whose death he devofed himself to theatrical studies. His first appearance was in 1772, at Bath, under the name of Courtney, in the character of Hamlet, which he performed with great ap- plause. His fame increased; but it was not till 1777 that he made his appearance on the London stage, when he was engaged by Mr Colman, at the Haymarket Theatre, and made his first appearance in Shylock. After this he distinguished himself as a most excellent repre- sentative of Falstaff, Richard III., and other strong characters, which he personated with unbounded applause at Drury Lane, and at different provincial theatres, b. in London, 1747; D. 1785. Hendeesox, Thomas, an eminent Scottish astronomer, who, after completing his education as an attorney, became secretary to Lord- advocate Jeffrey, in whoso service he remained till 1831. For several years previously, he had been an earnest student of astronomy, and, although his health was delicate and his eye3 weak, he continued to make himself so proficient therein, that he became the correspondent of Dr. Thomas Ycmg, whom he assisted in the calculations for the "Nautical Almanack." On the death of Dr. Young, a paper was left bj THE DICTIONARY Hengist him, informing the admiralty that Mr. Hender- son was the most proper person to fill the post left vacant; but though the admiralty did not act upon this suggestion, it appointed him to the charge of the observatory at the Cape of Good Hope in April, 1832. While thus engaged, he communicated upwards of seventy papers of the greatest value to different scientific publica- tions. In 1834 he was made astronomer royal for Scotland, and, while fulfilling the duties of his office, he voluntarily imposed upon himself the task of reducing to order the mass of obser- vations he had brought home from the Cape. His writings and observations have caused him to be reckoned among the best of modern astronomers, b. at Dundee, 1798 ; d. at Edin- burgh, 1844. Hengist, hoi'-jist, the first Saxon king of Kent, towards the end of the 5th century, was a descendant of Woden, whom the Saxons deified. Hengist and his brother Horsa, being called in by Vortigern, king of the Britons, to assist him in expelling the Piets, took with him his daughter Kowena, of whom Vortigern became enamoured, and married her. Hengist then obtained the kingdom of Kent, one of the seven of the Saxon heptarchy, and in which were included Kent, Middlesex, Essex, and Surrey. D. 489. Henley, Rev. John, hen'-le, commonly called " the Orator," was educated at St. John's Col- lege, Cambridge, after which he entered into holy orders, and became a preacher in London ; but, disappointed in obtaining preferment, he commenced lecturing, not only on theology, but on politics, &c, on Sunday evenings, near Lincoln's Inn Fields. Pope satirized, and Ho- garth caricatured him. lie published a trans- lation of Pliny's " Epistles," and other works. B, 1G92 ; D. 1756. Henrietta Maria, of France, hen-ri-et'-ta, wife of Charles I. of England, was daughter of Henry IV. and Marie de Medici. Luring the struggle between the king and the people, in 1644, she was forced to fly to France. On the death of Charles, in 1649, she retired into a convent which she had founded at Chaillot, where she died in 1609, Bossuet pronouncing her fune- ral oration, b. at Paris, 1609. Henrietta Anne, of England, duchess of Orleans, the daughter of king Charles I., was born amid the turbulent scenes of the civil war. Her mother tied with her to France when the infant was scarcely three weeks old ; and after the death of the king repaired to the convent of Chaillot, and there devoted herself to the education of her daughter. Henrietta united with great sweetness of cha- racter the charm of beauty, and was married to Philip, duke of Orleans. Their marriage was, however, rendered an unhappy one by the jealousy of the duke, who fear: d that his brother, Louis XIV., had supplanted him in his wife's affections ; and when the latter afterwards employed her mediation in some difficult diplo- matic affairs with her brother Charles II., the duke no longer doubted that which he had before suspected. Louis wished to detach the kinsr of England from the triple alliance with Holland and Sweden. Henriettawent, therefore, in 1070, with the court to Flanders, and, under pretence of visiting her brother, passed over to Lover, where Charles was waiting her arrival. Mademoiselle de Keroual, a native of Brittany (afterwards mistress of Charles II., under the Henry I. title of duchess of Portsmouth), accompanied her. Their mission was not in vain ; for in ten days the persuasions of the sister, aided by the fascinations of her companion, gained over to the French interest the profligate monarch. Soon after her return to France, the duchess of Orleans was suddenly seized with violent pains, which terminated her life; and though a post mortem examination took place, which was declared to be satisfactory, it is believed that she fell, in the prime of life and beauty, the victim of jealous revenge. The sweetness of her manners made this unfortunate princess an object of general regret, and caused her to be compared with her still more unfortunate an- cestor, Mary queen of Scots, b. 1644; d. at St. Cloud, 1670. Henriot, Francois, hen-re'-o, one of the chief actors in the worst horrors of thefirst French In- volution, having robbed his master, an attorney in Paris, was driven on the town without resource, and became a spy of the police. He first appeared in his revolutionary character the day after the taking of the Tuileries, in 1792. He was one of the most sanguinary of the assassins of September; and presided at the massacre of the prisoners in Orleans. The com- mune of Paris then made him chief of the sans- culottes section. With these banditti, armed with bayonets and cannon, he marched to the Convention, and demanded the proscription of the Girondists. Under terror, the assembly consented to give up 29 of their most talented members to the guillotine. Henriot after- wards became the tool and satellite of Robes- pierre. When the latter was condemned to death by the Convention, Henriot and Coffinhal, the vice-presidents of the revolutionary tribunal, made an effort to raise the Jacobin factions in his favour ; and had nearly succeeded, when Henriot's courage failed just as the brigands were pointing their cannon against the Conven- tion. Some of the sections, and a body of gendarmes, rallying in favour of the Conven- tion, Henriot was outlawed, and was arrested in a state of helpless intoxication, produced by large draughts of brandy which he had drunk in order to sustain his courage. His colleague, Coffinhal, maddened by the loss of the day, attacked him in the upper room of the Hotel do Ville, where both were confined, and threw him out of the window. He fell into. a sewer, where he tried to conceal himself; but his groans betraying his hiding-place, he was dragged out, and sent to the scaffold, with Robespierre and his colleagues, on the 2Sth of July, 1794. Henriot, who was only 33 when he suffered, was an ignorant, brutal, and debauched ruffian ; and, perhaps, his character is best dis- played by the fact that it was ho who proposed that all 1 he public libraries and books in France should be burned, u. at Nanterre, 1761. IIi:net, hen'-re, a name borne by mimorouj kings and other persons of eminence in various countries, the most remarkable of whom were : — Sovereigns of E s gland. Henry I., king of England, surnamed, for his learning, Beauelerc, or the scholar, was the youngest son of William the Conqueror, and was the first monarch of the Norman line who was English by birth, lie succeeded his brother Rufus in 1100, at which time bis brother Robert was in Normandy. Rob. rt OF BIOGRAPHY". Henry II. soon after invaded the kingdom, but agreed with Henry, for a yearly tribute, to renounce his right. The two brothers again resorted to arms, and Henry invaded Normandy, deposed Robert, and brought him prisoner to England, where he died in Cardiff Castle. Though the personal character of Henry was cruel and licentious, his reign was marked by some sub- stantial benefits conferred on the English people. He restored the university of Cambridge ; for- gave all debts owing to the crown prior to his accession ; reformed the court, and conquered Wales ; abolished the curfew-bell, established a standard for weights and measures, and made many other valuable improvements in the government of the country, b. at Stlby, York- shire, 1068 ; D. at Rouen, 1135. Henby II., eldest son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, so named from plunta genista, Latin for a sprig of broom, which he wore in his cap, and Maud, empress of Germany, succeeded Stephen as king of England, in 1154. He added the provinces of Anjou, Touraine, Maine, Poitou, Saintonge, Guienne, and Gascony, to the English crown. His reign was troubled by disputes between him and Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, who being murdered in 1170, the pope obliged the king to undergo penance for it at Becket's tomb at Canterbury. In 1170 he caused his eldest son Henry to be crowned king of Eng- land ; ui 1172 he conquered Ireland, and, in the following year, his sons, instigated by their mother, rebelled against him, on account of his attachment to the Fair Rosamond. The kings of France and Scotland gave them assistance ; but peace was concluded between all parties in the following year. In 1133 his son Henry died, in his 27th year. Richard, his third son, revolted against his father, and was supported by the king of France. Henry, being defeated in Normandy, was obliged to submit to disgrace- ful terms, b. at Le Mans, Normandy, 1133 ; d. at Chinon, France, 1189. Henry III. succeeded his father, John, in 1216, when only 10 years of age. When he reached the age of 16, he was declared of age; but his feeble character caused him to relinquish Normandy, Anjou, Poitou, Touraine, and Maine, to the king of France. A civil war broke out in England, and he was taken prisoner by the j barons, after a severe battle at Lewes, in Sussex. The tide of affairs turned in his favour after the battle of Evesham, in which the barons were totally defeated, chiefly through the brilliant skill and courage of his son Edward; where- upon he deprived several of these lords of their estates, and gave them to his friends. He can- celled the Great Charter, and suffered the pope to appoint an archbishop of Canterbury, and to collect tithes in Ensrland. b. at Winchester, 1206; d. at Westminster, 1272. Hknky IV., eldest son of John <>( Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and third son of Edward III., after some time spent in exile at Paris, invaded England at the head of a t'ew followers, deposed his cousin, Richard II., and seuzed the throne, in 1399. This usurpation gave rise to the civil war between the houses of York and Lancaster, which broke out under the sway of Henry VI. Alter a short reign of only fourteen years, he died, filled with remorse for many of his un- scrupulous deeds while king. B.at Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire, 1366; d. 1113. Hexky V., surnamed Monmouth, from the place of hifrbirth, was eldest son of Henry IV., Henry VI. and was educated at Oxford, under the guidance of his half-uncle, Cardinal Henry Beaufort. On commencing his reign, in 1413, he displayed many noble traits, although in his youth he had been very irregular; but, on coming to the crown, he discarded his evil companions, and conducted himself with a dignity becoming his station. Having laid claim to the French crown, he left his kingdom in the hands of a regency, and invaded France, where he displayed uncommon courage. With 15,000 men he gained the battle of Agincourt, though the French amounted to 52,000. He then re- turned to England ; but, three years afterwards, went again to France, where he married Catha- rine, the daughter of the French king. He was a brave and energetic monarch, and the most popular ruler that had hitherto sat upon the throne of England, not a single instance of in- surrection or discontent being manifested throughout his reign, b. at Monmouth, 1388 ; b. at Vincennes, 1422. The youthful escapades of Henry, and his association with that marvel- lous creation, Sir John Falstaff, form the lead- ing incidents in Shakespeare's "First Part of Henry I V." An incident of his early life, how- ever, which is authentic, gives a better notion of his character than the mad pranks of " the wild young Prince and Poins." Some of his dissolute companions having been apprehended and carried before the lord-chief justice Gas- coigne, the prince endeavoured to obtain their release, and on this being refused, so far forgot himself as to strike the justice on the bench. The latter at once ordered the prince into cus- tody, to which he quietly submitted; and to showhis approval of justice Gascoigne's conduct, Henry continued him in office, and treated him with high favour, when he became king. Henby VI., the only son of the above, was but ten months old at the death of his father, and was proclaimed king on the day after that event. His grandfather Charles, king of France, died soon after, and the duke of Orleans, en- couraged by the minority of Henry, assumed the title of King, by the name of Charles VII. This renewed the war between England and France, and the English, for a while, were suc- cessful. Henry was crowned at Paris, and the great duke of Bedford, his guardian, obtained several important victories. But the raising of the siege of Orleans by Joan of Arc gave a new turn to affairs, and the English power declined, and was, in the end, quite subverted. The death of the duke of Bedford was a fatal blow to the cause of Henry; and, to add to his mis- fortunes, the York party in England grew strong, and involved the country in a civil war. They adopted the white rose as their badge of distinction, and the Lancastrians the red. Hence the title given to the struggle— " The Wars of the Roses." After various contests, the king was defeated and taken prisoner. How- ever, his wife, Margaret of Anjou, carried on the war with spirit, and for some time with con siderable success. Richard, duke of York, was slain at Wakefield, and Henry recovered his liberty ; but Edward, earl of March, son of Richard, laid claim to the crown, and routed the queen's forces at Ludlow, but was himself afterwards defeated at St. Alban's. At length the York party prevailed, and Henry was sent to the Tower, where, it is believed, he was slain by Richard, duke of Gloucester, b. at Windsor, 1421 ; found dead in tho Tower, 1471. K K THE DICTIONARY Henry VII. Henry VII. was the son of Edmund, earl of Richmond, and of Margaret, of the house of Lancaster. By the assistance of the duke of Brittany, he landed in Wales with some troops, and laid claim to the crown in 1485. The people, disgusted at the cruelties of Richard III., joined him in such numbers that he was enabled to give the usurper battle at Bosworth Field, where Richard was slain, and Henry crowned upon the spot. He united the houses of York and Lancaster by marrying Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. His reign met with little dis- turbance, except from two impostors, set up by Lady Margaret, sister to Edward TV. One was a joiner's son, called Lambert Simnel, who pre- tended to be the young earl of Warwick, son of George, duke of Clarence, and the daughter of the " King Maker," whom, having captured, Henry made a turnspit in his kitchen. The other was Perkin Warbeck, who personated Richard, duke of York, younger son of Edward IV., who, along with his brother, Edward V., is generally believed to have been murdered in the Tower by Richard III. ; but he was apprehended and executed, along with young Warwick, whom, while in the Tower, he had induced to enter into a conspiracy against the king. Henry reigned 24 years, and greatly increased trade and com- merce; but his avarice was excessive, b. at Pembroke Castle, 1457 ; d. at Richmond, 1509. Buried in Henry the Seventh's chapel, built by him in Westminster Abbey. Henry VIII. succeeded his father, the pre- ceding monarch, at the age of 18. The first years of his reign were very popular, owing to his great generosity; but at length his conduct grew capricious and arbitrary. The emperor Maximilian and Pope Julius II., having leagued against France, persuaded Henry to join them, and he, in consequence, invaded that kingdom, where he made some conquests, but did not push his advantages as he might have done, and finally concluded peace with the French King, Louis XII. About the same time, James IV., king of Scotland, invaded England, but was defeated and slain at Flodden Field. Cardinal Wolsey succeeded in bringing Henry over from the imperial interests to that of the French king. When Luther commenced bis reformation in Germany, Henry wrote a ;>ook against him, for which he was compli- mented by the pope with the title of Defender of the Faith. But this attachment to the Roman see did not last long; for, having con- ceived an affection for Anne Boleyn, he deter- mined to divorce his wife, Catharine of Aragon, to whom he had been married eighteen years. His plea for the divorce was, that Catharine was his brother Arthur's widow. The divorce being refused by the pope, Henry assumed the title of supreme head of the English church, put down the monasteries, and alienated their possessions to secular purposes. His marriage with Anne liolcyn followed ; but he afterwards sent her to the scaffold, and married Lady Jane Seymour, who died in childbed. He next mar- ried Anne of Clcvcs ; but she not proving agree- able to his expectations, he put her away, and caused Cromwell, earl of Essex, the projector of the match, to be beheaded. His next wife was Catharine Howard, who was beheaded for adul- tery; after which he espoused Catharine Parr, who survived him. He was a man of strong passions and considerable learning; but it is truly said of him, " that he never spared man 490 Henry IV. in his anger nor woman in his lust." u. at Greenwich, 1491 ; d. 1547. Sovereigns of France. Henry I., king of France, succeeded his father Robert in 1031. His mother, Constance of Provence, excited a revolt against him, in favour of her second son Robert, but without success. He had the reputation of being a valiant commander and a good king. b. about 1004; d. 1060. Henry II., the son of Francis I., succeeded his father in 1547, at which time France was at war with England. In 1550 peace was restored, and Boulogne ceded to the French for a large sum. The year following, a league was entered into between Henry and the Protestant princes of Germany, against Charles V., which produced a war ruinous to France. In 1556 a truce was concluded for five years; but the emperor having resigned his crown to his son Philip, the war was renewed. In 1557 the French army was defeated by the Spaniards at St. Quentin. In 1559 Henry concluded a dishonourable peace. The same year he was accidentally wounded in the eye, at a tournament, by a lance, of which injury he died in 1559. b. 1518. Henry III., third son of the above, suc- ceeded his brother, Charles IX., in 1574. While he was Duke of Anjou, the Poles elected him to their throne, on the death of Sigismund Augustus; but he renounced it on taking pos- session of that of France. In the same year he gained the battle of Dormans, and concluded a peace with the Huguenots, by which toleration was granted them. But this was revoked in 1585, and the Protestant princes, of whom Henry, King of Navarre, was the chief, had recourse to arms. The king of Navarre de- feated the Catholic army in 1587. The duke of Guise, on the other hand, obtained a signal advantage over the Huguenots and their allies ; but on his marching to Paris, the gates were shut against him. The people, however, were attached to Guise, and the king was obliged to retire from his capital, which was commanded by the head of the Catholic league. France was then divided into three parties : the Royalists, the Guises, and the Huguenots. At length the two first became apparently reconciled, but Henry caused the duke, and his brother the cardinal, to be assassinated soon after. Civil war again broke out with additional ftusy ; the pope excommunicated Henry, and the parlia- ment instituted a criminal process against him. In this exigency he had recourse to the king of Navarre, who set out on his march to Pans ; but the face of affairs was suddenly changed by the death of the king, who was assassinated by a monk, named James Clement, at St. Cloud, 1589. b. at Fontainebleau, 1551. Henry IV., surnamed the Great, king of France and Navarre, was the son of Antoine dp Bourbon, king of Navarre, and Jeanne d'Albret. Being descended from Louis IX. of France, he became the heir to that kingdom; but, as he was educated a Protestant, his claim was re- sisted. Born a mountaineer, he was early trained to activity of body, and soon distin- guished himself by feats of arms. After the peace of St. Germain, in 1570, he was taken to the French court, and, two years afterwards, married Margaret, sister of Charles IX. At the rejoicings on this occasion happened the in- famous massacre of St. Bartholomew, and hu OF BIOGRAPHY. Henry I. life was only spared on condition of his becom- ing a Roman Catholic; but, in 1576, he escaped from Paris, and put himself at the head of the Huguenots. In 1587 he gained the battle of Coutras. In 1572 he succeeded to the throne of Navarre, and in 1589 to that of France ; but his religion proving an obstacle to his coronation, he again consented to abjure it in 1593. In 1598 ne issued the edict of Nantes, granting toleration to the Protestants. The same year he concluded the treaty of Vervins with Spain, after which time his country enjoyed unin- terrupted peace till his death. His abjuration was very disagreeable to the Protestants, and did not prove quite satisfactory to the opposite party, who doubted his sincerity. His greatest enemies were the Jesuits, one of whose pupils wounded him in the mouth in an attempt upon his life, which was finally taken by Francis Eavaillae. The wisdom, generosity, and talent displayed by Henry throughout his reign, have truly merited the title of Great, which is applied to his name; and he is the only king of the old monarchy who remains popular with the French nation. B.atPau inBearne 1553; assassinated, 1610. SOVEREIGNS OF GeBMANY Hen by I., surnamed the Fowler, emperor of Germany, was the son of Otho, duke of Saxony, and elected to the imperial dignity in the year 918. He reunited the German princes, and sub- dued the Hungarians, framed good laws, and built several cities. He vanquished the Bohe- mians, the Slavonians, and the Danes, and conauered the kingdom of Loraine. b. 876 ; B. 936. Henby II., surnamed both the Saint and the Lame, and great-grandson of the preceding, was elected emperor in 1002. He re-established Benedict VIII. in the papal chair, and was crowned by that pontiff in 1014 at Rome. He tranquillized Italy, and expelled thence the Saracens and Greeks, b. 972 ; d. near Gottin- gen, 1024. Henby III., surnamed the Black, or Bearded, son of Conrad II., succeeded his father in 1039. He was crowned at Rome by Clement II., and governed with a firm hand the people over whom it was his destiny to rule. b. 1017 ; d., supposed by poison, in 1056. Henry IV. was son of Henry III., whom he succeeded at the age of six years. Agnes, his mother, governed with ability during his mi- nority. The Saxons rebelled against him, and accused him of simony and other crimes to Pope Gregory VII., who took from him the right of presenting to benefices. Henry then called a diet at Worms, in 1076, for the purpose of de- posing the pope, who excommunicated the em- peror. The German princes deposed Henry, who went to Italy, and made his submission to the pontiff; but Gregory was not to be appeased, and Henry resolved on vengeance. The electors chose Rodolphus, duke of Suabia, and Gregory confirmed his title ; but Henry, after defeating his competitor, put him to death. He then called a council, which deposed the pope, and elected in his room the archbishop of Ravenna. In 1106 his son Henry assumed the title, and being supported by the princes of the empire, the emperor was obliged to renounce his crown; after which he became a wanderer, and suppli- cated thc..archbishop of Spires to give iiim a 420 Henry- prebend in his church, which he refused, b. 1050 ; d. in poverty, at Liege, 1106. Henby V., surnamed the Young, deposed his father in 1106. In 1110 he forced Pope Pascal II. to restore to him the right of nominating to ecclesiastical benefices, which Gregory VII. had wrested from his father. Pascal afterwards called two councils, and excommunicated Henry. He was the last emperor of the Franconian line. b. 1081 ; d. 1125. Henry VI., surnamed the Cruel, was son cf Frederick Barbarossa, and succeeded his father in 1190, at the age of twenty-five. This prince behaved treacherously to Richard I., king of England, who, in returning from the crusade through Germany, was arrested by Leopold, duke of Austria, and sent to the emperor, who exacted from him an enormous ransom. His wife, Constance, is said to have poisoned him. b. 1165; d. 1197. Henky VII., son of Henrj-, count of Luxem- bourg, was elected emperor in 1308, at the age of forty-five, and soon after went into Italy, at that time distracted with the contentions be- tween the Guelphs and Ghibelines. He was crowned at Rome in 1312, and died in the follow- ing year. Henry tbtF Lion, a remarkable prince of Germany in the 12th century, assumed the go- vernment of Saxony in 1142. He demanded restitution of Bavaria, which had been taken from his father in 1138. The emperor aided him, and a war ensued, which resulted in Henry recovering Bavaria, his possessions extending from the Baltic and the North Sea to the Adriatic. In 1172 he went on an expedition to the Holy Land, and, during his absence, his enemies, and even the emperor, made encroach- ments on his dominions. This was the fruitful source of quarrels ; and, in 1180, Henry was ex- pelled from Bavaria by his former ally, Frede- rick Barbarossa. He was, however, allowed to re- tain possession of his hereditary dominions, and died in peace at Brunswick, in 1195. b. 1129. Henry was pious, bore up manfully against misfortune, and protected the interests of commerce, science, and the arts. Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester, ne- phew of William Rufus, and brother of King Stephen, was an active prelate, and a bold, am- bitious, and enterprising statesman. When England was invaded by the partisans of the Empress Matilda, he at first joined her standard, but subsequently deserted it, and became her most determined enemy. The empress-queer, and her followers having taken refuge in the castle of Winchester, Henry laid siege to it, set the city on fire, and consumed twenty churches, a number of religious houses, and many other buildings, so little respect did he pay for the capital of his dioeese when he had a personal pur- pose to serve. He is now remembered chiefly as the founder of the hospital of St. Cross, near Winchester, the church of which is regarded by many antiquaries as furnishing the model of the distinguishing features of'the Gothic or pointed style of architecture, n. 1171. Henry, the Navigator, the fourth son of John I., king of Portugal, early gave proofs of brilliant courage; but his love of arms was surpassed by his love pf the sciences, particu- larly mathematics, astronomy, and navigation. While vigorously prosecuting a war against the Moors in Africa, he neglected no opportunity of K K2 THE DICTIONARY Henry Baspon obtaining from them a knowledge of the regions bordering on Egypt and Arabia, and of inquiring into the probability of a passage to the treasures of India by a voyage round the western coast of Africa. He conversed with men of learning ; and finding their testimony agreeable to the re- ports he had collected, he resolved to execute his designs. He was the first who applied the compass to navigation ; and to him also a prin- cipal part is ascribed in the invention of the astrolabe. Various expeditions were under- taken, and discoveries made, under his patronage and at his expense. It was at this period that the Portuguese doubled Cape Verd, and discovered the group of islands called the Azores, about 800 miles west from the Portuguese coast. Henry continued these efforts till his death, in 1463, and thus secured for himself an undying name as the patron and friend of navigation. b. 1394. Henby Easpon, landgrave of Thuringia, was elected emperor by the ecclesiastical princes in 1246, when Pope Innocent IV. deposed Frederick II. ; but died the year following, of a wound received in fighting against his rival. Henby, prince of Wales, and the eldest son of James I. of England, was an amiable and ac- complished prince, and a great patron of learn- ing and science. His death caused great grief to the nation, which had formed of him the highest expectations, b. at Stirling, Scotland, 1594; D. 1612. Hknby of Huntingdon, an English his- torian, was canon of Lincoln and archdeaeon of Huntingdon. He wrote a " History of England to the year 1154;" and was also author of a Latin work, entitled, "Contempt of the World." Lived in the 12th century. Henby, Matthew, an eminent nonconformist divine, and biblical commentator, received his education under his father, and having made considerable progress in learning, en- tered at Gray's Inn ; but renounced the study of the law, and became a dissenting minister at Chester, where he resided many years, and then removed to Hackney. His chief work is "The Exposition of the Old and New Testaments," which is to this day considered one of the best commentaries upon the Bible ; he wrote also many other theological works, b. in Flintshire, 1662; d. whilst travelling between Chester and London, 1714. Henry, Bobeit, a Scotch divine, who, inl776, was chosen one of the ministers of the Old Church at Edinburgh ; he was the author of a valuable History of Great Britain to the reign of Henry VII. b. 1718 ; d. 1790. Henry, Patrick, a celebrated American orator and statesman, who, by the display of great natural eloquence, became a leader of the American people in their struggle against the mother country. Jefferson says of him, that "he gave the earliest impulse to the ball of the revolution." In 1769 he became the leader of the democratic party in Virginia, and in 1775 was one of the first to make an appeal to arms. He said " Of peace there is no longer any hope. If we wish to be free, we must fight." He be- came the first governor of Virginia on the de- claration of independence, and was re-elected the three following years. He was offered the secretaryship of state in 1785 by Washing- ton, but declined the appointment, b. 1736; v. 1793. Henryson, 7{ol ,n vt, Jien'-rc-son, a Scotch poet ODD Heraclius in the 16th ccntry, was schoolmaster at Dun- fermline, and a monk of the Benedictine order. His " Fabils" were printed at Edinburgh in 1621 ; and his " Testament of Faire Crescide" in 1593. He wrote a number of other pieces, which are to befound in the collections of Hailes, Pinkerton, &c. Hepburn, James Bonaventura, kep'-lurn, an eminent philologist, was bred in the Pro- testant religion by his father, who was a pres- byterian minister; but, after studying at St. Andrew's, Scotland, he embraced the Bomish faith, and went to Italy. He next travelled through Turkey, Persia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Ethiopia, and most of the countries of the east ; and it is asserted that he became master of so many languages, that there was scarcely a region of the globe with whose inhabitants he could not have conversed in their own tongue. On his return, the fame of his acquisitions having reached the ears of Pope Paul V., he invited him to quit the retirement he had sought at Eome, and gave him the wardship and inspection of all the Oriental books and manuscripts in the Vatican library. He is supposed to have died at Venice, about 1620. b. in Haddingtonshire, 1573. He published a Hebrew and Chaldaic Dictionary and an Arabic Grammar in one vol. 4to. Hepburn, Eobert, a native of Scotland, a miscellaneous writer, who, at the age of twenty- one, published in thirty numbers, a series of essays, entitled " The Tatler, by Hector Mac- staff, of the North." He studied the civil law in Holland, and became a member of the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh. Some of his manu- scripts are in the Advocates' Library, b. 1690; d. 1712. Hephjestion, he-phes'-ti-on, the favourite of Alexander the Great, and the companion of his campaigns and festivities, married one of the daughters of Darius, d. at Ecbatana, 325 B.C. Heraclitus, ke-ra'-cli-tus, a celebrated phi- losopher of Ephesus, who flourished about 500 B.C. He was fond of solitude, and obtained the appellation of " the mourner," from his custom of weeping at the follies of men. He supported the doctrine of fatalism, and maintained that the world was made of fire, which element he deified. He died in the sixtieth year of his age. Hebaclius, ker-ac'-li-ug, emperor of the East, was the son of Herac'ius, governor of Africa, who dethroned Phocas, in 610, and caused him- self to be crowned in his stead. Chosroes, king of Persia, having ravaged Palestine, and com- mitted dreadful cruelties on the Christians, Heraclius marched against him, forced him to sue for peace, and to deliver up the holy cross. The end of his reign was disturbed by ecclesi- astical disputes and the inroads of the Saracens, b. 575; d. 641. Hebaclius-Constantinb, son and successor of the above, was associated in the throne with his brother Heracleonas, agreeably to the will of Heraclius. He reigned only a few months, having been poisoned, it is said, by his mother-in-law, Martina, b. at Constantinople, 612. Heraclius, patriarch of Jerusalem was a debauched and scandalous prelate, and showed great enmity to Henry II., king of England, for not going to Jerusalem in person, agreeably to the terms of his penance, on account uf the OF BIOGRAPHY. Herbart Herbert murder of Thomas a-Becket. Lived in the 12th century. Herbaet, John Frederick, hair-bar, an emi- nent German metaphysician and philosophic writer, was appointed professor of philosophy at Konisgberg, while fulfilling the duties of which office he greatly assisted in the organization of the Prussian educational system. He composed a number of works on metaphysics, wherein it would appear that he was a follower partly of Fichte and partly of Kant. b. at Oldenburg, 1776; D. 1341. Herbelot, Bartholomew d", hair'-be-lo, a learned French orientalist, who obtained a pen- sion from the king, and the place of regius pro- fessor of the Syiiac language. Ferdinand II., grand-duke of Tuscany, made him a present of a large library of oriental manuscripts. His great work, entitled " Bibliotheque Orientale," containing whatever relates to the knowledge of the eastern world, is universally known. The best edition is that of the Hague, in 4 vols. 4to, 1777-99. He also compiled a Turkish and Per- sian Dictionary, b. at Paris, 1625; d. 1695. Herbert, Mary, her'-bert, countess of Pem- broke, the sister of Sir Philip Sidney, and mother of theseholariy Earl of Pembroke, translated from the French a tragedy called "Annius," 1595, 12mo, and rendered into English some of Da- vid's Psalms, d. 1621. Ben Jonson wrote the following elegant epitaph for her : — " Underneath this sable hearse, Lies the subject of all verse; Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother; — Death ! ere thou hast kill'd another Fair and good and learn'd as she, Time shall throw a dart at thee." Herbert, William, carl of Pembroke, a poet and the patron of learned men, was educated at New College, Oxford, and in 1626 was ejected chancellor of that university, to which he was a liberal benefactor through life, and bequeathed to it at his death a valuable coiiection of manu- scripts, b. 1580; d. 1630. Herbert, Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, an English statesman and philosopher, was educated at Oxford, after which he travelled on the continent. On his return, he was made one of the king's counsellors for military affairs, and soon after was sent ambassador to France, to intercede on behalf of the Protestants. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and, in 1631, an English peer. At the breaking out of the re- bellion, he sided with the Parliament. Lord Herbert was the author of some singular books : the most remarkable is entitled " De Veritate," in which he espouses deism. He also wrote "The History of Henry VIII.," a treatise in Latin on the Religion of the Gentiles, and his own memoirs, which are the first instances of autobiography in the English language, and which were edited by Horace Walpole, and printed by him at his own press at Strawberry Hill. B. 1581 : D. 1648. Herbert, George, an English poet and divine, brother of the above, received his edu- cation at Westminster school, whence he was elected to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became acquainted with Lord Bacon, and was chosen fellow of his college. He was also ap- pointed orator to the university. On taking orders, he obtained the rectory of Bemerton, in Wilts, and a prebend of Lincoln. His poems, of the same school as those ofDoaneandHerrick, 501 were published under the title of "The Temple." b. 1593 ; d. 1632. He also wrote a prose sequel to " The Temple," wherein he lays down some very excellent rules for the life of a country clergyman. He also translated Comaro "On Temperance." Herbbrt, Sir Thomas, a scion of one of the branches of the Pembroke family, was the son of an alderman at York. After receiving his education at Oxford, he travelled for four years in Asia and Africa, of which he published an account. On the breaking out of the civil wars he sided with the Parliament; but having been appointed to attend upon Charles in his captivity, became warmly attached to him, and proved himself a zealous and incorruptible servant to him up to the hour of his execution. He sur- vived the king twenty years, devoting his life principally to literary pursuits. He assisted Dugdale in his " Monasticon Anglicanum," and published an account of the last two years of the life of king Charles, under the title of " Threnodia Carolina." He was created a baro- net at the Bestoration, 1660. b. 1606 ; d. 1682. ■ Herbert, Right Hon. Sidney, Lord Herbert of Lea.an eminent English politician, who, after re- ceiving an education at Harrow and Oriel College, Oxford, at which latter place he graduated in clas- sical honours in 1831, entered on his public life as member of Parliament for the southern divi- sion of Wilts. His first speech in parliament was delivered in 1831, upon which occasion he seconded a resolution for the exclusion of Dis- senters from the colleges of Oxford. In 1838 he opposed Mr. Grote's motion in favour of the ballot. But, soon after this period, more enlight- ened and broader political views appear to have replaced his first somewhat narrow and illiberal opinions as a member of Parliament. He fol- lowed Sir Robert Peel as a convert to free trade, and, on that statesman's accession to the office of premier, Mr. Herbert became his secretary to the Admiralty. In 1846 he supported Sir Robert in all his measures tending to pave the way for the repeal of the corn-laws, and the introduction of free trade as the principle of English commerce. During the premiership of Lords John Russell and Derby, he was in opposition ; but on Lord Aberdeen's accession to power, he accepted the post of secretary at war, but resigned it in 1855. He was colonial secretary for a very short time under Lord Palmerston, but, on the appoint- ment of a committee of inquiry into the state of the army before Sebastopol, he, conceiving it to imply a censure upon the Aberdeen adminis- tration, of which he had been a member, re- linquished the post. After that period he retired from politics, devoting his leisure to schemes of social benevolence and utility, and was called to the House of Lords as Lord Her- bert of Lea. He was second son of the earl of Pembroke, by a daughter of Count Woronzoff, of Russia. B. 1810 ; D. August 2, 1861. Herbert, John Rogers, R.A., a distinguished English historical painter, who, after completing his studies at the Royal Academy, began his artistic career as a portrait-painter. His firs' work which attracted attention was "The Ap- pointed Hour," wherein a young Italian gentle- man lies dead, from the dagger of a bravo, at the bottom of a flight of steps, while his mistress, unconscious of the act, is descending to meet him. This was one of the most popular prints ofitsday. After havingtravelled in Italy, Herbert produced a scries of Venetian pictures, among THE DICTIONARY Herder the best of which were "The Brides of Ve- nice," and "Pirates of Istria bearing off the Brides of Venice." On embracing the Roman Catholic faith, his style underwent a very marked change; henceforth he painted only scriptural or ecclesiastical subjects, all of which were wrought in the mediaeval manner; "The First Introduction of Christianity into Britain," " Christ and the Daughter of Samaria," and "Our Saviour and his Parents at Naza- reth," being among his best works at this period. He was elected a R.A. in 1846, where- upon his style became again modified. In 1818 lie was commissioned to paint a picture from " King Lear," which, with some others, was executed in fresco for the new palace at West- minster. He subsequently engaged to paint " Moses Descending from the Mount," for the same building, b. at Maldon, Essex, 1810. Heedeb, Johann Gottfried vou, her'-der, a German philosopher and poet, who was brought up for the church, and held various ecclesias- tical offices at the court of the Duke of Saxe- Weimar. His chief prose work is entitled "Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of the Human Race," while his " Voices of the People " is his best and most-read poetical work. He was re- markable for his industry, his collected works on a wide range of subjects occupying forty-five volumes, b. at Mohrungen, in Prussia ; d. 1803. Hebisial, Pepin d', hair'-U-tal, surnamed the Young, the founder of the family from which sprung the Carlovingian dynasty of the kings of France. He held the office of mayor of the palace under Clovis III. and Childebert III., who were mere puppets in his hands. Hermengardb, her'-men-gard, the name of several princesses during the middle ages : — 1. The second wife of Charlemagne, daughter of Desiderius, king of the Lombards, who was divorced in 771, after being married a year. — 2. The first wife of Louis le Debonnaire. — 3. A queen of Provence. Hermes Thismegistus, her -met tris-ma-jis'- tu», " the thrice grand," an Egyptian priest and philosopher, who instructed his countrymen in the cultivation of the olive, in language, writing, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and medicine. Many translations of Ins works have been pub- lished, but they are generally considered to be apocryphal. Heriiogenes, her-moj'-e-nees, of Tarsus, sur- named Xyster, a rhetorician, who, at 15 years of age, is said to have taught Greek oratory at Rome, and whose lectures were attended by the emperor Marcus Aurelius. He wrote several works on oratory, which were edited and trans- lated into Latin, by Heeren, in 1812. At 21 he is said to have become imbecile, and to have lingered in this condition to an advanced age. Lived in the 2nd century. Heeo, &e'-ro, a philosopher and mathematician of Alexandria, who distinguished himself by Ms skill in the construction of warlike machines, and who wrote some able works on the art. The time of his death is not recorded. Herod, her'-od, the name of several Jewish princes. — Herod the Great was the son of Anti- pater, the Idumcan, who appointed him gover- nor of Galilee. Antony appointed him tctrarch, and Augustus made him king of the Jews. He governed with savage cruelty, and sacrificed his wife Mariamne, her grandfather Hyrcanus, and brother Aristobulus. At the birth of our Saviour, ne caused all the infants of Bethlehem to be 602 Herrick massacred, in hopes that He would fall among the number. He also put to death his sons Alexander and Aristobulus, so that Augustus said, " It was better to be Herod's hog than his son." He rebuilt the temple of Jerusalem, and, in a time of famine, sold his curiosities to relieve the sufferers, b. at Ascalon, in Judea, 74 b.c. ; d. at the age of 70, in the same year as the birth of Jesus Christ. — Herod Antipas the son of the above, succeeded his father as tetrarch of Ga- lilee. He divorced his wife, the daughter of Aretas, king of Arabia, and espoused Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip, on which Aretas declared war against him. Herod sacrificed John the Baptist to the cruelty of Herodias, and his conduct occasioned the Jews to revolt. Being called to Rome to justify his conduct, he died on the road. This is the Herod to whom our Saviour was sent by Pilate. Herodian, he-ro'-di-iin, a Greek historian, who was a native of Alexandria, but lived the greatest part of his life at Rome. He wrote a Roman history in Greek, in eight books, which was edited by L'ekker, and published at Berlin, 1826. Lived in the 3rd century. Hbhodoii's, he-rod' -o-tus, a celebrated Greek historian, surnamed " the Father of History," who in his youth, while his country was op- pressed by the tyrant Lygdamis, travelled in Greece, Africa, Asia, and Europe, gathering materials for his great work, and noting the maimers and customs of the people whom he visited. On his return he assisted in expelling the tyrant; but meeting with ingratitude from his countrymen, he retired into exile, and occu- pied himself with the composition of his his- tory. He is said to have read the commence- ment of it at the Olympic games, 456 B.C., when it was received with universal applause. His History is comprised in nine books, to which his countrymen, in their admiration, gave the names of the nine Muses. Its principal subject is the internal struggles of the Greeks; but he has introduced episodical narratives of the his- tories of the Persians, Medes, Egyptians, and other peoples. He is universally considered as the most reliable of all ancient historians, a love of the marvellous being his only drawback ; his elegant and harmonious style approaches poetry. The principal editions of it arc Larcher's French translation ; the German translation by Lange; and the English reproduction of it by the Rev. H. Carey, published in Bohn's Classical Library. b. at Halicarnassus, 484 b.c. ; d., it is uncertain when, but perhaps about 403 B.C. Hebophilus of Chalcedon, he-rof-i-his, an ancient physician, who was an accurate anato- mist, and is said to have discovered the lacteal vessels. He was also a good botanist. Lived in the 4th century B.C. Hebbkra, Ferdinand do, hair-rai'-ra, a cele- brated Spanish poet, surnamed by his contem- poraries " the Divine." He was a voluminous writer of songs, odes, elegies, &.c. A collected edition of his works was published at Seville, in 1582. B. at Seville about 1516; d. about 1595. Herrick, Robert, her -rib, a celebrated Eng- lish poet, of whom very little is known, except that he was vicar of Dean Prior, in Devonshire, for twenty years, from which he was ejected by Cromwell, but reinstated by Charles II. He wrote sacred and amatory verses, displaying in both a luxuriant fancy, with an elegant quaint- ness. His poems were collected and published in 1013, under the title of " Hesperides/' and OF BIOGRAPHY. Herschel Hervey have been since many times reprinted, b. 1591 ; d. 1674. Herschbl, Sir Win. herth'-el, a great astro- nomer, was the son of a clever musician of Hanover, and followed, for some time, the pro- fession of his father. In 1759 he went to London, and, for several years, gained a scanty livelihood by giving lessons in his art. Becoming organist at Halifax in 1765, and of a chapel in Bath in 1766, his condition was much improved. In the latter place he began to turn his attention to astronomy, and attained to a considerable degree of proficiency in its pursuit. Being unable to purchase a telescope, he, in 1774, proceeded to make one for himself. After many disappoint- ments, he at length succeeded in constructing a Newtonian telescope of five feet focal length. This instrument was a most valuable adjunct to | his studies, and, in 1781, he announced his dis- 1 covery of a comet, but which soon turned out to be a planet. This discovery made him famous, and he wa3 appointed private astronomer to George III., at a salary of £-400 a year. He removed to Slough, near Windsor, and hence- forth his abode " became one of the remarkable spots of the civilized world." His labours were shared by his sister, Miss Caroline Herschel, who assisted him in his observations and calcu- lations. After having finished more than one large instrument, he constructed the most powerful telescope then known, and, after four years' labour with these instruments, he made the most unexpected and important discoveries. A new planet— Uranus, in 1781 : its satellites in 1787; two new satellites of Saturn in 1789; the rotation of Saturn's ring, and that of Jupiter's satellites, are among the principal of his inva- luable discoveries. More than seventy of his memoirs on astronomical subjects arc contained in the " Transactions of the Koyal Society ;" and his papers on the construction of telescopes remain unsurpassed even at the present day. He became a F.U.S., and afterwards president of that learned body. He was also knighted, and received the degree of doctor of laws from the university of Oxford, b. at Hanover, 1738 ; d. 1S22. Herschel, Caroline Lucretia, the sister of the above, came to England in order to reside with her brother, while he was engaged as organist at Bath. From the first commence- ment of his astronomical pursuits, she attended him in both his daily and nightly studies. In the intervals of her labours under her brother's direction, she observed the heavenly bodies on her own account. She discovered seven comets, and, in 1798, published, with her brother, " A Catalogue of Stars, with a Correction of Flam- steed's Observations." On the decease of her brother, she returned to Hanover, where, for twenty years longer, she continued to labour at her scientific pursuits. The Koyal Society voted her their cold medal, and she was also an hono- rary member of the same. She lived to the age of 93 years, b. at Hanover, 1750 ; d. 1848. Herschel, Sir John Frederick William, the son and worthy inheritor of the fame of William, from his earliest years was distin- guished for his great mathematical powers, as well as his love for physical science. He be- came a B.A. of St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1813 ; and, on the death of his father, pur- sued in the path of discovery pointed out by him. In 1825 he commenced observing the heavenly bodies, with his father's instruments 603 and after his method. This pursuit, in which he was assisted for some time by Sir James South {see South, Sir James), lasted during eight years, and produced the most brilliant results. In his work, observations of 2306 nebula! and clusters are contained. The Koyal Astronomical Society voted him its gold medal for his observations of the double stars. In 1830 he published a " Treatise on Sound," and a " Treatise on the Theory of Light," as well as the " Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy," published in Lardner's Cyclopaedia, for which series he also contri- buted his excellent treatise on Astronomy, in 1836. In 1834 he sailed for the Cape of Good Hope, in order to make observations of the southern heavens; and for four years, at his own expense, uninterruptedly watched the skies, and nine years after his return, he, in 1847, pub- lished the results of his labours. His honour- able career was appreciated by the learned men of all nations; the Royal Astronomical Society voted him, a second time, its gold medal ; he was made D.C.L. of Oxford; and, in 1848, he became president of the l'oyal Astrono- mical Society. His " Outlines of Astronomy," "Manual of Scientific Inquiry," have made the profound science he adorned popular with a large section of the reading public. He was created a baronet at the coronation of Queen Victoria. In 1850 he was made master of the mint, an appointment he was compelled toresign in 1855, on account of ill-health, b. at Slough, near Windsor, 1792; n. 1871. Hbktsberg, Ewald Frederick Von, hairtt'- bairg, an eminent statesman, whose merit re- commended him to a situation in the department of foreign affairs at. Berlin, and he afterwards became secretary to the Prussian embassy at Vienna. The king made him counsellor of legation, in which capacity he distinguished himself as a profound politician. In 1752 his essay on the population of the March of Bran- denburg obtained the prize from the Academy of Sciences of Berlin. He was employed to draw up every state paper and memorial of eon- sequence, and was gradually advanced to the first offices in the kingdom, and to the rank of nobility, b. 1725; n. 1795. HerVey, James, her'-ve, a writer of numerous popular books on theological subjects, with a Calvinistic leaning. In 1746 he published his " Meditations among the Tombs," and " Reflec- tions in a Flower-Garden," which being well received, he added another volume. In 1755 appeared his"TheronandAspasia; or Dialogues and Letters on Important Subjects," in 3 vols. Svo, well written, but Calvinistic. The profits of bis works, which were considerable, he ap- plied to charitable purposes, b. 1714; r>. 1758. Hervey, John, Lord, second son of John, first earl of Bristol, was educated at Westminster, and Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his degree of M. A. in 1715; and after a short tour on the continent, returned to England, where he spent much of his time in the literary and fashionable circles of the metropolis. In 1720 he married Miss Lcpell,so often mentioned in Pope's letters and verses ; in 1723 he succeeded to the title of Lord Hervey by the death of his elder brother, and in 1725 became member of Parliament for Ilury, when he attached himself to Sir Robert Walpolc's party in opposition to that of Pulte- ney, and was made vice-chamberlain in 1730, which office he retained by court influence till THE DICTIONARY Herzen 1740, when he became lord privy seal. From an early aire, Lord llervey took an active part in the literary and political contests of the day. His pamphlets in answer to the " Craftsman " in- volved him in a duel with Pulteney: his quarrel with Pope, which extended over many years, pave rise to some of the bitterest satirical sketches ever penned (particularly Pope's cele- brated prose letter, the epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot, and the character of Sporus) ; and he carried on an active correspondence with Dr. Middleton regarding the mode of electing the Roman senate, besides writing some able pamphlets on foreign affairs, which may still be read with ' interest. Lord llervey was generally designated " Lord Fanny," by the wits and satirists of the time, in consequence of his effeminate habits and appearance, one lampooner even going the length of saying that he was, "Ne'er meant for use, just fit for show, Halfwit, half fool, half man, half beau." The editor of a recent edition of Pope's works say9, in a note on this nobleman : — " Lord Hervey's effeminacy arose partly from ill- health, but was carried to an extreme. Having been threatened with epileptic fits, he adopted a regimen suitable for an anchorite. He took no wine or malt liquor, breakfasted on green tea unsweetened by sugar, and biscuits without butter ; at dinner, he ate no meat but a little chicken; and once a week he indulged in a Scotch pill, and took thirty grains of Indian root when his stomach was loaded. To soften his ghastly appearance, he used rouge. Another account represents him as drinking ass's milk ; and when once asked at dinner whether he would have some beef, he answered — 'Beef! oh, no! Faugh ! Don't you know 1 never eat beef, nor horse, nor any of those things?'" His "Me- moirs of the Reign of George II., from his Accession to the Death of Queen Caroline," were published in 1813, with an account of the author by John Wilson Croker. b. 1696 ; d. 1743. Hebzen , or Hebtzxx, Alexander, hairts'-en, a Russian politician and political writer, who, after leaving the university of Moscow, in 1831, was charged with having assisted at a seditious meeting of students, and, although he was not present at it, he was condemned, after some imprisonment, to banishment under surveillance at Viatka. On the death of his father, in 1816, he became possessed of considerable estates, and was granted leave to travel in 1848. In Italy, and afterwards in Paris, he openly ex- pressed his republican ideas, and shared in the acts of his party at the latter place. Soon after, he found it expedient to reside in England, where he published his memoirs, uuder the litle of " My Exile," and set up a journal in the Russian language, in which the suppressed poems of the Russian poet Pushkin, as well as the opinions of the exiled republican leaders of the continent, weie put forth to the northern world. B. at Moscow, 1812; D. 1870. Hesiod, he'-si-od, an ancient Greek poet, the date of whose works is uncertain ; some placing them before, and others after Homer. He was the first who wrote on agriculture; his poems being entitled "The Works and Days." His "Theogony" is valuable as affording an account of the ancient mythology ; his "Shield of Her- cules" is •nly a fragment of a larger work. The best edition of Hesiod is that of Dindorf, 1325; and his poems have been translated into 504 Hicetas English by Thomas Cooke. Lived in the 10th century b.c. Hesse, William, Prince of, hes'-se, celebrated as a patron of learning, and for his studies and observations, during many years, of the heavenly bodies. For this purpose he built an observa- tory at Cassel, and called to his assistance two scientific men,Rothmann andByrge. His obser- vations were printed at Leyden, in 1618. b. about 1545 ; d. 1597. Hevelius, John, he-ve'-le-us, an eminent astronomer, came of a distinguished family, and studied mathematics with great ardour, but devoted himself chiefly to astronomy. He built an observatory for the purpose of making accurate observations, the result of which ho published in 1647, under the title of "Seleno- graphia; or, a Description of the Moon;" to which he added the phases of the other planets, as observed by the telescope. This work was followed by many others, the most distinguished of which was his " Cometographia," published in 1668. Besides the above works, he was the author of " Uranographia," 1690, folio ; " De Natura Saturni." b. 1611 ; j>. at Dantzic, 1688. Heylin, Peter, hai'-lin, a learned divine, who obtained a fellowship of Magdalen College, where he read cosmographieal lectures. In 1625 he published his " Description of the World," which he afterwards enlarged under the title of " Cosmography." In 1628 he was appointed chaplain in ordinary to the king, and in 1631 obtained a prebend of Westminster, which was followed by the living of Houghton, in the diocese of Durham. In 1633 he took his degree of D.D. He obtained some other pre- ferments, of which he was deprived by the Parliament, and voted a delinquent; his goods were also confiscated, and his person endangered. At the Restoration he was restored to his pre- bend. He was a man of great abilities and uncommon industry. His principal works, besides the above, are, "The History of the Reformation in England;" "History of the Presbvterians ;" " Life of Archbishop Laud." b. 1600; d. 1662. Heynk, Christian Gottlob, hi'-ne, a distin- guished German classical scholar and critic, who published a number of valuable works illustrating ancient literature. He published copiously-annotated editions of Homer, Virgil, Tibullus, Pindar, &c, and contributed many valuable essays to the " Transactions" of the University of Gottingen, where he was professor of eloquence and poetry, b. at Chemnitz, Saxony, 1729; d. 1812. Hey wood, John, hai'-wood, one of the earliest English poets and dramatists. He is also said to have been well versed in music, and skilful as a player on the virginals. He was a great favourite with Henry VIII. and Queen Mary, but on the accession of Elizabeth he went to Mechlin. One of his principal works is entitled " The Spider and the Fly, a Parable." b. about 1500; n. 1565. Heywood, Thomas, an actor and dramatic writer, who is said to have written 220 plays, of which only 24 are now extant, and those of little merit, except one, called " A Woman Killed with Kindness." Lived in the 17th century. Hicetas, hi-se'-tas, a philosopher of Syracuse, who maintained that the heavens, sun, and stars were all immoveable, while the earth revolved on its axis, This is the account given by Cicero. OF BIOGRAPHY. Hiero I. and from it Copernicus took the idea of liis system. Hiero I., hi'-e-ro, king of Syracuse, who rendered himself odious in the beginning of his reign by his cruelty and avarice. He made war against Theron, the tyrant of Agrigentum, and took Himera. d. 467 b.c, leaving the crown to his brother Thrasybulus. Hiebo II., was unanimously elected king by all the states of the island of Sicily, and ap- pointed to carry on the war against the Carthaginians ; but afterwards joining them in besieging Messina, was beaten by Appius Clau- dius, the Roman consul, and obliged to retire to Syracuse, where he was soon blocked up. Seeing all hopes of victory lost, he made peace with the enemies of his country, and proved faithful to all his engagements. He liberally patronized the learned, and employed the talents of Archimedes for the good of his country, d. 21G b.c. Hierocles, ki-er'-o-klees, the name of several Greeks. — 1. A professor of rhetoric at Alabanda, in Caria, who is said to have excelled in what Cicero called " the Asiatic " style of eloquence. Lived in the 1st century before the Christian era. — 2. A writer on the veterinary art, of whose work three chapters have been preserved. — 3. A Stoic philosopher, who is said to have flourished about the time of Hadrian. — 4. A writer of a work, which, under the title of "Travelling Companion," gave a description of the provinces of the Eastern empire. This work was edited and printed by Wesseling, at Amsterdam, in 1735. He is supposed to have lived in the 6th century. — 5. A persecutor of the Christians, who was president of Bithynia, and afterwards governor of Alexandria, where he committed numberless cruelties. He wrote some books against the Christians, mentioned by Lactantius and Eusebius. The remains of his writings were published by Bishop Pearson in 1654, with a curious discourse upon them. Lived in the 4th century. — 6. An Alexandrine l'latonic philosopher, who wrote seven books on " Providence and Destiny," and a commen- tary on the " Golden Verses of Pythagoras j" the latter of which is extant, also fragments of the former. A book entitled " Asteia," ridicul- ing the works and manners of pedants, is some- times attributed to him ; but it is probably the work of another author of the same name. It was translated into English in 1741, and published in the " Gentleman's Magazine." Lived in the oth century. Hiebontmus, hi-e-ron'-i-miis, a tyrant of Sicily, who rendered himself odious by his oppression and debauchery. He abjured the alliance of Pome, which Hiero had enjoyed with so much honour and advantage. He was assassinated, and all his family extirpated, 214 B.C. — A Christian writer, commonly called St. Jerome, born in Pannonia, distinguished for his zeal against heretics, lie wrote Commentaries on the Propheis, St. Matthew's Gospel, &c. V. 420. Hiffeiinax, Paul, hxf-fer-nan, an Irish dramatist, who, after being educated for the practice of medicine in France, pursued that profession in Dublin for some time ; but went to London in 1759, and commenced writing for the stage, and compiling works for booksellers. He met with little success as an author, and lived chiefly by contributions from the purses Of his friends, b. ut Dublin, 1719; D. 1777. Hilary Higgins, John, hig'-gins, an English divine and schoolmaster, who lived at Winsham, near Ilminster, in Somersetshire. He published some school-books, a treatise on Christ's descent into hell, and part of the " Mirrour for Magis- trates." b. about 1544 ; d. about 1603. Highmorb, Joseph, hi'-mor, an English his- torical painter. He painted the portraits of several eminent persons, also a set of pictures, the subjects of which were taken from Richard- son's "Pamela." At the foundation of the Royal Academy, he was chosen one of the pro- fessors. His best pictures are " Hagar and Ish- mael," at the Foundling hospital ; the " Finding of Moses;" and the "Good Samaritan." He was also eminent for his literary abilities, and published " A Critical Examination of the Two Paintings by Rubens on the Ceiling of the Banqueting-house at Whitehall," &c. ;* ' The Practice of Perspective on the Principles of Dr. Brooke Taylor ;" " Observations on a Pamphlet entitled Christianity not founded on Argument," and two volumes of Essays, b. in London, 1692; D. 1780. Higgons, Be\\\,hiq'-gon$, a dramatic poet and historian, whose principal works are, a tragedy called " The Generous Conqueror," and a "Short View of the English History." He accompanied James II. to France, and died there in 1735 ; b. 1670. Hilaike, Geoffrey St., he'-lair, a distin- guished French naturalist, was the son of Etienne Geoffrey St. Hilaire, also an eminent naturalist. The example and the teachings of his father inspired him even in his childhood with a taste for the natural sciences, to the study of which he devoted himself with untiring ardour and remarkable success. In 1826 he presented to the Institute a " Memoire" upon the mammalia, and was but 21 when elected a mem- ber of the Academy, which was then presided over by his father. He was successively pro- fessor of zoology at the Museum, director of the menagerie, inspector-general, councillor of the university, &e. Among other movements with which his name is more especially con- nected, was the establishment of the Imperial Zoological Society of Acclimatisation, of which he was the president. St. Hilaire often caused amusement, both in his own country and out of it, by the pertinacious eiforts which he made to introduce the use of horseflesh as a staple article of human food; having on more than one occasion presided at banquets where horses supplied the material for almost every dish. b. 1805 ; d. 1861. Hilakion, hi-lair'-e-on, the founder of the monastic life in Palestine. He visited St. An- thony the anchorite in Egypt, and on his return to his own country followed his example, and obtained a number of followers, b. 291; d. in the island of Cyprus in 371. Hilary, St., hil'-a-re, a father of the Church in the 4th century, who embraced Christianity when far advanced in life. On being instructed in the principles of religion, he was baptised with his wife and daughter. In 350 he was made bishop of Poictiers, and the year following was sent by Constantius to defend Athanasius at the synod of UeziersagainstSaturninus, which he did with such zeal that Saturninus prevailed on the emperor to banish him to Phrygia, where he wrote his books on the Trinity. He was also the author of a treatise on Synods, d. 3U7. Hilary, a saint of the Roman calendar, who THE DICTION ART Hildebrand succeeded Honoratus in the bishopric of Aries, jnd presided at a council at Orange, in 431. His works are — 1. Homilies, under the name of Eusebius of Emesa ; 2. " The Life of St. Hono- ratus;" 3. "OpuBcula." B. 401; d. 449. Hildbbband, hit -de-brand, king of the Lom- bards, ascended the throne in 736, and shared power with his uncle Luitprand ; but his tyranny became insupportable to his subjects, who de- posed him in 744, electing in his stead the duke of Friuli. Hill, Aaron, hit, an English poet and drama- tist. At the age of fifteen he went to Constan- tinople to visit his relation, Lord Paget, who was ambassador there, and whom he- accom- panied to England, in 1703. He next travelled with Sir William Wentworth over Europe. In 1709 he became manager of Drury-lane Theatre, I for which he wrote his "Elfrid; or, the Fair Inconstant." The following year he became manager of the Opera-house, and wrote the opera of "Binaldo," the first for which Handel composed the music in England. About 1718 he published a poem, called "The Northern Star ; or, a Panegyric on Peter the Great," for which the empress Catharine sent him a gold medal, b. in London, 1685; d. 1750. Hill, Sir John, a voluminous English writer, who commenced life as an apothecary in St. Martin's Lane. His first publication was a translation of Theophrastus' tract on Gems, which procuring him some reputation, he un- dertook a natural history, in 3 vols, folio. He afterwards became a general writer on almost all subjects. He published a supplement to Chambers's " Cyclopaedia," and conducted a magazine, and a daily paper under the title of the "Inspector." At this time he obtained his degree of M.D. from Scotland, and set up as a vender of quack medicines. Under the patron- age of the earl of Bute he commenced a volu- minous work, called " The System of Botany," which he sent to the king of Sweden, who "in- vested him with one of his orders of knight- hood. Besides the above works, he wrote, among others, "Mrs. Glasse's Cookery," "A Review of the Works of the Royal Society," some novels, and a few farces. These last brought him into a controversy with Garrick, who wrote the following epigram on him : — "For physic and farces, his equal there scarce is; His farces are physic, his physic a farce is." B. at Peterborough, 1716 ; d. 1775. Hill, Rev.Rowland, minister of Surrey Chapel, son of Sir Rowland Hill, bart., was born at Hawkstone, near Shrewsbury, and in the grammar school of that town commenced his education, then went to Eton for a few years, and finished his studies at St. John's College, Cambridge. At the time hequitted the university, the celebrated George Whitefield was in the zenith of Ids popularity; and so congenial to Hill's nature was that extraordinary preacher's manner and doctrine, that he adopted both, and became his zealous disciple ; prosecuting his favourite plan of itinerancy, preaching in [the streets of Bristol, on the quays, or among the colliers at Kingswood ; wherever, in fact, he could gain an audience; but resuming, at stated periods, the services of the London and Bristol tabernacles. In 1763 the building of Surrey Chapel was completed; and from that time to the period of bis death, an interval of fifty years, he continued to piss his winters in town for the purpose of officiating there, his place fJifi Hill being supplied during the summer months by a succession of ministers from the country. The numerous tales that are told of his eccentrici- ties should be received with caution ; though it is certain he occasionally illustrated the most solemn truths by observations which savoured more of the ludicrous than the pathetic — of the grotesque than the serious. His writings are very numerous, the principal of which is en~ titled "Village Dialogues;" but he was not sparing of wit, humour, or sarcasm, whenever he could make either subservient to his purpose, as was strikingly seen in a satirical pamphlet against the ministers of the established church, which he published anonymously, under the title of "Spiritual Characteristics, by an Old Observer." b. 1744; d. 1833. Hill, General Sir Rowland, Viscount, the second son of Sir John Hill, bart., entered the army at the early age of sixteen; served at Toulon under Lord Mulgrave, General O'Hara, and Sir David Dundas; through the whole of the Egyptian campaign, where he was wounded in the head ; in Ireland, throughout the Peninsular War, and at Waterloo. InT828, he was appointed commander-in-chief, and dis« charged the duties of the post to the entire satisfaction of the public, and with great benefit to the army. In the field — in every rank, from that of ensign to that of general — he was re- markable for a rare union of daring, zeal, and prudence. In the distribution of his patronage, he was proverbially impartial; private or politi- cal feeling never prevented him from doing justice to professional merit, b. 1772; d. Dec. 10, 1842. Hill, Sir Rowland, the distinguished author of the cheap postage system, and secretary to the Post-office, in early life supported him- self by teaching mathematics in his father's school and in private families at Birmingham. His talent for organization was displayed, even atthisperiod, by his improvements in his father's academy, as well as in originating schemes of education. Hard work so shattered his weak health, that, in 1833, he retired from his scho- lastic duties. Shortly after, he was appointed secretary of the South-Australian commission. Early in 1837 he turned his attention to postal reform, and published a number of pamphlets upon the subject. Of these, it will be suffi- cient to name one, — "State and Prospects of Penny Postage," in which he proposed that letters should be charged by weight and not by distance, and that a uniform tax of one penny on all letters of a certain weight should be imposed. In the same year, the House of Commons ap- pointed a committee to examine his project. In their report this committee strongly re- commended the plan, as eminently favour- able to commerce, while it would serve as a valuable aid in developing the intellect of the lower classes. In the course of the following session, more than 10,000 petitions were presented to Parliament praying for a uni- form rate of postage. In 18 V) the penny postage system was adopted, and the author was nomi. natcd to the task of directing its early growth. After many vexatious struggles with the offi- cials, ho retired in 1813, and received, in 1846, a testimonial of public gratitude, the sum ol £13,000 being collected by subscription. The progress of postal communication became very rapid throughout the United Kingdom. In 1837 it rose to 75,000,000, which number, in 1812. was OF BIOGRAPHY. Hilliard increased to upwards of 360,000,000. Mr. Hill A'as reinstated as secretary of the Post-office in 1817, where he afterwards laboured to irn- Srove the organization of the establishment, te was made a K.C.B. (civil division) in I860, and, in 1864,retired on a pension of £2,000 a year for life ; receiving also a parliamentary grant of £20,000. B. 1795; D. 1879. Hixliaed, Nicholas, hil'-yard, goldsmith and portrait-painter to Queen Elizabeth, whose mi- niature portraits were highly esteemed. He painted Mary queen of Scots, and Queen Eliza- beth several times. B. 1547 ; d. 1619. HiLTOjf, William, B.A., hil'-ton, was admitted as a student at the Royal Academy about the year 1800, and in 1803 exhibited a picture of ban- ditti of high merit for an artist so young as Hilton then was. Next followed his "Hector inspired by Apollo." "Cephalus and Procris," and by a series of noble compositions, which fully established the artist's fame. He was elected an associate of the Academy in 1814, and became a member in 1820, when he presented to the Academy his picture of "Ganymede," as his diploma piece. In 1822, he succeeded Fuseli as keeper of the Academy, a post he continued to occupy till his death. Though possessed of great merit as a painter, Hilton was not popular, and had the mortification of seeing the works of inferior artists bought up rapidly, while his own remained on his hands, b. 1786 ; d. 1839. Hind, John Russell, hinde, an eminent mo- dern astronomer, was the son of a Nottingham lace-manufacturer, who was among the first to introduce the Jacquard loom. His education was conducted with the view of fitting him for commercial pursuits; but, from his earliest youth, he evinced a strong predilection for astro- nomical studies. In 1840 he was sent to London, where he became assistant to a civil engineer. His love for scientific pursuits, however, led him to apply to Professor Wheatstone for a situation more in accordance with the bent of his genius. Through the interest of that gentleman, he ob- tained a situation under Professor Airy in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, where he re- mained for four years, making the best use of his time in studying the valuable astronomical works in the library, by which a solid foundation of scientific knowledge was obtained. In 1843 he was sent to Valentia, near Dublin, to settle the longitude of the place ; and, in 1844, he left the Royal Observatory to take charge of Mr. Bishop's private observatory in Regent's Park ; and, scon after his appointment, became a member of the Royal Astronomical Society. Applying himself assiduously to the observation of the heavens, he discovered ten new planets — Iris, Flora, Victoria, Irene, Melpomene, Jb'ortuna, Calliope, Thalia, Euterpe, and Urania; three comets, several stars, as well as having calculated the orbits of a number of planets and comets. He was chosen member and correspondent of nearly all the great continental learned societies ; received the gold medal of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, besides being appointed its as- sistant secretary. The government granted him a pension of £200 per year, and ap- pointed him superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. Besides his many valuable contribu- tions to the " Transactions" of the I.'oval Astro- nomical, and other English and foreign societies, he published a pamphlet "On the expected Return of the Great Comet of 1264 and 1550;" " An Astronomical Vocabulary; being an Ex- 607 Hippocrates planation of the Terms in use among Astrono- mers at the present day ;" " The Solar System,'' a description of the sun, moon, and planets; " An Account of all the Recent Discoveries ;" " An Illustrated London Astronomy, for the use of Schools and Students;" in addition to several others, some calculated for the more learned in science, and others fitted for the popular expo- sition of that science in which he laboured with so much industry and success, b. at Not- tingham, May, 1823. Hippabchus, hip-par'-kut, son of Pisistratus, tyrantof Athens, after whose death in 528 B.C., he reigned with his brother Hippias ; both of whom had a great love of letters, and protected learned men. Hipparchus was slain by Harmodius, 514 B.C. HippARCHtrs, a celebrated Greek astronomer, who was the first to reduce astronomy to a regu- lar science ; and whose catalogue of stars is still preserved in Ptolemy's "Almagest." He foretold the course of the sun and moon for 600 years, cal- culated according to the different manners of reckoning the months, days, and hours, in use among several nations, and for the different situations of places. He also formed the lunar period which bore his name ; invented the plani- sphere, or method of describing the stars upon a plane ; and was the first to mark the positions of places upon the earth in the same manner as that of the stars, by circles drawn from the poles perpendicularly to the equator, in other words, by latitudes and longitudes; he was also the author of the projection by which maps of the world and the best geographical maps are made. Lived between 160 and 125 b.c. Hippias, hip'-pi-ut, a plulosopher of Elis, who maintained that virtue consisted in not being in want of the assistance of men. — A son of Pisis- tratus, who became tyrant of Athens, after the death of his father, with his brother Hipparchus. He wished to revenge the death of his brother, who had been assassinated, but was driven from his country. He fled to King Darius in Persia, and was killed at the battle of Marathon, fight- ing against the Athenians, 490 b.c. Hippocbates, hlp-pok'-ra-tees, the father of medical science, who flourished during the epoch of the Peloponnesian war, and before whose time the art of healing consisted of mystical juggleries and superstitious practices, pursued by the priests as a source of profit. He was born of a family called the Aselepiadae, who for 300 years had followed the pursuit of medicine. He taught the necessity of closely observing the signs of diseases, and prescribed only the most simple remedies ; always insisting that the physician should follow nature. He is said to have been the first to recognise the value of diet as an adjunct to the physician in the treatment of disease, and wrote a treatise on the subject ; he practised both as physician and surgeon; but, owing to the great respect paid to the remains of the dead among the Greeks, he had few opportunities of studying anatomy, of which he is sai 1 to have possessed but a scanty amount of knowledge. A large number of medical works are attributed to him ; but it is believed that many are the composition of some other members of his family. The most valuable of his treatises are essays on Air, Water, Locality, Epidemics, Wounds of the Head, and Diet in Acute Diseases ; all of which have been edited, translated, and annotated by the most learned men in modem times. A complete edition of his THE DICTIONARY Hippolytus 8eventy-two essays has been published in Ger- many, b. at Cos, 460 b.c. ; d. about 361 B.C. Hippolttcs, hip-pol'-i-tus, a bishop and father of the church, chiefly remarkable as the presumed author of a work on "Heresies," hitherto attributed to Origen. The Chevalier Bunsen, a few years since, wrote a work called " Hippolytus," in which, while giving the argu- ments on both sides, he pronounced himself an advocate for the claims of Hippolytus to the authorship of the work in question. Lived during the 3rd century. Hipponax, hip-po'-nax, a Greek satirical poet, of whose writings only a few fragments remain, was so deformed that two sculptors made ridiculous representations of him, for which he retaliated upon them with such severity in his satires, that they are said to have hanged them- selves, b. about 540 B.C. Hibe, Phil.p de la, hecr, a celebrated mathe- matician, who, after studying painting under his father, having a turn for mathematics, quitted that profession and went to Italy, where he applied himself diligently to his favourite science. On his return to France, he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences, and was employed by Colbert in constructing the great map of the kingdom, with Picard and Cassini. His principal works are, " Treatise on Mechanics," "New Method of Geometry," and an essay on " Conic Sections." b. at Paris, 1640 ; d. 1711. Hoadlet, Benjamin, hode'-le, a celebrated English bishop, was educated at Catherine Hall, Cambridge, of which he became fellow. In 1706, he commenced his polemical career by remarks on one of Dr. Atterbury's funeral ser- mons; and in 1708 answered another sermon of the same author, on the power of charity to cover sin. The year following, he had another controversy with Atterbury on the doctrine of non-resistance, which recommended Hoadley to the notice of the House of Commons, who prayed the queen to bestow preferment on him. On the accession of George I. he was made bishop of Bangor, which see he never visited, but continued in London, preaching and pub- lishing political sermons. One of these, on the spiritual kingdom of Christ, produced a violent dispute called the liangorian controversy. He was afterwards engaged in a contest with Dr. Hare on the nature of prayer. From Bangor he was removed to Hereford, thence to Salisbury, jnd lastly to Winchester. In 1735 he made an attack on the orthodox faith, in his "Plain Ac- count of the Lord's Supper," which he treated as a matter of mere indillerence. This excited another considerable controversy. A complete edition ot his works has been published in 4 vols, folio. B. at Westerham, Kent, 1676; d. 1761. Hoadlet, Benjamin, eldest son of the pre- ceding, a physician, published some medical and philosophical pieces; but he is best known as the author of " The Suspicious Husband," a comedy, b. 1706; d. 1757. Hoake, Prince, F.S.A., hoar, a dramatic author, a native of Bath; and secretary to the lioyal Academy; wrote several farces, which were successful, and published some works on art. b. 1751; d. 1834. Hoaue, Sir Richard Colt, bart., F.R.S. and F.S.A., an eminent locui historian and topo- grapher, was the eldest son of Sir Richard Hoare, the first baronet. In 1818 he printed for private circulation among Ids friends, his 603 Hobhouse " Recollections of a Classical Tour," in 4 vols. Various treatises on antiquarian and other kin- dred subjects occasionally came from his pen ; but his great work is the " Ancient and Modern History of Wiltshire," which at the time of his death was not quite complete, b. 1758 j d. 1838. Hobbes, Thomas, hobs, a celebrated English philosopher, who received his education at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. In 1608 he became tutor to a son of the earl of Devonshire, with whom he made the tour of Europe. On the death of his patron and pupil, he became travelling tutor to a young gentleman, but the countess dowager of Devonshire recalled him into her family to take upon him the education of the young earl. In 1634 he reprinted his transla- tion of Thucydides, the first edition of which appeared in 1628. The same year he attended the earl on his travels, and at Pisa contracted an intimacy with Galileo. In 1642 he printed his book " De Cive," which procured him many enemies by its dangerous principles. Soon after this he was appointed mathematical tutor to the Prince of Wales. In 1650 appeared, in English, his book on Human Nature ; and one, " De Corpore Politico ;" or, the Elements of Law. The next year he published his famous book, entitled " Leviathan," which is full of parodoxi- cal doctrines. At the Restoration he received a pension of £100 per annum, he having formerly supported the royalist cause with zeal ; but in 1666 the Parliament passed a censure on his writings, which greatly alarmed him. Hobbes maintained the propriety of making use of bad means to procure a good end ; which he thus illustrated : " If I were cast into a deep pit, and the devil should put down his cloven foot, I would readily lay hold of it to get out." Be- sides the above works, he published "The Wonders of the Peak," a poem ; a translation of Homer; "Elements of Philosophy;" "Letter on Liberty and Necessity;" "Six Lessons to the Professors of the Mathematics;" "Marks of absurd Geometry;" &c. b. at Malmesbury, 1583 ; d. 1679. Houbima, Minderhout, kob'-e-ma, an eminent Dutch landscape painter. His pieces are re- markable for the grace and beauty of their exe- cution, and, being rare, are now very valuable. b. at Antwerp, about 1611. Hobhouse, John Cam, Baron Broughton, hob'-house, a distinguished English politician and writer of books of travel. After receiving his education at Cambridge, he, in 1809, tra- velled in the East, and on his return, in 1812, published a work called "A Journey into Albania and other Provinces of the Turkish Empire." Lord Byron dedicated the fourth canto of " Childe Harold " to him about the same time. He was in France during the Hundred Days, and, after the battle of Waterloo, wrote " The Letters of an Englishman," in which he declared himself a supporter of the emperor Napoleon. Mainly through the ran- cour of his political opponents, he was incar- cerated in gaol for four years ; but this was the means of his attaining to a considerable degree of popularity. He became a member of the House of Commons in 1320, and, at the same time, assisted several members of the Radical party in establishing the " Westminster Review," wherein he opposed, in the most forcible man- ner, the Tory party under Canning. Becoming more moderate in his political views, he was, in OF BIOGRAPHY. Hoch.e 1831, appointed secretary of state for war in the cabinet of Earl Grey, and, in 1833, secretary of state for Ireland ; but, in the same year, lost his seat in the House of Commons, through an in- consistent vote. In 1834 he was elected M.P. for Nottingham. On the accession to power of the Whig party, headed by Lord John Russell, in 1846, he became president of the India Board of Control, in which important office he remained till 1851, when he was again unseated through his change of political opinions. In the same vear lie was created a peer, under the title of Baron Broughton of Gyford. After a short ministerial career, as a member of the coalition ministry of 1853, he retired into private life. B. 1786. Hoche, Lazarus.fiosA, a general of the French republican army, was the son of an hostler. Being deprived of his father while a child, the rector of St. Germain-en-Laye took him under his care and made him a chorister, after which he became a groom in the royal stables. At the age of sixteen he entered the army, and became a corporal in the grenadiers. Soon after the breaking out of the Revolution, he obtained a commission, and distinguished himself in seve- ral engagements. During the tyranny of Robespierre, he was confined in the Concier- gerie several months; but the fall of this ter- rorist in 1794 set him at liberty. He drove the Austrians out of Alsace, and being sent against the royalists at Quiberon, acted with great cruelty, and put to death the brave Charette. Soon afterwards, he commanded the forces sent to Ireland, but returned in disgrace. He next had the command of the army of the Sambre and Meuse, with which he defeated the Austrians on the Rhine; but, after a short illness, he died, in 1797, suspected of being poisoned, b. near Versailles, 176S. Hodgson, Rev. Francis, B.D., hodj'-ton, edu- cated at Eton, was a man of great learning and various accomplishments. He was classical tutor of King's College, Cambridge, where he formed an intimate friendship with Lord Byron, which continued unimpaired until the noble poet's death. For some time Mr. Hodgson was one of the assistant masters at Eton, and succeeded l)r. Goodall in the provostship in 1840. His Latin contributions to the "Arundines Cami," and other works of that class, are distinguished by elegant diction and classical taste. lie also wrote English poetry, of which a translation of "Juvenal" and " Lady Jane Grey," a poem, are the most generally known, b. 1780; d. 1845. Hoel 1., ho -el, duke of Brittany in 509, who, driven by Clovis from his estates, became an exile in England; but returned in 513, and ob- tained possession of his domains by force, d. 515. — Hoel II. Son and successor of the above, was killed by his brother Canor, while hunting, in 547. Hofer, Andrew, ko'-fr.r, a distinguished Ty- rolese patriot, and leader of his countrymen against the Bavarian and French invaders of the Tyrolese mountains. When the treaty of l'resburg was signed, by which Napoleon I. transferred the Tyrol to his allies the Bavarians, Hofer was a rich innkeeper and dealer in cattle and wine. By his great natural eloquence and the exercise of his power a3 a wealthy citizen, Hofer stirred his countrymen into a revolt against the Bavarians and French. The moun- taineers were assisted by an Austrian army of 10,000 men, and in the spring of 1S09 fell upon i 609 Hoffman the advancing columns of the Bavarians, while marching through the narrow defiles, defeated them with great slaughter, and recovered every fortress in the Tyrol from the enemy. Upon this, Napoleon sent three armies against the mountaineers, one of which defeated the Ty- rolese, and put a large number of the inha- bitants, male and female, to death. But in May, 1809, Hofer led his countrymen against the Bavarian army, defeated it, and once more set his country free. The Austrians were, however, compelled to evacuate the country a few months later ; whereupon he and his countrymen were left alone in the struggle, and at the outset the invaders were victorious; but after several desperate engagements, the Tyrolese were at length successful against the French, from whom they captured twenty-five pieces of can- non. On the 12th of August, 1809, Marshal Lefebvre, with an army of 23,000 French and Bavarians, and 2000 cavalry, was defeated by 18,000 Tyrolese in a battle which lasted from five in the morning until midnight; thus freeing their native land a third time. Hofer was now proclaimed the head of the province ; but his power lasted only a short time : for in October of the same year, an army of 50,000 French and Bavarians, all veteran troops, was marched against him ; whereupon he was com- pelled to seek refuge in the mountains, where he was betrayed by a false friend, a priest named Douay. He was taken and conveyed to Mantua, where, after a trial by court-martial, he was condemned to be shot. In his short, but exceedingly brilliant career, which lasted less than one year, he thrice delivered his country ; and for his services the emperor of Austria pen- sioned his widow and family, created his son a noble, and raised a fine marble statue to his memory in the cathedral of Innsbruck, b. at St. Leonard, in the Tyrol, 1767; shot at Mantua, 1810. Hoffman, Maurice, hofe'-man, an eminent phy- sician, who took his doctor's degree at Padua in 1648; he was made professor of anatomy and sui- gery at Altdorf, and, the year following, professor of physic. In 1653 he obtained the professorship of botany, to which was added the direction of the physic garden. He was the author of several works on medical botany, b. 1621 ; d. 1698. Hoffman, John Maurice, son of the above, studied under his father, and, in 1674, took his doctor's degree. In 1681 he was chosen profes- sor of physic. He was also appointed physician to the Margrave of Anspach, and, on the death of his father, succeeded him. b. 1653; d. 1727. Hoffman, John James, professor of Greek at Bale, who is known as the author of a work of great labour and value, — " A Universal Histori- cal Dictionary," in Latin, published first in 2 vols, folio, and afterwards enlarged to 4 vols. He also wrote a " History of the Popes," in Latin, b. 1635; d. 1706. Hoffman, Frederick, a celebrated physician, who was chosen professor of physic at Halle, in 1693, which situation he retained till his death. His works, under the title of " A Com- plete System of Medicine," have been pub- lished at Geneva, in 6 vols. b. at Halle, 1660, d. 1742. Hoffman, Augustus Henry, of Fdlcrsleben, a popular German poet, the son of a burgomas- ter at rallersleben, who published, in 1820, "TI.0 Fragments cf Oitfnsd." In the saras THE DICTIONARY Hoffman year, he undertook a journey along the banks of the Rhine and in Holland, with the view of collecting the scattered fragments of the popu- lar poetry of the middle ages. In 1823 he wai appointed conservator of the Breslau University Library, and soon afterwards published his " Unpolitical Songs," which caused him to be- come very popular. He also wrote songs for .■hildren, for workmen, and for peasants; in- iced, as a poet, he may be said to address him- fr;lf only to the simplest among his countrymen. He likewise contributed a number of very valu- able philological articles to the best periodicals in Germany, b. 179S. Hoffman, Ernest Theodore William, a German of varied talents, studied the law, and held various judicial appointments in Prussia; till his legal career was interrupted by the invasion of Warsaw by the French, in 1806, in the government of which city he had been appointed counsellor. He now devoted his leisure hours to the study of music, and being at the same time a romance writer and an artist, applied himself to these pursuits in order to obtain a livelihood. Among his works are, "The Devil's Elixir," "The Entail," "The Ad- versary," &c. ; all displaying a singularly wild and romantic imagination. In 1818 he was re- instated as counsellor in the court of judicature in Berlin, b. at Konigsberg, 1776; d. 1822. Hoffman, Charles Eenno, an American poet and novelist, who, after leaving Columbia Col- lege, was called to the bar at New York, where he practised during three years ; but, compelled by the state of his health to travel in the prairies, he published, in ls3i, a record of his wander- ings, entitled, " A Winter in the Ear West," which obtained a considerable share of popu- larity. This was followed by " Wild Scenes in the Forest and Prairie," in 1837, and the ro- mance of "Greyslacr," in 1810. He had also been one of the founders of the " Knickerbocker Magazine;" but soon retired from its direction. Hoffman was subsequently one of the most active and successful contributors to the American magazines, for one of which, "The American Monthly," he wrote his novel of "Vanderlyn." In 1812 hepublishcd acollcctcd edition of his poems, under the title of " A Vigil of Faith, and other Poems." For nearly two years he was at the head of the "Literary World," in which he wrote his sketches and essays, under the fitle of" Sketches of Society." An unfortunate attack of mental alienation, in 1819, suddenly stopped his bril- liant career, during which, save for his love of the horrible and repulsive, he might have claimed the first rank among American novelists, li. at New York, 1806. HojLAifD, Mrs. Uarbara, ho'-JIand,-Kcl\ known by her numerous works, written principally for the amusement and instruction of youth, was the daughter of a manufacturer at Sheffield, named Wreaks. At the age of 26 she married Mr. T. Bradshaw Hoole, of that town, whose death happened about two years after. Our authoress began her literary career in 1805, by the publication of a volume of poems, by sub- scription; from the proceeds of which she esta- blished herself in a school at Harrowgate, at the same time appearing occasionally as a writer of moral and amusing talcs. Ten years had now elapsed since the death of her husband, when she became the wife of Mr. T. C. Holland, landscape-painter. They soon after settled in London; and from that period till her decease 610 Hogarth. she may be said to have never discontinued writing ; for, although the majority of her books were neither laborious nor bulky, they were very numerous, and required considerable powers of invention. Among the more important of this lady's productions are, " Emily," a novel in 4 vols.; "Beatrice," "The Unloved One," "Tho Son of a Genius," "Tales of the Priory," "Self- denial," "The Merchant's Widow," "Decision," &c. b. 1770 ; d. 1814, after being a widow a second time for one year, Mr. Holland having died in 1843. Hogan, John, ho'-gan, a sculptor, first intro- duced to the English public at the Exhibition of 1851, but who was previously well-known in Ireland, was originally placed in the office of a solicitor, but developing considerable talent for sculpture, was allowed to follow the bent of his genius. After executing a variety of carvings in wood, which displayed much skill and taste, he was, in 1823, through the liberality of the late Lord de Tabley and others, enabled to visit Rome ; where, after a year's study, he produced his first sculpture in marble, " The Shepherd Boy." This figure afforded undoubted evidence of genius. It was purchased by the late Lord Powerscourt, who placed it in his gallery by the side of Thorwaldsen's " Cupid." Hogau's next work, " Eve after her Expulsion from Paradise finding a dead Dove," executed for Lord de Tabley, he probably never surpassed. The " Drunken Faun" followed. In 1829 he re- visited Ireland, and first publicly exhibited there, namely, his " Dead Christ." The greater por- tion of his works, chiefly religious subjects and monumental — including memorials to Dr. Doyle, to O'Connell, and were to a daughter of Curran — executed for Roman Catholic ecclesi- astics and Roman Catholic gentlemen. The plaster model of his " Drunken Faun," which is an originality in sculpture, obtained a medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851. b. at Tallow, Waterford, 1800 ; d. 1857. Hogaeth, William, ho'-garth, a celebrated painter and pictorial satirist of morals, was ap- prenticed to an engraver of arms, &c., on silver plate. In 1718, being twenty-one years of age, he set up for himself, his first employment being the engraving of coats-of-arms, ciphers, and shop-bills. In 1724 he undertook to execute plates for booksellers, the chief of which are the prints of "Hudibras" and the illustrations to " Mortraye's Travels." His first performance as a painter was a representation of Wanstead Assembly, the portraits being taken from life. In 1730 he married a daughter of Sir James Thornhill, in whoso academy he had studied drawing from the living figure. After gaining some pecuniary profit and fame by the publica- tion of a series of small etchings representing London life and folly, he afterwards began to paint portraits ; but soon abandoned this line of pictorial art, as being too full of drudgery for a man of invention and original genius. In 1733 appeared his " Harlot's Progress,"— prints which stamped his reputation, and were fol- lowed by other works of the same class, admir- ably executed. Soon after the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, he went to France, and while at Calais, began to sketch the gate of the town, for which he was arrested, but was soon released. This circumstance he ridiculed in an excellent cari- cature. In 1753 he published his " Analysis of Beauty." The sale of engravings of his pictures, executed by himself, was so great, that, not- OF BIOGRAPHY. Hogg withstanding they were largely pirated, he was enabled to set up his carriage. His " Rake's Progress," " Marriage a la Mode," " March to Finchley," as well as many other works, have constituted him one of the greatest satirists of the worldly vices and weaknesses that have ever lived; whilst his fine and solid, though unpre- teuding efforts as a colorist, have marked him as one of the best painters of the early English school. He was the greatest master of carica- ture the world has seen. b. in London, 1697; d. 1761. Hogs, James, hog, generally known as the Ettrick Shepherd, a Scotch poet of considerable genius, whose forefathers had been shepherds for many generations, and he himself, previously to his poetical career, followed the same pursuit. In 1801, while acting as shepherd to Mr. Laid- law, of Blackhouse, Sir Walter Scott became acquainted with him, and engaged him to col- lect materials for his " Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border." In 1803 he published a collection of poems, under the title of " The Mountain Bard," which, together with a couple of prizes obtained from the Highland Society for essays on the rearing and management of sheep, made him the possessor of a sum amounting to £300. With this money he took a farm, which was a failure ; and after in vain seeking employment as a shepherd, he, " in utter desperation," as he said, " took his plaid about his shoulders, deter- mined, since no better could be, to push his for- tune as a literary man." From this period he laboured busily in the field of literature, with varying success. He contributed to "Black- wood's Magazine " and other periodicals, wrote " Madoc the Moor," " The Pilgrim of the Sun," and produced a volume of poems, — some ori- ginal, some ancient, — entitled " Jacobite Relics of Scotland." " The Altrive Tales," " A Volume of Lay Sermons," and many other works, issued from his fertile but somewhat wild fancy. On his marriage, in 1814, the duke of Buccleuch made him a present of a farm ; but the manage- ment of it appears to have been so bad as to have made it a bequest of little value to the irregular poet. u. in the Forest of Ettrick, Selkirkshire, 1772; d. at his farm at Altrive, 1835. Hohenxohe, Prince of, ho-hen-lo'-e, a general of artillery in the service of the emperor, distin- guished himself in Transylvania against the Turks, in 1789; and in the campaign against France, in 1792, he gained great reputation, particularly in the battles of Famars and Mer- mal. d. 1796. HoHENLonE-lNGELFiic gen, Frederick Louis, Prince of, in'-gel-fin'-gen, after having fought with distinction in various battles at the commencement of the French revolution, was, in 1801, made governor of the principality of Franconia, and commandant of Breslau. After the battle of Jena, Oct. 14, 1806, he directed the retreat, and led the remnants of the great Prussian army ; but being destitute of cavalry, and his infantry exhausted by fatigue, he surrendered, with 17,000 men, at Prenzlau, Oct. 28. B. 1746 ; D. 1818. HoHEN-zoLLKRy, ho-hen-isol'-lern, one of the most ancient reigning houses of Germany, said to have sprung from Tassillon, duke of Bavaria, in the 8th century. It owes its name to a chateau, situate on the Zollernberg, supposed to have been built by Rudolph 1 1., count of Zollern, wliosa two sons, Frederick and Conrad, became 611 Hole the chiefs of the two principal lines of the royal house, — the line of Swabia and the line of Fran- conia; from which, in 1417, sprang the electors of Brandenburg, who afterwards became the kings of Prussia. Holbach, Baron d', hole -bale, a rich German noble, who went to Paris while young, and there embraced the sceptical doctrines professed by those who were called the " Philosophical School," previous to the revolution of 1791. He wrote a large number of works of an atheistical nature, most of which were condemned by the Parliament of Paris, and placed in the Index Expurgatorius of Rome. He also composed and translated several works on chemistry, miner- alogy, and the natural sciences, b. at Heides- heim, 1723; d. at Paris, 1789. Holbein, John, or Hans, hole'-bine, a famous portrait-painter and skilful architect, who was instructed in his art by his father. For the town-house of Bile he painted a fine picture of our Saviour's passion, and for the fish-market of the same town a"Danceof Peasants," and "Dance of Death," the last of which has been engraved in a series of plates. He visited England in the reign of Henry VIII., who liberally patronized him, on the recommendation of Sir Thomas More. He painted a number of portraits of the king and the highest nobility, as well as several historical pieces, b. about 1498; d. in London, of the plague, 1543. Holbebg, Louis, Baron de, hoV-bairg, a celebrated Danish writer, called the K«utus of his country, who abandoned a militnrv career for one of letters; and was, in 1720, appointed pro- fessor in the University of Copenhagen. From that time he wrote especially for the theatre, and produced a large number of plays, which have caused his countrymen to regard him as the founder of dramatic art in Denmark. He wrote also a "History of Denmark" and an "Ec- clesiastical History." b. at Bergen, 1684; d. at Copenhagen, 1754. Holcrofi, Thomas, hol'-lcrqft, an English playwright and translator of dramas, &c., was the son of a shoemaker, and became, when very young, a stable-boy in one of the racing stables of Newmarket. At the age of 17 he quitted this employment, and, for several years, led the life of a tramping shoemaker and wan- dering schoolmaster, all the while working sedu- lously at the task of self-education. At 21 he married, and, soon after, contributed a few articles to the "Whitehall Evening Post;" sub- sequently he left London to become a strolling player. After following the career of an actor for some time, and appearing on the London stage, he, in 17S0, commenced writing for the theatre. He was one of the most fertile dramatic authors of his day, and was among the first to introduce to the London stage the system cl adaptation from the French. He also wrote several novels and a sceptical poem ; but it is as a translator of plays that ho is chiefly known. His life has been "published, and an abridged version of it issued by Messrs. Longman in their " Travellers' Library." b. in London, 1715; d. 1809. Hole, Richard, hole, apoetand miscellaneous writer, received his education at Exeter College, Oxford. He was the author of a poetical romance, called "Arthur, or the Northern En- chantment;" translated intoheroic verse Ossian'3 " Fingal," and published several original works. b. at Kxcter ; d. 1802, rector of Farringdon. THE DICTIONARY Holmshed Holinshed, Raphael, hol'-in-ghed, a cele- brated old English chronicler, whose work is considered highly important by English his- torians. Nothing certain is known of his pro- fession, but his annals show that he possessed considerable learning. His " Chronicles" were first published in 1577, in 2 vols, folio; and again in 1587 in three, b. uncertain when ; b. about 1580. lloLEAB, Mulhar Rao, hol'-kar, a Mahratta soldier, who, for his military services, received a grant of territory in Malwa in 1737, and subse- quently made himself chief of more than half of the same province, b. about 1693 ; d. 1769. Holkau, Jeswunt Rao, a daring military ad- venturer, who proclaimed himself a relative of the above, and at the head of a large army, col- lected by his ability and tact, defeated Seindia, the most powerful of the Mahratta chieftains, in 1802, and established himself in Malwa. Hereupon, the Marquis Wellesley, who was at that time governor-general of India, proclaimed war against him ; but, after a struggle of nearly three years, a peace was concluded, by which Hol- kar was allowed to retain the greater portion of his territories. His violent temper subsequently culminated in madness, and he passed the closing years of his life in confinement, s. 1811. Holland, Philemon, hol'-land, an English writer, anc 1 fellow of Trinity College, among the fruits of whose industrious life may be mentioned the translation of Pliny's "Natural History," and Camden's " Britannia." He was also an eminent practiser of the healing art in his day. b. at Chelmsford, 1551 ; d. 1636. Holland, Henry Fox, first Lord. (See Fox, Henry.) Holland, Henry Richard Vassal Fox, third Lord, nephew of the celebrated orator, and, like him, the champion of public liberty. In 1806 he became lord privy seal in the Grenville ministry; and in 1814-15 he denounced the war against Napoleon. He greatly aided in the abo- lition of the Corporation and Test Acts, as well as strongly advocated parliamentary reform. In 1S06 he published the " Memoirs of Lope do Vega," and other works, and afterwards trans- lated three comedies from the Spanish. His lordship's house at Kensington was, for a very lengthened period, a hospitable resort for the distinguished in literature and politics, b. 1773; D. at Holland House, 1840. Holland, Henry, a distinguished English architect, the favourite of George IV. when Prince of Wales. His personal history is un- known ; but of his works we may mention that he designed Carlton House and the Pavilion at Brighton for his patron, though this last was afterwards improved by Nash. (See Nash.) He was the architect of Drury-laue Theatre: but this building was destroyed by fire in 1809. The India House, in Leadenhall-street, was also bis design. B. about 1746; D. 1806. Holland, Sir Henry, an eminent English physician, who, after graduating M.D. at the university of Edinburgh, in 1811, went to London, where he rapidly acquired considera- tion as a physician. In 1340, he became physi- cian in ordinary to H. R. H. Prince Albert, and in 1852 was appointed to the same duties to- wards her Majesty. He wrote a work, entitled "Medical Notes and Reflections," which is regarded by the medical body as being very valuable. In 1853, he was raised to the dignity of a baronet, in consideration of his professional EJ2 Holman knowledge; and became a fellow of the Royal Col- lege of Physicians of London, and of the Royal Society, b. in Cheshire, 1788. Hollas, Wenceslaus, hol'-lar, a distinguished draughtsman and etcher during the 17th cen- tury, whose drawings of old London have a peculiar value with the antiquarian and histo- rian. He was educated for the profession of law at Prague, but abandoned it for the more congenial pursuits of drawing and engraving, obtaining instruction therein from Matthew Marian, an engraver, who had worked for Van- dyck. and Rubens. At the outset of his artistic career, he travelled from one great German town to another, copying the pictures of great painters, and making perspective views of cities, towns, and remarkable localities, becoming very celebrated for his drawings of the Rhine and Danube. In 1636, Howard, earl of Arundel, met him at Cologne, and at once took him under his patronage. On leaving Germany, the earl brought Hollar with him to England, where he commenced his artistic labours with the " Prospect of Greenwich," which he executed in two plates, In 1637. Two years afterwards, he drew the portraits of the royal family for the great plate of the Entrance of Queen Marie de Medici into England, on a visit to her daughter, Henrietta Maria, queen of England. During the civil war he was taken prisoner by the Par- liamentarians, and deprived of his liberty for some time; on his release, he went to Ant- werp. Returning to England in 1652, he exe- cuted the etchings for Dugdale's " Monasticon" and his " History of St. Paul's," besides a very large number of other views and drawings. According to one authority, he etched as many as 2100 prints. Though he had been so labo- rious an artist, it is recorded that, at the age of 70, he had an execution in his house ; where- upon the worthy old man requested only to be left to die in his bed. b. at Prague, 1607 ; d. in London, 1677. Holles, Denzil, Lord, hols, a prominent leader of the popular party against the illegal proceedings of Charles I., and one of the live members of the Long Parliament who were de- manded by the king when he went to the House of Commons. Holles, like many others who were prominent at the beginning of the struggle between king and parliament, refused to concur in the extreme measures of Cromwell and the republicans, and at the Restoration was ad- vanced to the peerage; in 1663 he was sent ambassador to France, and in 1667 was one of the English plenipotentiaries at Breda. Not- withstanding these employments, he remained a zealous friend to liberty ; and when the mea- sures of the -King tended to introduce abso- lutism, Lord Holies was a conspicuous leader of the opposition. He enjoyed through life a high character for honour, integrity, and patriotism. b. 1597; d. 1680. Holman, Joseph George, hol'-man, a drama- tist and actor, was a native of London, and in- tended for the church; but in 1734 he made his debut as an actor at CoventGarden Theatre. He afterwards went to America, andbecamemanag & of Charlestown Theatre. Among his dramatic works are the " Votary of Wealth," " Red Cross Knights," "Abroad and at Home," &c. Ho died of yellow fever, along with his second wife, two days alter their marriage, in 1817. Holman, James, generally known as the Blind Traveller, served, in his early years, in OF BIOGRAPHY. Holmes the royal navy, and took part in the wars against the French. At the age of 25 he lost his sight ; but, notwithstanding this melancholy infirmity, he, in 1819, commenced his wanderings by tra- velling over France, Italy, Switzerland, and Holland ; an account of which he published in 1822. He had been made, several years pre- viously, a naval knight of Windsor. He again set out, in 1822, and embarked for St. Peters- burg, intending to travel through the Russian empire, and to enter Mongolia and China, after having visited Eastern Siberia; but when he had arrived at Irkutsk, an order from the czar Alexander commanded his return, and he was conducted as a state prisoner back to the Ger- man frontier. When he reached England, he published an account of his wanderings, in two volumes. His Russian journey was intended as the commencement of a series of travels and voyages round the world, which he afterwards performed, and winch occupied him five years to accomplish. In 1834 he published his work, " Travels Round the World," in 4 volumes. His last wanderings were in the Danubian Pro- vinces, in 1843-44. b. about 1787 ; d. 1857. Holmks, Oliver Wendell, holmi, an American poet and physician, who has earned, by his fmetical works, the title of one of the best yrical writers of his country. After completing his education at Cambridge, in Massachusetts, be became a doctor of medicine, and visited Europe. Returning to America, he established himself at Boston in 1836, and in 1838 was ap- pointed professor of anatomy and physiology in the college at Dartmouth, and later in Har- vard University, the most ancient college in the United States. He wrote several valu- able medical works, but his fame is due to his poetical effusions, which he contributed to many of the best American periodicals. These, with " Elsie Venner," a novel, the "Pro- fessor," and the " Autocrat of the Breakfast Table," have been reprinted in England, and have met with considerable success, b. 1809. Holstbin, the house of. hol'-stine, a princely German family, which includes the royal line of Denmark and the collateral branches of Hol- etein-Sonderburg and the ducal line of Holstcin- Gottorp, which last is again divided into two branches, the elder being the reigning line of Russia, while the younger is represented by Gustavus, prince of Wasa, a field-marshal in the Austrian service, and also by the Oldenburg family. Holt, Sir John, holt, an eminent English judge, famous for Ins integrity, firmness, and great legal knowledge, studied at Oriel College, Oxford, and became a member of Gray's Inn. He filled the office of recorder of London for about a year and a half, which situation he lost in consequence of his uncompromising opposi- tion to the abolition of the Test Act. Becoming & member of the House of Commons, he distin- guished himself so much by his exertions and talents in what is called the " Convention Par- liament," that on King William's accession he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench. On the removal of Lord Somers, in 1700, ho was offered the chancellorship, but declined it, and continued to discharge the important duties of his high judicial authority with a reso- lute uprightness which gained him respect while living, and has endeared his memory to posterity, b. 1642 ; d. 1709. JloMimufi, hom'-bairg, William, a celebrated 613 Homer chemist, who at first entered the army, but quitted it to practise the law, which he also abandoned, and applied himself to the study of the sciences, particularly botany, medicine, and chemistry, to improve himself in which ho travelled through various countries. In 1682 he settled in France, and abjured the Protestant religion ; but being disappointed in his expec- tations, he went to Rome, and practised physic. He afterwards returned to Paris, where he be- came a member of the Academy of Sciences, and chemist and physician to the duke of Orleans. He discovered the properties of tho Bologna stone, and its phosphoric appearance after calcination. Some of his scientific essays are printed in the Memoirs of the Academy of France, b. 1652; d. at Paris, 1715. Home, Henry, Lord Karnes, kume, a Scotch judge and elegant writer, who became senior lord of session in Scotland. He wrote " Essay* upon several subjects concerning British Anti- quities," 1764 ; " Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion," " Historical Law," " The Principles of Equity," " The Ele- ments of Criticism," 3 vols. 8vo; "The History of Man." b. 1696; d. 1782. Ilonn, John, a Scottish divine and dramatic author, who, while acting as a minister of the kirk, wrote his tragedy of " Douglas," which was represented with th e greatest success at Edin- burgh. This work, notwithstanding its purity of thought and language, evoked the indignation of the elders of the kirk, and the author was compelled to retire to England, where he ob- tained a pension from Lord Bute. He after- wards wrote four more tragedies, which, however, did not obtain the popularity of " Douglas," and which are now never heard of in the theatre, b. about 1722 ; d. 1808. Home, Sir Everard, bart., an eminent surgeon, was the son of Robert Home, Esq., of Greenlaw Castle, in the county of Berwick ; and was brought up to the profession under his brother- in-law, the celebrated John Hunter. For a period of more than 40 years, Home practised with great success in London ; and during that time produced numerous medical works of great merit and utility. He was sergeant-surgeon to the king, surgeon to Chelsea Hospital, vice- president of the Royal Society, president of the Royal College of Surgeons ; and was created a baronet in 1813. Among his works are, " Lectures on Comparative Anatomy," 2 vols. 4to, and " Practical Observations " on a variety of diseases, consisting of several volumes; be- sides numerous valuable contributions to the " Philosophical Transactions," &c. b. 1756; d. 1832. Hombb, ho'-mer, tho most ancient and cele- brated of the Greek poets, but of whose birth- place, station in life, and actual existence, in point of fact, the most diverse opinions are held by the learned of modern days. The honour of his birthplace was disputed by seven Greek cities. According to one tradition, he was tho natural son of a young orphan girl of Smyrna, who lived on the banks of the Mele3, and called her son after it, Melesigenes. It further relates, that Phemius, who kept a school for music and belles-lettres at Smyrna, having fallen in love with his mother, married her and adopted Homer, who, on his death, succeeded him as master of the school. Subsequently, having conceived the idea of the " Iliad," he travelled in order to gather knowledge of men and L L r THE DICTIONARY Homer localities for his great work ; but being badly treated by bis fellow-countrymen on bis return, he left Smyrna and established himself at Chios, where he set up a school. Becoming blind in his old age, he was overtaken by poverty, and compelled to earn his bread by wandering from city to city reciting his verses. Finally, according to this version of his life, lie is said to have died in the little isle of Cos, one of the t'ycladcs. Homer's greatest works are two epic poems. In the " Iliad," which contains 24 rhapsodies or chants, are recited the story of Achilles' revenge upon Agamemnon for depriv- ing him of his mistress liriseis; the misfortunes which the Greeks suffered in consequence while besieging Troy, and the death of Hector at the hands of Achilles, who, to avenge the death of his friend Patroelus, killed the Trojan hero. In the "Odyssey," the story of the wanderings and adventures of Ulysses on his homeward journey from Troy to his kingdom of Ithaca is told. The " Batrachomyomaihia," or Battle of the Frogs and Mice, and the " Homeric Hymns," are by some allowed to be the work of this poet, while others consider them spurious. The whole of these works are written in the Ionic dialect. Both the " Iliad" and the " Odyssey" have always been considered as the great beginning of all literature, though each shines with a lustre different from the other. In the " Iliad " grandeur of conception, beauty and simplicity of plan, a soaring imagi- nation, rich and sublime images, are the characteristic excellences. In the "Odyssey," a plan less regular, an imagination less brilliant, are to be discovered; but it nevertheless com- mands delight by its strong interest and its entrancing style. In addition to these intrinsic beauties, the "Iliad" and "Odyssey" have preserved the theological traditions, the names and origin of nations, and the description and situation of cities and towns. The poems of Homer, according to the most learned critics, were composed anterior to the invention of writing, and were for a long time preserved by memory alone. They are said to have been interpolated and abridged by the rhap- sodists, or Homerida?, who selected from them the most interesting episodes for recital. Pisistratus, or, as some others maintain, his son Hipparchus, was the first person who collected and arranged these poems, which were afterwards revised and divided into twenty- four books each, by the grammarians under the Ptolemies, who thus gave them the form in which we now possess them. Some learned critics— Wolf at their head — have put forth a theory that Homer never existed, and that the poems which have come down to us under his name arc only a collected version of fragments which have been composed and sung by various authors, whom he terms Homeridoe, and who f "rmed a species of school. Another set of scholars hold that the " Iliad " and the " Odys- sey " are not the work of the same author, but that the latter is a very much later production than the former. Again, the derivation of the word Homer has been variously given by dif- ferent schools of critics ; each adopting that which best acrces with its own theory. One, tiie partisan of common tradition, translates the name by blind; others, by hostage, pretending i hat Homer was a hostage in a war which was raging between the inhabitants of Smyrna and Colophon ; others, finally, assert that the word 614 Hone is derived from homereo, " I collect ;" which would seem to show that we owe these poems to a compiler, who only collected scattered fragments, and united them into an harmonious whole. So far as our limits would permit us, we have endeavoured to sketch the theories which are held relating to this, the most inte- resting literary question in the world. Those who would seek more comp'ete information od the subject, should turn to Thirl wall's "His- tory of Greece," vol. i. ; Gladstone's "Homeric Age;" and if they would desire to go still deeper, to the works of Heyne, and the " Lexilo- gus " of Buttmann ; the last two being German writers. Hobbes, Chapman, Pope, and Cow- pcr have translated Homer. Pope's version is the best known ; but it is only a poor reflection of the vigorous original. Chapman's is the best old translation. A very excellent transla- tion is that by the Earl of llerby, published in 1865. Homer is said by some to have lived about 900 n.c. Hompesch, Ferdinand de, hom'-pesk, the last grand master of the order of the Knights of Malta, who was invested with that dignity in 1797. Bribed, it is asserted, by the money and promises of the Directory, he surrendered to the French fleet which was conveying Bona- parte and his army to Egypt. He was con- ducted to Trieste. Subsequently, he protested against the usurpation of the French, and abdi- cated his sovereignty in favour of the emperor of Russia, Paul I. He wandered about Germany for some years, but finally took refuge in France. b. at Dusseldorf, 1741; d. 1803. Hone, William, hone, a political pamphleteer and compiler of popular antiquities, began life in an attorney's office, at first in London, and subsequently at Chatham. In 1800 he established himself as a bookseller in Lambeth Walk, from which he removed to St. Martin's Churchyard, close to the present Charing Cross. In 1806, he commenced his singular literary career by issuing an edition of Shaw's " Gardener." An attempt at establishing a savings' bank, as well as a new publishing speculation, followed, both being failures. In 1811, he was appointed by the booksellers their " trade auctioneer," and, a short time before, had been engaged in the compilation of the index to Froissart. But he was quite unfitted for business, and while en- gaged in the above post he was occupied in investigating the abuses in lunatic asylums: he was soon a bankrupt for the second time. His family now consisted of seven children, and he gained a livelihood by writing for the "Critical Review" and the " British Lady's Magazine." He next opened a bookseller's shop in Fleet Street, but his ill-fortune si ill continued : it was twice plundered. In 1815, be was the publisher of the " Traveller " news- paper, and, soon after, began to publish those bold political pamphlets and satires which made him universally known, and led to his being tried for three days in the Court of King's Bench. He was acquitted, however, and a large sum of money was collected by subscription for him, with which he established himself once more in business, and once more failed. From this time he was occupied in the compila- tion and publication of those well-known books which will continue to preserve his name. The chief of these were "Ancient Mysteries De- scribed," "The Every-day Book," "The Table Book,'.' and "The Year Book ;" his last work OF BIOGRAPHY. Honorius being an edition of "Strutt's Sports and Pastimes of the English." b. at Hath, 1779; ». at Totten- ham, 1842. Honorius, ho-nor'-e-us, emperor of the West, was the second son of Theodosius the Great, and was associated in the empire with Areadius, his brother, in 395. His guardian, Stilielio, endeavouring to dethrone him, was slain. In 409,Alaric the Goth besieged Rome, and ravaged all the country, while Honorius remained indo- lent at Ravenna, b. 384 ; d. 423. • Honorius I , Pope, succeeded Boniface V. in 626. He governed with zeal and prudence. Some of his letters are extant, d. 63S. Honorius II., of Bologna, succeeded Calix- tus II. in 1124, and, at the same time, Thibauld was chosen by another party, under the name of Celestin ; but lie resigned the chair to his rival, d. 1130. Honorius III. was made pope after Inno- cent 111., in 1216. He confirmed the order of Dominicans, and left several works, d. 1227. Honorius IV., a Roman, ascended the papal chair in 1285. He displayed great zeal for his church, and promoted the crusades, b. 1287. Hood, Robin, hood, a famous English outlaw in the 12th century — whose personal courage, skill in archery, boldness of enterprise, and generous disposition, have rendered his name famous in the legendary history of our country — lived in Sherwood forest, in Nottinghamshire. The heads of his story, as collected by Stowe, are briefly these: — "hi this time (about the year 1190," in the reign of Richard I.) were many robbers and outlaws, among whom Robin Hood and Little John, renowned thieves, continued in the woods, despoiling and robbing the goods of the rich. They killed none but such as would invade them, or by resistance for their own defence. The said Robin entertained 100 tall men and good archers, with such spoils and thefts as he got, upon whom 400 (were they ever so strong) durst not give the onset. He suffered no woman to be oppressed, violated, or otherwise molested ; poor men's goods he spared, abundantly relieving them with that which by theft he got from abbeys and the houses of rich old carles." He is believed to have died in 1247. Robin Hood figures in a great variety of oid English ballads, and he has likewise been introduced upon the stage by numerous romance writers, some of whom have taken considerable liberties with his history and character, and especially with the time he lived in. For in- stance, Sir Walter Scott introduces him in " Ivanhoe," under the name of Locksley, temp. Richard I. ; and Mr. G. P. R. James makes him play a prominent part in his " Forest Hays," temp. Henry 111. Hood, Samuel, Lord Viscount, the son of a clergyman at Thorncombe, in Devonshire, entered the royal navy at the age of 16. For his bravery in the capture of a 50-gun ship, in 1759, he acquired the rank of post-captain ; and was present, as rear-admiral, at the famous defeat of De Gra-se, by Rodney, April 12th, 1782, when his services on that occasion were rewarded with an Irish peerage. In 1784 he was returned to Parliament for Westminster j but in 1788 be vacated his seat on being named one of the lords of the admiralty. In 1793 he signalised himself by the taking of Toulon, and afterwards Corsica; in reward of which achieve- ments he was made a viscount, and governor of Greenwich Hospital, b. 1724; d. 1816. 615 Hook Hoon, Thomas, a modern English poet and humorist, author of the celebrated " Song of the Shirt" and "The Bridge of Sighs," was the son of a bookseller in the Poultry. When about 14 years old, he was placed in the office of a city merchant ; but his health being delicate, he was soon after sent to Dundee on board a coasting vessel. He remained in Scot- land for two years, his chief occupations being reading, fishing, and boating. His health im- proving, he returned to London, and was appren- ticed to his uncle, an engraver. In 1821 the " London Magazine " became the property of some of his friends and he, having already given signs of the possession of literary talent, was offered the post of sub-editor. Soon af- terwards he published his first work, — "Odes and Addresses to Great People;" and, in 1826, he collected his contributions to the " London Magazine," and re-issued them in a work called " Whims and Oddities." " The Comic Annual," which he produced for nine years, was com- menced in 1829 ; and while editor of " The Gem," he wrote his well-known poem, " Eugene Aram's Dream." His work, " Up the Rhine," was published after a three years' residence on the continent. Subsequently, he became editor of "The New Monthly Magazine," and on his retirement from this post, he collected his prose and poetry, scattered through many periodicals, and published them under the title of " Whimsi- calities." In all these works a rich current of genial humour runs; and his pleasant wit, ripe observation, and sound sense, have made him an ornament to English literature, b. in Lon- don, 1798; D. 1845. Hooft, Peter -Cornelius van, haoft, a Dntch writer, to whom Louis XI II. of France gave the order of St. .Michael, as a reward fur his history of Henry IV. His other works are " Poems and Comedies," " The Historyof the LowCoun- trics from the Abdication of Charles V. to 1598," and a translation of Tacitus into Dutch. B. at Amsterdam, 1581 ; D. 1017. Hook, James, hook, a musical composer of great industry and talent, whose operatic and melodramatic productions amount to more than 1 10 complete works, many of which were highly successful ; he also set to music upwards of 2000 songs. B. 174G; D. 1827. He was the father of the Rev. Dr. Hook, dean of Woreestor, and of Theodore Hook, the famous novelist, &c. Hook, Dr. James, dean of Worcester, son of the preceding, an accomplished scholar, and an able dignitary of the church, was educated at Westminster School and St. Mary Hall, Oxford; in 1802 he was made chaplain to George IV.; held the livings of 11 ertingfordbury and St. Andrew's, in Hertfordshire, which he afterwards exchanged for that of Whippingham, in the Isle of Wight; obtained a prebendal stall in Winchester cathe- dral, in 1807; succeeded Dr. Aliddleton, as archdeacon of Huntingdon, in 1814; and ac- cepted the deanery of Worcester, in 1825. Besides some dramas, which he wrote early in life, lit' published, in ls02, " Anguis in Herba; a Sketch of the true character of the Church of England and her Clergy," which he inscribed " 'J'o the sober sense of his country." Few writers have surpassed Dr. Hook as a polemical or a political pamphleteer, and some of the most effective pamphlets that appeared during the French revolutionary war, in support o( monarchical principles, were written by Mm. a 1828, LI •£ THE DICTIONARY Hook Hook, Theodore Edward, a popular English humorist and playwright at the beginning of the present century, another son of the musical composer, was remarkable in his youth for his beauty, his sweet voice, and his ?|uick intelligence. He soon began to assist his ather, by writing the words of ballads for him; and was thus early made familiar with musical and theatrical life before and behind the curtain. He had been at Harrow for a short period; but on the death of his mother he left it, and never went to a school again. It was at one time intended to enter him at a college at Oxford; but, after some preliminary reading, he returned to London, where he quickly began to write operas, forces, and published a novel, — "The Man of Sorrow," under an assumed name. His light and joyous temperament, great con- versational powers, and marvellous talent as an " improvisatore," made him the favourite of the most fashionable society ; and it was while he was leading this life of exuberant gaiety, that he played off his notorious " hoaxes ;" one of which, "the Berners Street hoax," made a great sensation at the time. His social qualities attracted the notice, and procured for him the patronage of the Prince-regent, who caused him, in 1812, to be appointed accountant-general and treasurer to the Mauritius, he being then only 26 years of age. But in March, 1818, he was arrested on a serious charge, a deficiency of 37,000 dollars having been discovered in the colonial treasury chest. He was brought to England a prisoner, the law officers of the crown reporting that he was only liable to a prosecution for debt ; but a long and harassing course of legal proceedings was the result. In the year 1820, he became, through the instru- mentality of Sir Walter Scott, editor of the "John Bull," on its establishment. In this position he distinguished himself by his power- ful writing against Queen Caroline, her sup- porters, and the whole of the Whig party. So successful was this Tory newspaper, that Hook, for a long period, derived from it an income of i'2000 per annum. The Whig party, however, would not allow the law proceedings against him to drop, and in 1823 he was arrested, and remained in custody till May, 1825, when he was permitted to go at large, but was informed that the crown could not consent to forego its debt. With respect to this mysterious affair, it was never clearly shown that he was guilty of false appropriation of the funds intrusted to his charge; butgreatcarelessnesswas proved against him, it being shown, among other acts of culpable neglect, that he was in the habit of leaving the keys of the treasure-chest with his subordinates, while he was away on parties of Eleasure. Between the years 1824 and 1836, e wrote about 30 volumes of novels, which were very successful, and which yielded him large sums. He continued to lead the life of a gay and fashionable man till July, 1841, when, as he looked in the glass, when dining, he rose, and said, " Ay, 1 see I look as I am ; done up in purse, in mind, and in body too, at last." Henceforth he was confined to his room; his fine constitution and his great intellectual powers had been worn out by the merciless mode in which he had overtaxed them. His novel of "Gilbert Gurney" contains an interest- ing autobiographical sketch of himself. B. in London, 1788; n. at Fulham, 1841. Hook, James Chirk, It. A., a modern Eng- 516 Hooker lish painter, of solid merit, studied at the Royal Academy, whose three medals he carried off by his skill in drawing. His first efforts as an artist were on the most ambitious scale, though he afterwards painted pic- tures of a simple rustic character. His " Bianca Capello," " Escape of Francesco de Carrara," and " The Chevalier Bayard wounded at Brescia," are admirable specimens of his- torical painting, the last gaining for him election into the Royal Academy. Although ' not so popular with the general public as many ' i nferior men, he was highly esteemed as a painter ' by his brother artists, b. 1819. ' Hookb, Robert, hook, a celebrated mathema- tician, who, in his youth, evincing a taste for drawing, was placed under Sir Peter Lely ; but painting in oil-colour disordering his head, he abandoned this pursuit, and was taken by Dr. Busby into his house ; after which he went to Christ Church, Oxford. He worked with Dr. Willis in his chemical operations, and became assistant to Mr. Boyle. He was one of the first fellows of the Royal Society, the repository of which was intrusted to his care. In 1662 he was made curator of experiments to that learned body, and about two years after elected Gresham professor of geometry. After the fire of London, he produced a plan for rebuilding the city, which procured him the appointment of one of the city surveyors ; but his design was not adopted. In 1668, he had a dispute with Hevelius respecting telescopic sights, which he conducted with great asperity. In 1671, he attacked Sir Isaac Newton's theory of light and colours, and afterwards pretended that the dis- covery made by that great man concerning the force and action of gravity was originally made by himself. In 1691, Archbishop Tillotson created him M.D. _ In 1665, he wrote a book- called "Micrographia, or Philosophical Descrip- tion of Minute Bodies made by Magnifying- glasses." His posthumous works were published after his death. Hooke was a man of great me- chanical genius, and the sciences are indebted to him for several valuable instruments and im- provements, b. at Freshwater, Isle of Wight, 1635; d. in London, 1702. Hooke, Nathaniel, an English historian, was a Roman Catholic, and when Mr. Pope lay on his death-bed, Hooke introduced a priest to him, which gave great offence to Bolingbroke. He wrote the duchess of Marlborough's account of her conduct, for which he received £5000 ; but his best work is a Roman history in 4 vols. D. 1764. Hooker, Richard, hook'-er, a celebrated Eng- lish divine, received his education at Exeter grammar school, whence he was sent by his relation, Bishop Jewell, to Corpus Christi Col- lege, Oxford, of which lie was made bible-clerk, and in 1577 chosen fellow. In 1581 he took orders, and in 1584 was presented to the rectory of Drayton-beauchamp, in Buckinghamshire, where he was discovered leading a life of poverty by the son of the archbishop of York, who had formerly been his pupil. The young man represented his case to his father, through whose influence he was appointed master of the Temple in 1585. But this place did not suit Hooker, who was best fitted for a country re- tirement; he therefore applied to Archbishop Whitgift for a removal to " some quiet parson- age," and was accordingly presented to a living in Wiltshire, where he wrote part of his OF BIOGRAPHY. Hooker Hopital " Ecclesiastical Polity." la 1595 the queen pre- sented him to the rectory of Bishop's Bourne, where he finished his great work. Pope Cle- ment VIII. said of the " Ecclesiastical Polity," "there are in it such seeds of eternity as will continue till the last fire shall devour all learn- ing." He wrote many tracts and sermons in addition to his great work, and is regarded as one of the most profound, learned, and pious divines of the English church, b. at Heavitree, near Exeter, about 1554 ; d. 1600. Hooker, Sir William Jackson, a distinguished English botanist, and, till his death, director of the Royal Gardens at Kew. He abandoned the pursuit of commerce for that of botany, and, in his youth, travelled in Iceland, for the pur- pose of becoming acquainted with its natural history. Unfortunately losing his collection of specimens collected in that country, he, notwith- standing, published, in 1809, an account of the botany of that island, under the title of " A Tour in Iceland." This was followed, in 1812, by "A Monograph on the British Junger- mannia ;" and, in 1818, he produced a continua- tion of Curtis's "Flora Londinensis." The " Flora Seotica," " Exotic Flora," a continuation of Curtis's "Botanical Magazine," and the " Botanical Miscellany," were brought out by him between the years 1823 and 1833. In 1837 he completed, in conjunction with Dr. Greville, the " Ieones Filicum," in which a complete cata- logue of ferns was given, with figures. A com- plete description of British plants, under the title of " British Flora," was issued under his di- rection. He also edited the "Journal of Botany," assisted in the management of "The Annals and Magazine of Natural History," and filled the chair of professor of botany in the uni- versity of Glasgow ; but resigned this to assume the direction of the Royal Gardens at Kew, which, under his control, rapidly became the first establishment of its kind in the world. He was among the foremost professors of sys- tematic botany of the present century. In 1836 he was knighted for his eminent scientific at- tainments ; he was also one of the vice-presi- dents of the Linna;an Society, an honorary D.C.L. of the university of Oxford, and a knight of the Legion of Honour in France, b. at Nor- wich, 1785 ; D. 1865. Hooker, Joseph Dalton, 60n of the above, also a distinguished botanist, was educated for the pursuit of medicine, which he followed as M.D. for many years; but, on the fitting out of Sir James Ross's expedition to the Antarctic Ocean, in 1839, he was appointed assistant-sur- geon to the ship Erebus, to which post were added the duties of observing and collecting the botanical specimens of the country to which the expedition was dispatched. On his return he published "Flora Antarctica." In 1848 he set out on a botanical expedition to the Himalayas, during which he discovered many new and valuable plants, although his travels had bem conducted under many disadvantages, he having been at one time prisoner in a district of the Sikkim Himalayas. In 1852 he produced the fruits of his long travels, in his " Himalayan Journals," besides which, he was the means of introducing several valuable varieties of rhodo- dendrons into England. Before his travels, he was a professor in the Museum of Economic Geology, to the "Transactions" of which institu- tion he contributed a most valuable and in- teresting paper on the Vegetation of the Carbo- 617 niferous Period, as compared with that of the present day. He was a fellow of the Royal Society, a member of the council of the Linnasan So- ciety, and one of the examiners of candidates for the East-India medical service, b. at Glasgow, 1817. Hoole, John, hool, an ingenious writer, was the son of a watchmaker, who was a very able mechanic, and director, for many years, of the machinery at Covent-garden Theatre. At the age of seventeen he became a clerk in the India House, but devoted his leisure hours to literary pursuits, particularly the study of the Italian language, of which he acquired considerable knowledge, as appears by his excellent transla- tions into English of Ariosto's " Orlando Furi- oso" and Tasso's " Jerusalem." He also pub- lished two volumes of the dramas of Metastasio, and was the author of three tragedies, viz., " Cyrus," acted at Covent Garden in 1768 ; " Ti- manthes," performed the year following ; and "Cleonice," in 1775. b. in London, 1727; d. 1803. Ho*b, Thomas, hope, a liberal art-patron and writer on art, was a descendant of the rich banking family of the Hopes of Amsterdam. An enthusiastic admiration for architecture led him, at the age of 18, to travel through Greece, Turkey, Syria, Sicily, France, Germany, and Spain, in search of the greatest examples of the art extant. On his return to England, he com- menced applying the principles of which he had made himself master abroad, by extending and enlarging his residence in Duchess-street, Port- land-place, which, when finished, he stored with classical vases and statues. In 1805 he issued his splendid work entitled "Household Furni- ture," which, in 60 folio plates, depicted the magnificent upholstery and decorations of his house. His " Costume of the Ancients" had appeared in 1809 ; and this work, together with its successor, "Modern Costume," as well as many valuable contributions to fine art periodi- cals, greatly tended to improve English taste in matters artistic. The celebrated work, " Anas- tasius ; or, the Memoirs of a Modern Greek," was published by him in 1819, and as it was issued anonymously, Lord Byron was long held to be the only person capable of having been its author. Two other works, both published after his death, came from his pen — one "On the Origin and Prospects of Man," and the other "An Historical Essay on Architecture." Al- though a constant patron of the arts, and the first to discern and foster the genius of Thor- waldsen, he became engaged in a dispute with Dubost, a French artist, who, to revenge himself upon him, painted the portraits of Mr. and Mrs. Hope, and exhibited them under the title of "Beauty and the Beast;" but the exhibition was terminated in a sudden manner, by his brother destroying the canvas with his stick. b. about 1770; d. 1831. Hopital, Michael de 1', lop-e'-lal, was an eminent chancellor of France, to which high station he rose through the zeal, ability, and integrity he displayed in the various offices he before filled. He studied jurisprudence in the most celebrated universities of France and Italy; rose rapidly in his profession, and was sent by Henry II. as ambassador to the council of Trent. In 1554 he was made superintendent of the royal finances, when by his good manage- ment, and his disregard of the demands of court favourites, he replenished Unexhausted treasury. THE DICTIONARY Hopital He was a sincere friend to religious toleration, and the principal author of the edict of 1502, which allowed freedom of worship to Protestants. This brought on him the hatred of the court of Home ; his seals of office were taken from him ; and he retired to his country-house. When the massacre of the Protestants on Bartholo- mew's Day, 1572, was at its height, and his friends thought he would become one of its victims, he not only declined to take measures for his own safety, but when a party of horse- men advanced towards his house, he refused to close his gates. The party, however, had been sent by the queen, with orders to save him : and on their informing him that the persons who made the list of proscription pardoned him, lie calmly observed, " 1 did not know that 1 had done anything to deserve either death or par- don." The whole course of this great man's life was productive of benefit to his country, and did honour to his nature. He survived this exe- crable event a few months only. b. 1505 ; d. 1573. Hopital, Guillaume Francois Antoine, mar- quis de 1', a French mathematician, who evinced, at an early age, a genius for mathe- matical study, and, when only fifteen, solved a difficult problem of Pascal's. He served for some time in the army, which he left on account of a defect in his sight. In 1693, he was ad- mitted an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and published a work on Newton's Fluxions, being the first Frenchman who wrote on that subject. He afterwards pub- lished another mathemat ; eal work. b. at Paris, 1661 ; i). 1704. Hopkins, Charles, hop'-kins, an English poet and classical translator, who, in loi'i, published some epistolary poems and translations, and the year following produced a tragedy, called " Pyrrhus, King of Egypt." He translated Ovid's "Tristia" and "Art of love," and was greatly esteemed by Diyden and other poets. b. at Exeter, about 1663 ; d. 1699. HoPKiNsoif, Francis, hop'-kin-sun, an emi- nent American author, and one of the signers of the declaration of American independence, was a native of Philadelphia, his father being the intimate friend and scientific coadjutor of Franklin. After graduating at the college of Philadelphia, and making the law his study, Francis visited England; and, a few years after his return, entered congress as a delegate from New Jersey. He produced many satires and ironical pieces, such as the " Prophecy," the " Political Catechism," &c, tending to ridicule the old country; while, at the same time, he directed his efforts against the ribaldry of the newspapers, and the exaggerations and preju- dices with which the federal constitution was at first assailed. After his retirement from con- gress, he was appointed judge of the admiralty for Pennsylvania. Among his works, the greater part of which are of a political character, there arc many sound essays and scientific papers, acute and L arned judicial decisions, and a variety of songs possessing much sweetness and deli- cacy, which were rendered still more popular bv t'ne airs he composed for them. b. 1738; »'. 1791. Hoppner, John, I!. A., hop'-ner, one of the first Royal Academicians, and a fashionable portrait-painter in his day. In his early years was clionstcr in the Chapel Koyal, but after- wards became a student of the Koyal Academy, 518 Home and attracting the notice of the Prince of Wales, he painted a considerable number of royal and fashionable portraits, and divided the favour of the highest patrons of art with Lawrence and Opie. He also excelled in landscape-painting. b. in London, 1759 ; D. 1810. Horatii, ho-ra'-she-i, the name of three brave Roman brothers, who fought against the three Curiatii of Alba, 667 b.c. Two of them were slain ; but the third, by adding artifice to his courage, slew all his antagonists. On his return to Rome he met his sister, who had been be- trothed to one of the Curiatii, and on her reproaching him for what he had done, he slew her also. His eminent services, however, were considered an extenuation of his crime, and he was pardoned. Hokatius, or Horace, Quintus Flaccus, ho- ra'-she-us, an elegant Koman poet. His fathci was a frcedman ; but though poor, he gave his son a good education, placing him first under the best masters at Rome, and then sending him to Athens, that he might study philosophy. Here he was patronized by Brutus, who took him into his army, and made him a tribune ; but he had more wit than courage, and at the battle of Philippi he threw away his shield and fled. Being reduced to want, Virgil became his patr-jn, and recommended him to Maecenas, by vv'iom he was introduced to Augustus, who ofiered him considerable advancement, which I e de- clined, preferring a private life to the h. #ours of the court, lie was greatly esteemed by the highest people in Rome, particularly Maecenas and Pollio. In the latter part of his life he retired to the country, whore he indulged in a philosophical ease, which he has admirably described in his odes. These have been trans- lated into every European language. The last modern edition of his works is Milman's "Life and Works of Horace," published in 18-19. b. at Venusia, or Venusium, 65 b.c. ; d. 8 B.C. Hohaiius Cocles. (See Cocles.) Horn, Charles Edward, horn, the son of C. F. Horn, a German musician and the tutor of George III.'s daughters, was perhaps the best composer of melodies in modern times. He showed indications of musical genius when very young, a«d was engaged as second tenor on the opening of the English Opera House, and ob- tained a large share of public favour. He wrote the music, in whole or the greater part, for a vast number of operas; and was especially suc- cessful as a composer of ballads, as is proved by the fact that three of the most popular pieces of this description — "Cherry Ripe," "The deep, deep Sea," and " I've been roaming" — are his work. These songs were not only well received at the time of their production, but keep theii hold on public favour still, b. in London, 1786; d. in New York, 18-19. Hokne, George, bishop of Norwich, ani author of the celebrated " Commentary on the Book of Psalms," received his education at Maidstone school, whence he was elected to a scholarship of University College, Oxford, where he took his degree of H.A. He was afterwards chosen fellow of Magdalen College, and applied himself with great diligence to sacred literature, particularly the study of the Hebrew language. In 1753 he entered into orders, and soon became distinguished as an excellent preacher. He appeared also as an acute writer, particularly in controversy, defending the principles of Hut- chinson with singular dexterity. In 1768 he OF BIOGRAPHY. Home was chosen president of his college, on which he took his degree of D.D., and was appointed chaplain in ordinary to the king. His valuable " Commentaity on the Psalms" was produced in 1776. b. at Otham, Kent, 1730; d. at Bath, 1792. Hobjtb, Rev. Thomas Hartwell, an eminent biblical writer, who was ordained by the bishop of London, without having taken a degree at a university, in consequence of the high estima- tion in which that prelate held his " Introduc- tion to the Study of the Scriptures." After having been presented to the rectory of two united parishes in the city of London, he pub- lished a new and enlarged edition of the above popular work; besides which, he produced "A Compendious Introduction to the Study of the Bible," " A Manual of Biblical Biography," " A Manual of Parochial Psalmody," and many other theological works, b. 17&0; d. 1862. Hobsk, Bichard Henry, an English littera- teur, who was at first sent to Sandhurst for the purpose of being educated for the military service of the East-India Company, but left that seminary to enter, in 1826, the Mexican navy, as midshipman, while that republic was at war with Spain. On the termination of the war, he went to London, and commenced writing ex- tensively for periodical publications. In 1827, he produced "The Death of Marlowe," and " Cosmo de Medici," two dramas written upon the Elizabethan model; these being followed by "The Death Fetch," and "Gregory the Seventh ;" to which latter play was appended a critical essay on tragic influence. He appears toliavcbeen greatly disappointed in the expecta- tions he had formed on commencing his literary career; for, in 18-11, he published a singular pamphlet, called "An Exposition of the False Medium excluding Men of Genius from the Public." His plays were not successful either on the stage or with the reading public. In 1841, he wrote a " Life of Napoleon," which was published in Tyas's illustrated series. In 1843, he produced an epic poem, thus singularly an- nounced: — "Orion, an Epic Poem. Price One Farthing," which was generally supposed to be a sarcastic mode of expressing what he thought the value of public appreciation of such works. Its success was very great, however, first at one farthing, next at a penny, and afterwards at half-a-crown and five shillings. " A New Spirit of the Age" was published in 1814; "Ballad Romances" in 1846; and "Judas Iseariot," a miracle play, with Poems, in 1818. In addition to these, he wrote extensively for the periodicals and reviews of the time. In 1852, he, with Mr. Howitt and others, emigrated to Australia; where, after undergoing many privations as a gold-digger, he became chief of mounted police, and afterwards a gold commissioner: a narra- tive of his adventures having been contributed, at various times, to the pages of " Household Words." b. about 1603. Hornb Tooke. (See Tooke.) Horner, Francis, hor'-ner, an English poli- (.tuian, writer on political economy, and one of the founders of the " Edinburgh Review." After having received his education at the High School and the university of Edinburgh, em- braced the profession of the law, intending to practise at the Scottish bar. In 1802, he went to London to seek employment in the English courts, and became acquainted with Sir James Mackintosh, Sir Samuel Komilly, and other 610 Horsley leading Whigs. After having sat as com- missioner at the board of the East India Com- pany, he was, in 1806, returned to Parliament for St. Ives, and gradually assumed importance in his new career. His first great speech was made in 1810, on the subject of the alleged de- preciation of bank notes; he was appointed one of the members of the Bullion Committee, his influence in the House of Commons con- tinuing to increase. In 1814, he went abroad, and travelled in Switzerland and the north of Italy. His last speech was in favour of the claims of the Catholics, in 1816. A pulmonary disease compelled him, in the same year, to visit the south of Europe, where he died. B.in Edin- burgh, 1778 ; D. 1817. Horrox, Jeremiah, hor'-rocks, an English astronomer, who received an academical educa- tion at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, after which he retired to Hool, near Liverpool, where he devoted himself to astronomical observations. He was the first who observed the transit of Venus over the sun's disc, his account of which was published by Hevelius, at Dantzic, in 1661, under the title, "Venus in Sole visa, anno 1639." b. atToxteth, about 1619; d. 1640. Horsa, hor'sa, a Saxon prince, the brother of Hengist (see Hengist), and one of tho founders of the kingdom of Kent. He was killed in battle with the Britons at Eaglesford, now Aylesford, in 455. Horsley, John, kors'-le, a learned antiquary, who was educated first at Newcastle and after- wards in Scotland, where he took his degree o( M.A. He became pastor of a dissenting con- gregation in his native country, He is the author of a work entitled " Britannia Romana," folio, which gives a copious and exact account of the remains of the Romans in Britain. d. 1731. Horsley, Samuel, a prelate of the estab- lished Church of Ensland, was educated at Westminster School and Trinity Hall, Cam- bridge. After entering into ho;y orders in 1759, he became rector of Newington, on tho resignation of his father; in 1767 he was elected fellow of the Koyal Society, of which body he was made secretary in 1773. Soon after his appointment as archdeacon of St. Alban's, in 1781, he entered into a theological controversy with Dr. Joseph Priestley, against whom he combated the doctrines of materialism and Unitarianism. In 1783 he was ordained bishop of St David's, and on taking his seat in Par- liament, displayed great political capacity, strong-lv supporting the measures of Mr. Pitt; for which services he was made, successively, bishop of Rochester and of St. Asaph. He pub- lished a large number of theological works chiefly controversial, but one of them, thf " Seventeen Letters to Dr. Priestley," was hcl( to be the exponent of a sound and orthodol theology, b. 1733; D. 1806. Horsley, John Calcott, an English painter and R.A., who, from his earliest youth, evinced a talent for the fine arts. The first work which attracted the attention of the public towards him was his " Leaving the Ball," exhibited in 1810, a success which was followed up by his gaining a prize of £200 for his cartoon of " St. Augustine Preaching," in 1843. He afterwards painted two frescoes foi the House of Lords, — " The Spirit of Religion," and "Eve Surprised;" and was one of the best among the exhibitors in the yearly displaj THE DICTIONARY Hortense of artistic productions at the Royal Academy. His chief works are "Malvolio," "Master Slender," " Scene fromDon Quixote," "L' Allegro and 11 Penseroso." In 1855 he was elected an A.E.A., and was admitted as R.A. in 1864. b. in London, 1817. Hoetense, (Eugenie Hortense de Beau- harnais), hor'-tente, queen of Holland, aud mother of Napoleon III., was daughter of Alexander, viscount de Beauharnais, and Jose- phine Tascher de la Pagerie, afterwards first wife of Napoleon I., and empress of France. On the marriage of her mother to Bonaparte, Hortense became, by her beauty, wit, and accom- plishments, the ornament of the consular and imperial courts. She was espoused, though un- willingly, in 1802, to Louis Bonaparte ; but the marriage afforded little happiness to either Earty. Becoming a queen by the elevation of ouis Bonaparte to the throne of Holland in 1806, she displayed little affection for her husband's kingdom, and lived in it only when compelled to do so. After the abdi- cation of Louis, in 1810, she obtained a divorce from him, and took up her residence in Paris, where, still retaining her title of queen, she became the centre of a most distinguished and fashionable circle. She remained in Paris after the first return of the Bourbons, and was accused of assisting Napoleon to re-enter France, and compelled to depart from the capital in 1815. After having wandered about Ger- many and Switzerland for some time, she re- tired, in 1817, under the title of the duchess of St. Leu, to the chateau of Arenenberg, in the canton of Thurgau, on the borders of Lake Constance. She had by her marriage with King Louis three children: Napoleon Louis Charles, born in 1802 ; Napoleon Louis, born in 1801 ; Charles Louis Napoleon, born in 1808. The first died young ; the second perished in the unfortunate expedition to Forli, in 1831; and the third became emperor of the French, as Napoleon III. b. at Paris, 1783 ; D. 1837. HoRTENSius.Quintus, hor-ten'-she-us, a Roman orator, who pleaded his first cause, with great applause, at the age of 19, b. c. 94. He became successively military tribune, praetor, and con- sul, b. 114 b. c. ; n. 50 b. e. — Hobtensia, daughter of the above, who inherited his eloquence. When the Roman women were re- quired to render on oath an account of their property, she pleaded the cause of her sex with such force that the decree was annulled. B-oubigant, Charles Francis, hoo'-be-gong, an eminent Hebrew scholar.a priest of the Oratory, and professor of philosophy at Soissons. He became deaf after his removal to Paris, and un- able to perform his duties as a preacher and public lecturer. Turning his attention to Hebrew literature, he produced at Paris, in 1753, in 4 vols, folio, his "Biblia Hebraica cum Notis Criticis," in which the Hebrew text and a Latin version of it are printed in parallel columns. B. at Paris, 16S6 ; d. 1783. Houbbaken, Arnold, hoo'-bralc-en, a famous Dutch painter, who wrote a trustworthy account of the lives of the Dutch painters of eminence, which was illustrated with portraits engraved by his son. b. at Dort, 1660 ; d. 1719. — His son, Jacob, was an excellent engraver. He engraved some of the plates in a work called "Heads of the Illustrious Persons of Great Britain," pub- lished 1748. B. 1698 ; n. 1780. 520 Houssaye llou chabd, Jean Nicolas, hoo-thar 1 , a French republican soldier, who, from being at first a private in a regiment of cavalry, rapidly arrived at the rank of general, and displayed great boldness and activity in repeated engagements when opposed to the Prussians on the Rhine, and afterwards against the English and their allies before Dunkirk, &c. Bat neither his bravery nor his successes could save him from the guillotine ; for having been denounced by his colleague, General Hoche, as a conspirator against the republic, he was arrested, and shortly after executed, 1793 ; b. 1740. Houdon, hoo'-daumg, a celebrated French sculptor, who, after studying in Italy, returned to Paris, and executed the busts of Voltaire, Rousseau, Moliere, Franklin, Buffon, Diderot, Catherine II., &c. He became, in 1777, member and professor of the Academy of Fine Arts, and was invited to Philadelphia to carve a statue of Washington, b. at Versailles, 1741 ; B. at Paris, 1828. Hough, John, huf, an English prelate, memorable for the noble stand he made against the arbitrary conduct of James II., was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford; became chaplain to the duke of Ormond; and, in 1685, was made a prebendary of Wor- cester. In 1687, the presidentship of Mag. dalen College becoming vacant, the king sent mandatory letters to the fellows, requiring them to elect one Anthony Farmer, who did not belong to that society, and was a man of doubtful cha- racter. The fellows upon this, seeing their privi- leges attacked, applied by petition for leave to proceed to a free election, according to their statutes. No answer being returned, they those Mr. Hough, who was confirmed by the visitor, the Bishop of Winchester ; and the new pre- sident having taken his doctor's degree, was installed. The king, instead of letting the matter rest, now thought proper to send another mandate, ordering the Society to elect Dr. Parker, bishop of Oxford, for their pre- sident; which they refused, and were all ex- pelled except two. Thus the business stood till September, 16S8, when James, finding that his affairs grew desperate, became alarmed, and commissioned the bishop of Winchester to settle the society of Magdalen College regularly and statutably. Dr. Hough and the fellows were accordingly restored ; and in 1690 he was made bishop of Oxford, from whence he was removed to Lichfield, and next to Worcester, where he died, honoured for his patriotism, piety, and munificence, b. 1651 ; d. 1743. Hougiiton, Richard Monckton Milnes, Lord, hou'-ton, a poet of some note, who sat for Pon- tei'ract from 1837 to 1863, when he was raised to the peerage. His principal works are " Me- morials of a Tour in Greece," " Palm Leaves,'' and the " Flight of Time," b. 1809. HoussAYB,Arscne,Aou*-*«», a modern French litterateur, who went to Paris early in life, to push his fortunes as an author. He began his career in 1836, with the publication of two romances. His essays in art criticism, and especially his writings illustrative of the bio- graphical history of the regency, attracted the notice of the reading public towards him. During the revolution of 1848, he presented himself as a candidate for the suffrages of his native province, but was beaten by M. Odillon Barrot. Through the influence of Mdllc. OF BIOGRAPHY. Houston Rachel, he wag made manager of the Comedie Francaise in 1849, and succeeded in restoring that theatre to a most prosperous condition, producing more than a hundred new works by the best French playwrights. After the coup- A' Mat of 1851, he wrote the cantata for Mdlle. Eachel, entitled "L'Empire c'est la paix." On the death of his wife, in 1856, he resigned the appointment. His literary performances in- clude romances, plays, poems, essays, and cri- ticisms; many of them displaying his strong predilection for the age of Louis XV., while all are characterized by refinement, grace, and lively wit. b. at Bruyeres, near Laon, 1815. Houstow, Samuel, hout'-ton, an American feneral, who began life in a merchant's office, ut, incited by a love of adventure, went to reside among the Indians, with whom he stayed five years. Returning to his native state, he founded a school on the borders of the prairie for the children of the red men. In the war against the English in 1813, he served with much distinction under General Jackson, and was severely wounded at the Horse-shoe Falls. Subsequently General Jackson employed him to negotiate a treaty with his former hosts, the Bed Indians. After having brought this mis- sion to a successful termination, he resolved to proceed to Nashville to study the law ; and soon afterwards obtained considerable practice by his great abilities in his new profession. In 1821 he was appointed major-general of the militia of the state of Tennessee. On the break- ing out of the war with Mexico, he was named feneral-in-chief, and at the battle of Saint acinto, he, with 700 men, took or killed the 1800 soldiers of Santa Anna, who was himself among the prisoners. The inhabitants of Texas, out of admiration for his bravery, ap- pointed him president of the new republic they founded after gaining their independence from Mexico ; and on the incorporation of Texas with the other states of the Union, General Houston became a member of Congress. B. at Bockbridge, Virginia, 1793 ; d. 1863. Hovedbn, Roger de, hove'-den, an English historian in the reign of Henry II., who is said to have been an ecclesiastic and lawyer, two professions then commonly united. His "Annalfl of English History from 731 to 1202" were printed at London in 1595, and at Frankfort in 1601, and, lately, in Bohn's Antiquarian Library. Lived towards the end of the 12th century. Howard, Sir Edward, hou'-ard, a naval com- mander, who entered early the maritime ser- vice, and, about 1494, was knighted. In 1512 he was sent as lord high admiral of England with a large fleet against France, the coasts of which he ravaged. He also defeated the enemy's fleet oft' Brest; but, the year following, was slain in boarding the French admiral's ship, and his body thrown into the sea. d. 1513. Howard, Thomas, earl of Surrey and duke of Norfolk. (See Surrey, Thomas Howard, earl of). Howard, Henry, carl of Surrey. (See Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of.) Howard, Catherine, fifth wife of Henry VIII., was the daughter of Edmund Howard, third •on of the second duke of Norfolk. She was married, in 1540, to the king ; but, two years afterwards, Henry sent her to the scaffold, under pretext of unfaithfulness, b. about 1520. 521 Howrard Howard, Charles, Lord Howard of Effing- ham, lord high admiral of England, and com- mander, in 1588, of the fleet which destroyed the Invincible Armada. In 1596, he, with the earl of Essex, burnt a second Spanish fleet in the harbour of Cadiz, for which he was created earl of Nottingham. When the earl of Essex made his attempt at rebellion, he was appointed to command the army which act«l against and defeated him, under the title of lieutenant- general of England. After Queen Elizabeth's death, he still continued to enjoy the most distinguished posts under her successor, James I., discharging every duty with a singular ability and honourable zeal. b. 1536 ; d. 1624. Howard, Thomas, earl of Arundel, a dis- tinguished patron of the arts, was earl-marshal in the beginning of the reign of Charles I., by whom, as well as by king James, Howard was employed in various foreign embassies. He is principally known, however, by the efforts he made, at immense trouble, to collect in Greece and Italy all the remains of antiquity that could be procured. In this way he collected a splen- did museum, a portion of which was, about 1668, presented to the university of Oxford by Henry, sixth duke of Norfolk, and is now known, with other curiosities, as the Arun- delian marbles, b. 1*80 ; d. at Padua, 1646. Howard, Sir Robert, an English poet and historian, the son of Thomas, earl of Berkshire, was a zealous friend of the revolution of 1683. He wrote several plays, the " History of the Reigns of Edward and Biehard II.," the " His- tory of Religion," &c. d. 1698. Howard, John, an eminent philanthropic English gentleman, was the son of a tradesman in London, who died while he was an infant, leaving him in the hands of guardians, by whom he was apprenticed to a grocer. His constitu- tion, however, being delicate, and having an aversion to trade, he purchased his indentures from his master, and went abroad. On his return he lodged with a widow lady at Stoke Newington, who attended him with such care in his illness, that he conceived an affection for her, though she was twenty-seven years older than himself, and they were married; but Mrs. Howard died about three years afterwards. In 1756 he embarked for Lisbon, intending to aid the sufferers by the great earthquake, but, on the passage, the ship was taken and carried to France. On his release he went to Italy, and at his return settled in Hampshire. In 1758 he married a second wife ; but she died in child- bed in 1765, leaving him one son. He was at this time resident at Cardington, near Bedford, where he purchased an estate. In 1773 he served the office of sheriff, which, as he declared, " brought the distress of the prisoners more immediately under his notice," and led him to form the design of visiting the gaols through England, in order to devise means for alle- viating the miseries of the sufferers. In 1774 he was examined before the House of Commons on the subject of the prison regulations, and re- ceived the thanks of the House. He then ex- tended his benevolent views to foreign countries, making excursions to all parts of Europe. In 1777 he published the "State of Prisons in England and Wales, with Preliminary Observa- tions, and an Account of some Foreign Prisons." In 1780 he published an appendix to it, with and account of his travels in Italy ; and in 1784 an THE DICTIONARY Howard Hew edition appeared, with considerable addi- tions. About this time some admirers of Mr. Howard opened a subscription for erecting a statue in his honour, but at his request the design was dropped. In 1789 he published an " Account of the Principal Lazarettos in Europe." In this work he signified his inten- tion of visiting Russia, Turkey, and of extend- ing his route into the East. " I am not in- sensible," he said, " of the dangers that must attend such a journey. Should it please God to •jut off my life in the prosecution of this design, let not my conduct be uncandidly imputed to rashness or enthusiasm, but to a serious, deli- berate conviction that I am pursuing the path of duty ; and to the sincere desire of being made an instrument of more extensive useful- ness to my fellow-creatures, than could be ex- pected in the narrower circle of a retired life." He fell a sacrifice to his humanity; for, visiting a sick patient in the Crimea, who had a malig- nant fever, he caught the infection. A statue of Mr. Howard, erected by public subscription, was placed in St. Paul's Cathedral, with an in- scription, b. about 1726 ; d. 1790. Howard, Lieut. Edward, B.N., the scion of an ancient and opulent family, was one of the earliest and best of the naval school of novelists. With all the graphic power and stirring elo- quence of other writers of that class, he was wholly free from their too frequent coarseness. " Rattlin the Reefer," "Outward Bound," the '* Old Commodore," and " Jack Ashore," attest his powers as a novelist ; while his " Life of Sir Henry Morgan, the Buccaneer," gave promise of even higher excellence, d. 1842. Howakd, Henry, K.A., professor of paint- ing in the Royal Academy, after receiving fcoroe tuition from Keinaglc, became a stu- dent of the Eoyal Academy in 1788, displaying great talent as a draughtsman, and carrying off the highest honours of the school of art in which he was being educated. In 1791 he went to Italy, and studied at Rome with Flaxman. On his return to England, he was extensively employed to illustrate books with steel plates, and, at the same time, he continued to send to the exhibitions of the Academy a number of paintings on classical subjects. In 1801 he was elected an associate, and, in 1808, an acade- mician, and, subsequently, secretary to the Royal Academy. At the first cartoon compe- tition, in 1843, although seventy-three years of age, he contributed a drawing — "Man beset by Contending Passions," which gained a prize of JE100. B. 1769 ; D. 1847. Howdm, John Hobart Caradoc, second Lord, hou'-den, an English diplomatist, in early life served in the army, and was engaged in the battle of Navarino, where he was wounded. He was sent as English commissioner to the siege of Antwerp in 1832, and to the Spanish constitutional army in 1834. In 1847 he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to Rio Janeiro, to settle the Argentine question. In 1850 he became ambassador to the court of Madrid, and in 1854 major-general, b. at Dublin, 1799. Howe, Richard, Earl, hou, a gallant English admiral, entered the naval service at the age of fourteen, and at twenty was appointed to the command of a sloop of war, in which he beat off two large French frigates, after a gallant ac- tion ; for which h» was made a post-captain. After a variety of active service, he obtained the 622 Howitt command of the Dunkirk, of 60 guns, with which he c.-.ptured a French 64 off Newfound- land. In 1757 he served under Admiral Hawke, and, the year following, was appointed com- modore of a squadron, with which he destroyed a number of ships and magazines at St. Malo. In 1759 Prince Edward, afterwards duke of York, was put under his care, and the commo- dore, on the 6th of August, took Cherbourg and destroyed the basin. This was followed by the unfortunate action off St. Cas, where he dis- played great courage and humanity in saving the retreating soldiers at the hazard of his own life. The same year, on the death of his brother, he became Lord Howe, and soon afterwards had a great share in the victory over Conflans. When Admiral Hawke presented him, on this occasion, to the king, his majesty said, " Your life, my lord, has been one continued series of services to your country." In 1763 he was ap- pointed to the Admiralty board, where he re- mained till 1765, when he was made treasurer of the navy. In 1770 he was appointed com- mander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. In the American war he commanded the fleet on that coast. In 1782 he was sent to the relief of Gibraltar, which service he performed in sight of the French and Spanish fleets, which, however, avoided an action, though far superior in numbers. In 1783 he was made first lord of the Admiralty, which office he soon afterwards resigned ; but, at the end of the year, he was re-appointed, and continued in that station till 1788, when he was created an English earl. I n 1793 he took the command of the channel fleet, and, on June 1, 1794, obtained his splendid and decisive victory over the French fleet. The same month he was visited on board his ship at Spithead by the king and queen, when his ma- jesty presented him with a magnificent sword, a gold chain, and medal. He also received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament, the freedom of the city of London, and the applause of the nation. Inl795he becamegeneral ot'the marines, and, in 1797, was honoured with the gaiter. b. in London, 1725; d. in London, 1799. Howe, Sir William, brother of Admiral Lord Howe, succeeded General Gage in the chief command of the British forces in America, having landed at Boston with Generals Clinton and Burgoyne, in May, 1775. General Howe commanded at the attack on Bunker's Hill, was besieged in Boston during the next winter, evacuated that town in the ensuing spring, and retired to Halifax. In June, 1776, he arrived at Staten Island, where he was joined by his brother, Lord Howe. Here the brothers in- formed Congress that they had received full powers to grant pardon to all the rebels who should return to their obedience; but the com- missioners appointed by that body considered both the form and substance of the propositions too objectionable to deserve attention. In August Howe defeated the Americans on Long Island, and took possession of New York in September. After the campaign of the Jerseys, he set sail from New York and entered Chesa- peake Bay. Having previously secured the command of the Schuylkill, he crossed it with his army, and repelled the attack of the Americans at Germantown. In May, 1778, he was succeeded in the command by General Sir Henry Clinton, d. 1814. Howitt, William, hou'-it, a clever English litterateur, the son of a member of the Society Otf BIOGRAPHY. Howitf of Friends, who educated him and his five bro- thers in the principles of Quakerism. Although he had been sent to several schools kept by Quakers, his education was almost entirely owing to his own perseverance. Up to his twenty-eighth year, when he married and com- menced with his wife a career of literature, his time had been spent in acquiring mathematical and scientific knowledge, in studying the clas- sical authors, and in mastering the German, French, and Italian tongues. His studies were varied by rambles in the country, shooting, and fishing ; and these again led him to obtain an amount of information relative to English rural life and nature, which was afterwards repro- duced in his works. The lady who became his wife was, like himself, a member of the Society of Friends, and strongly imbued with literary tastes. In 1823, the "first year of their mar- riage, they published together a volume of poems, entitled, " 1 he Forest Minstrel," and followed it up by contributions to the " Amulet," " Literary Souvenir," and other an- nuals then in vogue. These contributions, with some original pieces, were collected and pub- lished in 1827, under the title of "The Desola- tion of Eyam," &e. The "Book of the Sea- sons," " Popular History of Priestcraft," "Talcs of the Pantika; or, Traditions of the most Ancient Times," " Rural Life of Eng- land," " Colonization and Christianity," and several other works, were produced by him during the ten following years. In 1839 and succeeding year, he wrote his " Hoy's Country Book," and " Visits to Remarkable Places." In 1810 he went to Germany for the purpose of educating his children, and his sojourn there led to the "production of the "Rural and Domestic Life of Germany "' " German Experiences," &c. In 1317 and the four following years he pub- lished his " Homes and Haunts of the most eminent English Poets," "The Hall and Ham- let; or, Scenes and Characters of Country Life," "The Year-Book of the Country," and a novel, "Madame Dorrington of the Dene." In 1816 he contributed to the " People's Journal," and afterwards became part proprietor of it ; but a quarrel between himself and his partner led him to establish a rival publication — "Howitt's Journal," which, however, like its predecessor, was subsequently unsuccessful. In 1852 he, with his two sons and Mr. R. H. Home (see Hobne), sailed for Australia, whore he, for some time, worked as a "digger." He also visited Tasmania, Sydney, &c, and com- municated his observations in a number of letters to the Times, which he afterwards col- lected and published, with some new matter, under 'he title, "Land, Labour, and Gold,'' in 1855. B. at Heanor, Derby-hire. 1795 ; n. 18"9. Howitt, Mrs. Mary Botham, an English authoress, wife of the above, came of a family it Quakers, and commenced her literary career, shortly after her marriage, with a volume of Eoems, called the " Forest Minstrel." After aving published several volumes of graceful poetry, and a number of books for the young, she, on visiting Germany with her husband, proceeded to acquire the Swedish and Danish languages, with a view of translating the novels of Miss Bremer and the talcs of Huns C. Andersen. The translations of Miss Bremer's works were published between 1811 and 1852; and the " Improvisatore," a repro- duction in English of Andersen's, novel, in I 623 Hubner 1857. Besides being an industrious contributor to the periodicals, she wrote a volume of " Ballads and other Poems," " Sketches of Na- tural History in Verse :" two novels, called, "The Heir of Wast- Way land," and "Wood Lcighton," and translated " Ennemoser's His- tory of Magic" for Bonn's Scientific Li- brary. The valuable work entitled " Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," published as the joint production of herself and husband, is almost entirely her work. b. at Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, about 1801. Howley, William, archbishop of Canterbury, was educated at Winchester School, where he had for his teacher Dr. Warton, and for a class- fellow William Lisle Bowles, the poet; and after distinguishing himself by the elegance of his academic exercises, he proceeded, in 1783, to New College, Oxford, passing through the various grades of the university with honour and success, till, in 1809, ho was appointed regius professor of divinity. This closed his academic career. In 1813 he was nominated bishop of London; and in 1828 translated to the primacy, the onerous duties of which he dis- charged with zeal and fidelity for twenty years. He seldom took part in the secular discussions in the House of Lords. When bishop of London he supported the bill of pains and penalties against queen Caroline, laying it down with much emphasis that the king could do no wrong either morally or politically ; and, as archbishop of Canterbury, he vehemently op- posed the catholic emancipation bill, in 1829, aa dangerous to the church ; and the reform bill, in 1831, as no less dangerous to the constitution. b. at Ropley rectory, Hampshire, 1765 ; d. 1848. Hoarte', John, hoo-ar'-fai, a Spanish philo- sopher, who, in 1578, published a work which excited considerable interest at the time : it was entitled "A Trial of Wits; or, a Treatise on the different Kinds of Genius among Men, with Rules and D irections showing to what Kind of Study any Person is best adapted." This book has been translated into English, French, and German, and has been condemned at Rome. b. in Navarre, about 1530; d. about 1600. Huber, John, hoo'-bair, a Swiss draughts- man and naturalist, who was eminent for his talent in cutting portraits out of paper. He painted several pictures illustrating incidents in the private life of Voltaire, with whom he lived on intimate terms during twenty years. He wrote a clever work, entitled " Observations on the Flight of Birds of Prey," which was pub- lished at Geneva in 1784. b. at Geneva, 1722 j D. 1790. Huber, Francis, a distinguished naturalist, son of the preceding, by whom he was taught to observe nature from bis earliest years, and he studied with exemplary patience and success the habits of bees. While young, he lost his sight, but nevertheless continued to prosecute bis studies with ardour, chiefly through the aid of Francis Bunions, his servant, and his wife, Aimee Lullin. In 1792 he published his disco- veries, under the title of "New Observations on Bees," which were conveyed under the form of a series of letters to Charles Bonnet. He pub- lished a second and enlarged edition of the same in 1814. b. at Geneva, 1750; d. at Lausanne, 1830. Hubxer, Alexander, Baron de, hoob'-iie>% a German diplomatist, who, after finishing ids studies at the university of Vicuna, went to re- THE DICTIONARY Hue side in Italy, and on his return attracted the notice of Prinse Metternich, who appointed him to an important position in his cabinet. In 1837, he served on the staff of the Austrian ambassador at Paris, but was recalled soon after; and in 1841, on the resumption of diplo- matic relations between Portugal and Austria, he was dispatched as secretary of embassy to Lisbon, a pott he vacated, to assume that of Austrian consul-general at Leipsic, in 1844. When the Italian revolution of 1848 broke out, he was acting as secretary to the viceroy of Lombardy, was made prisoner by the Italians, and retained as a hostage for several months ; but was subsequently released ; whereupon he retired into private life. When Prince Schwartzenburg had made head against the Italian and Viennese insurgents, he was re- called, and Intrusted with the issuing of pro- clamations and imperial manifestoes to the po- pulations of Austria and Italy. In 1849, he be- came Austnan minister plenipotentiary to the French republic, a post he retained for several years. In 1856, he was one of the plenipoten- tiaries of the belligerent powers who signed the treaty of Paris, b. at Vienna, 1811. Hue, Abb6, hook, a French missionary priest, who, after being ordained, embarked, in 1839, for China. After a voyage of five months, he arrived at Macao, and entered upon the func- tions of a former missionary, who had been put to death. For five years he travelled through- out China and Tartary, and at length took up a residence in a Buddhist monastery, to study the language *nd literature of Buddhism. Com- manded by the emperor of China to return, he travelled Wk to Macao, and embarked there, in 1852, for F/ance, but stopped at Ceylon, whence he wandered through India, Egypt, and Pales- tine. On his return to France, at the beginning of 1853, lit collated and arranged his notes of travel, and published " Annals of the Propaga- tion of the Faith in China ;" " Travels in Tar- tary, Thibet and China ;" " The Chinese Empire and Christianity in China;" all of which be- came very popular, and were translated into most of the European languages. Several of his works have been reproduced in an English form, and have attracted considerable attention. B. at Toulouse, 1813; n. i860. Hudson, Henry, hucC-ton, an English navi- gator, and discoverer of the Arctic strait called after him. He made several voyages to seek the north-west passage to India and China; in the last attempt tie discovered the bay now known as Hudson's Bay, where he wintered; but, on his passage Lome, some of his crew mutinied, and forced him, his son, and others, into a boat, which was »ever afterwards heard of. b. about the middle of the 16th century ; ». about 1611. Hudson, 1 nomas, a popular English portrait- painter, the predecessor and master of Sir Joshua Reynolds. His greatest work is the portrait of Charles, duke of Marlborough, at Blenheim. His portrait of Handel, hanging in the gallery at Oxford, is said to be the only one the great musician ever sat for. He acquired a large fortune by the practice of his art, and re- tired to Twickenham, when his former pupil, Sir Joshua Reynolds, became the great English portrait-painter, b. in Devonshire, 1701 ; d. 1779. Huet, Pierre Daniel, hoo'-ai, a learned French bishop, who studied mathematics under Mam- 6M Hugo brun, a Jesuit, and Greek and Hebrew under Bochart, whom he accompanied in 1652 to the court of Christina, queen of Sweden, who wished to engage him in her service; but he declined the honour, and returned to France. In 1661 he published an excellent work on the art of translation, entitled, "De Interpreta- tione." In 1679 appeared his " Demonstrs.tio Evangelica," which was greatly admired. His reputation became so great, that the place of sub-preceptor to the dauphin was conferred on him, and he had for his colleague the illustrious Bossuet. In 1661 he published his valuable edition of the works of Origen. He formed the plan of publishing editions of the classics which are now known by the title, " In usum Delphini," and spent twenty years in carrying out the project. In 1689 he printed his " Cen- sures on the Cartesian Philosophy," a system to which he had been zealously attached, but the fallacy of which he now exposed. Huet, con- sidering the number and excellence of his works, may be considered as one of the mosv learned men that any age has produced. His "Origin of Romances," " The Situation of the Terrestrial Paradise," and " Weakness of Human Understanding," have been translated into English, b. at Caen, 1630; d. 1721. Hufeland, Christopher William, hoo'-fe-land, an eminent German physician, pursued his profession at Weimar, and became, in 1793, pro- fessor in the university of Jena. In 1801 he was appointed physician to the king of Prussia, in 1809 professor of medicine in the university of Berlin, and finally director of the academy of military medicine and surgery in 1819. His celebrated work, " The Art of Prolonging Life," was published in 1799; his "Counsels to Mothers on Physical Education," in 1800 ; and his " His- tory of Health," in 1812. He was among the first continental physicians to recognise the truth of animal magnetism, b. at Erfurt, 1762; d. at Berlin, 1836. Hufnagel, George, hoof'-na-gel, a Flemish painter, extensively employed by several Ger- man princes. His reputation recommended him to the emperor Rodolphus, for whom he exe- cuted four admirable books representing quad- rupeds, birds, insects, and fishes. He also wrote some poems in Latin and German, b. at Ant- werp, 1545 ; d. 1600. Hugh Capet. (See Capet.) Hughes, John, hues, an English poet, whose first work was "An Ode on the Peace of Rys- wick," 1697, which was well received, and intro- duced him to the acquaintance of several men ol letters. In 1717 he was appointed, by Lord Chan- cellor Cowper, secretary to the commissions ol the peace. His last literary piece was the tragedy of " The Siege of Damascus ;" but he expired on the first night of its performance, Feb. 17, 1720. B. at Marlborough, Wilts, 1677. Hughes, Thomas, a barrister, educated at Rugby and Oriel College, Oxford, and called to the bar in 1813. He is the author of "Tom Brown," one of the best books that could be put into a school-boy's hands. He was returned for Lambeth in 1^65, and for Frome in 1S08. b. at Donnington Priory, Berks, 1823. Hugo, Victor-Marie, Viscount, hoo'-go, a cele- brated French poet, dramatist, and novelist. The son of a distinguished French general of the Imperial army, his early years were spent with his father in the isle of Elba, Italy, Home, and Naples. Returning to Paris in 1809, "he being then eight OF BIOGRAPHY. Hugo years old, his education was, for the first time, attended to ; but being sent for from Spain by his father, he entered into a seminary for nobles in that land, whose bright skies helped to de- velope his poetical genius, and, at ten years of age, he commenced writing verses. In 1813 he became a student at an institution in France, to be prepared for the Ecole Polytechnique. While studying mathematics, poetry was not neglected by him j and in 1817, having previously com- posed a short poem, he completed a tragedy called " Istamine," written after the classic model. Between the years 1819-22 he three times carried otf the poetry prizes of the Aca- demic des Jeux Floraux, at Toulouse. These three odes first attracted public attention to him ; the appearance of Lamartine's " Medita- tions" quickened his poetical genius into the production of a volume of " Odes and Ballads," which, given to the world in 1822, stamped his reputation permanently as a genuine poet. His next publication was " Hans of Iceland." A second edition of the "Odes and Ballads" ap- peared in 1826. Hitherto he had composed after the manner of Racine and the classical school ; but in 1827 he produced " Cromwell," a play, not written so much for the stage as to combat the principles of the classic school of dramatists. His magnificent collection of lyrics, entitled, " Les Orientales," was brought out in 1828. " Marion Delorme" . and " Ernani" were his two next works for the theatre, both written in the " ro- mantic" manner; as also were his " Lucretia Borgia," " Mary Tudor," " Esmeralda," and " Buy Bias." His best romance, " Notre Dame de Paris," was published in 1831, and his finest set of lyrics, "Autumn Leaves," in 1832. In 1815 he was created a peer of Prance by Louis Philippe. Returned by the city of 1'aris, after the revolution of 1818, to the Assemblee Na- tionale, he took his seat among the extreme de- mocrats, one of whose chief orators he became. On the coup d'etat of December 2, 1851, he was among the first individuals to be expelled from France, and went to reside in the island of Jersey, where he never ceased to compose burn- ing philippics in prose and verse against Na- poleon III. "Napoleon the Little" and "Les Chatimens" being the best-known of these. In 1856 he was compelled to leave Jersey, and went to reside in Guernsey, where he wrote another poetical work, " Contemplations ;" and in 1862 published " Les Mise>ables," a social romance. In 1861 he produced a work on the life and writ- ings of Shakspeare; in 1865, "Chansons des Rues et des Bois" ; in 1866,a romance called "The Toilers of the Sea " ; and, in 1869, an historical novel.the scene of which is laid ehiefiyinEngland entitled, " By Order of the King." b. 1802. Hugo, Francois Victor, a French littera- teur, son of the above, who, after completing his education at the University of Paris, became a writer of political articles for the French papers ; he afterwards assisted his father in edit- ing a democratic journal, which the latter had established in 1818. He was sent out of France with his father, on the coup d'etat of 1851, and went to reside with him in Jersey, and after- wards in Guernsey, where he occupied him- self with historical research. He published "The Island of Jersey, its Monuments and its History," in 1857; but his best work is a line French translation of " Shakspeare's Sonnets," which he brought out with an introduction in 1857. In 1862, after the appearance of his 625 Humboldt father's " Les Miserables," he prepared a dra- matised version of the work, the representation of which in France was forbidden, b. at Paris, 1829. Humbert, Joseph Amable, hoom'-bair, a French revolutionary general, who owed his rise to his fine person, bravery, and bold demeanour. After having received some little education, he became a strolling workman, and afterwards a hawker of rabbit-skins ; but, entering the revo- lutionary army in 1792, he rapidly rose to the position of colonel. In 1793 he was made a general of brigade, and served in that capacity against the insurgents of La Vendee. He was with General Hoche when he attempted to in- vade Ireland in 1796; but when that expedition was disorganized by a violent storm, he re- turned to France. In 1798 he was again sent to Ireland at the head of 1500 men. He landed at Killala, of which he took possession. General Lake marched against him three days after- wards, with a very superior force, but which was mainly composed of yeomanry and militia. Lake was beaten at Castlebar, and Humbert sought to raise the country in behalf of the French, but met with little success. In a short time the advanced guard of Lord Cornwallis met and defeated him, taking himself and whole force prisoners. He returned to France in 1799, and was sent to St. Domingo a few years after- wards under General Leclcrc, with whose widow he returned to France in 1801. Bonaparte was so enraged at this act, that he ordered him to leave Paris, and threatened more severe measures. He fled to America, and led an adventurous life in the Spanish settlements, b. at Rouvray, 1767 ; d. at New Orleans, 1823. Humboldt, Frederick Henry Alexander, Baron von, hoom'-buldt, a distinguished German philosopher and traveller, was the son of a wealthy soldier who had served under Frederick the Great of Prussia. Having previously re- ceived an excellent rudimentary education at home, he was sent with his elder brother, in 1786, to the university of Frankfort-on-the- Oder, to study the natural sciences. In 1788 he quitted Frankfort for Gottingen, at which Heyne, the great classical scholar (see Heyne), was then a professor. Hcyne's son-in-law, George Forster, had accompanied Captain Cook in his discoveries in the South Seas, and his glowing descriptionsof those regions madeadeepimpres- sionon the young man's mind. In 1790Humboldt accompanied Forster in a tour through the Rhine districts and Holland, and afterwards visited England with him. His scientific obser- vations made in Germany were afterwards pub- lished in 1790, under the title of " Mineralogical Considerations on Certain Basaltic Formations on the Rhine." His intention being to seek em- ployment in the civil service of the Prussian kingdom, he subsequently went to Hamburg to study book-keeping and the other forms of com- mercial knowledge, and afterwards studied in the mining academy of the eminent Werner, at Freiburg. In 1792 he obtained the post of mining superintendent in the works at Baireuth, in whi.h situation he remained till the year 1795, during which time he wrote many scien- tific articles for the German periodicals, and published a botanical work in Latin, called " Specimens of the Flora of Freiburg." Soon after the production of this work he resigned his post as mining superintendent, having de- termined to explore those parts of the world THE DICTIONARY Humboldt which had been left unvisited by travellers. " I had, from my earliest youth," he says, " felt a burning desire to travel in distant lands unex- plored by Europeans." The disturbed state of the continent at the time, owing to the wars consequent on the French revolution, prevented him from executing hisdesign for about two years, during which time he resided at Jena,and became acquainted with Gothe and Schiller, and occu- pied himself with the composition and publi- cation of " Investigations on the Muscles and Nerve-fibres, with Conjectures on the Chemical Process of Life," and "On Subterranean Gases ;" two small works which established his reputa- tion as a natural philosopher. A short visit to Italy was made in 1799, and, in the same year, he went to Paris, with the view of accompany- ing the expedition about to be despatched from that capital to Egypt. The expedition was abandoned ; but Humboldt made the acquaint- ance of Bonpland, who was to have been the naturalist of the journey, and the two learned men resolved to undertake a great enterprise together. Their first idea was to explore Northern Africa ; but, being prevented by the English cruisers in the Mediterranean, they landed in Spain, and obtained permission from the government to travel in the Spanish pos- sessions of South America. In the month of May, 1799, the two travellers embarked at Corunna, and, eluding the English cruisers watching the port, reached Teneriffe, where, they ascended the peak and collected some \ aluable scientific data. Going on board their vessel again, they sailed for Cumana, in South America, which was reached in July. Humboldt and his companion now proceeded to explore the great South American continent, and to col- lect a body of scientific information, during five years of adventurous research, theretofore un- paralleled. For 65 days, Humboldt navigated, in an Indian canoe, the Orinoco, the Rio Xegro.and the Atrabapo, discovering the connexion be- tween . at Bristol Wells, 1802. Huntingdon, Selina, Countess of, hunl'-uiq- don, one of the great patrons of Metho iism, was the second daughter of Washington Shirley, Earl Ferrers, and was married to Theophilus, earl of Huntingdon, in 1728. After a danger- ous illness, she became deeply religious, and during the remainder of her life, supported a number of itinerant preachers, and built several chapels in various parts of the kingdom. Her religious sentiments were rigidly Calvinistic, and she was the patroness of all of that persua- sion, b. 1707 ; d. 1791. Hurd, Richard, htird, bishop of Worcester, an English divine and writer, who, after leaving the university of Cambridge, in 1757, became rector of Thurcaston, in Leicestershire. In 1775 he was ordained bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, whence he was translated to Worcester in 1781. In 1783 he refused the archbishopric of Canterbury. His literary works are numerous; " Letters on Romance and Chivalry," " Com- mentary on Horace's Art of Poetry," and " Twelve Discourses on the Prophecies," being among the chief of them. b. in Staffordshire, 1720; d. 1808. Hurlstonk, Frederick Ycatcs, kurl'-iton, a modern English painter, who completed his studies at the Royal Academy in 1820, exhibiting his first picture in 1821. In a short time he became extensively employed as a portrait- painter, and was very popular for his Spanish, Italian, and historical pieces. A quarrel with the hanging committee of the Royal Academy in 1830 induced him to join the Society of British Artists, to whose annual exhibitions he afterwards sent his works. He subsequently became president of this body. His best pic- tures are, " Arthur and Constance," the " Game of Morra," an Italian subject, a " Spanish lieauty and a Young Moorish Peasant." b. in London, 1801; d. 1869. Huskisson, William, hus'-kis-ton, an English statesman, who commenced his political career in 1790 as secretary to Lord Gower, ambassador to the French court. He was under-secretary of state for War, and secretary of the Treasury, in the Pitt administration. In 1823 he became president of the Board of Trade, and both in Of SiocsraphV. Huss the ministry and in the House of Commons, where he had sat from 1796. distinguished him- self by his profound knowledge of iinanee and political economy. As a follower of Adam Smith, he combated the prohibitive system of com- merce, and advocated the relaxation of customs duties and I hose on colonial produce. He met his death in an unfortunate manner, having been knocked down and run over by a loco- motive at Parkside, near Liverpool, at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Rail- way, b. at Birch-Moreton Court, Worcester- shire, 1770; d. 1830. Hess, John, huss, a martyr, was educated at Prague, where he was ordained in 1400, and became rector of the university, and confessor to the queen. Meeting with some of the writings of Wickliffe, he perceived the errors of popery, and by his means a reformation was commenced in the university of Prague, to cheek which, the archbishop issued two decrees, whereby the new doctrines spread the more. The pope then gTanted a bull for the suppression of these errors, and Huss being cited to appear at Rome, was excommunicated for disobedience. He continued to propagate his principles, and was supported therein by Wcuceslaus, king of Bohemia, till 1111, when he was summoned to appear before the council of Constance. The emperor Sigismund sent him a safe-conduct, promts ng to preserve him in going to and returning from the council; but the members of that as-embly, in violation of this pledge, decreed, " that no faith is to be kept with heretics ;" and as Huss refused to retract his opinions, he was degraded, and burnt alive. After his death a civil war broke out in Bohemia, in which those who followed the martyr's doc- trines, and who were called Hussites, fought against King Wenceslaus. The struggle lasted till 1437. Huss's works were printed at Nurem- berg in 1558. b. at Hussinatz, Bohemia, about 1370 ; suffered 1415. Hussbt, Giles, hits'-se, an English painter, born at Mamhull, Dorsetshire, who studied in France and Italy, possessed considerable talents, and painted some good pictures; but was somewhat eccentric, and met with little encour- agement in proportion to his merits, b. 1710; B. 1788. Hutcheson, Francis, hutch' -e-ion, a philoso- phical writer, who received his education at Glasgow, after which he became pastor of a dissenting congregation in Lublin, where he also kept an academy, till 1729. He afterwards removed to Glasgow, on being appointed pro- fessor of philosophy in the university of that city. His chief works are, " An Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty and Virtue;" " A Treatise on the Passions ," " A System of Moral Philo- sophy," live vols. b. in Ireland, 1694; n. at Glasgow, 1747. Hutchinson, John, hutch'-in-ton, a philologi- cal and biblical writer, who received a liberal education, after which he became steward, first to a country gentleman, and next to the duke of Somerset. Having a love lor natural history, he made a large collection of fossils, which he intrusted to Dr Woodward, to be arranged, and an account published of them. The doctor never began the work, which induced Hutchinson to rely upon his own pen. Ho therefore quitted the duke's service, who, however, made him his rid- ing purveyor. He aiso gave him the presenta- tion to the living oi button, in Sussex, which 631 Hutchinson Hutchinson bestowed on his friend Mr. Julius Bates, a zealous defender of his doctrines. In 1724, he published the hist part of his "Moses's Prineipia," in which he ridiculed Woodward's " Natural History of the Earth." He also at- tempted to refute Sir Isaac Newton's doctrine of gravitation. In the second part he main- tained, in opposition to the Newtonian system, that a plenum and the air are the principles of scripture philosophy. In this work he inti- mated that the idea of the Trinity might be taken from the grand agents in the natural system, — fire, light, and spirit ; which is said to have made an impression on the mind of Dr. Clarke. Mr. Hutchinson was a great admirer of the Hebrew language, and maintained that all its radicals were to be explained by their ety- mologies; by the aid of which he fancied that he had discovered the true system of natural philosophy in the writings of Moses. For a time, his notions occasioned some warm controversy, being supported by several ingenious and pious writers, but they were zealously opposed in the universities. His works, which are very curi- ous, though obscurely written, have been printed in 12 vols. B. 1674; D. 1737. Hutchinson, Thomas, lord-chicf-justice, and afterwards lieutenant-governor of the colony of Massachusetts, was a native of Boston, Massa- chusetts, and had been much respected in that province for his able conduct on the judicial bench; but having covertly taken part with Great Britain against the American colonies, it was found necessary to remove him and place General Gage in the post of governor. Hutch- inson accordingly came to England, wdiere he lived in a retired manner at Uroinpton. Gover- nor Hutchinson was the author of a " History of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay," &c. b. 1711 ; D. 1780. Hutchinson, John Hely, an Irish statesman and lawyer, who became secretary of state, and was a man of powerful eloquence and great and varied ability, which he devoted to the acquire- ment of a vast number of lucrative employ- ments. So great, indeed, was his avidity for otlice and emolument, that Lord North said, " If England and Ireland were given to this man, he would solicit the Isle of Man for a potato garden." b. 1715; D. 1791. Hutchinson, John Hely, Earl of Donough- more, the second son of the preceding, entered the army in 1774 as a cornet in the 18th dra- goons, and rose rapidly till he obtained a lieu- tenant-colonelcy in the 77th, in 1733. At the commencement of the French revolution, he visited the French camp at a very interesting period, and saw Lafayette compelled to lcare those troops of which he had been the favourite, and seek safety in flight. When war was de- clared against France in 1793, he raised a regi- ment, and obtained the rank of colonel, lie served in Flanders as aide-de-camp to Sir Ralph Abereromby.and subsequently in Ireland during the rebellion. In 1796 he was made a major- general, and in 17!'9 was wounded at the Helder. In the expedition to Egypt, in 1801, he was second in command to Sir Ralph Aber- cromby; and when that gallant officer was killed at the battle of Alexandria, the chief command devolved on Major-General Hutchinson; wdio, receiving reinforcements, advanced upon the enemy, and having pursued them to Cairo, a capitulation took place, and the expedition terminated in the evacuation of Egypt by tha M M i THE DICTIONARY Hutten French. For his able services in this campaign, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Hutchin- son of Alexandria, and of Knocklofty, in the county of Tipperary, with a pension of 2000J. a- year. In 1806 he was sent on an extraordinary mission to the Prussian and Russian armies ; afterwards to the Court of St. Petersburg; and, at a later period, to meet Queen Caroline at St. Omer's, as the personal friend of the king. In 1813 he became a full general, and in 1825 succeeded his brother as Earl of Donoughmore, &c. b. 1757; D. 1832. Hutikx, Ulric von, hoot'-ten, a German writer. He studied at Cologne and Frankfort- on-the-Oder, where he took the degree of M.A. at the age of 18. He then went to Italy; but receiving no supplies from his parents, he en- listed in the army, and served at the siege of Parma. In 1509 he returned to Germany, and was reduced to such poverty as to be obliged to beg his bread. In 1512, he published a Latin poem in praise of the emperor Maximilian, which gained him reputation and friends. The same year he went to Pavia to study the law ; but falling into indigence, he again entered the army. He soon obtained his discharge, and returned to his native country, where he em- braced the doctrines of Luther, and wrote some elegant pieces in Latin. For his epigrams the emperor knighted him, and made him poet- laureate. In 1518, he discovered a manuscript of Livy, which he published, as he afterwards did Pliny, Quintilhan, and Marcellinus. His writings against the church of Kome were so severe, that the Pope sent orders to the inquisi- tor to seize him ; but Hutten fled into Switzer- land with Erasmus, b. at Steckelberg, Fran- eonia, 1438; D.atUfl'nau, near Zurich, 1523. Hutten, Jacob, a native of Silesia, who, in the 16th century, founded the sect called the Bohemian or Moravian Brethren. These were the descendants of the Hussites, and appear to have given rise to the anabaptists. Hutten is supposed to have been burnt as a heretic at Innspruek. IItjtton, James, hut'-ton, an English chemical philosopher, who took the degree of doctor of medicine at Leyden, in 1749. He wrote many works after his return to England, principally on agriculture, mineralogy, mathematics, and chemistry. His " Dissertation on the Philo- sophy of Light and Heat," was first published in 1794. b. at Edinburgh, 1726 ; d. 1797. IIutton, William, an ingenious and self- educated writer, was apprenticed to a stocking- weaver ; and at the expiration of his time employed his leisure hours in bookbinding. In 1750 he opened a shop for the sale of old books, to which he added a circulating library, at Birmingham; succeeded so well as to embark in the paper-making business ; and by frugality and industry arrived at opulence. He wrote several ingenious works, among which were Histories of " Birmingham," " Derby," " Black- poll," and the " Battle of Bosworth Field," .Tour to Scarborough," "Remarks on North Wales," "Poems," &c. B. 1723; D. 1815. Hutton, Charles, an English mathematician, who, after receiving some education, became teat her of a school at Jcsmond, near Newcastle- upon-Tyne. He afterwards removed to the latter place, and opened a school on his own account, meeting with considerable success in his undertaking. He published several mathe- matical works, and, in 1773, offered himself as a 632 Hyde candidate for the professorship of mathematics at the^Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and passed his examination for the post in the most successful manner. He was made fellow of the Royal Society, and, a few years afterwards, foreign secretary to the same body. His mathe- matical works were both numerous and valuable. He was made LL.D. of the university of Edin- burgh in 1779, and is said to have received the sum of £6000 for condensing the " Philosophical Transactions." His " Course of Mathematics " is still one of the text-books of the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, b. at New- castle-upon-Tyne, 1737; D. 1823. Huygens, Constantine, hoi'-gens, lord of Zuylichem, was secretary to ths Prince of Orange, and president of the council, and is known by fourteen books of Latin poems, under the title of " Momenta Desultoria," consisting of epigrams and miscellaneous pieces, b. at the Hague, 1596 ; d. 1687. Hut/gens, Christian, an eminent mathema- tician, son of the above, who, from his youth, evinced great aptitude for mathematical science, and in 1651 gave a specimen of his abilities in a book on the " Quadrature of Circles, Ellipses, &c." Not long after, he published a treatise on horology, in which he described the model of a newly-invented pendulum for clocks. In 1656 appeared his " System of Saturn," giving an account of the discovery which he made of a satellite attending thai planet. In 16iil he visited England, andwas chosen fellow of the Royal Society. He afterwards resided at Paris, on the invitation of Colbert, who gave him a pension, and he was also admitti d a member of the Academy of Sciences. His " Cosmotheoros, or a Treatise on the Plurality of Worlds," was printing in 1695, the year of his death ; and in 1700 appeared his "Opuscula Posthuma," in 1 vol. 4to. He wrote other works on geometry, mechanics, astronomy, and optics, b. 162il. Huysum, John van, hoi' -turn, a Dutch paint er of flower and fruit pieces. His reputation was so great that he fixed immoderate prices on his works. He would never sutler any person to see him while he was painting; so that his method of mixing his colours was an impene- trable secret. His flower-pieces are exquisitely beautiful, as are also his landscapes and ani- mals, n. at Amsterdam, 1682; d. in England, 1749. Htoe, Earl of Clarendon. (See Clabf.ndojt, Edward Hyde, Earl of.) Hvde, Thomas, hide, a learned divine, who studied at King's College, Cambridge, where he applied himself to the mastery of the Oriental languages. Dr. Walton employed him ip his great work, the Polyglot Bible, and in the pre- face gratefully acknowledged his assistance. In 1658 he was admitted of Queen's College, Oxford, where he took the degree of M.A., and was made under-kecper of the Bodleian Library, fn 1665, he translated from the Persian, into Latin, Ulngh Beg's "Observations on the Longitude and Latitude of the Fixed Stars, withf Notes," and soon after he obtained a prebend in th" church of Salisbury. In 1678, the archdeaconry of Gloucester was conferred on him; in 1682 hf took his degree of D.I).; in 1691 he was chosen Arabic protessor; in 1700 appeared his nios! celebrated work, entitled " Vcterum Peraarum, Magorum Religiouis Historia." Besides the above preferments, he was made rcgiur professor of Hebrew uu'd canon of Chnsl OF BIOGRAPHY. Hyder-Ali-Khan church, b. at Billingsley, Shropshire, 1636; d. at Oxford, 1703. Hyder-Ali-Khan, hi'-der-a-Ue-lca*, a cele- brated Indian chieftain, who became commander In-chief of the troops of the rajah of Mysore, and supplanted his master as ruler of this province in 1761. In 1767 he entered into an alliance with the Mahrattas against the Bri- tish, but after concluding a peace with the latter in 1769, he turned his arms against his former allies. Once more obtaining their aid, after a contest which lasted about ten years, he •uddcnly invaded the presidency of Madras in 1780, and even threatened the annihilation of the British power in India. The war was car- ried on with great vigour, and the issue of the contest seemed doubtful, when, in 1782, Hyder died, leaving his territory to his son, Tippoo Saib, who concluded a peace two years after. b. about 1730. Hypatia, hi-pai'-she-a, an illustrious female, * is the daughter of Thcon, an eminent mathe- matician of Alexandria, whom she succeeded in the government of that school, had a number of disciples, and became very celebrated for her lectures on Plato and Aristotle, both at Alex- andria and Athens. Synesius in particular, who afterwards became a Christian bishop, celebrated her praises in the most glowing terms. Orestes, the governor of Alexandria, hail a high respect for Hypatia, and frequently consulted her on matters of importance. Be- tween the governor and the patriarch Cyril there \v;is a bitter enmity, which broke out into open war, and the monks siding with their chief, assembled in a riotous manner against Orestes, who was obliged to fly from the city. They then seized Hypatia, and having torn her in pieces, burnt her mangled limbs to ashes. She wrote a commentary on Diopbantus, and other works, which have been lost. b. at Alexandria, between 370-380; killed at the same place, 415. Hyperides, hi-per'-i-dees, an Athenian ora- tor, the disciple of Isocrates and Plato, was for a long time the rival of Demosthenes, and distinguished himself by his eloquence, and the active part he took in the management of the Athenian republic. After the battle of Cranon, he was taken alive, and, that he might not be compelled to betray the secrets of his country, he cut out his tongue. Only two of his numer- ous orations remain, which are admired for the sweetness and elegance of their style. D. 322 B.C. Hyrcanus, John, her-lcai'-nus, high priest md prince of the Jews, succeeded (b,c. 135) his father Simon Maccabams, who was murdered by his son-in-law Ptolemams. The same traitor then invited Antiochus into Judoea, and that monarch accordingly laid siege to Jerusalem, which, however, held out against all his at- tempts. At length a peace was concluded on condition of the Jews becoming tributary to Antiochus, after whose death Hyrcanus re- stored his country to independence, d. 106 B.C. He was succeeded by his son, Aristobulus, who did not long survive him. Hystaspes, his-ias-peen, a noble Persian, of the family of the Achaemcnides. His son Darius reigned in Persia after the mui der of the usurper Smerdis. Hystaspes was the first who intro- duced into Persia the mysteries of the Indian Brahmins; and to his researches in India the sciences were greatly indebted, M Ibbetson Hywkl ap Owain Gwynedd, hoo-et, a prince of North Wales, some of whose poems are in- cluded in the "Welsh Archaeology." On the death of his father, in 1169, he endeavoured to ascend the throne in place of his brother, but was de- feated and wounded; on which he went to Ireland, where he died in 1171. Hywel ap Mobgan Mawb, prince of Gla- morgan, in 1030, is represented as having been one of the wisest and best of the British princes, b. 913 ; d. 1013, at the great age of 130 years. In this line we have the following instances of longevity :— Morgan Mawr, aged 129; Hywel ab Rhys, 124; and Arthvael ab Uhys, 120. Hywel Dha, or Howel the Good, a cele- brated prince and legislator of Wales, who went to Rome with the purpose of revising the code of laws for the government of his country. d. 948, [For names not found in I, look in J and Y Russian names in JE are sometimes begun with a simple E.] Iambltchus, i-am-ble'-kus, king of Arabia, who was deprived of his estates by Augustus, after the battle of Actium, for supporting the cause of Marc Antony ; but his son was re- stored to the throne by the same emperor, b.c. 22. Iamblichtjs, a Greek author, and a musi- cian by profession, wrote several works in Greek ; among others, one entitled " Babyloni- cus," preserved in the library of the Eseurial in Spain. Lived in the 2nd century. Iamblichtjs, a Platonic philosopher, who studied under Porphyry, and gained many dis- ciples by his eloquence and probity. He was the author of the "Life of Pythagoras," an " Exhortation to Philosophy," and a protest against Porphyry's letter on the Egyptian mys- teries. Lived about 350. Iamblichtjs, a Greek author, was a native of Apamea, in Syria, and flourished in the reign of Constantino and Julian the Apostate. d. about 363. Iaroslav, George, yar'-os-laf, grand-duke of Russia, son of Vladimir I., dethroned his bro- ther Swiatopolk in 1015, and reigned till 1054, He suppressed several insurrections, and de- feated lioleslas, king of Poland, and the empe- rors of Constantinople. He encouraged archi- tecture and painting, built schools, made many salutary laws, and rendered the Russian church independent. Henry I., king of France, married his daughter, Anne. Iaroslav founded the city which bears his name. Ibarra, Joachim, e-bar'-ra, a Spanish printer, whose editions of the classical authors of his country are regarded as marvels of the Typogra- phical art. B. at Saragossa, 1725; d. at Madrid, 1785. Ibas, e'-has, abishop of Edcssa, in Mesopota- mia, in the 5th century, who is noted in eccle- siastical history on account of the opposite de- cisions of different councils, relative to the or- thodoxy or heterodoxy of his opinions. He was deposed and reinstated, condemned and acquitted, several times, on the charge of fa- vouring the heresy of Ncstorius. Jbbeison Julius Caesar, it! -bet-ton, a land- THE DICTIONARY Ibbetson Ibrahim Pacha scape painter, termed by West the Berghem of England, from the success with which he imi- tated the style of that painter, b. in Scarbo- rough, Yorkshire; D. 1817. Ibbetson, Agnes, a lady who devoted her attention to the study of astronomy, geology, and botany, particularly to that branch of the last- named science which deals with the physiology of plants. She made many highly interesting microscopical observations on the structure of vegetables, which were published in the "Annals of Philosophy" and other periodicals. She was the daughter of A. Thompson, Esq., of London, and had been married to Mr. Ibbetson, a barris- ter, by whose death she was left a widow, d. 1823. Iuek, Cotheddin Ibek, i'-bek, the chief slave of Schehabeddin, sultan of India, on whose death he usurped the throne, and added to his do- minions many provinces of llindostan. An ac- count of his conquests was written in a volume entitled "Tage al Mather." Ibek, Azeddin Ibek, or Ibeg, first sultan of the Mameluke Turks in Egypt, had boon an officer in the court of Malek-al-Saleh, sultan of Egypt. On the latter's death, Ibek married his widow, and became partner with her in the throne ; but she caused him to be assassinated, in 1257. Ibraiiim, ib'-ra-hem, the son of the caliph Mahadi, brother of Haroun-al-Raschid, and uncle of Amin and Mamun. He was an excel- lent poet and musician, and the first orator of his time. He was proclaimed caliph at Bagdad, on the death of his nephew Amin, in 817 ; but Mamun marching from Khorassan to Bagdad with a powerful army, Ibrahim thought it prudent to abdicate the throne, d. at Samara, in 839. iBKAniir, the son of Massoud, eighth caliph of the dynasty of Gaznevides, succeeded his brother Ferokzad. He acquired great rcputa- 1 tion as a just and pious prince, notwithstanding j the frequent wars ho made on the borders of | llindostan, in which he gained such advantages : as to acquire the name of the " Conqueror." j He reigned forty-two years, during which time j he erected a number of cities, mosques, and hos- j pitals; he was also a liberal encourager of arts > and letters, d. 1u98. Ibrahim, emperor of the Turks, was the son ! of Achmct, and succeeded his brother Achmet | IV. in 1640. He besieged and took the capital \ of Candia from the Venetians, in 1611; but his | cruelties and debaucheries were so great that i the soldiers strangled him in 1(1-19. Ibrahim Imam, the chief priest of the Mo- fcammedan religion, was a descendant of the illus- 1 trious house of the Abassides. His reputation i and authority became so great, that Marvan, or Hemar, the last caliph of the Ommiades, in Arabia, caused him to be put to death by thrust- ing his head into a bag of lime, a.d. 7-18. IbrIhim Effendi, a native of Poland, who attained by his courage and talents to the highest dignities in the Ottoman empire. He established the first printing-press in Turkey, in 1728. The Count do Bonneval furnished him with the types, the first work he produced being a treatise on the military art. He afterwards published the account of an expedition against the Aflghuns, a Turkish grammar, auda history of Turkey ; n. 1744. Ibrahim. Mansour Effendi, whose real name was Cerfbere, was the son of a Jew at 634 Strasburg. He had served in the French re- publican hussars, but became so violent a royalist, that he was imprisoned. In lb02 he went to Constantinople, embraced Mohamme- danism, and instructed the Turkish troops in the European system of discipline. He subse- quently travelled through the north of Europe, and, under the name of Medelshim, held a go- vernment office in Westphalia; afterwards was engineer to Ali Pacha; and, on quitting that employ, wandered through various parts oil Asia, Africa, and America. He ultimately, being In a state of absolute destitution, shot himself at Paris, in 1826. He wrote a " Memoir of Greece and Albania during the Government oi Ali Pacha." Ibrahim Bet, a famous Mameluke chieftain, who for some time governed Cairo, in conjunc- tion with Mourad Bey, but afterwards became sole ruler, and head of the Mamelukes. The French, when they invaded Egypt, defeated him, in 1799, at Al-Arish. He escaped the general massacre of the Mamelukes in 1805, by refusing to accept Mehcinct Ali's invitation to visit Cairo with the rest of his ill-fated followers. b. in Circassia, about 1735; d. in exile in A'ubia, 1816. Ibrahim Pacha, viceroy of Egypt, step-son and successor of Mehemct Ali, was inured from infancy to the toils and turmoils of a camp, and at an early age displayed the adventurous spirit, high courage, and undaunted resolution, which distinguished his subsequent career. In ) U9 he became generalissimo of the Egyptian army; and, charged with the task of remodelling and disciplining it after the French fashion, pro- ceeded vigorously to work, and soon produced a marked change in the character of his troops. In the course of a few campaigns he completely defeated the Wahabees in Arabia, who from 1818 to 182-1 had resisted all the efforts of the Egyptian forces to subdue them. During the struggle for Greek independence, Ibrahim was conspicuous as leader of the Turks. His army overran the whole of the Morea, and committed frightful devastations and cruelties ; but the battle of Navarino, October 20, 1827, when the combined British, Russian, and French navies, under the command of Admiral Codrington, destroyed the Turco-Egyptian fleet, sent him back to Egypt, shorn of his conquests, and paved the way lor the independence of Greece. In 1831 he marched to the conquest of Syria: and having completely routed the sultan's troops at Konieh in 1832, was only restrained from marching to Constantinople by the intervention of Russia; but his subjugation of Syria was complete, and a few abortive attempts made by the population to throw off the Egyptian yoke only ended in riveting their chains more firmly than before. In 1839, the sultan having made another effort for the recovery of Syria, was completely overthrown by Ibrahim at ISizil. But the European powers now interfered. An English fleet, under the command of Admirals Stopford and Napier, was sent to the Syrian coast, and having reduced Acre, forced Ibrahim to conclude a treaty, by which Syria was once more given up to the sultan. In 18-16, Ibrahim visited England and France. On September 1st, 18-18, he was nominated viceroy of Egypt, in the room of Mehemet Ali, whom increasing years had made unequal to the cares of govern- ment ; but a severe attack of bronchitis, acting on a constitution already debilitated by youtuftij OF BIOGRAPHY. Ibrahim of Schiraz excesses, and unbounded indulgence in his riper years, cut Ibrahim off after a short reign of two months and ten days. b. in Albania, 1789 ; P. 1848. Ibrahim op Schiraz, a Mussulman doctor of law, who wrote several works on jurisprudence, in Arabic. — There was another of the same name, surnamed Merouzi, some of whose works are extant. Icilius, Lucius, i-siF-e-us, a Roman tribune, to whom Virginia was betrothed. When the latter was carried off by the decemvir Appius- Claudius, Icilius raised an army against the De- cemvirs, and, havingeaused their fall, wascreated, by the people, tribune for the second time, b.c. 149. Sheridan Knowles has founded a tragedy, called " Virginius," upon these incidents ; and Maeaulay, in one of his ballads, commemorates the story of Virginius. Ictinus, ik-ti'-nut, an Athenian architect, who lived in the 5th century B.C., and was em- ployed by Pericles in the erection of the Par- thenon. He also built the temple of Ceres and Proserpine at Eleusis, and the temple of Apollo Epicurus in Arcadia. Ideis Gawr, i'-dris-tjour, a Welsh astrono- mer, who is ranked with Gwidion ab Don and Gwyn ab Nudd, as the three great astronomers of Britain. A hish mountain in Wales is still called Cader Idris, or the "Seat of Idris." When he lived is unknown. Iermak, yer'-malc, hetman of the Cossacks of the Don, at the end ofthe Kith century, who, in 15S0, undertook, at the head of six thousand men, the invasion of Siberia. After many fierce engagements, he penetrated with 500 horsemen as far as Sibir, the capital, which he took ; very soon afterwards, the khans of the neighbouring tribes tendered him their submission. Iermak, fearing that he should not be able to retain his conquests, solicited the aid of Ivan IV., czar of Russia, promising to become his vassal. The czar sent him reinforcements, but he was slain by a Tartar chief, in 15S3. Iffland, Augustus William, if-Jland, a Ger- man author and actor, who became the leading comedian of Germany. He subsequently pro- duced a great number of dramas, was appointed director ofthe theatre at Mannheim, and after- wards of the court spectacles at Berlin. He brought out several adaptations from the French, and from the Italian comedies of Gol- doni. b. at Hanover, 1759; d. 181-1. Ignatius, St., ig'-nai-sJie-nn, a father ofthe Church, and martyr, was a native of Syria, and a disciple of St. John the Evangelist, by whom he was made bUhop of Antioch, a.d. 69. After discharging the episcopal office with great zeal for forty years, the emperor Trajan, passing through Antioch, in his Parthian expedition, sent for him, and endeavoured to prevail upon him to renounce his religion. Ignatius con- tinued inflexible; on which the emperor sent him under a guard of soldi l's to Rome, where he was exposed to wild beasts in the amphi- theatre for the amusement of the people. The martyr joyfully heard his sentence, and endured his sufferings with fortitude. Two pious dea- cons of his church gathered up his bones, and conveyed them to Antioch, where they were carefully preserved. Seven of his genuine epis- tles are extant, and were published by Usher at Oxford in 1615. Some others have been attri- buted to him : but these are generally accounted spurious, though Whiston endeavoured to prove 535 Imperiali that they were genuine, and that the others were forgeries or abridgments. Suffered mar- tyrdom between 107 and 116. Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople, was son of the emperor Michael Curopalates, and of Procopia, daughter of the emperor Nicephorus. When his father was deposed by Leo the Arme- nian, he and his brother were confined in a monastery. Ignatius, whose original name was Nicetas, took the religious vows, and in 817 was raised to the patriarchate ; but having rebuked Bardas, one of the principal lords of the court, he was banished to the isle of Terebinthos, and Photius appointed in his stead. A council was called at Constantinople to compel Ignatius to resign, which he refused to do for some time; but close confinement and rigorous usage in- duced him to yield. When Basil became em- peror, he restored Ignatius to his dignity ; upon which he immediately excommunicated Pho- tius, and caused the eighth general council to be called at Constantinople, b. 799 ; d. 878. Ignatius-Loyola. {See Loyola.) Igor, e'-gpr, grand-duke of Russia, succeeded his father Rurick, and, after making war a long time against his neighbours, proceeded to ravage the Kast, deluging with blood Pontus, Paphlagonia, and Bithynia. He left his throne to his wife Olga, who, in her old age, embraced Christianity, d. 935. Ilivr, Jacob, il'-io, an English printer and letter-founder, who published some singular pieces, such as apretended translation of the book of Jasher, an oration proving that this world is hell, that men are fallen spirits, and that the fire to destroy them at the day of judgment will be immaterial, &e. d. 176S. Illtyd VARCnoG, ill'-tud var'-chog, or, " lltu- tus the Knight," a saint who accompanied Garmou to Britain, and was placed at the hcid of the Congregation of Theodosius, so called from being established by that emperor. He introduced an improved method of ploughing among the Welsh, d. about 4S0. Imukut, Bartholomew, im'-bair, a French poet, who became a member of the Academy of Nismes, and cultivated literature, particularly poetry, with success. He wrote a poem en- titled "The Judgment of Paris;" and also published a volume of fables, which, though excellent, cannot be compared with La Fon- taine's. He was likewise the author of a novel entitled "The Mistakes of hove," and some other pieces, b. at Nismes, 1717; r>. at Paris, 1790. Imijert, Jean, an advocate, who published " Enchiridion Juris seripti Gallia?," 1559 ; " In- stitutiones Forenses," 1511. D. about 1599. Imhkkt, Joseph Gabriel, a French painter, who was instructed in his art by VandcrMeulen and Le Brun. At the ai?c of 34 he entered into the order of St. Bruno, but still continued to paint, n. at Marseilles, 1651; n. 1740. IsinoFF, James William, tme'-hqfe, a cele- brated genealogist, of a noble family. He pub- lished — 1. " De Xotitia Proeerum Germanise," 2 vols.; 2. "Historia Gcnealogica Italia? et His- pania2;"3. " Familiarum Italia?, Hispania?, Gal- lia;, et PortugalluB;" 4. " Magna; Britanniae cum appcndice,"2 vols, folio; 5. " Recherches sur les Grandes d'Espagne." b. at Nuremberg. 1651 ; n. 1728. I si peri ali, Joseph Renatus,tm-j>e'-» , e-a'-Je, a ce- lebrated cardinal, born of an illustrious Genoese family, vras employed bydifferentpopes in t he rooaf THE DICTIONARY Ina important affairs, and in the conclave of 1730 was within one vote of being elected pope him- self. Few excelled him in liberality, probity, and love of literature, b. 1651 ; d. 1737. In a, f-na, king of the West-Saxons, one of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, famous for the laws he instituted and for his expeditions against neighbouring princes. In 728 he went on a pil- grimage to Rome, where he is said to have erected an English college. He was a benefactor of the church, and added greatly to the revenues of the abbey of Glastonbury, d. about 729. Inchbaid, Mrs. Elizabeth, inch'-bald, an English authoress, who, at the age of 16, ran away from her home in Suffolk, and tried ineffectually to obtain an engagement as actress in a London theatre. She subsequently found employment on the provincial stage , and, after a varied career, married Mr. Inehbald, an actor, who died in 1779. In 1780 she obtained an en- gagement to play minor parts at Covent Garden Theatre, and remained in that position till 1789, when she retired from the stage. A few years before, she had written a farce, which, being successful, she continued to write for the theatre, and produced in succession 19 plays, receiving large sums for several of them. Between the years 1806 and 1809 she edited "The British" and " Modern " Theatres, and a collection of farces, in all 42 vols. But the works which cause her name to be remembered are two novels— " A Simple Story," and "Nature and Art." She had written her autobiography, for which £1000 had been offered and refused by her, and which was destroyed at her request alter her death. Her maiden name was Simp- son, b. in Suffolk, 1753; d. 1821. Inchofper, Melchior, inch'-hofe-er, a German Jesuit, who at first studied the law, but aban- doned that profession and entered the Jesuits' college at Rome in 1607. In 1630 he wrote a book, entitled, " The Virgin Mary's Letter to the People of Messina Proved to be Genuine." Having quarrelled with his brethren, he wrote a satire against them, which was printed after his death, under the title of " Monarcbia Folip- sorum." He also wrote the " Ecclesiastical History of Hungary." b. at Vienna, 158-1; d. at Milan, 1648. Incledon, Benjamin Charles, ink' -el-don, a famous English singer, was born at St. Keverne, in Cornwall, where his father practised as a surgeon. When only eight years old, the astonishingly fine tones of his voice induced his parents to article him to Jackson of Exeter, under whose tuition he remained as a chorister in Exeter cathedral until he was 15. Not liking the restraints to which he was there sub- ject, he quitted Exeter in 1779, and entered as a common sailor on board the Formidable, of 98 guns, and remained in the royal navy five years, during which time he went to the West Indies, and saw some service. His vocal abilities having attracted notice, he was advised to try his fortune on the stage. He accordingly joined a company at Southampton, in 1783, and next year accepted an engagement at Bath, where the manager introduced him to the acquaintance of liauzinni, who did much towards perfecting him in the vocal art. In 1790 he made his dibut at Covent Garden Theatre, with great success, as Dermot, in "The Poor Soldier," and rose at once into popularity, which he continued to enjoy till the Infirmities consequent upon advancing vears, 636 Ingemann and an irregular mode of life, compelled him to quit the stage. His voice combined uncommon power, sweetness, and flexibility, both in the natural tones and in the falsetto, and his intona- tion was remarkably correct. His execution of " The Storm," " Black-eyed Susan," or any of the better sort of the old English ballads and hunting songs, was such as, once heard, was never forgotten, b. 1764; d. 1826. Indibilis, in-dib'-i-lis, prince of the Ilergetes of Spain, entered into an alliance with the Carthaginians, and assisted to gain a victory over Publius Scipio, father of Scipio the Great, who was killed in the battle, 212 b.c. Subse- quently, he became the ally of Scipio the Great (»eeSciPio),and fought under his banner against the Carthaginians, hoping thus to be allowed to retain his kingdom by the Romans. But being deceived in these expectations, he re- volted, and, after various struggles, lost his life in battle, 205 b.c. Inoulphus, in-dtd'-fut, supposed to be the seventy-seventh king of Scotland, began his reign in 953. The first few years of his reign were peaceable; but afterwards his kingdom was several times invaded by the Danes, who were enraged against him for entering into an alliance with the English. On the Danes landing in great force in the north, Indulphus marched against them, and compelled them to fly to their ships ; hut, pursuing them too eagerly, he was slain by an arrow ; d. 961. Inez db Castro, e'-nau dai kas'-tio, a noble lady of Castile, famous for her beauty and her misfortunes. Don Pedro, son of Alphonso IV., king of Portugal, fell in love with and secretly married her. The king, on discovering their union, desired his son to abandon her, but on his refusing to do so, caused Inez to be assas- sinated, in 1365. On succeeding to the throne, in 1357, Don Pedro executed the most summary vengeance upon the murderers of his former wife, and causing her body to be disinterred, crowned her remains, and proclaimed her his queen. The Portuguese poet Camoens (see Camokns) founded a tragedy upon tliis incident, and an excellent play has been written upon the same subject by Mrs. Hemans. Ingemann, Bemhard Severin, in'-ger-man, a Danish poet and novelist, whose father, the Pro- testant pastor of Torkildstrup, in the island of Fulster,died while his son was vcryyoung. His mother contri ved.however, to send him to the uni- versity of Copenhagen, where, at the age of 23, he carried off the gold medal for his essay in answer to the question "What relation do poetry and eloquence bear to each other ?" A year previously he published a volume of lyrics, and, in 1814, produced "The Black Knights," an epical and allegorical poem, on the model of Spenser's " Faerie Queene." Subsequently he wrote two tragedies, " Masaniello " and " Bianca," which became very popular on the Danish stage. A third drama, " The Shepherd of 1'olosa," was unsuccessful ; and, although he afterwards wrote several dramas, none were composed with a view to theatrical representa- tion. After having travelled in Europe between the years 1818 and 1820, he wrote a volume of poems, and commenced a series of romances, embodying historical and traditional incidents in the mediajval history of his native country. These romances, several of which have been translated into English, were written in imita- tion of Sir Walter Scott, and became exceedingly OF BIOGRAPHY. Ingenhouse popular in Denmark. In 1822 he was nomi- nated professor of the Danish language and literature at the college of SSroe, Bear Copen- hagen, and, in 1812, was appointed director of the same institution, which may be called the Eton of Denmark, b. at Torkildstrup, island of Falster, 1789 ; d. 1862. Ingbnhousc, Job&un,ing'-en-hoos, an eminent Dutch physician and chemist. Going early to England, and learning the Suttonian method of inoculation, he went to Vienna, on the recom- mendation of Sir John Pringle, to inoculate the daughter of the emperor, for which he was made imperial physician, and obtained a pension. He was a fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote, — 1. "Experiments upon Vegetables;" 2. A Latin Translation of Hulme's Treatise on the Stone, Scurvy, and Gout; 3. Several Chemical Treatises on Impregnating Water, &c, with Fixed Air ; 4. Papers in the " Philo- sophical Transactions," 4c. b. at Breda, 1730 ; d. 1799. Ikgh bn, William Van, ing'-h en, a Dutch histori- cal painter, who, after being the pupil of Anthony Grebber, studied in Italy, and, on his return, settled at Amsterdam, where his works are held in great esteem, b. at Utrecht, 1651 ; d. about 1720. I Man iiaMr, Cavaliere Francesco, in-ge-ra'-me, an eminent Italian archaeologist, who applied himself assiduously to the study of ancient art. His great work, entitled " Monumenti Etruschi," in six volumes, published in 1826, has been the source from which writers on Etruscan anti- quities have derived their knowledge. He was also author of a number of other works on the art an.l remains of antiquity, and, for a long period, was keeper of the Laurentine library at Florence, b. at Volterra, in Tuscany, in 1772; d. 1846. In GLI9, Sir James, in'-glis, author of a famous work, entitled the " Complaint of Scotland," published in 1548, was descended from an old family of Fifeshire. He was an adherent of the French faction against the English, the conten- tions of these two parties having distracted the Scottish councils of the period. He distinguished himself in some skirmishes which preceded the battle of Pinkey, and was knighted on the field. B. in the reign of James I V. ; d. 1554. Inglis, John, DAK, a Scottish divine, who, in 1796, succeeded Principal Robertson as minis- ter of Grayfriars parish, Edinburgh, and was for about 30 years the leader of the moderate party in the Scottish Establishment. Besides minor publications, he wrote two works of con- siderable importance, one being on the " Evi- dences of Christianity," and the other a " De- fence of Church Establishments." b. in Perth- shire, 1763 ; D. 1831. Inglis, Henry David, a writer of some emi- nence, whose earliest works were published in the name of Derwent Conway, was a native of Scotland, and, impelled by the ardent desire to visit foreign countries which distinguishes so many of his countrymen, and also by an eager love of literature, he travelled over most parts of the Continent, carefully recording his obser- vations. His first work was entitled " The Tales of Ardennes," which was followed by " Solitary Walks through many Lands;" after which ap- peared his " Travels in Norway and Sweden," ''Spain in 1830," "The New Gil Bias," &c. After his return from Spain, he made a tour through Ireland, the result of which was an 637 Ingrassia excellent work entitled " Ireland in 1884." "Bi literary labours impaired his constitution, and having been seized with a disease of the brain, he died in 1835. b. 1795. Inglis, Sir Robert Harry, an English poli- tician, who for a long period represented the University of Oxford in the House of Commons. After an educational career at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1808, and subsequently be- came private secretary to Viscount Sidmouth. In 1824 he was returned to Parliament as member for Dundalk, and, two years later, sat for Ripon. YVhen Sir Robert Peel introduced the Roman Catholic Relief Bill, in 1829, he resigned his seat for Oxford University, which Inglis hence- forth represented, till his retirement from public life, in 1853. He was a steady supporter of church and state, opposed the Reform BiN, the emancipation of Catholics and Jews, and, throughout his career, exhibited a perfect ex- ample of the thorough Conservative. B. in London, 1786; d. 1855. Inglis, Sir John Eardley Wilmot, K.C.B., the " Hero of Lucknow," a designation conferred upon him in consequence of his gallant defence of the British residency in that city against the insurgents in 1857, having succeeded to the command there on the death of Sir Henry Law- rence. Sir John was the son of the Rev. Dr. Inglis, bishop of Nova Scotia, and entered the army as ensign in the 32nd regiment, in 1833, and continued in the same corps, passing through every grade from ensign to full colonel, which latter rank he held in it at his death, lie first saw active service in the Canadian rebellion of 1837, afterwards passed through the campaigns in the Punjab in 1843-49; succeeded to the command of one of the columns of attack at the siege of Mooltan, and was made brevet lieutenant-colonel for his gallantry at the battle of Goojerat. He was afterwards appointed assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence at Lucknow ; and after that distinguished officer's death, held the post till relieved by Lord Clyde and Sir James Outram. He was created a baronet, and made brevet major-general for his conduct on this occasion, and was subsequently placed in command of the troops in the Ionian Islands. His health, however, had been shaken by the terrible anxieties, privations, and fatigues he had undergone in defending Lucknow; and, notwithstanding every attention was bestowed upon him, he never recovered, and died at Hom- burg, where he had gone in the hope of reinvi- gorating his exhausted system, on the 27th of September, 1862. b. in Nova Scotia, 1814. Sir John was married to a daughter of Frederick Thesiger, Lord Chelmsford; and in him the British nation lost one of its most able, honest, and distinguished officers. Ingham, Robert, in'-gram, an English divine, who entered at Corpus Christi College, Cam- bridge, of which he became fellow, and took there his degrees in arts. His first preferment was Hie perpetual curacy of liridhurst, in Kent; after which he obtained, successively, the small vicarage of Orston, in Nottinghamshire, and the vicarages of Wormingtun and Boxted, in Essex. He wrote a work called " Accounts of the Ten Tribes of Israel being in America, ori- ginally published by Manasseh Ben Israel; with Observations thereon." This was published in 1792. B. 1727; D. 1804. Ingbassia, John Philip, in-grcu'-te-a, a phy- THE DICTIONARY Ingres sician of Palermo, who, in 1575, delivered his country from the fury of the plague, b. 1511 ; d. 1581. Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste, angr, a distinguished French painter, whose father, a painter and musician, sought to inspire him with a lore of the musical art. His predilection for painting was, however, so strong, that he was allowed to study it exclusively. After having spent some years in the atelier of David, he won, in 1801, the second great prize for painting. In 1802 he produced one of his most celebrated works— "The Bather." In 1804 he painted a portrait of Napoleon as first consul, and again in 1806 as emperor. He resided for fifteen years at Rome, and four years at Flo- rence, in both of which cities he painted many of his best works. So great is the estimation of Ingres in France, that.in the great Exposition at Paris, in 1855, an entire department was allotted to him for the exhibition of his numerous paintings. He was made chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1831, and commander in 1845. b. at Montauban, 1781. Ingijlphus, in-gul'-phus, abbot of Croyland in the 11th century, and favourite of William the Conqueror, to whom he was secretary. He rebuilt his monastery, and obtained for it many privileges. His supposed work, the "History of Croyland Abbey," has been translated from the Latin, and published in Holm's Antiquarian Library, b. about 1030; D. 1109. Inman, Rev. James, in' -man, an eminent rrathemutician, many years professor of mathe- matics at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth dockyard. He was the oldest of Cambridge senior wranglers, his degree dating as far back a3 ISoO, and was long celebrated in naval circles for his application of science to navigation and ship- building. He laboured very many years un- obtrusively, but zealously, in his country's service. He sailed round the world with Flinders, as astronomer, was wrecked with him, and took part with the late Sir John Franklin in that celebrated action in which a fleet of British merchantmen beat off the French Ad- miral Linois. While professor of mathematics at the Royal Naval College, he reduced to sys- tem the previous ill-arranged methods of navi- gation, and published several valuable works now in general use in the naval service ; but he was best known by his having been the first person in England who built ships on scientific principles, and by his having educated a class of men at whose hands the promised "recon- struction" of the British navy is to take place. Dr. Inman's translation of " Chapman," with his valuable annotations, is the text-book on which all subsequent writers on naval architec- ture have proceeded. B. 1772; d. 1S59. Innocent L, in'-no-sent, pope, was a native of Albano, and elected to the pontifical chair in 402. He proceeded to Ravenna to request the emperor Honorius to make peace with Alaric; but during his absence the latter plundered Rome. d. at Ravenna, 417. Innocent II. ascended the throne in 1130. He was elected by part only of the conclave, the rest choosing Peter de Leon, the son of a Jew, who took the name of Anacletus II., and was acknowledged by the kings of Scotland and Sicily, but Innocent was received by the other princes of Europe. Being driven from Italy, he fled to France, where he .ield several coun- cils. O* the death of his rival and the abdica- m Innocent XIII. tion of his successor, Victor III., he returned to Rome, and held the second Lateran council in 1139. d. at Rome, 1143. Innocent III. (Lothario Conti) came of a noble family. On account of his learning he was made cardinal, and, in 1198, elected pope. He encouraged the crusades to the Holy Land, promoted one against the Albigenses, laid the kingdom of France under interdict, and excom- municated John, king of England. He greatly extended his temporal dominions, and raised the papal authority to its highest degree of power, b. at Anagni, 1160; d. at Perugia, 1216. Innocbnt IV. was a Genoese, and became chancellor of the Roman church. Gregory IX. created him a cardinal in 1227. He succeeded Celestine IV. in 1243, at which time the court of Rome was engaged in a contest with the emperor Frederick II. Innocent was obliged to retire to France, where he held; the council of Lyons, in which Frederick was excommuni- cated. He is said to have been the first who gaveredhatstothecardinals. D.at Naples,1254. Innocent V., a Dominican, became arch- bishop of Lyons, cardinal, and lastly pope, in 1276, but died five months after his election. Some religious pieces of his have been printed. Innocent VI., cardinal bishop of Ostia, was advanced to the papacy in 1352. He was a man of great learning and liberality, and some of his letters are extant, d. at Avignon, 1362. Iknocent VII. was elected pope in inn, but not without great opposition, b. at Abruzzo, 133(3 ; D. 1400. Innocent VIII., a noble Genoese, of Greek extraction, obtained the tiara, in succession to Sixtus IV., in 1484. He endeavoured to organize another crusade, but without success, b. 1431 ; d. 1492. Innocent IX. ascended the papal throne on the death of Gregory XIV., in 1591, but died two months afterwards, b. at Bologna, 1519; d. at Rome, 1591. Innocent X. (John Baptist Pamfili),aRoman, succeeded Urban VII L, in 1641, at the age of 73. He condemned the doctrines of Jansenius, and prosecuted the Barberini family with great violence, b. 1571; D. 1655. Innocent XI. — Innocent X. gave him a car- dinal's hat and a bishopric. He was elected pope in 1676, and reformed many abuses in the ecclesiastical state. He had a contest with Louis XIV. of France about the right of dis- posing of benefices and church lands, claimed by that monarch, and confirmed to him by an assembly of his clergy .which nearly terminated in a separation of the French church from the Roman communion. This pope effected a coali- tion between Germany, Poland, and Venice, against the Turks, b. at Como, 1611; ». 1639. Innocent XII. (Antonio Pignatelli), a Nea- politan of a noble family, succeeded Alex- ander VIU. in 1691. He abolished the extra- ordinary distinctions paid to the nephews of popes, and condemned the " Maxims of the Saints," written by Pension. B. at Naples, 1611; d. at Home, 1700. Innocent XIII. (Michael Angelo Conti), a Roman, and the eighth pope of his family, was elected to the papal chair in 1721. He gave a pension to the grandson of James II., and is said to have died of chagrin for having been persuaded to bestow a cardinal's hat on Dubois 1 B. 1C55; D. 1724. OF BIOGRAPHY. Intaphernes lNTAPiiKnNES, in-ta-fer'-nees, one of the seven lords ol Persia who conspired to dethrone Smerdis the usurper, 521 B.C. He afterwards endeavoured to seize the urown, tor which Darius condemned him to death, with all his family. The wite ot Intaphernos presented Her- self before Darius in a suppliant posture, and not only obtained a pardon for herself, but for any one of her relations whom she might name. She chose her brother, saying she might have another husband and other children, but that, as her father and mother were dead, she could not have another brother. On this, Darius par- doned her brother and son ; but Intaphernes was executed. Inwood, William, in'-wood, an English sur- veyor and architect, who, with his sons, designed many churches and private buildings in London. He and his son Henry were the architects of St. Paneras church, Euston Road, London, the lower portion of which is an adaptation from an Ionic temple named the Erecntheion, at Athens. The lower is also a copy of the Tower of the Winds al Athens. The Westminster Hospital was his design, in which he was assisted by his son Charles, b. about 1771 ; d. 1843. Inwood, Henry William, was educated tor the architectural profession, and spent several years copying and executing plans of the most cele- brated buildings at Athens, Sec. The designs for St. Pancras church were prepared after some of these drawings. He publi.-hed a splendid work, called "Fragments of Athenian Archi- tecture," and commenced a second work on Grecian and Egyptian architectural art; but, owing to his unexpected death, the work re- mained unfinished, b. 1791 ; lost at sea, 18-13. Inwood, Charles Frederick, brother of the above, assisted his father William in many of his works, and was himself architect of the church of All Saints, at Great Marlow, Bucking- hamshire. B. 1793; D. 1840. Iolo Goch, e-o'-lo goch, a Welsh bard, who lived with Owen Glendower, by whom he was employed to compose warlike songs to rouse his countrymen against the English. Lived be- tween 1370 and 1420. Iphicrates, i-fik'-ra-tees, a celebrated Athe- nian general, who, by introducing some novel improvements in warfare, deleaieu the Thcbaus and Spartans. He was the son of a shoemaker, and once, when reproached with the meanness of his origin, answered that he would be the first of his family, whilst his detractor would be the last of his own. He was at the height of his fame between 400 and 3ti0 b.c. Iphitcs, king of Elis, in Greece, if-e'-tus, memorable as the institutor of the famous Olympic; games, about the year (-81 b.c. These games, a! first consisting only of athletic exer- cises, but afterwards including horse and chariot racing, and even the trials of skill among rival candidates in music, poetry, eloquence, &c, were celebrated every 4th year, in the month of July, near Olympia, a city of Elis. Irail, Augustin Simon, e'-rail, a French ec- clesiastic, who wrote a tragedy called " The Trumpet of Heroism," " Memoirs for a History of the Republic of Letters," and a " History of (he lie-union of llrittuny with France." b. at Puy, Upper Loire, 1719; d. 1794. Ireland, Samuel, ire'-land, a miscellane- ous writer aril publisher, was originally a mechanic in Spital fields; but, having a taste for drawing and engraving, he established himself m Ireland in business as publisher ot illustrated books oi home and continental travel. He produced " Picturesque Tours" in Holland, France, and on the Thames and Medway. Rut the affair which gamed liim notoriety was his publication of a volume purporting to contain letters and papers of Shakspeare. 'l he whole collection was a forgery by his son ; and the exposure of the fraud is said to have hastened the old man's death, d. in London, 1800. Ibkland, Samuel William Henry, a novelist and miscellaneous writer, notorious for his for- geries of Shaksperian documents, and for pro- ducing a play purporting to be Shakspeare's, but which was soon discovered to be a gross forgery, was the son of the last-mentioned person. After receiving a fair education in London and in France, he was articled to a lawyer in .New Inn. His father was an en- thusiastic collector of Shaksperian relics; and it would seem that this first induced him to forge a legal document, to which the autograph ot Shakspeare was attached. His simple-minded father was imposed upon; and he soon after- wards supplied him with several more papers, which were published in a volume. William Henry even went so far as to concoct a play called " Vortigern," and to palm it off upon the public as an original work of Shakspeare's. It was produced at Drury-lane Theatre, with John Kemble as Vortigern, and was most unequivo- cally condemned, being sorry trash. The whole of the forgeries were soon afterwards exposed by Malone and others, and he was expelled his father's house. He subsequently gained a live- lihood by writing a number of indifferent novels and romances, and executing hack-work for booksellers, b. in London, 1777; d. 1835. Ireland, John, an ingenious writer on works of art, was brought up to the watchmaking business, but afterwards became a dealer in paintings and prints. He was the author of "Hogarth Illustrated," 3 vols.; and the "Life and Letters of John Henderson," the actor, b. at Wem, in Shropshire, in the same house as Wycherley the poet ; d. 1808. Ireland, John, dean of Westminster, eminent for his learning and for his intimacy with some of the most distinguished men of his time, re- ceived the first rudiments of education at the free grammar-school of Ashburton, in Devon, along with Gilford, author of the " Jlajviad" and "Raviad," and editor of the "Quarterly Review." Ireland completed his education at Oxford ; and after holding a small curacy in Devonshire, travelled with the son of Sir James Wright, by whose interest he was in 1793 appointed to the vicarage of Croydon in Surrey In 1802 he was made a prebend of Westminster, which promo- tion was followed by his succeeding to the deanery of Westminster on the death of Dr. Vincent in Isltj. He was a voluminous author; besides writing some important papers in the earlier numbers of the " Quarterly Review," he published " Five Discourses containing certain Arguments for and against the Reception of Christianity by the ancient Jews and Greeks," " Vindiciie Re/ice, a Defence of the Kingly ( Mlice," " Paganism and Christianity compared," " Nuptial Sacra;, an Inquiry into the Scriptural Doctrine of Marriage and Divorce," and other works, exclusively theological. As his life had been distinguished by his patronage of litera- ture, so his will evidenced that he was desirous that his fortune should benefit both religion aud THE DICTIONARY Irenseus literature after his death. Besides many chari- table bequests for the benefit of the various places with which he had been connected, he left £2000 to his college, Oriel, Oxford, for an exhibition ; £5000 for a chapel in Westminster ; and the munificent sum of £10,000 to the uni- versity of Oxford, for a " Professor of the Exegesis of the Holy Scripture." b. at Ash- burton, Devon, 1762; d. 1842. 1 KHN.*: cs, St., i-re-ne'-us, bishop of Lyons, and the disciple of Polycarp, by whom he is said to have been sent into Gaul. He was at first a priest in the church of Lyons ; and, on the mar- tyrdom of Pothinus, succeeded him in the bishopac, in 177. He had a disputation with Valentinus at Rome, and held a council at Lyons, in which the Gnostic heresy was con- demned. Irtnaous was a great lover of peace, and laboured to allay the controversy, which then raged with violence, respecting the time of celebrating Easter, b. in Asia Minor about 140; d. at Lyons, about 202. Ihkne, i-re'-ne, empress of Constantinople, and a saint of the Greek church, was the wife of Leo IV., after whose death she was acknow- ledged sovereign, in conjunction with her son, Constantine V. She displayed great talents, but committed some atrocious murders on the rela- tives of her husband ; and, in order to insure her power, deprived her own son of sight. The people, irritated by her conduct, placed Nice- phorus on the throne, who banished her to Lesbos, b. at Athens; d. at Lesbos, 803. Ibktok, Henry, ire' -ton, a. republican general, and son-in-law of Cromwell, greatly distin- guished himself in the civil war, on the side of the Parliament. He studied at Oxford, in which university he took the degree of B.A., and sub- sequently became a student of the Middle Temple. When the revolution broke out, he entered the parliamentary army, and soon rose to the rank of colonel. At the battle ofNaseby, he, alter fighting verybravely, was taken prisoner by the royalists, but escaped. He was appointed to command in Ireland, where he died. His body was conveyed to England, and interred in Westminster Abbey ; but, at the Restoration, it was taken up and hung at Tyburn, with those of Cromwell and Bradshaw. b. in Nottingham- •hire, 1610; d. at Limerick, 1651. Irving, Kev. Edward, ir'-ving, a minister of the Scottish church, and founder of the sect called Irvingites. After finishing his education at the university of Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.A., he is said to have led the life, for a short period, of a strolling player. In 1811 he became master of the mathematical tchool of Haddington, and, a year afterwards, »vas appointed head of the academy at Kirkcaldy, •rhcre he remained for seven years, being then ordained minister of the Scottish church. After having preached in several churches, he was ap- pointed Dr. Chalmers's assistant at St. John's church, Glasgow, gaining so much reputation for eloquence that he was installed minister of the Scottish church in Hatton Garden, London. Histall figure, impressive style of preaching, and vigorous discourses, caused him to attain great popularity in this church ; the most wealthy and accomplished Londoners crowding to hear him. Between the years 1823 and 1827 he published several discourses, lectures, and sermons. His church in Hatton Garden having been found too Bmall for his congregation, a new building was erected for him by subscription, iu Regent 640 Irving Square, Gray's-Inn Road. This was opened in 1829, and he preached in this place with the same success as formerly. In November, 1830, he was charged with heresy by the presbytery of London, and a course of proceedings, extending over eighteen months, was instituted against him. About this time he introduced into his church what he termed " supernatural inspiration," but which his opponents called "the extravagances of the unknown tongues." In 1832 the London presbytery pronounced him unfitted for his charge, and the trustees of his church declared that "the Rev. Edward Irving had rendered himself unfit to remain a minister of the Cale- donian church, Regent Square, and ought to be removed therefrom." On being suspended from his duties, he preached to small congregations in Gray's-Inn Road, and in Newman Street, Oxford Street. In 1833 the presbytery of Annan sentenced him to be deposed from the ministry. His health gave way soon afterwards, b. at Annan, 1792 ; d. at Glasgow, 1834. (See " Life," by Mrs. Oliphant, published in 1862.) Irving, Washington, a distinguished Ameri- can author, whose parentage on both sides was British. His father, originally a petty officer in his Britannic majesty's naval service, was a native of Shapinsha, one of the Orkney Islands ; and his mother, born at Falmouth, was grand- daughter of an English clergyman. The descent of the Orcadian Irvings (or Irvines) has been traced, without a break, "through James the ' Lawman,' or chief judge of the Orkneys in 1560, and ' John oft' Erwyne ' of 1438, mentioned in ' Wilson's Archaeological and Prehistoric An- nals of Scotland,' to the first Orkney Irvine and earliest cadet of Drum, William de Erwin, an inhabitant of Kirkwall in 1369, while the islands yet owned the sway of Magnus V., the last of the Norwegian earls." VVm. Irving, having settled as a merchant in New York, where he was a deacon of the Presbyterian Church, became the father of eleven children of whom Washington (born in 1783) was the youngest. He was sent to school in his fourth year, and at a very early age evinced a passion for reading. He was particularly fond of voyages and travels, which produced such an effect on him that at the age of 14 he was on the point of eloping from home and engaging as a sailor. This predilection for the sea was probably inherited, as an inseparable part of his natural constitution, from his ancestors, the adventurous denizens of the " storm- swept Orcades." His father having died while Washington was still young, his edu- cation, which thenceforth took place at home, devolved upon his elder brothers, young men of considerable attainments. His health, during youth and early manhood, was exceed- ingly deliaate ; and though his studies were retarded by this circumstance, his imagination and perceptive faculties gained by it ; for, unable to sit closely to his books, he spent a great deal of his time in wandering about Manlmttan Island, observing the picturesque aspects of nature in that place, and listening to the odd traditions of the old Dutch and other settlers. It is to these first impressions of his youth, that so much of the quaint piquancy of hie writings is due. His literary career was com- menced in 1802, with a number of sketches contributed to the " New York Morning Chro- nicle," entitled " Letters of Jonathan Oldstyle." His health was f however, so frail that he wa* OP BIOGRAPHY. Irving compelled to travel, with a view to its renova- tion. He crossed the Atlantic, and visited France, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and Eng- and. On his return to New York, he, together with Mr. Kirke Paulding, commenced a series of humorous and graphic sketches, which were published under the title of " Salmagundi." This work obtained a considerable degree of popularity, but was suddenly stopped at the end of 1807. After this he wrote a number of tales and essays for the magazines and news- papers, and about the same time began to study the law ; but although he was admitted to the bar, he never practised as a barrister. In 1809 was published the humorous " History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker," which in- stantly made Irving one of the most popular of American writers. On the breaking out of war between England and the United States, a few years afterwards, he was attached, with the rank of colonel, to the staff of General Tomkins, governor of New York. On the establishment of peace, he went to Liverpool to represent the commercial house of Irving, Brothers, a firm which subsequently failed ; whereupon Washington Irving occupied himself exclusively with literature. After having travelled over England, he commenced his " Sketch-Book," forwarding his manuscript in instalments to New York, where it was published. The very favourable manner in which the London critics spoke of this work induced Irving to seek a publisher for it in England. He was for a long time unsuccessful in this attempt, and having already met with an hospitable reception at Abbotsford, by Sir Walter Scott, he now sought that gentleman's advice. Although Scott could not help him to a publisher, he oil'cred to pro- cure him the post of editor for a periodical then about to be started in Edinburgh. Irving de lined this kind proposal. " My whole course of life," he said, " has been desultory, and I am untitted for any periodicaUy-Tecurring task, or any stipulated labour of body or mind. 1 have no command of my talents, such as they are, and have to watch the varyings of my mind as I should those of a weathercock. Practice and training may bring me more into rule, but at present I am as useless for regular service as one of my own country Indians, or a Don Cossack." He afterwards purposed to issue an English edition of his " Sketch-Book," at his own risk, but his publisher failed when the fiist volume only had been produced. The book became so rapidly popular, however, on both sides of the Atlantic, that Mr. Murray resolved to become its English publisher, and henceforth Irving's reputation was made. A second volume of the " Sketch-Book," " Bracebridge Hall," and the " Tales of a Traveller," succeeded, the last work appearing in 1824; the author's resi- dence during the interval of their composition being at London and Paris. In 1826 he set out for Madrid, for the purpose of examining some important, documents relative to Columbus, which had just been discovered in a Jesuit college in that city. His researches in the Spanish archives, as well as his explications of the old cities of Spain, resulted in the publica- tion of several of his most popular books, — the " History of the Life and Voyagesof Columbus," the " Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus," " The Conquest of Granada," aud " Tales of the Alhambra." In 1829 he was appointed secretary of tn« American legation in Isaac AngehiB London, the Royal Society of Literature award- ing him one of its gold medals, and the univer- sity of Oxford conferring upon him its honorary degree of LL.D. about the same time. In 1832, " after an absence of seventeen years, he saw again the blue line of his native land," as he has said, and on landing, a most enthusiastic reception awaited him. Leaving New York soon afterwards in company with Mr. Ellsworth), ttie Indian commissioner, he travelled in the Far West, his knowledge of Indian and prairie life being reproduced in a series of entertaining works, the chief of which were " Tour on the Prairies," " Astoria, or Enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains," and the " Adventures ol Captain Bonneville." These were followed by a variety of sketches supplied to the American periodicals. In 1841 he was nominated minister plenipotentiary to the Court of Spain, repre- senting his country with distinguished success at Madrid, till 1846, when he was, at his own wish, recalled. Washington Irving hereupon retired to his beautiful estate on the banks of the Hudson, about 25 miles from New York, which he had purchased a few years before. In this charming retreat he lived, engaged in lite- rary labour, till his death; narrating the rise and progress of Mahometanism in his " Livct of Mahomet and his Successors," and the adventures of Oliver Goldsmith.in his biography of that poet and essayist. Besides these, he revised his complete works, and published a collected edition of them. His last productions were " Chronicles of Woolfert's Roost," a series of sketches in the style of the old " Sketch- Book," and the " Life of Washington," the first volume of which was published in 1855; and this, as well as the concluding volume*, was hailed with an enthusiastic reception in Ame- rica, while in England it became as popular as the previous efforts of its author, b. at New York, 1783 ; d. at Sunny side, 1859. {See " Life," by his nephew, published in 1862.) Irwin, Eyles, er'-win, a distinguished civil servant of the East India Company, was born of Irish parents in Calcutta, and received his education in England. He obtained an appoint- ment in the E.l.C.'s civil service in 1767, but was suspended in 1777 for his adherence to Lord Pigot. He was afterwards restored, how- ever, and in 1792 was appointed superintendent of the company's affairs in China, where he remained for several yeiirs. He was the author of " Adventures during a voyage up the Red Sea, and a journey across the Desert," " Eastern Eclogues," " Epistle to Mr. llayley," " An In- quiry into the Feasibility of Bonaparte's Expe- dit (in to the East," " Ode on the Death of Hyder Ali," "Napoleon on the Vanity of Human Ambition," &e. b. 1748; t>. 1817. Isaac Comxbnus, is'-aik com'-ne-nut, aGrees emperor, was proclaimed in 1057, in room of Michael Stratiotes, who was deposed. His con- duct was marked by valour and prudence, till he meddled with the property of the ecclesias- tics, who excited general discontent against him. lie then retired to a monastery, and ceded the crown to Constant ine Ducas in 1059 d. 1001. Isaac Anoblus, an'-jel-us, a Greek emperor, who obtained the crown after putting to dcatll Andronicus Comnenus, in 1185. He was a vo- luptuous prince, and his brother, Alexius, having gained over his officers, seized the throne, and threw him. into prison, where he was deprived TH£ DiCTlONAkV Isaac-Karo of his eyes in 1195. After the death of Alexius, he was released from confinement, and again placed on the throne, b. 1154 ; r>. in 1204. Isaac Kako, ka'-ro, a Spanish rabbi, who was forced to quit Spain in consequence of the edict of Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1409, which rom- pelled the Jews to leave that country within four months, or turn Christians. He first went to Portugal, and thence to Jerusalem, where he led a retired life. He wrote a " Commentary on the Pentateuch," printed at Amsterdam, in 1708. Isabella, is'-a-bel'-la, daughter of Philip le Bel, king of France, married in 1309, Edward II. king of England. Neglected by her husband, who gave himself up to the guidance of un- worthy favourites, Isabella sought assistance on the continent, and returning at the head of 3000 men, took her husband prisoner, and con- fined him in Berkeley Castle, where he was shortly afterwards murdered. Isabella having given herself up to loose manners, her son, Edward III., seized and hanged her paramour, Mortimer, and committed his mother to a tor- tress, where she died in 1358. b. 1292. It was mainly in right of Isabella that Edward founded his pretensions to the French crown — a claim which led to the long and sanguinary wars of the Edwards and Henries in France. Isabella of Castile, queen of Spain, was the daughter of John 11., and married, in 1409, Ferdinand V., king of Aragon. The conquest of Granada, and the discovery of America by Columbus, distinguished their reign. She was a woman of great abilities, b. 1450; r>. 1504. (See 1'khdinand.) Isabella II., queen of Spain, succeeded to the crown in 1833, on the death of her father, Ferdinand VII., in accordance with a decree of the Cortes, made three years previously, by which the salie law, or law excluding females from the throne, was set aside. Her uncle Don Carlos, who would have succeeded to the throne had not the salie law been repealed, refused to take the oath of allegiance, and a civil war broke out in consequence. This was terminated in 1840, the Carlists being totally defeated, and the chiefs of the party expelled the kingdom. She did not attain her majority till the year 1843, her mother having been appointed queen- regent meanwhile; but, in 1810, she was com- pelled to resign in favour of Espartcro, who was nominated regent in her stead. In 1846 the queen married her cousin, Don Francisco de Assis, her younger sister becoming the wife of the Due de Montpensier, youngest son of the late Louis Philippe, king of the French. Her reign was troubled by repeated insurrections, and at last, in 1868, in consequence of the revolt of the army and navy, and a general rising of the people under Prim, Serrano, and Topete, she was compelled io quit Spain and retire to Paris, b. at Madr.d, 1830. Isabella or Aragox was the daughter of Alphonso, duke of Calabria, the son of Ferdi- nand, king of Naples. In 1489, she was espoused to John Galeazzo Sforza, then a minor under the guardianship of his uncle, Luigi Sforza, who, on seeing Isabe'la, fell in love with her. The lovers having been married by proxy only, Luigi contrived by divers means to keep them asunder, and declared his passion to Isabella, who repulsed him, and exhorted her husband to shake off his uncle's yoke. Luigi soon at'ier- wards married Alphonsina, daughter of the 6*2 Isidore duke of Ferrara, a woman of an amDitious and intriguing.' spirit, and, by their contrivance, John Galeazzo was poisoned. Luigi then as- sumed the sovereignty, and Isabella sought refuge at Naples, which soon after was taken by the French, and she had to lament the loss of all hei family. She then retired to a small town in the kingdom of Naples, which had been assigned her for a residence, d. 1524. Isabella, queen of Hungary, was the sister ot Sigismund Augustus, king of Poland, and in 1539 married John Zapolski, king ol Hungary. In 1510 she was delivered ol a son while her husband was besiesring the castle ot Fogarras. and he was so delighted at the news, that he gave a splendid feast to his troops, and died of intemperance on tht occasion. Isabella, unable to copt with tht forces of Ferdinand of Austria, with whom lid husband had engaged in war, called to hei aid Solymau, sultau ol the Turks, who treaeheiously seized the capital ot hei do- minions, and obliged hei to letirt to Tiansyl vania, which country she was afterwaids forced to yield to Ferdinand. Sht was then obliged to retreat to Cassovia, and on the road wiute thest Latin words on a tree, — Sic fata voiu.nl, — " So fate decrees." in 1556 she recovered Transyl- vania; but, when her son came of age, she refused him a snare in the government, d. 1501. Is.sr/s, i-se'-us, a Greek orator ol Chalcis, who went to Athens and became l he master ol Demostnenes, who imitated Ins style m prefer- ence to that of Isoe rates. Sir William Jones translated his ten orations in 1780,the remamdei of his 64 great speeches having been lost Is.EUs, another Greek orator, who went to Rome about 97 a.d. Pliny the younger states him to have been a great master of eloquence and rhetoric. Iscanks, Joscphus, oi Joseph ol Exeter, U'-ka- nus, a distinguished writei of Latin poetry, who accompanied K'chard Cceurdc Lion to Palestine, and was the author of an epic poem entitled "Antiocheis," or the deeds of Kichard which the poet had himself witnessed. This is unfor- tunately lost; but anothei, on the Trojan war, is still extant. Warton styles Iscanus "the miracle of his age in classical composition." d. 1224. Isdegerdes, is-de-ger'-dees, king of Persia, succeeded his uncle Sapor, and was debauched, cruel, and avaricious. He made war on the Eastern emperors, who refssed to pay him tribute, obliged Theodosius the younger to make peace, and persecuted the Christians with severity, d. 420, isiiMAi'.L (oi' ismail) I., ith'-ma-le, founder of the dynasty of the Sophis of Persia, was a descendant of Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed, and began his reign in 1505. He gained many victories, and established the Persian throne upon a solid basis, d. 1523. Ishmakl II. succeeded Thamas on the throne of Persia in 1576. He was a sanguinary prince, and murdered eight of his brothers. He was poisoned, in 1579, by his sister, out of zeal for the Turkish religion, Ishmael being of a sect held heretical by the other Moham- medans. Isidore, St., e-se-dor, bishop of Seville, a celebrated Spanish prelate, and one of the most learned men of his time, wrots a num- ber ot books on biblical and classical sub- jects, and some commentaries on toe Old Of BIOGRAPHY. Isidore Iturbide and New Testaments, b. at Carthagena, 566 ; D. 636. Istdobe, St., sumamed of Pelusium, from his retiring to a cell near that place, was the disciple of St. Chrysostom, and, when young, embraced the monastic life. He wrote letters, and other pieces, some of which are extant, d. about 410. Isidoeus of Chabax, is'-i-dor'-us, a Greek historian and geographer, who wrote a " De- scription of the Parthian Empire." He is said to have lived during the reign of PI olemy Lagus, three centuries before the Christian era. Isiugkinius, Michael, i -sin-grin' -e-ug, a cele- brated printer of Hale, in the 16th century, who executed in Greek the works of Aristotle, with paper and types superior to those of Aldus Manutius. He published, also, with the same elegance and correctness, " The History of Plants," by Euchs. Ismenias, is-me'-ne-as, a Theban general, who was sent on an embassy to the king of Persia. No person being admitted to the royal presence without prostration, Ismenias was resolved not to commit an action so degrading to his country. At his introduction, he dropped his ring on the ground, and the act of taking it up was mistaken for submissive homage, in consequence of which he was favourably re- ceived. — A Theban musician, who being taken prisoner by the Scythians, and playing before their king, the monarch observed that he liked the music of Ismenias better than the braying of an ass. Isocrates, i-sok'-ra-tees, a celebrated Greek orator.who, although master of a sweet and grace- ful style, was prevented by a certain weakness of voice from haranguing in public. It was to his power as a teacher of oratory that his reputation was due. His orations, 21 of which are extant, were intrusted to others for delivery. The defeat of the Athenians at Clncronca, by Philip of Macedon, so affected Isocrates' spirits that he refused to partake of food, and died after four days of tasting, b. at Athens, 436 B.C.; d. 338 B.C. Itubbide, Augustin, e-toor'-bf-de, emperor of Mexico, was a nativeof Valladolid, in New Spain, and entered the military service at the age of 17. In 1810 he was a lieutenant in the provincial regiment of his native city, but his military skill and valour becoming conspicuous, led to his further advancement; so that by 1816 he had risen to tl<.e command of the army which nceupied the provinces of Guanaxuato and Valladolid. He was, however, accused of want of fidelity to the royal cause ; and, though acquitted of the imputation, the disgust which he felt in consequence of the charge led him to retire for a time from active service. Events subsequently opened a new career for his ambition. He was invited to take the command of an army destined for the South, and marched to Acapulco, in the latter part of 1819. 'J here he matured a plnn, the professed object of which was the emancipation of Mexico from tho yoke of Spain, the independence of the country, the protection of religion, and the union of the Spaniards and Mexicans. On the strength of this project, Iturbide continued his march to Queretaro, and was soon joined by Vittoria, the most devoted of the friends of liberty. The road to power was now fairly opened before Iturbide. He took possession of the capital in the name of the nation, and established a regency, con- 6W sisting of members nominated by himself, and wholly under his control. Finding that the republicans saw through his intentions, and were opposed to his domination, he resolved tted six ) ears, when Sophia having projected the death of Peter, that she might reign alone, the conspiracy was discovered, and the princess confined in a convent. From that time Peter reigned sole monarch, b. 1661 ; d. 1696. Ivan VI., of Brunswiek-Bevern, was declared czar when but three months old, after the death Of his great-aunt, Anne Ivanovna, in 1740. Anne left him to the guardianship of the duke de Biren, who being deposed shortly after, the regency was transferred to the emperor's mo- ther. In 1741 he was dethroned and con- fined in a fortress, whence he was carried away by a monk ; but was retaken and placed In a monastery, b. 1740 ; murdered in prison, 1764. Ivks, John, ivet, an Fnglish antiquary, who became Suffolk-herald extraordinary, and fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies. He published, hi addition to works on heraldry and antiquities, " Remarks on the Garianonum of the Romans, the Site and Rcmaing fixed, and 641 Jablonski described," in 1774. b. at Yarmouth, 1719; t>. 1776. Ivbtattx, Nicholas Vauquelin, Seigneur de, eve'-to, a French poet, who became preceptor to the duke de Vendome, son of Gabrielle d'Estr^es, and afterwards to Louis XIII. when dauphin; but his life was so irregular, that he was ba- nished from court ; on which he took a house in the Faubourg Saint-Germain, where he lived in luxury and debauchery. He wrote " The Insti- tution of a Prince," and a number of stanzas, sonnets, and other poetical pieces, b. at Fres- naye, 1559 ; d. at Paris, 1649. Ivory, James, i'-vo-re, an eminent mathema- tician, was the son of a watchmaker in Dundee, and was sent to the universities of St. Andrews and of Edinburgh, for the purpose of being educated for the Scottish church, but was en- gaged in 1786, as teacher in an academy at Dundee, and was subsequently a partner in a flax-spinning factory in Forfarshire. His un- wearied pursuit of science, however, enabled him to undertake the duties of professor of mathematics at the Royal Military College in Buckinghamshire; and when that institution removed to Sandhurst, in Berkshire, he was con- tinued in his post, and remained in it till his retirement into private life, in 1819. While professor at Sandhurst, and afterwards, he wrote a great number of very valuable mathematical books, besides contributing fifteen papers to the " Transactions of the Royal Society of London." An edition of Euclid ; " A New Series for the Rectification of the Cube;" "A New Method of resolving Cubic Equations ;" and a host of mathematical and astronomical treatises, were the result of his laborious life. He w»s fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, a member of the Royal Irish Academy and of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and cor- responding member of the learned societies of Paris, Berlin, and Gottingen. He enjoyed a pension of £300 per annum, from the year 1831 till his death, and was invested by William IV. with the Hanoverian Guelphic order of knight- hood, b. at Dundee, 1765 ; d. in London, 1842. Izaackb, Richard, \-zak, an English anti- quary, was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and afterwards became chamberlain and town- clerk of Exeter, his native city, the history and memorials of which he wrote. This work was continued by his son. d. about 1723. jAAPHAB-BBN-TorHAiL, ja'-a-far-ebn-to-fail, an Arabian philosopher, supposed to have been the same with Averroes, who wrote a phi- losophical romance, called "The History of Hai - Ebn- Yokhdan, " which was published in Latin by Pocock, at Oxford, in 1671, and in English by Ockley, in 1708. d. about 1195. Jablonski, Theodore, yii-llont'-kc, coun- sellor of the court of Prussia, and secretar) of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, published — " A French and German Dictionary," 1711; " ( A Course of Morality," 1713; and "A Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences." d. about 1740. Jablonski, Daniel Ernest, a native of Dant- zic, after studying at several universities, among whiob, was Oxford, eventually became an eccle- Plate XVI. 0* BIOGRAPHY. Jablonski statical counsellor at Berlin and president of the Academy. He was an able divine, and laboured earnestly, though without success, in endeavouring to promote a union between the Lutherans and the Calvinists. He wrote several theological works, and translated Bentley's " Boylean Lectures" into Latin, b. 1660; d. 1741. Jablonski, Paul Ernest, nephew to the pre- ceding, was the author of a very erudite treatise on the mythology of ancient Egypt, in 3 vols., and other able works, theological and antiqua- rian, d. 1757. Jackson, Thomas, jaV-ton, a learned divine, who became president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and dean of Peterborough. His chief work was a " Commentary on the Apostles' Creed." b. at Durham, 1573; d. 1640. Jackson, Arthur, a nonconformist divine, who was ejected from the living of St. Faith's, in London, in 1662. He was fined £500 for re- fusing to give evidence against Christopher Love, and also imprisoned. At the Restoration he was chosen by the assembly of ministers to present a Bible to Charles II. He was also one of the commissioners at the Savoy conference. He wrote a judicious Commentary on the Bible. ». 1666. Jackson, John, an English divine, who received his education at Jesus College, Cam- bridge, and obtained the rectory of Kossing- ton, in Yorkshire, and the mastership of Wigston's Hospital, in Lancashire. He was an acute metaphysician, but a zealous advocate for Arianism, and wrote some tracts against the doctrine of the Trinity, and others against Collins and Tindal ; but his best work is his "Chronological Antiquities," published in 2 vols. 4to, 1752. b. at Lensey, Yorkshire, 1686; d. 1763. Jackson, William, a musical composer and ingenious writer, who, having received a liberal education, was placed under the tuition of the organist of Exeter Cathedral, and after- wards with Mr. Travers, an eminent musician in London. In 1777 he was appointed organist in the cathedral of his native city, Exeter. He pub- lished many excellent songs, canzonets, hymns, and sonatas, of his own composition. His chief literary productions were, " Thirty Letters on various Subjects," " On the Present State of Music," and "The Four Ages," 8vo. — One of Mr. Jackson's sons was secretary to Lord Ma- cartney in his embassy to China; another was ambassador to the king of Sardinia, and after- wards at Paris and Berlin, b. at Exeter, 1 730 ; s. at the same place, 1803. Jackson, William, an Irishman, and a clergy- man of the established church, who became noto- rious for his intrigues against the government towards the end of the 18th century. In early life he was chaplain to the duchess of Kingston, but going to France, became intimate with some of the revolutionary leaders, who sent him on a mission to revolutionize Hritain. Failing in England, he went to Ireland, and was there de- tected in carrying on a treasonable correspond- ence with Prance. He was tried and convicted on this charge, April 23, 1795; and on being brought up for judgment on the 30th of the same month, he suddenly died in court, just as his counsel, Curran and Ponsonby, were about to move an arrest of judgment. On investigation, It was found that Jackson had taken poison. Jackson, Dr. William, bishop ot Oxford, 546 Jackson became a prebendary of York, regius professor of Greek at Oxford, preacher to the society o? Lincoln's Inn, canon of Christchurch, and, in 1812, bishop of Oxford. He translated a tract on the " Sieve" of Eratosthenes into Latin, pub- lished some sermons, and was a sound mathe- matician. B. 1750 ; D. 1815. Jackson, Robert, a physician, who, while ir Jamaica, applied with success the affusion ol cold water in fevers. He subsequently served as a regimental surgeon in the army, and finally settled at Stockton, near Durham. He wrote several treatises on the treatment of fever, par- ticularly on the advantages of the application of cold water in that class of disorders, b. 1751 ; d. 1827. Jackson, John, an eminent English portrait painter, was apprenticed to his father, who was a tailor; but discovering a decided talent for the art in which he afterwards excelled, his abilities procured him the protection of Sir George Beaumont, through whose means he removed to London, and studied at the Royal Academy. At the time he entered the great theatre of art, Lawrence, Opie, Beeehey, and other eminent masters, pre-oecupied the par- ticular branch he had chosen, and for a time Jackson contented himself with painting por- traits in water-colours, in which he was very successful. He was determined, however, to take a high stand, if possible, as a portrait painter in oil ; and the tact with which he copied the works of the old masters surprised his contemporaries. He was elected royal academician in 1817; and in 1819 travelled through Italy, visited Rome with Mr. Chantrey, and was chosen a member of the Academy of St. Luke. Jackson " had an uncommon readiness and skill of hand, a rapid felicity of finish, which enabled him to dash off, at a lew sittings, whatever he undertook; his colouring was deep, clear, and splendid ; and in this he more resembled Reynolds than any. artist since his day." b. in Yorkshire, 1778; d. 1831. Jackson, Andrew, an American general and president, was the son of an Irishman, who emigrated to America in 1765. At the breaking out of the War of Independence, he was study- ing theology in the Waxhaw Academy ; but tills event made himself and his two brothers soldiers. On the termination of the war with the mother country, he resolved to study the law, but abandoned it after a short time to resume his military career, righting, on this occasion, against the Indians on the frontiers of the civilized settlements. In 1797 he was chosen senator, and shortly afterwards was ap- pointed by the legislature of Tennessee major- general of the forces of that state. Up to the year 1812 he resided upon his farm at Nashville, on the Cumberland Kiver; but on the renews of hostilities between England and America in that year, he put himself at the head of some three thousand volunteers, and took up a de- fensive position in the lower country of the .Mississippi. In 1814 the United States govern- ment conferred the rank of major-general upon him, and the next year he repulsed the British forces in their attack on New Orleans. For several subsequent years he commanded cxi«- ditions against the Indians, displaying both cruelty and recklessness in some of his pro- ceedings. In 1821 he was nominated governor of the newly-acquired state of Florida ; and, after holding it for a year, was again elected to an ffiti DICTIONARY Jackson representee state of Tennessee in the senate. Jackson was elected president in 1828, and again in 1832. b. at Waxhaw, South Carolina, 1767; d. at Nashville, Tennessee, 1845. Jackson, Thomas Jeft'erson, better known as " Stonewall " Jackson, a general in the army of the Confederate States of America, was born in Virginia. In 1842 he entered West Point Military Academy as a cadet, and was breveted second lieutenant in the 1st corps of Artillery in 1846. When the Mexican war com- menced he was attached to Magruder's Battery, and distinguished himself on several occasions. He obtained the rank of first lieutenant in 1847, and was breveted captain for his gallant and meritorious conduct at Contreras and Cherubusco. He resigned his position in the national army in 1852, and subsequently offi- ciated as professor of mathematics and military science in the State University of Virginia. When war broke out, in 1861, between the Federal and Confederate States, Jackson was appointed to a command in the Southern army, and proved himself an efficient and enter- prising commander. He led the Southern troops at the battle of Ball's Bluff, where the Federals were completely defeated. He shortly afterwards made a dashing raid into the She- nandoah valley, then occupied by large numbers of Federal troops, carrying off considerable quantities of provisions and other stores, and completely baffling the efforts of General Fre- mont and others to intercept his retreat. In the scries of battles which led to General M'Clellan's retreat to Harrison's Landing in July, 1862, Jackson played a distinguished part; and shortly afterwards made a forced march, with 40,000 men, carrying provisions F or a few days only, and placed himself on the flank of General Pope's army at Manassas, the result of which daring manoeuvre was the com- plete defeat of the Federal army and its retreat to the lines around Washington. The Con- federates now carried the war into Maryland, but not meeting with the support they expected, were retreating into Virginia, when attacked first at South Mountain, and afterwards at Antietam, where desperate battles were fought. Jackson was not engaged in these encounters, having gone to attack Harper's Ferry, a mili- tary store-station of considerable importance, which he reduced, captured large quantities of stores, which he secured, and then rejoined the army in time to cover the retreat of General Lee across the Potomac, which was accom- plished under Jackson's direction without the slightest loss either of men or material. In subsequent operations he continued to play a prominent part until May 2, 1863, when, after the battle of Chanccllorsville, he was fired on by his own men by mistake, and died in hos- pital a week after, b. 1826. Jacob, Ben Xaphthali, jai'-toJ, a learned Jew of the 5th century, was educated in the school of Tiberias, in Palestine. The invention of the Masoretic points and accents is ascribed to him and Ben Aser. Jacob, Al Bardai, a disciple of Sevcrus, patri- arch of Constantinople, was one of the principal loaders of the Eutychians; on which account that sect gained the name of Jacobites. Jacob, Ben Hajim.arabbiof the 16th century, who published a collection of the Masora at Venice, in 1525, in 4 vols., with the text of the Bible, a work greatly esteemed by the Jews. 646 Jacob Jacob, a Cistercian monk of Hungary, who quitted his order in 1212, under pretence of being called to deliver the Holy Land from the infidels. He gathered together a prodigious number of fanatics in Germany and France, who being chiefly peasants, obtained the name of the Shepherds. When St. Louis, king of France, was taken by the Saracens, Jacob pretended that the Holy Virgin had commanded him to preach a crusade for his deliverance; The queen for some time tolerated this extravagance, but at last caused the rabble to be dispersed, and Jacob was shortly afterwards slain by a butcher. Jacob, Henry, jai-kob, a learned divine, was educated at Oxford, where he took his degree of M.A., after which he obtained a living. He is 6aid to have left the church, and to have es- tablished the first congregation of Independents in England, b. 1561 ; d. about 1625. Jacob, Henry, son of the above, was educated under Erpenius, and acquired a considerable knowledge of the Oriental languages. On his return to England, he entered at Merton College, Oxford, of which he became fellow, but was de- prived of this in the civil wars. He wrote some works, which were never printed; but Wood ascribes to him the " Delphi Phceniciantes," published by Dickenson, b. 1608; d. at Can- terbury, 1652. Jacob, Giles, an industrious English lawyer, who published, among a great variety of works, a Law Dictionary, and the " Lives and Charac- ters of English Poets." b. 1690; d. 1744. Jacob, John, the distinguished commander of the Scinde Horse. His first appointment was to the Bombay artillery, which he entered in 1827, and with this corps, composed not of natives, but of Europeans, he passed his first seven years of service. At the expiration of this period, he was intrusted with a small detached command, comprising a company of native artillery and a field battery; after which essay of his powers, he proceeded, in the usual way of Indian promotion, to assume civil instead of military duties, and served for a short time in the provincial administration of Guzerat. From these employments, however, he was soon sum- moned by the outbreak of war ; and partici- pated, as an artillery officer, in the perils and glories of the Afi'ghan campaign. He did not, however, accompany the expedition all the way to Cabul ; for, before the disastrous retreat from that city had been consummated, he received Ms appointment in the peculiar sphere of duty with which his name was inseparably connected from that hour to the day of his death. In the year 1839, when all north-western India was in a ferment, it was determined to raise some squadrons of irregular horse for service in those parts ; and the idea had been so far developed, that some 500 swarthy cavaliers stood enrolled, in 1841, as the Scinde Horse. This regiment was afterwards augmented, and Colonel Outran), perceiving Jacob's abilities, selected the young artillery lieutenant for the chief command. The campaigns and conquest of Scinde offered, of course, the most admirable opportunities for further distinction ; and, on the field of Meanee, Jacob's Horse, and Jacob himself, established a name which was never afterwards sullied or obscured. After Scinde had been annexed, if became necessary to protect it as a frontier province, and in this service a prominent part was assigned to the Scinde Horse. Owing partly to the anomalous character of the territorial OF BIOGRAPHY. Jacobseus government, and partly, no doubt, to the confi- dence reposed in Jacob's personal abilities, the Scinde Horse were left almost entirely to them- selves. The results soon became most remark- able. From a few troops, the force was gradually expanded till it included two strong regiments, and mustered 1600 of the best horse- men in India, the commander of .the whole being Brigadier Jacob, assisted by four Euro- peans and a number of native officers. But, although formidable to those whose. occupation was rapine and plunder, Jacob was a benefactor to the people over whom he virtually ruled. On the spot where his troops had encamped, which was a sterile waste for miles around, Jacob, in less than thirteen years, had built a town containing 30,000 people, and the district was transformed into one fertile garden. This city was called Jacobabad. It was here that he ruled, wrote, made experiments in gunnery, and invented the valuable rifle called after his name. But, although still a young man, he, in the year 1858, gave sudden signs of a break-up of con- stitution. The ardent soldier had exhausted even his iron frame; a brain-fever ensued, and in a few days he was carried off. b. 1813 ; d. at Jacobabad, 1858. Jacob.eus, Oliger, ja-ko-be'-us, a Danish physician, who became professor of philosophy and physic at Copenhagen. He wrote a com- pendium of medicine, and a number of Latin poems, b. in the isle of Jutland, 1650; d. at Copenhagen, 1707. Jacobi, Frederick Henry, ya'-ko-be, a German metaphysical philosopher, who occupied several distinguished posts under the government of Dusseldorf, and, in 1804, became president of the Academy of Sciences at Munich. He pub- lished a great number of literary and philoso- phical works, in some of which he combated the doctrines of Kant. His principal works are " Letters on the Doctrines of Spinoza," " Hume and Belief; or Idealism and Realism," and " Letter to Fichte." His complete works were published at Lcipsic in 1820. b. at Dus- seldorf, 1743; d. 1819. Jacobi, John George, a German poet, was a native of Dusseldorf; studied at Gottingen; was professor of philosophy and eloquence at Halle; and, subsequently, of the belles lettres at Friburg, which he retained during his lite. The style of Jacobi was formed on that of the lighter French poets, and possessed much ease and gaiety, b. 1740; d. 1814. Jacobs, Lucas, ja'-kobs, commonly called Lucas van Leyaen, a painter, studied under his father, Hugh Jacobs, and next under Cornelius Engelbrecht. Many of his pictures in oil and distemper are to be found on the continent ; but he is now best known by his engravings. b. at Leyden, 1194; d. 1533. Jacobs, Jurian, a painter of the Flemish school, was the disciple of Francis Snyders, whose manner he imitated. In his historical pieces he introduced animals painted in a mas- terly manner, b. in Switzerland, 1610 ; d. 1C64. Jacobs, Frederic, an eminent philological writer, became, in 1785, a teacher in the gym- nasium of his native city, Gotha, in Saxony, where he published a number of excellent works, of which, besides those of a critical or philolo- gical character, may be noticed his " School for Women," 7 vols., and " Talcs," 5 vols. b. 1764; n. 1817. Jacomb, Thomas, jai'-komb, a nonconformist 647 Jacquln divine, who was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and afterwards at Cambridge, where he became fellow of Trinity College. In 1647 he removed to London, and had the living of St. Martin, Ludgate, of which he was deprived for nonconformity in 1662. He was then taken into the family of the countess of Exeter. He wrote several theological works, b. in Leicester- shire, 1622 ; D. 1687. Jacopone, or Jacopo da Todi, ya'-co-po'-nai, an Italian poet, famous for his " Sacred Canti- cles," and for being the author of the " Stabat Mater." His canticles were printed at Venice in 1617. d. 1306. Jacotot, Jean Joseph, zhak'-o-to, originally a captain of artillery in Napoleon's army, and subsequently sub-director of the Polytechnic School, was deprived of his office at the Resto- ration for having been a member of the chamber during the " hundred days." Retiring to Bel- gium, he there conceived and put into partial practice a new system of education, on the principle that all intelligences are equal, the only difference between man and man being the result of circumstances more than of nature. He left several works upon the subject, which are inte- resting for ingenuity, if not for correctness, b. 1770; d. 1840. Jacquabd, Joseph Marie, jak'-ard, a cele- brated mechanician, and inventor of the Jac- quard loom.was the son of a poor weaver, and is said to have had no school education, having taught himself to read and write. From an early age he evinced a great aptitude for mechanical studies. After having inherited his father's looms and stock in trade, he, for some time, worked as a weaver ; but was subsequently com- pelled to sell all his working apparatus, having contracted many debts through his unfortunate experiments in weaving, cutlery, and type- founding. He served with the republican army in the defence of Lyons and on the Rhine ; but afterwards returned to his native city, and applied himself energetically to perfect the splendid piece of mechanism which bears his name, and which is now extensively employed. b. at Lyons, 1752; d. at Oullins, near Lyons, 1834. Jacquelot, Isaac, zhak'-lo, a learned French Protestant, was the son of a minis- ter at Vassy. At the age of 21 he became assistant to his father ; but, on the revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes, he went to Heidelberg and thence to the Hague. The king of Prussia invited him to his capital, where he became his majesty's chaplain, and had a pension. He wrote " Dissertations on the Exist- ence of God," three pamphlets against " Bayle'g Dictionary," " Dissertations on the Messiah," " A Treatise on the Inspiration of the Scrip- tures," " Letters to the Bishops of France," sermons, a work against Socinianism, &c. b. 1647; D. 1708. Jacquet, Louis, zha'-kai, a French writer and ecclesiastic, who wrote an ingenious parallel between the Greek and French tragic poets, and some prize essays, which were rewarded by the Academy of Besancon. He was an enthusiastic admirer of Rousseau, whom in disposition and manners he greatly resembled. B. at Lvons, 1732 ; D. 1793. Jacquix, Nicholas Joseph, ya'-quin, a cele- brated botanist, after having studied medicino at Antwerp atid Louvain, was induced by his countryman, Van Swicten, to visit Vienna, when NN 2 THE DICTIONARY Jaddua the emperor Francis I. sent him to the West Indies to collect plants for the botanical gardens of Vienna and Schoenbrunn ; and after an ab- sence of six years, he returned with a superb collection. Two years afterwards appeared his " Catalogue of Plants growing in the Neighbour- hood of Vienna;" and in 1773 a magnificent work, entitled " Flora Austriaca," with 500 coloured engravings. He was appointed to yarious offices, and was created a baron in 1806. b. at Leyden, 1727 ; d. 1817. Jaddus, j&a -dut, high priest of the Jews, who, when Alexander the Great intended to pillage Jerusalem and the temple, went to meet him in his pontifical robes, and the sight so struck the victor, that he fell at the feet of Jaddus, declaring he had seen in a vision a man dressed in precisely the same garments, who had pro- mised him the empire of Asia. This so altered Alexander's sentiments, that he offered sacrifices to the God of Israel. Jadelot, Nicolas, zkad'-lo, a French physi- cian, who wrote "The Picture of Animal Economy," a " Complete Course of Anatomy," and a " Pharmacopoeia for the Poor." b. at Nancy, 1736; d. same place, 1793. Jaegeb, John Wolfgang, yai'-jer, a Lutheran divine, who became preacher of the cathedral in his native city, chancellor of the university, and provost of the church of Tubingen. He wrote several works, the chief of which are, — " Eccle- siastical History compared with Profane ;" " A Compendium of Divinity ; " " The Life of Spinoza." b. at Stuttgardt, 1647 ; d. 1720. Jagellons, ja-gel-lons, the name of an ancient dynasty of the grand-duchy of Lithu- ania, which afterwards gave monarchs to Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia. Its founder was the grand-dukc Jagellon, who, in 1386, mar- ried Hedwige, daughter of the king of Hungary and Poland. He subsequently embraced the Christian religion, and became king of Poland, under the title of Ladislas V. His descen- dants reigned both in Lithuania and Poland, but Alexander Jagellon united both crowns in 1501.— Several Jagcllons reigned at a later period in Hungary and Bohemia. Jago, Richard, jai'-go, an English poet, was educated at University College, Oxford, en- tered into orders, and in 1724 obtained the vicarage of Snittersficld, in Warwickshire. In 1771 he was presented to the living of Kilmcotc, in Leicestershire. His " Elegy on the Black- birds," first published in the " Adventurer," was attributed to different writers. His prin- cipal performance is a descriptive poem, entitled " Edgehill." b. in Warwickshire, 1715 ; ». 1781. Jahn, Johann, yan, a learned German orien- talist, who was professor of theology and of the Oriental languages at the university of Vienna; wrote grammars of the Arabian, Hebrew, Syriac, and Chaldean tongues; and, in 1800, published nn important work on Biblical Archaeology, which has been translated into English, b. at Taswitz, Moravia, 1750; d. at Vienna, 1815. Jahn, Otho, a German writer and archteologist, who was born at Kiel, in the now Prussian duchy of Holstein, and studied under Lachmann and Gcrhardt, at Berlin. After lecturing in his na- tive town on archeology and philology, he wa» made professor of the latter science atLeipsic, but was deprived of his office for tho part he took in the attempts to sever Holstein from Denmark in 1848 and 1849. He ha* written a life of Mozart, s, 1813, 649 James III. Jaillot, Hubert Alexis, zkaiV-lo, geographer to the French king, was at first a sculptor ; but having married tthe daughter of a map-colourei, he turned his attention to geography. He engraved many maps and charts, particularly the great maps of France, that of Loraine being his best work. In 1669 he published a set of maps, drawn by Sanson, and engraved by himself, d. 1712. jAMBLICHUS,,;am'-ife-CM», (»«« Iamblichub) a Platonic philosopher. James, St., of Compostella,j<7»m«, the patron saint of Spain. This is the name given by the Spanish Roman Catholics to St. James the Great, the inhabitants of Compostella, in Spain ; pretending to possess his body enshrined in their cathedral. Sovereigns of Scotland. James I., king of Scotland, the son of Robert III., was taken Dy the English on his passage to France, and kept in confinement 18 years. In 1423 he obtained his liberty on marrying Joanna Beaufort, daughter of the earl of Somer- set, whom he had fallen in love with from seeing her walking in the royal gardens at Windsor while he was a prisoner there, and who is be- lieved to be the lady alluded to in James's pleasing poem of the " King's Quhair." On his return to Scotland, he severely punished his uncle, the duke of Albany, and others, who had misgoverned the country in his absence, in con- sequence of which a conspiracy was formed, and he was murdered in his private apartments in 1437. b, 1394. James I. was a most accomplished gentleman, and a poet of no little merit. He invented a sort of plaintive melody, which was greatly admired and imitated in Italy, in which country he was, in consequence, long remem- bered with respect. He was one of the most skilful harpers of his time, and excelled all competitors in the use of that instrument. Three compositions of his have come down to us — " Christ's Kirk on the Green," the " King's Quhair," and " Peebles at the Play" — which exhibit no mean degree of intellectual power and literary skill. James II., king of Scotland, succeeded the preceding king, his father, at the age of seven years. He assisted Charles VII. of France against the English, and punished rigorously those lords who had revolted against him. b. 1431 ; killed by the bursting of a gun at the siege of Roxburgh, 1460. Jaues III. was the son and successor of the above, and ascended the throne in 1460. He was a weak, priest-ridden king.and was charged with having committed so many cruelties, and being so entirely guided by favourites, that his subjects revolted, and defeated the king at Sauchie-Burn, near Stirling. James fled from the field, but fell from his horse, and was mur- dered in a mill near the battle-field. Some his- torians maintain that the character of James haf been greatly misrepresented by his contempo- raries, and consequently misunderstood by pos- terity. According to their view, James was more of a scholar and man of taste than was suited to the rude and turbulent times in which he lived, and that his patronage of art, particularly archi- tecture, and the favour he bestowed on its pro- fessors, provoked the hostility of the barons, and led to his melancholy fate. (Sue Cochran, Robert; and Douglas, Archibald, "licll-the» Cat,") b. about 1453 ; killed, *4teH OF BIOGRAPHY. James IV. James IV. succeeded his father, the last men- tioned, at the age of about 15 years. He had been made a tool of by the discontented and turbulent barons, who, having levied an army, placed the prince at the head of it, and the re- sult was the defeat and death of the king near Sauchie-Burn, as mentioned above. James IV. never forgave himself for his share in this transaction, and, it is said, wore an iron belt round his waist as a penance for his filial dis- obedience. He afterwards defeated the rebel- lious lords, induced the barons to relinquish the gloomy isolation in which they lived on their estates during the reign of his father, intro- duced order in the administration of the law, and greatly encouraged the development of the industry and commerce of the kingdom. Under the advice of Sir Andrew Wood, of Largo, he formed a navy, which even then proved itself formidable to that of England. With the ruler of that country, however, Henry VII., James cultivated amity, and married his daughter, the Princess Margaret. But after the death of the first Tudor king, the relations between the two countries became less cordial ; and, on Henry VIII. invading Prance, James gave assistance to Louis XII,, and having raised an army, including almost every man capable of bearing arms, marched into England, but was defeated at Flodden Field, in 1613, by the earl of Surrey, and himself and nearly the whole of his army perished, b. about 1473. This monarch's character and tragic fate are strikingly depicted by Sir Walter Scott in " Marmion." James V., the son of the above, was only a year old at the time of his father's death. At the age of 17 he assumed the government, quelled the power, pride, and turbulence of the barons, particularly the Douglases, who had long held him in tutelage, and assisted Francis I. of France against the emperor Charles V., for which the French king gave him his daughter Margaret in marriage. On her decease, he married Mary of Loraine, daughter of Claude, duke of Guise. On his death, James left his crown to the beautiful and unhappy Mary queen of Scots, his daughter, b. 1512 ; d. 1512. James was of a romantic and adventure-seeking dispo- sition, which he indulged by wandering in dis- guise through the country, both to gratify his own inclination and to see for himself how the people were treated, for his care and protection of whom he was called the " Commons' King." Many songs, ballads, poems, and plays have been founded on the adventures of James V., — among which may be mentioned the " Lady of the Lake," by Sir Walter Scott ; a drama called "The Laird of Ballangcich," in which the late Mr. Mackay used to perform with great applause on the Scottish stage; and a humorous but somewhat indelicate ballad, the " Jolly Beggar, or We'll gang nae mair a roving," which, pruned of its objectionable passages, was occasionally sung by the late popular vocalist, Mr. John Wilson. SOVEBKIGHB OF ElfGLAHD. James I. of England, and VI. of Scotland, was the son of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, by Mary queen of Scots, daughter of James V. When only a year old, he was proclaimed king, on the forced resignation of his mother, and, in 1603, succeeded Queen Elizabeth on the English throne. A plot was soon after disco- vered to scire on him, and place his cousin, the James II. Lady Arabella Stuart, upon the English throne in his stead, for which Lords Cobhara and Grey, and Sir Walter Baleigh, were indicted. But, in 1605, the more desperate attempt to blow up the king, the prince, and both houses of Par- liament, known as the Gunpowder Plot, was discovered, for which Guy Fawkes and manv other persons were executed. In 1606 he estab- lished episcopacy in Scotland, and made peace with Spain. In 1612, his son, Prince Henry, by Anne of Denmark, died, and the same year his daughter was married to Frederick, the elector- palatine. One of the greatest blots of his reign was the execution of Sir Walter Baleigh, fifteen years after sentence. James was a man of learning, and affected to be a profound scholar, particularly in theology, being not indifferently acquainted with polemics, of which he was so fond as to found Chelsea College for the main- tenance of learned men, who were to employ themselves in managing controversies, espe- cially with the church of Rome. Charles II., however, applied it to the better purpose of affording a home for soldiers worn out in the service of their country. James wrote, among other books, a "Commentary on the Revela- tion," in which he calls the pope Antichrist ; " Basilicon Doron ; or, Advice to his Son ;" " Dacmonology ; or, a Discourse on Witchcraft ;" and "A Counterblast against Tobacco." James I. held very strong opinions as to the "divine right of kings," with which he imbued his son Charles I., a rigid adherence to which not only brought that unhappy monarch to the scaffold, but led to the expulsion of the Stuarts from the English throne, b. at the Castle of Edinburgh, 1566; D.in England, 1625. James II., king of England, was the second son of Charles I., and was declared duke of York- soon after his birth. During the civil war he resided in France, where he imbibed the prin- ciples of popery. At the Restoration he returned to England, and secretly married Anne Hyde, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon, by whom he had two daughters, who afterwards became queens of England : viz., Mary and Anne. In the Dutch war he signalized himself as com- mander of the English fleet, and showed great skill and bravery. On the death of his first wife, he married Mary Beatrix of Modena. He succeeded to the throne on the death of Charles 1 1., in 16S5 ; but his zeal for his religion leading him into measures subversive of the constitu- tion, the Prince of Orange, who had married his daughter Mary, was invited to England by several of the nobility; and the king, finding himself abandoned by his friends, withdrew to France, 1683. b. in London, 1633; D.atSt. Ger- mains, 1701. — His son James, commonly called the Old Pretender, died at Rome, in 1766. James I., king of Aragon, called the War- rior, succeeded his father, Peter the Catholic, in 1213. He conquered the islands of Ma- jorca and Minorca, Valencia, and other pro- vinces, from th« Moors. Before he expired, ht resigned the crown to his successor, and took the habit of the Cistercian monks, in accord- ance with a superstition of the age. b. 1206; D. 1276. James II., king of Aragon, succeeded his brother, Alphonso III., in 1291. He carried on a long war against Navarre and the Moors, and united Catalonia to his crown, b. about 1260; d. at Barcelona, 1327. THE DICTIONARY James de Vitri Jambs dk Vitri, a cardinal in the 13th cen- tury, attended the crusaders to the Holy Land, and was made bishop of Ptolemais ; after which Gregory IX. raised him to the purple, and cm- ployed him as legate. He wrote an " Eastern and Western History." b. at Vitri, near Paris ; d. 1241. James op Voragine, a Dominican and bishop, who became provincial of his order, and archbishop of Genoa, compiled a Golden Legend, full of pious fables, which has been many times reprinted, b. at Genoa, about 1330 ; ». about 1399. James, Thomas, a learned divine, was edu- cated first at Winchester school, and next at New College, Oxford, where he was chosen fellow, with the degree of D.D. He was chosen first keeper of the Bodleian Library, and made sub-dean of Wells. He collated MSS. of the ancient fathers, with a view to publish them, but failed in his design, for want of encourage- ment. He wrote several learned books, the chief of which is, "A Treatise of the Corruption of the Scriptures, Councils, and Fathers." b. at Newport, Isle of Wight, 1571 ; d. at Oxford, 1632. James, Richard, nephew of the above, was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, whence he removed to Corpus Christi, of which he became a fellow. He travelled in Russia, and published a narrative of his journey in 1619. He was of great service to Selden and Sir Robert Cotton, being a man of extensive learning, and pro- foundly acquainted with ancient MSS. He published several books in Latin, b. 1592; d. in London, 1631. James, Thomas, an English navigator, who, in 1631 and 1632, attempted to discover a north- west passage. He wintered on Charleton Island, in Hudson's Bay, and next summer proceeded on his voyage, but was unable to penetrate far- ther than 65 degrees and a half north. He made some discoveries on the coast of Hudson's Bay; to the country on the western side of which he gave the name of New South Wales. On his return to England he published an ac- count of his expedition, entitled " The Strange and Dangerous Voyage of Captain Thomas James, for the Discovery of a North- West Pas- sage to the South Sea." James, Robert, an English physician, who received his education at St. John's College, Oxford. After practising in the country, he removed to London, and, in 1743, published his "Medical Dictionary," in 3 vols, folio, in which he was assisted by Dr. Johnson— a work of con- siderable merit in its day. He also published other works in connexn n with his profession ; but he is best known by a valuable medicine, uni- versally celebrated under the name of "James's powder," which gave a fortune to his family. b at Kinverstone, Staffordshire, 1703; d. 1776. James, Thomas, a learned divine, who was educated at Eton, whence he was elected to King's College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship, and proceeded to his degree of D.D. in 1786. He was, for many years, a public tutor in that college. In 1776 he became master of Rugby school, which station he filled, with great honour and satisfaction, till 1793, when he re- signed. For his great services he was preferred to a prebend in Worcester cathedral, and the living of Harrington, in the same county. He published a " Compendium of Geography for the use of Rugby School," "An Explanation of 550 Jamee the Fifth Book of Euclid by Algebra," and tw« Sermons, b. at St. Neots, in Huntingdonshire; d. at Harrington, Worcestershire, 1804. James, William, was the author of a valuable work, entitled "The Naval History of Great Britain, from the Declaration of War by France, in 1793, to the Accession of George IV.," . 1631. Janssens, Victor Honorius, an historical painter, who was patronized by the duke of Holstein, who sent him to Rome for improve- ment. On his return to his own country, he adorned the churches and convents with his works. B. at Brussels, 1664; d. 1739. Janssens, Cornelius, a Dutch painter, who resided in England many years, and, in several respects, was equal to Vandyck. He painted portraits of James I. and his family, and most of the English nobility, d. 1665. Januarius, St., jdn-u-air'-e-us, bishop of Be- nevento, who was beheaded at Puzzuoli, in the persecution under Diocletian, about theendof the 3rd century. Higbody was removed to Naples, where a beautiful chapel was erected to his memory in the cathedral. What renders his name remarkable is a pretended miracle ex- hibited yearly by the priests, who have what they term his blood in a phial. On bringing out what is called the head of the saint, the blood, hitherto in a congealed state, liquifies. This mummery is always practised when Vesu- vius shows signs of a convulsion, and the people devoutly believe that the influence of the •aint will prevent an earthquake. Japix, or Japicks, Gysbert, jai'-pix, a Frisian poet, of whose touching and simple lyrics Dr. J. H. Halbertsma, a distinguished Frisian writer, says, " For any one who has a feeling for true poetry, it is worth the trouble to leani Frisian, to enjoy the beauties of Gysbert Japix." He was the son of a poor carpenter of Bolsword, in Friesland, his family name being Holckama, which the poet changed into Japix, that word signifying "son of Jacob," which was his father's Christian name. Little is known of the poet's life, except that he was a schoolmaster and parish-clerk in Bolsword. His chief poems in manuscript are to be found in the Bodleian library. Boswell, on obtaining for Dr. Johnson a copy of Japix's poems, observed in a letter, " It is the only thing they have : it is amazing that they have no translation of the Bible, no treatises of devotion, nor even any of the bal- lads and story-books which are so agreeable to country people." The literature of Friesland does not, even at the present time, include a translation of the Holy Scriptures : the " Mer- chant of Venice" and "Julius Casar" have, however, been reproduced in the Frisian tongue. In 1829, Sir John Bowring translated and pub- lished some poems of Japix in the " Foreign Quarterly Review." A bust of the post was 563 Jasmin set up by public subscription in St. Martin's church, at Bolsword, in 1823. b. at Bolsword, Friesland, 1603 ; n. at the same place, of the plague, 1666. Jabchas, jar'-lcat, the most learned of the Indian Brahmins, and a great astronomer according to Jerome. He is said to have given Apollonius Tyaneus seven magical rings called by the names of the planets. Jabchi, Solomon-Ben-Isaac, jar'-H, a cele- brated rabbi, who spent thirty years in travel- ling through Europe and the eastern countries. He wrote " Commentaries on the Bible," which are highly esteemed by the Jews. b. at Troyes, France, 1104 ; d. 1180. Jabdtn, Karel de, yar'-dine, a Dutch land- scape-painter, who studied and worked in Italy, where he acquired a great reputation ; and so highly was he esteemed, that, though a Pro- testant, his remains were interred in consecrated ground, b. at Amsterdam, 1640; d. at Venice, 1678. Jabnac, Guy de Chabot, lord of, zhar'-nak, a French gentleman of the chamber to Francis I. and Henry II., who fought a duel with a courtier named La Chateigneraie, in 1547. His adver- sary defeated him ; but, as he stood over him, Jarnac gave him a mortal thrust under the hough. The title coups-de-Jarnac has since been given to treacherous blows, n. about 1570. Jaenowick, or Giobnotichi, Giovanni Mane, yar 1 -no-vile, a celebrated violinist, the most ac- complished pupil of Lulli, for several year° resided in Paris, and was considered at the head of his profession ; he afterwards went to England, where he was very popular; but on being invited to settle at Petersburg, he went thither. He was very irritable and eccentric, and many anecdotes illustrative of these traits are recorded of him. b. at Palermo, 1745; d. in St. Petersburg, 1804. Jabby, Nicholas, zhar'-re, an eminent French caligraphist, who was appointed " Master Pen- man" to Louis XIV., and executed for that king, and for the chief lords of his court, many works which rank as masterpieces of the art of caligraphy. His " Garland of Julia," which he executed in 1641 for the duke of Montausier, consisting of 30 folio leaves, was sold, in 1714, for the sum of £580. He also completed the " Hours of Notre Dame," in 120 leaves, in 1647. b. at Paris, about 1620. Jabs, Gabriel, zhart, a French mineralogist, who visited, with Duhamel, the mines of Saxony, Bohemia, Austria, Hungary, andCarinthia, also those of England, and other countries. In 1768 he became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. His brother published his observa- tions, under the title of " Voyages Metallur- giqucs," in 3 vols. b. at Lyons, 1732 ; d. at Clermont, Auvergne, 1769. Jarvis, John, jar 1 -vis, an artist, whose paint- ings on glass were famous in their day, was a native of Dublin, where he practised his art for some time, and then removed to London, where he soon made himself a high reputation. The west window of New College, Oxford, which he painted from designs by Sir Joshua Reynolds, is his most celebrated performance, b. 1749; d. 1801. Jasmin, James, zhas'-ma, a Gascon poet of great popularity in France, was the son of a tailor, and was himself early put to the trade of a hairdresser, which, despite his successfi]} THE DICTIONARY Jaucourt career as a poet, he always continued to prac- tise. He wrote and published several col- lections of songs and poems, all of them written in the patoit, or rural dialect, spoken on the banks of the Garonne. Soon after the pub- lication of his collection of poems, " Les Papil- lotes," — "the Curlpapers" he was elected mem- ber of the Academies of Agen and Bordeaux. Two of the most celebrated critics in France, Charles Nodier and Saiute-Beuve, have written critical comments upon Jasmin's productions, whiek they state to be full of feeling and joyous grace. The poet usually recited his poems in his native town, and, having a fine voice and manner, the delivery of these lyrics, varying in dialect but little from those of the old trouba- dours of the 11th and 12th centuries, is said to have produced a very great effect upon his hearers. Jasmin received many presents ; Louis Philippe and the duke and duchess of Orleans bestowed upon him handsome gratuities ; Tou- louse gave him a golden laurel-wreath; Pau marked its sense of his worth by sending him a service of china. When he began to write poetry, all his family, he says, laughed at him ; but, afterwards, his wife, selecting the best pen and paper for his use, would observe, " Every verse you write, Jacques, puts a fresh tile on the roof." b. at Agen, 1793; d. 1861. Jaucourt, the chevalier Louis de, zho'-koor, member of the Royal Society of London, and of the Academies of Berlin and Stockholm, fur- nished the French Encyclopaedia with articles on medicine and natural philosophy. He also compiled a "Universal Dictionary of Medicine," in 6 vols., but the MS. was lost on board a ship, which foundered on her passage to Amsterdam. b. at Paris, 1704; d. at Compiegne, 1779. Jault, Auguste Francois, zholte, a French physician, and professor of Syriac in the Royal College of Paris, who translated into French, among other works, " Sharp's Surgery," " Ock- ley's History of the Saracens," and "Floyeron Asthma." b. 1707; d. 1757. Jaureguy y Aguilar, cha'-oo-rai-goi e a-fjoo'- «Z'-Z(u*,aSpanishpoetand painter, who resided for a longtime at Rome, forming himself upon the best Italian models in both poetry and painting. On his return to his native land, he published some excellent translations of Tasso, and from the Latin. His pictures were distinguished for their beautiful colour, for their fine gradations of light and shade, and for the beautiful flesh-tints in them. b. near Toledo, 1566 ; d. at Madrid, 1641. Jay, Gui Michel Le, zhai, an advocate of the parliament of Paris, who printed a polyglot Bible at his own expense, and thereby impo- verished himself. Subsequently entering into holy orders, he was made dean of Vczeli. His polyglot Bible is elegantly printed in 10 vols., and has the Syriac and Arabic versions, which are not in that of Ximencs. d. 1675. Jay, John, jai, an American jurist and statesman, who, after studying at Columbia (then Kind's) College, was admitted to the bar, and in 1774 was elected a delegate to the first Amcriian congress, at Philadelphia. In 1776 he was chosen president of the congress; in 1777 he was a member of the convention which framed the constitution of New York ; and in the following year was appointed chief justice of that state. He was next sent as minister plenipotentiary to Spain; and in 1783 was ap- pointed one of the commissioners to negotiate a 65* Jeacocke peace with Great Britain. The definitive treaty having been signed in September, 1783, he re- turned to the United States ; aud in 1784 was sent as envoy extraordinary to Great Britain, and concluded the treaty which has been called after his name. In 1795 he was elected go- vernor of Ne'w York State; this post he continued to occupy till 1801, when he declined a re-election as well as a re-appointment to the office of chief-justice of the United States, and passed the remainder of his life in retirement. b. at New York, 1745 ; d. 1829. Jay, William, son of the preceding, a cele- brated American slavery abolitionist, was designed for the profession of the law, but an affection of the eyes forced him to relinquish its study; whereupon he retired to his father's country seat at Bedford, Massachusetts. From the year 1829 he was one of the most active advocates of the abolition of slavery in the United States, and wrote several works in aid of the same cause. These were collected and pub- lished at Boston in a complete form, with the title, "Miscellaneous Writings on Slavery," in 1854. He was one of the founders of the Ame- rican Biblical Society, and served as president of the Peace Society. In 1832 he edited his father's correspondence, and wrote a biography of him, publishing the work under the title of " The Life and Correspondence of John Jay." B. 17-79; D.1858. Jay, Rev. William, an eminent Independent preacher, was the son of a stonecutter, at which trade he himself worked during his early years ; but, while still young, was placed in the Marlborough Academy, with a view of being educated for the ministry. At sixteen years of age he commenced preaching, and, before he had reached his twentieth year, was appointed mi- nister of Argyle Chapel, Bath, where, for sixty- two years, he officiated. On completing the fiftieth year of his ministerial labours, in 1841, he was presented with a service of plate, and a purse containingjEOoO, at apublicmeetingin Hath. His volumes of sermons met with consider- able success, and passed through several editions. He wrote also an Essay on Marriage, " Lectures on Female Scripture Characters," and an Auto- biography, which was published in 1854. All his works have been issued in a complete form, in twelve volumes, 8vo. B. at Tisbury, Wilts, 1709; d. 1853. Jayadeva, jai-a-de'-va, a Hindoo poet, of whose life or pursuits nothing certain is known. Only one of his poems is extant, this being the "Gita Govinda;" or. Poem in Honour of Go- vinda," one of the names of the Hindoo god Krishna. It is an amatory and voluptuous lyric, and Sir William Jones, Colebrooke, and other commentators, assert that it is only to ho interpreted in an allegorical sense. Sir William Jones published a translation of the "Gita (io- vinda," in the 3rd vol. of the "Asiatic Re- searches." Jeacockb, Caleb, je'-kok, a baker in High- street, St. Giles's, London, who for many yeara distinguished himself as president of a dis- puting society held at the "Robin Hood tavern," near Temple-bar. He had considerable powers as a speaker and is said to have often op- posed with success the celebrated Burke, and other persons, who afterwards distinguished themselves at the bar and in the senate. Mr. JeacocKe published, in 1705, a pamphlet en- titled, "A Vindication of the Moral Character OF BIOGRAPHY. Jearmin of the Apostle Paul from the Charge of Insin- cerity and Hypocrisy brought against it by Lord Bolingbroke, Dr. Middleton, and others." He became a director of the Hand-in-Hand fire- otlice, and was enabled to retire from his busi- ness on a small fortune, ». 1786. Jbannin, Peter, zhari-nii, a French states- man, who was educated for the law, and be- came president of the parliament of Paris. Henry IV. made him member of his council, and kept him at court, where no great enterprise was undertaken without consulting him. His memoirs were published in 1059. b. at Autun, 1510 ; D.J622. Jbbb, Samuel, jeb, an English physician, was educated at Cambridge, and subsequently set- tled as physician at Stratford, in Essex, where he resided till a short time before his death. He edited an edition of Roger Bacon's works, and of several other learned authors, b. at Nottingham, 1690; d. 1772. Jebb, John, a divine and physician, the son of Dr. John Jebb, dean of Cashel, studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and Peter-house, Cambridge; obtained church preferment, which, however, he resigned, and then com- menced practice as a physician, in which he was very successful. He was a violent partisan in whatever he engaged ; and, though conscien- tious in his religious opinions, their peculiar complexion, and the freedom with which he in- dulged in the political squabbles of the day, ob- structed his professional progress, and greatly impaired his usefulness. He was a fellow of the lloval Society, a contributor to the "Philoso- phical Transactions;" and his works, theological, political, and medical, form three vols. B. in London, 1736; D. 1786. Jekjkebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Bart., je'-jeeb- hoi, an eminent Parsee merchant of Bombay, was boru of humble parents, and had to make his own way in the world ; but by the time he was sixteen he was fully prepared to do so. That way was at first rough and hard ; yet, undis- couraged, he went right on. The early life of the wealthy and honoured baronet was strongly in contrast with the calm which enveloped his later years. He made five mercantile voyages to China: in one of these, the ship in which he saded formed one of the fleet which, under the command of Sir Nathaniel Dance, beat off a French squadron under Admiral Linois. In another voyage, the vessel on board which were himself and his fortune, was captured by the French, and he was carried to the Cape of Good Hope, whence, with the loss of all his property, arid after enduring many privations, he found his way in a Danish vessel to Calcutta. For- tune smiled on him afterwards, however; and as his wealth increased, the tendency to share it with the needy, or to spend it for the benefit of the public, began to develope itself. In 1822 lie released all the poor debtors confined by the Court of Requests from the Bombay gaol, by the simple process of paying their debts. From that time to the day of his death, the stream of his beneficence scarcely slacked in its flow. He dispensed in philanthropic services the vast sum of £300,000 ; his charity not being limited by the bounds of the community to which the munificent donor belonged. Parsee and Chris- tian, Hindoo and Mussulman, — indeed, people of all classes and creeds, alike shared in his beneficence, the largest outlay being for the poor and for the public. For his great public ser- 565 Jefferys vices, no less than for his philanthropic efforts, he was created a baronet, b. at Bombay, 1783 ; d. same place, 1859. Jefferiks, or Jeffreys, George, Lord, jef- fre*, an English judge, notorious for his cruelty and injustice, was educated at Westminster school, after which he removed to the Inner Temple, where he studied the law with great application. By attaching himself to the duke of York, he'obtaincd the appointment of Welsh judge, the honour of knighthood, and the chief-justiceship of Chester. In 1683 he was appointed chief-justice of the King's Bench, and, in 1685, lord chancellor. His cruelties on the western circuit towards the deluded fol- lowers of the duke of Monmouth were exces- sive ; yet they gave great satisfaction to James 1 1., who, with heartless mirth, called this " Jefferies's campaign." He supported all the arbitrary acts of the court, and rendered him- self so obnoxious to the people, that, when James abdicated the throne, he attempted to leave the kingdom in the disguise of a sailor, but was recognised while drinking in a cellar in Wapping. Perceiving himself discovered, he feigned a cough, and turned to the wall with his pot of beer in his hand ; hut information of his presence being communicated to the mob, they rushed in, and carried him before the lord mayor, who sent him to the lords of council, by whom he was committed to the Tower, where he remained for the rest of his life. b. at Acton, Denbighshire, about 1610; d. in the Tower, 1689. JiiFFERsoy, Thomas, jef-er-son, third pre- sident of the United States, after receiving his education at the college of William and Mary, at Williamsburg, which, at the end of the 18th century, was the capital of Virginia, he studied the law under Mr. Wythe, a celebrated barrister of that day, and, at the age of twenty-four, began to practise at the General Court in 1767. In the stirring events that preceded the Ame- rican revolution, he took a foremost and distin- guished part, though he was never engaged in any military operations. He was governor of Virginia between 1779-81 ; three years after- wards, he was appointed minister to France, and remained at that post during five years. Shortly after his return to America, in 1789, he became secretary of state under the presidency of General Washington. He had lived some time in retirement previous to the year 1796, when he was elected vice-president of the United States. In 1801 he became president, and, after being elected a second time, Ire- tired, in 1809, to his estate near Monticello, in Virginia. Mr. Jefferson was author of a book called " Notes on Virginia." b. at Shadwell, Virginia, 1713 : d. in Virginia, 1826. J effehy, John, jef -fre, an English divine, educated at Catharine Hall, Cambridge. Arch- bishop Tillotson appointed him archdeacon of Norwich, in 1694. He published a volume of sermons, and was the editor of " Christian Morals," a posthumous work, by Sir Thomas Browne, and the sermons of Dr. Whicb.;ote. b. at Ipswich, 1617; D. 1720. Jeffkrys, George, jef-fres, a dramatic and miscellaneous writer, who was educated at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cam- bridge, where he obtained a fellowship. He afterwards studied the law, and was called to the bar, but never practised. His " Miscellanies" in -iroBe and verse contain, among other pieeeSj THE DICTIONARY Jeffrey the tragedies of "Edwin" and "Merope." b. at Waldron, Northamptonshire, 1678 ; d. 1755. Jeffkey, Francis, jef-fre, by courtesy Lord Jeffrey, a distinguished Scotch judge, essayist, and one of the founders of the " Edinburgh He view," was the son of Mr. George Jef- Irey, a clurk-depute of the Court of Session, and at eight years of age was sent to the High School of Edinburgh, where he was remem- bered by a fellow-pupil as "a little, clever, anxious boy, always near the top of his class, >nd who never lost a place without shedding y Mrs. Fletcher, herself an authoress of some mark. Miss Jewsbury's first ■*ork was " Zoc, or the History of Two Lives," it novel full of passion and finely-graduated 56i Joachim character, the success of which fixed her voca- tion as an authoress. This work, which ap- peared in 1845, was followed by a second three years afterwards, called " The Half-Sisters," a novel superior even to the first. In 1850 ap- peared her "Marian Withers," in 1852 the "History of an Adopted Child," and in 1856, the " Sorrows of Gentility," each of which was an advance in art upon its predecessor. Indeed, this lady, by her steady progress towards a high standard of perfection as a novelist, established for herself a sound and lasting reputation. B. at Measham, Warwickshire, about 1820. Jezid I., je'-zid,thc seventh caliph,orsucees8oi of Mohammed, and the second of the race of Om- miades, began his reign in 680. The Arabs, in the second year of his reign, elected Hussein, son of Ali, to the caliphate ; but Jezid caused him to be assassinated. He also persecuted the whole house of Ali, and put a number of persons to death. Jezid, though a cruel tyrant, had a taste for poetry, and wrote some amatory verses of merit, d. 683. J KzzAE,.;'ee poem on her life and death ; Voltaire, witli bad taste, wrote a burlesque and immoral poem on the heroine. B. at Domremy, in Loraine, 1412; burnt at Rouen in 1431. Joan, Pope, a ficlitious character, though the contrary is asserted by Platina, who calls this pope John VIII. There arc several versions of the story. In one it is said that, about the middle of the 9th century, a woman named Juan, born at Mentz, and who had longworn men's clothing, obtained so great a reputation as a doctor, as to be elected to the papal chair on the death of Leo IV. It is further stated, that having be- come pregnant, she was taken in labour, as she was going in procession, between the Colosseum and the church ot St. Clement, and died in the street. In order to avoid the like disgrace, it was said that every new pope was placed in a perforated chair to be examined. The whole of this ridiculous story, however, is now abandon; d as fabulous by Catholics as well as Protesi ants. David Blondel, in particular, published, in 1649, an able refutation of it in a work culled " Fa- miliar Explanation of the Question, Was a Woman seated on the Papal Ihrone, between Leo IV. and Benedict III.?" Joan I., queen of Naples, was the daughter of King Robert ot Naples. At the ago of sixteen she assumed the government, being at the time married to her cousin, Andreas of Hungary. She was a very handsome and accomplished young woman ; but she evinced little sympathy with her husband's tastes and temper. She allowed a number of conspirators, who were all nobles of the court, to murder Andreas, in 1315. Soon after this event she married her relative, Prince Louis of Tarentum; where- upon Louis of Hungary, brother of Andreas, marched with an army to avenge his brother's death. Joan's troops were worsted, and the queen fled to Avignon, where she appeared before Pope Clement VI., and protested her innocence of her husband's murder. The pope and his cardinals acquitted her; and Joan, out of gratitude, presented the pontitf with the see and county of Avignon. A pestilence breaking 662 Jode out soon after at Naples, Louis and his Hun- garians fled; upon which Joan returned to her capital, where herself .and husband were crowned in 1351. Up to the death of her second husband, which took place in 1362, Joan reigned in peace over her subjects. In the same year she married the prince of Majorca, who died in 1376; after this she married her fourth husband, Otho, duke of Brunswick. Having no issue by any of these matrimonial unions, the queen gave her niece Margaret in marriage to Charles, duke of Durazzo, whom she further nominated to be her successor. A schism, between Clement VII. and Urban VI., breaking out soon after, Joan embraced the cause of the former ; whereupon Urban excom- municated her, and proclaimed Charles Durazzo king. Charles, ungrateful to his benefactress, marched against, defeated, and took her pri- soner. After vainly endeavouring to induce Joan to abdicate in his favour, he shut her up in the castle of Muro. Joan, notwithstanding, would not accede; but named Louis of Anjou, brother of Charles V., king of France, as her successor on the throne of Naples. Shortly afterwards Charles caused her to be smothered in her prison, b. 1327; d. 1332. Joan II., queen of Naples, was daughter of Charles Durazzo, and sister of Ladislaus, whom she succeeded in 1414, being at the time forty- four years of age, and notorious for her scanda- lous life, which became still more open and disgr.iei.ful alter her gaining the crown. She married James, count de la Jlarehe, who, how- ever, was suon compelled to retire from the court, proceeding, it is stated, to France, where he took a religious habit and died. A succes- sion of paramours next divided the throne with this weak and wicked queen; murders, court intrigues, and barefaced profligacy reigning supreme at the court. At her death', her king- dom was left in a most miserable condition. b. 1370; d. 1435. Joan*s, or Juanes, Vicente, yoo-a'-nes, a celebrated Spanish painter, who studied in Italy, and, as appears by his works, principally fallowed the Roman school. He was one of the best artists Spain has produced, and is some- times termed the Spanish Rafaelle. His draw- ing is correct, and exhibits numerous in- stances of successful foreshortening; his drape- ries are well arranged ; his colouring generally sombre (he was very fond of chocolate colour) ; and his expression mostly in perfect keeping with his themes, which were generally those of devo- tion or impassioned resignation, such as in his " Baptism of Christ," which is in the cathedral at Valencia. He painted religious subjects ex- clusively, and it is said was so pious that he always took the sacrament before beginning an altar-piece. His best works are in the cathedral of Valencia, where he principally resided, and had many pupils; some good specimens of his style, however, are in the Prado at Madrid. b. in the province of Valencia, 1523 ; d. 1579. J ob at, Louis, zho'-ba, a French Jesuit, re- markable for his knowledge of ancient coins and medals, upon which subject he wrote an elaborate treatise, printed in 1739. b. 1047; d. 1719. Jode, Pieter de, zhode, a celebrated engraver of Antwerp, was instructed in hi* art by Golzius, alter which he studied in France and Italy. His engraving of Cousins' " Last Judg- ment" occupied twelve sheets, altogether about OF BIOGRAPHY. Jodelle sixteen feet square, d. at Antwerp, 1634. — Pieter de, junior, was taught his art by the above, his father. Ho excelled him in some respects, and many of his prints, after portraits by Vandyck and Rubens, are regarded as very valuable by connoisseurs, b. at Antwerp, 1006; d. unknown when. — Arnold de, son of the above, was also an engraver. He is said to have engraved a print, "Mercury instructing Cupid," for Charles I. B. at Antwerp about 1036 ; d. unknown when. Jodellk, Stephen, zho'-del, lord of Lymo- din, a French poet, was the first who wrote tragedies on the Greek model in the French language ; but one of them was so long that it occupied ten mornings in its representation. He also wrote sonnets, elegies, odes, &e. b. at Paris, 1532; d. 1573. Joechkr, Christian Theophilus, zhe(r)'-ker, an erudite German lexicographer, who first studied medicine, but subsequently applied him- self (o theology and the art of oratory, and delivered courses of lectures on rhetoric be- tween 1715 and 1720. He afterwaids filled the chair of philosophy and of history at the univer- sity of Leipsic, and became, in 1742, librarian of the same institution. His principal work is the "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon" (Uni- versal Dictionary of Learned Men), which con- tained upwards of 00,000 names, and was pub- lished in 4 vols, at Leipsic, in 1750. This dictionary has since been re- edited and en- larged on several occasions, b. at Leipsic, 1694; D. 1758. Joffkedy, Geoffrot, or Jouffrot, Car- dinal, zhoof-froi, a celebrated dignitary of the Romish church. At an early age he entered upon a religious vocation, and rapidly rose to the highest posts in his church. On the acces- sion of Louis XL to the throne of France, in 1461, he was bishop of Arras; but, desiring to obtain a cardinal's hat, Pope Pius II., who was anxious to procure the abolition of the " Prag- matic Sanction" promised him the cardinalship if he could induce Louis to repeal that act. He accomplished this task, and obtained the bishop- ric of Alby and was created cardinal, in recom- pence for so doing. Ho also filled many high political posts iimier Louis XI. b. at Franche Comte, about 1120'; d. 1473. Joffkid, jof -frid, abbot of Croyland, in the 12th century. In the continuation of Ingulph's account of Croyland, by Peter de Blois, he says that abbot Jofl'rid sent a deputation of three learned French or Xorman monks, named Odo, Terrick, and William, to his manor of Cotten- ham, near Cambridge, to teach the people in that neighbourhood grammar, logic, and rheto- ric; and that these three monks went every day from Cottenham to Cambridge, where they hired a barn, in which they taught those »ciences to a great number of scholars, who resorted to them from all the country round. If De Blois can be relied on, Joffrid may there- tore be considered as the original founder of the university of Cambridge. Johannot, Alfred, zho-han'-no, a French painter, who designed many excellent pictures, and made a large number of sketches and drawings on wood, in illustration of books. B. IStX); d. 1837.— Tony, a French artist and designer of book-engravings. He was brother of the above, like whom, he also painted many superior pictures; the best of which are — "The Battle of Fontenoy," "The Siesta," and "The 563 John Pillage." His designs upon wood were marked by great skill, refinement, and fancy, and were all in correct drawing. His principal illustra- tions were to " Werther," " Manon Lescaut," "Jerome Paturot," the "Vicar of Wakefield," and the novels of George Sand, many of which have been reproduced in England, b. at Offen- bach, 1803 ; d. 1852. John I., king of England, Jon, surnamed Sansterre, or Lackland, was the fifth son ot Henry II. He deprived his nephew Arthur of the throne, to which he was heir, and confined him in prison at Rouen, where he was mur- dered. The French Court of Peers demanded justice from Philip Augustus of France against the murderer, who was condemned to lose all his lands in that country. The pope also ex- communicated him, and absolved his subjects from their allegiance. He for some time re- sisted the papal authority, but in 1213 made his submission. The English barons invited over Louis, the son of Philip, and crowned him at London in 1216; but he did not continue long in England. John signed the great charter, confirming the national liberties, eon* money called Magna Charta, in 1215 ; his signa- ture being extorted from him by the barons. b. at Oxford, 1166; d. at Newark, 1216. John I., king of France and Navarre, was the posthumous son of Louis X. At his birth he was proclaimed king, but died when only a few days old, upon which the crown devolved upon his uncle, Philip V. b. 1316. John II., surnamed the Good, king of France, succeeded his father, Philip of Valois, in 1350. He obtained a victory over the Eng- lish in 1355; but the year following he was defeated and taken prisoner at Poicticrs by Edward the Black Prince, who sent him to London, where ho remained till the peace of Bretigny, in 1360. His ransom was three million crowns of gold and eight provinces; but, before the sum could be raised, John died suddenly in the Savoy in London, aged forty- five. He was a prince of great courage and virtue. B. 1319; D. 1364. John I., Pope, was a native of Tuscany, and ascended the papal chair on the death of Hor- misdas, in 523. Thcodoric, king of the Goths, a violent Arian, threw him into prison at Ra- venna, where he died in 526. John II. was a Roman, and succeeded Boni- face II. in 532. He opposed the Eutychians and Nestorians, and died in 535. JonN III., a Roman, succeeded Pelagius I. in 500. d. 574. John IV., a native of Dalmatia, was elected to succeed Sevcrinus in 640. d. 012. John V. was a native of Syria, and ascended the papal throne, in succession to Benedict II., 685. j>. the next year. John VI., a Greek, succeeded Sergius T. in 701. He held a council at Rome, to consider the charges by the English clergy against Wil- fred, archbishop of York, who was acquitted. D. 705. JonN VII. was also a Greek, and succeeded the above, d. 707. John VIII., a Roman, was elected to the pontificate on the death of Adrian 11., in 872. lie crowned the emperor Charles the Bald in 875, and, three years after, wont to France, where he held a council at Troycs. In his time Italy was ravaged by the Saracens, who obliged the pope to pay tribute. He corresponded with OO 2 THE DICTIONARY John Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, who had driven Ignatius from his seat and usurped the dignity. John, imposed upon by the pretences of the intruder, acknowledged him patriarch ; but, on discovering his error, excommuni- cated him. d. 882. This pope has been styled the Ninth by those who profess to believe in the existence of Pope Joan, whom they call John VIII. (See Joan, Pope.) Many of his letters are extant. John IX. became pope in 898. d. about 900. John X., archbishop of Ravenna, was elected to the papacy in 915. He was a turbulent pre- late, and defeated the Saracens, who had deso- lated Italy a long time; but he was himself driven from Rome by Guy, duke of Tuscany, who was supported by the Roman people. He was put to death in 927. John XI. was made pope at the age of twenty-five, in 931, through ttie influence of his mother Marozia, wife of Guy, duke of Tus- cany ; but bis brother Alberico afterwards threw both him and her into the castle of St. Angelo, where John died, in 936. John XII., a Roman of noble birth, named Octavianus, was elected pope in 956, and was the first who changed his name on that occa- sion. At that time Berenger tyrannized over Italy, and the pope implored the assistance of the emperor Otho I., who delivered the country . John crowned Otho at Rome, and promised him fidelity, which, however, was of short duration, for he united with the son of Berenger against his deliverer. Otho returned to Home in 963, and called a council, in which the pope was ac- cused of adultery, sacrilege, and olher crimes, which, being proved, he was deposed. On the departure of the emperor, John entered Rome, and exercised dreadful cruelties on his enemies. He was assassinated in 964, by a man whose bed he had defiled. John XIII. was elected pope in 965, through the instrumentality of the emperor Otho, against the will of the Roman people. Peter, prelect of Rome, drove him thence in 966 ; but the emperor restored him, and Peter beeame an exile in his turn. d. 972. John XIV., bishop of Pavia, and chancellor to the emperor Otho II., obtained the papal chair alter Benedict VII., in 983; but three months after his election he was sent to the castle of St. Angelo by the usurper, Pope Boniface, d. of poison, 981. John XV. became pope in 985. d. 996. This pope is styled XVI. by those that maintain he succeeded one of the same name who died a few days alter his election. John XVII. was a Calabrian, and nominated to the papal chair by Crescentius, the Roman consul, in 997. Otho III., however, went to Rome, and put to death Crescentius, and impri- soned John. John XVIII. was elected pope, in succession to Sylvester II., in 1C03. d. four months after his election. John XIX. succeeded the above, d. about 1009. Jontf XX., son of Count Gregory of Tuscany, became pope after his brother Benedict, in 1024. d. 1034. John XXI. was a Portuguese, and the son of a physician. He became pope in 1277, but died eight months after his election. Some works of his on philosophy, medicine, and divinity, are extant. 664 John John XXII. was elected pope, at Lyons, in 1316. He founded several abbeys and bishop- rics, but his pontificate was disturbed by quarrels with the emperor and the Cordeliers, which order the pope endeavoured to suppress. By his works he seems to have been better fitted for a physician than a pope. They are — "Thesaurus Pauperum;" or a Collection of Remedies for the Poor; "Treatise on Disorders of the Eyes ;" " On the Formation of the Foetus ;" " On the Gout ;" " Advice for Pre- serving Health." d. at Avignon, 1334. John XXIII., Cardinal Cossa, a Neapolitan, studied at Bologna, and became chamberlain to Boniface IX., who made him cardinal. He was elected pope in 1410, after the death of Alexander V., during the great schism, and promised to renounce the pontificate, if Gregory XII. and Peter de Luna would drop their pretensions. Not fulfilling his engage- ments, he was deposed by the council of Con- stance, in 1415, and imprisoned at Heidelberg, where he remained three years, and was then released at the request of Martin V d. 1419. John I., surnamed Zimisces, emperor of Con- stantinople, was of an illustrious family. He stabbed the emperor . Nicephorus Phocas, in 969, and obtained many victories over the Russians, Bulgarians, and Saracens. He was poisoned by Basjl, the Eunuch, in 976. John II. (Comnenus) succeeded Alexis Comncnus, his father, in 1118. He gained several battles over the Turks and Servians, and governed with great prudence and libe- rality. He died in 1143, of a wound which he received from a poisoned arrow. John III. (Ducas) was crowned at Niceus, in 1222, at the time when the Latins were in possession of Constantinople. He was a prince of great virtue, gained many battles, defeated the Scythians, Tartars, and Bulgarians, and extended his empire on all sides, d. 1255. John IV. (Lascakis) son of Theodore the Voting, whom he succeeded in 1259, at ttie age of years ; but, in the same year, the despot Michael Paht'ologus deprived him of his crown and his eyes, and imprisoned him for life. D. 1284. John V.(Pal;eoi.ogus) succeeded his father, Andronicus the Younger, in 1341, but his throne was for a long period usurped by John Cantacuzcnus, whose daughter he married, after recovering his throne. His son Andro- nicus revolted against him, the Genoese made themselves masters of the isle of Lesbos, and Amurath I. took the city of Adrianople. d. 1391 John VI. (Cantacuzenus) was the minister and favourite of Andronicus Paheologus, who made him guardian of his children John and Emanuel, with whose mother, Jane of Savoy, he governed for some time with great wisdom and moderation. But, in 1345, he assumed the imperial title in Thrace, and, in 1347, took Constantinople, compelling John Pala:ologus, who had been crowned in 1341, and who bud married his daughter, to retire to Salonika. The exiled monarch, however, with the help of the Genoese, defeated the fleet of the usurper, and obliged him to quit his throne and capital. He then retired to the monastery of Mount Athos, where he devoted himself to literary studies, and wrote a valuable history of the empire, and a defence ">? Christianity against the Mohammedans, 1411. OF BIOGRAPHY. John John VII. (Pai^bologus) succeeded his father Emanuel, in 1425. His reign was very unfortunate, and the Turks made such progress in his dominions, as to reduce him to the necessity of imploring the succour of the Latins. He consented to a union between the two churches, which was performed at the council of Ferrara, in 1439, at which John assisted in person, d. 14-18. John I., king of Portugal, was the natural son of Peter, and, in 1383, ascended the throne, to the prejudice of Beatrice, daughter of Fer- dinand I.| his brother. John L, king of Castile, the husband of that princess, disputed the crown, but was defeated at the battle of Alju- barota, in 1385. He then turned his arms against the Moors of Africa, and took Ceuta and other places, d. 1433. John II. succeeded his father, Alphonso V., in 1481. He discovered several plots that were formed against him at the beginning of his reign, and put the principal conspirators to death. He gained some places in Africa, and distinguished himself in the battle of Toro, against the Castilians, in 1476. His acts pro- cured him the titles of the Great and the Perfect. He- encouraged navigation ; and it was during his reign that llcrnal Diaz sailed round the Cape of Goud Hope; he also de- spatched colonies to India, b. 1455; D.1495. John 111. succeeded his father Emanuel on the throne of Portugal in 1521. He greatly en- couraged navigation, commerce, and the arts. His navigators discovered Japan; and he sent Francis Xaviei to India as a missionary. During his reign a terrible earthquake oc- curred at Lisbon, by which 30,000 persons perished, d. 1557. John IV., called the Fortunate. The Span- iards rendered themselves masters of Portugal in 1580, and kept possession of it till 1640, vhen the Portuguese revolted, and placed the crown on the head of the duke of Braganza, John IV., who held it till his death, in 1656. John V., successor of Peter II., was crowned king of Portugal in 1706. He entered into an alliance with Charles of Austria, who laid claim to the erown of Spain, and fought against Louis XIV. d. 1750. John VI., second son of Peter III., was ap- pointed regent when his mother, Maria I., lost her reason, in 1799. In 1807 he was driven by the French from Portugal ; whereupon he took up his residence in Brazil, with the title of em- peror. On the death of his mother, in 1316, he was proclaimed king, but did not return to Portugal till 1821. d. 1826. John I., king of Castile and Leon, succeeded his father, Henry 11., in 1379, at the age of twenty-one years. He made war in Portugal, for the purpose of placing his son on the throne of that country, but was unsuccessful. He was surnamed " father of his country," for his generous and just rule of his kingdom. i>. 1390. John II., king of Castile and Leon, was son of Henry III., and was proclaimed king when less than two years of age, his uncle Ferdinand being appointed regent. He made war success- fully against the kingdoms of Aragon and Navarre", and the Moors of Granada. He greatly assisted in the restoration of Spanish literature, and was father of the celebrated Isabella and of Henry IV. b. 1405; o. 1151. John 1., king of Aragon, succeeded his 665 John father, Peter IV., in 1387. Throughout his reign he was continually at hostilities with his subjects, whom he governed with great in- justice and severity. John 1 1., king of Aragon and Navarro, was son of Ferdinand the Just, and ascended the throne of Navarre on marrying Blanche, daughter of Charles the Noble, in 1425, and that of Aragon in 1458, after the death of Alphonso, his brother. He was for a long time at war with his son Don Carlos, to whom Blanche, his mother, had left the crown of Navarre at her death, in 1411. He died in 1479, leaving the kingdom to his son, Ferdinand the Catholic. John I., king of Navarre. (See John I., king of France.) John II., king of Navarre. (See John II., king of Aragon.) John III., king of Navarre, married, in 1484, Catherine of Navarre, the heiress to the crown, and through this marriage he obtained the crown of that kingdom in 1491; but being a prince without any energy, lost all his posses- sions with the exception of Beam. He died in France, in 1516, leaving a son, Henry II., titular king of Navarre, whose daughter, Jeanne d'Albrct, was mother of Henry IV. of France. John, king of Bohemia, the son of the em- peror Henry VII., was elected to the throne in 1310, at the age of fifteen. He was a warlike prince, and, after defeating the Lithuanians, assumed the title of king of Poland. He lost an eye in that expedition, and a Jew doctor, who pretended to be able to restore him to sight, de- prived him of the other. His military spirit, however, continued unabated, and he accom- panied Philip of France, in 1346, to the battle of Cressy, where he was guided between two brave knights, each holding his bridle. He fell in that aotion, and was buried at Luxembourg. He was succeeded in his kingdom of Bohemia by one of his sons, who became emperor under the title of Charles I . John I., king of Poland, was the second son of Casimir IV., whom he succeeded in 1492. He was the friend of letters and of peace, and during his reign there were few military events of im- portance. He was succeeded by his son Alex- ander, grand-duke of Lithuania, b. 1459; d. 1501. John II., or John Casimib. (See Ca- simir V.) John III., John Sobieski, king of Poland, was youngest son of James Sobieski, governor of Cracow, and was educated at Paris. In 1665hi was made grand marshal and general of the Polish armies, after which he was appointed master of the royal house, and prelate of Cra- covia. He retook several cities from the re- bellious Cossacks of the Ukraine, and dis- tinguished himself in many gallant actions. In 1673 lie gained the memorable battle of Choozim, upon the Dniester, in which theTurks lost 28,000 men. The year following he was elected king of Poland, on the death of Michael, and likewise compelled theTurks to sue for peace. In 1683 he forced them to raise the siege of Vienna, which otherwise would inevitably have been taken, d. at Warsaw, 1696. John I.,or Joanick, kingof Bulgaria,usurped the throne to the prejudice of his brother's son. The emperor, Baldwin I., having refused the alliance of John, he marched against, defeated, and took him prisoner at Adriauoole. Baldwin THE DICTIONARY John was kept in close confinement, and shortly after- wards died. John subsequently turned his arms against Boniface, marquis of Monferrat, and king of Thcssalonica, but was compelled to beat a retreat. He again resorted to arms on the death of Boniface, in 1207, and had almost reached Thessalonica, when he was assassinated by one of his generals, in 1207. JonN I., king of Sweden, was son of Swerker II., and successor of Eric II. He organized, with small success, an expedition into Ksthonia, for the propagation of Christianity in that country. He was the last of the royal race of Swerker. B. 1222. John II., kingof Sweden and Denmark. (See John I., king of Denmark.) John III., kins of Sweden, was son ofGus- tavus Vasa. He dethroned his brother, Eric XIV., in 1568, on account of his tyranny and cruelties. He terminated the war against Denmark that had been commenced under the previous reiirn, and endeavoured, but unsuccess- fully, to banish Lutheranism from hisdominions, between the years 1570 and 1580. He afterwards made war against Ivan Vasilivitch, and gained over him many advantages, but signed a peace in 1583. He named Sierismund, his son, king of Poland, in 1587. B. 1537; D. 1592. John 1., king of Denmark and Sweden, suc- ceed, d, on the throne of Denmark, Christian I., his fat her, in 1481, dividing the duchy of Holstein with Frederick, his brother. He became king of Sweden in 1183, but the Swedes revolted against him in 1501. He reigned in Denmark till 1513. John I., duke of Brittany, reigned between the years 1237 and 1286. John II. was successor of the above, and ruled from 1286 to 1305. John III., called the Good, reigned from 1312 till 1341. Being without issue, he nominated, to the prejudice of his own brother, John de Montfort, Charles de Blois, to whom he gave his niece in marriage, an act which led to many sanguinary conflicts. JonN IV., more commonly known as John de Montfort, was brother of the preceding. He had already secured from his rival, Charles de Blois, the greatest part of Brittany, when the Court of Peers of France adjudged the duchy to his rival, Charles, in 1311. John surrendered to the duke of Normandy, whom Philip de Valois had sent against him at the head of an army. He was confined for four years at the Louvre. At the cud of that time he contrived to make his escape, and rejoined Joan of Flanders, his wife, who had continued the war with heroic courage. He, however, died a few months afterwards, leaving Biittauy under the rule of Charles, n. 1345. John V., surnamed the Valiant, termed John IV. by those who exclude de Montfort from the dukes of Brittany. He was son of the precedim?, and brought up at the court of Ed- ward III. of England, whose daughter he married. He attacked Charles de Blois, who had dispossessed his father of the duchy of Britt my, and defeated him at Auray in 1361; whereupon Charles acknowledged him to be the rightful duke. d. 1399. John VI. was son of the above, and attained his majority in 1411, being then only fourteen years of age. He assisted the English in their expeditions against the French king, and, in return, Charles VII. aided his rival," the duke John de Penthievre, who, in 1419, drew John into an ambuscade, and kept him prisoner for five years, when he was released by hi3 barons. Incon- stant and feeble, he allied himself in turn with Charles VII. and with Henry VI. of England, who, at that period, was master of almost the whole of France, d. 1442. John, duke of Burgundy and count of Xevcrs, succeeded his father in 1404, at the age of thirty- three. The houses of Burgundy and Orleans at that period disputed the government of France, during the insanity of Charles VI. In 1407 he caused the assassination of the duke of Orleans, and, by that act, became absolute master in Paris ; but it was also the commencement of the fearful internal struggle between the Bur- gundians and the Armagnacs. He was driven from Paris, but re-entered it in 1418, committed many horrible massacres, possessed himself of the king's person, usurped all authority, and favoured, by the troubles he excited, the con- quests of the English in France. He was invited by the dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., to a conference on the bridge of Montereau, and there assassinated by a favourite of Charles, in revenge of the assassination of the duke of Orleans, in 1419. John, secretary to the emperor Honorius, usurped the empire of the West, on the death of his master, in 423, and overran Italy, Gaul, and Spain. Valentinian III., to whom the throne belonged, attacked him, at the head of a large army, and defeated him : he was afterwards taken bj treason at Ilavenna, where he was put to death, in 425. John, surnamed Philoponas, "the lover of study," a learned grammarian of Alexandria, in the 7th century. It is said he was appointed conservator of the celebrated Alexandrian library, and he retained the post till Omar ordered the destruction of the whole by fire. He wrote a treatise on the creation of the world, and edited several of Aristotle's works. i>. about 660. JonN of Abbas, secretary of the duke de Berry, composed, in 13->7, by order of Charles V., and for the amusement of the duchess de Bar, the romance of " Melusine," which was printed lor the first time in 1500. JonN of Austkia, Don, natural son of the emperor Charles V., was brought up without the knowledge of his birth till his father, on his death-bed, had revealed the secret to his son Philip II., king of Spain, who caused John to be brought to his court, and publicly acknowledgi d him as his brother. In 1570 he was sent into Granada against the Moors, where he terminated the war with great glory. The year following, he was appointed by the Christian princes com mander of the fleet against the Turks, am gained the celebrated battle of Lepanto, when the Turks lost 30,000 men and 200 vessels, Jr. 1573 he took Tunis, and in 1576 was m;id« governor of the Low Countries, then in a sta e of revolt. After taking Namur, Charlemont, and Marienburg, he was vigorously opposed by the archduke Matthias and the prince ot Orange. He, however, gained a great battle at Gemblours, in 1577, and died the same year, as is supp< sed, of poison, aged 32. (See J. Lothrop Motley's "Rise of the Dutch Republic.") Casimir Dela- vigne, the celebrated French author, has written a beautiful play on the incidents of Don John's early career, b. at Itatisbon, 1545. John of Bologna, a French sculptor, who OF BIOGRAPHY. John Johnson went In early youth to Rome, for the purpose of jtudyiiisr the exeat masters' works. Having presented to Michael Angelo a statue, finished with all the care of which he was capable, the latter destroyed it, saying that he should learn to carve before he finished. This caused John to work with redoubled ardour, and soon he became one of the best sculptors in Italy. He took up his residence at Bologna, and there executed a great number of works, one of the most celebrated of which is the group, " Rape of the Sabines," exhibited at Florence. The bronze horse in the statue of Henry IV., on the Pont Neuf, at Paris, is also his work. B. at Douai about 1530 ; d. 1608. John of Bruges. (See Etck, John van.) John op Gaunt, or Ghbnt, duke of Lan- caster, was the fourth son of Edward III., king of England. He took, for his second wife, Constance, a natural daughter of Peter the Cruel, king of Castile and Leon, and, on the death of that monarch, laid claim to the throne in right of his wife, in opposition to Henry of Transtamare, but without success. He served with great glory in France, with his brother the Black Prince, and, on the latter's death, had the management of affairs during the life of his father. On the accession of Richard II., he re- tired ; but the envy of the courtiers, particularly the ecclesiastics, who hated him for protecting Wicklill'e, followed him with ialse accusations of a design to usurp the throne, from which he satisfactorily cleared himself. In 1386 his only daughter was married to the heir-apparent of the king of Castile, and John renounced his claim to that crown, in consideration of a con- siderable sum and a pension. He took for his third wife, Catharine Swynford, sister to the wife ot his friend Chaucer, the poet. John of (Jaunt was a man of great valour, prudence, and generosity. His son afterwards became king, bv the title of Henry IV. b. at Ghent, 1310; d. 1399. John of Leyden. (See Hoccold.) John of Pauis, a learned professor of theo- logy in the 13th century. In the dispute be- tween Pope Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair, king of France, he took the part of the latter, and defended his cause with zeal and ability. He also started objections to the doctrine of transubstantiation, for which he was cited to Rome. He wrote,— "He Regia Potestate et Papali;" " DeJlodo existendi Corporis Christi in Sacramento Altaris." ». 1301. John of Salisbury, a learned English monk of the 12th century, became bishop of Chartres, in France, about 1161. lie studied at Oxford, but also visited Paris, where he at- tended the lectures of Abelard. He likewise went to Italy, and, at Rome, lived some time under the patronage of Pope Adrian IV. On his return to England, he became secretary to Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, whom he accompanied in his exile to France. After the tragical death of a Becket, he became bishop of Chartres. In learning he is said to have had no living superior, and wrote several valuable works on theology, politics, and philo- sophy, b. at Salisbury, about 1119 ; i>. at Chartres, 1182. Jon.v, St., Chrysostom. (See Citrysostoh.) Joiinks, Thomas, jons, an English gentleman distinguished for his attachment to literary pursuits, was educated at Eton and Jesus Col- lege, Oxford; and was member of parliament W>7 for Cardigan, and afterwards for Radnorshire. At an estate he possessed at Hafod, in Cardi- ganshire, he built a splendid mansion, furnishing it with a magnificent library, and a complete typographical establishment, where his literary works were printed. He translated the Chro- nicles of Froissart and Monstrelet, "Join- ville's Memoirs of Louis X. of France" (St. Louis); " Bertrand de la Brocquiere's Travels in Palestine," and St. Palaye's " Life of Frois- sart." His original writings were not numerous or important, b. at Ludlow, Shropshire, 1718; d. 1-16. JonxsoN, Thomas Jon'-»o!j,anEnglish botanist, became an apothecary in London, and, accord- ing to Wood, was the best herbalist of his age. He wrote the first local catalogue of plants pub- lished in England. But his great work was an improved edition of Gerard's " Herbal." In the civil wars he entered the royalist army, and the university of Oxford conferred on him the degree of M.D. At the siege of Basing House, he received a wound of which he died. Besides the above, he wrote a treatise on the hot springs of Bath, and other pieces, b. at Selby, York- shire, 1561 ; d. 1614. Johnson, Samuel, an English divine, who was educated at St. Paul's School, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1670, he ob- tained the living of Corringham, in Essex, but resided in London, where he made himself con- spicuous in opposing the succession of the duke of York, afterwards James II., and the measures of the court. Having written a book against the doctrine of passive obedience, under the title of "Julian the Apostate," in which the duke was attacked, he was condemned to pay a fine of five hundred marks. When the army was encamped on Hounslow Heath, he pub- lished a remonstrance to the soldiers in behalf of the Protestant religion, for which he was sentenced to stand twice in the pillory, to pay a heavy fine, to be degraded from his function, and whipped from .Newgate to Tyburn. This sentence was rigorously inflicted, but at the Revolution the Parliament declared the pro- ceedings illegal. He was also rewarded with a pension, and was offered the deanery of Durham, which he considered as inadequateto his merits. b. in Warwickshire, 1619; d. 1703. Johnson, Jlartin, a landscape-painter of great, merit in the reign of James II., whose views in England being scarce and valuable, arc only to belound in the collections of connoisseurs. Johnson, Richard, an English grammarian, who was head-master of the New School at Nottingham from 1707 to 1720. He published, " Noctes Nottinghamica?," and " Grammatical Commentaries." He was a Master of Arts, but of what university does not appear. He drowned himself in a lit of despondency in a rivulet near Nottingham, in 1720. Johnson, John, a learned divine, was edc- cated at Cambridge, where he became fellow of Corpus Christi College. Archbishop Sancroft gave him two livings in Kent, and archbishop Tenison presented him to that of .Margate. Ho had also the vicarage of Cranbrook. He was twice chosen proctor in convocation for the diocese of Canterbury. On the accession of George I. he refused to take the oaths, but afterwards submitted. He wrote, — "TheClergy- man's Vade-Mecum;" "A Collection of Ecclesi- astical Laws, Canons, &e.;" "The unbloody Sacrifice and AltaT unveiled and supported;" THE DICTIONARY Johnson " A Paraphrase on the Psalms in the Liturgy." n. near Rochester, 1662; D. 1725. Johnson, Charles, a lawyer and dramatic writer, who acquired some wealth by his plays, and having married a wealthy widow, set up a tavern in How Street, Covent Garden. Pope ridiculed him in his " Dunciad," on account of his unusual size. b. 1679 ; d. 1748. Johnson, Thomas, a learned Englishman, who for some time was engaged at Eton, and afterwards set up a school at Brentford. He produced editions of Sophocles and other an- cient authors. B. about 1675 ; d. about 1750. JonNSON, Maurice, an English antiquary, who was educated as a barrister. He established a literary society at Spalding, in 1712, and, in 1717, was one of the revivers of the Antiquarian So- ciety, to which he scut numerous contributions. B.at Spalding, Lincolnshire, about 1687; d. 1755. Johnson, Samuel, first president of King's College, New York, was educated at the college of Saybrook; first preached at West Haven, then became an episcopalian, and went to England to obtain ordination. On his return to America he settled at Stratford, where he preached to an episcopalian congregation ; received the degree of D.D. from Oxford, in 1743; and was chosen president of the college at New York on its establishment in 1754. He held this situation with much credit, until 1763, when he resigned and returned to his pastoral charge at Stratford, where he continued till his death, u. at Guild- ford, Connecticut; d. 1772. Johnson, Samuel, a dramatic writer and per- former of eccentric character, was the author of " Hurlothrumbo, or the Supernatural," and various other laughable extravaganzas, d. 1773. Johnson, Samuel, a learned English critic, lexicographer, and miscellaneous writer, was the son of a bookseller at Lichfield. His edu- cation was commenced at the free school of Lichfield, and in 1728, he was admitted of Pembroke College, Oxford; but being too poor to remain at the university, he, in 1731, quitted it without a degree. He soon afterwards lost his father, who left him in such poor circum- stances that he sought the post of usher of a school at Market-Bosworth, Leicestershire, where, however, he did not continue- long. He next resided with a printer at Birmingham, where he translated Lobo's account of Abys- sinia. In 1735 he married Mrs. Porter, a widow lady of that town, who was possessed of tlie sum of £800; and with this capital he the same year opened a school at Edial, near Lich- field; but he obtained only three scholars, one of whom was David Garrick. About this time he began his tragedy of "Irene." In 1737 he set out for the metropolis, accompanied by Garrick. On fixing his residence in London, he formed a connexion with Cave, the publisher uf the "Gentleman's Magazine," for which work hewrole during several years, his principal employment being an account of the parlia- mentary debates. At this period he contracted an intimacy with Richard Savage, whoso name he has immortalized by one of the finest pieces of biography ever written. In 1749 appeared his " Vanity of Human Wishes," an imitation of Juvenal's tenth Satire. Two years previ- ously, lie had printed proposals for an edition of Snakspeare, and the plan of his English dic- tionary addressed to Lord Chesterfield. The price agreed upon betweenh'mself and the book- Johnson sellers for the last work was £1575. In 1749Gar- rick produced his friend's tragedy upon the stage of Drury Lane Theatre, but it was unsuc- cessful. In 1750 he commenced his " Rambler," a periodical paper, which was continued till 1752. In this work only five papers were the production of other writers. About the period of his relinquishing the " Rambler," he lost his wife, a circumstance which greatly affected liim. as appears from his " Meditations," and tho sermon which he wrote on her death. In 1754 he visited Oxford. The next|-car appeared his dictionary, which, instead of three, had occupied eight years. Lord Chesterfield endeavoured to assist it by writing two papers in its favour in the " World :" but, as he had hitherto neglected the author, Johnson treated him with contempt. The publication of his great work did not relieve him from his embarrassments, for the price of his labour had been consumed in the progress of its compilation, and the year fol- lowing we find htm under an arrest for five guineas, from which he was released by Richard- son, the printer. In 1758 he began the " Idler," which was published in a weekly newspaper. On the death of his mother, in 1759, he wrote the romance of " Rasselas," to defray the ex- penses of her funeral, and to pay her debts. In 1762, George III. granted him a pension of £300 per annum. In 1763, Boswell, his future biographer, was introduced to him, a circum- stance to which we owe the most minute account of a man's life and character that has ever been written. Boswell, though a very ordinary mor- tal, has immortalized himself by this perform- ance. In his book, everything about Johnson is supplied to us ; in Lord Macaulay's words, we have "his coat, his wig, his figure, his face, his scrofula, his St. Vitus's dance, his rolling walk, his blinking eye, the outward signs which too clearly marked the approbation of his dinner; his insatiable appetite for fish-sauce and veal pie, with plums ; his inextinguishable thirst for tea; his trick of touching the posts as he walked; his mystcriouspractice of treasuring up scraps of orange-peel ; his morning slumbers; his midnight disputations ; his contortions ; his mutterings ; his gruntings ; his puffings ; his vigorous, acute, and ready eloquence; his sar- castic wit; his vehemence; his insolence ; his fits of tempestuous rage; his queer inmates — old Mr. Levett and blind Mrs. Williams, the eat 1 lodge, and the negro Frank — all are a* familiar to us as the objects by which we have been surrounded from childhood." Johnson had the honour of a conversation with the king in the royal library, in 1765, when his majesty asked if he intended to publish any more works To this he answered, that he thought he had written enough ; on which the king said, " So should I too, if you had not written so well." About this time he instituted the Literary Club, consisting of some of the most celebrated men of the age. In 1773 he went on a tour with Boswell to the western islands of Scotland, of which journey he shortly afterwards published an account, which occasioned a controversy be- tween him and Macphcrson, relative to the poems of Ossian. In 1775 the university of Oxford sent him the degree of LL.D., which diploma, ten years before, had been conferred on him by the university of Dublin. In 1779 he began his "Lives of the English Poets," which was the last of his literary labour*. Aft'-r a long illness, during part of which he Of BIOGRAPHY. Johnston nad fearful apprehensions of death, his mind became calm, composed, and resigned, and he died full of that faith which he had so vigorously defended and inculcated in his writings. His remains were interred in Westminster Abbey, and a statue, with an appropriate inscription, has been erected to his memory in St. Paul's Cathedral. A complete list of his works is prefixed to Boswell's " Life." As a writer, few have done such essential service to his country, by fixing its language and regulating its morality. In his person he was large, robust, and unwieldy ; in his dress he was singular and slovenly; in conversation positive, and impatient of contradiction. But with all his singularities he had an excellent heart, full of tenderness and compassion, and his actions were the result of principle. He was a stout advocate for truth, and a zealous champion of the Church of Eng- land, b. at Lichfield, 1709 ; d. in London, 1784. Johnson, Andrew, a self-educated man, who became president of the United States from April, 1865, to March, 1869, served his appren- ticeship to a tailor in early years, and worked as a journeyman for a long period of his life. After holding various offices of minor impor- tance, he was returned to Congress forTenncsset in 1843, becoming governor of this state in 1855 and 1857, and a member of the United States Senate in 1863. In 1864, when Abraham Lin- coln was elected president for the second time, he was chosen vice-president, and succeeded to the presidency on the murder of Lincoln in 1865. B. 1808; i). 1875. Johnson, Reverdy, a distinguished American statesman, and member of the American bar, who succeeded Mr. C. F.Adams as U. S. ambas- sador to England in 1868, an'i arranged with Lord Stanley a treaty for the settlement of the "Alabama" claims, b. about 1800; d. 1876. Johnston, George, a modern English natu- ralist, commenced his medical education as the apprentice of Dr. Abercrombic ; and sub- sequently practised as surgeon at Berwick- upon-Tweed. While at Edinburgh he was an attentive student of natural history, and con- tinued afterwards to follow up the pursuit. In 1838 ho published his " History of British Zoo- phytes," and four years afterwards his "History of British Sponges" appeared. He contributed many valuable articles, chiefly on the lower forms of animal life, to the Transactions of various provincial scientific societies, to the " Magazine of Zoology and Botany," and to the "Annals of Natural History." In 1850 he pro- duced one of his best works — the "Introduction to Oonchology, or Elements of the Natural His- tory of Molluscous Animals," and soon after- wards put forth an interesting work "On the Botany of the Eastern Borders." The latter portion of his life was visited with some severe triais, under which his mind gave way. b. 1708; D. 1855. Johnston; or JonNSON, Charles, an inge- nious writer, and a native of Ireland, was bred to the bar, and went over to England to practise ; but being afllicted with deafness, was compelled to quit that profession. His first literary at- tempt was the famous " Chrysal, or the Adven- Jures of a Guinea;" a political romance, in ivhich the leading characters were drawn from real life, and from their being generally known, produced a great sensation. This work having been exceedingly well received, the author pro- duced others of • similar class, viz., " The 669 Johnston Reverie, or a Flight to the Paradise of Fools," 2 vols. ; " The History of Arbaces, Prince of Bctlis," 2 vols.; " The Pilgrim, or a Picture of Life," 2 vols. ; and the " History of John Juni- per, Esq., alias Juniper Jack," 3 vols. In 1782 he went to India, where he engaged in literary and other speculations, and obtained consider- able wealth, d. 1800. Johnston, J as. J. F.W., an eminent modern chemist. Under circumstances by no means favourable, he succeeded in obtaining an educa- tion that enabled him to gain his livelihood by giving private instruction to pupils of the uni- versity of Glasgow. Removing to Durham, in 1825, he opened a school there. Five years later he married a young lady, whereby his cir- cumstances were so much improved that he was enabled to retire from teaching, and give him- self up entirely to chemistry, in pursuit of which intention he went to Sweden, where he became the pupil of the great chemist Berzellus. In 1833, upon the establishment of the Durham University, he was invited from abroad, to assume the readership of chemistry and mine- ralogy in the new seat of learning. Shortly afterwards he went to Edinburgh, and was ap- pointed chemist to the Agricultural Society of Scotland, but eventually resided exclusively at Durham, where he commenced a series of works on chemistry as applied to agriculture, which have become famous throughout the world. His "Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry" has passed through thirty-six editions, and has been translated into every European language. A similar work was his " Lectures on Agricul- tural Chemistry and Geologj#' Having tra- velled in the New World, he published "Notes on North America," in which much valuable information is given as to the agriculture of that country. He was peculiarly qualified to make scientific knowledge attractive to the ordinary reader, as was evidenced by the vast circulation of his " Chemistry of Common Life," one of his latest works. He also wrote scien- tific articles for the " Edinburgh Review," and contributed to the Transactions of many learned societies. He was fellow of the Royal Society, and member of many other learned bodies. b. at Paisley, 1796 ; d. at Durham, 1853. JonNSTON, Alexander Keith, an eminent modern geographer, whose first studies were directed towards fitting him for the pursuit of medicine; but a strong predilection lor de- sign caused him to become apprenticed to an engraver. From early youth he was an atten- tive student of geography, and, in order to make himself master of all that was to be learned with respect to it, he acquired, in succession, French, Italian, Spanish, and German. The result of so much well-directed industry, was the publi- cation, in 1843, of his first great geographical work, "The National Atlas," in folio, which procured for him election as fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and the appointment of geographer to the queen in Scotland. A close study of the writings of Humboldt, and other great German and French writers on his favourite art, enabledhim to produce, in 1848, his " Physical Atlas," a splendid work, characterized by the " Rullctin of the Paris Geographical Society," as " one of the most magnificent monuments which the scientific genius of the 19th century has raised." He was soon after- wards made honorary member of the Geogra- phical Societies of Paris and Berlin, He w»* THE DICTlON-AUt Johnston likewise elected fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, to whose papers he contributed "An Historical Notice of the Survey of Scot- land." The " Dictionary of Geography" was his next work, first published in 1851, and since produced in an enlarged and corrected form. The president of the Geographical Society spoke thus, in 1856, of his great work: — "Our associate Mr. Alexander Keith Johnston has completed the new edition of his superb 'Physi- cal Atlas.' The publication of the first edition of this great work, ten years since, had the effect of introducing in this country almost a new era in the popular study of geography, through its attractive and instructive illustra- tion of the prominent features of suience. The second edition is, to some extent, an entirely new work, owing to the additions and improve- ments which have been introduced and the addition of «i large general index adds materially to the utility of this extensive com- pendium of natural geography." In addition to the above great works, he produced an " Atlas of the Historical Geography of Europe ;" a smaller " Physual Atlas," in 4to; a number of educational works on classical, general, and physical geography; an " Astronomical Atlas,'.' assisted by Mr. Hind ; the " Iioyal Atlas of Modern Geography," and the " Handy Royal Atlas,'' a reduced copy of the preceding, b. at Kirkhill, in Midlothian, 1804 j d. 1871. Johnstone, George, a naval commander, was the son of a Scotch baronet, and devoted him- self to the sea-service. After passing through the subordinate rauks, he was, in 1760, made master and commander, and, in 1762, post- captain. He was subsequently appointed go- vernor of West Florida, and, on his return to England, took an active part in the alfairs of the East India Company, particularly in opposi- tion to Lord Clive. In 1771 he wrote "Thoughts on our Acquisitions in tho East Indies." He sat in Parliament first for Coekermouth and afterwards for Appleby, and had a duel with Lord George Germaine, through some reflec- .tions which fell from him in the House respect- ing his lordship. He was one of the com- misssioners sent to treat with the Americans. D. 1787. Johnstone, Chevalier de, an adherent of the Pretender, was the son of a merchant at Edin- burgh, and having at an early age evinced an inclination for a military life, and having been brought up in Jacobite principles, he left Edin- burgh privately on the breaking out of the re- bellion in 1745, and joined the insurgents. He was appointed aide-de-camp to Prince Charles Edward; fought at the battle of Preston Pans; and raised an independent company, with which he served throughout the campaign. After the battle of Culloden, he sought safety in flight ; and, disguised as a pedlar, travelled through England, and at length escaped to the Conti- nent. He subsequently entered into the service of France, and acted in the capacity of aide-de- camp in Canada ; on the conquest of which by the British he returned to France, and died there at an advanced age. b. 1720. His "Me- moirs of the Rebellion in 1745 and 1746," which occupied his latter years, is a very interesting work. JonNsroNE, James, a physician and physio- logical writer, studied at Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.I), in 1750; and settled at Kiddermin-ter, where he acquired considerable I 670 Johnstone reputation by his successful treatment of a ma- lignant fever then raging there, and by having discovered the good effects arising from the use of mineral acids, in counteracting conta- gion ; his claim to the merit of this discovery, however, has been disputed. Dr. Johnstone subsequently,removed to Worcester. He was the author of "Medical Essays and Observa- tions," " Disquisitions relating to the Nervous System," and also several medical papers in the "Philosophical Transactions." b. at Annan, Dumfriesshire, 1730; r>. at Worcester, 1802. Johnstone, Dr. Bryce, an eminent Scotch divine, was a son of John Johnstone, Esq., a highly respectable magistrate of Annan in Dumfriesshire. He entered the university of Edinburgh in 1762 ; in 1771 he was appointed minister of Holywood ; and in 1786 the degree of D.D. was conferred on him. He was the author of a " Commentary on the Revelation of St. John the Divine," 2 vols. 8vo ; an " Essay on the Influence of Religion on Civil Society and Civil Government;" and some valuable ser- mons. He also assisted Sir John Sinclair in dravving up the statistical account of Scotland ; and greatly contributed towards the improve- ment of the agricultural and social condition of his native country, b. 1747; d. 1805. Johnstonb, John Henry, a celebrated comic actor and vocalist, was born in Tippcrary, Ireland, where his father was a small farmer. At the age of eighteen he enlisted in a regiment of Irish dragoons, and soon attracted the notice of his comrades by his fine voice and good-hu- moured liveliness. The colonel of the regiment having had proofs of Johnstone's vocal powers, and hearing that he had an inclination for the stage, granted him his discharge, and gave him a recommendatory letter to Mr. Ryder, then manager of the Dublin theatre, who engaged him for three years, at two guineas per week, which was soon raised to four. His fame as a vocalist increased rapidly ; and having mar- ried a Miss Poitier, who possessed a thorough knowledge of the science of music, he profited by her instructions, and soon became a finished singer. Macklin, the famous actor, advised him to try the London boards, and wrote 9 letter to Mr. Harris, of Covent Garden, so strongly in his favour, that he engaged John- stone and his wife, for three years, at a salary of £14, £16, and £18 per week. He accordingly made his appearance at Covent Garden Theatre, in October, 1783. There were, however, other aspirants for vocal fame at that time on the stage; and though Johnstone continued to sing for several seasons with undiminished success, he perceived that a better field was open for him in the personation of Irish characters. His ut- most efforts were therefore directed to that end ; and it was soon found that his native humour, rich brogue, and fine voice carried him to a pitch of excellence in the path he had chosen which left every competitor far behind, lie quitted Covent Garden for Drury Lane, in 1803, and in the summer of that year visited Dublin, where, martial law being then in force, the com- pany performed in the daytime. On his return from Ireland his wife died ; and he married Miss Boulton, by whom he had a daughter, who after- wards became Mrs. Wallack. Few public per- formers have passed a long career with such uninterrupted snecea? as John Henry Johnstone. As an actor, he stood alone in his peculiar path, personating his buoyant and blundcringcountry- OP BIOGRAPHY. Joinville men, both patrician and plebeian, with a degree of fidelity quite unequalled. He was of prudent habits, and acquired a considerable fortune, which enabled him to enjoy life in a free, frank, and generous sociability with his friends, b. 1750 ; d. 1S28. Johnstone, John, M.D., a distinguished physician of Hirmingham, who acquired a high reputation for his success in treating fevers, jnd for the sparing use he made of medicine. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, was the intimate friend of Dr. Parr, whose lite he wrote, a performance which shows that Dr. Johnstone was as distinguished for literary ability and fearless advocacy of what he believed to be truth as he was for his professional skill. He also wrote several treatises on medical sub- jects; was a member of the Royal College of Physicians, and was held in high estimation for his professional ability, general acquirements, and amiable character. He was the son of Dr. James Johnstone of Worcester, in which city he was born, in 1763 ; d 1836. Joinville, John, Sire or Lord de, zhivoin'- veel, a French historian, was counsellor and friend to Louis IX., king of France, whom he accompanied in his first crusade in 1248, sharing his captivity after the battle of Massoura, in which Louis and his army were taken prisoners. On the king's return to France, Joinville received a pension, and was constantly retained near his majesty's person. His "History of St. Louis IX., King of France," is a valuable and interest- ing work, wherein the simple grandeur of the good king's character is minutely painted. The best French edition is that by Dueange, which was translated into English by Johnes, in 1S07. b. about 1221; D. about 1319. Joixvii.le, Francois Ferdinand Philippe Louis \< arie d'Orlcans, Prince de, was third son of the late king of the French, Louis Philippe. When he had completed his education, he was appointed to the French navy, and made several voyages on the coasts of France and Italy, after which he underwent a public examination at the naval school of Brest. In 1836 he became lieutenant, and in 1837 joined his brother, the duke de Nemours, at Constantino, Algeria, soon after the taking of that city. During the war with Mexico, in 1838, he courageously engaged the batteries of St. Jean d'Ulloa, with his corvette the Creole ; and, shortly afterwards, at the head of his sailors, stormed the gate of Vera Cruz, and took prisoner General Arista ; for which he received the cross of the Legion of Honour, and was appointed post-captain. In 1841 he brought to France from St. Helena the remains of .Napoleon I. In 1843 he married, at Kio Janeiro, the Princess Franccsea of liraganza, sister of Don Pedro II., and was the same year promoted to rear-admiral. In 1815 he com- manded the fleet that bomba:ded Tangiers and captured Mogador, upon which he became vice- admiral. During the events of 1848, he was at sea before Algiers. Surrendering his command to the republicans, he joined his exiled family at Claremont, and lived in retirement till the civil war in America broke out, when he accom- panied his nephews, the comte dc Paris and the due de Chartres, to that country, where he remained till the young princes resigned their appointments on the staff of General M'Clellan after the battles on the Chickahominy in 18<>2, anil returned with them to Europe. He pub- lished, in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," sovc- Jomini ? ral sketches on the French navy, besides a ' pamphlet on the feasibility of invading Eng- land, which caused considerable sensation at the time. b. at Neuilly, 1818. Jolivet, Jean Baptiste Moyse, Count de, zho'-le-vai, previous to the great French revo- ' lution was an advocate, and having been elected to the Lcsislative Assembly, he, in 1792, had the boldness to denounce the Jacobin club, and was fortunate enough to escape the perils of that dangerous epoch. He was made a member of the Council of State after the rise of Napo- leon, and was charged with the organization of four new departments created on the left bank of the Rhine. Having successfully performed this duty, he was, on his return to Paris, made a commandant of the Legion of Honour, and continued to hold the office of Councillor of State till 1814. He was the author of several works on statistics and finance, b. 1754; d. 1818. Jolt, Claude, zlw'-le, a French political writer, was at first a lawyer; but was after- wards made precentor of the cathedral at Paris. He wrote a book entitled *' Maxims for the Education of a Prince," vhich, speaking too boldly of the rights of the people, was burnt by the hangman, in 1655. b. at Paris, 1607; d. at the same place, 1700. Jolt, Guy, nephew of the preceding, was, for some time, the secretary and confidential friend of Cardinal de Retz; but, quarrelling with him, attached himself to the court party. He wrote some "Historical Memoirs" about 1665, which wore intended to give the opposite view of the questions referred to in the memoirs of Cardinal de Ketz. Jolt, Marc Antoine, a French comic author, who became, in 1753, censor-royal. He wrote, among other plays, the " School of Lovers," and "The Jealous Wife." b. at Paris, 1672: d. 1753. Jolt, Marie Elisabeth, a distinguished French actress, who commenced her career on the stage in 1781, and soon attained an eminent position in her profession. She especially excelled in representing the soubrettes of the French drama. She was imprisoned, among other po- litical victims, in 1793, but was liberated on condition of performing at the Theatre of the Republic. She only survived her liberation a few years, b. at Versailles, 1761 ; n. 1798. Jomelli, Nicolo, yo'-mel-le, an Italian mu- sical composer, who produced his first opera at ■ Naples, when twenty-three years old, which brought him so much fame, that he was soon afterwards summoned to Rome, where he be- came the especial favourite of the cardinal duke of York. He afterwards visited Venice and Vienna; at the latter place being engaged as teacher of music to the empress Maria Theresa. He wrote upwards of forty operas, which art now seldom heard ; but his " Mass for the Dead" is considered among the best works of its kind, being often played in Roman Catholic churches, b. near Maples 1714; d. 1771. Jomini, Henri, Baron, zho-ms'-ne, a French military historian and general, was educated for commercial pursuits, and lor several years was employed in a merchant's office. In 1795 he obtained a command in the Swiss militia, and rose so rapidly in it, that he was a lieutenant- colonel at 20; but, on the French invasion of Switzerland, he lost his rank : whereupon he set uut for Paris in search of employment. He THE DICTIONARY Jonas had already established himself as a stockbroker in Paris, when he became acquainted with General Ney, who, discovering his great quali- fications for military study, obtained for him an appointment which allowed him leisure to pursue it. When only 25, he wrote the early portion of his " Traite' des Grandes Operations Militaires," upon which Ney obtained a post for him in the army, and soon afterwards ap- pointed him his aide-de-camp, and he accom- panied his patron through his campaigns during the few ensuing years, distinguishing himself by his bravery and skill. At the battle of Jena, in particular, he rendered good service to Ney, for which he was made a baron. In 1808 he marched with Ney into Spain, but fell under the displeasure of that general in the fol- lowing year, and was superseded. Intending to enter the Russian army, he now applied to be discharged ; but Napoleon refused, and made him a brigadier instead. Soon afterwards, he was appointed to write the history of the grand army then about to invade Russia, and through- out the campaign exhibited such great talent, that Ney, after the battle of Bautzen, requested the emperor to make him general of division ; but Napoleon found some cause for displeasure in his conduct, and again superseded him. Mortified at this treatment, Jomini resolved to 3nter the Russian service, and soon after- wards was made lieutenant-general therein, but never took an active part against Napoleon. Meanwhile, he was tried by court-martial, and, In his absence, condemned to death by the French. In 1815 he went to Paris, where he strove, by every possible means, to prevent the execution of his old benefactor, Marshal Ney. He subsequently went to reside in Russia, and occupied himself with the composition of mili- tary works, which have since become great text-books of the science of war. The czar of Russia allowed Jomini to settle in Brussels in 1855. His chief works are, " History of the Wars of Frederick II.," " Principles of Stra- tegy," "Political and Military Life of Napo- leon," "Treatise on the Art of War," and "The Military Atlas." b. at Paycrnc, in the canton of Vaud, 1779 ; d. 1869. Jonas, Arngrim, jo'-nan, a native of Ice- land, and a wnter of some philosophical and historical works, was coadjutor to Gundcbrand, bishop of Holum, who was a disciple of Tycho Brahc. Jonas refused the see of Holum after the death of his friend, b. 1545; d. 1640. Jonas, Justus, a learned Protestant, who be- came principal of the college of Wittenberg, assisted Mclancthon at Marpurg, and zealously defended the doctrines of Luther, b. in Thu- ringia, 1493; d. 1555. Jones, John, jones, an English physician, who wrote "The Dial of Agues," 1556; "A Dis- course of the Natural Beginning of all Growing and Living Things;" and translated Galen's four books of Elements, d. about 1580. Jones, John, a Welsh antiquary, who con- tinued transcribing old manuscripts for about forty years, as appears from some of his volumes dated from 1590 to 1630. Of his collection above fifty large volumes are still in existence. Jones, Richard, a Welsh divine, who com- piled, in his native language, a curious work, called " Gemma Cambricum," containing a sum- mary of all the books and chapters of the Bible. He matriculated at Jesus College, Oxford, in 1621. D. in Ireland, about 1652. 672 Jones Jones, Inigo, a famous English architect, of whose youth very little is known, till he at- tracted, by his skill in drawing, the notice of William, earl of Pembroke, who sent him to Italy, where he acquired a great knowledge of architecture. James I. appointed him surveyor- general of the works, and, in the succeeding reign, he had charge of the rebuilding of St. Paul's cathedral. He was also made manager of the masques and interlades at court, which brought upon him the satire of Ben Jonson, who ridiculed him in his comedy of " Bartholo- mew Fair," under the name of Lantern Leather- head. He suifered considerably for his loyalty in the time of the great civil war. In 1655 he wrote " A Discourse on Stonchenge," in which he attempted to prove that it had been the Roman temple of Ccelus. He designed the palace of Whitehall and the banqucting-house, the church and piazza of Covent Garden, and other buildings. His designs were published in 1727, -folio, and others in 1714, folio, b. in London about 1573; ». 1653. Jones, Sir Thomas, lord chief justice of the Common Pleas in the reigns of Charles II. and James II. When this last monarch consulted him on his dispensing power, and said that he could soon have twelve judges of his opinion, Sir Thomas answered, " Twelve judges you may possibly find, sire, but not twelve lawyers." Jones, William, an English mathematician, settled in London as a schoolmaster, and, having instructed Lord Macclesfield's son in mathe- matics, that nobleman made him his secretary, and appointed him deputy-teller of the Exche- quer. He was very intimate with Sir Isaac Newton, and was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote " A Compendium of the Art of Navigation," " A New Introduction to Mathe- matics," some papers in the "Philosophical Transactions," and an analysis of several of Sir Isaac Newton's papers, b. in the Isle of Anglesca, 1680 ; d. 1749. Jones, Jeremiah, a learned dissenting divine, who became minister of a congregation at Avening, in Gloucestershire. He wrote, in 1719, "A Vindication of St. Matthew's Gospel," " A new and full Method of settling the Canoni- cal Authority of the Old Testament;" which works were reprinted at the Clarendon press, Oxford. Jones, Henry, a dramatic writer, was origi- nally a bricklayer. Some of his poetical attempts attracting the notice of Lord Chesterfield, then lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he took him under his patronage, and brought him to London, where he published his poems by subscription, and produced his tragedy of the " Earl of Essex," which gained him wealth and reputa- tion, b. in Ireland, about 1720; d. 1770. Jones, Griffith, was many years editor of the " London Chronicle," and other papers. He was proprietor of the " Literary Magazine," and, with his brother, projected those useful publications for children, which were so suc- cessfully printed by that Mr. Newberry to whom Dr. Johnson introduced Goldsmith. b. 1721 ; d. 1786. Jones, David, a Welsh poet, who edited two volumes of Welsh poetry, and collected a large number of ancient MSS. in that language. D. about 1785. Jones, Paul, a naval adventurer, who had been a common sailor in some vessels that left the port of Kirkcudbright, but settled in OF BIOGRAPHY. Jones America in 1773, and subsequently obtained the oommand of an American ship under Commo- dore Hopkins, and distinguished himself in several engagements, for which he received his commission as captain of the marine. He then sailed to France, and being well acquainted with the Scotch coast and the northern part of Eng- land, he conceived the design of effecting a descent. He accordingly landed at Whitehaven, and, having dismantled a fort, set fire to some shipping in the harbour. Thence he sailed for the opposite coast of Scotland, where he landed on the estate of the earl of Selkirk, and plun- dered his lordship's house of all the plate. He next took the Drake sloop of war, with which he returned to Brest. He afterwards sailed round Ireland to the North Sea, with three ships — the ltichard, Pallas, and Vengeance. Having committed great mischief on that coast, he fell in with the Baltic fleet, convoyed by the Serapis frigate and the Countess of Scarborough armed ship, both which, after a severe action, he captured oil' Flamborough Head. For these services the king of France conferred on him the order of Merit, and gave him a gold-hilted sword. His active career finished with the American war, and some private affairs calling him to Europe, he resided at Paris till his death. b. in Scotland, 1747; d. 1792. Jones, Sir William, an Indian judge and learned Oriental writer. Losing his father in his infancy, his education devolved on his mother, a woman of great virtue and under- standing, from whom he learned the rudi- ments ol knowledge, and was then removed to Harrow school, where he made such great progress in his studies, that Dr. Sumner, the niasti r, affirmed that his pupil knew more Greek than himself; a previous master hav- ing said, " If Jones were lift naked on Salisbury plain, lu would nevertheless find the road to fame." In 170-1 he was entered at University College,Oxlord, where to his classical pursuits he added the study of the Persian and Arabic languages, also the Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese. At the age of nineteen he became tutor to Lord A 1 thorp, and, during his residence at Wimbledon, in Karl Spencer's family, he greatly enlarged bis acquirements in Oriental literature. In 1709 lie made a tour in France, and about the same time undertook, at the request of the king of Denmark, to translate the history of Nadir Shah from Persian into French. In 1770 he entered on the study of the law at the Temple, but continued his ap- plication to Oriental learning and general literature. In 1771 he published his "Com- mentaries on Asiatic Poetry," dedicated to the University of Oxford. In 1783 he obtained the appointment of a judge of the Supreme Court at Calcutta, a post which had been the object of his anxious wishes. The honour of knight- hood was on this occasion conferred on him, and he soon after married a daughter of the bishop of St. Asaph. In April of that year he embarked for India.from which he was destined never to return. On the voyage his active mind projected the establishment of a society in Bengal for the purposo of illustrating Oriental antiquities and literature. This scheme he saw carried into effect; and under his auspices, and by his direction, the society acquired a high reputation. The volumes of its " Transactions" are inestimable, and are enriched by several valuable productions from Sir William's pen. 673 Jones As a judge he was indefatigable and im- partial. He studied the native laws of the country, and became so versed in the Sanscrit and the codes of the Brahmins, as to gain the admiration of the most learned men in that country. In 1799 his works were collected and published in vols., and his life written by Lord Teignmouth, in one volume, 1801. A beau- tiful monument has been erected to his memory in St. Paul's Cathedral by the East India Com- pany, b. in London, 1740; d. at Calcutta, 1794. Jones, Rice, an eminent Welsh poet, who in 1770 published a " Welsh Anthology," in quarto, containing selections from the poets of different periods, b. in Wales, 1710; d. 1801. Jonks, William, an English divine, received his education at the Charterhouse, whence he removed to University College, Oxford, where he took his degrees in arts, and, in 1749, en- tered into orders. He wrote an answer to Bishop Clayton's " Essay on Spirit," " The Catholic Doctrine of the Trinity," " Essay on the First Principles of Natural Philosophy," in which he espoused the Hutehinsonian system. This work he completed in 1781, by his " Physiological Disquisitions; or, Discourses of the Natural Philosophy of the Elements." When Dr. Home became bishop of Norwich, he appointed Mr. Jones his domestic chaplain, and he embalmed the memory of his patron by an excellent me- moir of his life. When the French revolution broke out, and democratic principles began to spread in England, he wrote some pamphlets, and . published a collection of tracts, entitled "The Schob.r Armed." e. 1720; d. 1800. Jonks, Ernest, was educated in Germany, and having kept his terms as a law-student of the Middle Temple, was called to the bar in 1811. In the following year he joined the Chartist move- ment, and soon became one of the most con- spicuous and active leaders of the party, re- maining so until Chartism expired in 1858. During this period he edited the " People's Paper," and other Chartist periodicals. In 1813 he was tried for making seditious speech, and condemned to two years' imprisonment. He stood for Halifax in 1817, and Nottingham in 1853 and 1857, without success. In January, 1809, when it was supposed that Mr. Hugh Birley would lose his seat for Manchester through being a Government contractorat the time of his election, Mr. Jones was chosen by ballot to fill the expected vacancy against Mr. Milner Gibson, but died a few days after. He was an honest politician, for he refused a large fortune rather than give up his principles. He wrote the " Kevolt of Hindustan," " The Battle Day," and other poems, n. about 1820. Jones, John Gale, was by profession an apo- thecary, but is far better known as a political orator. At the breaking out of the French revolution he became a leading member of the London Corresponding Society; and, until a few years before his death, was known as a popular dcclaimer at the various political meet- ings held in the metropolis. The part he took in advocating republican doctrines subjected him to a trial at the Warwick assizes, when he obtained a verdict of acquittal, mamly through the skilful advocacy of his counsel, Sir Samuel Uomilly. Having subsequently rendered him- self obnoxious to the government by his vio- lence, and impugned the proceedings of tna House of Commons, he w.u - committed to New- THE DICTIONARY Jone3 fate in February, 1810, and there remained till is liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament, June 21. As a public speaker Jones was fluent, energetic, and impressive ; in private life he is said to have been an unassum- ing and instructive companion. b. 1771; d. 1839. Jones, Colonel Leslie Grove, was, in early life, a midshipman ; but having humanely, though very insubordinately, interfered respect- ing the punishment of one of the seamen, he ivas so severely censured, that he quitted the navy in disgust. Shortly afterwards he was presented with an ensign's commission in the 1st Toot Guards, served throughout the Penin- sular war, and was a favourite aide-de-camp of the Duke of Wellington, an idea of whose high opinion of his zeal, discretion, and gal- lantry may be formed from the fact that, pre- vious to the battle of Waterloo, the honourable and responsible office of commandant of Brus- sels was intrusted to him. Being put on half- pay at the peace, Colonel Jones engaged in lite- rary composition, and occasionally produced some essays, &c. In the great struggle for the Reform Bill he appeared before the world as a political writer, and contributed a series of letters to the " 1 imes," which bad all the vio- lence of those of Junius, without being always characterized by their redeeming vigour, sar- casm, and eloquence, b. 1779 ; d. 1839. Jones, Owen, a modern English architect, distinguished for his skill as an ornamental de- corator, who, after studying under Mr.Valliamy, an architect of some celebrity as an ornamental designer, travelled for four years in Egypt, Turkey, and Spain, where, in conjunction' with M. Jules Goury, a French artist, he made numerous designs from the Alhambra. On his return to London, he, after considerable pains and expense, succeeded in producing an elabo- rate work, in lithography and colours, on the Alhambra. This great work was published in parts, and concluded in 1842, from which time Mr. Owen Jones was an authority on the subject of chromatic decoration. A work on " Mosaic Pavements" was next published by him. Upon the organization of the official staff of the Great Exhibition of 1S51, he was ap- pointed one of the superintendents of the woi ks, being charged with the internal decoration of the structure. The plan he pursued was a novel one, and though generally admitted to be suc- cessful, was, nevertheless, opposed in principle by other architects and decorators. In advo- cating his own views, Mr. Jones gave lectures on decoration at the London Institution, the Society of Arts, and other places, besides having published a number of works on the subject. When the Crystal Palace Company was formed, lie was appointed, with Mr. Bigby Wyatt, to select, on the continent, the valuable collec- tion of casts and works of art, for which the People's Palace at Sydenham is so deservedly celebrated. The Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Alhambra courts of the same structure were completed under his superintendence. But, in the ease of the Egyptian and Greek departments, some controversy was aroused by his mode of decoration. In answer to the objections made as to the latter, he published "An Apology for the Colouring of the Greek Court," assisted by Mr. G. II. Lewes and Mr. Watkiss Lloyd. He subsequently published his great work called " The Grammar of Ornament." The St, James's 674 Jordsens Hall, completed in 1838, was built after his de- signs, b. in Wales, about 1S09; d. 1874. Jones, Thomas Uymer, an eminent English anatomist and writer on medicine, was edu- cated for the profession of surgery in London and Paris, and passed at the College of Sur- geons in 1833; but an affliction of deafness manifesting itself, he resolved to abandon the practical for the theoretical departments of medical science. He began his literary career by contributing to the proceedings of theZoologica) Society some papers on comparative anatomy. In 1838 he produced "A General Outline of the Animal Kingdom," which was the first com- plete treatise on the subject in the English language. Subsequently he was appointed Ful- lerian professor of physiology in the Koyal Institution of Great Britain, and examiner in comparative anatomy and physiology in the London University. His " Natural History of Animals" was commenced in 184.5 : he also lectured, and contributed articles to scientific publications, on natural history, with consider- able success. In 1844 he was "elected fellow of the Koyal Society. Jonson, BenjaminjW-son, commonly known as Ben Jonson, an English poet and dramatist. His father was a clergyman, and died about a month before the birth of the poet, who received his education at Westminster school ; but his mother marrying again, his father-in-law, who was a bricklayer, compelled him to wcrk at his business. On this, he enlisted for a soldier, and went to the Netherlands, where he distinguished himself by his courage. After his return, he went to St. John's College, Cambridge, but did not remain there long, owing to his extreme poverty. He then turned his attention to the stage, and became a player and dramatic writer, with indifferent success. Luring this part of his career, he was so unfortunate as to kill a man in a duel. His first printed play was the comedy of" Every Man in his Humour;" after which he produced a new piece annually for several years. He engaged with Chapman and Marston in writing a comedy commonly called " Eastward Hoe," which being deemed a satire on the Scotch nation, had nearly brought its authors to the pillory. At the accession of James I. Jonson superintended a spectacle for his entertainment in his passage from the Tower to Westminster Abbey, and continued to have the management of all the masques and public shows during that and the succeeding reign. In 1G19 he was made poet laureate; the salary of which, during his term of office, was raised from a hundred marks to as many pounds, with a butt of Canary wine. In 1617 the University of Oxford conferred on him the degree of M.A. Notwithstanding his pension and the profits of his plays, he was generally poor, and was frequently relieved by the king's bounty. He was buried in Westminster Abbey ; on his gravestone is the following inscription : — " O rare Ben Jonson." Mr Gilford's edition of his works is the best, on account of the rich store of elucidatory notes which it contains, b. at Westminster, 1574; d. 1637. Joed^ns, James, yor'-dans, a celebrated Flemish painter, was the disciple of Adam van Oort and of Kubens. He painted with extraor- dinary freedom and expedition. Many of his pictures are in the churches of Antwerp and other cities of the Netherlands. There is a OF BIOGKAPHY. Jordan "Holy Family" by him in the National Gallery. b. at Antwerp, 1591; d. at the same place, 1678. Jordan, Thomas, jor'-dan, a dramatic writer in the reign of Charles I. He wrote two come- dies and a masque, mentioned by Langbaine with respect. Jordan, Sir Joseph, a gallant English admi- ral, who, by his presence of mind and valour, gained the battle of Solebay, in 1072. The ad- vantage was long on the side of the Dutch fleet, the English being overpowered by numbers; but Sir Joseph dashed into the midst of the enemy, and throwing them into confusion, the fortune of the day was reversed, and the Eng- lish gained the victory. Jordan, John Christopher, an antiquary, was privy councillor to the king of Bohemia. He wrote several chronological works, and anno- tated some of the ancient historians, d. 17-10. Jordan, Charles Stephen, gor'-dan, a Prussian writer, of French origin, became vice-president of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. Frederick the Great caused a monument to be erected to his memory with this inscription : " Here lies Jordan, the friend of the muses and of the king." That monarch also composed a eulogy upon him, in which he bestowed a great enco- mium upon his talents and virtues. He wrote, "Travels in France, England, and Holland, with Satirical Anecdotes;" a "Miscellany of Literature, Philosophy, and History," and the " Life of De la Croze." b. at Berlin, 1700; d. at the same place, 1746. Jordan, Dorothea, or Dorothy Bland (.Jordan being only an assumed name), jor'-dan, an actress, and mistress of the duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., made her theatrical debut on the Dublin stasre, in 1777, in the part of Phcebe, in " As You Like It." In the follow- ing season she appeared at Cork, where she was much admired for her archness and sportive simplicity. In 1782 she went to England, and tirst appeared at the Leeds Theatre as Calista, in " The Fair Penitent." From Leeds she pro- ceeded to York, where she first played under the name of Mrs. Jordan, by which, though never married, she was subsequently known. In 1785 she made her first appearance before a London audience at Drury Lane, as Pec/i/i/, in " The Country Girl ;" and immediately became such a decided favourite, that her salary was doubled, and she was allowed two benefits. At the close of the season, she made a provincial tour, and visited nearly all the large towns in England, everywhere receiving the most enthu- siastic welcome. When the duke of Clarence tirst made overtures to her, she was the mistress of a Mr. Ford; who refused to make her his wife, through fear of otl'ending his father. Mrs. Jordan then entered into that connexion with the duke, which continued in an almost unin- terrupted state of domestic harmony, until it was suddenly broken off in 1811. She was the mother of 10 children by his royal highness. A • yearly allowance of £4400 was set tied on her for the maintenance of herself and daughters; with a provision that if .Mrs. .Jordan should resume her profession, the care of the duke's four daughters, together with £1500 per annum allowed for them, should revert to his royal highness. In a few months afterwards she ex- pressed a wish to return to the stage ; and the four children, with Hie speeiiico. allowance for their maintenance, were suiroiid< red to their 575 Joseph royal father. Shortly after this she retired to France, under circumstances of great embarrass- ment. She gradually sank under the weight of her afflictions ; and, in a state of extreme mental misery, died at St. Cloud, July 3, 1816. b. at Waterford about 1762. Hazlitt, speaking of Mrs. Jordan's attractions on the stage, says : " Her face, her tones, her manner, were irre- sistible. Her smile had the effect of sunshine, and her laugh did one good to hear it. Her voice was eloquence itself; it seemed as if her heart was always at her mouth. She was all gaiety, openness, and good-nature. She rioted in her fine animal spirits, and gave more plea- sure than any other actress, because she had the greatest spirit of enjoyment in herself." The last surviving daughter of Mrs. Jordan and William IV. was Lady Augusta Gordon Hally- burton, who died at Hallyburton House, Cupar- Angus, Scotland, at the ago of 62, in 1S05. She held for some years the post of state house- keeper at Kensington Palace. Jordan, Camillc, zkor'-dd, a brave French- man, who was one of the leaders in the rising of Lyons during the Reign of Terror. He was exiled, but subsequently returned to France, where he wrote several valuable works on religious and political questions, n. at Lyons, 1771 ; d. 1821. Jordano, Luca. (See Giordano.) Jorden, Edward, jot J -den, an English phy- sician, who took his doctor's degree ?it Padua, and afterwards settled in London, whence he removed to Bath. He wrote "A Brief Discourse of a Disease called the Suffocation of the Mother," and " Discourse of Natural Baths and Mineral Waters." b. in Kent, 1569; d. at Bath, 1632. Jorgenson, Jorgen, yor'-gen-stme, a Dane, who, for a time, usurped the protectorship of Iceland. He was the son of a watchmaker, and is said to have served as midshipman in the English navy during his early years. In 1809 he sailed in an English ship to Iceland, and forthwith proceeded, by proclamation and va- rious extraordinary measures, to assume the position of protector. After a life full of adven- ture, he was at length confined in Newgate for robbing his lodgings, and, in 1825, was sent to New South Wales, dying, it is supposed, soon after his arrival, b. at Copenhagen, 1779. Jornandes, jor-nan'-dees, a Goth, who em- braced Christianity, and became bishop of Ravenna about 552. He wrote the " History of the Goths." Joriin, John, jor'-tin, an eminent English divine, who, while undergraduate of Jesus College, Cambridge, translated for Pope some of Eustathius's notes on Homer. In 1727 he published Latin poems, in 4to., under the titie of" Lusus Poetici," which went through three editions. In 1730 he published four sermons on the truth of the Christian religion, and, the year following, " Miscellaneous Observa- tions upon Authors, Ancient and Modern." la 1731 appeared his " Itemarks on Spenser's Poems, and on Milton." In 1751 he produced the first volume of his " Remarks on Ecclesias- tical History," which he continued to 5 vols. His " Life of Erasmus" was published in 1758. b. in London, 1698; d. at the same place, 1770. JosKPir, Ben Gorion, jo'-sef, a Jewish histo- rian, whom the rabbins falsely confound with Joscplms. lie lived in the 5th century, and wroie, in Hebrew, a history of the Jews, which bears evident marks of being an abridgment THE DICTIONARY Joseph. of Josephus's larger work. It was published in i Latin version by Gagnier, at Oxford, in 1706, »nd in Hebrew and Latin, at Gotha, in 1707. Joseph of Paris, a famous Capuchin, com- monly called Father Joseph, who was employed by Cardinal Richelieu in most of his political intrigues. Louis XIII. procured him a cardi- nal's hat, but he died' of apoplexy before he received it, in 1638. Joseph, Father, an apostate monk of Hun- gary, who, about 1678, headed a numerous banditti, whom he called the people of God, assuming to himself the name of Joshua. He entered the Austrian dominions, where he com- mitted dreadful outrages, burning churches, putting priests to death, and defiling nuns, under pretence of zeal for true religion. The motley crew were at last dispersed, on the sud- den death of their leader. Joseph I., twelfth emperor of Germany, of the house of Austria, was the son of the emperor Leopold I., and ascended the imperial throne on the death of his father in 1705. He engaged in his interests Savoy, England, and Holland against France, in support of the claim of the archduke Charles to the crown of Spain. In the war which ensued, the allies, under Eugene and Marlborough, were successful, gaining the battles of Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. He made himself master of Italy, and levied contributions on Mantua, Paima, Modena, Lucca, Genoa, and other places. His armies also defeated the revolted Hungarians, headed by Prince Bagotski, who was forced to take refuge in Turkey. In the midst of these suc- cesses Joseph was taken off by the small-pox, in 1711. JosEpn II., emperor of Germany, was the son of Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary, and archduchess of Austria, and Francis of Loraine. He was crowned kimr of the Romans in 1.61, and the year following became emperor. He early displayed great talents and activity, by remodelling the army and reforming all the departments of government. He also travelled through his dominions, and visited Prussia, Italy, France, and Russia. Among other ex- cellent regulations which he adopted, was the setting apart one day every week to receive petitions and to hear complaints. In 1780, on the death of his mother, he succeeded to the crown of Hungary and Bohemia. The year following he issued a decree in favour of the liberty of the press, which was followed by others equally liberal, particularly one of reli- gious toleration ; he also abolished the system of vassalage. This measure was followed by an imperial edict, declaiming all secular subjec- tion to the court or Home, the suppression of many monasteries, and the regulation of others. On this occasion Pope Pius VI. made a journey to Vienna, to induce the emperor to alter his designs ; but, tlmugh pompously received, he was completely unsuccessful. In 1786 the emperor followed up his attack on the papal authority by an assembly of the ecclesiastical princes at Ratisbon, in which it was resolved to withdraw from the jurisdiction of the pope. In 1786 a declaration of war was issued against the Turks, and the same year the emperor in person reduced Schabatz: but this was followed by a defeat. Soon afterwards, a bloody battle was fought between the Impc- r'rii»ts and the Turks, on the heights of lioiiadin, in which neither could claim the 678 Josika victory. Joseph next made an attempt to pos- sess himself of Belgrade, but without success. Marshal Laudohn, however, assumed the com- mand of the army, took Dubicza and Novi, and, in 1789, reduced Belgrade. Soon after, • peace was concluded, chiefly occasioned by the discontented spirit in Germany, at such a waste of men and treasure. Joseph was sueewjied by his brother, Peter Leopold, grand-duke of Tuscany, n. 1741 ; D. 1790. Joseph Emanuki, king of Portugal, was son and successor of Charles V., and ascended the throne in 1750. The great earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, and the expulsion of the Jesuits from the kingdom in 1759, were the principal events of this reign, during which Joseph was assisted by his clever minister the marquis de Pombal. Learning was encouraged, commerce and in- dustry received a fresh impulse, and the power of the Inquisition was diminished, b. 1715 ; d. 1777. Josephine, jo'-se-feen, empress if France, was the daughter of Count Tascher de la Pa- gerie, and was married, at the age of 15 years, to the viscount de Beauharnais, by whom she had two children, — Eugene and Hortense de Beauharnais. After her husband had fallen by the guillotine, she was herself imprisoned, but was released through the intervention of Tallien. She was subsequently introduced to General Bonaparte, who, struck by her beauty and grace, became her husband in 1796. She shared the high destinies of her husband, ascended the throne with him, and received the title of em- press, in which dignity she gained universal attachment; but, being childless, Napoleon divorced her. Josephine retired to Malmaison in 1809, where she died in 1814, soon after the fall of the emperor, b. at the island of Mar- tinique, 1763. Josephus, Flavius, jo-te'-fus, a Jewish his- torian, who came of distinguished ancestors, and received a liberal education among the Pharisees, after which he went to Rome, where he cultivated his talents to great advantage. On returning to his own country, he commanded the troops employed to defend Jotapata against Vespasian and Titus, and maintained the place bravely during seven weeks. Vespasian took him into his favour, and he was held in great esteem by Titus, whom he accompanied to the siege of Jerusalem, at the taking of which, Titus told him to ask for anything he wished. He requested that the sacred books might be given to him, and that the lives_of his brother and fifty of his friends might be spared. When Vespasian became emperor, he gave Josephus a palace, with a pension, the freedom of the city, and a grant of lands in Judaja. Titus added to these favours, and Josephus, out of gratitude, assumed the name of Flavins. During his resi- dence at Rome he wrote his " History of the Wars of the Jews," first in Syriac, and after- wards in Greek, its style approaches nearest to that of Livy. He also wrote the "Anti- quities of the Jews," in which it is supposed are some interpolations by modern transcribers, particularly with regard to what is said of our Saviour. He wrote likewise two books in de- fence of the Jews against Apion, and his own life. b. at Jerusalem, a.d. 37; d. at Rome, about tho beginning of the 2nd centnry. Josika, Nicholas, e-o-te'-ka, a distinguished Hungarian novelist, who, after serving in the Austrian army, and taking part in the campaign OF BIOGRAPHY. Josquin of 1814-15, retired, in 1816, to his estate in Transylvania, where he occupied himself with literature. He wrote "Abafi," a national and historical tale ; " The Last Batori," " The Bohemian in Hungary," "Zrinyi the Poet," and " Stephen Josika." He also translated into Hungarian the English novel, "A Marriage in High Life." After the revolution in Hungary, in 1818, he resided at Brussels, b. at Torda, Transylvania, 1796; d. 1865. Josquin, Deprez, zho'-quene, a native of Bel- gium, an ecclesiastic, and called the father of modern harmony, from his great ability as a composer, was a singer in the pontifical chapel in the time of Sixtus IV., but afterwards went to France, and was appointed chapel-master to Louis XII. The king having promised Josquin a benefice, but forgetting to give it, the chapel- master, on being commanded to compose a march, chose a portion of the 119th Psalm, "Memor esto verbi tui servo tuo," the setting of which was greatly admired by the king, who soon after granted Josquin' s petition ; on which the latter composed a hymn of thanksgiving from the same Psalm, " Bonitatem fecisti cum servo tuo, Domine." He was a giant among the musicians of his time, and was universally esteemed, b. about 1450; the date of his death is unknown. Joubf.rt, Laurence, zhoo'-bair, physician to Henry III., king of France. On the death of Kondelet, in 1562, he became regius professor of physic at Montpellier. b. 1529; d. 1583. Joubert, Bartholomew Catherine, a French republican general, who was educated for the law, but quitted it for the army, and in 1789 commenced his military course as a grenadier, and rose by degrees to the rank of general. He was second in command to Bonaparte in the conquest of Italy, and signalized himself at Millesimo, Hontebaldo, and Rivoli, and in the Tyrol. He was opposed to General Suwarrow, but was slain at the battle of Xovi, in 1799, at a time when the Directory was about to oiler him the supreme power, b. 1709. Jouffroy', Marquis de, zhoo'-froi, who dis- putes with Fulton and others the honour of having been the first to apply steam to the pur- poses of navigation, made his first attempt on the Doubs in 1776, and renewed it with more su'eess on the Sa6ne in 1783; but failed to carry it out, through want of means and sup- port. He was equally unsuccessful at Paris in 1816; but the Academy of Sciences acknow- ledged his claim to the discovery in 1840 ; a dis- tinction with which, whether merited or other- wise, he could not fail to be gratified, b. in Franehe-Comtc, 1751 ; d. 1832. Jouffroy, Theodore, a distinguished writer on philosophical subjects, and professor of philo- sophy at Paris, was the author of numerous ori- ginal" works, which are in great repute for clearness and depth, and also translated into French the writings of Reid and Dugald Stewart. His " Cours du Droit Naturel" is an excellent work, and deserving of attentive perusal. b. 1790; d. 1842. Jourdain, Amable Louis Michel Brechillet, zlioor'-dain, a distinguished orientalist, was the son of a surgeon-dentist at Paris. He was de- signed for the law, but bearing the splendid eulogies bestowed on Anquetil du Perron, the orientalist, he determined on cultivating the same branches of learning for which that scholar had been distinguished. This he pur- Jovellanos sued with such success, that the office of adju- tant-secretary of the School of Oriental Lan- guages was created in his favour, and he held it till his death. He was a contributor to the " Biographie Universelle," and other extensive publications ; and author of " La Perse, ou Tableau de l'Histoire, du Gouvernement, de la Religion, de la Litterature, &c, de cet Empire ;" besides some others, b. 17S8 ; d. 1818. JouBnAN, Jean-Baptiste, zhoor'-da, marshal of France, served in the war of American independence at the age of 16 years, and in 1791 was appointed to the command of a battalion of volunteers. He fought under Dumouriez in Belgium, and became a general of division in 1793. He greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Hondsehoote, and two days afterwards was named general-in-chief, but was deprived of his command by the Committee of Public Safety. Subsequently he was placed at the head of the army of the Moselle. He took Durant and Charleroi, and gained the celebrated battle of Fleurus, in 1794. Opposed by the Archduke Charles, he crossed the Rhine a second time ; but, being defeated, was superseded in 1799. Named a member of the Council of Five Hun- dred, he proposed the law of conscription. A sincere republican, he opposed the usurpation of Bonaparte, and, after the 18th Brumaire, was excluded from the Legislative Corps. He was, however, nominated by Napoleon marshal of France in 1804; but he was never again em- ployed in any important capacity. He accom- panied Joseph Bonaparte to Spain, in command of the 7th military corps, b. at Limoges, 1762 ; D. in Paris, 1833. Jousse, Daniel, zhoosse, a French lawyer, who wrote many works connected with his profes- sion, b. at Orleans, 1704 ; d. 1781. Jouvency, Joseph, zko'-van-se, a French Jesuit, who published an apology, in which ho defended Chastel, who attempted to assassinate Henry IV., and called him a martyr. He con- tinued the " History of the Jesuits," and wrote some other works, b. at Paris, 1613; d. ;.i Rome, 1719. Jouvf.net, Jean, zkoove'-nai, a French, painter, was descended from an Italian family of that profession. His first instructions wero derived from his father, but he improved him- self under Le Brun. He passed through all tha offices of the Academy, and became one of tha perpetual rectors, b. at Rouen, 1644; d. 1717. Jouy, Joseph Etienne de, zhoo'-ai, a facila and graceful writer, served in the French army in America and India, and took part in the first campaign of the Revolution. But he soon abandoned the sword for the pen; and rose to great popularity by his vaudevilles and the librettos which he wrote for Spontini, Cheri.- bini, and Rossini. He was also distinguished as a political writer; but is best known in England by his amusing and satirical work called the " Hermit of the Chauss^e d' Anton," translated into English many years ago. la 1830, Louis Philippe appointed him librarian at the Louvre, b. 1704; d. 1846. Jovellanos, Don Gaspar Melchior de, yo- vail-lun'-os, one of the most distinguished Spaniards of modern times, born at Gijon, in the Asturias, of an old and noble family, was endowed with splendid talents; and not only acquired, while at college, an extensive know- ledge of jurisprudence, his more especial object, but also made great progjess in archaeology, THE DICTIONARY Jovianus languages, and the belles lettres. He became a member of the criminal branch of the audiencia in Seville; and advancing rapidly in his profes- sional career, was appointed to the dignified station of member of the council of the military orders at Madrid. About the same time he was entrusted with some important affairs, and nominated counsellor of state, by Charles III. When, in 1794, Spain found herself loaded with debt, Jovellanos proposed, for the relief of the national difficulties, a tax on the property of the hi gher order of the clergy ; for which he was exiled to the mountains of Asturias, though his project was afterwards carried into execution. In 1799 he was recalled, and made minister of justice for the interior; but before twelve months had passed,- he was dismissed, and banished to the island of Majorca, where he was confined in the convent of the Carthusians. After the fall of Godoy, the Prince of Peace, in 1808, he recovered his liberty, and subsequently became a member of the Supreme Junta. He was, however, sus- pected of favouring the French; and at length, being denounced as a traitor for endeavouring to promote their plans for the subjugation of Spain, he was put to death in 1812, during a popular insurrection, b. 1744. He wrote "Lyric Poems;" " Pelayo," a tragedy ; "The Honourable Delinquent," a comedy ; several works on subjects connected with political eco- nomy ; and translated Milton's " Paradise Lost." Jovianus, Flavius Claudius, jo-ve-ai'-nus, a Roman emperor, was elected by the Roman soldiers, after the death of Julian, but refused the dignity unless they turned Christians, to which they consented. He made a disadvan- tageous peace with Persia, shut up the heathen temples, and recalled the banished clergy. He died, after reigning seven months, owing to the suffocating vapour of burning charcoal in his room, 364. b. 331. JoYixiA.y,jo-vin'-i-an, a monk of Milan in the 4th century, who, after leading a life of great austerity, debauched a number of women, and procured many disciples. He held that the body of our Saviour was not real flesh, but a phan- tom, and that it was lawful to indulge in sensual pleasures, with other tenets equally offensive to good morals; on which account the emperor llonorius ordered him and his followers to be scourged and banished. He wrote several books, which were refuted by Jerome. D. in Dalmatia, 406. Jovitjs, Paul, jo'-vl-ue, an eminent historian of the 16th century, who received a pension from Francis 1., king of France, and Clement VII. gave him the bishopric of Nocera, which dignity he disgraced by his course of life. His greatest work is a " History of his Own Time," in folio. — He also wrote the "Lives of Illus- trious Men." n. at Como, 1483 ; d. at Florence, 1352. His brother Benedict wrote the "His- tory of Switzerland." Jowett, ltev. Benjamin, M.A,. jou'-et, Re- gius professor of Greek in Oxford university, was educated at St. Paul's school, and was elected to a scholarship in Balliol college, Ox- ford, in 1835, and to a fellowship in 1838. In 185.") he was appointed to the Regius professor- ship on the recommendation of Lord Palmerston. Professor Jowctt wrote a "Commentary on the Epistles of Paul to the'fhessalonians, Galatians, 4nd Romans," and subsequently contributed an "* Fusay on the Interpretation of Scripture" to 67J Juarez the well-known volume entitled " Essays and Reviews," in connexion with which his name made a great noise, b. 1817. Jot, Right Hon. Henry, an eminent Irish judge, was called to the bar in 1788, and after acquiring great fame as a counsel, filled the office of attorney-general, and in 1831 succeeded Lord Guillamore as chief baron. Among the " sayings" of Lord Norbury, the following is related: — Being once requested by Mr. Hope, an attorney, to wait a few minutes for Mr. Joy, the leading counsel in a nut prius case just called, his lordship did so until his small stock of patience was exhausted ; and, then, exclaiming " Hope told a flattering talc, that Joy would soon return," ordered the next case in rotation to be proceeded with. b. 1767; n. 1833. Joyce, Jeremiah, joice, an ingenious and industrious writer, who was by profession a dis- senting minister, first attracted public notice as one of the persons included in the state prosecu- tion with Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and others for treason. He was the coadjutor of Dr. Gregory in the compilation of his "Cyclo- paedia," and subsequently produced another on a similar plan, which goes by the name of Nicholson. He was also the author of " Scien- tific Dialogues," " Dialogues on Chemistry," " Letters on Natural Philosophv," &e. b. 1761; d. 1810. Joyeuse, Anne de, zhwoi-e-(r)se, a French duke, favourite of Henry III., and admiral of France, who distinguished himself by many gallant exploits. He was killed in an expedition against the Huguenots in 1587. v. in France, 1561. Joyneb, William, joi'-ncr, otherwise Lyde, became fellow of Magdalen College, but, on turning Roman Catholic,* went abroad. He returned at the Restoration, and retired to a village in Buckinghamshire, where he led a life of devotion. He wrote the " Roman Empress," a comedy, 1670 ; " Observations on the Life of Cardinal Pole," and "Miscellaneous Poems, Eng- lish and Latin." n. at Oxford, 1022; r>. 1700. Juan, Don, a natural son of Philip IV. of Spain, and of Maria Calderona, an actress, was made grand prior of Castile; commanded the Spanish army in Italy in 1617, and took the city of Naples; subjugated Barcelona in 1652, but being afterwards unsuccessful, was exiled. Under Charles II. he was recalled to Madrid, and made prime minister, n. 1629; d. 1679. Juan y Santacilia, Don George, jitan e ta7i- ta-teel-ya, a learned Spanish mathematician and naval officer, whose progress in mathematics was so great that, while a student in Cartha- gena, he obtained the appellation of Euclid; and, entering the naval service earl., his repu- tation as a scientific man occasioned his appoint- ment, with Antonio de Ulloa, to accompany Bouguer and Comlamine to Peru, in 1735, to measure a degree of the meridian at the equator. He afterwards directed much of his attention to marine architecture, and his exertions to im- prove the Spanish navy were highly successful. Ho published his "Observations on Astronomy and Physics, made in Peru," and treatises on navigation and ship-building, n. 1712; d.1774. Juaeez, Benito, ju-ar'-ez, a Mexican, whose ancestors belonged to one of the many Indian tribes of Mexico, born near Oaxaca, in 1802, at the village of Ixt Ian. After filling various offices, he became governor of Oaxaca from 1848 till ls52, when he was banished by Santa Anna. OF BIOGRAPHY. Juel Julianus Joining in the insurrection which overthrew SantaAnua's government in 1855,he became first minister of justice, then secretary of state and president of the high court of justice, and finally president of the republic in 1858. A protracted civil war ensued, but ultimately the French entered Mexico, caused Juarez to withdraw from the capital, and placed the Austrian archduke Maximilian on the throne, after proclaiming the empire. On the withdrawal of the French troops in 1866, Juarez, who had used every means to resist foreign invasion, renewed his attempts against the government of Maximilian, and having captured this unfortunate prince, by the aid of treachery, at Queretaro, in 1867, ordered him to be shot. On his return to power, he put to death hundreds of his opponents. Juel, Nicholas, joo'-al, a Danish admiral, who received his professional training in the Dutch navy under Van Trornp and De Kuyter. He then returned to Denmark ; and, in 1059, greatly distinguished himself at the siege of Copenhagen. He captured Gothland in 1676, and again, in 1677, he defeated the Swedes in several engagements. He was a brave and gallant officer, and was as much esteemed for his modesty as for his naval skill, n. 1697. Jugurtha, ju-gur'-tha, the illegitimate son of Manastabal, the brother of Micipsa. Mieipsa and Manastabal were the sons of Masinissa, king of Numidia. Mieipsa, who had inherited his father's kingdom, educated his nephew with his two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal; but, as Jugurtha was of an aspiring disposition, he sent him with a body of troops to the assistance of Seipio, who was besieging Numantia, hoping to lose a youth whose ambition seemed to threaten the tranquillity of his children. His designs were frustrated; Jugurtha proved brave and active, and endeared himself to the Uoman general. Mieipsa appointed him successor to his kingdom with his two sons; but the kindness of the father proved fatal to the children. Jugurtha destroyed Hiempsal, stripped Adherbal of his possessions, and obliged him to fly to Home. The Romans listened to the complaints of Adherbal, but Jugurtha's gold prevailed among the senators. Ca-cilius Metellus was at last tent against Jugurtha, and his firmness soon obliged him to fly among his savage neighbours for support. Marius and Sylla succeeded Me- tellus, and fought with equal success. Jugurtha was at last betrayed by his father-in-law, Boc- ehus, and was delivered into the hands of Sylla, after a war of live years, lie was exposed to the view of the Koman people, and dragged in chains to adorn the triumph of Marius. He was afterwards put in a prison, where he died six days after of hunger, 100 n.c. Juigxl Bkmssinikbe, I)k, sicur de Moliere, ihiceen brois-xm'-e-air, a French gentleman, and an advocate ii» parliament, who wrote, in 1 •'> 17, a " Theologiei-I, Historical, Poetical, and Chro- nological Dictionary." Julia, ju'-li-a, a virgin martyr of Carthage. When that phec was taken by Genscrie, she was sold to a heathen merchant, and carried into Syria. Revising to take part in some o! the festivals instituted in honour of the female deities, she was r ut to death about 1 10. Julia, the daughter of C;e^.ir and Corn Ik was one of the most virtuous of the Koman ladies. She marri-d first Cornelius Cuipio, and afterwards Pompej. d. about 53 e.c. Julia, the dat'.'j-h'fr of/.r ':_'..'.:, II; 57k) and accomplishments were very great, on which account she was her father's favourite, till her licentious conduct alienated his affections. She Wrts successively the wife of Marcellus, Agrippa, a;;d Tiberius. Augustus sent her into banish- ment, and when Tiberius came to the throne, he suffered her to perish of want. She had a daughter of the same name, who was as vicious as her mother. Julia Dosixa, a native of Syria, and the wife of Scverus, emperor of Koine, was a woman of great accomplishments, and well acquainted with philosophy and the sciences. On the death of Severus, her sons Caracalla and Geta suc- ceeded to the imperial throne; the latter of whom was murdered by his brother in the arms of his mother, who was wounded in de- fending him. After the death of Caracalla, she is said to have starved herself to death on find- ing that Maerinus had assumed the imperial title, 217. Julian, St., archbishop«of Toledo, ja'-U-an, was a man of learning and piety. He wrote a treatise against the Jews. d. 690. Julian, Cardinal, was deputed by Pope Eugene IV. to counsel Ladislas, king of Hun- gary, to break the peace concluded with Amu- rath II. A long and disastrous war was the result, during which the Christian army was defeated at Varna, in 144-1, and Ladislas and Julian killed. He presided at the council of Bale. Juliana, jit'-li-an'-a, a recluse of Norwich, in the reign of Edward III., who assumed the prophetical character. She was the author of a singular book, entitled, " Sixteen Revelations of Divine Love, showed to a Devout Servant of our Lord, called Mother Juliana, an Anchoret of Norwich, who lived in the davsof King Edward III.," published by F. K. S. Cressy, 1610. She led a life of remarkable austerity, immuring her- self between four walls during many years. Julianus, Flavius Claudius, j«'-ii-ai»-K», em- peror of Rome, surnamed "the Apostate," was the younger son of Julius Constantius, brother of Constantino the Groat. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine, he and his brother Gallus narrowly escaped. The two princes were educated in the principles of Chris- tianity, under Mardonius, a learned eunuch, but with different effects; for, though Gallus pos- sessed real piety, the attachment of Julian 1o Christianity was merely affected, having se- cretly a strong inclination to paganism. Being sent to Athens at the age of twenty-four, he evinced this disposition by his application to astrology, magic, and other illusions, lie at- tached himself particularly to a philosopher named Maximus, who flattered his ambition by promising him the empire, lie commanded with reputation in Gaul during the reign of Constantius, who, jealous of his success and popularity, recalled him. This gave so much offence to his soldiers, that they proclaimed him emperor, and, on the death of Constantius, in 301, he found himself in full possession of the imperial throne. He afterwards marched to the Hast, where his title was recognised as readily as it had been in the West. He then threw off the mask, publicly renounced Christianity, and ■ pencil the temples of the gods, in which he offered sacrifices; en this account he is called the Apostate. Seen after his accession, he re- solved to chastise the Persians, who had fre- quently made inroads on the empire in the pre- ccdi: £ KigK8. When he crossed the Tigris, he V V 2 ' THE DICTIONARY Julien burned his ships, that his soldiers might pro- ceed with firmness and resolution. On his re- turn, after marching through Assyria without opposition, his army encountered that of Sapor, king of Persia, and Julian was mortally wounded. Theodoret asserts that he took some of the blood from his wound, and, casting it towards heaven, exclaimed, " Thou hast con- quered, Galilean!" a story which is hardly credible. Julian was virtuous and modest in his manners, and liberal in his disposition. He abolished the luxurious and indecent practices of the court of Constantinople, and was averse to public . amusements. His " History of the Caesars" is the most celebrated of his writings, though it is very partial. His own life has been many times written, but on no occasion so wcttl as by Gibbon, in the " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." b. at Constantinople, 331 ; ». 363. Jclien, Pierre, zhoo'-le-ain, a distinguished French sculptor, many of whose productions adorn the metropolis of France and whose chef- d'eeuvrs is "The Dying Gladiator." B. 1731; D. 1801. Julius I., ju'-li-us, pope and saint of the Koman calendar, succeeded Marcus in 337. He strenuously supported the cause of Athanasius, and was a man of great learning and piety. Some of his letters arc extant, d. 352. Julius II. (Julian della Eovere) succeeded Pope Pius III. in 1503. Sixtus IV., his uncle, made him cardinal and commander of his troops, a post which suited his enterprising genius. The emperor Maximilian, with the kings of France and Aragon, endeavoured to de- pose him ; but he frustrated their design, and formed an alliance with them at Cambrai in 1508. He then demanded from the Venetians the territories of Faenza and Kimini, which had been originally taken from them by Alexander VI., and on the death of that pontiff recovered by the Venetians, who, for refusing Julius's un- just claim, were put under an interdict. At last, being reduced to the greatest extremities, the state of Venice was obliged to submit. The pope then turned his arms against France, and besieged La Mirandola, which he entered in triumph in 1511 ; but, fortune turning, he was driven to Rome, and the council of Pisa declared him suspended. He was the patron of Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Bramante. d. 1513. Julius III., an Italian, obtained the tiara in succession to Paul III. in 1550. He had formerly presided at the council of Trent under Paul III., and, on being elected to the papacy, joined the emperor against Octavius Farnese, duke of Parma, b. 1487; d. 1555. Junctin, or Giuntino, Francis, joon-te'-no, a mathematician of Florence, was for some time a Carmelite, but quitted his order, went to France, and abjured the Roman Catholic reli- gion. He became a corrector of the press, and afterwards a manufacturer of paper and a banker, by which means he gained a large for- tune. He wrote some arithmetical works, com- mentaries on the Sphere of Sacroboseo, on the Reformation of the Calendar, and on the Age of the Loves of Petrarch, b. about 1589. Junge, Joachim, yoong, a philosopher of the 17th century, who distinguished himself by his opposition to the Aristotelian philosophy, and, like his famous contemporary, Bacon, substj- Junta tuted experiment in the place of antiquated theories. He is ranked by Leibnitz as the equal of Copernicus and Galileo, and as little inferior to Descartes. Among other works he wrote " Geometria EmpiricU," " Doxoscopiae Phy- sicae Minores," and " Isagoge Phytoscope," from the latter of which it is believed that Linnaeus and Ray derived some useful hints, b. at Lu- beck, 1587; d. 1657. Junia, ju'-ni-a, a niece of Cato of Utica, who married Cassius and died sixty-four years after her husband had killed himself at the battle of Philippi. Junilius, ST.,ju-nil'-i-us, bishop of Africa, in the 6th century. He wrote two books on the Divine Law. Junius, Adrian, jw'-ni-us, a learned Dutch- man, who studied physic, and took his doctor's degree at Bologna, after which he went to England, where he wrote several works, par- ticularly a Greek and Latin lexicon, which he dedicated to Edward VI. He afterwards re- turned to his own country, and practised physic. He wrote " Commentaries on various Latin Authors," " A Poem on the Marriage of Philip II., king of Spain, with Mary, Queen of England;" "Translations from the Greek," &e. b. at Hoorn, 1512 ; d. 1575. Junius, Francis, professor of divinity at Leyden. He studied at Geneva, and, in 15G5, became minister of the Walloon church at Antwerp, and afterwards chaplain to the prince of Orange; at last, he was made theological professor at Leyden. He is chiefly known by a Latin version of the Bible, with notes, in which he was assisted by Tremellius. b. 1545; d. at Leyden, 1602. Junius, Francis, son of. the preceding, in 1620 visited England, and was taken into the family of Thomas, earl of Arundel. There he studied the northern languages, in which he attained to considerable proficiency. He left a valuable collection of MSS. to the library of Oxford, b. at Heidelberg, 1589 ; d. at Windsor, 1678. Junius Bhutus. (See Brutus, L. Junius.) Jcnot, Andoche, duke of Abrantcs, zhoo'-no, a French general, entered the army as a volun- teer during the Revolution, and attracted the attention of Bonaparte at the siege of Tou- lon, in 1793. This was the origin of his fortune : he was appointed aide-de-camp, and went with the army to Egypt, where he so greatly dis- tinguished himself that, on his return, he became general of division, and, in 1804, governor of Paris. In 1S05 he was appointed ambassador to Lisbon, and two years afterwards assumed the command of the army sent into Portugal. Junot rapidly made himself master of that kingdom, and was created governor, with the title of duke of Abrantcs, but the next year he was defeated at Vimicra by the duke ol Wellington, and compelled to sign the capitula- tion of Cintra, and obliged to abandon his conquest. This reverse brought him under the displeasure of Napoleon; he nevertheless took part, in 1810, in the Spanish campaign, and in that of Russia in 1812, becoming governor ol the Illyrian provinces. His reason suddenly failing, he was compelled to return to France. B. in France, 1771 ; n. 1813. — His widow, a woman of great accomplishments, wrote some "Memoirs on the Empire," which are full ol interest, d. 1838. Junta, joon'-ta, Philip and Bernard, Italian OF BIOGRAPHY. Junta Justiniani printers in the loth and 16th centuries. They printed, at Lyons, the "Letters of Leo X. by Ueuibo," and" the works of Sante Pagnino. They had also printing-offices at Genoa, Venice, and Florence. Philip began printing at Genoa, in 1497. b. about 1519. Bernard was either his brother or cousin. Philip printed some excellent editions of Greek authors, as Plutarch, Xcnophon, Aristophanes, Sophocles, and Homer. Junta, Thomas, a Venetian physician, who published, in 1554, a learned book on the " Patties of the Ancients." Jurieu, Peter, zhoo'-re-e{r), a French Pro- testant divine, was the son of Daniel Jurieu, pastor of the reformed church at Mer, in the diocese of Blois. His mother was sister to the famous Peter du Moulin. He received his education partly in Holland and partly in Eng- land, and while there received episcopal ordina- tion. On his return home, he became assistant to his father, and professor of divinity and He- brew at Sedan, where he gained great reputation by his lectures and preaching. He wrote against Bossuct's " Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church," and defended the moral character of his sect against the accusations of Arnauld. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes he retired to Holland, and was chosen pastor of the Walloon church at Rotterdam, lie there applied so assiduously to the study of the Revelation, as to fancy he had discovered most of the mysteries therein; and particularly with regard to Antichrist. He addressed William III., king of England, as the mstru ment appointed to destroy the kingdom of the beast, tie embroiled himself in controversy with Bayle and others, who had objected to the extravagance of his opinions. His chief works are, "The History of Calvinism and Popery, with a Parallel between them;" "Pas- toral Letters," " On the Unity of the Church," "Treatise of Nature and Grace," and "Critical History of the Doctrines and Worship of the Church, and those of the Pagans." b. at Her, in France, 1037 ; b. at Rotterdam, 1713. Jubin, James, ju'-rin, secretary to the Royal Society of London, and president of the College of Physicians, wrote papers on philosophical and medical subjects in the " Philosophical Transactions," and had a dispute with Bdichel- loti on the motion of currents ; with Kcill and Senacon the motion of the heart; with Robins upon distinct vision ; and with the partisans of Ceibnitz on the aetiva forces, b. 1684; b. 1750. Jussieu, Antoine de, zhous'-se-ti(r), a French botanist and physician, who, after travelling over Europe, settled at Paris, where ho became a member of the Academy of Sciences, and pro- fessor of botany in the Royal Garden. He enriched the memoirs of the French Academy with several valuable papers on botany and mineralogy, the result of observations made during his travels. He also wrote the appendix to Tournefort's " Institutions of Botany," and abridged Barrelier's work upon the plants of France, Spain, and Italy ; he was likewise the author of a " Discourse on the Progress of Botany." b. at Lyons, 10SG ; B. 1758. Jussieu, Bernard de, brother of the above, .distinguished himself as an able physician und botanist. He became professor and de- monstrator in the Royal Garden, and was chosen » member of the French Academy of Sciences, and of several foreign societies, lie published an edition of Tournefort's "History of Plants 681 in the Environs of Paris," and was the author of a book entitled " The Friend of Humanity ; or, the Advice of a Good Citizen to the Nation." b. at Lyons, 1699 ; n. at Paris, 1777. Jussieu, Joseph de, brother of the preceding, was also a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and accompanied Condamine to Peru in 1735. He was not only a good naturalist and physician, but an excellent engineer. He pub- lished a journal of his voyages, b. at Lyons, 1704; n. 1779. Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de, a celebrated French botanist, nephew of the preceding, was the greatest philosopher of his family, and author of the "Natural System of Botany." He went to Paris, in 1765, to complete his studies, under the direction of his uncle Bernard. In 1 770 he took the degree of doctor of medicine, and was soon afterwards chosen professor of botany in the Royal Garden. In 17S9, he published his great w T ork, the "Genera Plantarum," in which, for the first time, the whole vegetable kingdom was arranged according to a natural classifica- tion. He subsequently filled many important scientific posts in Paris, and continued till his eighty-eighth year to dictate valuable memoirs on the science of botany. The great work of Jussieu, in an improved and amended form, is one of the chief text-books on botany, not only in France but in England, b. at Lyons, 1718 ; n. at Paris, 1836. Jussieu, Adrien de, son of the above, was educated for the medical profession, but devoted himself to the science which his father had so greatly benefited. In 1826 he succeeded his father as professor of botany; and, although he wrote no large work on the science, he con- tributed a great number of valuable memoirs relative to it to the scientific annals of France. Ho also contributed to the "Natural History" of Milne-Edwards. He was a member, and afterwards president, of the French Academy of Sciences, b. at Paris, 1797 ; b. at the same place, 1853. Justel, Christopher, zhoos'-tel, counsellor and secretary to the king of France, pub- lished "The Code of Canons of the Universal Church," and the "Councils of Africa, with Notes;" and "The Genealogical History of the House of Auvergne." b. at Paris, 1580; b. 1649. Justeb, Henry, son of the above, and his successor as counsellor and secretary, was a man of learning and liberality, and so partial to England that he sent his father's MSS. to the university of Oxford, which learned body com- plimented him in return with the degree of LL.D. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he went to London, and was appointed keeper to the king's library, b. 1620; i>. 1093. Justi, John Henry Gottlieb von, yoosf-te, a German mineralogist, who devoted himself with assiduity to the study of mineralogy, and acquired such knowledge therein as to be named member of the Council of Mines. He afterwards became professor of political economy and natural his- tory at Gottingen. He wrote treatises on Miner- alogy and on .Money, for some free remarks in which, on the states of Prussia and Wirtembcrg, he was confined for a considerable time in the castle of ISreslau. He had projected a German Encyclopedia, and wrote some pamphlets against eminent naturalists, b. about 1705; n. 177). Justiniani, Bernard, yoos'-lecn-c-a'-iie, a Vene- tian noble, was sent as ambassador to Louis XI, THE DICTIONARY Justiniani of France, who conferred on him the honour of knighthood. In 147-1 he was made procurator of St. Mark, the second dignity of the republic of Venice. He wrote a " History of Venice" and other works, b. 1408; B. 1499. Justiniani, Augustin, bishop of Nebio, in Corsica. Francis I. of France made him his almoner and royal professor of Hebrew at Paris. He perished in a shipwreck in sailing from Genoa to Corsica, in 1536. b. at Genoa, 1476. Justiniani, Fabio, bishop of Ajaccio, wrote a Commentary on Tobit, and an index of all the authors who had written commentaries on the whole or any part of the Bible. Justinianus 1., jus-tin-e-ai-nui, emperor of the East, succeeded his uncle Justinus I. in 527. He was theprotector of Christianity, and carried his arms with success against his enemies, for which he was chiefly indebted to his general ISeli- sarius, who also preserved him from a formidable conspiracy. Peace being restored, Justinianus formed into a body all the Roman laws, which was executed under the title of "Digests," or " Pandects." After this great work was finished, the laws of modern date were collected into one volume, called the " Novella?." He exerted himself against the ecclesiastical encroachments of Popes Silverius and Vigilius. He built many churches, particularly the famous Saint Sophia at Constantinople, and abolished the consulate. B. 493; B. 565. Justinianus II. was the elder son of Constan- tine III., whom he succeeded on the throne of Constantinople in 685. He recovered several provinces from the Saracens, and made an ad- vantageous peace with them ; but his exaftions, cruelties, and debaucheries tarnished the glory of his arms. He formed the design of destroying all the inhabitants of Constantinople, which being discovered, the tyrant was deposed in 694, and banished to the Crimea. Leo the Patrician gained the throne, but he was dis- placed by Tiberius. About 704, Justinianus, being aided by the Bulgarians, regained his crown, but was slain, with his son Tiberius, in 711, by Philippicus Bardanes, his successor. Justinianus, St. Lawrence, the first patriarch of Venice, was canonised by pope Alexander VIII. in 1690. He was the author of several devotional works, which were printed in 2 vols. folio, with a life by his nephew, b. 1381; b. 1485. Justinus I., jus-W-nus, emperor of the East, rose to the rank of general from being a private soldier, before which, he was a swineherd. The soldiers of the praetorian band forced him to accept the imperial dignity on the death of Anastasius, in 518. He recalled the bishops who had been banished by the Arians, and pub- lished several severe edicts against that sect. Hearing of the dec-truction of Antioch by an earthquake, he laid aside the imperial robes, clothed himself in sackcloth, and passed several days in fasting and prayer, to avert Divine judgment. He rebuilt Antioch, and other places which were destroyed by the same calamity. B. 470; B. 527. Justinus II. was the nephew and successor of Justinianus I. in 5<;5. He caused his cousin Jus- tinus to be strangled, and put to death some of his senators from a suspicion of their being dis- affected. He made war against Chosroes, king of Persia, who, being defeated at the head of a numerous army, was obliged to sue for peace. Justinus married Sophia, niece of Theodora, fib2 Juxon wife of the emperor Justinianus, a woman of high spirit, who, taking advantage of her husband's weakness, governed the empire in conjunction with Tiberius, b. 578. Justinus, a Latin historian of the 2nd century, who made an abridgment of the " Universal History" written by Trogus Pompcius. Thia work remains, but the original is lost. Justinus, commonly called Justin Martyr, a Christian philosopher and martyr in the 2nd century. His parents were heathens, and him- self a zealous adherent to the Platonic philo- sophy ; but, disputing with a Christian in 132, he was converted to that faith, though he still continued to wear the pallium, or cloak of the Grecian philosophers. He was an equal honour to Christianity by his knowledge, his firmness, and the purity of his life. A persecution break- ing out against the Christians under Antoninus, Justinus presented to that emperor an admirable apology in their behalf, which had the desired effect. He afterwards addressed another apology to Marcus Aurelius, in which he defended his co-religionists against the calumnies of Crcs- centius, a Cynic philosopher. This last is said to have gained him the crown of martyrdom, about 165. Besides these apologies, his dialogue with Trypho, a learned Jew, and some other pieces in the Greek language, are extant. The best edition of his works is that of Jena, 1844. Juvaea, Philip, yoo-va'-ra, an Italian archi- tect, who was employed by the king of Sardinia to build some fine structures at Turin. In 1734 the royal palace at Madrid being burnt, Philip V., king of SpaUt, sent for him to erect another, more magnificent ; he made a design, which was approved of, but the commencement of the work being delayed from day to day, it is supposed the architect died of chagrin in 1735. b. at Messina, 1668. Juvbncus, Caius Vectius Aquilinus, ju-ven'- kits, one of the earliest Christian poets, was a native of Spain, and flourished in the reign of Constantine. His principal performance was a life of Christ, entitled " Historiae Evangelical," written in Latin verse. Juvenal, Decius Junius, ju-ve'-nal, a Roman satirical poet. He went to Rome when young, and was for some time a pleader, after which he applied himself to writing satires with great success. Domitian sent him into honourable exile, by appointing him to a military command on the frontiers of Egypt. The best translations of his works are those of Dryden, Gilford, and Hodgson, b. about 40 ; b. 120. Juxon, William, jux -on, archbishop of Can- terbury, studied at St. John's College, Oxford, of which, in 1621, he was elected president. In 1633 he was appointed clerk of the closet to the king, and the year following nomi- nated to the bishopric of Hereford, but, before consecration, he was advanced to the see ol London. In 1635 he was appointed lord high treasurer, which excitedgreat indignation against Archbishop Laud, as the means of it; but the conduct of Bishop Juxon in that dignity wat irreproachable. He suffered, in the civil war, the loss not only of his ecclesiastical revenues, but a great part of his temporal estate. In 1649 he attended the king upon the scaffold, after which the regicides caused him to be taken into custody, to make him reveal what Charles I. had secretly intrusted to him. At the Restora- tion, he was made archbishop of Canterbury. B. 1582; B. 1663. OF BIOGRAPHY. Kaab Kaab, kawb, a celebrated Arabian poet, con- temporary with Mohammed, whom he at first strenuously opposed, but afterwards eulogised. As a reward for writing a poem in his favour, the prophet gave him his green mantle, which a descendant of Kaab sold for 10,000 pieces of silver, d. 662. Kaas, Nicholas, kaws, an eminent Danish statesman, studied in the universities of Ger- many, and m 1573 was made chancellor of Den- mark ; and, on the death of Frederic II. in 1588, was nominated to fill the situation of first re- gent during the minority of Christian IV. Being attacked with a mortal disease previous to the coronation of that prince, he sent for him, and telling him that he had promised his father, in his last moments, to do all he could to see the crown placed on the head of his son, he gave him the key of the place where the crown and other regalia were kept, saying, " Take it in the name of God, and wear the crown with glory, sway the sceptre with wisdom and clemency, bear the sword with justice, and keep the globe with judgment." d. 1591. Kabris, Joseph, kab'-re, a French seaman, who, being taken prisoner by the English, ob- tained permission to enter on board a South Sea whaler, and being wrecked on the coast of the island of Noukahiwa, in the Pacific Ocean, fell into the hands of the cannibal inhabitants. AVhile preparations were making for sacrificing him, and his doom appeared inevitable, he was saved by the intercession of the king's daughter, who shortly afterwards became his wife, and he was made chief judge of the island, which office he exercised with reputation and comparative ease, owing to the simplicity of the legal insti- tutions of the savages. Nine years Bad thus passed away when Kabris was carried off, as he stated, while asleep, by the Kussian navigator, Captain Kruscnstern. On returning to France in 1817, Kabris exhibited himself to the public at Paris and elsewhere, his face being tattooed in the New Zealand style. His object was to raise money, to enable him to return to his wife and family at Noukahiwa, where he had enjoyed great happiness ; but, while travelling for this purpose, he died suddenly at Versailles, in 1822. Kadijah, ka'-di-ja, the first wife of Mo- hammed, who, at the period of her marriage with the prophet, was the widow of two hus- bands, and forty years of age, Mohammed being only twenty-five. She had four sons and four daughters by the prophet, among whom was the beautiful Fatima. d 621. K-eihteb, Engelbcrt, kame'-pfer, a German physician and traveller, who, in 16i3, accom- panied, as secretary, the Swedish ambassador to Moscow and Ispahan. He afterwards embarked in a Dutch vessel, visited India, and then pro- ceeded to Japan, making many valuable obser- vations relative to the natural history of that country. He returned to Europe in 1693, and took up his residence in his native land, where he occupied himself in writing memoirs upon the countries he had seen. He left a collection of valuable manuscripts, which Sir Hans Sloane published in English in 1697, under the title of " History of Japan." This work was afterwards translated into German and French, B, at Lemgo, 1651 ; d. 1710. Kalubro Kaestneb, Abraham Gotthelf, kesf-ner, a mathematician, astronomer, and poet, who filled the situation of professor of mathematics at Gottingen with the highest reputation for more than forty years. His scientific works are ex- tremely numerous, but the principal, and, in- deed, by far the most valuable of them all, is a " History of Mathematics." b. at Leipsic, 1719 ; D. 1799. Kaiouk, or Gaiou-Khan, kat'-ook, third grand khan of the Mongols, was son of Oktai, and grandson of Genghis-Khan. He completed the conquest of China, commenced by his father, but died suddenly in the midst of his victories. Kaiouk is called, among the sovereigns of China, Ting-Tsoung. b. about 1205 ; d. 1243. Kalb, John, Baron de, kalb, a German who served as general in the American army of inde- pendence. Having been employed in the French army, he was sent on a mission to the United States. In 1770 he espoused the cause of the Americans, and, after a voyage to France, re- turned with a number of men, among the rest the distinguished Lafayette. He was appointed general, and was killed at the battle of Camden in 1780. b. at Nuremberg, 1739. Kalckreuth, Frederic Adolphus, kalk'-root, count of, a Prussian field-marshal, entered the army in 1751; served with distinction in the seven years' war ; arrived, step by step, at the rank of general, and was made a count in 1788. His courage and ability were often conspicu- ously shown in the war with France ; he took Mayence in 1793; had the chief command of the troops in Pomerania in 1795 ; was appointed governor of Thorn and Dantzie, and made inspector-general of cavalry, in 1S06; concluded with Berthier, at Tilsit, the truce between Prussia and France, in 1807; after which, in conjunction with Golz, he concluded a peace with Talleyrand. He was then made field- marshal, and appointed governor of Berlin in 1810. B. 1737; d. 1318. Kalidasa. (See Calidasa.) Kale, (or Kale), "William, knil, a Dutch painter, whosepaintingsresembledthoseofRem- braudt in contrast ©flight and shade, and Te- niers in minuteness and finish, b. KWO; r>. 1093. Kalil-Pacha, ka'-lil, grand vizier of Amu- rath II.. gained the battle of Varna, in 11 tl, over Ladislas, king of Hungary, who perished in the fight. He also assisted at the taking of Con- stantinople by Mahomet II. in 1103, but was soon afterwards banished for alleged treason. Kalkbrenner, Christian, kalk'-bren-ner, a German musical composer, who resided some time at Berlin, attached to the court of the Prussian king, and, in 1796, went to Paris. His most celebrated works are "Olympus," " Saul," and " Don Juan," besides which he com- posed many smaller pieces, b. at Munden, 1755; D. at Paris, 1806. KAL5r, Peter, kalm, a Swedish traveller and natural philosopher, who travelled in North America and Kussia for the purpose of ex- ploring those countries; and became professor of botany in the university of Abo. His works consist of" Travels in America," besides nume- rous dissertations, illustrative of the state of commerce, agriculture, and manufactures in Sweden. B. in East Bothnia, 1715 ; r>. 1779. Kalubeo, Vincent, ka-loo'-bro, a Polish pre- J late and historian. The chapter of Cracow elected him their bishop, and he founded several new prebends in that and other churches. The THE DICTIONARY Karnes cathedral being destroyed by lightning in 1218, lie retired to a monastery, where he wrote his " Chronicle of the Polish Kingdom." Kames, Lord. (See Home, Henry.) Kanabis, Constantine, kan'-a-ri*, a celebrated Greek mariner, who, in the Grecian war of inde- pendence, signalized himself by conducting the fire-ships into the Turkish fleet. In 1824 he burnt a Turkish frigate at Samos, and a cor- vette in the port of Mitylene; after which he served under the Greek admiral as captain. In 1825 he attempted to destroy the squadron of Mehemet Ali, as it lay in the port of Alex- andria preparing to embark troops for the Morea; but the fire-ships, driven back by a contrary wind, burnt themselves out in the open sea, doing no injury to the enemy. In 1827 he represented Ipsara in the Greek Na- tional Assembly ; subsequently he commanded the Greek fleet, but on the assassination of the president in 1831, he resigned, and retired into private life. He was nominated minister of marine and president of the council in 1848-49, but again retired in 1855. He has been called the " Themistocles of Modern Greece," and Victor Hugo has popularized his daring deeds in verse. At the revolution in 1862, he became a member of the provisional government formed after the expulsion of King Otho. Kandlbb, John Joachim, kan'-dler, master modeller in the porcelain manufactory at Meissen, executed many beautiful figures, particularly of the apostle Paul and the Death of St. Xavier. b. in Saxony, 1706 j d. 1776. Kane, Elisha Kent, kain, an American tra- veller, who, after concluding his education at the medical college of Pennsylvania, was ap- pointed, in 1843, assistant surgeon in the United States navy, and accompanied the first American embassy to China. He afterwards visited the Philippines, Ceylon, and travelled into the interior of India. At Java his tra- velling companion, Baron Loe, a Prussian, died of fatigue. Dr. Kane subsequently visited Egypt and explored [the Nile as far up as the frontiers of Nubia; he walked completely over Greece, and, after a short sojourn in the United States, set out for the coast of Africa, pene- trating to the slave-markets of Whydah. Pros- trated by fever, caught in that country, he returned in an enfeebled condition of health to his native land. He next served with the American army against Mexico, and experienced many fatigues and dangers throughout the campaign. In 1850 he accompanied the first American expedition, despatched by Mr. Grin- nell, a merchant of New York, in search of Sir John Franklin, and four years afterwards published " A Personal Narrative of the Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin." In 1853 he was appointed to the command of a second expedition to the Arctic regions, for the same purpose, and was absent two years. In 1856 he published the results of his second voyage, under the title of " Arctic Explora- tions." The Royal Geographical Society of London bestowed upon him its large gold medal, b. at Philadelphia, 1822; d. at Ha- vanna, 1857. Kanb, Sir Robert, M.D., a distinguished Irish chemist and writer on medicine, after being educated for the profession of medicine, became professor of chemistry to the Apo- thecaries' Hall of Dublin, and was subsequently elected member of the Medico-Chirurgical 5a4 Kant Society of the same city, and of the Paris societies of Pharmacy and Medical Chemistry In 1830-31 he published an essay on the '* Pa- thological Condition of the Fluids in Typhuf Fever," which gained the prize offered by Dr. Graves ; and the " Elements of Practical Phar- macy." The following year he received the degree of M.D. from Trinity College, Dublin; and in 1841 became fellow of the Irish College of Physicians. In 1844 he published a work on " The Industrial Resources of Ireland," which excited considerable interest at the time. He was subsequently employed by government, in con- junction with Professors Lindley and Taylor, to investigate the cause of the potato disease in Ireland ; but thelabours of these gentlemen have been pronounced unsuccessful. The lord-lieu- tenant of Ireland, in 1846, bestowed upon him the order of knighthood. He afterwards aided in the formation of the Museum of Irish Industry, and published several works on the application of chemistry to agriculture and manufactures. In 1848 he became president of Queen's Col- lege, Cork. b. at Dublin, 1810. Kang-Hi, kang'-hi, emperor of China, suc- ceeded Choun-tchi, founder of the Mantchou dynasty, in 1669. He had a great love for the arts and sciences of the Europeans, and liberally patronized the missionaries ; but, though he was fond of geography, and directed the con- struction of maps and charts, he would sutler none to be laid before him unless China was re- presented therein as the middle of the world. He was a voluminous writer, and composed, among other works, "Maxims for State Go- vernment," and " Moral Instructions for my Son." d. 1693. Kant, Emmanuel, kant, an eminent Prussian philosopher. His father, who was a saddler, was descended from a Scotch family, the name of which was spelt Cant ; but it was altered by the philosopher to Kant. He received his edu- cation at the Gymnasium, and afterwards at the university of Konigsberg. On the comple- tion of his studies, he became tutor in a clergy- man's family, and afterwards in that of a noble- man, on quitting which he returned to the university, and subsisted by teaching private pupils. In 1755 he obtained the degree of M.A., and, commencing as public lecturer, ob- tained a number of scholars. He then became so prolific a writer, that it is impossible, within these limits, to give a complete list of his pub- lications in Natural and Metaphysical Philo- sophy. Among his chief productions may be named, a treatise on the "Theory of the Winds;" "Sketch of Physical Geography;" " New Principles of Motion and Rest;" " Ex- amination of the Prize Question, whether the Earth, in turning round its Axis, by which the Succession of Day and Night was produced, had undergone any Change since its Origin ? what were the Causes of it, and how we could be assured of it P" and on Volcanoes in the Moon. Put it was in metaphysics that he chiefly excelled, and upon which ho published a prodigious number of works, which are ex- tremely refined and obscure. His principles attracted considerable attention in Germany, obtained many followers, and, although at- tacked by several writers, continue to exercise great influence still. One of his best known works is the " Critic of Pure Kcason," which has been translated into English, b. at Konigs- berg, 1721; D. 1801. OF BIOGRAPHY. Karajich Karajich, or Kahads'chitsch, Vuk Stepha- novitch, ka'-ra-jik, an eminent Servian writer, the collector of the national ballads of his country, and compiler of a Servian dictionary. During the attempt of the Servians to throw off the Turkish yoke, he acted as secretary to several chiefs of his country, but, after 1813, devoted himself to collecting the ballads of Servia, writing a grammar of the language, and otherwise beneliting literature. His col- lection of Servian national songs is said not to be inferior to the Scottish or Spanish. These have been published at Vienna in several volumes; and Dr. Bowring has translated a small portion of them, under the title of "Servian Popular Poetry." He compiled a Servian grammar, translated the New Testa- ment into Servian, made a collection of Servian proverbs, and edited a volume of "National Tales." He was a member of the Societies of Goitingen, Berlin, and Vienna, and received a pension from the emperor of Russia, b. at Trshicli, in Turkish Servia, 1787. Karamsijt, Nicholai Michaelovitch, ka'-ram- *in, an eminent Russian author, who, after com- pleting his education at Moscow, served as an officer in the Russian guards; but, between the years 1789-91, travelled in Germany, France, and England, an account of his tour being pub- lished, with the title, " Letters of a Travelling Russian." Returning fo Russia, he commenced his literary career by establishing the " Moscow I Journal," and afterwards published several I works, original and translated. His great | work, the " History of the Russian Empire," ] lie left incomplete at his death ; but the book | had an unprecedented popularity, being found everywhere throughout the empire, from the ( noble's palace to the peasant's hut. He also i wrote several poetical pieces of great merit. I The emperor Alexander I. made him a state j councillor, and conferred upon him the order | of St. Anne. B. 1705; D. 1S26. Kara-Yousouf, yoo'-soof, the first prince of ! the Turcoman dynasty, called the " Black Sheep," because they bore an effigy of that animal on their banners, conquered Armenia ; but was forced by Tamerlane to flee into Egypt. After Tamerlane's death, Yousouf re- turned, and overran part of Mesopotamia and Georgia. He was pursuing his conquests when lie died near Tauris, in 1420. K Aim, Jean Baptiste Alphonse, kar, a dis- tinguished French novelist, who, after being employed as teacher in the College Bourbon, at Paris, commenced his literary career, in 1S32, with the publication of a novel entitled "Sous Ics Tilleufs," which at once became exceedingly popular. He subsequently wrote "An Hour too Late," " F Sharp," " The Alain Family," and many other works, all excellent, and extensively read. He is best known in England by his " Tour round my Garden," which has been translated, and several times reprinted. He was also editor and proprietor of various periodicals. In 1844, having published some sarcastic re- marks upon a certain poetess, the lady waited in concealment near the critic's house, and, on jiis emerging into the street, wounded him with a poniard. The affair created much ex- citement at the time, but Karr took no steps to gain redress for the outrage. The poniard was afterwards hung up in his study, with the fol- lowing inscription under it : — " Presented by Madame , to Alphonse Karr— in the back." Kaulbach Latterly he almost exclusively devoted his trr> to horticultural and rural pursuits, b. Paris, 1808. Kahslakb, Sir John Burgess, kars'-laik, was called to the bar in 1843, and became solicitor' general under Lord Derby.in 1866,and attorney- general in 1867. b. near Northmolton, North Devon. Kater, Captain Henry, kai'-ter, an English mathematician, who, although holding a mili- tary commission, devoted his life to science. He commenced his researches in physical science with two papers " On the Light of the Casse- grainian Telescope compared with that of the Gregorian." He subsequently made several valuable experiments on pendulums and other astronomical apparatus, and published two essays on the " Construction and Adjustment of the New Standard of Weights and Measures of Great Britain." A large number of scientific treatises were also contributed by him to the " Transactions " of the Royal and other learned Societies. B.at Bristol, 1777; D.in London, 1835. Katona, Stephen, ka-to'-na, an Hungarian historian, who was professor of poetry and rhe- toric in the university of Buda, and wrote the " History of Hungary," in Latin, in forty-one volumes. This work is the standard authority on the subject, and its value is greatly enhanced by the bibliographical notices it contains of Hungarian authors, b. in Hungary, 1732 ; d. 1811. Kauffmanit, Marin. Angelica, kouf-man, an eminent female artist, was the daughter of a Swiss painter, who from her earliest years in- structed her in his art. At eleven years of age she drew portraits ; after wandering in Italy for several years, she went to London, in 1 700, where she was made one of the original thirty- six members of the Royal Academy. A story, which does not appear to be authentic, relates that she was, while at the height of her reputa- tion in England, cheated into a marriage with an impostor, who represented himself as Count Horn, a Swedish nobleman. She returned to Italy in 1782, after her marriage to Zucchi. Her paintings, characterized by nobleness and grace, are somewhat deficient in drawing. There is a large allegorical painting by her in the National Gallery, called " Religion attended by the Graces." n. at Chur, in the Grisons, 1742 ; d. at Rome, 1S07. Kaulbach, Wilhclm, koul'-bak, a celebrated German artist, was the son of a goldsmith, and was at first apprenticed to that trade, but evincing great talent for drawing, he was, after some opposition, allowed to study in the Dusscl- dorf Academy, under Cornelius, who was so delighted with his pupil, that when lie was himself solicited to paint a grand series of fres- coes in Munich, he requested the assistance of Kaulbach. The young artist went to Munich in 1825, and painted there six allegorical freseoes. Ho exhibited his first unaided work of art, " Irrenhaus," in 1829. When his great ability became recognised, he was employed to decorate the new palace of Munich wiWi designs in fresco and encaustic. He embellished the throne- room, the queen's apartment, the drawing-room, and the state bed-room. His greatest work in oil is "The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus." In his later years he worked almost exclusively at portrait-painting. Kaulbach also drew a very large number of thoughtful and elegant designs for books, and his illustrations to THE DICTIONARY Kaunitz Gothe'a " Reynard the Pox" have become cele- brated, not alone in Germany, but also in Eng- land, b. at Arolsen, in Waldeck, 1804. Kattnitz, Wenceslas, Prince of, kou'-nitz, an eminent German statesman, who during forty years was chancellor and prime minister of Aus- tria. He commenced his political career as minis- cer of state for Hungary, in 1744, and enjoyed successively the confidence of Maria Theresa, Joseph II., Leopold II., and Francis II. Under his prudent administration the cabinet of Vienna obtained great influence with the other courts of Europe, b. at Vienna, 1710 ; d. 1794. Kayanagh, Julia, kav'-a-na, a modern English novelist, was of an Irish family, and received her education in Paris. She com- menced her literary career in 1844, by contri- buting small stories and sketches to the peri- odical press. Her first separate work was a tale for young people, called "The Three Paths," which was produced in 1847. She af- terwards published — " Nathalie ;" " Women in France of the 18th Century;" "Women of Christianity;" "Daisy Burns;" "Rachel Gray;" and other works, b. at Thurles, Tip- perary, 1824. Kay, William, kai, a portrait and historical painter, whose death was occasioned by grief, caused by the duke of Alva's sentencing counts Egmont and Horn to death while the duke was sitting to him for his picture, b. at B*>eda, 1620; d. 1668. Kaye, Dr. John, Bishop of Lincoln, a learned prelate, received his early education under Dr. Charles Burney, and afterwards proceeded to Cambridge, where he had the distinction of being highest at once in classics and mathe- matics. In 1814, he was elected Master of Christ's College; in 1815 was created D.D. by Royal Mandate ; and in 1816, on the death of Dr. Watson, Bishop of Llandaff, was ap- pointed his successor, as Regius Professor of Divinity. Some of the lectures delivered by him from this chair have been published under the title of " Ecclesiastical History, as illus- trated by the writings of Tertullian and Justin Martyr." In 1820 he was nominated to the see of Bristol, and in 1827 advanced to that of Lincoln. Ecclesiastical history was his favour- ite study, and his "Account of the Writings and Opinions of Clement of Alexandria," and his " Athanasius and the Council of Nice," attest his learning and research. His publica- tions on occasional topics include sermons, charges, and some controversial pamphlets. b. 1783; n. 1853. Kaye, Kay, or Caius, Dr. John. (See Caius.) Keach, Benjamin, keech, a Baptist teacher, who wrote an allegorical piece, entitled the " Travels of True Godliness," in imitation of Bunyan ; but his greatest workis a folio volume on the Scripture Metaphors, reprinted in 1777. 03. about 1700. Kean, Edmund, kene, a celebrated English actor, was the son of a stage carpenter and an actress at minor theatres and in showmen's Dooths. Both his parents neglected him during his infancy, and he owed whatever small stock of education he obtained during his early years, to the care of Miss Tidswell, an actress at the London theatres, who generously took charge of him. This lady instructed him in the actor's art; but, when he was about twelve years of age, his mother took him away, and employed him to assist her in hawking "about perfumery 586 Kean and flowers, and occasionally to play in show- men's booths over the country. So clever was " Master Carey," as he was termed, that, when performing with his mother in Richardson's booth at Windsor, George III. summoned him to the Castle, for the purpose of giving recita- tions. His majesty was greatly pleased at the boy's efforts, and dismissed him with a hand- some present. After leading the life of a strolling player for about fifteen years, he, in 1814, made his first appearance at Drury-lane Theatre, the playbills announcing the perform- ance of "The Merchant of Venice; Shylock, Mr. Edmund Kean, from the Exeter Theatre." The house, on the first night, was only poorly attended, but the extraordinary merits of thj provincial actor soon became known throughout the metropolis, and Drury-lane Theatre rapidlj became the crowded resort of the most fashion- able circles. Kean's fame was fixed. He was universally acknowledged to be the greatest English actcr since Garrick. His success re- mained unabated till the yenr 1825, when his connexion with the wife of Alderman Cox led to a lawsuit, on the termination of which Kean was compelled to pay £800 damages. He was then hissed from the stages of Drury Lane and Edinburgh; whereupon he paid a visit to the United States. After two seasons he returned ; but, though favourably received once more, his career was near its end. He had always been a loose liver, and he now indulged in constant intoxication; his constitution was weakened, and his memory so impaired that he could not study a new part. In 1833 he was announced to play the part of Othello, his son Charles being cast for Iago. Kean struggled through the opening scenes of the play, but when he came to the speech, " Villain, be sure," he sank exhausted upon his son's shoulder, and was led off the stage. This was his last appear- ance. His performances of Othello, Shylock, Richard III., and Sir Giles Overreach, are set downjn the annals of the stage as inimitable efforts of the actor's art. b. in London, about 1787 ; d. at Richmond, 1833. Keajt, Charles, second son of the preceding, was educated at Eton, where he won distinc- tion both in the school exercises and the athletic sports indulged in by the youths at the school. On his father's affairs getting do- ranged in 1827, he was recalled from Eton, and was offered a cadetship in the service of the East India Company ; but this he declined, in consequence of his desire to be near his mother, to whom he was warmly attached, and who was then separated from his father. He determined therefore, to embrace his father's profession, and having been offered an engagement at Drury- lane Theatre, by Mr. Price, the then lessee, he made his first appearance there on the 1st of October, 1827, in the character of Norval in Home's tragedy of " Douglas." He had not yet reached the age of seventeen, was a mere strip- ling, and with the disadvantage of a faulty voice — a defect which he was never able entirely to overcome — he was but partially successful, and was even severely "written down" by the press. In these circumstances he offered to relieve the manager from the engagement, but this Mr. Price declined, and Mr. Kean continued to linger on at Drury-lane till the end of the season, ap- pearing in a variety of youthful characters (while acting one of which, Frederick, in " Lover's Vows," he made the acquaintance of OF BIOGRAPHY. Kean Miss Ellen Tree, afterwards his wife,) but ob- tained no change in the verdict which had been pronounced against him. He now went on a tour in the provinces, and while acting in Glasgow became reconciled to his father, then residing in the isle of Bute, a disagreement having occurred between the father and son in consequence of the latter persisting in going upon the stage against the former's wish. The elder Kean acted a night in the western Scottish capital for his son's benefit, which produced a crowded house and receipts amounting to nearly £800. Mr. Charles Kean returned to Drury- lane in January, 1829, and made his first de- cided "hit" in the character of Sir Edward Mortimer. He now visited America, and re- turned to England in 1533, and appeared at Covcnt-garden, where he again, and for the last time, played in the same piece with his father. After his father's death, Mr. Kean played in Knowles's " Wife," with Miss Ellen Tree and Knowles himself. The piece was very success- ful, and had a considerable run both at Covent- garden and at the Olympic. About this time Mr. Kean was offered a comparatively low salary at Drury-lane, when he replied that he would never set foot upon the London boards at less than £50 a night. " Then," said the the- atrical treasurer, Mr. Bunn, " I fear you may bid a long farewell to London, for the days of such salaries are gone for ever." This prophecy, how- ever, was soon falsified, for within five years, during which he had realized £20,000 by acting in the provinces, Mr. Kean entered Drury-lane with an engagement in his pocket at £50 a night, and was paid that sum for fifty nights by the very man who had declared such a thing im- possible. He now took a leading part in his profession, and was offered an engagement by Mr. Macready, at Covent-garden, in 1837, but declined it, and appeared again at Drury-lane, and with Mr. Webster at the Haymarket, in both houses with eminent success. On the 30th of March, 1830, Mr. Kean was entertained at a public dinner in Drury-lane Theatre, and was presented with a magnificent silver vase, worth £200. He was now the most eminent actor, Mr. Macready alone excepted, in England, royalty itself having condescended to approve his performances. He now paid a second visit to America, and returning to England in 1840, resumed his old place at the Haymarket, and also " starred" in the provinces. In 1812, while in Dnblin, he married Miss Ellen Tree, who proved A valuable coadjutor to him in his professional pursuits. After once more visiting the New World, along with his wife, Mr. Kean, in 1819, was entrusted with the management of the royal Christmas theatricals at Windsor Castle. He had now become lessee of the Princess's Theatre, where he revived the plays of Shak- epeare in a style of magnificence never before aitempted. lie resigned the management of this theatre in 1S60, and after receiving in public a piece of plate worth £2,000, he went, in 1^03, on a tour to Australia and America, from which he returned in 180G. He died, after a long and severe illness, in 1868. jj. at Watcrford, 1811. Kean, Mrs. Charles, wife of the above, but better known by her maiden name of E!.-en Tree, was born in the south of Ireland, and made her first appearance at Covent-garden in Olivia, in "Twelfth Night," for the benefit of her sister, Miss Maria Tree, afterwards the wife of .Mr. Bradshaw, a gentleman of fortune, and some 587 Keats time M.P. for Canterbury. She afterwards acted in the provinces, and appeared at Drury-lane as Violante in the " Wonder." She then, in 1829, went to Covent-garden, where she met with great success in Miss Kemble's play of "Francis the First," and in playing Borneo to Miss Kemble's Juliet, in Serjeant Talfourd's "Ion," and in Byron's " Sardanapalus." She visited America between 1836 and 1839, and in 1812 married Mr. Charles Kean, and was subsequently always associated with that gentleman in his various professional enterprises, contributing not a little to the success which attended his efforts, b. 1805. Keane, John, Lord, a British military com- mander, who entered upon his career as ensign at the age of thirteen years. In 1799 he became captain in the 44th regiment, after which he served in Egypt and the Mediterranean. In 1812 he joined the duke of Wellington's army in Spain as brigadier, in which capacity he took part in the battles of Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelle, Orthes, and Toulouse. In 1814 he was sent, with the grade of major-general, to the West-India station, afterwards acting in the attack on New Orleans, where he received two severe wounds. In 1833 he went to Bombay as commander of the forces; and five years afterwards led the army which invaded Scinde. In 1839 he reduced the hitherto im- pregnable fortress of Ghuznee, after a desperate defence; and for this service was rewarded with a peerage, being created Baron Keane, of Ghuznee, in Afghanistan. The East India Com- pany settled upon him and his two next suc- cessors the sum of £2000 annually, both Houses of Parliament voting him their thanks, b. 1781 ; d. at Burton Lodge, Hampshire, 184-1. Kf.atb, George, keete, a miscellaneous writer. Having completed the tour of Europe, during which he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, at Geneva, he returned to England, became a student in the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar ; but, not meeting with much encou- ragement in flie law, he abandoned that pro- fession for literature. His first performance was "Ancient and Modern Borne," a poem pub- lished in 1750. His publications after this were very numerous ; the principal being " An Account of the Pellew Islands," compiled from the papers of Captain Wilson, and a translation of the " Semiramis" of Voltaire, b. at Trow- bridge, Wiltshire, 1729; d. 1797. Keating, Jeffrey, keet-'ing, an Irish eccle- siastic of the Roman church, and doctor of divinity, who wrote a history of the poets of Ireland, and the genealogies of the principal families, d. 1650. Keats, John, ketes, an eminent English poet, was the son of a livery-stable proprietor in Finsbury, and was sent, when about the age of five years, to Mr. Clarke's school, at Enfield. While there, that intellectual ambition which formed so large a portion of his character, be- came suddenly awakened. The amusements and games of youth were abandoned for study; and on the half-holidays, when all his com- panions were at play, he was busy translating Virgil and Fenelon. The old Grecian my- thology, which he afterwards reconstructed and reanimated by his feeling and fancy, was his especial study. In 1810 he left school. His father dying about the same time, he was left the sum of £2000, and was apprenticed to Mr. Hammond, a surgeon at Edmonton. From the THE DICTIONARY Keats Keill outset, however, the youth showed that it was not in physic, but in poetry, that his name was to become pre-eminent. In 1817 he published a volume of Juvenile Poems, and shortly after- wards " Endymion." " Lamia," " Isabella," "The Eve of St. Agnes," and "Hyperion," were produced during the three or four suc- ceeding years. On the appearance of " Endy- mion," the "Quarterly Review" attacked the poet, and his kindred writers, in a most violent manner. The poet's health, always delicate, became greatly weakened by his attentions upon a dying brother; and his own decease occurring soon afterwards, it was for some time erroneously attributed to the attacks of the "Quarterly" reviewer. Byron, in his "Don Juan," gave one version of the story in the following lines: — " John Keats, who was kill'd off by one critique, Just as he really promised something great, If not intelligible, without Greek, Contrived to talk about the gods of late, Much as they might have been supposed to speak. Poor fellow ! his was an untoward fate : 'Tis strange, the mind, that very fiery particle, Should let itself be snuff" d out by an article." This was quite untrue ; Hie young poet was predisposed to hereditary phthisis. He went 10 Italy for the purpose of regaining strength, and had reached Rome when his malady as- sumed a most alarming form, and he was soon carried off by consumption. The career of the young poet was too suddenly brought to a close, or he would have redeemed the promises of his poetical genius. Although he left behind only three volumes of verse, his rich and luxuriant fancy, his teeming brilliant imagery, his stimulating and suggestive diction, have been an honour and a glory to English litera- ture. The circumstances of his short life, and the character of his writings, compel our love and veneration; and to that which he has given us we may justly apply his own line: — " A thing of beauty is a joy for ever." b. in London, 1796; d. at Rome, 1821. Keats, Sir Richard Godwin, a British naval officer — one of the gallant band of sea war- riors who made the British navy so renowned in the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries— was the son of the Kev. Dr. Keats, rector of Bideford, Devon, and entered the navy at the age of thirteen, on board the liellona, 74. After serving in several ships, he became lieutenant in the Jiamilies in 1771, and was present in the action fought by Keppel against D'Orvilliers, July 27, 1778, on which occasion l he Hamilies led the fleet on the larboard tack into action. Keats behaved so well in this affair, that he was invited by Admiral Digby to accompany him into the Prince George, 93, in which Prince William Henry, afterwards William IV., began his naval career, and Lieutenant Keats was se- lected as an able and skilful officer to whom the professional instruction of the prince might safely be intrusted. Accordingly, he was for three years the officer of the watch in which Prince William was rated. Keats was engaged in a variety of services, both in the channel and on the American station, and so satisfactorily performed the duty of destroying a fleet of for- midable gunboats in one of the Jersey rivers, that he was rewarded with a commander's com- mission, and was appointed to the Rhinoceros, GS8 12. He afterwards served in the Bone.lia, Southampton, and Niger ; and on the breaking out of the French revolutionary war, was ap- pointed to the Galatea, 32, in which vessel, in the unlucky expedition to Quiberon, in 1795, Captain Keats did good service in rescuing a portion of the force from the clutches of the sanguinary Le Moine. In August, 179ti, Keats, with the Galatea, chased and captured the French frigate L' Andromache, 38, off the mouth of the Gironde. He next served in the Boadicea against the Spaniards ; in 1801, he was transferred to the Superb, 74, and in that ship remained as captain, commodore, and ad- miral till 1810. He was with Sir James Sau- marez on July 12, 1801, when he encountered and captured the Spanish three-deckers, Keal Carlos and St. Antonio, 74, off Cadiz. In 1803, Keats joined Lord Nelson, and was commis- sioned to demand satisfaction from the dey of Algiers for dismissing the British vice-consul from his dominions, a duty which he satisfac- torily performed. He then accompanied Nelson to the West Indies in pursuit of the French and Spanish fleets. He was next, in February, 1806, in the action off St. Domingo, under Sir J. Duckworth, where Captain Keats greatly distinguished himself. In the attack on Copen- hagen, under Lord Gambier, in 1807, Captain Keats was employed as commodore of a divi- sion of the fleet, and after blockading Stralsnnd, was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and in the Superb, joined Sir J. Saumarez in the Baltic. In 1808 he accompanied the expe- dition under Sir John Moore to Spain, and in August of the same year, relieved the -Marquis de la Romana and 10,000 Spanish troops from Nyburg, in Denmark, whom Napo*)eon had sent to Hanover from their own country, pre- paratory to carrying out his designs against it. For his services on this occasion, Keats was created a knight of the Bath. He was second in command of the fleet which accompanied the disastrous expedition to the Scheldt, in 1809. He next commanded the naval forces employed in the defence of Cadiz against the French; and, in the conclusion of lall, in the Hibernia, 120, joined Sir Edward Pcllew off Toulon, as second in command of the Mediterranean fleet. In October, 1812, ill-health compelled him to return to England, and in the following spring he was appointed governor and commander-in- chief at Newfoundland. He became major- general of marines in 181S, and governor of Greenwich Hospital in 1821. In this post he continued till his death, from a paralytic stroke. in 1834, when his obsequies were performed with all martial honours by express commanu of William IV. b. 1757. Keble, John,M.A., ke'-lel, a highly popular writer of sacred poetry, for many years vicar of Hursley, in Hampshire. Soon after taking his B.A. degree, he was chosen fellow of Oriel Col- lege, Oxford, and from 1831 to 1841 was professor of poetry at his university. His chief works are the "Christian Year," of which thousands of copies have been sold, and " Lyra Inuoeen- tium." B. 1792; D. 1856. Keill, John, kite, a British mathematician, who, after taking hisdegreeofM. A. at Edinburgh university, entered of Balliol College, and is said to have been the first who taught Sir Isaac Newton's principles by experiments. In 1698 he published an " Examination of Dr. Burnet's Theory of the Earth," to which he subjoined OF BIOGRAPHY. Keill "Bemarks on Winston's Theory." The year following he was appointed deputy professor ot natural philosophy. In 1708 he defended Newton's claim to the invention of fluxions, which brought him into a dispute with Leibnitz. In 1709 he went to America with some German exiles, sent thither at the expense of the British government. In 1710 he was chosen Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, and the year following became decipherer to the queen. In 1714 the university conferred on him the degree of M.D., and, in 1715, he published an edition of " Commandine's Euclid." In 1718 appeared his " Introductio ad veram Astro- nomiam;" which treatise he translated into English, b. at Edinburgh,1671 ; d. 1721. KkiLL, James, younger brother of the above, obtained the degree of M.D. at Cambridge, and settled as a physician at Northampton. His works are: "The Anatomy of the Human Body;" "An Account of Animal Secretion, the Quantity of Blood in the Human Body, and Muscular Motion." b. in Scotland, 1673; d. at Northampton, 1719. Keiser, Beinhard, Ici'-ser, an eminent Ger- man musician and composer, who wrote no less than 118 operas, of which his "Circe," brought out at Hamburgh, in 1734, was the last and most beautiful. He possessed a most fertile imagination, and is considered as the father of German melody, b. 1673; d. 1735. Keith, James, keetk, field-marshal in the Prussian service, was the younger son of George Keith, earl-marshal of Scotland. He attached himself to the Pretender in 1715, and was wounded at the battle of Sheriffmuir. He, how- ever, escaped with his brother to Spain, and served as an officer of the Irish brigade for ten years. He afterwards went to Uussia, and was made a general. He signalized himself in all the battles between the Russians and Turks, and was the first who entered the breach at the taking of Otchakov. He also displayed great military skill against the Swedes, and, on the restoration of peace, was appointed field-marshal, and sent on several embassies. But conceiving that his services had not been properly com- pensated, he accepted an invitation from the king of Prussia, who gave him a large pension, and made him governor of Berlin, and field- marshal. That monarch also took him into his confidence, and made him the companion of his travels. He was killed at the battle of Hochkir- chen, in 1758. b. at Kincardine, 169G. Keith, George, a native of Aberdeen, where he was a fellow-student with Bishop Burnet, and took his degree of M.A.; but quitted the Presbyterian church to become a Quaker, and went to Pennsylvania. At length becoming dissatisfied with this sect, he founded a new one of his own; and subsequently entered into the Church of England, took orders, and ob- tained some preferment. He wrote several books both fur and against the Quakers ; was a believer in the transmigration of souls, the millennium, Sic. ; and is described as an eloquent speaker, and an acute disputant, v. about 1715. KiiiTn, George Keith Elphinstone, Viscount, a famous British admiral, was a native of Dum- bartonshire, received his education at Glasgow, and entered the navy in 1762, in the Gosport, then under the command of Captain Jervis, afterwards earl St. Vincent. He subsequently served at home, in China, and in India, till, in 1775, he attained post-captain's rank, hid Keith. and hoisted bis flag on board the Marlborough, at Portsmouth, and afterwards in the Pearl and Perseus frigates, in the latter of which he served on the American station under Admirals Hood and Arbuthnot, and while absent was elected M.P. for Dumbartonshire. He commanded a detachment of seamen on shore in the reduction of Charleston, was present at the attack on Mud Island, November 17, 1777, and, being sent home with despatches from Admiral Arbuthnot, was appointed to the Warwick, 50. He was again returned for Dumbartonshire in 1780 ; and in 1731 took the Dutch 50-gun ship Rotterdam. He now served again on the American station, and assisted in the capture of the French ship L'Aigle and 600 men, commanded by Count de la Touehe. On the conclusion of the American war, in 1783, he returned home; and, in 1786, was elected M.P. for Stirlingshire. Soon after war broke out with France, Captain Elphinstone was, in 1793, appointed to the Robust, 74, joined Lord Hood in the Mediterranean, assisted in the reduction of Toulon, on the 28th of August, 1793, and ably superintended the re-embarkation of the troops on the 18th of the following Decem- ber. He was made rear-admiral of the Blue, April 12, 1791; was created a knight of the Bath on the 4th of May ; and was advanced to rear-admiral of the White on 4th of July, hoist- ing his flag in the Barjleur, 98. In January, 1795, he removed to the Monarch, 74, on hos- tilities occurring between England and the Batavian Republic, sailed to the Cape of Good Hope, and, in conjunction with General Alured Clarke, compelled the Dutch commander to sur- render on the 16th of September following. He had, in the meantime, been promoted to the rank of vice-admiral, and, on the completion of the service at the Cape, Admiral Elphinstone proceeded to the Indian Seas, and in a brief period captured Ceylon, Cochin, Malacca, and the Molucca Islands; and, on August 18, 1796, captured a Dutch squadron, under Admiral Lucas, which had been sent to recover the Cape of Good Hope. He returned to England in January, 1797, and in May following was made an Irish peer by the title of Baron Keith. He next aided in the suppression of the mutiny at the Nore, and then proceeded to the Mediter- ranean in the Foudrotjuut, as second in com- mand to earl St. Vincent. Ho was promoted to vice-admiral of the Bed in 1799; and in November of that year took the command in the Mediterranean, which ill-health had com- pelled Lord St. Vincent to resign. He here had Nelson under his orders, and, by the judicious arrangement of the forces, secured the capture of La Qenereux, 74. In March he blockaded the harbour of Leghorn, in co-operation with the Austrian?, and was mainly instrumental, by the rigid blockade maintained, in reducing the French troops under General JIassena to great straits for provisions, which resulted in the surrender of that officer and his army in the beginning of June; and on the 4th of Septem- ber following, Malta capitulated to a detachment of Admiral Keith's fleet. His next service was in command of the fleet which accompanied Sir Ralph Abercromby to Egypt, ai.d he greatly distinguished himself in the important opera- tions which followed. In 1801, he was made admiral of the Blue, received the thanks of Parliament, was made a peer of the United King- dom by the title of ISaron Keith of ISanheath, Dumbartonshire, was presented with the free- THE DICTIONARY Keith dom of the city of Loudon, and had the order of the Crescent bestowed upon him by the Sultan. When hostilities recommenced in 1803, he was appointed to the command in the Chan- nel and in the North Seas, and made an experi- ment with a new mode of attack on the gun- boats at Boulogne, which to a certain extent succeeded. In November, 1805, he was raised to the rank of admiral of the White, again assumed the command of the Channel fleet in 1812, was made a viscount in 1811, and, in 1815, after the battle of Waterloo, arranged his crui- sers so judiciously as to preclude the possibility of Napoleon's escape, who accordingly surren- dered to Captain Maitland in the Bellerophon. This closed the long and valuable services of Lord Keith, b. 1746; d. March 10, 1323. Keith, Thomas, a famous mathematician, and author of several excellent works, was a native of Brandsburton, near Beverley, in York- shire. Having lost his parents when he was only fourteen, he became tutor in a private family; and in 1781, settling in London, soon acquired distinction as a mathematician. In 1804 his reputation as an accountant led to his being appointed professor of geography and the sciences to the Princess Charlotte of Wales ; and in 1814 the situation of accountant to the British Museum was conferred upon him, a post which he held to his death. His principal works are, "The Complete Practical Arithmetician," "An Introduction to Geography," "Plane and Spheri- cal Trigonometry ," a " Treatise on the Use of the Globes," and " Elements of Geometry." b. 1759; d. 1824. Keller, John Balthasar, ket-ler, a skilful founder in brass. He cast the equestrian statue of Louis XIV., which was set up at Paris in the Place Louis the Great. He was sub- sequently made inspector of the foundry at the arsenal, d. 1702. — His brother, John James, also excelled in the same art. x>. at Colmar, 1700. KELLEEMANir, Francois Christophe, Tcel'-ler- man, marshal of France, and duke of Valmy, served with distinction during the Seven Years' War, and when the revolution burst forth, in 1788, was a brigadier in the French army. In 1792 he was named commander of the army of the Moselle, and fought, along with Dumouriez, the battle of Valmy, in which the greatly superior Prussian army was defeated and compelled to evacuate French territory. He was, never- theless, incarcerated as a suspected person in 1793, but was afterwards set at liberty. In 1795, he became commander-in-Chief of the armies of the Alps and Italy, resisting, with 47,000 men, the attacks of an army mustering 150,000 soldiers. In 1804 Napoleon created him marshal of the empire, duke of Valmy, senator, &c, and he was afterwards charged with several commands in chief, in all of which he acquitted himself with great distinction. At the Restoration he was created peer of France. b. at Strasburg, 1735 ; d. at Paris, 1820. Kellebmann, Francois Etienne, son of the above, served with distinction in the campaigns in Prussia, Germany, Italy, and Spain, and signalized himself at the battles of Marengo, Austerlitz, Vimiera, Bautzen, and Waterloo. He wes general of division in 1814, and was created a peer during the Hundred Days. Excluded from the Chamber by Louis XVIII., he did not return to it till 1S30. B. 1770 ; D. at 1'aiis, 1835. 690 Kelly Kelly, Edward, kel'-le, an English alche- mist, received his education at Oxford, which he quitted without taking a degree ; and, while rambling about the country, for some offence or other lost his ears at Lancaster, after which be became assistant to Dr. Dee, whom he ac- companied abroad. The emperor Eodol- phus II. was so much deceived by Kelly's pre- tensions to making gold, that he conferred the honour of knighthood on him. He afterwards sent him to prison at Prague, whence, in endea- vouring to make his escape by tying his bed- sheets together, he fell, and broke both his legs. He wrote a poem on chemistr}', and another on the philosopher's stone, b. at Worcester, 1555; d. 1595. Kelly, Hugh, Icet-le, an Irish dramatic writer, who, after gaining a livelihood, first as a staymaker and afterwards as an attorney's clerk, turned author with considerable success. He wrote four comedies, called "False Deli- cacy," " A Word to the Wise," the " School for Wives," and the "Komance of an Hour;" together with " Clementina, a Tragedy," " i'hespis," a poem in imitation of Churchill's " Boseiad ;" " Memoirs of a Magdalen," a novel, and the " Babbler," a collection of essays, it. 1777. Kelly, John, a learned English clergyman, a native of Douglas, in the Isle of Man, who, having paid particular attention to the vernacu- " lar dialect of the Celtic tongue which waa spoken in that island, was introduced to Bishop Hildesley, who employed him in translating the Bible into ,ihc Manx language, and ordained him a minister of the episcopal congregation of Ayr, in Scotland. Through the patronage of the duke of Gordon, to whose son, the marquis of Huntley, he was tutor, Mr. Kelly obtained the rectory of Copford, in Essex; and having en- tered at St. John's College, Cambridge, was ■ there honoured with the degree of LL.D. In 1803 he published "A Practical Grammar of the Ancient Gaelic, or Language of the Isle of Man ;" and in 1805 issued proposals for pub- lishing " A Triglot Dictionary of the Celtic Tongue," which was nearly completed when the sheets were destroyed by a fire on the premises of the printer, Mr. Nichols, b. 1750 ; d. 1S09. Kelly, Michael, a composer and singer, was the son of a wine merchant in Dublin, who for many years acted as master of the ceremonies at the castle. Michael, at an early age, having given proofs of a genius for music, Iris father placed him under Rauzzini, at that time in Dublin, who induced his friends to send him to Naples. He there found a patron in Sir William Hamilton, the British minister; studied under Fineroli and Aprili ; and subsequently per- formed at most of the Italian theatres and in Germany. He contracted a close intimacy with Mozart during his stay at Vienna ; was for a period in the service of the emperor Joseph; and ?t length returning to Britain, made his first appearance, in 17t*7, at Drury-lane Theatje, London, in "Lionel and Clarissa." He soon acquired the position of first singer at that theatre, the musical performances of which he directed till his retirement from the stage. He set to music upwards of sixty pieces, most of which were successful, and amongst these are the once highly pox>ular compositions in Col- man's musical romance of " Bluebeard." A few months previous to his death appeared his " Reminiscences," a very amusing work, replete OF BIOGRAPHY. Kerxible with anecdotes of his contemporaries and familiar associates, b. 1762; d. 1826. Kemble, John Philip, kem'-bel, jhi eminent English actor, was the son of Roger Kemble, the manager of a provincial theatre ; and although, while young, he was employed to play children's parts in the theatre, was not intended for the stage. lie was educated at a Roman Catholic seminary in Staffordshire, and afterwards at Douay College, in France; but having a natural inclination for the actor's pro- fession, he returned to England at the age of nineteen, and made his debut on the stage at Wolverhampton. After playing with great success in various provincial theatres, he made his first appearance at Drury-lane Theatre in 1783, became a great favourite, and, in 1803, purchased a share in Covent-garden Theatre, and assumed the management of that establishment. During the subsequent fourteen years, he continued to play the leading tragedy parts with the greatest success ; indeed, in the characters of Brutus, Coriolanus, Cato, King John, Wolsey, and Macbeth, he is said to have been without an equal. In 1817 he retired from the stage, and soon afterwards went to reside in the south of France, and later, at Lausanne, in Switzerland, b. 1757 ; d. at Lausanne, 1823. Kemble, Charles, brother of the preceding, was also a distinguished actor, but excelled chiefly in comedy. After receiving his educa- tion at the Roman Catholic college at Douay, in France, his brother John obtained for him an appointment in the General Post-office; but, resigning tliis situation, he made his first ap- pearance on the stage as Orlando, in "As you Like it," at Sheffield. Afterplaying in the pro- vinces, he appeared in London, in 1794. At first he was cast for secondary characters only, but in a few years he had so improved himself by study, that he became the first English actor in the walk of high comedy, and, like his brother, had certain characters in which he was unrivalled, — such as Orlando, Falconbridge,Cassio, Benedick, Mercutio, Petruchio, and Charles Surface. He a^so produced on the English stage a number of adaptations from the French and German. He retired from the stage in 1810, having been a short time previously appointed examiner of plays. He afterwards appeared on several occa- sions as a reader of Shakspeare. Like many other members of his family, he was an educated and accomplished man. b. at Brecon, South Wales, 1775; d. 1851.— Mr. Charles Kemble had two daughters, Frances Anne Kemble, who be- came a well-known actress, and who, in 1S32, visited the United States, where she married a gentleman of property, named Butler. The union, however, proved unhappy, and they were, divorced in 1810. She afterwards published a volume of poems, a drama, called "The Star of Seville," and some account of her travels, both in America and in Italy. She afterwards gave l eadings from and lectures on Shakspeare. The other daughter, Miss Adelaide Kemble, ap- peared with the greatest success as an operatic dinger; but, on her marriage with Mr. Sartoris, she quitted the stage. Kemble, George Stephen, brother of the above, was also an actor of ability. He was born ot Kingstown, Herefordshire, and it is stated tiiat his mother performed the part of Anne lioleyn in Shakspeare's Henry VIII. on the night of Stephen's birth. He was originally designed for the medical profession, and was G91 Kemp apprenticed to a surgeon in Coventry ; but soon followed the bent of all his family, and went upon the stage. He made his first appearance at Covent-garden Theatre in 1783; and was subsequently manager of the theatres at Edin- burgh, Glasgow, Liverpool, and Newcastle. Stephen Kemble was exceedingly stout in the latter part of his life, so much so, as to be able to perform the part of Falstaff without stuffing. d. 1822. Kemble, John Mitchell, son of Charles Kemble, one of the most distinguished Anglo- Saxon scholars of his age, after receiving his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1833 commenced his labours by the publication of "The Anglo-Saxon Poems of Beowulf," which were followed by several volumes of translations and collections of the same early literature. In 1819, he produced "The Saxons in England, a History of the English Commonwealth till the period of the Norman Conquest," which is the most important of all his works. He had been editor for many years of the " British and Fo- reign Quarterly Review," and continued to act in that capacity till the periodical ceased to exist in 1845. Mr. Kemble held the office for- merly filled by his father, — that of examiner of plays under the lord chamberlain, b. 1807; d. i857. Kemp, Joseph, Icemp, a distinguished musical composer, was a native of Exeter, where he was a chorister, and studied under William Jackson. He was appointed organist of Bristol cathedral in 1802, and the same year composed his an- them, " I am Alpha and Omega," one of his best pieces. He left Bristol for London in 1807, and took the degree of 31. B. at Cambridge in 1808, and in 1809 that of doctor, when his " Cruci- fixion" was performed. He then adopted the profession of lecturer on music, and invented a new method of teacliing the science. He com- posed "The Siege of Ischia," an opera; "Twenty Psalmodical Melodies," numerous songs, duets, glees, &c. ; and was the author of a work en- titled " A New System of Musical Education, being a Self-Instructor." b. 1778 ; d. 182-1. Kemp, George Miekle, a self-educated archi- tect, who designed the Scott monument at Edinburgh, was the son of a shepherd, and apprenticed to the trade of a millwright, at which he worked for several years in Scot- land, London, and Manchester. From early youth he is said to have evinced a great inclina- tion for the study of architecture, and while working as a journeyman at his trade, he con- trived to visit the abbeys of Melrose and Jed- burgh, the cathedral of Glasgow, and several cathedrals in England : he was also an ardent lover of poetry, and of the works of Sir Walter Scott. In 1824 he set out for the con- tinent, intending to travel over Europe, but was compelled to return in a year ; he had, nevertheless, seen most of the cathedrals of France and the Netherlands. He attempted, without success, to establish himself in business at Edinburgh : after this he studied drawing and perspective with so much zeal, that, in 1830, he was enabled to make three splendid drawings of Melrose Abbey. He was next employed to make a large model for a palace to be erected by the duke of Buccleuch ; he subsequently tra- velled over Scotland, taking sketches for a pro- posed work on the ecclesiastical antiquities of that country. When the design for the Scott monument w:is announced for competition, THE DICTIONARY Kempelen Kennet Kemp entered the lists, and obtained one of the three premiums of £50. He was again successful on the second competition, and his design was adopted; the architect, however, did not live to see his work finished. In 1841 his body was found in the Forth and Clyde canal : into which it is supposed he had accidentally fallen on a dark night. His remains were followed to the tomb by the members of the Royal Scottish Academy and most of the other public bodies in Edinburgh, b. at Newhall, on the Esk, 1791; drowned 1844. Kempelen, Wolfgang, Baron de, kemp'-len, an Hungarian mechanician, who manufactured a chess-playing automaton, about 1782, which attracted considerable attention when exhibited in Paris and London. It is supposed that a boy was concealed within the figure. He also con- structed a speaking figure, n. at Presburg, 1734 j d. 1804. Kempis, Thomas a, kem'-pis, a pious writer of the 14th century. At the age of 19 he en- tered the monastery of Mount St. Agnes, of which his elder brother was prior. He led a life of strict devotion, occupying himself in copying the Bible and the writings of the Saints. The treatise " De Imitatione Christi," or "Of the Imitation of Christ," so universally known under his name, was compiled and copied by him from the older writers. He wrote, also, the history of his monastery, n. at Kempen, near Cologne, 1330 ; d. 1471. Ken, Thomas, ken, an English bishop, was educated at Winchester school, whence he removed to New College, Oxford, where he was elected fellow. About 1680 he was appointed chaplain to the Princess of Orange, whom he accompanied to Holland. He afterwards went with Lord Dartmouth to Tangier, and, on his return, was made Chaplain to Charles II., whom he attended in his last illness, but was hindered from exercising the duties of his function by the Romish priests. That monarch, who had a great regard for him, nominated him to the bishopric of Bath and Wells, which was con- firmed by James II. The bishop governed his diocese in an exemplary maimer; he opposed the endeavours of James to introduce popery, and was one of the seven bishops sent to the Tower for resisting that monarch's dispensing power. He refused, however, to take the oaths at the Revolution, for which he was deprived. Queen Anne granted him a pension of £200 a year ; and he was universally esteemed for his amiable manners and unaffected piety. He published some pious manuals, and wrote seve- ral hymns and an epic poem, entitled " Edmund." b. at Berkhampstead, Herts, 1637; d. in Wilt- shire, 1711. Kendal, George, keri-dal, a Nonconformist divine, in 1647 became rector of Blissland, in Cornwall, whence he subsequently removed to London. He wrote a " Vindication of the Doc- trine generally received in the Churches con- cerning God's Intentions of Special Grace and Favour to his Elect in the Death of Christ," folio; the " Doctrine of the Perseverance of the Saints, against John Goodwin," folio, &c. b. in Devonshire; D. 1663. Kennawat, Sir John, keu'-a-wai, a brave offi- cer and able diplomatist, whose sphere of ser- vice was India, where he negotiated treaties with Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan. The treaty witli the latter involved the cession of half his dominions, paying £3,31X1,000 as expenses of 69:/ the war, and giving his two sons as hostages. Kennaway was knighted in 178S, returned to Ens-land in 1794 ; and died in 1826. b. 1758. I Kennedy, James, ken'-ne-de, bishop of St. Andrew's, Scotland, was the founder of the col- lege and church of St. Salvador, and also of the abbey of the Observantines. He filled the office of lord chancellor for a time ; and, in the mino- rity of James III., was one of the lords of tin regency, b. 1405 ; d. 1466. Kennedy, John, a learned Scotch physician, who resided at Smyrna during several years. He had a valuable collection of pictures ana coins, which, after his death, was sold by auc- tion. He wrote a dissertation on the Coins of Carausius. d. 1760. Kennedy, John, rector of Bradley, in Derby- shire, was a good mathematician; and the author of " Scripture Chronology," " The Doctrine of Commensurability," &c. d. 1770. Kennedy, William, "the annalist of Aber- deen," received the rudiments of his education at the grammar school, and His academical studies were subsequently completed at the Marischal College, there. He was admitted a member of the Aberdeen bar in 1783. Kennedy early showed a predilection for antiquarian pur- suits; and about the year 1813, at the request of the magistrates, spent a considerable portion of time in drawing up an index to the volu- minous city records, which had been accumu- lating for centuries, and which extend toa more remote antiquity, and are more complete, than those of any other Scottish burgh. His chief title to fame, however, rests on his justly esteemed work, in 2 vols. 4to., "The Annals of Aberdeen." b. 1759; d. 1836. Kknnkt, Basil, keu'-net, an English writer, who, in 1696, published " The Antiquities of Rome." The year following he was chosen fel- low of his college, and published the " Lives of the Greek Poets." In 1706 he was appointed chaplain to the English factory at Leghorn, where he narrowly escaped falling under the power of the Inquisition. He published several translations of foreign writers, b. at Postling, Kent, 1674; d. in London, 1714. Kennet, White, an English prelate and anti- quarian, an 1 brother of the preceding, was educated at St. Edmund Hall, Oxford, where he distinguished himself by his abilities. In 1684 he took his degree of M.A., and was presented to the vicarage of Amersden, in Oxfordshire. While shooting, his gun burst, by which acci- dent his skull was laid open, so that he was ever afterwards obliged to wear a patch of black velvet. In 1701 he engaged in the controversy on the rights of convocation, against Dr. Attcr- bury. In 1707 he was made dean of Peterbo- rough, but he was at this time very unpopular, owing to his Whig principles, and his opposition to Dr. Sacheverell. Dr. Welton, rector of White- chapel, presenting an altar-piece representing the Last Supper to his church, caused the figure intended for Judas Iseariot to be drawn like the dean of Peterborough, with a black patch. This giving great offence, the Bishop of London ordered the picture to be taken down. In 1713 Kennet was preferred to the bishopric of Peter- borough. He published a collection of Englis.i historians, under the titleof "The Complete His- tory of England," in 3 vols, folio.the last of which *as written by himself. He also edited Somner's " History of Gavelkind," with a memoir of the author.and wrote "ThcCascoi'Impropriations," HENRY OF NAVARRE. HERBERT, GEORGE. HOWE, ADMIRAL EARL. HUSS, JOHN. Plate XVII. OF. BIOGRAPHY. Kenneth and several sermons and miscellaneous tracts. The British Museum library of manuscripts contains a voluminous collection of his tin- printed works, b. at Dover, 1669; d. 1728. Kenneth I., ken'-neth, king of Scotland, reigned for one year only, 605-6. Kenneth II., king of Scotland, succeeded Alpin, his father, in 834. He made war upon the Picts, and subdued their dominions beyond the Forth, which he divided among his soldiers. He removed the stone chair to Scone, where his successors were crowned till it was removed to England by Edward I. d. 854. Kenneth HI., the son of Malcolm, subdued the Britons of Strathclyde, and was equally successful against the Danes, who had invaded his dominions; but attempting to alter the suc- cession of the crown in favour of his family, the people assassinated him in 994. Kenney, James, ken'-ne, an English dra- matist of considerable reputation in his day, and many of whose works still maintain their position on the stage. The farce of " Raising the Wind," in which the inimitable Jeremy -Diddler is a prominent character, was his first performance, and was followed by " Love, Law, and Physic," "Matrimony," "The World," " The Illustrious Stranger," and others, b. in Ireland, about 1 770 ; d. in London, Aug. 1, 1849, the day which had been fixed for his benefit at Drury-lane Theatre. Kknnicott, Benjamin, ken'-ni-kot, a learned English divine, who, by the liberality of some gentlemen, was senttoWadhani (vi.c =e , Oxford, where he applied himself to his studies with such diligence, that, while an undergraduate, he published two dissertations on the Tree of Life in Paradise, and on the oblations of Cain and Abel, for which the university presented him his bachelor's degree, without fees, and before he had completed his terms. He next undertook to publish a correct edition of the text of the Hebrew Scriptures, collated from ancient manuscripts. In this great work, for which he was admirably fitted by patience, in- dustry, and learning, he met with extensive encouragement, and many sovereigns and other illustrious personages appeared in his list of subscribers. To enable him to perfect his de- sign, he was made keeper of the Radcliffe Library, and canon of Christ Church. The first volume was published in 1776, and the eighth, and last, in 1780. b. at Totnes, Devonshire, 1718; d. at Oxford, 1783. Kenrick, William, ken'-rik, an English writer, who published, in 1759, " Epistles, Phi- losophical and Moral," in verse. In 1766 ap- peared his comedy of " Falstaff's Wedding," an imitation of Shakspeare. He was some time a writer in the " Monthly Review," but differing with the proprietors, he set up another journal in opposition to it, called the " London Review." lie was also editor of the "MorningChronicle;" but a quarrel with the proprietor induced hira to start a paper against it, without success. He translated Rousseau's "Emile" and " Eloise," and oilier works, lrom the French, and pub- lished several original pieces, n. at Watford, Herts; D. 1779. Kent, William, kent, an English painter and architect, who at first worked at coach-painting, but abandoned it for the higher branches of t be art. In 1710 he went to Italy, where lie became acquainted with the earl of Burlington, through whom lie gained considerable employment, and 693 Kent was appointed principal painter and architect to the king. Although only an indifferent artist, he yet takes rank as the great improver of modern English landscape-gardening; in- deed, he is regarded as the founder of the art. He also carved Shakspeare's monument in Westminster Abbey, b. in Yorkshire, 1684; d. 1748. Kent, James, an English musical composer. In his youth he was chorister in Winchester Ca- thedral, and afterwards in the Chapel Royal. He subsequently became organist of Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, and at Winchester Cathedral. He greatly assisted Dr. Boyce in the production of his " Collection of Cathedral Music," and also wrote many anthems, several being familiar to the congregations of our cathedrals at the pre- sent time. He was admitted to be the best player on the organ in his day. b. at Winches- ter, 1700; r.. 1776. Kent, James, a distinguished American lawyer, who was elected professor of law in Co- lumbia College in 1794; in 1800 he assisted in revising the legal code of New York ; and, in 1804, was nominated chief justice of that city. His great work, " Commentaries on American Law," was concluded in 1830, ana remains the standard work on the constitutional law of the United States. He was an industrious man and excellent judge, b. at Fredericksburg, New York, 1763; D. 1847. Kent, His Royal Highness Edward, Duke of, the fourth son of George 111., received the rudi- ments of his education in England, but com- pleted it at Gottingen and Hanover. Entering the army at an early age, h^ became an enthu- siastic admirer of military discipline; and having obtained the rank of colonel, he served during the years 1790 and 1791, under Gene- ral O'Hara, at Gibraltar, where he rendered himself so unpopular by his strictness, that his regiment repeatedly mutinied. On fitting Gibraltar, he was sent to Canada as commander of the forces, after which he was ordered to join the expedition under Sir Charles Grey, against the French West India Islands. During the campaign that ensued, the duke's impetuous bravery was so conspicuous at the head of the flank division, particularly when storming seve- ral strong and important posts in Martinique and Guadaloupe, that "the flank corps " became a standing toast at the admiral's table, as well as that of the commander-in-chief. In 1802 his royal highness was appointed governor ot Gibraltar; but his determination to repress ir- regularities, and enforce subordination, led to very disagreeable consequences. Haviugrefused I fo allow the soldiers to celebrate ChristmbS Eve as a holiday, and put the Reputation who brought the petition under arrest, the men in the garrison became mutinous, and proposed placing General Barnet in command. Christ- mas Day passed in confusion; and on the fol- lowing night the prince headed his regiment, and marched against the mutineers. It was Dome time before they gave up the contest; at length, after blood had been shed, discipline was restored, and the ringleaders were tried by a court-martial ; but it was thought prudent to reeal the duke, and he accordingly soon after returned to England. On the 20th of May, 1818, the duke of Kent married Victoria Maria Louise, widow of the prince of Leiningen and sister of Leopold, king of the Belgians.' The royal paii ' soon after arrived in England, and on the 24th THE DICTIONARY Kentigern of May, 1819, the duchess gave birth to a daugh- ter, Victoria, the popular and justly-beloved sovereign of the British Empire. Having ac- companied the duchess toSidmouth, in Devon- shire, •where he had gone with a view to the re- establishment of her health, the duke caught a violentcold, which, being followed by fever and inflammation, the symptoms increased so rapidly as to defy every effort of medical skill ; and after an illness of one week, his royal higness died, Jan. 23, 1820; b. Nov. 2, 1767. Kkntigebk, or St. Mungo, ken'-ti-gern, a Scotchman, was the disciple of Palladius, in the 6th century. Camden says he was bit-hop of Glasgow, and a member of the university of Oxford. He is also said to have founded the monastery of St. Asaph. Kenyopc, Lloyd, Lord, ken-yon, an emi- nent English judge, received his education at Ruthin school, in Denbighshire, after which he was articled to an attorney at Xantwich, in Cheshire. After serving his clerkship, he be- came a member of the society of Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in 1761. Having prac- tised as a conveyancer some years, his reputa- tion as a sound' lawyer brought him into great notice at the Chancery bar ; but his first great rise in the profession took place in 1780, when he led the defence, with Mr. Erskine, for Lord George Gordon. In 1782 Mr. Kenyon was made attorney-general and chief justice of Chester. He was also returned to Parliament for Hindon, in Wiltshire. In 1784 he was appointed Master of the Rolls ; and on the resignation of the earl of Mansfield in 1788, by the interest of Lord Thurlow, he was raised to the office of chief justice of the King's Bench, and created Baron Kenyon. As a judge, his lordship conducted himself with strict integrity, and though he was occasionally warm, it was never from petulance, but from his ardent love of justice. Lord Ken- yon was correct in his mode of living, and reso- lutely punished gambling and other fashionable vices, whenever they came before him. Though a stern man, he possessed a kindly nature. One day he passed sentence of death upon a young woman guilty of theft: — she fainted; Lord Kenyon, greatly agitated, cried out, " I don't mean to hang you; will nobody tell her that 1 don't mean to hang her?" He passed the severest sentences upon duellists. As an English judge, Lord Kenyon was distinguished for his strict administration of justice according to the known laws of the land. His legal learn- ing was exact and profound, and the greater portion of his adjudications are at the present time regarded as of the highest value. He was in private lif* temperate and frugal, even to parsimony ; and, although enormously wealthy, was usually attired in shabby costume; while his equipage was unpretending, even to mean- ness. At his death he left a fortune of £300,000. b. at Greddingtou, Flintshire, 1732; i). 1802. Kepler, John, kep'-ler, a celebrated German astronomer, received his education at Tubin- gen, and in 1593 was appointed professor of astronomy at Gratz. In 1600 he went to Bo- hemia, on a visit to Tycho Brahe, who intro- duced him to the emperor Rudolph, who appointed him his mathematician. Kepler com- pleted the tables left unfinished by Tycho, who died in the same year, and which he called the Rudolphine Tables. In 1604 he produced the "Supplement to Vitellion." iu which appears his Kett theory of dioptrics. He was the author of numerous works on astronomy, all of them indraluable contributions to science, besides his Tables and Ephemerides; among others, the " New Astronomy," which contains the great treatise on the Motion of Mars. His fame rests upon his discovery that the planets' orbits are elliptical. The character and career of this magnate of science are thus criticised by Delambre, an eminently reliable authority: — " Kepler," he says, " was ardent, restless, burn- ing to distinguish himself by his discoveries. He attempted everything; and, having once obtained a glimpse, no labour was too severe for him in following or verifying it. All his attempts had not the same success, and, in truth, that was impossible. Those which have failed seem to us only fanciful; those which have been more fortunate appear sublime. When in search of that which really existed, he has sometimes found it; when he devoted him- self to the pursuit of a chimera, he could not but fail ; but even there he displayed the same qualities, and that obstinate perseverance that must triumph over all difficulties but those which are insurmountable." B. at Wicl, in the duchy of Wirtemberg, 1571 ; r>. 1030. Kkfpel, Augustus, Viscount, kep'-pel, a cele- brated English admiral, was the second son of William, earl of Albemaue. He accompanied Commodore Anson in his voyage round the world, and afterwards raised" himself to the first honours of his profession. In 1778 he commanded the Channel fleet, and in the same year fell in with the French under Count d'Or- villiers, off Ushant. A partial action ensued, which the English admiral intended to renew on the following morning, but when day dawned the enemy had retired. This affair gave great dissatisfaction to the nation, which was aggra- vated by Sir Hugh Palliser, second in command, preferring a charge against Admiral Keppel, who was honourably acquitted by a court-martial at Portsmouth. Sir Hugh was then tried and cen- sured. In 1782 Admiral Keppel was raised to tho peerage ; he subsequently acted on two different occasions as first lord of the Admiralty. B. 1725; D. 1786. Kekn, Conrad, kern, a Swiss statesman, who when the French government insisted on the ex- tradition of Louis Napoleon, now Napoleon HI., who was then residing with his mother, Queen Hortensc.in the canton ofThurgan.declared that no power had the right to interfere with the ex- ercise of the hospitality that his country thought fit to extend to refugees from other lands. Dr. Kern was the Swiss plenipotentiary for the set- tlement of the dispute between Prussia and Switzerland, in 1857, and soon after was sent as ambassador to Paris, b. at Berlingen, 1803. Ketel, Cornelius," ke'-tel, a Dutch artist, who came to England during the reign of Elizabeth whose portrait he painted, as well as the por traits of many of the nobility. On his return to Holland he" discontinued the use of pencils, and painted with the tips of his lingers, and even with his toes. b. 1602. Keit, Henry, a divine and an accomplished scholar, was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and became Hampton lecturer in 1700, rectoi of Charlton, &c. He wrote "History the Inter- preter of Prophecy," "Elements of General Knowledge," "A Tour to the Lakes," " Emily," a moral tale, &c. b. at Norwich, 1701; drowned, while bathing, 1S25, OF BIOGRAPHY. Kett Kett, William, kef, a tanner of Norfolk, who, in the reign of Edward VI., excited a revolt against the government. The insurgents, amounting nearly to twenty thousand, marched to Norwich, which they took, and Kett formed a tribunal under a large oak, called the Tree of Reformation. They first protested only against inclosures and the exactions of the nobility and gentry, but they afterwards inveighed against innovations in religion, and demanded the re- storation of popery. After defeating the mar- quis of Northampton, they were routed by the earl of Warwick, and Kett, with several others, was hanged upon the tree of reformation in 1549. Kkulkk, Ludolph van, Icoi'-len, a Dutch geometrician, who acquired great celebrity by his calculation of the approximate correspond- ence between the diameter of a circle and its cir- cumference. He taught mathematics at Breda and Amsterdam, n. 1610. Keuleit, Janssen van, a portrait-painter, who, before Vandyck came to England, was in great favour with Charles I. Though the latter great painter supplanted him in his pro- fession, a warm friendship subsisted between the two artists, d. 1665. Key, Thomas Hewitt, ke, a modern English philologist, who, after completing his education at St. John's College, Cambridge, studied medi- cine at Guy's Hospital, London; but went out to Virginia in 1824, as professor of pure mathe- matics in the university of that state. Return- ing to London in 1827, he became Latin professor at the university of London, on the opening of that seat of learning. He after- wards contributed articles on language to the "Journal of Education," the "Penny Cyclo- pedia," and other works. In 1842 he became head master of the junior school of University College, and was also elected to the chair of comparative grammar. He subsequently wrote articles for Dr. Smith's " Dictionary of Classical Antiquities;" and, in 1846, published his Latin Grammar. He was subsequently engaged in writing a " Latin Dictionary," and a " Dic- tionary of Roots of Languages." b. in London, 1799; D. 1875. Kheraskov, Michael, ker'-as-kov, a Russian poet, who published a poem on the use of science, and an epic called the " Rossiada," the subject of which is the conquest of Casan by Ivan Vasilievitch II. He was vice-president of the college of mines, councillor of state, and curator of the university of Moscow. He was also the writer of some tragedies and dramatic pieces, b. 1733; d. 1807. Khilkof, Prince, kil'-htf, a Russian noble- man, and ambassador to Charles XII., by whom he was thrown into prison when war broke out between Ruusia and Sweden. In his confine- ment he wrote an abridgment of the Russian history. He died as he was about to be restored to liberty, after an imprisonment of eighteen years. His work was published in 1770. Knosiiou, or Knoauc. (See Chosroes.) KiDDLit, Richard, kiil-der, a learned English prelate, was. a native of Sussex, or, according to fcome authorities, of Suftblk, and was edu- cated at Emanuel College, Cambridge, where be was elected to a fellowship. In 1681 he was made prebend of Norwich ; and, in 1689, dean of Peterborough, on which occasion he took his doctor's degree. On the deprivation of Dr. Ken, Kidder wasconsecrated bishop of Bath and Wells, 08? Killigrew and preached the "Boyle lecture" in 1693. He and his wife were killed hi their bed at Wells, during the night of the great storm, Nov. 26, 1703. Besides several sermons and relisrious tracts, he published a valuable work, entitled " The De- monstration of the Messiah," a "Commentary on the Pentateuch," &c. Kien-Loong, ke-en'-loong, emperor of China, who succeeded his father, Yung-Tching, in 1735. He wrote some poetical pieces, and when Lord Macartney went to China as ambassador, he gave him some of his verses to present to the king of England. He favoured the missionaries, and was in all respects a very amiable monarch. B. 1709; abdicated 1796; d. 1799. Kiekings, Alexander, kee'-rings, a landscape- painter of Utrecht. His views were copied from nature, and he finished them with amazing patience, even the bark and the fibres of the trees being distinctly marked, b. 1590; d. 1616. Kilbubx, Richard, kil'-burn, an English topo- grapher, who wrote a Survey of the county of Kent, published in 1659. Kilbte, Richard, kil'-be, an English divine, who, in 1590, was elected rector of Lincoln College, Oxford, and was afterwards made Hebrew processor and prebendary of Lincoln. He was one of the translators of the authorized version of the Bible, d. 1620. — There was another divine of this name, who was minister of All- hallows in Derby, and wrote the " Burthen of a loaden Conscience," which book went through several editions, d. 1645. Killigrew, Catharine, kil'-li-gru, the wife of Sir Henry Killigrew, of Cornwall, was a lady of great accomplishments, being mistress of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages. She also wrote some poems, b. in Essex, about 1530; d. about 1600. Killigrew, Anne, a beautiful and accom- plished English lady, who received a liberal education, distinguished herself in painting, and drew the portraits of the duke and duchess ot York; she was also eminent for her piety. Her poems were published in 1636, with an elegiac ode by Dry den prefixed, b. in London, 1660; d. 1685. Killigrew, William, an English dramatic writer, was the son of Sir Robert Killigrew. He received his education at St. John's College, Oxford, after which he went on a course of travel. On his return, hewas made governor of Falmouth and of Pendennis Castle. For his adherence to the cause of Charles I. he suffered considerably in his fortune. At the Restoration he was knighted, and made viee-ehamberlain to the king. Besides "The Siege of Urbin," "Selindra," " Ormasdcs ; or, Love and Friendship," he wrote " Jlidnight and Daily Thoughts," in prose and verse, and "The Artless Midnight Thoughts oi a Gentleman at Court." b. at Hanworth, Mid- dlesex, 1605; D. 1693. Killigrew, Thomas, brother of the pre- ceding, was page to Charles I., and groom of the bedchamber to Charles II. He wrote nine plays. He was commonly called King Chariest jester; and had mure wit in conversation than in writing, e. 1611 ; ». 1682. Killigrew, Henry, brother of the above, in Hi 12 was made prebendary of Westminster. He suffered much for his loyalty to Charles I. in the civil war, but at the Restoration recovered his prebend, and was. appointed master of the Savoy, and rector of Whcathamstead, in Hcrt- 1 fordshiro. lie wrote " The Conspiracy," a THE DICTIONARY Kilmaine tragedy; and " Pallantus and Eudora," a tra- gedy. B. 1612 ; D. 1690. Kilmaink, Charles Joscph,kiV-main, an Irish- man, who became general in the armies of the French republic. He fought against the English in America, under Lafayette, and was employed as brigadier in the French army sent into La Vendee. He signalized himself in Italy, at Mantua, and at Castiglione, and was nominated commander-in-chief of an army that was to have made a descent upon Ireland ; but the expedi- tion was abandoned. He was subsequently placed at the head of the army of Helvetia; but, being unsuccessful, was superseded by General Massena. b. at Dublin, 1754; d. at Paris, 1799. Kilwabden, Arthur "Wolfe, Lord, kil-wawr- 'ilen, chief justice of the King's Bench, in Ire- land, was called to the bar in 1766; was after- wards appointed king's counsel, and sat in Parliament. In 1787 he was made solicitor- general, and two years later attorney-general. On the death of Lord Clonmel he was ap- pointed chief justice of the King's Bench, in which dignity he conducted himself with impar- tiality and moderation. Notwithstanding this, he fell a victim to a ferocious mob, who dragged him from his coach, with his nephew, the Rev. Richard Wolfe, and barbarously killed them in Thomas Street, Dublin, in 1803. Miss Wolfe, his lordship's daughter, was in the coach, but one of the mob took her under his protection, and conveyed her to a place of safety. The death of the old judge has been portrayed in a popular picture called the "Assassination of Lord Kilwarden." Kimber, Isaac, kim'-ber, an English dissent- ing divine, who was editor of the "London Magazine" for many years, and wrote the " Life of Oliver Cromwell," the " Life of Bishop Beveridge," the "History of England," and twenty posthumous sermons, b. at Wantage, Berks, 1692; d. in London, 1753. Kimbek, Edward, son of the above, was brought up a bookseller, but entered the army, and served in America with some reputation. He succeeded his father as editor of the " Lon- don Magazine." b. 1719; d. 1769. Kimbekley, John Wodehouse, Earl of, kirn' ber-le, succeeded his grandfather asB;iron Wode- house in 1 846, became under-secretary of state for foreign affairs in 1852, and was sent as am- bassador to St. Petersburg in 1856. In 1858 he resumed his former post in Lord Palmerston's ministry, which he held till 1861. In 1861 he succeeded the Earl of Carl isle as lord-lieutenant of Ireland, retaining office until the fall of Earl Kussell's ministry in 1866. On the acces- sion of Mr. Gladstone to office in 1868, he be- came lord privy seal. b. 1826. King, Hon. Peter John Locke, king, a colla- teral descendant of the eminent John Locke, and an earnest reformer.reprcsented EastSurrey from 1847 to 1S69. He carried the " Real Estate Charges Act" through parliament in 1854, and in 1856 procured the repeal of about 1 20 useless statutes. In 1861 he introduced the " Religious Worship Act " for obtaining greater freedom for clergymen of the Church of England in the ex- ercise of their calling, and for several years he has been seeking to alter the law of succession to landed property, making it similar to that which is in force with reference to personal property, n. at Ockham, Surrey, 1811. King, Sir Edmund, an English physician and chemist. Charlea 11. used frequently to amuse 696 King himself in his laboratory. He attended that monarch'In his last illness, and was ordered one thousand pounds, which he never received. In the " Philosophical Transactions" are soma observations by him on ants and the animal- culce m pepper ; also a paper on transfusing blood from a calf to a sheep, d. unknown when. King, Peter, Lord Chancellor of England. His father was a grocer, and intended him for the same business ; but a love of learning ren- dered him superior to trade, and he was suffered to follow his inclination. The philosopher John Locke, who was his maternal uncle, left him half his library at his death, which was of great service to him. By the advice of the same great' man he went to Leyden, and, on his return, entered of the Inner Temple, where he applied himself to the study of the law with great assiduity. He also devoted some time to other studies, particularly theology, and in 1691 published anonymously, "An Enquiry into the Constitution, Discipline, Unity, and Worship of the Primitive Church, that flourished within the first 300 years after Christ." This work was well received, and soon reached a second edition. In 1699 he was chosen member of parliament for Beeralston, in Devonshire. In 1702 appeared his " History of the Apostles' Creed," a book of considerable information. In 1708 he was chosen recorder of London, and knighted. In 1709 he was appointed one of the managers of the House of Commons on the trial of Dr. Sacheverell. At the accession of George I., in 1714, he was made chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas, and, in 1725, created Lord King, baron of Ockham, in Surrey, and shortly after was appointed lord chancellor. He resigned the seals in 1733. b. at Exeter, 1669; d. 1731. King, William, an English writer. In 1718 he was chosen principal of St. Mary Hall, but, on offering himself as a candidate to represent the university, he resigned that place. Being disappointed, he went to Ireland; but how long he remained there is not known. While in Ireland he wrote a satirical poem, entitled " The Toast." In 1749 he spoke the oration in the theatre at Oxford, on the dedication of Mad- eline's library. He was a zealous Tory, and generally considered as disaffected to the Bruns- wick family, which brought him into discredit. He published several curious tracts of his own, and five volumes of South's Sermons, b. in London, 1685; D. 1763. King, John Glen, an English divine, and chaplain to the English factory at St. Peters- burg, became medallist to the empress of Russia. He wrote the " Rites and Ceremo- nies of the Greek Church, containing an account of its Doctrine, Worship, and Discipline ;" "Observations on the Climate of Russia and the Northern Countries," and some " Observa- tions on the Barbcrini Vase." d. 17^7. King, Thomas, an eminent comedian, re- ceived a good education, and was intended for trade, which he renounced for the stage before he was 20. He first rose to fame in Dublin, after which he appeared at Drury-lane Theatre with great success. The principal character which stamped his reputatior. wag that of Lord Ogleby. In dry sarcastic humour no man excelled him. His performance of Sir Peter Teazle, in the " School for Scandal," was admirable. By an unfortunate propensity to OF BIOGRAPHY. King Kinkel gaming, he lost the fruits of many years' pro- fessional toil. b. in London, 1730; d. 1805. King, Edward, an antiquary, studied at Lin- coln's Inn ; was called to the bar, and became recorder of Lynn. He was F.B.S. and F.S.A. and produced an excellent work, entitled " Mu- nimenta Antiqua." b. at Norwich, 1735 ; d. 1807. King, Rufus, an American statesman and diplomatist, was entered at Harvard College in 1773; studied the law, and was admitted to the bar in 1778; and was elected a member of Con- gress in 1784. In 1796 he was appointed by Washington minister plenipotentiary to the court of St. James's, the functions of which office he continued to discharge till 1803, when he returned home. In 1813 he was a third time sent to the senate by the legislature of New York ; and his speech on the burning of Washington by the English was a most brilliant display of senatorial oratory. In 1816 he lost his election ; but in 1820 was once more returned to Congress, and continued a member of that body until the expiration of the term in 1825. He then accepted the appointment of minister plenipotentiary at the court of London ; but was taken ill, returned home, and died soon after, b. in Maine, 1755; d. 1827. Kinglake, Alexander William, king'-laik, an English barrister, and author of " Eothen," a celebrated book of Eastern travel. He received his education at Eton and Trinity College, Cam- bridge, and was called to the bar in 1837. He supplied several articles to the newspapers, during the Crimean war, descriptive of the military and naval operations; he also wrote a short biography of the Hungarian hero, General Guyon, and some papers for the " Quarterly Review." He his also written a "History of the Crimean War." b. at Taunton, Somerset- shire, 1802. Kingsbobough, Edward, Viscount, kings'- bur-ro, a nobleman distinguished for his lite- rary tastes and attainments, was the author of an excellent work on " The Antiquities of Mexico." He was the eldest son of the third earl of Kingston, and a fellow of the Antiquarian Society, b. 1795; d. J837. Kingslet, Rev. Charles, kings'-le, a distin- guished modern novelist and essayist. At 14 years of age he became the pupil of the Rev. Derwent Coleridge, son of the poet : he after- wards went to Cambridge university, where he distinguishedhimself bothin classics and mathe- matics. He was at first intended for the law, but the church was afterwards chosen. In 1842 he was appointed curate of Eversley, in Hamp- shire ; two years later he succeeded to the same living. He married, about the same time, a daughter of Mr. Grenfell, who represented Truro acl Great Harlow in Parliament for many years, an! whose other daughter became the wife of the eminent historian J. A. Froude. His first acknowledged contributions to literature were a volume of "Village Sermons," and "The Saiut's Tragedy," a drama in verse, published in 1848. "Alton Locke, Tailor and Poet," was his third essay, and, from its first appearance, it commanded the greatest attention. The bold and earnest views of its author — "the Chartist clergyman," as he was called — sank deeply into the public mind. This novel has been several times reprinted; its treatment of social and political questions remaining as fresh and valuable as when the book first eaine before the public. A second novel,—" Yeast, a Pro- o!»7 blem," was first published in " Fraser's Maga- zine," and afterwards reprinted, in 1851 : this is a philosophical rather than a political novel. His subsequent works were " Hypatia ; or New Foes with an Old Face," a beautiful descriptive fiction, illustrating the times of the early Chris- tian church in the East ; " Westward Ho ! or, the Voyages and Adventures of Sir Amyas Leigh in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth ;" and "Two Years Ago." These novels, by their great excellence, have placed their author among the foremost of recent writers. Mr. Kingsley also produced a volume for juvenile reading, called "The Heroes," in which the deeds of some great chiefs of the Grecian my- thology are narrated in a captivating manner. Among the more important of his religious writings may be enumerated, " The Message of the Church to Labouring Men," " Sermons on National Subj eets, preached in a Village Church," and " Sermons for the Times ;" all of these being inspired by a pure, generous, and enlightened Christian feeling. He expounded mental philosophy in his " Phaethon ; or, Loose Thoughts for Loose Thinkers," and his "Alex- andria and her Schools ;" while, for natural philosophy and the observation of nature, he contributed his "Glaucus; or, the Wonders of the Shore." He likewise wrote for "Fra- ser's Magazine," the "North British Re- view," and the " Encyclopaedia Britannica." His last works of importance are " The Roman and theTeuton, "lectures delivered atCambridge in 1864, and a novel entitled " Hereward the Wake; or, the Last of the English." A bold. iudepe dent, and earnest thinker, Mr. Kings- ley, in every one of his popular and excellent works, contributed to elevating the tone of modern society, and to giving it a more enlarged and refined appreciation of the good, beautiful, and true, whether in art or nature. He suc- ceeded Sir James Stephen as professor of modern history in the university of Cambridge in 1859. b. at Holne Vicarage, Devonsliire. 1819; d. 11S75. Kingsley, Henry, brother of the preceding, was educated at King's College, London, and at Oxford. In 1852 he went to Australia, from which he returned in 1858. He contributed to "Fraser's" and " Maemillan's" magazines; " Ravenshoe," " Geoffry Hamlyn," and " The Hillyars and the Burtons," being the best known of his productions, n. 1830; d. 1876. Kingston, Elizabeth Chudleigh, duchess of, a celebrated English adventuress, was at first maid of honour to the Princess of Wales, and carried on an intrigue with the duke of Hamilton. She afterwards secretly married Captain Hervey, but separated from him in a short time. Going abroad, she was well re- ceived by Frederick the Great at Rerlin. On her return to England, she married the Duke of Kingston, who left her a widow, with immense wealth; but the relatives of the duke prose- cuted her for bigamy, and stripped her of her title; they could not, however, recover the great wealth which her second husband's will had given her. She went abroad a second time, and succeeded in inspiring Prince Kadziwill with a lively impression, b. in Devonshire, 1720; D. near Paris, 1788. Kinkel, John Godfrey, kin'-kel, a German poet and politician, who, when the revolution of 1848 burst forth on the continent, was pro- fessor of philosophy at, Bonn, and, declaring THE DICTIONARY Kinnaird himself a partisan of the republicans, was in a few months compelled to fly from Prussia; but, being taken prisoner in Baden, was tried and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was confined in the celebrated fortress of Spandau, but contrived to effect his escape, and reached England. In 1851 he visited America, but in a short time returned to London, where v,e established himself as a teacher of the Ger- man language and literature. His poetical works are exceedingly popular in Germany. He also wrote several volumes of tales and sketches, a history of painting, sculpture, and architecture, and many other philosophical and historical works, b. at Obercassel, 1815. KiNJfAiBD, the Hon. Douglas, kin'-aird, re- ceived his early education at Eton, and after- wards passed some time at Gottingen, where he made himself master of the French and Ger- man languages. Ou leaving Gottingen he went to Cambridge, and there became the associate of the iirst characters of the day. In 1813 he accompanied Mr. Hobhousc (Lord Broughton) in a tour through Sweden, and to Vienna, and was present at the battle of Culm. He became an active partner in the banking-house of Ran- som and Morland; and after the old partner- ship was dissolved, took the principal manage- ment of the business. He possessed great energy of mind, was a lover of literature, a liberal patron of the arts, and an intimate friend of Lord Byron, b. 1786 ; d. 1830. Kippingius, Henry, kip-ping' '-i-us, a learned German Lutheran, who, after completing his education at the university of Rostock, was pressed for a soldtfer; but a Swedish councillor of state observing him with a Latin book in his hand, took him from the army, made him his librarian, and procured him the place of sub-rector of the university of Bremen. He wrote a supplement to the " History " of John • Pappus: a "Treatise on Roman Antiquities;" and another on the Creation, d. 1078. Kippis, Andrew, kip'-pis, an English Unita- rian divine and biographical writer, who was educated under Dr. Doddridge, at Northampton. His first settlement as a minister was at Boston, in Lincolnshire, in 1746; thence he removed to Dorking, in Surrey, in 1750; and in 1753 became pastor of a congregation in Princes Street, Westminster. He was a writer in the " Monthly Review^' for some time, and in 1761 had a share in a periodical work called the " Library." In 1 777 he became the editor of the new edition of the " Biographia Britannica," in which capacity :>e greatly distinguished himself. Five volumes :>f this work were published in his lifetime, and the greatest part of the sixth was prepared be- fore his death. In 1788 he published the " Life of Captain Cook," in one volume, and the same year, a " Life of Dr. Lardner." Dr. Kippis also wrote the "History of Knowledge," and a variety of other pieces, particularly sermons and tracts. He received the degree of D.D. from the university of Edinburgh, and was a fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies. He was an intelligent and industrious writer, and his style is pure and perspicuous, b. at Nottingham, 1725; d. 1795. Kikby, John Joshua, kir'-be, an artist, who, though originally only a house-painter, had a good knowledge of art; and on settling in Lon- don was introduced by Lord Bute to George III., and in consequence became clerk of the works at Kew, and had the honour of teaching the 593 Kirby queen the principles of perspective. He wag F.R.S. and F.S.A., and published, at the ex- pense of the king, " The Perspective of Archi- tecture." The celebrated Mrs. Trimmer was his daughter, b. in Suffolk, 1716; d. 1774. Kiebt, Rev. William, an eminent English naturalist, whose first lessons in natural history were received from his mother, who came of a good Suffolk family, by name Meadows. This estimable woman laid before her youthful son a collection of shells and field-plants, and the early love for nature thus imbibed, lasted throughout Mr. Kirby's life, and led him to become one of the first English naturalists. He received his education at Caius College, Cambridge, and entered upon holy orders in 1782. Up to this period, although he had been a diligent botanical observer, he had paid scarcely any attention to entomology. To this science his notice was attracted by accident. In 1835 he thus described the circumstance in a letter to a friend: — "About half a century since, observing accidentally, one morning, a very beautiful golden bug creeping on the sill of my window, I took it up to examine it, and finding that its wings were of a more yellow hue than was common to my observation of these insects before, I was anxious carefully to examine any other of its peculiarities; and find- ing that it had twenty-two beautiful clear black spots upon its back, my captured animal was imprisoned in a bottle of gin, for the purpose, as I supposed, of killing him. On the following morning, anxious to pursue my observation, I took it again from the gin, and laid it on the window-sill to dry, thinking it dead; but the warmth of the sun very soon revived it ; and hence commenced my further pursuit of this branch of natural history." From this period he became an earnest student of entomology. In 1738 he was nominated one of the original members of the Linnsean Society, to which, in 1793, he forwarded his first paper, entitled, "A Description of three New Species of Hirudo." He furnished to the " Transactions" of the same learned body a succession of valuable papers during the ensuing four years. In 1302 he published his first separate work, " A Mono- graph concerning English Bees," which, from the novelty of its observations, and the lucid style in which they were conveyed, excited the liveliest interest in the entomological world. In 1805 he made the acquaintance of Mr. Spence, and the friendship subsisting between these two gentlemen led to the production of a work onnatural history, which ranks among the best contributions to popular science in the Eng- lish language. This was the celebrated " Intro- duction to Entomology," which model scientific work was completed in 1820. In 1830, when 70 years of age, he wrote his " Habits and Instincts of Animals," one of the well-known Bridgewater treatises. Mr. Kirby also wrote the descriptions of insects contained in Captain Parry's " Voyage for the Discovery of the North- west Passage," and likewise those found in the " Zoology of the Northern Parts of British North America." In addition to these, he, throughout his long life, furnished many of the learned societies with papers on his favourite study. He was honorary president of the Entomological Society, fellow of the Royal and Geographical Societies, and corresponding- member of many scientific bodies on the continent and in the United States. His life, written by the Rev, 0¥ BIOGRAPHY. Kirch John Freeman, was published in 1852. b. in Suffolk, 1759; d. 1850. Kikcii, Mary Margaret, keersh, a learned German lady, distinguished for her skill in astronomy. She married M. Godfrey Kirch, an astronomer, and assisted him in lis observa- tions, ami in the calculation of his Ephemerides. When the king of Prussia founded the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, in 1700, M. Kirch was appointed astronomer, with a pension. There his lady acquired the friendship and admiration of mauy learned men. In 1702 she discovered a comet, of which her husband published the observations. In 1707 she made a discovery of a remarkable aurora borealis, of which mention was made by the Academy of Sciences at Paris. In 1711 she published a discourse on the ap- proaching conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, &e. B. near Leipsie, 1670; d. at Berlin, 1720. Kibchbb, Conrad, keersh'-er, a Protestant divine of Augsburg, who, in 1602, published a Greek Concordance of the Old Testament, in- serting therein the Hebrew words alphabeti- cally, and under them the corresponding Greek words. Kibchman, N., keersh'-man, a Eusslan pro- fessor of philosophy, celebrated for his electrical experimente, and particularly for the manner of his death. Being engaged near St. Petersburg in attracting', with apparatus, the electric iiuid from the clouds, a ball of tire struck him on the head and lulled him on the spot, in 1753. Ki«K, Colonel, kirk, an English officer, noto- rious for his brutality. Being sent against the followers of the duke of Monmouth in 1G85, he committed great barbarities in the west of Eng- land, James II. solicited him to turn Catholic, but Kirk roughly replied, " that when he was at Tangiera he had promised the doy that, if he ever changed his religion, he would turn Moham- medan." He afterwards served in the army of William III. d. at the close of the 17th cen- tury. K irkaldy, Sir William, of Grange, kir'-ka-de, a distinguished military leader in the time of Mary Queen of Scots. He originally adhered to the party known as the Lords of the Congre- gation, but subsequently attached himself to secretary Maitland, the leader of the partisans of queen Mary. Kirkaldy, after a chequered career, having learned the military art on the continent, where he gained the reputation of being one of the most skilful leaders of the day, ind taken a prominent part in the troubles in bis native country consequent on the Reforma- tion, was ultimately executed at Edinburgh, in 1573. Kibkland, Thomas, kirkf-land, an eminent physician, who published an " Enquiry into the State of Medical Surgery," a "Treatise on nhild-bcd Fevers," "Thoughts on Amputa- tion," and a " Commentary on Apoplectic and Paralytic Affections." n. 1771 ; d. at Ashby- de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire, 1798. Kikkland, Mrs. Caroline Stansbury, an American novelist, and the wife of Mr. Wil- liam Kirkland, a critic of some celebrity in the United States, was engaged, in 18-17, to edit "Sartain's Magazine," which was pub- lished first at New" York, and afterwards at Philadelphia. Subsequently, Professor Hart became her assistant in the direction of that periodical. Her principal works, for the most part characterized by an acute perception, rich- ness of observation and a light and somewhat 509 Kitchener sarcastic turn of thought, are "The New Home," published in 1839; "Forest Life," published in 1842 ; " Western Clearings ;" " Kssay on the Life and Writings of Spenser :" " Holidays Abroad, or Europe from the West;" and " The Evening Book ;" these latter appearing at intervals of about two years. She was also the authoress of a volume designed for youthful reading, entitled " A Book for the Home Circle." n. at New York, about 1815. Kirkpatbick, James, kirk'-pa-irik, a skilful orientalist, was a major-general in the British service, and passed a great part of his life in India. He published a " Description of the Kingdom of Ncpaul," a " Biography of Persian Poets," and the " Letters of Tippoo Saib." d. 1812. KiBSTENirjs, Peter, ker-ste'-ni-us, an eminent physician, and professor of medicine at Upsal, in Sweden. In addition to his native tongue, he is said to have understood twenty-five other languages, b. at Breslau, Silesia, 1577 ; d. 1610. Kibwan, Richard, kir'-wan, a chemical philo- sopher, who shortly after concluding his educa- tion at the Jesuits' College of St. Omer's, inherited his family estate, and thenceforth devoted his life to chemical science. Ho was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1780, and was subse- quently nominated president of the Royal Irish Academy. He was also a member of nearly all the learned societies in Europe. His chief works were " An Essay on the Constitution of Acids," "Geological Essays," and "An Essay on the Analysis of Chemical Waters." b. in Ireland, about 1750; d. 1812. Kibwan, Walter Blake, an Irish divine, eminent for his popularity as a preacher, was educated at St. Omer's and Louvain ; took orders as a Catholic priest; and, in 1778, was ap- pointed chaplain to the ^Neapolitan embassy in London. In 1787 he became a convert to the principles of the Anglican church, and obtained successively the prebendary of Howth, the living of St. Nicholas, in Dublin, and the deanery of Killala. As a pulpit orator he excelled all his contemporaries ; so great, indeed, were his at- tractions, that we are told it was often necessary to keep off the crowds, by guards and palisades, from the churches in which he was preaching. It was natural, therefore, that his exertions in favour of charitable institutions should be in great request, and that lie should succeed in an astonishing manner in augmenting their funds. A volume of his sermons was published alter his death, b. at Galway, 1754; n. 1805. Kiss, Augustus, kiss, a German artist, who studied under Rauch, the eminent sculptor, and first attracted notice by his colossal group, the " Amazon attacked by a Tiger," which was cast in bronac by public subscription in Ger- many. A a-?**- of this work formed one of the chief attraoY.-ons in the Great Exhibition of 1851. He was professor of sculpture in the Royal Academy of Berlin ; his fame as an artist, how- ever, is greater in that city than elsewhere. B. at Plcss,' Upper Silesia, 1802; n. 1865. Kitchener, William, kit'-chin-er, a physician and miscellaneous writer, the son of a respect- able coal-merchant in London, who left him a largo fortune, was educated at Eton, and settled in London as a physician; but he distinguished himself far more by bis precepts on the art of gastronomy, than by the practice of medicine. He wrote a book, under the title of "The Cook's Oracle," in which the laws of the culinary art, THE DICTIONARY Kitto professedly founded on his own practice, were promulgated ; and, by appointing 1 a " committee of taste" among his friends, who had regular invitations to his dinner-table, the fame of this epicure spread far and wide, while his evening conversaziones were the resort cf privileged wits and literary bon vivants. He was a great stickler for punctuality; and, for the regulation of these meetings, a placard was fixed over the chimney-piece, with this inscription, "At seven come, at eleven go," to which the facetious George Colman once added the word "it," making the last sentence, " at eleven go it !" He strongly condemned many of the ordinary methods of cooking, preserving, &c. ; and in one instance, after giving an elaborate recipe for preparing pickles, finished by advising that the " whole mess should be thrown out of the win- dow"— a recommendation which, considering how such preparations are usually got up now-a- days, was not an injudicious one. Optics and music were also particular objects of Kitchener's study ; and on these and other subjects he dis- played a very commendable amount of research. Besides "The Cook's Oracle," which was his most popular work, he published "The Art of Invigorating and Prolonging Life," " The Eco- nomy of the Eyes," "The Traveller's Oracle," " Observations on Vocal Music," and " The Loyal and National Songs of England." b. about 1775; r>. 1827. Kitto, John, kit' -to, a modern English writer, chiefly known as the editor of " Knight's Pic- torial Bible," who in his earlier years displayed great aptitude for acquiring knowledge. His father had been a respectable builder, but was reduced to the condition of ajouraeyman mason, in which labour young Kitto assisted him. In his thirteenth year, he had the misfortune to fall from a high scaffold, and, after suffering for some time from the injuries rceeeived, remained per- manently deaf. Owing to the intemperate habits of his parent, some years were spent by Kitto in great destitution. He contrived to acquire know- ledge, however, and, in 1823, contributed some essays to the " Plymouth Journal;" and in the following year Mr. Grove, a dentist of the town, took him into his service. He was afterwards sent out, as a printer, to Malta, having pre- viously been taught the trade in the Missionary College at Islington. His constitution being too weak for this work, he returned to England in 1829, and, in the same year, accompanied Mr. Grove in an extensive Eastern tour. He visited St. Petersburg, Astrakan, the Calmuck Tartars, the Caucasus, Armenia, Persia, and Bagdad, returning home in 1833. In that year he obtained an introduction to Mr. Charles Knight, by whom he was subsequently engaged to edit the " Pictorial Bible," the " Pictorial History of Pale-tine," and other works. He also wrote for the same publisher, "The Lost tenses— Deafness and Blindness," &c. He like- wise wrote for Messrs. Oliphant, of Edinburgh, l work entitled "Daily Bible Illustrations," in 8 vols., being readings on passages of Scrip- ture for each day for two years, in which he displayed a minute acquaintance with the man- ners, customs, and antiquities of the East. He was attacked by a paralytic stroke in 185-1, and be- came greatly embarrassed in his means. A pen- sion of £100 per annum was accorded him in 1850, whereupon he retired to Germany to re- cruit his health, b. at Plymouth, 180-1; d. at Cannstadt, Wirtcmberg, 1854. A " Memoir" of 600 Klaproth. Dr. Kitto, by the Rev. J. E. Eyland, was pub- lished at Edinburgh in 1856. Klapka, George, Hap'-ka, a distinguished Hungarian general, acquired a knowledge of the art of war in the military college of Vienna, and served, in various grades, with the Austrian army ; but, on the outbreak of the Hungarian revolution, in 1848, he offered his sword to his countrymen. In 1849 he distinguished himself in the Hungarian defence of the fortress of Comorn, before which the Austrian army was defeated, with the loss of 30 pieces of artillery, 3000 muskets, large stores of ammunition, and 2000 head of cattle. General Klapka com- municated the news of his victory to Kossuth and Gorgei, but the latter had by that time capi- tulated, while the former had fled into Turkey. He, however, made terms with Haynau, the Austrian general, by which all the gallant de- fenders received a safe-conduct to go whither they pleased. He went first to England, and afterwards to Switzerland. He published, in 1850, " Memoirs of the War of Independence in Hungary." On the outbreak of the Crimean war, Klapka went to the East; and on hi? return, after the taking of Sebastopol, he pro- duced a work, entitled " The War in the East- from the Year 1853 to July, 1855." b. at Te- meswar, in Southern Hungary, 1820. Klapkoth, Martin Henry, klap'-rot, an emi- nent German chemist, who greatly advanced the science of mineralogy by his discoveries ; and, for his distinguished services as an analytical chemist, was, in 1778, elected member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences: he had previously been appointed professor of chemistry in the Royal Mining Institute. In addition to 207 treatises »n mineralogy and chemistry, he pub- lished a " Chemical Dictionary," in conjunction with Professor Wolff, b. at Wernigerode, Upper Saxony, 1743; d. at Berlin, 1817. Klaproth, Julius Heinrich von, a distin- guished German Oriental scholar, was the son of the preceding, who desired to educate him for his own profession ; but he evinced little inclina- tion for chemistry, or, indeed, for any science. When about fifteen, he was examined with his fellow-pupils of the college of Berlin ; but was found so backward in his studies, that one of the proies.-ors cried out, " Why, you know no- thing at all !" " Beg your pardon," he answered, " 1 know Chinese." It was subsequently dis- covered that he had learnt Chinese without any assistance whatever ; and his father becoming reconciled to his son's pursuing his favourite studies, he was sent, in 1801, to the university of Halle to acquire the classical languages. His fame as an Oriental scholar led to his being em- ployed by the emperor Alexander of Russia. He went to St. Petersburg in 1805, and, after re- ceiving several marks of favour, was sent as in- terpreter in the suite of the ambassador to China. The embassy had not proceeded morj than 200 miles across the Chinese frontier, when they were detained, and finally informed by messengers from Pekin, that the court did not wish to see them. Klaproth did not return direct to the Russian capital with the other members of the embassy, but travelled alon« through Southern Siberia. In 1807 he arrived at St. Petersburg, and was soon afterwards sent to the Caucasian provinces on a scientific mis- sion. He came back, with a large store of knowledge, in 1809. He went to Berlin in 1811, avowedly for the purpose of superintending the OF BIOGRAPHY. Kleber casting of types for the printing of his Chinese books ; but it was generally known at the time, that he had incurred the displeasure of the czar. The following year he resigned his Russian ap- pointments. After wandering about Germany for some time, he visited Napoleon, for whom lie had great admiration, in exile at Elba. The emperor promised him an appointment, which he afterwards forgot to fullil. Klaproth was after this reduced to straitened circumstances, but, through the influence of Wilhelm von Hum- boldt, he became royal professor of Oriental languages and literature to the king of Prussia, a post which was accompanied by a liberal pen- sion. Klaproth was, moreover, allowed to live iii Paris : there he commenced the publication of a long list of works on Oriental learning, of the greatest possible value, which it is said would fill more than thirty volumes. At his death, he left behind, " A Geographical, Statisti- cal, and Historical Description of the Empire of China," intended to be published in French and English. Klaproth was one of the greatest lin- guists that ever existed, b. at Berlin, 1783; d. at Paris. 1835. Klebee, Jean Baptiste, klai'-bair, a French general, was educated as an architect, and sent to Paris for improvement in his profession. Being in a colfee-house where some strangers were insulted, he took their part with so much spirit, that they prevailed on him to accompany tliem to Munich, where Kaunitz, son of the Austrian minister, gave him a lieutenancy in his regiment. After eight years' service, he returned to his own country, and became in- spector of public buildings in Upper Alsace. The revolution in France rekindled his military ar- dour, and he obtained a commission in the repub- lican army. He displayed great skill and bravery at the siege of Mayence, alter which he was em- ployed in La Vendee; but the sanguinary scenes enacted there so disgusted bim, that he obtained his recall, and was engaged iu the north, where he defeated the Austrians, took Mons, and drove the enemy from Louvain; he also captured Maestricht, and contributed to the taking of Dusseldorf and Frankfort, and to the victory of Butzbach. Discontented with the Directory, he left the army, and returned to Paris, where he led a private life, writing his " Military Me- moirs," till Bonaparte, being appointed general of the army of Egypt, chose Kleber as his com- panion. At the siege of Alexandria he was wounded in the head, while scaling the ram- parts, but did not retire till he received a second wound. He defeated the Turks in several actions, and Bonaparte, on quitting Egypt, left Kleber in the chief command. Soon afterwards ho signed the treaty of El-Arish with Sir Sidney Smith, by which the French agreed to leave Egypt ; but it was annulled by the British go- vernment, and hostilities were renewed. Kleber, though greatly reduced, opposed to his un- favourable circumstances a determined mind, and defeated the Turks at the obelisk of Helio- polis. He next took Cairo by storm, and formed an alliance with Murad Bey; but was assas- sinated by a Turkish fanatic at Cairo in 1800. b. at Strasburg, where there is a statue to his memory, 1751. Klein, Johann Thcodor, Mine, a (Herman naturalist, who published a "Natural History of Fishes and of Birds." He was also secretary to the senate of Dantzic. B. at Konigsbcrg, 1635 ; n. 1 750. 601 Klingenstierna Kleist, Ewald Christian de, kliste, a Prussian officer and poet, who served under Frederick II.; and, although he only cultivated literature during the leisure allowed by his military em- ployments, acquired a great poetical reputa- tion. He published, in 1756, a collected edition of his poems. He likewise wrote some reflec- tions on the art of war which appeared in 1759. b. at Zeblin, Pomerahia, 1715; killed at the battle of Kunnersdorf, 1759. Kleist, Henry, a German dramatic author, who served for some time in the Prussian army, but was afterwards employed at Berlin in a civil capacity. His most celebrated play is " Cathe- rine of Heilbronn ;" he also wrote poems and a collection of stories, b. 1777; d. 1811. Kleist, Emilius Frederick, Count, a distin- guished Prussian officer, who, having risen by ability and courage to the rank of general, commanded a corps of Prussians, in 1812, as auxiliaries to Napoleon's grand army; and afterwards, when Prussia threw off the do- mination of Bonaparte, signalized himself in the battle of Bautzen, May 20, 1S13 ; and was one of the plenipotentiaries who con- cluded the armistice. After the retreat of the allied troops from Dresden into Bohemia, Kleist gave battle to the army under Vandamme, and by his victory at the village of Nollendorf saved Bohemia, against which Mapoleon had directed his best energies. He was afterwards known by the affix of " von Nollendorf." b. at Berlin, 1762 ; d. 1821. Klenze, Leo von, Huiri-tse(r),- a distin- guished German architect, studied his pro- fession at Berlin, and afterwards went on a tour in France and Italy, While at Genoa he be- came acquainted witli a distinguished lover of art, who introduced him to Jerome, king of Westphalia, whose court architect he became. In 1813 he went to Munich, and there attracted the notice of Ludwig, crown prince, and after- wards king, of Bavaria, who invited him to stay in that city, and appointed him court architect. Ludwig was a great lover of classical architec- ture, in which Klenze excelled, and he com- missioned his protege to prepare designs for the Walhalla, or Hall of Heroes, and for the Glyptothek ; these works however, were not commenced till after Ludwig had ascended the throne of Bavaria. This event took place in 1825, and from that time Klenze was constantly employed in designing one great structure after another, to adorn the great art-capital, Munich. The Glyptothek was finished in the year 1830, the Walhalla being commenced immediately afterwards. He was about the same time ap- pointed president of the council for buildings, a privy councillor, and raised to noble rank. He subsequently built the War Office, the Odeon, the palace of Prince Maximilian, and two new wings to the palace of the king, the street in Munich called " Linden-strasse," and many edi- fices, public and private. He was likewise the architect of the New Imperial Museum at St. Petersburg. In 1831. he was invited to Athens to improve King Otho's capital. On his return he published a series of designs of Greek archi- tecture. He was a member of almost every artistic academy in Europe, b. at Hildesheim, 1781; D. 1801.. Klingenstierna, Samuel, leUng'-en-sie-air'- na, a Swedish mathematician, who was intended for the profession of the law, but abandoned that pursuit for mathematics. He made a tour THE DICTIONARY Klinger of study in Germany and France, between the years 1727 and 1730, and, soon after his_ return, was appointed professor of mathematics, and tutor to the prince-royal of Sweden. In 1762 was published, at St. Petersburg, a treatise on the means of cerrecting the aberration of light in achromatic telescopes, a valuable scientific contribution which the Swedish astronomer had sent to the Russian capital. He afterwards made a number of experiments on the same subject, transmitting an account of them to England. These papers enabled Mr. Dollond to discover a combination of flint and crown- glass lenses, which, by correcting the aberration of light in the chromatic telescope, greatly im- proved that valuable philosophical instrument. He published an edition of Euclid's " Elements," a Swedish translation of Mussehenbroek's " Treatise on Physics," and two scientific dis- courses. He was a member of the Eoyal So- cieties of Upsal, of Stockholm, and of London. b. at Tolifors, near Linkoeping, 1689; d. at Stockholm, 1785. Klingeb, Frederick Maximilian von, Ming'- er, an officer in the Russian service, and a literary character, commenced his career as a dramatic writer ; but, in the war of the Bava- rian succession, entered the military service, and waa made a lieutenant in the Austrian army. In 1780 he went to St. Petersburg, and was appointed an officer aud reader to the czarevitch Paul, with whom he afterwards travelled through Poland,Austria,Italy,France, &c, and, in the reign of Catherine, rose to the rank of colonel. He was made major-general, and director of the corps of cadets by his former pupil ; and, when Alexander ascended the throne, received other offices aud further promotion ; and spent 40 years in the Russian service. His works, which are of a peculiar character, and written in an exaggerated style, form 12 volumes, b. at Frankfort-on-the-Mainc, 1758; d. 1831. Klingstadt, kling'-stat, an eminent minia- ture painter, who excelled in making designs for snuff-boxes, for which he received extrava- gant prices, b. at Riga, 1657; d. at Paris, 173*. Klopstock, Frederick Gottlieb, klop'-stok, a distinguished German poet. While at school, during his earlier years, his poetical talents were evinced, and he formed the idea of writing a long epic poem. He received a classical edu- cation at Naumburg, and studied theology at Jena, in 1745. Three years afterwards, he commenced .his epic poem, the subject being "Tlio Messiah." He at first published only three cantos of the work, and the reception they received was very extraordinary: while they were universally read, the author was regarded by ? ome as a modern type of the old prophet, aud by the rest as an irreverent and presump- tuous writer upon a sacred subject. In 1750 he went to Switzerland, where he was received as a great poet. The Danish minister Bernstorff having read the three cantos of Klopstock's poem, invited the poet to Copenhagen, offering him a pension of 400 dollars, in consideration of his residing in that city and there finishing his epic. In 1751 he set' out for Copenhagen, and was reoeived with the greatest respect; subsequently, he accompanied the king, Frede- rick V., on "his travels. In 1751 he settled in Hamburg, where he married. He resided in several parts of Germany during the remaining 602 Knibb years of his life, and completed his "Messiah" at Hamburg, in 1771. Besides that epic poem, he wrote odes, dramas, and other poetical pieces; but his writings are not now held in that extraordinary estimation wliich was for- merly the case. n. at Quedlinburg, 1724; d. 1803. Kmety, George, met'-e, a Hungarian general, who studied at the Protestant college of Pres- burg ; but, by a mistake, lost a German scholar- ship it had been his ambition to obtain. There- upon he entered the Austrian army as a private soldier; and when the Hungarian revolution broke forth, in 1843, he had attained the grade of commissioned officer. Throughout the great •struggle maintained by his countrymen in their efforts to gain independence, he figured as a brave and scientific officer; but when Gorgei surrendered, with the entire corps under his com- mand, Kmety fled into Turkey, where he became a Mussulman, and adopted the name and title of Ismail Pacha. At the memorable defence of Kars he commanded the Turkish army ; and his bravery and skilful dispositions contributed in a great measure to the repulse which the Russian armv at first sustained, b. in Hungary, 1810 ; d. in London, 1865. Knapton, George, niip'-ton, an English por- trait-painter in crayons, was the pupil of Richardson, and surveyor and keeper of the king's pictures, b. 1698; d. at Kensington, 1778. Knelleb, Sir Godfrey, nel'-ler, an eminent painter, was educated at Leyden for the mili- tary profession, but having a strong inclination for drawing, resolved to apply himself to painting. He studied first under Bembrandt, aud afterwards went to Rome, at which place he greatly improved himself, and then visited England, where he soon acquired unrivalled distinction as an artist, becoming state painter to Charles II. and James II. William III. con- ferred on him the honour of knighthood, and the university of Oxford the degree of LL.D. He painted a prodigious number of portraits of illustrious personages, and to a striking like- ness he always added grace and elegance in his subjects. He was created a baronet by George 1., and the emperor Leopold gave him a patent of nobility, b. at Lubcck, 1618; d. in London. 1726. Knibb, Rev. William, nib, a distinguished Baptist missionary, was originally apprenticed to a printer at Bristol, but offered, on the death of his brother, to supply his place as a teachci of a Baptist school in Jamaica; and having re- paired thither in 1824, was in 1829 appointed pastor of the mission church at Falmouth, where his efforts to ameliorate the condition of the negroes were rewarded by their gra- titude towards him. But these very efforts excited such hostility among the planters, overseers, and others in the slave-holding inte- rest, that when in 1S32 a formidable slave insur- rection was threatened, Mr. Knibb was not only compelled, despite his sacred calling, to serve in the militia, but was treated with marked indignity, and shortly afterwards arrested for having instigated the threatened rebellion, lie was, however, released, there being no evidence against him; but his chapel and mission pre- mises having been burnt down during the dis- turbances, Knibb resolved to proceed to England to explain all the circumst inces connected with his mission, and in a series of harangues all OF BIOGRAPHY. Knight over the country, boldly advocated the entire ar.d immediate abolition of slavery ; and had no unimportant share in bringing about the Eman- cipation Act of 1S33. In 1834 he once more returned to Jamaica, where he vigilantly watched the operation of the new act, exposed the evils of the apprenticeship system, raised subseri ptions for building new churches, founded schools, and after ten years spent in these and similar undertakings, he was suddenly seized with yellow fever, and died at the village of Kettering, in Jamaica, Nov. 15, 1845. b. at Kettering, Northamptonshire, near the opening of the 19th century. Knight, Samuel, nite, a learned English divine, who was educated at St. Paul's School, whence he removed to Trinity College, Cam- bridge. He obtained several church prefer- ments, and was chaplain to George II. He wrote the lives of Dr. Colet and Erasmus. D. 1746. Knight, Edward, an eminent comic actor, whose Tim, in " Wild Oats," was esteemed a chaste and natural delineation. He long per- formed at Drury-lane Theatre and at the Lyceum, but was ultimately compelled by ill- health to quit the stage, b. in Birmingham, 1771; D. 1826. Knigiit, Gowin, an English physician and philosopher, was educated at Oxford, and prac- tised in London. He did not, however, succeed well in his profession, at least it would appear so, as it is said that, having fallen into distress, he applied to Dr. Fortingale, who, after hearing his statement, gave him a cheque for a thousand guineas and told him to go home, and set his heart at rest. Dr. Knight published " An Attempt to demonstrate that all the Phenomena in Nature may be explained by Attraction and Ecpulsion." KxionT, Thomas, an actor and dramatic writer, was intended for the profession of the law, but having received lessons in oratory from Macklin, he imbibed a taste for the stage, became an actor, and was a favourite with the public, particularly in rustic characters and ilippant coxcombs. He wrote "The Honest Thieves," "The Turnpike Gate," and several other dra- matic pieces, b. in Dorsetshire ; d. 1820. Knight, Richard Payne, an English philologist and writer on art. In his earlier years, his health being very delicate, his father would not allow him to be sent to school, but instructed him in the rudiments of knowledge at home. He was not allowed to study either Latin or Greek, but on the death of his father he went to a grammar-school near his native place, and tiiere made considerable progress in the former language. When he had attained to the age of 18, he began to learn the Greek language, and this pursuit, combined with the investigation of Grecian plastic ait, became his chief occupation throughout his alter years. He subsequently visited Italy, where he imbibed a strong taste for the fine arts. On the death of his grand- father, he inherited a considerable estate near Ludlow. In 1780 he was sent to Parliament as member for the borough of Leominster, and in 1731 was returned for Ludlow. He became a trustee of the British Museum in 1811; ten \ ■■ays afterwards, he bequeathed his magnificent collection of antique art, estimated to be worth £30,000, to the .Museum. -Mr. Knight wrote many works en Greek literature, some of which v.\ro d;voted to the task of proving that the (jo J Knight Homeric poems are the production of a single individual. (See Hoiteb.) He also published " An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles ol Taste," and a great number of volumes on fine- art subjects, b. at Wormesley Grange, Hereford, 1750; d. 1S24. Knight, Henry Gaily, M.P., a distinguished traveller and accomplished virtuoso and anti- quary, who, soon after succeeding to his father's estates in Nottinghamshire, in 1808, set out on a course of extensive travel in Spain, Sicily, Greece, the Holy Land, &e. ; and on his return published an account of his tour. In 1814 he gave to the world a poem, entitled "Europa liediviva;" which was followed at different intervals by " Phrosyne, a Grecian Tale," " Alastor, an Arabian Tale," and "Hannibal in Bithynia." Mr. Knight's chief title to fame consists, however, in the zeal with which he devoted himself to the investigation of archi- tectural history both at home and abroad; and the fruits of which he published in an " Archi- tectural Tour in Normandy," " The Normans in Sicily," and his last and greatest work, the " Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy," &c. He was a member of the commission for the advance- ment of the fine arts, and his best encouragement was always given to the cultivation of literature and art. In 1824 he was for a short period M.P. for Aldborough; in 1830 he represented Malton, and from 1835 to 1816 sat for the northern division of Nottinghamshire, b. 1786 : d. 1846. Knight, Charles, a modern English author and publisher, distinguished for his services as a projector and producer of cheap and valuable literature. His father had for many years con- ducted business as a bookseller at Windsor, and on his death Charles Knight succeeded him. He for some time published the " Etonian," a periodical which contained the contributions of the best scholars educated in the great public school of that town. The success of this work encouraged Mr. Knight to establish in the metropolis a magazine on a more ambitious plan. This was the origin of " Knight's Quar- terly Magazine," to which Macaulay, then a young man fresh from college, contributed. Mr. Knight next published the " Penny Magazine," " Penny Cyclopaedia," in 1827, and other works, unique in their day for extensive, exact, and generally excellent contents, no less than for the lowness of price at which they were issued to tho public. An exceedingly large circulation was obtained for these productions, which were ad- mirably suited at once to gratify the intellectual appetite of thousands of readers, and to stimu- late their minds into a desire for more of the same character. Mr. Knight also published many more works of a like value ; such as the "Pictorial History of England," the "Pictorial Bible," the " Pictorial Shakspere," and the " English Cyclopaedia." Lord Brougham, Mr. Lane, Professor Long, and many other eminent men, wrote treatises, &c., for "Knight's Shilling Volumes," which, for some time, appeared weekly. Mr. Knight was himself an agreeable writer, and reprinted his contributions to various periodicals, under the title of " Once upon a Time," "The Old Printer and the Modern Press," &c. His Life of Shakspere is without a superior in English literature; while the notes to his edition of the same poet are generally ad- mired for their good sense and learning. Among his numerous works we must not omit to men- THE DICTIONARY Knoller tlon his " Knowledge is Power " ; the " Popular History of England," in 7 vols, 8vo. ; " Half Hours with the Best Authors " ; " Half Hours of English History " ; " Half Hours with the best Letter Writers"; and "Passages of a Working Life during Half a Century." Mr. Knight is also the editor of the "British Almanac and Companion." b. 1791 j d. 1873. Knollek, Martin von, nol'-ler, a distinguished German artist of the eighteenth century, was the son of a painter of some sort, but in a very humble position, dnd who designed bis son for a like pursuit, but had to use him in a menial capacity, which, not being agreeable to the boy, he ran away, but was compelled to return to his native village of Steinach, in the Tyrol. Here he continued to assist his father, practise his art, and aid in household duties till about twenty years of age, when the painter, Paul Troger, happened to see some of his performances, and took him with him to Vienna. His progress was very rapid, and in 1753 he obtained the prize of the Austrian Academy for historical painting. He visited Borne in 1755, where he spent three years, and greatly improved his style. He then went to Naples.where he was employed by the Aus- trian ambassador in decorating his palaces there and at Milan. Knoller paid several other visits to Rome, and contracted a close intimacy with Winckelmann and Mengs; buthe finally settled at Milan, where he married, and had a large family. He was ennobled at Vienna, by Maria Theresa. His works are very numerous, and are to be found in most of the leading towns in Germany, the Tyrol, and Austrian Italy. He was gay in colouring, correct in design, and his works are distinguished for their dramatic and effective composition, strong expression, and vigorous and uncommon attitudes. He painted history, saered subjects, portraits, &c, and worked both in oil and fresco, b. 1725; d. 1804. Knolles, Richard, nols, an English historian, who in 1564, became fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, and afterwards master of the grammar- school at Sandwich, in Kent. He wrote the " History of the Turks," of which there have been several editions and continuations, par- ticularly by Ricaut. Knolles also wrote the " Lives and Conquests of the Ottoman Kings," a " Discourse of the Greatness of the Turkish Empire," and a "Compendium of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew Grammar." b. about 1540; d. in Kent, 1610. Knolles, Sir Robert, an English commander in the reign of Edward III., was of a humble lamily in Cheshire, but being of an enterprising disposition, obtained the rank of general and the honour of knighthood. His name was formidable in Francs, where he took several places. He was made grand-seneschal of Gisienne, and by his prudence quelled an insurrection in that province. At the close of life he retired to his estate in Kent, where he built Rochester bridge. B. 1317; D. 1407. Knollis, Sir Francis, nol'-lis, an English statesman, who received a university education, went to court, and became a zealous partisan of the Reformation in the reign of Edward VI., at whose death he went abroad. On the acces- sion of Elizabeth he returned, and was made a privy councillor, and vice-chamberlain of the household. He was also employed in several important matters of state. He was one of the commissioners who sat in judgment on Mary queen of Scots; was appointed treasurer of the Oi 1 Knox royal household, and knight of the Garter. He wrote a "Treatise against the Usurpation of Papal Bishops," printed in 1608. ». 1596. Knowles, James Sheridan, noles, a modern English play writer, whose first effort at drama- tic composition was made at the early age of 12 years. Two years afterwards he wrote an opera entitled the " Chevalier de Crillon," and a bal- lad called the " Welsh Harper." These were quickly followed by a tragedy and a drama. After becoming acquainted with Hazlitt, who gave him much good advice relative to his studies, and whom Knowles terms his " mental father," the young playwright removed to Dub- lin, where he soon afterwards appeared on the stage, but without success. In 1809 he was engaged as an actor and vocalist in the Water- ford Theatre, and, Edmund Kean having joined the company, Knowles wrote a play called " Leo the Gipsy," in which Kean enacted the principal part. He published, about the same time, a volume of poetical " Fugitive Pieces." He next became a teacher of elocution at Belfast, and there produced a play called " Brian Boroihme," which was very successful. " Caius Gracchus " was also played at the same theatre, and with the greatest success. His tragedy of "Virgi- nius " was first produced at Glasgow, and, on being performed at Covent Garden Theatre, in 1820, its author became an established writer for the stage. During the succeeding twenty years he continued to write tragedies, dramas, and comedies with great industry, and enjoyed the very highest reputation as a dramatist. The best of these plays were the "Hunchback," the " Wife, a tale of Mantua," the " Love- Chase," "Love," "William Tell," and the "Rose of Aragon." In 1847 he produced a novel called " Fortescue," and later, "George Lovel;" but these were very inferior to his dramatic works. In 1849 the government granted him a pension of £200 a year. Mr. Knowles subsequently became a Baptist minister, and wrote several sermons and a couple of controversial works, called the "Rock of Rome, or the Arch-heresj-," and the " Idol demolished by its own Priest." B. at Cork, 1784; D. 1862. Knox, John, nox, a bookseller in London, who wrote a "Systematic View of Scotland," and planned a herring-fishery and settlement on its N.E. coast, n. 1790. Knox, John, the celebrated Scotch reformer, received his education at the university of St. Andrew's, and entered into priest's orders before he had attained his 25th year; but an examination of the writings of SS. Augustine and Jerome is said to have occasioned his renunciation of popery. Being accused of heresy before Cardinal Beaton, he addressed to that prelate a confession of faith, which was con- demned. The doctrines of the Reformed religion rapidly spread throughout Scotland. Cardinal Beaton, a determined supporter of the Romish church, was murdered. Knox shortly after- wards began to preach the new faith openly from the pulpit. The French fleet, with a con- siderable body of troops, appeared, in 1547, before St. Andrew's, and made prisoners of Knox and the other reformers who had defended the place. Knox was afterwards condemned to the galleys at Rouen, and remained there nine- teen months. After his liberation, he went to England, where he was well received and made chaplain to Edward VI., who ofi'cred him a bishopric, which he declined, being averse to OF BIOGRAPHY. Knox Kolbe episcopacy and the common prayer. In the reign of Mary he went to Frankfort, where he preached the new doctrines to the English exiles. Being accused to the emperor as a seditious person, he retired to Geneva, where he was greatly esteemed by Calvin, to whose doc- trines he was zealously attached. He there wrote his "Blast of a Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women." In 1559 he returned to his native country, and aommenced his ministerial office at Edinburgh by denouncing the acts of the queen and the clergy. His ser- mons produced a general commotion, and the Roman Catholic cathedrals and parish churches were not only deprived of their ornaments, but reduced almost to ruins, b. probably at Gitlbrd, East Lothian, 1505 ; D. at Edinburgh, 1572. Kyox, Rev Vieesimus, an English writer, pursued a brilliant career at St. John's Col- lege, Oxford, after which he became master of Tunbridge school, in Kent. Ho was an ad- mired preacher in his day, and an excellent pastor. He published— "Moral and Literary Essays," in 1777 ; " Liberal Education ; or, a Practical Treatise on the Methods of acquiring Useful and Polite Learning," in 1781 ; and : '" Elegant Extracts," in prose and verse, the I latter enjoying the greatest popularity. He was likewise the author of several volumes of sermons and theological essays, and was an elegant and correct writer, b. in London, 1752 ; D. at Tunbridge, 1821. Knyghton, Henry, ni'-ton, an English ecclc- , siastic and historian, who wrote a " Chronicle of the English History, from 950 to 1395 ;" also a " History of the Deposition of Richard II." He was a canon regular at Leicester. Kobell, Franz von, ko'-bel, a German mine- ralogist and poet, who, after completing his edu- cation at the university of Munich, was ap- pointed, at the age of 23, assistant professor of mineralogy in that learned establishment. In 1831 he completed his work on the " Character- istics of Minerals," -and from that period pro- duced a succession of valuable treatises on the same science. The principal of these, with the dates of publication, are — "Elements of Mine- ralogy," 1838; "Mineralogy," 1817; "Sketch of the Mineral Kingdom," 1850; "Mineralogical Nomenclature," 1853. For his eminent scientific services, he was appointed member of the Aca- demy of Sciences of Bavaria, and chief conser- vator of the Munich mineralogical collection. His poetical efforts consist of a volume of lyrics in pure German, and several others in the Bavarian idiom, and in the patois of the Palati- nate. These latter arc marked by great liveli- ness, freshness, and grace, and are greatly admired for their piquancy both of tliought and language, b. at Munich, 1803. Koch, Christopher William, kok, a native of Alsace, and professor of public jurisprudence at Strasburg, who chiefly occupied himself with genealogy, canon law, and history. He was interrupted in his studies for a time by the French revolution, for, having been elected a member of the Legislative Assembly, he op- posed the Jacobins, which caused him to be imprisoned; on the fall of Robespierre, how- ever, he was liberated, and resumed his old pursuits. He was the author ot various works, among which may be mentioned his " View of the Revolutions of Europe." b. 1737; n. L813. Koch, Joseph Anton, a celebrated German rtOo landscape painter, the son of poor parents, living in the valley of the Lech, in the south of Germany, was sent by bishop Umgelder, vicar-general of Augsburg, to the Carls- Academy at Stuttgart, where he spent seven years, and became an excellent painter of landscapes. He then went to Rome, where he settled and married, and enjoyed a great reputation for nearly half a century, being long regarded as the Nestor of German artists in that city. Although specially distinguished in landscape, Koch also painted other subjects, among which may be mentioned illustrations of Dante, " Hofer's Liberation of the Tyrol," "The Flight of Laban," &c. b. 1768; d. 1839. Kock, Charles Paul de, kok, a French comic novelist, the son of a Dutch banker, was originally educated for commerce, and placed in a French banker's establishment. While thus engaged, he commenced writing, " he knew not why." He produced a great number of vaudevilles, operas, and melodramas, and after- wards wrote a novel, which being successful, the author went on composing similar works, displaying great fertility of invention, and was the author of a considerable amount of humorous fiction, unfortunately defaced by loose morality, b. at Passy, 1791. d. 1871. Koentg, Daniel, ke(r)'neeg, a Swiss, who translated "Arbuthnot's Tables of Coins" into Latin, printed at Utrecht, in 1756. He died of the ill-usage he received from the populace of Franeker, who mistook him for a French spy. Koenio, Samuel, brother of the preceding, was professor of philosophy and law at Frane- ker, and librarian to the Prince of Orange. He was a great mathematician, and had a dispute with Maupertuis. n. 1757. Koerten-I'.lock, Joanna, ker'-ten, an ingeni- ous Dutch lady, who had a taste for drawing in water-colours and for embroidery. She also modelled in wax, and made artificial ornaments and flowers ; but her principal excellence was in cutting figures out of paper with scissors, and her portraits and landscapes executed in this way became so celebrated, that foreigners visited Amsterdam to see them; among the rest, Peter the Great of Russia. She made a magnificent work for the consort of the emperor Leopold I., consisting of trees, arms, eagles, and crowns, for which she received about 400O guilders. She also executed the portrait of that emperor, b. at Amsterdam, 1650; d. 1715. Kohl, John George, kole, a German traveller and writer, who received a legal education at Gottingen, Heidelberg, and Munich. In 1832 he became tutor in the family of Baron Man- teuffel, and afterwards in that of Count Medcm. He subsequently visited Courland, Livonia, St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the interior of Russia Finally, taking up his residence at Dresden, lie made lours from that city over nearly the whole of Europe. Among his most important works of travel, many of which have been translated into English, may be enumerated, " Sketches and Pictures of St. Petersburg," " Travels in Russia and Poland," and " Tours in England, in Scotland, and in Ireland." He has also written a '' History of the Discovery of Ame- rica." b. at Bremen, 1808. Kolbe, or Kor.BEN, Peter, koloe, a traveller, studied at Halle, in 1700; soon after which lie was sent by the king of Prussia to the Cape cf Good Hope t. 1642. Kynaston, John, an English divine, was jdueated at Brasenose College, Oxford, of which ric was chosen fellow in 1751. He wrote " De Impictate C. Cornelio Tacito falso objectata ;" *' Oratio habita in Sacello Collegii iEnei Nasi." b. at Chester, 1728; d. 1783. Kynwklmabsh, Francis, kin'-icel-marish, an English writer of the 16th century, was a friend of Gascoigne, whom ha assisted in trans- lating Euripides' tragedy of "Jocasta." He and his brother Anthony wrote a collection of poetical pieces, some of which are to be found in the collection called the " Paradise of Dainty Devices," 1576. Kyhle, John, Idrl, a benevolent Englishman. Though he had only an estate of £'500 a year, he bestowed large sums, in the course of his life, in charity, and built a church ; but towards this last good work he obtained subscriptions from other pious and charitable persons. On all accounts, however, he deserved the fine culogium bestowed upon him by Pope, who emphatically calls him " the Man of Ross." b. nt Ross, Herefordshire, 1634; d. 1724. Labadie. John, la'-ba-de, a French religious impostor, who received his education among the Jesuits, and was admitted a member of that order, which, however, he quitted, to become an itinerant preacher. He pretended to have received visions, declared himself another John the Baptist, and prophesied the second coming of the Messiah. The austerity of his manners, his zeal, and affected piety, procured him many fol- lowers, particularly at Amiens, where he ob- tained a canonry, but, being detected in some criminal intrigues, the bishop ordered him to bo put under arrest. Labadie, however, escaped to Toulouse, and became director of a convent of nuns, among whom he introduced a new rule, and the notions of the Quietists, with some •dditions of his own ; viz., that the Scriptures are not necessary to salvation ; that outward worship is of no use, but that all prayer should be mental ; and that there are two churches, that of Christians in degeneracy, and i the other regenerate, or " Labadists," as his j Inllowers were called. He renounced the Romish \ religion at Montauban, in 1650, and alter exer- cising the ministry there some time, went to (.i.cva: being expelled thence, he removed to Miidleimrg, where he obtained many followers, among whom was the famous Anna Maria Schurmann. Labadie sent disciples to propa- gate his doctrines, and to gather contributions, in dillerent parts of Holland ; on which account lie was obliged to withdraw to Erfurt, and thence to Altoua. His works, which arc full ol mysticism, are now disregarded. B.at Bourg, Guienne, ltjlO; d. at Altona, 1671. Lauat, Jean Baptistc, la'-ba', a Dominican missionary, who possessed great mathematical knowledge; and while in America, where he KU Lablache remained twelve years, acted as an engineer in defence of Guadaloupe when attacked by the English in 1703. On his return to Europe in 1708, he surveyed the environs and coast of Andalusia; soon after travelled int» Italy and other parts; and finally returned to Paris. He wrote numerous works, the chief of which are his " Voyage aux lies de l'Amerique," " Travels in Spain and Italy," a "Description of the Countries of Western Africa," &c, b. at Paris, 1663 ; r>. 1733. Labis', Louise Charly, la-haV, aFreneh poetess, surnamed the " fair rope-maker," on account of her marriage with a manufacturer of cables at Lyons, who left her, at his death, a large for- tune. Her first passion was that of arms, and she distinguished herself, in a masculine dress, at the siege of Perpignan. She had a taste for literature, and her library was enriched with the best writers, French, Italian, and Spanish; but her fine qualities were tarnished by liber- tinism. Her poems were printed at Lyons in 1555, and again in 1762. b. at Lyons, 1526; d. 1566. La Beaumelle, Laurent de, bo'-mel, a French writer, who, in 1751, became professor of French literature in Denmark, He subse- quently went to the court of Frederick the Great, but his quarrels with Voltaire caused him to leave Prussia. He returned to Paris, and obtained an appointment in the Bhlio- theque Royale. He wrote " Memoirs of the History of Madame de Maintenon," and other works, b. 1726; d. 1773. Labedoyere, Charles Angelique Francois Huchet, Count de, la'-bai-do'-yair, a famous general, who served as an officer in the Imperial Guards at the battle of Eylau, and in 1S0S and 18o9 was aide-de-camp to Eugene Beauharnais. He was present in the retreat from Moscow, and distinguished himself at the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen. After the abdication it Bonaparte, he was, in 1815, appointed to a regiment stationed at Grenoble; but on the return of Napoleon from Klba, Labedoyere was the first to join him with his regiment. He was rapidly promoted by the emperor, and eventually raised to the peerage; but alter the occupation of Paris by the allied army, was tried by court-martial, and shot, August, 1815. Labeo, Quintus Fabius, lai'-be-o, a Roman general, who defeated Antioehus, king of Syria, 188 B.C., and became consul 182 b.c. He "was a man of liberality and talent, and is said to have assisted Terence in writing some of his plays. Labeo, Quintus Antistius, a Roman lawyer, who refused the consulship when offered him by Augustus, whose projects he opposed. He composed several works, which are lost. His father was one of the conspirators who assas- sinated Ca?sar, and was killed at the battle of Philippi. — There was another Labeo, who was tribune of the people, B.C. 181. He caused the censor Metcllus to be thrown from the Tar- peian rock. Labemus, Decimus, lai-beer'-e-us, a Roman knight, who wrote mimes or satirical produc- tions for the stage. Ca'sar obliged him to per- form one of his own mimes against his will; on which occasion Laberius spoke a satirical prologue against Cajsar, which is preserved in Aulus Gelhus. Fragments of his other works are also extant, d. 44 b.c. Lablac.be, Louis, la-blaek', a celebrated. I; H i THE DICTIONARY La Bletterie Italian singer, who instructed Queen Victoria in the art of music. At 12 years of age he commenced studying for his profession at the Conservatoire of Naples. About the age of 16 he made his first appearance on the Neapolitan stage as a bass singer. His reputation as a vocalist dated from his engagement at La Scala, of Milan, in 1817. For a quarter, of a century he was an established favourite at the Italian Operas of London and Paris. After retiring from the active pursuit of his profession, he took up his residence at a villa near Naples, b. at Naples, 1799; d. 1858. La Bletierie, Renede, Uet'-tre, an eminent French professor of rhetoric, studied eccle- siastical history at the seminary of St. Magloire, and subsequently became professor of rhetoric at the College of France, and was admitted a member of the Academy of Belles Lettres in 1742. He wrote a " Life of the Emperor Julian," in 1735 ; a " History of Jovianus," in 1748. He likewise translated Caesar and Tacitus, b. at Kenncs, 1696; d. at Paris, 1772. La Borde, John Benjamin de. {See Bokde.)i La Borde, Henri Francois, Count de, a French general, who commanded a division at the siege of Toulouse, in 1793. He served in all Napo- leon's campaigns,and,in theRussian expedition, was wounded while commanding the Young Guards at Dresden. He was created a p»er of France during the Hundred Hays, but was banished in 1815. b. 1764; d. 1833. La Bokde, Alexandre Louis Joseph, Count de, a French author, whose father was a peasant of Beam, and is said to have come to Paris on foot, in wooden shoes, and to have been suc- cessful in making his way in the world by shrewdness and perseverance, and accumula- ting some money. He took care to give his son a good education, but fearing for his safety in Paris when the first signs of the coming outbreak of the French Revolution shewed themselves, sent him to Vienna, where he en- tered the Austrian army and served against his native country ; but, in 1797, went to France, and devoted himself to literature. He was aide- de-camp to Louis Philippe, general of brigade of the National Guard, and prefect of the Seine, or first magistrate of Paris. He was the editor of many splendid works, a few of the most im- portant being, " Pictorial and Historical Travels in Spain," " Pictorial Travels in Austria," " The Monuments of France," " Travels in Syria," and " Versailles, Ancient and Modern." b. at Paris, 1773; D. 1842. La BoRnE, Leon Emmanuel Simon Joseph, Count de, son of the preceding, a modern French writer, who in 1830 became secretary of legation to the French embassy in London, and was subsequently appointed conservator of the collection of the Middle Ages and the Renais- sance in the Museum of the Louvre. He was a distinguished archaeologist, and, like his father, produced many magnificent pictorial works descriptive of foreign countries. The chief of them are, " Travels in Arabia Petraea," "Travels in the Kast," " Kesearches on the Early History of Printing," " Studies on the Arts, Letters, and Industry of the Fifteenth Century," and "The Revival of the Arts at the Court cf France." b. at Paris, 1807; D. IS69. Laboulaye, Edouard Rene Lefebre, l. 1649. Ladvocat, Jean Baptiste, lad'-vo-lca, alearned French writer, who became doctor, librarian, and professor of the Sorbonne. The duke of Orleans, having founded a Hebrew professor- ship in the Sorbonne, appointed Ladvocat to it in 1752. His works are, a " Geographical r>ictionary ; " an "Historical Dictionary" which Bin La Fayette has since been repeatedly enlarged ; a " Hebrew Grammar," &e. b. at Vaucouleurs, 1709; d. at Paris, 1705. LjELius, Caius, le'-li-us, consul of Rome, 140 B.C., distinguished himself as a soldier in Spain, and was no less celebrated for his elo- quence and poetical genius. He was the inti- mate friend of Scipio Africanus the younger, and is said to have assisted Terence in his comedies. — There was another consul of this name, 190 b.c. He accompanied the elder Scipio to Africa, and took part in the victories over Asdrubal and Syphax. Laennec, Bene Theophile Hyacinthe, Ian'- nek, a distinguished French physician, inventor of the stethoscope and of the art of " mediate auscultation." After completing his medical education at Nantes, under his uncle, a cele- brated physician, and at Paris.^ie obtained the degree of doctor of medicine in 1814. His lite- rary acquirements were extensive.and he rapidly grewilnto fame as a lecturer and writer on me- dicine. In 1816 he became chief physician at the Hopital Necker, and soon afterwards made known his important discovery in his "Treatise on Mediate Auscultation." His health, which had been always delicate, now grew so infirm that he was compelled to resign his largo private practice and his official appointments, to repair into Brittany. In 1821 he returned, with re- stored health, to Paris, and was appointed pro- fessor of medicine in the College of France. Five years later his health again gave way ; and it was found, by means of the system he had himself invented, that he was attacked with consump! ion. He retired to Brittany, and soon afterwards died. His great invention of the stethoscope, as well as his valuable works, eluci- dated the pathology of diseases of the chest, which till his time had been involved in the greatest obscurity. His most invaluable work, on "Mediate Auscultation," has been trans- lated into English by Dr. Forbes. Besides this, he also produced a number of excellent treatises on medicine, and was altogether one of the greatest advancers of medical science the world has seen during the last century, b. at Quim- per, Brittany, 1781; d. 1826. La Fayette, Louis Mottier, Mademoiselle de, la'-fui-yet, a French lady, celebrated for her beauty and wit, was maid of honour to Anne of Austria. Louis XIII. becuie inspired with a lively passion for her, but she resisted his entreaties, and sought, in 1037, the retire- ment of a cloister, where she assumed the name of Sister Angelica, d. 1065. Madamede Genlis made her the heroine of a romance, first pub- lished in 1812, entitled " Mademoiselle de la Fayette." La Fayette, Countess de. (See Fayette.) La Fayette, Gilbert Mottier, Marquis de, a celebrated soldier and patriot, came of a noble family in Auvergne, and, at the age of 20 years, fitted out a frigate at his own expense and sailed for America, to fight in the ranks of the insurgents against British domination. Re* turning to France at the end of two years, ho again sailed for America, with reinforcements of ships, men, and money, and distinguished himself in Virginia and at the siege of York- town. His energy and ability greatly contri- buted to the foundation of the republic of the United States. The renown he had acquired iu America caused him to be elected, in 1787, member of the Assembly of Notables, and in THE DICTIONARY Lafltau 1789 deputy in the National Assembly. In this capacity he warmly defended the republican ideas then in vogue, and proposed the first de- claration of the rights of man, which ultimately formed the basis of the constitution. In July, 1789, he was appointed commandant of the national guard, upon which occasion he caused his soldiers to assume a tri-coloured cockade, — blue and 'red, the colours of the commune of Paris, and white, the colour of the French lily, — this being the origin of what afterwards be- came the national colours. He protected the "oyal family on the 5'th and 6th October, and when the people broke out into insurrection in July, 1791, he defeated them with his national guards on the Champ de Mars. On being ap- pointed to command the army of the north, he defeated the allies at Philippeville and Mau- beuge. In August, 1792, he was outlawed for having arrested the commissioners of the Na- tional Assembly sent to watch him at his camp at Compiegne, where it is said he had previously invited the king to seek an asylum. Upon this, lie, with a few friends, crossed the frontier, in- tending to take up his residence in a neutral country, but was arrested by the Austrians, and confined in the fortress of Olmiitz, in Moravia. He remained there during five years, but was released by a special article in the treaty of Campo-Formio. Strongly opposed to Napo- leon's ambition, La Fayette took no part in public affairs during the Consulate and the Em- pire. On Napoleon's return from Elba in 1815, La Fayette was returned to the House of Re- presentatives, where, after the defeat at "Water- loo, he replied, in answer to Lucien's appeal : " We have followed your brother through the burning sands of Syria, as well as to the frozen deserts of Russia ; the bleached bones of two millions of Frenchmen scattered all over the globe attest our devotion to him. That devotion is now exhausted, for h^s cause is no longer the cause of the nation." As a member of the Cham- ber of Deputies under the Restoration, he was the untiring advocate of constitutional liberty. In 1824 he visited the United States, where his journey was a perpetual ovation. During the revolution of 1830, he was nominated for the second time chief of the national guard, and was one of the first to propose Louis Philippe as king of the French. The new monarch, however, soon became jealous of his popularity, and sought to counteract his great influence by proposing a measure for the abolition of the post of com- mander-in-chief of the national guard. This attack La Fayette forestalled by tendering his resignation, and henceforth the relations of La Fayette and Louis Philippe were of the most uncordial character. La Fayette took a dis- tinguished part in some of the greatest events of his epoch, in the American revolution, and in those of France in 1789 and 1830. Although not possessed of commanding genius, he was ever actuated by patriotic and disinterested motives. But perhaps with him the qualities of the heart were superior to those of the mind. Through- out his long career, he showed a want of fore- sight and decision, and proved himself a general more fitted to excite popular commotion than to direct and establish national security. La Fa yctte left behind him " Memoirs," which were published by his family in 1837-40. d. at Clia- vagnae, in the department of the Haute-Loire, 1757; d. at Paris, 1831. Laiitau, Joseph Francois, la'f-e-to, a French 618 Lafontaine Jesuit, who was a missionary among the Iro- quois in America. He wrote the " Manners of the Native Americans compared with those of the Primitive Times," a " History of the Discoveries of the Portuguese in the New World," and other works. r>. 1740. Lafitte, Jacques, la'-feet, the chief banker of France during the Empire and the Resto- ration, was the son of a poor carpenter at Bayonne, and in 1787 walked to Paris, where he obtained the situation of assistant clerk in the banking-house of Perregaux, at £48 per annum. He became successively book-keeper, cashier, chief clerk, manager, junior partner, and, in 1809, suceeedeiT to the business, and thenceforth carried it on in his own name. His eminently profound and practical talents for finance pro- cured for him the posts of regent of the Bank of France, and president of the Paris Chamber of Commerce. During a monetary crisis, in 1815, Lafitte lent the government the sum of 2,000,000 francs. In the same year, Louis XVIII., on his departure for Ghent, deposited with the banker a very considerable sum, which Napoleon 1. re- spected. Four months afterwards, the emperor himself, when leaving Paris for the last time, lodged in the same hands the sum of 5,000,000 francs. Lafitte wished to give Napoleon a re- ceipt, but the latter replied . " It is unnecessary. I know you, M. Lafitte; you never liked my government, but you are an honest man." In 1830 he was said to be possessed of a private fortune of upwards of £2,000,000 sterling, but in the following year the great European mone- tary panic took place, and the house of Lafitte fell, along with those whose creditor he was. At this juncture Lafitte sold off the whole of his private property, amounting to 10,000,000 of francs, and subsequently, after the full discharge of his liabilities, he was ascertained to have a surplus of 8,000,000 francs. At his death, his remains were attended to the cemetery of Pere- la-Chaise by the most eminent personages of Paris, and his funeral oraMon was pronounced by Arago. b. at Bayonne, 1767; d. at Paris, 1844. Laffon de LAL>i;i)AT,Andre Daniel, laf-fawng- de la-dai'-ba, a French statesman and finan- cier, who, having inherited considerable pro- perty, was able to devote his leisure to the study of political economy and the tine arts. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Painting at Bordeaux, and became a member of the Academy of Arts and Sciences in that city, and also of the Agricultural Society of Paris. M. Latlbn was president of the Legislative Assembly when Louis XVI. and his family took refuge in its midst, on the 10th of August, 1792; and in the massacre in September following, he saved the life of the Abbe' Sicard. He was subse- quently himself exposed to much danger ; but having survived the Kcign of Terror, was chosen, in September, 1795, a member of the Council oi Ancients for the department of the Seine. In 1797 he was among those who were condemned to deportation, and sent to Cayenne ; but re- turned from exile on the establishment of the Consulate. In 1815 he visited England, and col- lected much information concerning its finances, commerce, and public institutions; and on his return he presented to Louis XVUI. a valuablo work on the finances of France, b. 1746; r>. 1829. La Fontaine. (See Fontaine, John de la.) Lafontaine, Augustus Henry Julius, la'-fon- MRS. INCHBALD. JACKSON, STONEWALL. JAMES I. OF ENGLAND. JONES, OWEN. Plate XVIII OF BIOGRAPHY. La Galissonniere tane, a German romance writer, among whose numerous works are, "Blanche and Minna, or the Manners of the Burghers," "Moral Systems," "The Country Clergyman, or New Family Pictures," and "Clara du Plessis and Clairaut, or the History of Two Lovers." b. 1756; d. 1831. La Galissonniere, Marquis de, ga'-lees-son'- ne-uir, a French admiral, who, in 1/45, was appointed governor-general of Canada, and be- came one of the most esteemed of the French viceroys of that colony. In 1756 Louis XV. con- fided to his charge the fleet destined to act against the English in the Mediterranean. He was opposed to Admiral Byng at Minorca, and co-operated at the taking of Mahon. b. at Kochefort, 1693; d. 1756. Lagnt, Thomas Fantet de, lan'-ye, a clever French mathematician, who was designed for the bar, but preferred geometry to jurispru- dence, and was educated accordingly at Paris, by the liberality of the duke de Noailles. He became a member of the Academy of Sciences, and Louis XIV. appointed him royal hydrogra- pheratRochefort; but, sixteen years afterwards, he was recalled to Paris, and made librarian to the king, with a considerable pension. He wrote : " New Methods for the Extraction and Approximation of Roots ;" " Elements of Arith- metic and Algebra;" "The Cubature of the Sphere;" "A General Analysis or Method of Resolving Problems ;" and several papers in the " .Memoirs" of the Academy. He was a fellow of the Roval Society of London, b. at Lyons, 1660 ; d. at Paris, 1734. Lagrange, Joseph Louis de, la'-granj, a celebrated mathematician, who, at the age of eighteen years, took rank among the most learned men of his time, by addressing to Euler gome answers relative to the isoperimetrical problems which had engaged his attention from his tenth year. In his nineteenth year he be- came professor of mathematics in the School of Artillery at Turin, and soon afterwards, in con- junction with a few friends, founded the Royal Academy of the same city. In 170-1, and the following years, he bore off the mathematical prize offered by the Paris Academy of Sciences. In 1766 he was invited by Frederick the Great to Berlin, to succeed Euler as president of the Academy, and remained in that city during twenty years. After the death of Frederick he went to reside at Paris, where Louis XVI. had provided apartments for his use in the Louvre. He passed unscathed through the revolutionary period, and was appointed professor at the Poly- technic School. Napoleon I. gave him a seat In the Senate, and loaded him with dignities. Hi" illustrious friend Laplace thus characterized him in his funeral oration : — " Among those who have most effectually extended the limits of our knowledge, Newton and Lagrange appear to have possessed in the highest degree the happy art of detecting general principles, which con- stitutes the true genius of science. This art, joined to a rare elegance in the exposition of the most abstract theories, characterized La- grange." "Lagrange," says Professor Hamil- ton, " has perhaps done more than any other analyst to give extent and harmony to such de- ductive researches" (the theoretical develop- ment of the laws of motion), " by showing that the most varied consequences respecting the motions of systems of bodies may be derived from one radical formula; the beauty of the 017 Lainez method so suiting the dignity of the results as to make his great work a kind of scientific poem." Of the works of this luminary of ma- thematical science we have space only to enu- merate the most important : these are "Analy- tical Mechanics," the second edition published in Paris, 1811-15 ; " Theory of Analytical Func- tions," second edition published 1313 ; " Reso- lution of Numerical Equations," 1826 ; " Lessons on the Calculus of Functions." In addition to a crowd of highly important contributions to the "Transactions" of the learned Societies of Turin, Berlin, and Paris, he produced treatises " On the Origin of Comets," " On the Calculation of Eclipses," and on the "Method of deter- mining the Orbit of a Comet from Observa- tions." b. at Turin, 1736; d. at Paris, 1813. LAGUERBE.Louis, la'-goo-air, aFrench painter, was the godson of Louis XIV., who had him in- structed by Le Brun, and in the Royal Academy of Paris. In 1683 he came to England, and was much employed in painting ceilings, halls, &c. He was first engaged by Verrio on the large work at St. Bartholomew's Hospital; subse- quently he had lodgings assigned him in Hamp- ton Court Palace, where he painted "The La- bours of Hercules." b. 1663 ; d. 1721. Lagus, lav-gut, a Macedonian of mean extrac- tion, who married Arsinoe, daughter of Melcager, who, according to some accounts, was then preg- nant by King Philip, and being willing to hide the disgrace of his wife, Lagus exposed the child in the woods. An eagle preserved the life of the infant, and fed him with her prey. This uncommon preservation was divulged to Lagus, who adopted the child, and called him Ptolemy, conjecturing that as his life had been so sin- gularly preserved, his days would be spent in grandeur and affluence. This Ptolemy be- came king of Egypt after the death of Alexander. The first of the Ptolemies was called Lagus, to distinguish him from his successors of the same name. Ptolemy, the first of the Macedo- nian kings of Egypt, wished it to be believed that he was the legitimate son of Lagus, and he preferred the appellation of Lagides to all other appellations. The surname of Lagides was transmitted to all his descendants on the Egyptian throne to the reign of Cleopatra, An- tony's mistress. La Harpe. (See Harpe, John Francis de la.) Lahihe, Philippe de, la'-here, a French ma- thematician, who was professor of astronomy and mathematics in the College of France, and became a member of the Academy of Sciences, in 1678. He was employed in many important public works ; among the rest, one for the de- termination of the water-levels, preparatory to the construction of the aqueduct for supplying Paris. His chief works were treatises "On Conical and Cylindrical Sections," " On Survey- ing," and " On Mechanics." b. at Paris, 1610; d. at the same city, 1719. Lainez, James, lai-naith', a Spaniard, and one of the companions of Loyola, whom he suc- ceeded in the generalship of the Jesuits, in 1553. He assisted at the council of Trent, where he supported the papal authority to an extravagant degree. lie obtained from Paul IV. the per- petual generalship of the order, and the follow- ing extraordinary privileges: the right of making all manner of contracts without the privity or consent of the society ; that of giving authority and authenticity to all comments and explanations of the constitutions; the power of THE DICTIONARY Laing making new and altering old rules ; and that of having prisons independently of the secular power. Lainez refused a cardinalship. b. in Castile, 1512 ; d. at Rome, 1565. Laing, Malcolm, laing, a Scottish historian, tvho studied at the university of Edinburgh, where he became a member of the celebrated Speculative Society. He was subsequently called to the Scottish bar ; but, although he displayed high forensic abilities, he never succeeded in obtaining much practice. In 1793 he com- menced his literary career by editing Henry's " History of Britain." Five years later, he pro- duced " The History of Scotland, from the Union of the Crowns, on the Accession of James VI., to the Union of the Kingdoms in the lieign of Queen Anne." He afterwards appended to the second edition of this work a " Preliminary Dissertation on the Participation of Mary Queen of Scots in the Murder of Darnley." He represented Orkney for some time in Parliament, and enjoyed the friendship of Fox. b. in Orkney, 1762; D. 1818. Laing, Samuel, an English traveller and writer, brother of the preceding, composed some valuable works, the chief of which were " Notes of a Traveller," " Travels in Norway," and the " Heimskringla." Laing, Alexander, an antiquarian and miscel- laneous writer, of whose early history but little is known, latterly followed the calling of an itinerant vender of old books; and, being a man of much humour and eccentricity, ob- tained access to many sources of information, which he turned to account in the "Donean Tourist," in verse, with copious notes, giving an account of the battles, castles, families, gentle- men's seats, &c, on the banks of the river Don ; and " The Caledonian Itinerary, or a Tour on the Banks of the Dee," a poem, with historical notes. He was also the compiler of the " Ec- centric Magazine," which contains many curious and whimsical epitaphs gleaned from church- yards in Aberdeenshire, n. 1778; d. 1838. Lake, Gerard, Viscount, laik, a distin- guished English genera], who entered the army at the age of fourteen, served in the Seven Years' War, and subsequently participated in the campaigns in America and in Holland. During the rebellion in Ireland in 1797-98, he acted as commander-in-chief of the British force. In 1S0O he went out to India as com- mander-in-chief, and three years afterwards took the field against the Mahrattas, whom be sig- nally defeated before the city of Delhi. On en- tering that city, ho obtained possession of Shah A Hum, the Mogul emperor, nominally the sove- reign of India, but in reality the tool of the Mahrattas. He afterwards reduced Agra, and, by a series of brilliant successes, took from Scindiah all his possessions beyond the river Chumbul. He operated in 180-1-5 against Holkar, whom he defeated after an obstinate re- sistance. For his distinguished services, he was created, on his return to England in 1807, a viscount, having been previously raised to the peerage as Baron Lake of JUelhi and Laswaree. B. 1711; d. 1808. Lalande, Michael Richard de, la'-land, a French musician who, when young, became a chorister in the church of St. Germain l'Auxerrc, but on reaching manhood lost his fine voice, and applied himself to the study of the violin, in hopes of being employed by Lulli at the opera ; but, being refused, he broke his 618 Lally Tollendal instrument, and studied the organ. The duke of Noailles recommended him to Louis XIV, who appointed him musical instructor to the court. He was also composer and chapel-master to the king. b. at Paris, 1657; d. at Versailles, 1726. Lalande, Joseph Jerome lc Fran?ais de, an eminent French astronomer, who was sent to Paris for the purpose of studying jurisprudence, but his attention having been early directed to Fontenelle's '• Discourses on the Plurality of Worlds," he secretly devoted himself to the pur- suit of astronomical science. He attended the lectures of Lemonnier and Delille, and made such considerable progress as to be able to undertake, before he had attained his nineteenth year, a series of observations for determining the moon's distance from the earth, at the ob- servatory of Berlin. On his return to Paris, the Koyal Academy, in token of their admiration of the manner in which he had completed his task, elected him a member of their body. His repu- tation as an astronomer was thus permanently fixed. In 1762 he became professor of astronomy at the College of France, and filled that office during forty-five years with the greatest success. None of his contemporaries surpassed him in presenting a succinct exposition of the science of astronomy. As an author, he was eminently successful in conveying, in a clear and popular manner, the truths of his favourite science to the ordinary reader. He was an industrious observer, and contributed largely to the scien- tific memoirs of the French Academy. His principal works were, "Treatise on Astronomy," " Reflections on Eclipses of the Sun," " Com- pendium of Historical and Astronomical Navi- gation," "Astronomy for Ladies," "Letter on Saturn's King," and "Astronomical Biblio- graphy." b. at Bourg, in the department of Ain, 1732; d. at Paris, 1807. Lalli, John Baptist, lal'-le, an Italian poet, who was employed by the duke of Parma and the pope in the government of several cities, lie wrote, among other works, "The Nefarious French," "Jerusalem Forlorn," and the ".Eneid Travestie." b. at Norcia, 1672; d. at Norsino, in Umbria, 1637. Lally, Thomas Arthur, Count de, laT-le, a distinguished French general, was sprung from an Irish family that had followed James II. to France. He signalized himself at the battle of Fontenoy, and was appointed brigadier in the field by Louis XV. Jn 1756 he was sent to the Fast Indies as governor of the French posses- sions. He took Gondalorc and Fort St. David, but was defeated before Madras ; on which he retired to Pondicherry, which he was obliged to surrender to the English in 1761. On his arrival in France, he was accused of betraying French interests in India, and the popular clamour was so great that he was sent to the Bastille, and afterwards tried by the Parliament, which condemned him to be beheaded, on the absurd charge of having sold Pondicherry to the enemy. He underwent his sentence with great fortitude, in 1766. Lally Tollendal, Marquis de, son of the above, was educated at the College of Hareourt. He wrote, when only 15, a Latin poem on the story of John Calas, who had been sacrificed to the fury of a mob ; and when he had attained a more mature age, warmly exerted himself to retrieve from obloquy the memory of his father ; and in 1783 regained possession of his pater- OF BIOGRAPHY. Lamarck. nal estates. Previously to the Revolution, he was captain of cuirassiers; and in 1789 was nominated deputy from the nobility of Paris to the States-general. He soon became one of the most popular members of the Constituent Assembly, gave his support to the declaration of the rights of man proposed by Lafayette, and subsequently suggested as an amendment, that all citizens should be eligible to public employ- ments, which was adopted by acclamation. But though a democrat, he was not an anarchist, and proposed the British constitution as a model of government ; but perceiving that principles prevailed at variance with his ideas of what was just, he resigned his seat in the Assembly, and retired into Switzerland. He composed a work, entitled "Quintus Capitolinus," in which he reviewed the proceedings of the National Assem- bly, pointed out the faults of the constitution, and condemned the suppression of the higher orders of the state. Having returned to France in 1792, he was arrested and sent totheAbbaye, but, escaping the massacres which took place in the prisons in September, effected his escape to England, where he obtained a pension from the government. On the trial of Louis XVI. he wrote to the Convention to offer himself as the official advocate of that prince, and after- wards published the speech which he had com- posed in his defence. When Bonaparte became Consul, the marquis returned to Prance, where he resided till the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814. He accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent, as one of the members of his privy council, and is supposed to have drawn up the manifesto of the king to the French nation. He wrote an excellent work, entitled "The Defence of the Emigrants," published in 1796 ; also an " Essay on the Life of the Earl of Straf- ford, the Minister of Charles I. ;" and a tragedy on the fate of that nobleman, b. 1751 ; d. lt>30. Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de, la-mark*, an eminent French botanist and zoologist, served for some time under Marshal de Broglie, but quitted the career of arms for that of science. He at first devoted himself to botany, and made the acquaintance of Bullbn, who greatly assisted him. In 1779 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences, and was despatched on a travelling tour over Europe to collect rare specimens of plants for the Jardin du Roi. In 1791 he was appointed professor of zoology in that institution, a post he retained until his death. His principal works were " The Matural History of Invertebrate Animals," and the " French Flora." He also wrote botanical Articles for the " Encyclopedic Methodique." n. 1744; d. at Paris, 1829. Lamabqub, Maximilien, Comte de, la' •mark, a distinguished French officer and states- man, entered the army as a private, and soon became captain of grenadiers in a famous corps commanded by Latour d'Auvergnc, first grena- dier of France. He served in the wars of the republic, and in the campaigns of Austerlitz, che Tyrol, Naples, and Wagram; rendered him- J Kclf eminently conspicuous in Italy, especially by the capture of Caprea; and was afterwards sent to Spain, where he added to his military reputation. On the return of Bonaparte from ' Klba, he conferred on Lamarque the command | of Paris, and afterwards nominated him general- 1 in-chief of the army of La Vendee. He was i proscribed in 1815 ; hut returned to France in ! BIB Lamartine 1818, and wrote numerous articles for the opposition journals, chiefly relating to foreign politics. In 1826 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and after the accession of Louis Philippe, became a leading member of the pro- gressive party, b. 1770 ; d. 1832. Lamartine, Alphonse, lu'-mar-teen, an illus- trious French poet, whose family name was Du Prat, but he assumed that of Lamartine from a maternal uncle. His father was a major of cavalry in the royal service, and was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror ; but, after the fall o! Robespierre, the family retired to their country seat at Milley, where the future poet received his first education, in the midst of a domestic serenity he afterwards depicted in his " Confi- dences." He was subsequently sent to finish his studies at Belley, with the " Peres de la Foi." After a short sojourn at Lyons, he made his first visit to Italy ; and, towards the close of the Empire, repaired to Paris, where he de- voted himself to study, to the composition of verse, and to social enjoyment. On the exile of Napoleon to Elba, he took military service under Louis XVIII. ; but after the Hundred Days, he left the military for a literary career. He visited Italy for the second time in 1818. In 1S20 his fame suddenly and unexpectedly com- menced ; in that year he produced a small and modest volume, fvr which he could hardly find a publisher; this was entitled "Meditations Poetiques." With the exception of some trans- lations from Byron, French literature had, for a considerable period, been without anything like sentimental or impassioned poetry. Accord- ingly, this new style of verse was received with universal admiration ; 45,000 copies of the volume were sold in the course of four years, and its author was hailed as a great French po;t, worthy to take rank with Beranger ; the latter being the poet of imperialism and the Revolu- tion, the former that of religion and royalty. A diplomatic career next opened to the popular poet; he was appointed to a post at the French embassy at Florence, and afterwards became secretary of embassy at Naples and at London, where he married a young and beautiful Eng- lish lady, who was possessed of a large fortune. About this time his maternal uncle made him his heir, on condition that he should assume the name of Lamartine. He was next chargc- d'ail'aires in Tuscany, when some remarks made by him in his "Dernier chant de Childe-Harold," derogatory to Italian national character, led to a duel between himself and Colonel Pepe, after- wards celebrated as an Italian patriot general, wherein the poet was dangerously wounded. He composed several poetical >vorks while sojourning in Italy; among the rest, his "Nou- velles Meditations," first published in 1823 ; the "Mort de Socrate," and the "Harmonies Poe- tiques et Religieuses." in all these a strong religious sentiment and a spirit of loyalty to the Bourbons, as well as a bitter feeling towards the Empire and the Revolution, were displayed. He was recalled to France in 1829, and was elected a member of the Aeademie Franchise. On the outburst of the French Revolution of 1830, he was about to proceed to Greece, as minister plenipotentiary of Charles X. The new monarch, Louis Philippe, offered to retain him in his appointment, but Lamartine declined. The events which had brought about the fall of the elder Bourbons produced a profound im- pression on his enthusiastic spirit. He had THE DICTIONARY Lamartine seen his much-loved Bourbon dynasty hurled from power by a succession of foolish acts. This year was to prove the turning point of his career. He was henceforth to commence a life of political activity ; his career as a poet may almost be said to have ended at this time, for, except " Jocelyn," " La Chute d'un Ange," and a few songs, he wrote no more verse. As a politician and a prose writer, he resolved to spend the remainder of his life. Speaking of this crisis in his career, he said, " The past may be regretted, but the day must not be wasted in idle tears. I wish to enter the ranks of the people ; to think, speak, act with them." He now sought to obtain a seat in the Chamber of Deputies, and successively presented himself as candidate for the suffrages of Toulon and Dunkirk, but without success. Prevented for the time from taking an active part in political affairs, he resolved to repair to the land of his aspirations and his dreams, the East. Jn 1832 he set sail from Marseilles, with his wife and daughter, on board a vessel which he had him- self equipped, carrying with him a collection of princely presents for the chiefs of the lands he was aliout to visit. He travelled in oriental countries for sixteen months, but was recalled, just as he had reached Jerusalem, by the news that he had been elected deputy by the Legitimist constituency of Bergues. He was now actively engaged in politics, and soon became a leader of the " Progressive Conserva- tive" party ; but, in 1845, he openly expressed his dislike" for the government of Louis Philippe and his minister Guizot, which he characterized as one of "vulgar utility." He became an in- fluential member of the opposition party. It may be mentioned, by the way, that his greatest oratorical achievements in the Chamber of Deputies, up to this period, had been his speeches on Eastern questions, on the abolition of the punishment of death, and against M. Arago in defence of literary studies. He wrote, too, at the same period, many small works expressive of his opinions on passing events. In 1835 he published his celebrated " Souvenirs, Impressions, Pensees, et Paysages pendant un voyage en Orient," which was almost as popular in an English translation, — "Pictures of the East," as in its original language. His great effort, however, during the last years of Louis Philippe's reign, was the " History of the Girondins," which had an immense influence in producing the fall of the minister Guizot, and in bringing about the Revolution of 1848. During that eventful period, Lamartine became one of the most prominent, if not the most prominent, man of the day. It was owing to j bis eloquence that the Chamber of Deputies ! refused a compromise between the Revolution and the Orleans family. He risked his life in withstanding the demands of the leaders of the insurgents and their followers, that the red flag should be the colours of the new republic. " For myself," he said, " I will never consent to idopt it. The tricolourcd flag has waved all over the world. It is identified with your liberties and your glory. The red flag has never waved but over the Champ de Mars, and has only been imbrued with the blood of the people." He became a member of the provi- sional government, and the foreign minister of the republic. He did good service to his country in that capacity, by preventing a gene- ral war of»revolutionary interference, which 620 Lamb the more violent revolutionists desired. His popularity during several months was immense ; he was the particular idol of the middle classes, who beheld in him a bulwark between them- selves and anarchy. Curiously enough, after a few months, his countrymen grew so indifferent towards him, that it was with difficulty he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. When his name was announced with that of Louis Napo- leon and Cavaignac for the office of president, he obtained by far the fewest votes of the trio. After the coup d'etat of December, 1851, he retired from politics and devoted himself exclu- sively to literature. Indeed his means had become so straitened that a most strenuous effort had to be made by him to ward off total pecuniary ruin. A French critic observes of this circumstance, "Notwithstanding the illu- sory wealth bestowed upon him by the Sultan in the shape of territorial grants, notwith- standing the enormous sale of his works, not- withstanding the vast subscriptions started for his benefit in France and abroad, the ruin of his fortune by public disturbances, and by his own life of princely munificence, has con- demned him to a species of literary drudgery to which he has nobly submitted, but in which he has consumed, in a number of ephemeral pro- ductions, more force and power of intellect than would have been required to produce three or four great and immortal works." In obedience to the call of pressing necessity, he was, after his retirement from political Ivfe, one of the most industrious authors in France. We can only particularize a few of his most important pro- ductions, these are : "The History of the Revo- lution of 1848," " Raphael," " Les Confidences," "Nouvelles Confidences;" these three being autobiographical ; " History of the Restora- tion," " History of Turkey," " History of Rus- sia," and " Fresh Travels in the East." Most of these have been translated into English and the other European languages. He was the proprietor and director of two newspapers, the " Bien Publique," published at Macon, and the " Pays," published at Paris. His poeti- cal and prose works have been collected and republished in several forms; but, in addi- tion to these, he produced numerous pam- phlets and political effusions, n. at Macon, 1792 ; D. 1869. Lamb, Lady Caroline, Vim, daughter of the Earl of Besborough, and wife of the Hon. Wil- liam Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne, was distinguished for her literary talents and the decided part she took in political affairs, parti- cularly at the time her brother-in-law, the Hon. Geo. Lamb, was a candidate for Westminster, when she personally canvassed the electors, and made herself the subject of great notoriety. She possessed a masculine mind, and was ou terms of friendship with several literary charac- ters, but more especially with Lord Byron, for whom she entertained an attachment fatal to her domestic happiness. She wrote the novels of " Glcnarvon," "Graham Hamilton," and " Ada Reis," besides contributing to various newspapers and periodicals, b. 1786; d. 1828. Lamb, Charles, a distinguished English essayist and humorist, was the son of a clerk to Jlr. Salt, a bencher of the Inner Temple, in which legal stronghold he first saw the light. He was sent at an early age to Christ's Hos- pital, where Coleridge was his schoolfellow. Reared in the very heart of the metropolis, he OP BIOGRAPHY. Lamb Lambert throughout life evinced a strong perception ot the splendour, squalidness, excitement, and oddities of the great world of London. " I often shed tears," he said, "in the motley Strand, for fulness of joy at so much life." An impediment in his speech prevented his gain- ing an exhibition at the "university, and, in 1792, he became a clerk in the India House, a post he retained during thirty-three years. With the exception of one terrible circum- stance, his life was very uneventful. In 179G his sister, worn out by constant toil at her needle, as well as weakened in nerves by con- finement, took her mother's life in an uncon- trollable fit of frenzy. Her insanity being established, she was allowed to remain in the charge of her brother, a duty which Lamb re- ligiously fulfilled to the end of his life. She subsequently recovered her reason, and her brother, who was never married, passed his days with her, both evincing the utmost affec- tion and devotedness to each other. He first appeared as an author in a small book of poems, published in conjunction with Coleridge and Lloyd. Although tills was severely handled by the "Anti-Jacobin," Lamb was not deterred from authorship; for, some time afterwards, he produced a drama, entitled "John Woodvill." His delightful " Essays of Elia," upon which his fame mainly rests, were first printed in the " London Magazine." Ho was highly esteemed by a large intellectual circle, among which may be named his life-long friend Coleridge, Leigh Hunt, Southey, Bogers, and Talfourd. The last gentleman published " Lamb's Letters," and " Final Memorials," in 1848 ; and those who would fully appreciate his captivating essays, and morsels ot autobiography scattered through his writings, should consult these tri- butes to a genial and estimable man. His com- plete works include two volumes of verse, the "Essays of Elia," and "Specimens of English Dramatic Poets who lived about the time ot Shakspcare." The " Farewell to Tobacco," " Essay on Roast Pig," " Christ's Hospital thirty years ago," and the " Old Benchers of Lincoln's Inn," may be mentioned as repre- sentative bits of bis refined, quaint, easy humour. In one of the last essays of " Elia" he records his feelings on being released from drudgery at the India House in a delightful manner. The paper is called " The Superan- nuated Man ;" and the event happened in ls25. His death was the consequence of what was at first thought but a slight accident. For quaint, genial, and unconventional humour, Lamb has, perhaps, never been excelled, b. in London, 1775; d. at Edmonton, 1831. Lamb, Sir James Wand Purges, D.C.L., the • w of George Purges, Esq., comptroller of cus- toms in Scotland, was educated at Oxford, and after travelling on the continent, was called to the bar in 1777. I,'. 1787 he became M.P. fir Helston, Cornwall ; and in 1789 was appointed under-secretary for Foreign Affairs, lie about this date established the "Sun" evening news- paper, and for a titr_ took an active share in conducting it. Ifij contributions to this jour- nal were signed "Alfred," and were collected into a volume in 1792. He was created a baro- net in 1795, and was named for !:fa knight- marshal of the royal household, a i ; .1 ti residue of his life in literary pursu'. .", roducing numerous works on the drama, .;:: '. rclitks, Ac In 1821 he vas allowed ts diwiiiiz re.-.; t!2J of Lamb, by which he was subsequently known. B. 1752; D. 1825. Lajiballe, Maria Theresa Louisa, of Savoy - Carignan, Princess de, lam'-bal, was married to the duke de Bourbon-Penthievre, but be- came a widow in the flower of youth and beauty. Being appointed, in 1774, superinten- dent of the household to Marie-Antoinette, queen of France, she became the particular favourite of that unfortunate princess. On the flight of Louis XVI. and his family, she came to England; her attachment, however, to the queen was so great that she returned to France, and entered the prison of the Temple with her royal friend. She was dragged thence to La Force, and lastly, in September, 1792, brought before a ferocious tribunal, where she was butchered with sabres, her head and breasts cut off and her heart taken out. These, borne on pikes, were carried about in savage triumph, and inhumanly taken to the king and his family. b. at Turin, 1749. I.ambarde, William, lam'-bard, an English lawyer and antiquary, who published a collec- tion and translation of the Anglo-Saxon laws : and, in 1574, established an hospital for the poor at Greenwich. In 1579 he became justice of the peace for the county of Kent, and subse- quently produced a work on the duties of his office, entitled " Eirenarcha." He also wrote "Arehcion; or, a Discourse upon the High Courts of Justice in England," and collected materials for another work on Great Britain ; but on finding that Camden was engaged upon a similar task, he abandoned his intention of publishing it. It was subsequently issued under the title of" Dictionarium Angliae Topograpbi- cum et Historicum." n. 153f>; d. 1601. Lambert, John, major-general in the parlia- mentary army in the reign of Charles I., is stated to have been a student of law on the breaking out of the struggle between the King and the Parliament; but, joining the popular standard, he became a colonel, distinguished himself at the battle of Naseby and in Fife, and assisted Cromwell in his advancement to the Protectorate, but opposed his taking the title of king. For this, Cromwell deprived him of his commission, but, from prudential motives, granted him a pension of £2000 a year. Being divested of all employment, he withdrew into private life, but, on the death of the Protector, was chosen by the Hump Parliament to re- press the royalist insurrection. A short time previously he took an active part in deposing Richard Cromwell ; for which services he was appointed one of the council ot'state, and colonel of a regiment of horse. The Parliament, how- ever, growing jealous of his influence with the army, directed him to resign his commission ; this he absolutely refused to do, and, marching to London, dispersed the assembly by force, in October, 1059. He was then appointed major- general of the army, and sent to command the forces in the north ; but General Monk having defeated him, and restored the Parliament, \\q was deserted by his army, submitted, and was committed to the Tower. At the Restoration h: was tried and condemned, with Sir Harry Vane; but wa:j pardoned, and banished to Guernsey, where he remained during upwards of thirty jears. b. about 1020; d. at Guernsev, l>. ■'.. Lambert, George, an English artist who :'.:~:'r izti:s.zi .-.8 stylo of Boutin, and pro- THE DICTIONARY Lambert duced some pictures of considerable merit. He was engaged in decorating the India House, in Leadenhall Street, with pictures of the Indian Settlements. He is believed to have been the founder of the famous Beefsteak Club. u. 1710: d. 1765. Lambert, John Henry, an eminent German mathematician, who wrote a " Treatise on the ' Jrbits of Comets," a " Treatise on the Proper- tics of Light," and other works. He was an estimable man, and profoundly versed in the mathematical sciences, as known during his time. b. at Miilhausen, Upper Alsatia, 1728; d. at Berlin, 1777. Lambesc, Charles Eugene de Lorainc, Prince de, lam'-hesk, was the relative of Marie- Antoi- nette, whom he accompanied to France, and became colonel-proprietor of the royal German regiment. A determined enemy of the revolu- tion, he charged the mob assembled at the Tuileries, in 1789, and wounded several persons ivith his own hand. He was afterwards tried tor the act, but obtained an acquittal. Upon this, he left France, served in the Austrian army, and reached the grade of lieut.-fieldmar- slial. He left no issue, and was the last repre- sentative of one branch of the house of Lorainc. b. 1751; d. at Vienna, 1825. Lambrun, Margaret, lum'-brun, a Scotch heroine, was a servant of Mary Stuart, as was her husband, who died of griet for the death of that queen. Margaret resolved to avenge the death of her husband and mistress upon Eliza- beth, and, to accomplish her purpose, assumed a man's habit, and repaired to the English court; but, as she was pushing through a crowd to ?ret near the queen, she dropped one of her pistols. This being observed, she was seized and brought before Elizabeth, who examined her strictly, and Margaret replied, " Madam, though I ap- pear in this habit, I am a woman. I was seve- ral years in the service of Queen Mary, whom you have unjustly put to death; you have also caused that of my husband, who died of grief to see his innocent queen perish so iniquitously. Now, as I had the greatest love for both, I resolved to avenge their deaths by killing you. I have made many efforts to divert my resolution from this design, but in vain : 1 found myself necessi- tated to prove by experience the truth of the maxim, that reason nor force can hinder a woman from vengeance, when she is impelled by love." The queen calmly heard this dis- course, and answered : " You are then persuaded that in this action you have done your duty, and satisfied the demands which your love for your mistress and your spouse required from you; but what think you is my duty to do to you ?" Margaret asked if this question was put as a queen or a judge, and on her majesty's saying as a queen, " Then," said Margaret, " your majesty ought to grant me a pardon." "But what assurance can you give," said the queen, "that you will not repeat the attempt?" " Madam," Lambrun rejoined, " a favour which is given under restraints is no favour; and, in so doing, your majesty would act as a judge." The queen was so struck with her behaviour, that she gave her a pardon and a safe conduct out of the kingdom. Lamennais, F61icite Robert, Abbe de, la- men-nai, a celebrated French divine, was the sun a shipowner at St. Malo, and was in- tended by his father to follow mercantile pur- suits; but an unconquerable love of learning led Lamorlciere him to acquire, almost unassisted, a consider- able store of knowledge. In 1807 he became teacher of mathematics in the College of St Malo, and, in the following year, produced his first work, entitled " Reflections on the State of the Church in France during the 18th Century." In 1811 he assumed the tonsure ; in 1814 he went to Paris, where he wrote a pamphlet against Napoleon I., then in exile at Elba, for which he was forced to make his escape from the capital during the Hundred Days. He went to England, where he resided for some time as usher at a school in the vici- nity of London. In 1816 he returned to France, and was ordained a priest. His remarkable "Essay on Indifference in matters of Religion" appeared the following year, and produced a profound impression. He visited Rome several years afterwards, and was offered a cardinal's hat by Leo XII., but declined the honour. During the French revolution of 1830 he warmly embraced the democratic cause, declaimed against the temporal abuses of the Church, and in " L'Avenir," with Lacordairc and Montalem- bert (see Lacordaike), while lie defended the interests of the Roman Catholic Church, desired that religion should be " regenerated" by being brought home to the bosoms of the lower classes, since the educated people had grown indifferent to its truths. He advocated the separation of the temporal from the spiritual power of the Church. These views evoked a remonstrance from the Holy See ; upon which the journal was suppressed. In 1831 he pro- duced his "Paroles d' un Croyant," a work which completely shut him out from the ranks of the Roman Catholic clergy. The pope condemned the book, but the republican party accepted its author as an apostle of civil and religious liberty. In 1840, for his " Pays et le Gouvemement," he was sentenced to undergo a year's imprison- ment. Ho subsequently wrote other works, all expressing his views with the old earnestness and eloquence. Before ins death, every effort was made to cause him to retract, but without avail. He left some papers, which the clergy for a time prevented from being published j but, a lawsuit resulting, the documents were ordered to be printed according to their author's last wishes, b. at Saint Malo, 1782; d. 1854. Lami, Giovanni, la'-me, an Italian author, who wrote in defence of the Niccne creed against Leclere and others. In 1732 he became libra- rian of the Riccardi collection, and professor of ecclesiastical history at the Florence Lyceum. In 1710 he commenced the publication of a literary journal, called " Novelle Letterarie." He likewise made a selection of the inedited works contained in the Riccardi Library, and published them under the title of "Deliciso Eruditorum," in eighteen volumes. He had projected a History of the Eastern Churches from the Council of Florence, in 1430, but bis death interrupted the plan. He was throughout life a warm opponent of the Jesuits, b. at Santa Crocc, Tuscany, 1697 ; d. at Florence, 1770. Lamoriciehe, Christophe Louis Jucbault de, lu'-mo-riss'-e-air, a celebrated French general, was educated for his profession at the Poly- technic School, between the years 1S24-26, after which he passed to the school of Metz. In 1830 he had reached the grade of lieutenant, and subsequently, in the African war, ho rose with great rapidity. He was appointed captain OF BIOGRAPHY. Lamotte of the Zouaves on the organization of that corps, and, in 1837, had risen to the rank of colonel. He was wounded hy the explosion of s mine at the siege of Constantine; after a short sojourn at Paris, he returned to Africa, where he distinguished himself on several occa- sions. In 1844 he became commander of the Legion of Honour, and was appointed tempo- rary governor of Algeria. Under Marshal liugeaud, between the years 1841-45, he dis- played the highest qualities of a commander, and terminated his career two years later, by skilfully surrounding Abd-el-Kader, and causing him to surrender himself prisoner to the due d'Aumale. During the revolution of 1843, he rode amongst the insurgents in the costume of a colonel of the National Guard, proclaimed the abdication of Louis Fhilippe, and the regency of the duchess of Orleans ; but his horse was killed and himself wounded, and he narrowly escaped death at the hands of the mob. The provi- sional government offered him the office of minister of war, which he refused. In the in- surrection of June, he acted under Cavaignac, and fought against the insurgents at the Bas- tilc, and elsewhere. At the time of the elec- tion of President, he was sitting in the Legisla- tive Assembly, and offered no opposition to the new head of the nation. In 1849, on the Rus- sian intervention in Hungary, he was dispatched on an extraordinary mission to the court of Russia, but did not arrive until after the Hun- garians had been subdued. On again taking his seat in the Legislative Assembly, ho became a strenuous opponent of the President and his party. On the coup d'etat of December, 1851, he was arrested and at first conducted to Ham, but afterwards released, and conducted as far as Cologne by the agents of the police. He then took up his residence at Brussels, where he usually continued to live up to the year 1860, when Consignor Merode, one of the pope's household, and formerly a soldier, sought him in his retreat, and induced him to undertake the chief command of the papal troops, a task he commenced with great zeal, but without accomplishing anything of note, the papal troop3 having been completely defeated and dispersed by Cialdini at Castelfidardo, Ancona, and elsewhere, n. at Nantes, 1806; d. 1865. La. Motte, Antoiue Houdar de, la-mot 1 , a Trench author, was the son of a hatter, and was educated for the legal profession; but having a love for dramatic composition, resolved to devote himself entirely to the t'eatre. In 160;} he produced his first drama — " Les Originaux," which was unsuccessful, lie subsequently wrote a number of comedies and tragedies, which obtained some success; only one of them, however, keeping possession of the etagc — the tragedy of "Inez de Castro," praised by Voltaire. Lamotte became a member of the French Academy, and was appointed dramatic censor. But he is chiefly remarkable for his presumptuous attempt to translate the Iliad of Homer, without any knowledge of Greek. By way of improving that poem, he abridged it to twelve cantos, and added to it a discourse, in which he stated that the admiration for Homer and other aniient writers was only a prejudice of the time. About the age of 40 he became blind, and lost the use of his limbs, b. at Paris, 1672; D. 1731. Lamoiie, Jeanne de Valois, Countess de, a lady, who, becoming aware of the ridiculous C23 Lampridius passion of Cardinal Rohan for Queen Marie- Antoinette, suggested to the prelate the idea of purchasing for that princess a magnificent diamond necklace. She engaged herself to de- liver the present to the queen, and to procure for the cardinal an interview with her. For this she was, in 1785, convicted of imposture and swindling, dnd was condemned to make honourable amends with a cord about her neck, to be whipped and branded, and to be confined in La Salpetriere. She found means of making her escape, and took refuge in England, where she printed a book containing reflections on Queen Marie-Antoinette's moral character, b. at Bar-sur-Aube, 1757 ; d. in England, 1791. Lamotte-Fouque', Frederick Henry Charles, Freiherr dc,foo-kai', a celebrated German poet and novelist, whose family came originally from France, his grandfather having entered the service of Frederick the Great of Prussia. He himself entered the Prussian army in 1796, but after serving for some time, and attaining the rank of major, he resigned, in consequence of ill- health. Thereupon he retired to his estate of Nennhausen, near Rathedow, and devoted him- self to literature. Under the pseudonym of Pellegrin, he published a translation of the " Numantia" of Cervantes, as well as several poems ; the novel of " Alwin," and the " History of the noble Knight Galmy and a beautiful Duchess from Brittany." He subsequently proceeded to write a succession of poems anil novels of great freshness and power, chiefly in the style of the old German poets, or founded upon the olden Northern mythology. In 1813 he gave to the world his exquisite tale, " Un- dine," which has been reproduced in every European language, and has become an estab- lished favourite, in virtue of its feeling and fancy, and the decided originality of its con- struction. During the thirteen subsequent years he produced poems, dramas, and novels, all imbued with a romantic and chivalric feel- ing. In 18 10 was published his "Tidings for the German Nobility," and, soon after his death, a work entitled " Apostasy and Repentance ; or, the Looking-glass of the Soul." He edited a selection of his works, in twelve volumes, in 1841. b. at Brandenburg, 1777; d. at Berlin, 1843. Lamouboux, Jean Vincent, la'-moo-roo, a French naturalist, who devoted himself to the study of marine productions, animal and vege- table, and was professor of natural history at Caen. He wrote many treatises for the " Classi- cal Dictionary of Natural History," and com- posed a dictionary of Zoophytes for the " Ency- clopedic Methodique." In 1817 he described a new variety of wheat, which was afterwards cultivated with success in the northern provinces of France, under the name of lie lamma, b. at Agcn, France, 1779; d. at Caen, 1825. Lampluchi, Thomas, ldmp'-lu, an English prelate. He took part with the Presbyterians in the civil war, but conformed at the Restora- tion, and became D.D., principal of Alban Hall, and vicar of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields. In 1676 he was ordained bishop of Exeter. When the Prince of Orange landed, the bishop made a speech t.) the clergy and gentry, exhorting them to he loyal to James, who gave him the arch- bishopric of York. Notwithstanding this, ho took the oaths to William and .Mary. b. in Yorkshire, 1015; r>. at Thorp Castle, 1691. LAiiwaoiLS, .Elius, ldm-prid'-e-ua, a Roman THE DlCTiOJNAKx' Lana historian of the 4th century, who wrote the lives of the emperors Commodns, Antoninus Diadumenus, Heliogabalus, and Alexander Severus, which were included in the " Historia Augusta." Lana, Francis de, la'-na, an Italian mathe- matician, who is stated to have been the first to conceive the idea of aerostation, and to have described the subject in a work called "Magiste- rium Naturae et Artis," published at Brescia, in 1684. A particular dissertation on the subject, entitled " Navis Volans," tending to abate the claims of Montgolfier to this discovery was pub- lished, from 1. ana's work, at Naples, in 1784. b. at Brescia, 1631 ; d. 1687. Lancaster, Sir James, lan'kci»-ter, an Eng- lish navigator, who, in 1591, sailed as com- mander of a squadron to the East Indies, where he touched at Ce.vlon and Sumatra, and, after taking several vessels and losing some of his own, shaped his course for England ; but in the voyage, meeting with adverse winds, he was driven on the coast of America. He landed on a small island, and the crew, taking advantage of his absence, cut the cable, and sailed for Eng- land. He afterwards obtained a passage on board a French ship, and arrived at Eye in 1594. He went out again with another fleet, with which he committed many depredations on the coast of Brazil, and took the town of Pcrnambuco, where he obtained immense trea- sure, which he brought to England in 1595. He next commanded the fleet sent out by the newly- established Eas-t India Company, and obtained the grant of a settlement at Acheen, and also at Bantam, after which he returned to England. He maintained the existence of a north-west passage, and encouraged many attempts to dis- cover it during his lifetime, and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth for his services, d. 1620. Lancaster, Joseph, was the founder of the Lancasterian schools in most partsof the civilized world. Before he had attained his nineteenth year, he set up a school for poor children in a room lent him by his father, in the Borough- road, Southwark, and, in a short time, had ninety children under his charge. He continued his philanthropic etl'ort of disseminating educa- tion among the lowest classes, and, in 1S05, was honoured with an audience by George III., who said, "I wish that every poor child in my domi- nions may bo able to read his Bible." The Established Church made him many overtures, which he, as a member of the Society of Friends, was constrained to decline. Almost unaided, he travelled over the United Kingdom, and lec- tured to upwards of 50,000 people on the system which he had organized: this system consisted in teaching the elements of education by mutual or monitorial instruction Becoming insolvent, he emigrated to the United States in 1818, and pursued his educational etlbrts with much suc- cess in that country. He visited Canada hi 1S29, and obtained several grants from the Par- liament of Lower Canada in furtherance of his educational projects. He became embarrassed in his means once more; but his friends sub- scribed to purchase a small annuity for him. B. in Londcn, 1771 ; r>. at New York, 1838. Lance, George, lance, a modern English fiainter, celebrated for his fruit-pieces and still- ife productions, studied high or historical art under Haydon; but it was not until he had discovered where his true powers lay that lie made airy marked progress. This he did aivi- 021 Landen dentally, by copying a group of fruit as a study of colour. Indeed, as a copyist, he was exceed- ingly skilful ; a proof of which may be cited in his wonderful restoration of the " Boar Hunt," by Velasquez, now in the National Gallery, and which had been injured by a clumsy " re- storer," to whom it had been intrusted to clean. Almost from the first moment of his bringing his skill to bear on the peculiar line of art fee which he afterwards became distinguished Lance proved that a great painter in an original line had appeared. For many years, he sent to the exhibitions of the British Institution and the Royal Academy productions marked by skilful composition, brilliant colour, and har- monious effects. His " Fruit," "Game," "Just Shot," " Fresh from the Lake, "Just Gathered," and a host of similar works, have charmed be- holders, as splendid reproductions of grapes, melons, fruit, flowers, dead birds, game, or fish. The Vernon collection contains three good ex- amples of his manner — " Fruit," 1832; "Fruit," 1848; and "Red-cap." b. at Little Easton, Essex, 1802 ; D. 1864. Lancelot, Dom Claude, lance'-lot, a cele- brated grammarian, who became professor at Port Royal in 163S, and composed for the use of the pupils a scries of excellent works. He shared in the persecutions to which the estab- lishment of Port Royal was subjected, on account of its attachment to Jansenism. He wrote "New Method of Learning the Latin Language," generally known as the Port Royal Latin Grammar; "Greek Grammar," "Greek Roots," " Italian Grammar," and other works, b. at Paris, 1615 ; d. at Quimperle, 1695. Lancisi, Giovanni Maria, lan-che'-se, a learned Italian, who studied medicine, chemistry, botany, and geometry with equal success. He was physician to popes Innocent XII. and Clement XL, and was the author of several valuable treatises on natural history, anatomy, &c. At his death, he left to the hospital of San Spirito, at Rome, a library of 20,000 volumes, on condi- tion that it shoidd be free to the public, b. at Rome, 1654; d. 1720. Lancrinck, Prosper H'nry, lan-hrinlc, a painter of the llritish scht ol, though of Flemish birth. He was well educated, having been originally designed for the Church, but on indi- cating a love for art, was allowed to follow the bent of his genius. After studying under various masters in his own country, and making great progress, especially in landscape, where he took Titian and Salvator Rosa lor hia models, he went to England, and was employed by persons of distinction. He also assisted Sir Peter Le!y in painting the accessories — such as grounds, landscapes, ornaments, draperies, &c. — in his principal pictures. Lancrinck was particularly happy in his skies, and his land- scapes were also much admired for the invent ion, and harmonv and warmth of colour, they dis- played. I!. 1628; D. 1602. Landen, James, liin'-ilen, an English mathe- matician, was a self-taught genius, and acquired a profound knowledge of abstract mathematics. He wrote some curious papers in the " Philoso- phical Transactions," and in 1755 published a volume called "Mathematical Lucubrations." He was appointed agent to Earl Eitzwilliam, ivhijh uo.ri.tion he held till within two years of his death. In 176'i he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society. He puMislKd two volumes OF BIOGRAPHY. Lander of " Mathematical Memoirs," full of curious and original theorems, b. at Peakirk, near Peter- borough, 1719 ; d. at Melton, 1790. Landeb, Richard and John, lan'-der, two brothers, whose names arc associated with African discovery, were both apprenticed to a printer ; but the elder abandoned his occupation to accompany Clappcrton in his expedition to the Niger in 1825 ; and after his death, in 1827, returned to England, where he submitted to government a plan for exploring the Niger, which was adopted. Accompanied by his younger brother, he set out for Badagry in 1830, and, after encountering many dangers, they reached Kirree, but were taken prisoners at Eboe, and only, after the promise of a high ransom, succeeded in getting arrangements made for conveying them to the sea. This they reached by the channel called by the Portuguese Nun, and by the English Brass River; and thus solved one of the grandest problems in African geography. This important discovery, opening a water communication into the very heart of the African continent, made a great impression on the mercantile world ; and soon after the brothers' arrival in England, an asso- ciation was formed for making a settlement on the Upper Niger ; but the expedition fitted out for this purpose at Liverpool, in 1832, proved a failure; and the Landers, together with nearly all that joined it, fell victims either to the un- healthiness of the climate, or in contests with the natives, in 1833. Richard was born in 180.1, and John in 1806, in Cornwall. Landox, Letitia Elizabeth, liin'-don, generally known as L. E. L., an English poetess, who at the early age of thirteen displayed a vivid and inventive imagination, and produced several small poems, iler father was an army agent, and resided at Brompton, where he had tor a neighbour Mr. Jordan, the editor of the " Lite- rary Gazette." She submitted some of her poetical effusions to that gentleman, who pub- lished them in his journal, in 1820. These first efforts were soon followed by others in the same paper, and were received with a considerable amount of attention. Her father dying soon after, and leaving his family in reduced circum- stances, Miss Landon devoted herself to lite- rature, as a means of supporting herself and assisting her relatives. Her poems in the " Literary Gazette," signed L. E. 1.., were now eagerly looked for, and excited great admira- tion. She likewise wrote criticisms of poetry and works of fiction lor the Gazette, and, aa Mr. Jcrdan afterwards stated, her labours for the print were little less than his own. With respect to her poems, " The Fate of Adelaide, a Swiss Romantic Tale," was published in 1821. This, her first collection, was followed by " The lmprovisatore," "The Troubadour," "The Gol- den Violet," and others. At that period the annuals were popular, and to these L. E. L. con- tributed largely. She was less successful as a novelist than as a poet, for her three works of fiction, " Komance and Reality," " Francesca Carrara," and "Ethel Churchill," were soon for- gotten. In 183S she was married to Mr. George Maclean, the governor of Cape Coast Castle. She left England with her husband, ana m little more than a year, was found lying on the floor of her apartment, dead. In her hand was a small phial that had contained prussic acid. At the inquest the jury discovered liu cause for suspicion in her death, neither Landor could it be thought that her end had been due to her own intentional act; for she had been in the habit of taking, according to her physician's advice, small doses of prussie acid, and she had, moreover, written to some female friends in London expressing herself perfectly happy and contented. As a poet she evinced a sentimental and melancholy east of thought, but in private life she was of a lively and mirthful disposition. Her "Life and Literary Remains" were pub- lished by Laman Blanehard, in 1811. u. at Old Brompton, 1802 ; d. 1839. Landok, Walter Savage, Idn'-dor, a modern English poet, essayist, and miscellaneous writer, was the son of Walter Landor, Esq., a wealthy landed proprietor, of ancient family. His mother was Miss. Savage, a rich Warwick- shire heiress. Walter Savage was educated at Rugby school and Trinity College, Oxford. The professions of the army and the law were successively proposed to him, and both in turn declined; he preferring to live an un- trammelled life of literary ease on the income allowed him by bis father. At the close of the last century, just as Burns, Words- worth, Coleridge, Rogers, and other great writers, were appearing on the poetical arena, Walter Savage Landor published his first volume of poems. In 1802 he went to Paris, where he witnessed the accession of Bonaparte to the consulship for life. On succeeding to the family estates, by the death of his father, he begau by expending vast sums in buildings and improve- ments thereon ; but, in a few years, he suddenly sold ott' all his property, some of which had been in his family's possession during 700 years, and went abroad, intending to become a citizen of the world. During the struggle between the Spanish patriots and Napoleon I., he raised men, joined the former, and materially aided the Junta by gifts of money. He was appointed a colonel in the Spanish service; but, at a later period, when the restored king, Ferdinand, had overthrown the constitution winch the Spaniards had obtained lor themselves, he resigned his commission, declaring that though " willing to aid the Spanish people in the assertion of their liberties against the antagonist of Europe, he would have nothing to do with a perjurer and a traitor." He had married Miss Thuillier, a young lady of Swiss extraction, residing at Bath, in the year 1811; and, after the fall of Napoleon, he and his wife took up their residence at Florence, where he purchased some estates. Here, during thirty years, he lived, making only a few visits to England at wide intervals. It was while a resident at Florence that he com- posed his most important works. In 1820 he printed his " Idyl lia Heroica," in Latin, at Pisa. Between the years 1824-29 he brousrht out, in London, his " Imaginary Conversanons of Literary Men and Statesmen." In 1831 he republished " Gebir," a poem, first produced in Knglish, but translated by himself into Lathi in 1813. In 183G lie published "A Satire on Satirists, and Admonition to Detractors," and in the following jear, "The Pentameron and the Pentalogue." Besides these, he wrote many shorter and less important works; his dramas, "Andrew of Hungary" and "Giovanni of Naples," were first published in 18J9. His latest productions were, " Last Fruit of an Old Tree," published in 1853, and " Letters of an American," first given to the world under the assumed name of Pottingcr, in 1851. S3 THE DICTIONARY Landseer Altogether, Mr. Landor was one of the most remarkable English writers the nineteenth cen- tury produced. B. 1775; D. 1864. Langdale, Lord. (See Bickebsteth, Henry.) Landseeb, John, land'-seer, an eminent Eng- lish engraver, who was a pupil of Byrne, and in 1793 attracted some notice by his engravings of Loutherbourg's vignettes for Maclise's Bible. He subsequently produced engravings for Bow- ser' s " History of England" and Moore's " Views in Scotland." In 1S06 he became associate engraver in the Royal Academy. Having con- siderable literary ability, he subsequently aban- doned his profession to engage in controversy on art, and to deliver lectures. He started several publications, which met with only a short-lived success. Among others, he estab- lished " The Probe," in Opposition to the " Art Journal." In 1831 he wrote a " Descriptive, Explanatory, and Critical Catalogue of the Earliest Pictures in the National Gallery," which contained some amusing matter, although the criticisms therein contained were of little value. His best engraving was from his celebrated son's " Dogs of Mount St. Bernard." Indeed Mr. Landseer is more remembered as the father of the greatest English animal-painter, than for any particular merits of his own. b. at Lincoln, 17C9; d. 1852. Landseeb, Thomas, an English mezzotint engraver, and eldest son of the preceding. He is known as the engraver of Sir Edwin Land- seer's pictures, and for his spirited etchings, called " Monkeyana." The most important of his later works was his engraving of Rosa Bon- hcur's " Horse Fair." b. near the end of the last century. Landseeb, Charles, R.A., a modern English painter, and brother of the preceding, painted many pictures of merit, chiefly illustrative of the works of popular poets and novelists. He was elected an academician in 1345, and six years afterwards became keeper of the Koyal Academy, n. 1799; i>. 1879. Landseeb, Sir Edwin, f!.A., an illustrious member of the English school of artists, was the son of John Landseer and brother of the preceding. From his earliest years he evinced extraordinary skill as a draughtsman, and when only fourteen exhibited successful pictures of terriers, spaniels, horses, and other small sub- jects. Under his father's direction he was in the habit of sketching sheep, donkeys, and other animals, on Hampstead Heath ; and to this early familiarity with nature we may attribute his wonderful skill and fidelity, as exhibited in his pictures during after-life. When he was 18, he painted "The Dogs of Mount St. Bernard," and from that time became the leading English animal-painter. Although so early successful, he never lost the habits of a student, but went on in- creasing in power year after year. He became a Itoyal Academician in 1S30. Sir Edwin's pic- tures are familiar to thousands of his country- men, through the medium of scores of engrav- ings. To mention even the most important of his works would require a great deal of space ; but a fair idea of his wonderful powers may be gathered by all who have visited the Brompton Museum, where hang the " Peace" and " War," "High Life" and "Low Life," "Highland Music" and the " Dying Stag." In almost every printseller's window we may see " The Return from Deer-Stalking," "Jack in Office," "Bolton Abbey in the Oldeu Time," "Return from U36 Langeland Hawking," "A Distinguished Member of the Royal Humane Society," "A Piper and aPair of Nutcrackers," " Bottom and Titania," etc., etc. The colossal bronze lions at the foot of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square were mo- delled by Sir E. Landseer. B. 1802; D. 1873. Lane, Jane, lain, an English heroine, who was the principal instrument in effecting the escape of Charles II., after the battle of Wor- cester. That monarch, disguised in her fa- ther's livery, rode before her on horseback, from Bcntley Hall, the seat of Mr. Lane, about twelve miles from Boscobel Wood, in which Charles had been concealed in an oak, to Mr. Norton's, near Bristol ; and thenee he went to Brighton, where he embarked for France. She was well rewarded at the Restoration, and mar- ried Sir Clement Fisher, a baronet of Warwick- shire. Lanfbanc, lan'-frank, archbishop of Canter- bury, whose early manhood was spent as an ad- vocate in the law courts of Pavia ; after which he went to France, and established a school at Avranches, which was attended by students of the hisrhest rank. On a journey to Rouen, he was robbed and left bound in a wood. Some peasants released him, and conveyed him to the. abbey of Bee, where he was so kindly treated, that he became a monk therein, and, in three years, was chosen prior. William, duke of Nor- mandy, gave him the abbey of St. Stephen, at Caen, and, after the conquest of Enatand, ad- vanced him to the archbishopric of Canterbury. In 1071 he went to Rome to receive the pallium from Pope Alexander 1 1. He rebuilt the cathe- dral of Canterbury, Mid founded several churches and hospitals. He wrote against Berenger on the Eucharist, and other works, which were published at Paris, 1648. b. at Pavia, 1005 ; d. 1089. Langbaine, Gerard, lilnq'-bain, a learned divine, who rose from the position of servitor to be fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. He edited " Longinus," and several other learned works. I n 16 15 he was chosen provost of his college, which, with the otlicc of keeper of the archives, he held till his death. He was esteemed by Selden, Usher, and other great men. his correspondence with whom has been printed, b. in Westmoreland, about 1603; d. 1658. — His son, Gerard Lang- baine, made a collection of old plays, and pub- lished an "Appendix totheUniversityCatalogue of Graduates," and "An Account of the English Dramatic Poets." b. at Oxford, 1656; d. 1692. Laxgebeck, James, luiu/'-Oek, a learned Danish writer, who studied theology, and the modern languages, with much success. Fre- deric V. employed him to travel in Sweden, to collect information relative to Danish history. He was also made keeper of the archives of the realm, councillor of justice, and councillor of state. His most important work is the histo- rical collection, entitled " Scriptores Rerum Daniearum," See. b. 1710; d. 1774. Langdale, Marmaduke, lang'-dail, a gallant English gentleman, who, in the civil war, raised a troop in the king's service, gained some ad- vantage over Fairfax, raised the siege of Ponle- fract Castle, and made himself master of Ber- wick and Carlisle. On the ruin of the royal cause, he went to Flanders, and was created, by Charles II., Lord Langdale. d. 1661. Langeland, or Longland, Robert, lung'- land, an old English poet, and one of the lirst disciples of WickliU'e, who distinguished himself . OF BIOGRAPHY. Langham Lannes by a curious poem, entitled " The Visions of Piers Plowman," written about 1369, and intended as a satire on almost every description of men, but especially the clergy. It is written in blank verse, with wit and humour, in an alliterative measure. The latest edition is that issued by the Early English Text Society. L \ ng ham, Simon de, lung'-ham, an English prelate and cardinal, abbot of Westminster, and afterwards bishop of Ely, and lastly archbishop of Canterbury, in 1366. Edward III. made him treasurer of England, and Urban VIII. gave him a cardinalship, with the title of legate, d. at Avignon, 1376. Langhobnb, Dr. John, liing'-horn, an Eng- lish divine and poet, who, on entering into orders, became tutor to the sons of a Lincolnshire gentleman, whose daughter he subsequently married, lie wrote a poem entitled "Genius and Valour," in wliich he defended the Scotch against Churchill, and for which the university of Edinburgh bestowed upon him the degree of D.D., in 1766. He was a writer in the " Monthly Review," and published " Poems," " Letters of Theodosius and Constantia," "Solyman and Almena," a tale; five sermons; "Fables of Flora, in Verse," and a translation of Plu- tarch's " Lives." b. at Kirkby-Stephen, West- moreland, 1735; D. 1779. Langle, Louis Matthew, langl, a celebrated French orientalist, who particularly devoted himself to the study of the Mantchou language, of which he published an alphabet, and a dic- tionary Mantchou-Francais. He also published specimens of Arabian, Persian, and other eastern authors, with translations. In 1792 he was named keeper of the Oriental MSS. in the royal library ; and had barely entered on his office, when the mob demanded that all books relating to genealogy in his charge should be destroyed. Langle asked for time to look out the works indicated, and proceeded to conceal all the more valuable, and gave up to popular fury a large quantity of duplicate copies and other unim- portant lumber, and thus saved upwards of five thousand volumes, besides sundry valuable do- cuments illustrative of the national history. He afterwards organized a school for the living Oriental languages, in which he was professor of Persian; he was also a member of the Institute, and a memoir by him upou Egypt first sug- gested to Bonaparte an expedition to that country. Napoleon wished Langle to accompany him to the East, but this he declined to do, and thereby gave great offence to the First Consul. He published numerous works on Oriental sub- jects, besides new editions of the books of travel- lers and others connected with that region, b. 1763; D. 1824. Langle, Jean Maximilien de, a French Pro- testant minister, who officiated in the reformed church at Rouen for twenty-five years. He wrote a "Defence of Charles I., King of Eng- land," two volumes of sermons, and translated Jrom the English the " Whole Duty of Man." B. at Evreux, 1590; j>. 1G74. Langle, Samuel de, son of the above, was minister of the Protestant church at Rouen, whence he removed to Charenton, where he was greatly esteemed for his learning and virtues. On tli" persecution breaking out against the Protest- ants, he went to England, and became a pre- bendary of Westminster. The university of Ox- ford conferred on him the degree of D.D. Bi- shop Stillingfleet printed a letter of his on the differences between the Church of England and the Dissenters, b. in London ; d. 1690. Langley, Batty, lang'-le, an English archi- tect, who published many useful practical books; such as the " Builder's Jewel," the " Builder's Price-Book," and other works for masons, bricklayers, and carpenters, d. 1757. Langtoft, Peter, liing'-tqft, an old English chronicler, who translated from the Latin, into French verse, Herbert Bosenham's "Life of Thomas a Beeket," and also composed a chronicle in verse, which began with the Tro- jans and went down to Edward I. An English metrical translation of this was made by Ro- bert de Brunne, and published at Oxford in 1725. A manuscript of the Chronicle is pre- served in the Cottonian collection of the British Museum, and another is to be found in the Arundel MSS. contained in the Heralds' Col- lege. Langtoft lived at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century. Langton, Stephen, lang'-ton, archbishop of Canterbury, and cardinal of St. Chrysogonus, studied at, and became chancellor of, the uni- versity of Paris, and was created an archbishop by the pope, in opposition to King John and the clergy. John forbade Langton from en- tering England, and banished the monks of Canterbury, for which the kingdom was laid under the papal interdict. The king was after- wards excommunicated, and his subjects ab- solved from their allegiance ; on which he made his submission, by complying with the papal terms, after which he received the papal abso- lution from Langton, who, however, refused the pope's bull of excommunication against the barons for leaguing against John, at Runny- mede, for wliich he was suspended at Rome, where he suffered also many mortifications. At length he purchased his pardon, and was per- mitted to return to England. He was a stanch adherent to the cause of national liberty, b. in England, in the earlier half of the 12th cen- tury ; d. 1228. He composed some theological works. Laxguet, Hubert, lan'-gai, minister of state to Augustus, elector of Saxony, was a native of France, and converted to the Protestant faith by Melancthon. He was at Paris during the massacre of St. Bartholomew, as ambassador from the elector, and narrowly escaped with his life, after saving that of Wichelus, a printer, in whose house he lodged, and alio the famous De Mornay. He was employed in several other embassies ; but being suspected of favouring the Zwinglians, he quitted the service of the elector, and entered into that of the Prince of Orange. He wrote a letter to Sir Philip Sidney, and other pieces, d. at Antwerp, 1581. Laniere, Nicholas, liin'-e-air, a painter, en- graver, and musician, who was employed to collect pictures in foreign countries for Charles I. He placed a particular mark on all which he brought to England. Pepys says, in his Diary, " that Laniere did, at the request of Mr. Hill, bring two or three of the finest prints for my wife to see that ever I did see in all my life." He was ako chapel-master to Charles 1., at a salary of £200 per annum, b. 1568; d. 1646. Lannes, Jean, lan'-nes, duke of Montebello and marshal of France, was one of the most intrepid and skilful of Napoleon's generals, and was greatly esteemed by the emperor. Born of humble parents, he worked as a dyer in early life ; but, joining a battalion of volunteers SS 2 THE DICTIONARY Lansdowne in 1792, he, by his courage, rapidly rose to the grade of major. In 1794 he attracted the r otice of Bonaparte, who procured him a command in the army of Italy. At the battles of Montenotte and Millesimo he displayed considerable bravery, and became colonel in 1796. He was made general of brigade in the following year, and sustained a brilliant part at the taking of Mantua and at the battle of Areola. He went with the French expedition to Egypt, and rose to the rank of general of division. The French victory at Aboukir wa3 in part due to his bravery and coolness. At the siege of Acre he was severely wounded. He left Egypt with Bona- parte, and after returning to Paris, rendered good service to his chief during the revolution of the 18th Brumaire (9th November), 1799, for which Napoleon appointed him commander of the consular guard. After various employments, he commanded the advance guard of the French army crossing the Great St. Bernard into Italy, in 1800. At the great battle of Montebello, where the Austrians were completely beaten, Lannes displayed such great skill and bravery, that Napoleon gave him the title of Montebello when he raised him to a dukedom. He was no less distinguished at the battle of Marengo. On his return from Portugal in 1804, whither he had been sent as minister-plenipotentiary of France, Napoleon created him marshal of France, and afterwards duke of Montebello. In the German campaigns of 1805-6, he commanded the advance guard, and rendered the most sig- nal service to his master at the battles of Aus- terlitz, Jena, Eylau, and Friedland. His last great exploit was the defence of the' village of Essling, where, while resisting the fierce on- slaught of the Austrians, a cannon-ball struck olfhis right leg, and the foot and ankle of the left. Napoleon evinced more emotion at the sight of his brave marshal's mortal wound than he had ever before been known to exhibit. Lannes, throughout his military career, evinced a con- stantly increasing knowledge of war. Long afterwards, Napoleon, speaking of this intrepid j commander, thus expressed himself — " I found him a dwarf, and I lost him a giant He had great experience in war, having been n fifty-four battles and three hundred combats, ile was cool in the midst of fire; possessed of a clear, penetrating eye, ready to take advan- tage of any opportunity that might present itself. Violent and hasty in his temper, even in my presence, he was ardently attached to me." His young widow, a beautiful and accomplished lady, was afterwards lady in waiting to the em- press Maria Louisa, b. at Lectoure, Guienne, '.769; D. 1S09. Lansdowne, Henry Petty Fitzmaurice, third Marquis of, lAns'-doun, after receiving a preli- minary course of education at Westminster school, went, in 1795, to study under Dugald Stewart at Edinburgh, where he formed the acquaintance of a small circle of young men, nearly all of whom subsequently became famous ti> one line or another. These young friends formed the celebrated Speculative Society, in which Brougham, Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, Hor- ner, and others, first practised the art of debate. From Edinburgh he went to Cam- bridge, in 1801, and, after a continental tour, entered the House of Commons. As Lord Henry Petty he became a prominent member of the Whig party, and, on the death of Mr. Pitt, and the accession of the Whigs to power, he became 628 Laparelli chancellor of the Exchequer, and followed Pitt in the representation of the university of Cam- bridge. He succeeded to the peerage as marquis of Lansdowne, in 1809. In both Houses of Par- liament he was a stanch advocate of the abolition of slavery, and some of his best oratorical efforts were made in furtherance of the repeal of the penal laws against Roman Catholics. In 1820 he proposed a measure in favour of the principle of free trade; and in 1822 sought to obtain an inquiry into the suffering condition of Ireland, After eighteen years' retirement from office, he became secretary of state for the Home de- partment, under the premiership of George Canning, in 1828. He was in opposition during the Wellington administration of 1829-31, but, on becoming president of the Council in the latter year, he was an active participator in the measures taken to pass the Reform Act. He was the opposition leader of the House of Lords during Sir Robert Peel's rule, which commenced in 1841, and when his own party returned to power under Lord John Russell, in 1846, he once more led the peers from the ministerial benches. He finally resigned office with J ,ord John Russell, in 1852. b. 1780; d. 1863. Lantieh, Stephen Francois de, lan'-te-ai, a French author, who produced some celebrated works of fictitious travel, similar to Barthelemy's " Anacharsis," but in no way copied from it. These were entitled, " The Travels of Antenor," " The Travellers in Switzerland," and " Travels in Spain." He also wrote some comedies, and other works, b. at Marseilles, 1734 ; d. 1826. Lanzi, Luigi, land'-se, an Italian archaeolo- gist and writer on art, who entered the Society of Jesuits at the age of 17, but on the suppres- sion of the order, devoted himself to literary pursuits. He was appointed keeper of the cabinet of medals at Florence in 1775, and thenceforth produced works on archaeology and art, some of which have since been translated into every European language. His " History of the Painters" was translated by Thomas Roscoe, and republished in Bohn's " Standard Library." Lanzi composed many other works, the chief of which were " Saggio di Lingua Etrusca," and others on the ancient Etruscan vases. He was likewise a graceful poet. b.1732j d. at Florence, 1810. Lao-tse, or Lao-tseu, la-o-Ue 1 , a Chinese philosopher, who lived a short time before Con- fucius. He held the doctrine of the metem- psychosis, or transmigration of souls, like Pythagoras (see Pythagoras). He wrote a book which the Chinese place among the num- ber of their sacred works, and founded a sect which rivals in numbers that of Confucius. M. Stanislas Julien published a complete edition of his writings, at Paris, 1811. Lived about 600 B.C. Lapabeili, Francis, la' -pa-rail' -le, an emi- nent Italian architect and mechanician. His knowledge of the art of military engineering recommended him to Cosmo I., grand-duke of Tuscany, and Pope Pius IV. intrusted him with the construction of the defensive works of Ci- vita Vecchia, which place he strongly fortified. Michael Angelo confided to him the execution of his designs for the church of St. Peter. In 1565 he was sent to fortify Malta against the attempts of Solyman, and there planned the city of Valetta. He afterwards engaged in the service of the Venetians, b. at Crotona, 1521 ; d. of the plague, at Caudia, 1570. OF BIOGRAPHY. La Perouse La Perofsb, J. F. Galaup de, pe-roose', a celebrated French navigator, who, after serving as captain in the French navy with much dis- tinction, was sent by Louis XVI., in 1785, on a voyage of discovery, lie sailed with two frigates from Brest, and visited the coasts of Tartary, of Japan, and of New Holland, when, in 1788, he ceased to be heard of. Several expeditions were dispatched to discover traces of him, but in vain. In 1827, however, the wreck of his vessel was observed by Captain Dillon, in one of the Vanikoro islands. In 1828, a French captain visited the place, and discovered that La Perouse and his men had been wrecked among the' reefs surrounding the island, b. at Albi, in Languedoe, 17-41. Laplace, Pierre Simon, Marquis de, la-plats', a celebrated French mathematician and astro- nomer, who, as early as his 19th year, taught mathematics in a military school. He obtained letters of introduction to the celebrated philo- sopher D'Alembert, and went to Paris with the view of seeking an interview with him; but, rinding no notice taken of his letters, he wrote a short paper on some points of mechanical philosophy, which immediately procured for him the attention to his claims that he desired. D'Alembert sent for him, and, about 1769, had him appointed professor of mathematics at the Paris Military School. By his treatises, me- moirs, and larger works, Laplace rapidly ob- tained the reputation of the greatest living mathematician since Newton. Napoleon, when First Consul, appointed him minister of the Interior ; but, as a politician, he was very unsuc- cessful, and was in a short time removed to the presidentship of the Senat Conservateur. Napoleon afterwards related of his minister, that "a mathematician of the highest rank, he lost not a moment in showing himself below mediocrity as a minister. He looked at no question in its true point of view. He was always searching after subtleties; all his ideas were problems, and he carried the spirit of the infinitesimal calculus into the management of business." He was created a count by Napoleon, and a marquis by Louis XVIII. His principal works were the "Mccanique Celeste," "Analy- tical Theory of Probabilities," and an " Essay on Probabilities." A complete edition of his writings was published by the French govern- ment in 1813. It is quite impossible, in any short notice of the life of Laplace, to convey a proper idea of the extent and value of the great "Mecanique Celeste." To enumerate the bare contents thereof would require several pages. That inestimable contribution to science con- tained 200* quarto pages; and, it is said, might easily be expanded to thrice that number. The intention of the work was to deduce, from the discoveries of the great astronomers who had preceded I.aplaee, a complete and harmonious system, and to perfect the marvellous work commenced by Xewton, in his discovery of the law of gravitation. He subsequently wrote his *' Exposition du Systeme du Monde," as an explanation of what was abstruse in his " Mcca- nique." Dr. Bowditch, an American writer, translated, in part, the "Mccanique Celeste." The popular work of Mrs. Somerville is a selec- tion from it; and no inconsiderable share of what was most attractive in the earlier por- tions of the popular " Vestiges of Creation" was based upon the same source. Few will refuse to admit that Laplace was the greatest IJ29 Lar drier astronomer since Newton, b. near Horrfleur, 1719 ; D. 1827. LAiiDNER, Nathaniel, lard'-ner, a learned English dissenting divine, who, after receiving his academical education at London, went to Utrecht, and thence to Leyden, and, in 1703, returned to England. Soon afterwards, he became private chaplain toLadyTreby.in which situation he continued until her ladyship's death in 1729. He then became pastor of a congregation in Crutched Friars. He wrote an answer to Woolston on the Miracles, a " Letter on the Logos," and the " Credibility of the Gospel History," a work admirably executed. His writings abound in critical elucidations of the Scriptures and early ecclesiastical history, evincing profound learning and intense applica- tion, b. in Kent, 1684 ; ». 1768. Labdneb, Dr. Dionysius, a modern mathema- tician and philosophical writer, was the son of a Dublin attorney, and, after receiving some education at school, was placed in his father's office. Evincing, however, a decided distaste for the profession of the law, he was entered at Trinity College, Dublin, and soon began to devote himself to scientific pursuits. It was speedily made apparent that he had chosen the right path in life, for he gained a great number of prizes in pure astronomy, in natural philosophy, and other branches of study. In 1817 he obtained a B.A. degree, and, during the ten following years, remained at the uni- versity, publishing, at first, treatises on mathe- matics, and subsequently on the steam-engine. He likewise delivered a course of lectures on the latter subject at the Royal Dublin Society, for which he received the gold medal of the society. His reputation being in a great mea- sure established, he began to contribute to the " Edinburgh Encyclopaedia " and the " Encyclo- paedia Metropolitana," for which he wrote elaborate treatises on pure mathematics as well as on the applied sciences. In 1828, on the establishment of the London University, he was appointed to the chair of natural philosophy and astronomy, and, removing to London, set on foot the scheme of the " Cabinet Cyclopaedia," which he gradually perfected, obtaining the co-operation of many eminent men. Sir John Herschel wrote for the series a " Preliminary Discourse upon Natural Philosophy," and a " Treatise on Astronomy ;" but most of the scientific works were due to Dr. Lardner him- self. In 1810 certain domestic circumstances caused him to repair to Paris, after which he went to the United States, where he delivered, with considerable success, a course of lectures, which were afterwards several times reprinted. | He subsequently devoted much time to railway economy, and wrote a good deal on that and other subjects. In 1854 he started his last important work, the "Museum of Science and Art." Few men did more than he to- wards extending scientific knowledge among the people, and none were more eminently qualified for the work. Not only were his acquirements of the profoundest nature, but ho possessed, in a peculiarly high degree, the happy faculty of throwing into popular and graphic language the most elaborate theories of science, and leading minds unaccustomed to abstruse reasoning to an appreciation of truths which would have been altogether incompre- hensible if involved in the obscurity of technical phraseology. B. at Dublin, 1793; D. at Paris, 1859. THE DICTIONARY La Rochefoucauld La Rochefoucauld, Francois, Duke de, rofh'-foo-kolte, a celebrated French author, and rfatesman, was at first known as the Prince do Alarsillac, and signalized himself on various occasions by bis courage ; but was chiefly re- markable for his profound knowledge of man- kind, and for his intriguing spirit. Smitten with the duchess de Longueville, he, to please her, joined the ranks of the Fronde, but being afterwards restored to favour, was appointed, in 1661, chevalier of the king's commands, and next, governor of Poitou. He spent his old age in the society of Madame de la Fayette and .Madame de Sevigne. He wrote "Memoirs of the Reign of Anne of Austria," and a book of maxims, first printed in 1665, under the title of " Reflections and Sentences, or Moral Maxims." This little work has made the author celebrated as much by the perfection of its style as by the boldness of its paradoxes. According to it, self-love is the sole motive of all human actions, which was an opinion sufficiently natural with a man who had dwelt all his life at court. An egotist, an intriguer, and loose liver, Rochefou- cauld had only too frequently given practical effect to his own maxims, b. at Paris, 1613 ; d. 1680. La RocnEFOucAT/LD-LiAUCOURT, Francois, Duke de, was grand-master of the wardrobe to Louis XV. and Louis XVL, and in 1789 deputy to the States-general. Although attached to the king, he showed himself zealous for the well-being of the people. He took part in the recall of Necker, alter the fall of the Bastille. Named military commandant at Rouen after the closing of the Assembly, he offered an asylum to Louis XVI. Deprived of his rank in 1792, he visited the United States, but returned to France after a lapse of about six years. He earnestly devoted himself to philanthropic enterprises,"cstablished manufactures, founded a school of art and science, and materially contributed to the introduction of vaccination throughout his native country. He entered the Chamber of Peers in 1914; but his liberal opin- ions subsequently brought him under the dis- pleasure of Charles X., whereupon he occupied himself with his philanthropic schemes. He was long known under the name of Lianeourt only, but added to it that of Rochefoucauld upon the death of his cousin. He wrote, among other works, "The Prisons of Philadelphia," and " Travels in the United States." b. 1717; v. 1827. La Kochp.jaqueieiit, Henri de, rosh-zhaV- hT, a famous Vcndean chieftain, who commanded at the battle of Fontenay in 1793, and preserved the Vendeans from total rout at the battle of Lucon. He likewise took part in the disastrous engagement at Chollct. On the death of Les- caire, he was, although only 22 years of age, proclaimed general-in-chicf. He twice com- bated the republican troops near Antrain, and took possession of Laval, La Fleehc, and Le Mans. Driven from the last city, he crossed the Loire, and intrenched himself in the forest ofVezin. lie was slain in an engagement near Chollct, in 1701. His address to his soldiers, on being appointed to the chief command, was, " If I recoil, kill me; if 1 advance, follow me; if 1 fall, avenge me." n. 1772. Lakket, Isaac de, lur'-rai, an historian, who went to Holland, where he was made historio- grapher to the States-general. His works are, "The History of Augustus," "The History of 630 Lascaris Eleanor, wife of Henry II.," "History of Fng- land," 4 vols, folio; "History of the Seven Sages of Greece," and " The History of France under Louis XIV." b. at Montvilliers, 1638; D. 1719. Labret, Dominique Jean, a celebrated French surgeon, who became surgeon-in-chief of the im- perial army. After completing his education under his uncle, and at the hospital of Tou- louse, he repaired to Paris, where he obtained employment as naval surgeon. In that capa- city he visited North America; but, returning to Paris at the outbreak of the Revolution, he joined the French army of the Rhine in 1792. He first attracted the notice of his superiors by his invention of "flying ambulances," which enabled the wounded to be carried off the field, even under a warm fire. He first met Napo- leon at the siege of Toulon, where the future emperor was at the time acting as lieutenant of artillery. After filling, for some time, the func- tions of professor of military surgery, he, in 1798, went with the French expeditionary army to Egypt, and on his return published his " Historical and Surgical Account of the Army of the East in Egypt and Syria." This work was written in 1803, and from that time Larrey's rise was very rapid, til), in 1812, he became baron of the empire and surgeon-in-chief. His numerous papers attest his profound theoretical knowledge, while his many bold and successful operations, conducted during Napoleon's wars, have established his fame as one of the first of modern surgeons. Napoleon said of him, that " he was the most virtuous man he had ever known." An instance of his courage and humanity occurred after the battles of Bautzen and Wi'.rtzehen. Among thewoundxt were some 12,000 men who, it was suspected, had volun- tarily mutilated themselves. Napoleon ordered his surgeons to examine them, and declared that if found guilty they should be shot. Larrey, with some difficulty, obtained time to propcriy examine them, for, as none doubted the guilt of the men, their instant execution was called for. But after a time, Larrey drew up a report de- claring that all the accused were innocent. The excellent man expected dismissal, but re- ceived, instead, a handsome present from Napoleon, b. in France, 1766; i>. at Lyons, 1841. La Salle, Count de, la-sal', a gallant soldier, who begau his career, with the rank of officer, at eleven years of age, under Prince Maximilian, subsequently king of Bavaria, and, from his high birth and connexions, might have risen to the most prominent position ; but he preferred to owe his promotion to merit alone, and accord- ingly threw up his commission, enlisted as a private soldier, and at length attained, alter eight years' arduous and dangerous service, the same rank he had resigned. At the battle of Rivoli, he, by his decisive conduct, possessed himself of the colours, upon which the general commanding addressed him thus: "Rest your- self upon these flags ; you have deserved them." He likewise distinguished himself in Egypt, and defeated the Prussians on the walls of Konigs- berg, and finally fell, in the midst of victory, on the' field of Wagram. b. at Met/., 177-3; killed, 1809. Lascaeis, Theodore, las-Jrar'-in, emperor of Nicea,was the son-in-law of the emperor Alexius Angelus. After the taking of Constantinople by the crusaders, in 1201, he formed in Asia OF BIOGRAPHY. Lascaris Latimer Minor a new kingdom, comprising Bithynia, Lydia t and Phrygia, of which Nicea was the capital. He combatted simultaneously the Latin emperors and the sultan of Ieonium ; but nevertheless maintained his throne until his death in 122?. His successors were his son-in- law, John Ducas (tee John III.), and his grand- son, Theodore Lascaris, called the Young, who reigned from 1255 to 1259. This latter was succeeded by John Lascaris. (Sec John IV.) Lascakis, Constantinc, a learned Greek, descended from the imperial Greek family of that name, who went to Italy on the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. He settled at Messina, where he taught Greek with reputation, and had a number of scholars. He wrote a Greek grammar, and other works. d. about the close of the 15th century. Lascahis, Andrew John, surnamed "Rhyn- dacenus," a learned Greek, of the same family as the preceding, who was employed by Lorenzo de Medici to collect books in Greece. On his return he was invited to France by Louis XII., who appointed him ambassador to Venice. When Leo X. ascended the papal chair, Lasca- ris went to Home, and became director of the Greek college. He revived the use of the capital letters of the Greek alphabet, and wrote epi- grams in that language, is. about 14-15 ; d. 1535. Las Cases, Marin Joseph Emmanuel Anguste Dieudonne\ Count de, la-kas'-ui, at the outbreak of the French Revolution, 1789, was a lieutenant in the navy. He then emigrated, joined the army of Conde, and took part in the expedi- tion to Quiberon, but returned to France after the 18t'h Rrumaire. Having been long engaged in literary pursuits, he now published, under the name of Le Sage, an " Atlas Historique, Chronologique, et Geographique," which went through several editions. In 1S09 he enrolled himsel. as a volunteer to resist the British at- tack upon Flushing: and from this time attracted the attention of Bonaparte, who soon afterwards made him his chamberlain, created him a mem- ber of the council of state, and intrusted him with various confidential missions. In 1814 Las Cases refused to vote in the council of state for the dethronement of the emperor, took up arms for him after his return from Elba in 1815, and was one of the four attendants who accom- panied him to St. Helena. There he lived eighteen months with the cx-emperor, enjoying his intimacy, and noting down all that he said in a journal, subsequently published under the title of " Memorial de J-ainte HeTene." Having, however, become an object of suspicion to Sir Hudson Lowe, the governor, he was seized, and conveyed iirst to the Cape of Good Hope, and thence to England as a prisoner, and was not oermitted to return to France till after Bona- parte's death. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1830, and acted with the oppo- sition. B. 17C6; D. 1842. Lasct, Peter, Count de, lai'-se, a native of Ireland, who, after the conquest of that country by William III., entered the French service, and was subsequently an officer in the Austrian, Polish, and Russian armies, in the latter of which he rose to the rank of field-marshal, and was appointed governor of Lithuania, b. 1678 ; D. 1751. Lascy, Joseph Francis Maurice, Count de, son of the preceding, entered the Austrian ser- vice, and obtained the rank of general, alter having exhibited considerable military ability t>;ti at the battles of Lowositz, Breslau, and Hoch- kirchen. In 1760 he penetrated to Berlin, at the head of 15,000 men ; for which bold exploit ho was made a commander of the order of Maria Theresa, and in 1762 received the baton of marshal. He was employed against the Turks in 1788, and remained in active service unci, r the emperor Joseph II., during great part of the remainder of his life. b. at St. Petersburg, 1725; d. 1801. Lassus, las-'us, a dithyrambic poet, born at Hermione, in Peloponnesus, about 500 years B.C. He is particularly known by the answer he gave to a man who asked him — " What could best render life pleasant and comfortable ?" " Experience." Latham, John, M.D., F.R.S., &c, lai'-tham, an eminent ornithologist and antiquary, was the son of a surgeon and apothecary at Eltham, in Kent. Dr. Latham for many years followed similar professional pursuits at Dartford, but subsequently removed to Romsey, and during the latter period of his life resided at Winchester. He wrote several professional works, besides treatises on subjects relating to medicine, anti- quities, and natural history, which appeared in the " Philosophical Transactions," &c. Among his productions are, "A General Synopsis of Birds," " Index Ornithologicus," " Heald's Phar- macopoeia Improved," and others ; but his great work, which he commenced in his 82nd year, was "A General History of Birds," in 10 vols. 4to, the whole of the plates of which he de- signed, etched, and coloured himseh. Notwith- standing his great age, Dr. Latham was active, cheerful, and in the possession of all his faculties up to the moment of his death, b. 1740; n. 1837. Latham, Robert Gordon, an eminent modern philologist and ethnologist, who received his education at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where, in 1833, be took the degree ol'B.A. He afterwards became fellow of his college, and took the M.D. degree. He displayed, even from the outset of his career, a profound acquaintance not only with the classical but also with the European languages. On being appointed pro- fessor of English literature at University Col- lege, shortly after its establishment, he com- menced the publication of a scries of works which have entitled him to the foremost place as a philosophical investigator of the English language. The chief of these works is his "English Language;" but he followed up the subject with his " History and Etymology of the English Language," and other smaller works. As an ethnologist, he laboured with distinguished success ; the " Varieties of Man- kind," " Ethnology of the British Colonics," "Ethnology of Europe," and ".Man and his Migrations," having thrown immense light upon the relation between the languages and the races of mankind. After he ceased to fulfil the active duties of the medical profession, Dr. Latham held many important appoint- ments in connexion therewith; he was fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and officiated as assistant physician of Middlesex Hospital. The ethnological department of the Crystal Palace was arranged by him. In addition to the numerous works he has written on ethno- logy, In has edited a new and valuable edition of Johnson's Dictionary, in two large volumes, 4to. b. in Lincolnshire, 1812. Latimeh, Hugh, lat'-i-mer, an English pre- late and martyr, received his education at THE DICTIONARY Latimer Cambridge, where, at the beginning of the Reformation, he was very zealous for popery ; but on conversing with Bilney, the mart.vr, he renounced the Komish tenets, and became as ardent on the other side. He now laboured earnestly in preaching the gospel, and his fame reaching Henry VIII., he sent for him. and was so pleased with his discourses as to confer on him the bishopric of Worcester. But Latimer was no time-server ; on the contrary, he expos- tulated with the king for his cruelties. He afterwards resigned his bishopric ; and, on the fall of Lord Cromwell, his patron, was sent to the Tower, whe^e he remained 1 ill the acces- sion of Edward VI., who would have restored him to his diocese, but he refused. He then resided with Cranmer, whom he assisted in framing the Homilies, and in completing the work of reformation. When Mary came to the throne, he was committed to the Tower, whence he was sent, with Ridley and Cranmer, to Ox- ford, to hold a conference with some popish divines. In that dispute he argued with re- markable clearness and simplicity; and when it was over, sentence was passed upon him and Ridley, who were burnt at the same stake, 1555. Latimer, after recommending his soul to God, thus cheered his brother sufferer : " We shall tliis day, my lord, light such a candle in England as shall never be extinguished." His Bermons have been often reprinted, b. in Lei- cestershire, about 1472. JiATiHKK, William, a celebrated scholar of the 16th century, who taught Erasmus Greek, and tvas tutor to Reginald, afterwards Cardinal Pole. He was a prebendary of Salisbury, and held two livings in Gloucestershire. ». 1545. Latouche-Tbeville, Louis de, la-foosh' tre- zeel', a French admiral, who became captain in 1780, and, during the wars between the English and French, signalized himself by many aits of bravery. In 1799-1801 he commanded the flotilla collected at Boulogne, ostensibly for the invasion of Kngland. B. at Rochefort, 1745; d. at Toulon, 1805. Latour, General Count Theodore, la'-toor, an eminent Austrian officer, was educated at the Imperial Engineers' School, and early obtained distinction in the field by his zeal, merit, and courage. During the long peace that succeeded the campaigns of 1813-1815, his great adminis- trative abilities were repeatedly called into action by his native government ; and for many years he was president of the military board of the German Confederation. Shortly after the revolutionary outbreaks in 1848, he was nomi- nated minister of war, the duties of which office he discharged with firmness and moderation; but being suspected of intriguing for the re- establishment of the absolute form of govern- ment overthrown in the spring of 1848, the populace, during the insurrection in Vienna in October of that year, broke into the War office, seized the minister of war, murdered him, and suspended his corpse upon a gibbet, b. 1780. La Toub d'Auvekgne. (See Auvergne.) Latreille, Pierre Andre, la-trail 1 , a cele- brated French naturalist, who, from his earliest years, devoted himself to entomology, and ulti- mately became the most distinguished pro- fessor of that department of science in his native country. He contributed treatises thereon to the " Encyclopedic Methodique," and to the proceedings of many learned bodies. The ento- mological portion of the " Animal Kingdom " 632 Laud was written by him, although published under the name of Cuvier. Of this part, Mr. Swain- son says, " It is the most elaborate and the most perfect in its details that has yet been given to the world, and possesses the advantage of being founded on a consideration of the entire structure of these animals; and hence gives us the first example in theory of the natural principle of classification." Latreille wrote a general history of insects for an edition of Buffon ; " Genera Crustaceorum et Insecte- rum;" and "General Considerations on the Natural Order of Animals composing the classes Crustacea, Arachnides, and Insects." He was a chevalier of the Legion of Honour, a member of the Academy of Sciences, and correspondent of the Linnsan Society of London, b. at Brives, France, 1762; d. at Paris, 1833. Latude, Henri Mazers de, la-tood , a French- man, who was confined in the Bastille and other prisons during 35 years. When about the age of 24, hoping to gain the patronage of Madame de Pompadour, mistress of Louis XV., he in- formed her of a plot against her life ; but the intelligence proving to be an invention of his own, he was mercilessly condemned to the loiig incarceration he endured. He made his escape in 1784, and left behind him memoirs, contain- ing many interesting details, b. in Languedoc, 1725; D. at Paris, 1825. Laud, William, lawd, a celebrated English prelate, was the son of a clothier at Reading, in Berkshire, and received his early education at the grammar-school of his native town. Ir 1589 he entered at St. John's College, Oxfonl of which he was elected fellow in 1593. While at the university, Laud showed himself "at least very popishly inclined ;" and Dr. Abbot, master of University College, and afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, "so openly branded him for a papist, or at least popishly inclined, that it was almost made an heresy (as I have heard from his own mouth) for any one to be seen in his company, and a misprision of heresy to giv. him a civil salutation as he walked in the streets." These are the words of his con- temporary, Heylyn, who wrote his life. Land's first preferment was the living of Stanford, in Northamptonshire. In 1608 he took the degree of D.D., and became chaplain to Neill, bishop of Rochester. In 1611 ho was elected president of his college, and, in 1616, preferred to the deanery of Gloucester by the king, one of whose chaplains in ordinary he had previously become. The year following he attended KingJames to Scotland. In 1620 he was made a preoenuary o! Westminster, and, a year afterwards, wis made bishop of St. David's. In 1622 he held his cele- brated conference with Fisher, the Jesuit, in presence of the marquis of Buckingham. In 1626, he was made bishop of Buth and Wells, and also dean of the Chapel Royal. He suc- ceeded archbishop Abbot, in 1633, in the see of Canterbury. At this time he had reached the height of power, and was generally regarded as the prime minister of Charles I. Laud's statesmanship began with a tierce persecution of the Puritans. Alexander Leighton, for having published a book entitled "Sion's Plea," was sentenced by the Star Chamber to have his cars cut off, his nose slit, and to be publicly whipped. Similar severities were subsequently practised upon Burton, Prynne, and others, for what Laud termed " libels against the hierarchy of the Church." The high-placed and zealoiu OP BIOGRAPHY. Laud Laurence churchman did not consider these sentences sufficiently severe, for he says in his diary, in 1637, " I have received the copy of the sentence against Paterson, and am verily of your lord- ship's mind, that a little more quickness in the government would cure this itch of libelling, and something that is amiss besides." The end of his intolerable reign speedily arrived, however: on the breaking out of the Revolu- tion, his palace was assaulted by the mob, and, in 1640, he was impeached by the House of Commons, and sent to the Tower, but not brought to trial till three years afterwards, when he ably defended his conduct. Though no treason was proved, the House of Commons passed an act of attainder against him, which the Lords were compelled to affirm, and he was beheaded on Tower Hill, January 10, 1645. In justice to archbishop Laud, it must be said that he was a man of piety, and was possessed of considerable learning; while his benefactions to the university of Oxford proved him an ardent supporter of learning, b. at Heading, 1573. Laud, Edmund, a learned prelate, who was bishop of Carlisle, to which see he was elevated in 1769, and was the author of numerous works on theology, among which may be mentioned, " Considerations on the Theory of Religion," " Reflections on the Life and Character of Christ," an " Inquiry into the Ideas of Space, Time, &c." b. 1703; d. 1787. Lauder, William, lau'-der,a. native of Scotland, and a literary impostor, who acquired notoriety byendeavouring to hold up Milton as a plagiarist. In 1747 he began an attack upon Milton in the "Gentleman's Magazine," which he followed up by a pamphlet, entitled " An Essay on Mil- ton's Use and Imitation of the Moderns in his Paradise Lost." His alleged quotations from Grotius, Massenius, and others, passed as genuine for a time, until they were exposed by Dr. Douglas, bishop of Salisbury, which forced from the fabricator an acknowledgment of his forgeries. Yet alter this he returned to the charge in a tract, with this title, " The Grand Impostor detected, or Milton convicted of For- gery against Charles I." d. in llarbadocs, 1771. Lauder, Sir Thomas Dick, a modern Scotch litterateur, who contributed to " Blackwood's Magazine," " Simon Roy, gardener, of Dum- phail," and other papers. In 1830 he wrote an interesting account of the great floods in the province of Moray and the adjoining districts. He was likewise author of " High- land Rambles, with Long Tales to Shorten the Way," " Legendary Tales of the Highlands," a "Memorial of the Royal Progress in Scotland in 1812," and other works. He was a fellow of the lioyal Society, b. 1784; d. near Edinburgh, 1848. Lauderdale, John, Dukoof,/au'-rfer-. 1864. Leechma.n, William, leeck'-man, a learned Scotch divine, particularly celebrated as a lec- turer on theology, was educated at the univer- sity of Edinburgh. Elected professor of theo- logy at Glasgow, he signalized himself by ably combating the reasonings of Voltaire, Boling- broke, and Hume ; and in 1761 was raised to the office of principal of the university, b. in La- narkshire, 1706 ; D. 1785. Leeves, the Rev. William, leevs, rector of Wrington, in Somersetshire, was the composer of the beautiful plaintive air of "Auld Robin Gray," which he wrote in 1770, but was not known to bo the author until 1812. He also composed much sacred music, distinguished by considerable taste and feeling, b. 1749 ; d. 1828. Leeebvke, Francois Joseph, le(>-)-faibr', duke of Dantzie and marshal of Franee, was the son of a miller, and, on the outburst of the French revolution, had reached the grade of sergeant-major in the French guards. Burins the subsequent event3, his rise was extreme!;' rapid; in 1791 he became general of division After distinguishing himself at Fleurus, at the passage of the Rhine, at the battles of Alton kirchen and of Stockach, he was made marshal in 1801. He fought at Jena, and took Dantzie. hitherto considered impregnable, in 1807. lit performed signal services in Spain, in the Peninsular War, and in Austria, in 1813-14. Marshal Lefebvre was a stanch adherent to the fortunes of Napoleon, and while in command ot the 17th military division, whose head-quarters vc re at Paris, greatly assisted him on the 18th THE DICTIONARY Lefort Leicester Brumaire. b. at Eouffach, in the department Upper Ehine, 1755; d. at Paris, 1820. Lefobt, Francis, le{r) -for 1 , a general and ad- miral in the service of Russia, served at first in the French Swiss Guards, but afterwards went to Russia, -where the czar, Theodore Alexievitch, gaTe him a captain's commission. On \ he death"of that prince, he greatly assisted in obtaining the proclamation of Peter I., whose intimate friend and counsellor he became. The czar nominated him general of his troops, ad- miral of his navy, and viceroy of Novgorod. Lefort urged his master to carry out many im- portant reforms, accompanied him in all his journeys, assisted him to civilize the Russians and to create a marine and an army. He like- wise defeated the Turks, and organized a system of finance. On learning his death, Peter is re- ported to have said, " Alas ! I have lost my best friend." b. at Geneva, 1656: d. at Moscow, 1699. Legendbe, Louis, le(r)'-zhandr, a French historian, who was canon of Notre Dame, and abbot of Claire Fontaine, in the diocese of Chartres. His principal work (for he was the author of several) is a "History of France," 3 vols, folio; reprinted in 8 vols. 12mo. b. at Rouen, 1659; d. 1733. Legendkb, Louis, one of the leading French revolutionists, after having made himself noto- rious by heading street processions, was em- ployed by Marat, Danton, and other leaders of the popular party, to forward their schemes ; and became one of the chiefs of the Jacobin club. In 1792, he was chosen a deputy from Paris to the National Convention, and voted for the death of the king. For a long time lie figured as one of the most violent terrorists under Robespierre • but he afterwards joined TaUien and his party, in the destruction of his former leader; and signalized himself by dispersing the members of the Jacobin club, locking up their hall, and delivering the keys to the Conven- tion. From this time he pretended to be the friend of moderation, declaimed against the sanguinary measures in which he had before participated; and when the Jacobins revolted against the Convention, put himself at the head of the troops who defended the legislative body, and contributed much to the defeat of his old associates. He ultimately became a member of the council of ancients, and died in 1797. Legkndee, Adrien-Marie, a celebrated French mathematician, who, in 1787, was en- gaged with Cassini and Meehain in connecting the observatories of Greenwich and Paris by a chain of triangles. His whole life was devoted to teaching and enlarging the boundaries of mathematical science. His " Elements of Geo- metry" is a standard work, and has been trans- lated into English by Sir David Brewster. His principal works, in addition to the preceding, were an " Essay on the Theory of Numbers," and " New Method for determining the Orbit of Comets." He was likewise an industrious con- tributor to the Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences, b. at Paris, 1751 ; d. 1833. Legge, George, Baron Dartmouth, leg, an eminent naval commander, was brought up under Admiral Spragge, and at the age of twenty obtained the command of a ship. In 1673 he was appointed governor of Portsmouth, master cf the horse, and gentleman to the duke of York. In lfis2 he was elevated to the peerage, and the year following sent to ru.« the fortilica- t;iO tions of Tangier. James II. appointed him master of the horse, general of the ordnance, and constable of the Tower. He had also the command of the fleet when the Prince of Orange landed, but was prevented from acting by con- trary winds. At the Revolution he was com- mitted to the Tower, where he died in 1691. b. 1647. Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron von, libe/- nitz, a celebrated German philosopher, whose father was professor of jurisprudence in the university of Leipsic, but died when his son wa» six years old. At the age of fifteen, Gottfried began his studies at Leipsic, whence he removed to Jena. In 1661 he graduated at the former university.and about the same time applied him- self to the study of the Greek philosophers; but, having chosen the law for his profession, took his doctor's degree atAltdorf, after which he obtained a post at the court of the elector of Mayence. In 1672 he was at Paris, where he formed an acquaintance with several mathema- ticians. He next visited London, where he was introduced to Newton, Boyle, and other eminent men. He subsequently engaged in a bitter dispute with Sir Isaac Newton, relative to the discovery of the method of fluxions, to the merit of which invention Leibnitz laid claim. The Royal Society of London, however, decided in favour of the English philosopher. The elector of Hanover, George I., employed Leibnitz in writing the " History of the House of Brunswick." In 1700 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and on the erection of that of Berlin, was appointed perpetual president. In 1711 he was made aulic councillor to the emperor, and Peter the Great of Russia ap- pointed him privy councillor of justice, with a pension. He was a profound mathematician and metaphysician, and a man of lively genius, but vain and avaricious. His works are, " Scriptores Rerum Brunsvicensium," " Codex Juris Gentium Diplomaticus," " Miscellaneous Questions of Philosophy and Mathematics," the " Essai de Theodic^e," to shew that the world, as it is, is the best world possible, " Metaphysical Tracts," and " Poems," Latin and French. A complete edition of his works, in 6 vols., was published at Geneva in 1767. u. at Leipsic, 1616; d. at Hanover, 1716. Leicesteb, Robert Dudley, Earl of, Isa'-fer, was the son of John Dudley, duke of Northumber- land, who was executed in 1553 for asserting the claims of his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, to the crown. Robert Dudley had been nominated master of the ordnance in the reign of Queen Mary, but on the accession of Elizabeth he rose rapidly into favour, and had numerous honours and places heaped upon him, and her majesty proposed him to Mary Queen of Scots for a husband. Dudley appears to have indulged the ambitious idea of sharing his sovereign's throne; and, to effect it, he is suspected to have mur- dered his own wife, the beautiful Amy, daughter of Sir John Robsart, whom he married at an early age. In 1560 this lady was found dead at Cumnor, but no positive proof of her being mur- dered has ever been adduced. The great novelist, Sir Walter Scott, in his " Kenilworth," has somewhat distorted the historical facts of the case ; but his work has taken such a hold on common opinion, that she is generally be- lieved to have been murdered at her husband's instigation. For many yearsElizabelh'sfavounte remained single, but,, in 1572. he is said to luiv* OF BTOGRAPHY. Leicester trivately married Lady Sheffield, although he never acknowledged her as his wife ; however, ne had by her a son called Robert, whom he tailed in his will his "base son." He afterwards married the countess dowager of Essex, and finding Lady Sheffield intractable to his propo- sals for a separation, is said to have taken her off by poison. In 1584 a book was printed, en- titled " Leicester's Commonwealth," which was a severe attack upon his public and private cha- racter. The year following he was appointed governor of the Protestant Low Countries, at the request of the inhabitants ; but his proceed- ings there did not satisfy the queen, and he re- turned to England the same year. In 1588 he was made lieutenant-general of the army assem- bled at Tilbury, and died the same year. b. about 1532. Leicester of Holkham, Thomas William Coke, Earl of, kol'-Jcam, an eminent agriculturist and improver of land, who found his estates in Norfolk nearly a barren waste, and converted them, by judicious management, the granting of favourable leases to his tenants, and the ex- ample he himself set, into fertile and produc- tive land. So eminently successful was he in the development of the resources of the soil, that his rent-roll, from being £2000 a year when he succeeded to the estate, rose to up- wards of £20,000 before his death, and this while the condition of almost every person living on the property had improved in a nearly equal ratio. It is stated that, shortly before his death, he and his family stood upon the decks of a ship built of oak, the acorns from which the timber composing it grew having been planted by himself. He succeeded his father as M.P. for Norfolk in 1776, and acted with the Whigs during the long period in which he held a seat in the Lower House — namely, till 1833, when he was raised to the peerage as earl Leicester of Holkham, although there was already a like title in the Ferrers family. He was twice married : first, in 1775, to Jane, daughter of James Lennox Dutton, Esq., who died in 1800, and by whom he had three daughters; and, second, to Anne Amelia Keppel, a daughter of the earl of Albemarle, the marriage taking place when the earl was seventy years of age, and the bride not quite nineteen. By her, however, he had five sons and a daughter, b. 1752; d. 1842. Leigh, lai, Charles, a physician and natu- ralist, who published the " Natural History of Lancashire, Cheshire, and Derby," a " History of Virginia," and " Exercitationes de Aquis Minwalibus." d. near the opening of the 18th century. Leigh, Sir Edward, a learned biblical critic and historian, was educated at Oxford, studied in the Middle Temple, and afterwards devoted several years to professional and literary re- searches. He was M.P. for Stafford, and colonel in the Parliamentary army : was expelled from the House in 1648, along with other Presbyte- rian members ; and occupied himself, after the Restoration, in literary pursuits. His most Snportant work is entitled " Critica Sacra." n. in Leicestershire, 1602; d. 1671. Leightox, Alexander, lai'-lon, a Scotch phy- sician, who became noted for his sufferings on account of tracts which he published against Charles I. and the Church of England. For these his nose was slit, his ears CKi off, and a public whipping wao inflicted on u-.m. In 1640 641 Lely the Parliament appointed him keeper of Lam- beth Palace, then converted into a state prison. Ke died insane in 1644. b. at Edinburgh, 1587. Lbighion, Robert, archbishop of Glasgow, son of the preceding, was an exemplary parish priest, and the magistrates of Edinburgh chose him president of their college. Soon after the Restoration, Charles II. nominated him bishop of Dumblane, which diocese he governed with great moderation. On account of the violent animosities between the Episco- palian and Presbyterian parties, he resigned his see, but the king constrained him to accept the archbishopric of Glasgow, in which station he made another effort at moderation, but in vain ; on which he resigned his dignity. He then led a retired life in Sussex. His principal work is a " Commentary on St. Peter's Epistles." b. at Edinburgh, 1613; d. in London, 1684. Lb Kbux, John, le-ku', a celebrated architec- tural engraver, whose works on Gothic archi- tecture were greatly instrumental in reviving the study of that style of art in England. His most important works were the engravings in Britton's "Architectural Antiquities of Eng- land," Pugin's "Architectural Antiquities of Normandy," Neale's " Westminster Abbey," and the " Memorials of Oxford and Cambridge." b. in London, 1784; d. 1846. Leland, John, le'-land, an eminent English antiquary, was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, and All Souls College, Oxford. On entering into orders, he became chaplain to Henry "VIII., who gave him the title of king's antiquary. By virtue of the royal commission, he searched various cathedrals and religious houses for curious records and other remains of antiquity; in which employment he spent six years, travelling over every part of the king- dom. In 1545 he presented his collections to the king, under the title of " A Newe Yeare's Gifte." This, however, was only the beginning of what he proposed to execute; but while he was intent on his studies, he became insane, in which state he continued till his death. His " Itinerary" and " Collectanea" were published by Hearne, in 1710. b. in London, at the be- ginning of the 16th century ; d. 1552. Leland, John, a learned English divine, whose labours in defence of Christianity pro- cured him the degree of D.D. from two univer- sities in Scotland. His principal works were a " Defence of the Christian Religion" against Tindal, a " View of the Doistical Writers that have appeared in England," "The Advantage and Necessity of the Christian Revelation," and " Family Devotion*." b. in England, 1691 ; d. 1766. Leland, Dr. Thomas, a learned divine, who wrote a "History of Ireland," "The Life of Philip of Macedon," and "The Principles of Human Eloquence," which last was attacked by Warburton. He also translated the Orations ol Demosthenes, b. at Dublin, 1722 ; d. 1785. Lely, Sir Peter, le'-le, a famous painter, studied under Grebber at Haarlem, after which he went to England, where he at first painted landscapes and historical subjects; but, finding more encouragement given to portrait-painting, turned his attention to that branch of his art, and became unrivalled in the graceful ren- dering of heads; the hands of his portraits were remarkably fine and elegantly turned. Ho was in great favour with Charles I. and Charles 11., by the latter of whom ho was knighted, and X X the dictionary Lemaire for whom he painted the voluptuous beauties of his court. This collection is now at Hampton Court, b. at Soest, Westphalia, 1617; d. in England, 1680. Lematre, James, lai'-mair, a Dutch navigator of the 17th century, was the son of a merchant of Egmont, in North Holland. He embarked on an expedition with Cornelius Schouten, and in 1616 discovered the strait which now bears his name. He also visited some hitherto unex- plored islands in the South Seas, and died soon after his return, Dec. 31, 1616. Lemeey, Nicolas, lem'-e-re, a celebrated F*eneh chemist, who, in 1683, visited England, being of the reformed religion, then violently persecuted in his own country. He was well received by Charles II., and great offers were made to induce him to continue there ; but in 1686 he returned to France and turned Roman Catholic. Jn 1699 he was made associate che- mist to the Royal Academy, and the same year became a pensionary. He wrote a "Course of Chemistry," which went through many editions ; a "Universal Pharmacopoeia;" a "Treatise on Simple Drugs ;" and a " Treatise on Antimony." B. at Rouen, 1645; d. 1715. — His son Louis be- came physician to the king, and to the Hotel Dieu at Paris. He was also a member of the Academy of Sciences, and the author of a "Treatise on Aliments," another on "Worms in the Human Body," and several papers in the Memoirs of the Academy, d. 1713. Lesioine, Francois, le(r)'-mown, a French historical painter, whose principal work is the ceiling in the Hall of Hercules, at Versailles, t'i" largest' Painting in Europe, containing 142 figures, und being 64 feet long and 54 broad, without li '\\« divided by any architectural in- teirupt!': b. at Paris, 1688; committed suicide ii: 'it of insanity, 1737. Lemon, ',■■ irge William, lem'-on, an English divine and lexicographer, who published, in 1789, an " Etymological English Dictionary," in 1 vol., which displayed considerable industry and learning, b. 1726; d. 1797. Le Monnier, Peter Charles, le{r)-mori '-ne-ai, a French astronomer, was member of the Aca- demy of Sciences and of the National Institute, and accompanied Maupertuis in his journey towards the North Pole for measuring a degree of the meridian. His principal works were, " Astronomical Institutions," " Lunar Nautical Astronomy," and "Tables of the Sun, and Cor- rections for those of the Moon." b. at Paris, 1715 ; r. 1796. Lehontey, Pierre Edouard, le{r)-mon'-iai,& French poet and jurist, who, during the delibera- tions on the fate of Louis X VI., and in the other extravagant measures of the revolutionists, ad- vocated the cause of humanity and justice; but was obliged to save himself from the fury of the terrorists by precipitately quitting France for Switzerland, where he resided till after the overthrow of Robespierre's party. Deeply affected with the calamity which had involved Lynns, his native city, in ruin, he published the beautiful ode, " Les Ruines de Lyons." He afterwards travelled through Italy, and wrote various o;mras, romances, and poems; in 1804 was appointed one of the censors of the drama; ami at (lie Restoration was invested with the order of the Legion of Honour, and appointed director-general of the book trade. Among his works, the most successful are the opera of "Pal ma, ou 1c Voyage en Grcce;" his 642 Lenthal "Essai sur 1'Etablissement Monarchique de Louis XIV.;" and a romance, entitled "La Famille de Jura, ou Irons-nous a Paris?" b. 1762; D. 1826. Lempriere, John, D.D., lem'-preer, an emi- nent classical scholar, was a native of Jersey; received his education at Reading, Winchester, and Pembroke College, Oxford; graduated at that university ; was head-master of Abingdon grammar-school, and afterwards of the school at Exeter; and, on resigning the latter, was presented to the livings of Meeth and Newton Petrock, in Devonshire, which he held till his death. His principal works are the well-known " Classical Dictionary," and a " Universal Bio- graphy." ». 1824. L'enclos, Ninon de, lari-klo, a celebrated French lady, whose mother wanted to place her in a convent, but was prevented by her father, who was a man of gaiety. Ninon lost her parents at the age of 15, and possessing great charms and a lively temper, was followed by some of the greatest men, but would never unite herself in marriage. She was the friend of Moliere and Fontenelle, and had a fine un- derstanding; but it has been truly said of her, that though she thought like Epicurus, she lived like Lais. She is, however, represented to have been perfectly unmercenary in her amours ; and her wit and behaviour were such, and so low the moral tone of the time, that even vir- tuous ladies courted her acquaintance. She was held in great respect by men of genius, who consulted her upon their works. There are n few genuine letters by her in the works of St. Evremond, but those under her name, addressed to Villarceaux, De Sevigne, &c, are fictitious. She is said to have succeeded by artificial means in preserving the youthful bloom of her features, long after the period at which female beauty usually fades; and in consequence nu- merous cosmetics and toilet articles have been called by her name. b. at Paris, 1616; n. 1706. Lenfant, James, lan(g)'-fn, a French Pro- testant divine, who was educated at Geneva, and became minister of the French church at Iloidel- berg; but on the invasion of the Palatinate, in 1688, by the French, retired to Berlin, lie pub- lished histories of the Councils of Constance, Bale, and Pisa; he likewise translated the New Testament into French, with notes and a learned introduction, in conjunction with Beausobre. He was also author of a History of Pope Joan ; Sermons ; " A Preservative against Uniting with the Church of Rome," &c. b. at Bazcehe, France, 1661; d. at Berlin, 1728. Lf.nrlet r»tx Fbesnoy, Nicholas, lan'-glai, a French writer, who became secretary to the French ambassador at Cologne, and librarian to Prince Eugene. His works are voluminous, but incorrect: the best is his "Method for Studying History," which has been translated into English, b. at Beauvais, 1674; d. 1755. Lennox, Charlotte, len'-nox, a lady who was the intimate friend of Dr. Johnson and Rich- ardson the novelist. She wrote a popular novel, entitled " The Female Quixote," which was fol- lowed by "Shakspcare Illustrated," in which she gave the novels and histories on which the plays of Shakspcare are founded. She likewise published some historical pieces and transla- tions, b. at New York; n. 1804. Lfntitall, William, lent-al, an English lawyer, and speaker of the Long Parliament. In 1639 he was elected to Parliament fox OF BIOGRAPHY. Leo Woodstock, and, in 1640, was chosen speaker ; in which capacity he made a considerable fortune by joining the ruling party. He was also mas- ter of the rolls, a commissioner of the great seal, and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. He was removed from his office in 1653 ; but, the year following, became speaker of the Parliament called by Cromwell, and subse- quently acted as speaker of the Eump Parlia- ment. At the Restoration he was exempted from the act of indemnity, but obtained a par- don from the king. Several of his speeches and letters were published, b. at Henley-on-Thames, 1591 ; D. 1662. BMPEB0RS OF THE EAST. Leo I., or the Elder, le'-o. emperor of the East, ascended the throne in 457. He was a Thracian, of obscure birth, but attained the highest military rank, and was proclaimed em- peror by the soldiers in succession to Marcia- nus. He confirmed the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon against the Eutychians, and re- newed the war against the Vandals ; but was unfortunate, through the treachery of his gene- ral Aspar, whom he put to death with his family in 471. The Goths, to revenge the fate of Aspar, poured into the empire, which they ravaged to the walls of Constantinople, d. 471. Leo II., or the Younger, was the son of Zeno and of Ariadne, daughter of Leo I. He suc- ceeded his grandfather in 474, under the guar- dianship of his father, who caused himself to be proclaimed emperor a few months after- wards. Leo II. is said to have been put to death by his own father, after reigning for only ten months. Leo III., was called the Isaurian, from the country of his birth, where his parents were poor mechanics. Leo entered the army, and became general-in-chief of the troops in Asia, under Justinian II. In 716 he marched against Iheodosius III., who had been proclaimed em- peror on the deposition of Justinian II.; and Theodosius resigned his crown to him in the following year. The Saracens, having ravaged Thrace, laid siege to Constantinople, which was bravely defended by Leo, who compelled them to retire. His reign, however, was tyrannical, ai!d he drove the patriarch Germauus from his seat, in which he placed Anastasius. He was also guilty of burning the library at Constanti- nople, containing a quantity of medals and above 30,000 volumes. The popes Gregory II. and Gregory III. having excommunicated him, he prepared an armament to invade Italy ; but the shios were destroyed by a storm, d. 741. Leo IV., the son of Constantino Copronymus, and grandson of Leo III., succeeded his father in 775. In his time the controversy raged be- tween the Iconoclasts, or image-breakers, and their adversaries, both of whom he protected by turns. He repulsed the Saracens in Asia. B. at Constantinople, 751 ; d. 780. Leo V., or the Armenian, from the country ef which he was a native, rose to the rank of general by his valour ; but being accused of treason, the emperor Nicephorus disgraced him, and imprisoned him in a convent. Michael Rhangabus, on ascending the throne in 811, restored him to his rank; but Leo, profiting by the misfortunes of his master, headed a military revolt, and was elected emperor by the troops in 813. lie was one ot the most violent of the Iconoclastic princes. Assassi- nated, 820. 643 Leo Leo VI., styled the Philosopher, was the son and successor of Basilius the Macedonian, and ascended the throne in 888. The Hungarians, Saracens, and Bulgarians having united against the empire, he called to his assistance the Turks, who entered Bulgaria, which they ravaged with fire and sword. Leo drove the patriarch Pho- tius from his seat; and Nicholas, one of the successors of Photius, excommunicated the emperor; for which Leo deposed him. He wrote some books, the most interesting of which is a treatise on Tactics, printed at Ley- den in 1612. b. 865 ; d. 911. POPES. Leo I., Pope, surnamed the Great, was an Italian by birth, and had been employed by Celestin I. and Sixtus III. on several important missions. He succeeded the latter in 440, and distinguished himself by his zeal against the Maniehaans, Pelagians, and Eutychians. In his time the Council of Chalcedon was called; and, while sitting in the East, Attila and the Huns ravaged the West, and advanced towards Rome. The emperor Valentinian applied to the pope, who went to meet Attila, and, by the power of his eloquence, prevailed with him to leave Italy. Genserie, however, sacked Rome in 455. He left behind many epistles and ser- mons, which have been printed. He was suc- ceeded by Hilarius I. d. 461. Leo II. was a native of Sicily, and succeeded Agathon in 682. He pretended to have an au- thority over the Eastern church, and was suc- ceeded by Benedict IH. d. 683. Leo III. succeeded, in 795, Adrian I. In 809, he was attacked while riding in a religious pro- cession, and almost killed; but he recovered, and retired to Germany. Charlemagne restored him to his seat, and he crowned that monarch emperor of the West. On the death of Charle- magne, a new plot was formed against the pope, who caused the conspirators to be put to death. d. 816. Leo IV., a Roman, succeeded Sergius II. in 817. The Saracens having invaded the Eccle- siastical States, ho marched against them and obtained a complete victory; after which he put the city of Rome into a state of defence, and founded the town of Leopolis. d. 855. Leo V., a Benedictine monk, in 903 suc- ceeded Benedict IV., but was deposed by his chaplain Christopher. The annals of the papacy during the tentli century are very confused, and there is no mention of Leo's subsequent life. Leo VI. became pope in 928, in succession to John X. lie is said to have been put to death by Marozia. (See Marozia.) Leo VII. was elected in succession to John XL, son of Marozia, 037. He negotiated a peace between Hugo, king of Italy, and Alberiu, duke of Rome, the son of the celebrated Marozia. He is said to have been an irreproachable man and zealous ecclesiastic, and was succeeded by Stephen VIII. d. 939. Leo VIII. was elected pope on the deposi- tion of John XII., in 963, under the patronage of the emperor Otho I. On Otho's withdrawal, John re-entered Rome, and drove away Leo; hut John dying soon afterwards, Benedict V. was chosen pope. The emperor Otho subse- quently took Koine, and, exiling Bonedict, re- instated Leo VIII. d. about 965. Leo IX., who bears the distinction of a saint in the Roman calendar, was born of an illus- T X 7 THE DICTIONARY Leo rious family, became bishop of Toul, and, in .049, was chosen pope. He convened several councils to ieform the manners of the ecclesi- astics and to condemn the errors of Berenger. The Normans having marched into Italy, in 1053, he went against them at the head of a German army; but was defeated, taken pri- soner, and conducted to Benevento. Some ser- mons and letters of his are extant. ». 1054. Leo X., Giovanni de' Medici, second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent (see Memo), at the age of 11, was made an archbishop by Louis XL, king of France, and, at 13, Julius II, invested lum with the dignity of legate, and he served as such in the army which was defeated by the French, near Kaveuna, in 1512. He was taken prisoner after that battle ; but the sol- diers showed the most superstitious veneration for lus person, as the representative of the pope. He was elected to the papacy in 1513, and his coronation was celebrated with unusual pomp, Leo was fond of magnificence : but he had a taste for letters, and liberally patronized men of learning and genius, particularly poets. He terminated the disputes which subsisted be- tween his predecessor and Louis XII. of France, concluded the Council of Lateran, and formed a splendid library, which he enriched with in- estimable manuscripts. A conspiracy to mur- der him was discovered in 1516, and Cardinal Petrucci, the chief of it, was hanged. Leo formed two great projects ; the one to effect a general association of the Christian powers against the Turks, and the other to complete the church of St. Peter. To aid these schemes, he issued plenary indulgences, by which the purchasers procured the pardon of their sins. These indulgences being carried into Germany, occasioned the secession from the church of Pome, or Reformation, commenced by Luther. (See Lutuek.) Leo, however, throughout his life took little notice of the great religious movement. A war also broke out between the emperor Charles V. and Francis I. of France, who both courted the alliance of the pope. If not an exemplary pope, he was at least a splendid and magnificent prince, and a noble patron of art and learning. He is the subject of Boscoe's fine biography, entitled the " Life and Pontificate of Leo X." b. 1175; d. 1521. Leo XI. was of the family of the Medici, and was elected pope in 1605, at a very advanced age, and died in less than Ei month afterwards. Leo XII. was of a noble family of the Po- majrna, and became pope in 1823, in succession to Pius VII. He embellished Pome, encouraged letters, and enriched the library of the Vatican. He was succeeded by Pius VIII. d. 1829. Leo, the name of six kings of Armenia, who reigned between the years 1123 and 1375. These princes were constantly at war cither with the crusaders or with the Turks. The last of the name, Leo VI., was driven from his kingdom by the sultan of Egypt, and took refuge in France, where he died, 1393. Leo, archbishop of Thessalonia, was one of the revivers of Greek literature and a good mathematician. Lived in the 9th century. Leo, John, surnamed Alricanus, a Moor of Granada, who wrote, in Arabic, a " Description of Africa," and the " Lives of the Arabian Phi- losophers." d. about 1526. Leo, Leonardo, a celebrated Italian composer, who w?>> i hi master of Piccini, Jomelli, and 644 Leopold other famous musicians. His many operas are now unknown, but his masses and other sacred works are still regarded as masterpieces of church music, b. at Naples, 1694; d. 1755. Leo Allatius. (See Allatius.) Leo the Grammarian, one of the authors of the "Byzantine History," lived in the 11th century. Leonardo Bonacci, lai-o-nar'-do, surnamed " of Pisa," a celebrated Italian mathematician, who first introduced in Europe the study o< algebra. His work is preserved in manuscript at Home. Lived at the beginning of thel3theentury Leonardo da Vinci. (See Vinci.) Leoni, Jacomo, lai'-o-ne, a Venetian archi- tect, who settled in England, and there pub- lished, in 1742, an excellent edition of " Palla- dio's Architecture." d. 1746. Leonicenus, Nicholas, lai'-o-ni-se'-nus, pro- fessor of medicine at Ferrara, was the first who translated Galen's works, to which he added commentaries and illustrative notes. He like- wise reproduced, in Italian, the "Aphorisms of Hippocrates," and other works, b. 1428 ; d. 1524. Leonidab, le^m'-i-das, king of Sparta, a cele- brated hero, who opposed Xerxes when he in- vaded Greece, and fought the whole Persian host at the Straits of Thermopylae with such bravery as to check the progress of the invader. At last a detachment of the Persians, led by Kphialtes the Trachinian, by a secret path up the mountains, came down on the rear of the Spartans, and obtained a complete victory. Out of the 300, only one man escaped, and he was treated with ignominy by his countrymen, for leaving so glorious a field, where death was more honourable than life. A monument was afterwards erected upon the spot, with this inscription : " Stranger, tell the Lacedaemonians that we lie here, obeying their laws.'' This battle happened 480 b.c. Leopold 1., le'-o-pold, emperor of Germany, was the second son of Ferdinand III. and of Mary Anne of Spain. He became king of Hun- gary in 1655, king of Bohemia in 1657, and emperor in 1658. He contended against France and the Turks, and suffered in his war with both : France took from him Alsace, and many frontier places of the empire ; and the Turks would have captured Vienna, had they not been compelled to raise the^ siege by John Sobieski, king of Poland. In 1697, Prince Eugene of Savoy concluded the war by totally defeating the Turks at Zenta, in Hungary, b. 1640; d. 1705. Lkopold II., the son of Maria Theresa of Austria and her husband, Francis of Loraine, succeeded his father, in 1765, in the duchy o'. Tuscany, which he governed with great wis- dom, and finally abolished the Inquisition in that country. In 1790 he succeeded the empe- ror Joseph II., and removed to Vienna, where, by his judicious and liberal measures, he consoli- dated the power of his empire. He concluded a peace with the Turks, and was preparing for a war with the French, when he was carried oil by a fever. He was succeeded by his son Francis. (See Francis II.) b. 1748; d. 1792. Leopold, duke of Loraine, was the son of Charles, the fifth duke, and of Eleanora of Austria. He distinguished himself as a soldier, and after the peace of Kyswick, in 1697, was reinstated in his duchy, which had been taken from his father by the French. He restored Uis OF BIOGRAPHY. Leopold country to a flourishing condition, maintained the poor, and assisted the nobility who had been reduced. He founded a university at Cuneville, and was a liberal patron of the arts and sciences, b. 1670; d. 1729. Leopold, George Christian Frederick, king of the Belgians, was the third son of Francis Anthony Frederick, duke of Saxe-Saalfeld- Coburg, brother of the late duchess of Kent, and consequently uncle to her majesty Queen Victoria, as well as to her late consort, Prince Albert. In 1816, while Prince Leopold of Saxe- Coburg, he married the Princess Charlotte Augusta, only child of the Prince-regent, after- wards George IV. The highest hopes were formed of that union ; and, as the husband of the heiress-apparent to the throne of Great Britain, Leopold obtained the highest esteem. After the sudden death of the Princess Char- lotte, in 1817, he continued to live in retire- ment at Claremont, and was created by the king field-marshal and member of the privy council. In 1830, the Belgian provinces were lost to the crown of Holland, in consequence of the revolu- tion of Brussels. A provisional government was formed, and the throne of Belgium was offered to the duke de Nemours, son of Louis Philippe. That prince declining it, Leopold was next solicited to accept the crown. After at first refusing, he was induced to ascend the throne of Belgium in 1831. Leopold promised, in his opening speech to the Belgian parliament, to encourage industry and to rule according to the principles of civil and religious liberty; a promise which he fully redeemed. In 1832 he contracted a matrimonial alliance with Louise-Marie-Therese, princess of Orleans, and eldest daughter of Louis Philippe; by whom he had issue the present (I860) king of the Bel- gians, Leopold II., the count of Flanders, and Charlotte, the w:dow of Maximilian, Einperor of Mexico, b. 1790; d. 1865. Leotaud, Vincent, lai'-o-to, a distinguished French mathematician, who published a work entitled " Examen Circuli QuadraturaV' in which he proved the impossibility of demon- strating the quadrature of the circle, d. 1672. Lkpidus, Marcus iEmilius, lep'-i-dus, one of the triumvirs with Octavius and Mark Antony. He obtained Africa as his share of the empire ; but was deprived of it by Augustus, whereupon he retired into private life. d. in obscurity 13 B.C. Lepsiis, Karl Richard, lep'-se-us, a Ger- man archaeologist, who published, in 1837, a short treatise on the hieroglyphics of Egypt, and other works. In 1842 he went to Egypt, as chief of a party of learned men, for the purpose of investigating the antiquities of that coun- try. He discovered several monuments of the Pharaoh dynasty, and excavated the tombs of fifty of the Ethiopian kings of Egypt. He like- wise contrived to obtain a ground-plan of the celebrated temple of the Memnomum. After his return, in 1846, he published many valuable works in connexion with his researches ; among the rest, "Letters from Egypt," which have been translated into English ; " The Chronology of Egypt," and the "Monuments of Egypt and Ethiopia." b. at Naumburg, 1813. Lekeboubs, N. J., ler'-e-bor, a distinguished optical-instrument maker, who constructed most of the apparatus for the Paris Observatory, b. In France, 1762; d. at Paris, 1840. Lebmontov, Michael Ivanovitch, ler-mon- «45 Lesley tqf, a Russian poet and novelist, served as an officer in the imperial guards until the year 1837, when, in consequence of a poem which he wrote upon the death of the Russian poet Push- kin, the emperor Nicholas sent him to the Cau- casus. This poem was first printed in 1856, in llerzen's "Polar Star," a Russian periodical published in London. While serving with the army of the Caucasus, ho wrote his novel, " A Hero of Our own Times," which was afterwards translated into English. He likewise produced many beautiful poems, the action of which is chiefly laid in the mountains of the Caucasus. Just as his fame was beginning to spread over Europe, the writer fell in a duel before he had attained his 30th year. His complete works were published in St. Petersburg in 1852, and were subsequently translated into German. In Russian literature, he takes rank immediately after Pushkin, b. 1811 ; d. 1841. LeSage, Alain Rdne, !e(r)-saf, a celebrated French novelist, who, after completing his edu- cation at the Jesuits' college at Vannes, was engaged in a financial post in Brittany; but, in 1692, went to Paris, and devoted himself to literary pursuits. He commenced by translating and imitating several Spanish works, and, in 1707, produced his first dramatic work,— " Crispin the Rival of his Master." In the same year he published " The Devil on Two Sticks," the plot of which was borrowed from the Spanish author, Guevara. In 1708 he com- posed his comedy of " Turcaret," wherein he ridiculed the farmers-general, whose opposition nearly prevented the production of the piece upon the stage. . In 1715 appeared the first part of his greatest work, "Gil Bias;" but the conclusion was not made public until 1735. He was likewise the author of a considerable number of comedies and other humorous dramatic pieces. His fame, however, chiefly rests upon his " Gil Bias," which has appeared in numerous translations, and has been re- printed in a hundred different editions. An attempt was made to dispute the originality of the plot of this celebrated fiction ; but it was never shown that Lc Sage was not the true inventor of it. One of his sons became a cele- brated actor, under the name of Montmenil. b. at Sarzeau, 1668; d. 1747. Lesley, John, les'-le, bishop of Ross, in Scotland, accompanied Queen Mary from France to Scotland, and soon after became bishop of Ross and a privy councillor. He zealously defended the Romish religion ; and when Queen Elizabeth appointed commissioners to meet at York to consider the complaints made against Mary by her subjects, Lesley ap- peared on behalf of his mistress, whose cause he pleaded with great ability. He also tried many expedients to procure her liberty, for which ho was committed to the Tower; but, in 1573, recovered his liberty, on condition of quitting the kingdom. When abroad, he endeavoured to interest many foreign princes in the cause of Mary, and wrote several pieces in her defence. Being appointed vicar-general by the bishop ot Rouen, he was, while visiting ffiat diocese, seized by the Huguenots, who would have sent him to England ; but he recovered his liberty by paying a ransom. He afterwards obtained the bishopric of Constance. His principal work is a history of Scotland, entitled, " De Origine, Moribus, et Rebus gestis Seotorum." b. 1527 • i I). 1596. THE DICTIONARY Leslie Leslie, John, les'-le, bishop of Clogher, whose first episcopal preferment was the bishopric of the Orkneys, whence he removed to Raphoe, in Ireland, where he built a stately palace, in which he endured a long siege by Cromwell, but was at last forced to surrender. In 1661 he was translated to Clogher. ». 1671, aged above 100 years. Leslie, Charles, a theological controversialist, who, after receiving his education at Trinity College, Dublin, went, in 1671, to England, where he commenced the study of the law. A few years afterwards, he entered upon holy orders, and became chancellor of Cloyne, in Ireland. Although a fervent Protestant, he throughout his life manifested the greatest de- votion to the cause of the Stuarts, and accom- panied the Pretender both in France and in Italy. In his old age, he sought permission to return to his native land. George I. acceded to his request, and he thereupon took up his resi- dence at Glaslough, in Ireland. His theological writings excited much attention in his time; and one of them, entitled " A Short and Easy Method with Deists," is still regarded as of con- siderable value. In addition to pamphlets against Hoadley, Locke, and Burnet, he |pub- lished controversial pieces antagonistic to Quakers, Jews, Socinians, Deists, Presbyterians, and Roman Catholics. His own views were those of a zealous Protestant, combined with an advocacy of high monarchical principles, b. in Ireland, about 1650; d. there, 1722. Leslie, Sir John, an eminent natural philo- sopher, who, after completing his education at the universities of St. Andrew's and Edin- burgh, and travelling as tutor in the United States, returned to Scotland, and, obtaining letters of introduction to individuals of literary and scientific celebrity, set out for London, where he for some time gained a subsistence by translating and compiling scientific works. In 1805 he became professor of mathematics in the university of Edinburgh, not without consider- able opposition on the part of the clergy, who ob.ieetea to the appointment on account of Leslie's referring to Hume in a laudatory man- ner in one of his treatises. In 1809 he obtained the chair of natural philosophy, upon the death of Professor Playfair; and from that period until his death, produced a succession of valu- able works on subjects connected with natu- ral philosophy. In 1832 he was knighted. He contributed treatises on Achromatic Glasses, Acoustics, Climate, Cold, Dew, Meteorology, &c, to the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and also fur- nished the " Edinburgh Review" and the " Edin- burgh Transactions" with many excellent papers. Among his larger works may be cited " The Elements of Geometry," " Elements of Natural Philosophy," and an "Account of Ex- periments and Instruments depending on the relation of Heat to Moisture." He was also the mventor of the differential thermometer, b. at Largo, Fifeshire, 1766; d. in Scotland, 1832. Leslie, Charles Robert, R.A., a distinguished artist, has been claimed as an American citizen, but was in reality bom in London, where his parents were staying at the time. His father and mother were both born in America ; but the ancestors of his father settled originally in America about the year 1745. When six years of age he was taken to Philadelphia, and was there sent to school, and subsequently appren- ticed to a bookseller. Having shown consider- m L'Estrange able talents for design, he was sent to London in 1813, with letters of Introduction to Benjamin West, at that time president of the Academy. As a student of the Royal Academy, he evinced great industry, and in the year 1820 exhibited his first picture, " Anne Page and Master Slen- der." He became an R.A. in 1826. In 1833, to the surprise of his friends, he accepted the post of drawing-master to the United States Military Academy; but he soon returned to England, As an illustrator of the productions of Shak- speare, Pope, Goldsmith, Addison, and Cer- vantes, he achieved great triumphs. His deli- neation of Sancho Panza has never been equalled. Of his best pictures, it will be sufficient to enumerate " Uncle Toby and the Widow" and "Sancho Panza and the Duchess," both of which are in the national collection at the South-Kensington Museum. Leslie's technical skill was exceedingly great, and his refined and graceful humour admirably fitted him to give pictorial reproductions of situations in the comedies of Shakspeare and Moliere. He was also a clear and pleasant writer, and wrote " Memoirs of the Life of John Constable" and a "Handbook for Young Painters." b. in London, 1794; n. 1859. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, les'-sep, an eminent French engineer and diplomatist, who repre- sented the interests of his native country, as vice-consul and consul, in Spain, Portugal, Cairo, and other places. In 1854 he formed the project of cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Suez ; and although Robert Stephenson, and other eminent engineers, English and conti- nental, pronounced the idea to be impracti- cable, M. de Lesseps energetically defended his plan, and commenced the work under the auspices of the Egyptian government in 1859. In ten years the works were so far com- pleted as to admit of the passage of steamers along almost the whole of the water-way. b. at Versailles, 1805. Lessino, Gotthold Ephraim, les'-sing, an eminent German poet and general writer, who, after studying at Leipsic, went to Berlin, where he made himself known by the publication of his celebrated fables. He subsequently pro- duced his " Letters on Literature," which greatly contributed to improve the taste of his country- men. In 1760 he accepted the post of secretary to the governor of Breslau ; in 1770 he was ap- pointed keeper of the Wolfcnbiittel library, and soon afterwards produced his famous tragedy, " Emilia Galotf i." He enriched the literature of Germany with masterpieces of different kinds, especially in the departments of biography, archaeology, and the drama, b. at Kamentz, in Upper Lusatia, 1729; d. 1781.— His brother, Karl Gotthelf, and bis nephew Karl Friedrich, were both distinguished in the world of letters. L'Estrange, Sir Roger, le-strainf, an English writer, who received a liberal education, and, in 1639, attended Charles I. in his expedition to Scotland. He adhered to the royal cause, and, in 1611, was condemned as a spy; but, after remaining in confinement four years, made his escape, and endeavoured to stir up an insurrec- tion in Kent, which failed; whereupon he went abroad. In 1653 he returned to England, under shelter of Cromwell's act of indemnity. After the Restoration he was appointed censor of the press; he also set up a newspaper, called the " Public Intelligencer," which was discontinued on the publication of the " London Gazette," in OF BIOGRAPHY. Le Sueur 1665. In 1679 he commenced another paper, called the " Observator," designed to vindicate the court measures: this procured him the honour of knighthood. He was an industrious writer, and besides his own pamphlets, which were numerous, he published translations of several books, particularly Josephus, from the French version of D'Andilly, Seneca's " Morals," Erasmus's " Colloquies, " and Quevedo's " Visions." B. in Norfolk, 1616; d. 1704. Le Sueub, Eustache, le-soo'-er, a celebrated French artist, surnamed the "Raphael of France," studied under Vouet, and, early in life, attracted the notice of Poussin. Dis- playing great disregard of court patronage, he worked only for private individuals and for reli- gious establishments, and, while still young, retired to a cloister. He was the first painter in France during the reign of Louis XIV., and surpassed Lebrun, his rival, in grace and vigour. Among the most important of his works were the "Life of St. Bruno," in twenty-two subjects; " St. Paul preaching at Ephesus," and " The Mai-tyrdom of St. Lawrence." b. at Paris, 1616 ; P. 1655. Le Sueur, Jean Francois, an eminent French composer, who became chapel-master to several cathedrals in France, and subsequently profes- sor at the Conservatoire de Musique. He com- posed five grand operas, the most successful of which were " The Cavern" and " Paul and Vir- ginia." He also wrote a treatise on Ancient Music, which is highly esteemed, as casting new light upon the obscure subject of the art of music among the Greeks. The emperor Napo- leon I. created him a knight of the Legion of Honour, and appointed him his director of music, b. near Abbeville, 1766 ; d. 1837. Lett, Gregory, lai'-te, an Italian historian, who, alter studying at Rome, went to Geneva, where he abjured the Catholic religion, and afterwards resided in England. While there he was known to he collecting materials for a his- tory of the court of Charles 1 1., and the king seeing liim one day at his levee, told him to take care that his history did not give offence. To which Leti replied, " I will do what I can ; hut if a man were as wise as Solomon, he would hardly be able to avoid giving some offence." " Why then," retorted Charles, " be as wise as Solomon; write proverbs, and let history alone." Leti, however, did not take this advice. The history appeared, under the title of " Teatro Britai.-nico ;" and the author, as Charles had foreseen, did give offence, and was ordered to quit the kingdom, when he went to Amsterdam. Among his works arc, Lives of " Sixtus V.," " Charles V.," " Queen Elizabeth," " Oliver Cromwell," the "History of Geneva," and a " History of the Cardinals." But the whole are «o full of error and fiction, that they may be re- garded rather as romances than authentic his- tories, b. at Milan, 1630 ; d. at Amsterdam, 1701. Letourneue, Pierre, le-tour'-noor, a French author, who was the first to make the works of Shakspeare known to his countrymen, through the aid of a translation. He also translated the poems of Young and Ossian, and the novel of "Clarissa Harlowe." b. at Valognes, 1736 ; d. at Paris, 1788. Lettice, John, let-tit, a clergyman, poet, and miscellaneous writer, was educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, of which he was afterwards a fellow and public tutor. In 647 Leverrier 1768 he abandoned college life, and became secretary to the British embassy at Copenhagen. He subsequently engaged as private tutor in some families of distinction ; was presented to the living of Peasemarsh.in Sussex, in 1785; and was also a prebendary in Chichester Cathedral. His works consist of " Fables for the Fireside," " Strictures on Elocution," " A Tour through various Parts of Scotland," and " Miscellaneous Pieces on Sacred Subjects," besides sermons, tracts, and poems; a translation of Holberg's "Parallel Lives of Famous Ladies," and, in conjunction with Professor Martyr, "The An- tiquities of Hereulaneum." b. in Northamp- tonshire, 1737; D.1832. Leucippus, leu-sip' -pus, a philosopher of Elea, was the pupil of Zeno, the master of Democritus, and the originator of the atomic system of physics. According to this theory, Leucippus and his disciples, by ascribing a sen- sible power to the particles of matter, and set- ting them in motion, accounted for the origin of the universe without the interposition of divine agency. Descartes borrowed from him his hypothesis of "Vortices," and Kepler also availed himself of the speculations of Leucippus. Lived in the 5th century B.C. Leuwenhoek, Anthony van, loi'-ven-Jie(r)'k, a celebrated microscopical observer, who ac- quired a great reputation by his experiments and discoveries. To the Royal Society of Lon- don, of which ho was a member, he forwarded about one hundred papers on the blood, blood- vessels, muscles, the eye, the brain, &c. His other writings were collected and published in 1699: of these an English version was produced in 1800. b. at Delft, Holland, 1632; i>. 1723. Levee, Charles James, le'-ver, a modern novelist, distinguished for his fictions illustra- tive of Irish life and character, and for the vigour and variety of his incidents, lie studied at Trinity College, Dublin, aud afterwards took the M.D. degree at Gottingen. After being at- tached to the British legation at Brussels, and spending some time in the practice of his pro- fession, he abandoned it for literature. At the outset of his career in this latter employment, he was, perhaps, the most popular author of the day ; his " Harry Lorrcquer," " Charles O'Mal- ley," " Tom Burke," &c, were in every one's hands. During his after-career, his style be- came more thoughtful and sober ; " The Knight of Gwynno " is an example of this. His latest novels are "Sir Brooke Fosbrooke," "The Bramleighs of Bishop's Folly," etc. Under the pseudonym of " Cornelius U'Dowd," he has for some time contributed a series of brilliant essays on the topics of the day to " Blackwood's Magazine." b. at Dublin, 1«09; d. 1872. Leverrier, Urbain Jean Joseph, le-oer'-re-ai, a modern French astronomer, celebrated for his discovery of the planet Neptune. His first scientific labours were in chemistry; for, in 1837, he published two treatises on the combi- nation of phosphorus, as well as taking some part in the chemical department of the " Dic- tionary of Conversation ;" but in the year 1816, he had acquired sullicicnt celebrity as an astronomer to obtain admission to the Paris Academy of Sciences, and, a few months later, made known his great discovery. The same re- sults had been attained by the English astrono- mer Adams. (See Abams.) Each, however, liad laboured in ignorance of the other's pur- suits; but the French astronomer was the first THE DICTIONARY Levi to publish the discovery. Leverrier soon rose to the highest honours which his country be- stows upon scientific men ; he was made officer of the Legion of Honour, director of the Board of Longitude, and professor of the Faculty of Sciences. The Royal Society of England like- wise awarded to him, as well as to Adams, its Copley medal, the highest honour in its power to bestow, electing him a member at the same time. b. at St. Lo, France, 1811. _ Levi, David, le'-ve, a London Jew, of con- siderable acquirements, though of humble birth and occupations. He was first a shoemaker, and afterwards a hatter, but his works evince great research and ability. In 1787 he entered into a polemical controversy with Dr. Priestley, whose "Letters to the Jews" he answered in two series of epistolary essays. He was also the author of a volume on the rites and cere- monies of the Jews ; " Lingua Sacra, or a He- brew and English Dictionary," " The Penta- teuch in Hebrew and English," a translation of the Hebrew Liturgy, " Dissertations on the Prophecies," and some other works, b. 17-10 ; d. 1799. Levis, Pierre Marc Gaston, Duke de, fat-re', an able French nobleman, who at the beginning of the revolution was chosen a deputy to the States-general by the nobility of Dijon : but, though friendly to a reform of abuses in govern- ment, he opposed the destruction of the mo- narchy, and in 1792 became an emigrant, and joined the royalist army. Being wounded in the engagement at Quiberon Bay, he went to England, where he resided till the establishment of the consular government, when he returned to France, but passed his time in retirement and literary pursuits. On the restoration of Louis XVJII. he was raised to the peerage, and ad- mitted a member of the Academy. His works consist of "Maxims and Reflexions," "The Travels of Kanghi, or New Chinese Letters," " Recollections and Portraits," and " England at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century." D. 1830. Lbvingston, James, Earl of Callendar, lev'- ing-ston, a famous soldier of Scotland, was gen- tleman of the bedchamber of Charles I., who created him Lord Levingston of Almont in 1633, and afterwards earl of Callendar. In the civil war, he at first joined the Parliament ; but afterwards distinguished himself by his activity in the king's service. He took Carlisle, where he found a considerable supply of ammunition, and endeavoured to rescue Charles from his confine- ment in the Isle of Wight, d. 1672. Lbvizac, Jean Pons Victor Lecoutz de, lee 1 - e-zak, a French grammarian, who, for many years, taught his native language in England. Among several excellent works, may be named his " French Grammar," first published in 1797; "French and English Dictionary," and " Dictionary of Synonymes." D. in London, 1813. Lewes, George Henry, loo'-es, a modern English littirateur, and an industrious and excellent contributor to the " Edinburgh," * Westminster," Blackwood's and Eraser's Magazines, and to the "Morning Chronicle" and other newspapers. On the establishment of the " Leader" newspaper, in 1849, he became its literary editor ; but ceased to have any con- nexion with the print in the year 1854. He distinguished himself in historical, philoso- phical, and scientific literature. We have space 648 Lewis to mention only his most yopular works in each of these departments. "The Life and Works of Gothe," and " The Life of Maximilien Robespierre," are at the head of the first ; the " Biographical History of Philosophy," the " Exposition of Comte's Positive Philosophy," and a popular treatise on Physiology, being his most important productions in the two latter walks. His play called " The Game of Specula- tion," was produced under the pseudonym of Slingsby Lawrence. B. in London, 1817; D.1878. Lewis, John, loo'-es, a learned divine and antiquary, who wrote "The Life of Wickliffe," "Wickliffe's Translation of the New Testa- ment," " The History and Antiquities of the Isle ofThanet," "The History or the Abbey and Church of Feversham," the " Life of William Caxton," &c. b. 1675 ; ». 1746. Lewis, Meriwether, an American officer em- ployed by the government of the United States, with Clarke, to make discoveries in the northern parts of the American continent, with a view to the extension of commerce to the Pacific Ocean. In 1805 they undertook a journey for the pur- pose of discovering the sources of the Missouri ; and passed the winter in an icy region, 500 leagues beyond its confluence. Lewis was after- ward elected governor of Louisiana, while his comrade Clarke became a general of its militia, and agent of the United States for Indian affairs. Lewis was born 1774 ; and died in 1809. Lewis, kings of France. (See Louis.) Lewis, Matthew Gregory, an English no- velist, was the son of a wealthy man, who was under-secretary for war. After studying at Christchurch, he went to Germany, where he became acquainted with Gothe, and imbibed a taste for the mysterious and the tragic. The best known of his romances is the " Monk," first published in 1794; a work charged with horrors and libertinism of spirit. He was never- theless a kind and charitable man, as was evi- denced by his treatment of the slaves upon the Jamaica estates he inherited from his father. He was a fluent versifier, and his " Alonzo the Brave" and "Bill Jones" are still found to contain interest. In 1812 he produced a drama entitled " Timour the Tartar," and subsequently a work called " Residence in the West Indies," since reprinted in Murray's Home and Colonial Library, b. in London, 1775; d. at sea, 1818. Lewis, Sir George Cornewall, Bart., M.P., a modern English statesman and historian, studied at Eton and Christchurch, Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1831, although he never practised. After tilling various subordinate posts under the government, he was appointed poor-law commissioner in 1839, secretary of the Board of Control in 1847, undcr-secretary of the Home department in 1848, and secretary of the Treasury in 1850. Three years previously, he had been elected M.P. for Herefordshire, but lost his seat in 1852. He was again returned to Parliament for Radnor in 1855, and was soon afterwards made chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Palmerston, an office he vacated in 1858. He resumed office in 1859 as Home secre- tary, and in 1861 was transferred to the War department on the retirement of Lord Herbert of Lea. His first important literary production was a translation of M tiller's " History and An- tiquities of the Doric Race," which, together with the " Inquiry into the Credibility of Early Roman History," may be considered the most profound of his historical efforts. Among his OP BIOGEAPHY. Lewis political works, the following are the best : "On the Use and Abuse of Political Terms," "Treatise on the Method of Reasoning in Poli- ties," and the " Government of Dependencies." In 1854 he became editor of the "Edinburgh Review," a post he resigned upon taking office as chancellor of the Exchequer. In polities, as well as in literature, he exhibited a liberal and painstaking, rather than a brilliant and original turn of mind, b. 1806; d. 1865. Lb wis, John Frederick, R.A., a distinguished modern artist, and president of the Society of Painters in Water-colours, who in early life painted both in oil and water, and engraved his works himself. He achieved the greatest success in both Spanish and Eastern subjects. His Spanish pictures were exhibited during the years 1835-40; the best of them being — "A Fiesta in the South of Spain," " The Death of the Bull," and "The Suburbs of a Spanish City." After the year 1840, he almost exclusively painted scenes of Arab and Turkish life, a task for which he qualified himself by a long sojourn in the East. The " Halt in the Desert," the "Arab Scribe," and "Armenian Lady," afford examples of his great power of drawing and brilliant colouring. In 1855 he was elected president of the Society of Painters in Water- colours. In 1859 he was chosen A.R.A., and R.A. in 1865. b. 1805; n. 1S76. Leyden, John op. (See Boccold.) Leydkn, Lucas van, li'-den, a Dutch painter in oil, distemper, and on glass: also an eminent engraver. His picture of the " History of St. Hubert" procured him a great reputation. Many of his works are contained in the gal- leries of English connoisseurs, b. at Leyden, 1404 ; D. 1533. Leyden, John, ley'-den, a physician, but more distinguished as a poet and oriental scholar, was a native of Roxburghshire, Scot- land, and was the son of a small farmer. Dis- playing in early youth an eager desire for ac- quiring knowledge, his parents contrived to send him to a college at Edinburgh, where he first studied theology, but relinquished it for medicine, and, in addition to the learned lan- guages, acquired French, Spanish, Italian, German, Arabic, and Persian. In 1801 he as- sisted Sir Walter Scott in procuring materials and illustrations for his " Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," and republished " The Com- playnt of Scotland," with a learned preliminary dissertation, notes, and a glossary. His passion for reading was enormous, his memory most retentive, and when he met with a work that Interested him he forgot everything else, and would continue its perusal until it was either finished or he was interrupted. This trait in his character is said to have suggested the idea of Dominie Samson to Sir Walter Scott. Having obtained a doctor's degree, Leyden was appointed assistant surgeon on the Madras establishment; after which he was made professor of the native dialects in the Bengal College ; from which situation, however, he was removed, to be judge of the 24 Pcrgunnahs of Calcutta. His power of acquiring languages was truly won- derful, and during his residence in India he devoted himself to the study of oriental litera- ture; but he did not long survive the influence of the climate. His " Poetical Remains" were published In 1819. b. 1775; d. 1811. Lhwyd, Edward, thlooud, a Welsh antiquary, who employed a considerable part of his life in Liebig searching into the Welsh antiquities, in the ex- ecution of which task he perused or collected a great deal of ancient and valuable matter from their MSS. ; transcribed all the old charters of the monasteries that he could meet with ; tra- velled several times over Wales, Cornwall, Scot- land, Ireland, Armoric Bretagne, countries in- habited by the same people ; compared their antiquities, and made observations upon the whole. Many of his observations were inserted in Gibson's edition of Camden's " Britannia." He also published, in 1707, the " Archax>logi» Britannica; or, an Account of the Languages, Histories, and Customs of the Original In- habitants of Great Britain, &c," folio. He left in manuscript an Irish-English dictionary, and other proofs of his learning and industry. b. about 1670 ; d. 1709. Libanitjs, li-bai'-ne-us, an ancient sophist, who became so eminent a teacher at Constanti- nople, that some other professors procured his banishment, on the charge of practising magic. He then went to Nicomedia, where he obtained a great number of disciples ; amongst whom was Julian, afterwards called the Apostate. His " Remains" were published at Paris in 1606, and in 1627. b. at Antioch, Syria, 314 ; d. about 395. Licinius, Caius, li-sin'-e-us,& Roman tribune, of a plebeian family, who rose to the rank of tribune, when he obtained the surname of Stolo, or Useless Sprout, on account of the law which he enacted forbidding any one to possess more than 500 acres of 'and ; alleging as his reason, that when they cultivated more, they could not pull up the useless shoots (stolonex) which grew from the roots of trees. He also made another law, which allowed the plebeians to share the consular dignity with the patri- cians ; and he himself became one of the first plebeian consuls, b.c. 362. Licinius, Flavius Valerianus, emperor of the East, was the son of a Dacian peasant. He became a soldier in the Roman army, and Maximianus subsequently made him his coad- jutor in the empire, and gave him the govern- ment of Pannonia and Rhaitia. Constantine had a great esteem for him, and bestowed his sister on him in marriage ; but afterwards a serious difference broke out between the two emperors, which ended in the death of Licinius, after several battles, a.d. 324. Liebig, Justus, Baron von, le'-big, a dis- tinguished German chemist, who in early life served in an apothecary's establishment, but was afterwards sent to the university of Bonn, and still later, to Erlangen, where he took the degree of M.D. In 1822 he went to Paris, where he devoted himself to the study of chemistry. The first result of this labour was the compo- sition of a paper on " Fulminates," which on being read, in 1821, at the Institute of France, brought the young chemist under the notice of Baron Humboldt, who was then residing at Paris. Through Humboldt's influence, Liebig was soon after appointed extraordinary pro- fessor of chemistry at Giessen, where, in 1826, he founded a laboratory for teaching practical chemistry. This was the famous Giessen estab- lishment, in which the best chemists of Ger- many and England have been educated. With the assistance of Hoffmann, Will, Fresenius, and others, Liebig there originated or tested almost every theory of importance in chemical science. To him the department of organic chemistry is greatly indebted for numerous discoveries of THE DICTIONARY Ligarius the highest importance. As he is a clear and elegant writer, the result of his profound labours has been made palpable to the mind of the least professional person. Merely to enu- merate those books which have been translated and published in England will afford a fair notion of his great labours. These are — "Chemistry in its application to Agriculture and Physiology ;" " Principles of Agricultural Chemistry ;" " Animal Chemistry ; or, Chemistry in its application to Physiology and Pathology;" " Researches on the Chemistry of Food," and "Familiar Letters on Chemistry." This last has done more to popularize the study of chemistry than any other single book ever written. Liebig's great talents and distin- guished services have been appreciated very extensively. In 1845 he was made a baron by the grand-duke of Hesse Darmstadt ; in 1840 he became fellow of the Royal Society of England, and was also requested to fill several professor- ships ; which offers he refused. He was a fellow of almost every learned body on the continent of Europe and in America ; and, in 1854, a sub- scription, amounting to £1000, was raised in Europe for the purpose of presenting him with five pieces of plate. Although we have only quoted those works of Liebig which have been reproduced in England, he has been the author of a large number of others, b. at Darmstadt, 1803; l). 1873. Ligakius, Quintus, K-gair'-e-us, proconsul in Africa, who conducted himself so well in that station, that, at the desire of the people, he was appointed perpetual governor. He opposed Ca'sar, who pardoned him after the defeat of Scipio. Not thinking his life safe, he absented himself from Rome, on which account Tubero accused him; but Ligarius was defended by Cicero and acquitted. He was one of the con- spirators with Brutus and Cassius against Caesar. Lightfoot, John, lite -foot, a learned English divine, was born at Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staf- fordshire, and educated at Christ's College, Cambridge. He made great progress in the Greek and Latin languages, and applied himself to Hebrew with assiduity and success. In 1629 he printed his first work, entitled " Erub- him ; or, Miscellanies, Christian and Judaical." He distinguished himself as a zealous promoter of the Polyglot Bible, and, at the Restoration, was one of the assistants at the Savoy con- ference, and became vice-chancellor of Cam- bridge. The works of Lightfoot, who, for biblical learning, has had few equals, were printed in 2 vols, folio, and his " Remains " were published by Strype, in 1700. b. 1002; r>. 1675. I.igne, Charles Joseph, Prince de, leen, a celebrated general in the service of Austria, famous for his wit, the graces of his person, and for his military talents. He distinguished himself under the Austrian standard during the Seven Years' War and in the subsequent cam- paigns, becoming, in 1771, lieutenant-general. He was a favourite with Maria Theresa, and particularly with Joseph II., who, in 1782, sent him to Russia on a mission to Catharine II. He became the intimate friend of Catharine, and was charged to participate with the Russian general Potemkin in acting against the Turks. In 1789 he greatly contributed to the taking of Belgrade. He subsequently fell under the displeasure of the successors of Joseph II., but was nevertheless created field-marshal by Lilly Francis II. in 1808. De Ligne's reputation as a wit was of the highest order in continental society. He was an industrious writer, and left behind some thirty volumes of journals, military memoirs, &c. A selection from these, under the title of" Letters and Opinions of the Prince de Ligne," was published by Madame de Stael in 1809. b. at Brussels, 1735 ; d. 1814. Ligonter, John, Earl, li'-go-neer, field-mar- shal of the English army, who served in all the wars of Queen Anne, under the duke of Marl- borough, with the greatest distinction, and was employed in every succeeding war till his death. b. 1678 ; d. 1770. Lilbuenk, John, Kl'-bum, an enthusiast, who, in 1636, became assistant to Dr. Bastwick, and was employed by him in circulating his seditious pamphlets, for which Lilburne was whipped, pilloried, and imprisoned. In his confinement he wrote several virulent tracts against the church ; but in 1640 he regained his liberty, and was rewarded by Parliament with a grant of £2000, out of the estates of the royal- ists. He then entered the army, and became a colonel, in which capacity he behaved gallantly at the battle of Marston Moor ; but, publishing a libel against the earl of Manchester, was confined in the Tower. In 1648 he was released and remunerated ; but he still continued writing libels, particularly against Parliament, for which he was heavily fined and banished. Lilburne withdrew privately to Holland, where he joined the royalists, and proposed to restore the king for £10,000, which offer was treated with con- tempt, b. at Durham, 1618; d. 1657. LiLLO.George, lil'-lo, an English tragic writer, who carried on the business of a jeweller during many years with great success. His plays, founded on common incidents, are constructed with the purpose of showing how easy is the advance from small to greater crimes. His best play is " Fatal Curiosity." His " George Barn- well " was usually acted on boxing-night, it having been held to convey a useful lesson to young men ; but the custom may be said to have died out. b. 1693; d. 1739. Lilly, John, lil'-le, an early English dramatic and general author, who published "Euphues," a description of different characters, and also wrote some plays which were acted before queen Elizabeth. He likewise produced "The Maid's Metamorphosis," "The Woman in the Moon," &c. B. in Kent about 1553 ; n. about 1600. Lilly, William, an English astrologer, after receiving some education, went to London, and became book-keeper to the master of the Salters' Company, on whose death he married his widow. In 1632 he became the pupil of Evans the astrologer, and soon excelled his master. He was employed by both parties during the civil wars, and even Charles I. is said to have made use of him. Lilly was cer- tainly consulted respecting the king's projected escape from Carisbrook Castle. He, however, gained more from the Parliament party ; and the predictions contained in his almanacks had a wonderful effect upon the soldiers and com- mon people. After the Restoration, he was examined respecting the king's executioner, who, he affirmed, was Cornet Joyce. His prin- cipal works are, "Christian Astrology;" "A Collection of Nativities ;" " Observations on the Life and Death of Charles, late King of Eng- land ;" "Annus Tenebrosns, or the Mlack Year." B. at Diseworth, Leicestershire, 1602 ; p. 168)., OF BIOGRAPHY. Lily Lnr, William, an eminent English gram- marian, who, after completing his education at Oxford, went to visit the Holy Land. In this journey he learned the Greek language at Rhodes. He returned to England in 1509, and in 1512 he was appointed master of St. Paul's school ; which trust he discharged with great reputation .andedueated many eminentscholars. Some parts of his " Latin Grammar," which vras ordered by royal authority to be used in all schools, were written by Erasmus and Colet. b. at Odiham, Hants, about 1463; d. in London, of the plague, 1523. Linacke, or Lywacbe, Thomas, lin'-a-her, an eminent English physician, who, after com- pleting his academical studies, went to Italy, where he studied under the same preceptor with the sons of Lorenzo de Medici, and, acquiring the Greek language, was enabled to peruse the works of Aristotle and Galen in the original, Deing, it is said, the first English physician who had done so. On his return, he took his doctor's degree, and was made professor of physic at Oxford. Henry VII. appointed him preceptor to Prince Arthur; he also became physician to the king, and to Henry VIII. He founded two medical lectures at Oxford, and one at Cambridge, and may be considered the first founder of the College of Physicians in London. Anxious to improve the practice of physic in England, he applied to Cardinal Wolsey, and obtained a patent, by which the physicians of London were incorporated, that " illiterate and ignorantmedicasters might no longer be allowed to practise the art of healing." Linacre was the first president, and held the office as long as ho lived. In 1509 he entered into orders, and ob- tained the precentorship of York, which he resigned on being made prebendary of West- minster. He was a man of great natural saga- city, a skilful physician, and one of the best Greek and Latin scholars of his time. b. at Canterbury, about 1460; d. 1524. Lincoln, Abraham, UnW-un, the son of a Kentucky farmer, who in early life was a boat- man on theMissis3ippi and awoodcuiter. Having educated himself, he became, in 183-1, a member of the Illinois legislature, and soon after began to practice at the bar. Owing to his uncom- promising opposition to slavery, he was elected president of the United States by the Republi- can and Abolitionist party in 1860. His election led to the immediate secession of the Southern States, and the civil war which followed. The result was the abolition of slavery. He was re- elected president in 1861, but, on April 14, was shot in a theatre at Washington by a fanatic uamed Wilkes Booth, b. 1809. LiNn, Jenny. (See Golbbchmidt, Madame.) Lindlbt, John, LL.D., lind'-le, a distin- guished English botanist, was the son of a nursery-garden proprietor at Norwich, and from his earliest years evinced a great inclination for the study of botany. After translating Richard's "Analyse du Fruit" from the French, and contributing some valuable papers on botany to the "Transactions" of the Linnaean Society, he went to London, where he was engaged by Mr. Loudon to assist in the production of the '* Encyclopedia of Plants." His first work of importance was published in 1832. This was the " Introduction to Systematic and Phy- siological Botany." For more than a quarter of a century, Dr. Lindley filled the chair of botany at University College, London, and i B51 Linguet contributed to the literature of the science ol which he was an untiring exponent a great number of exceedingly important works. " The Ladies' Botany," written upon the model of Rous- seau's " Botanical Letters," proved one of the most popular books on science ever brought out in England. Of a similar character are his "School Botany" and the "Botany" which be wrote for the " Library of Useful Knowledge." b. at Catton, Norfolk, 1799; d. 1865. Lindsay, Sir David, lind'-sai, a Scotch poet, who in 1512 became gentleman-usher to the young prince, afterwards James V., who sub- sequently appointed him master of the heralds' office. He wrote several poems, some of which have been printed, particularly his satires on the clergy, b. about the end of the 15th cen- tury ; d. about 1568. Lindsey, Rev. Theophilus, an English divine, who, in 1772, abandoned all his benefices in the Established Church to found a congregation of Unitarians at London. He was the pastor of this congregation during twenty years, and wrote several excellent works, the chief of which were, " An Historical View of the State of the Unitarian Doctrine and Worship, from the Re- formation to our own time," and a Vindication of his friend Dr. Priestley, b. 1723; d. in Lon- don, 1808. Lingabd, Rev. John, D.D. LL.D., lin'-gard, an eminent English historian, was a priest of the Roman Catholic Church, and was edu- cated in France. He held appointments in the Roman Catholic College at llshaw, near Dur- ham, and commenced authorship in 1805, by contributing to the Newcastle Courant a series of letters, which were afterwards republished under the title of "Catholic Loyally Vindicated." Besides several controversial works, he wrote a " History of the Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church," and made a translation of the New Testament into English. His great work was the " History of England from the rirst Invasion by the Romans to the Accession of William and Mary, in 1688." This has passed through many editions, and is generally allowed to be a work of great learning and research. The theological views of the writer colour many of his state- ments, as was to be expected ; nevertheless his religious opinions are never put forth in an offensive manner. For his services to literature he was granted a pension of £300 per annum by the queen. The last years of his life were spent in retirement at Hornby, near Lancaster, b. at Winchester, 1771; d. 1851. Linlky, Thomas, lin'-le, an English musical composer, who set the music to Sheridan's opera, the " Duenna," and wrote the accom- paniments to the airs in the " Beggar's Opera." which are still in use. His "Twelve Ballads," though now neglected, are exquisite melodies. Together with his son-in-law, Sheridan, and Dr. Ford, he was during many years engaged in the management of Drury-lane Theatre, b. at Wells, about 1725; n. 1795. Linley, William, son of the preceding, wrote two comic operas, and compiled " The Dramatic Songs of Shakspeare ;" an excellent work. He likewise composed a large number of glees, characterized by grace and feeling, b. about 1767; d. 1835. Li.vguet, Simon Nicolas Henri, lin-zhoo'-ai, a political and miscellaneous writer, who in early life entered the army, and served as aide- de-camp to the Prince of Boauvpau. in Portugal- THE DICTIONARY Linnell he afterwards studied law, and became a bar- rister; but was expelled from the bar, m con- sequence of some dispute with his professional brethren, then turned political writer, and having given offence to the ruling powers, was sent to the Bastille. On obtaining his liberty, he published an account of his imprisonment, a work which produced a strong sensation, and is said to have prepared the way for subsequent events. He retired to Brussels in 1787, and there published his "Annales Politiques," for which he was rewarded by the emperor Joseph 1 1, with a present of 1000 ducats. He then re- turned to France, took an active part in the revolution, and closed his career on the guillo- tine, at Paris, in 1794. b. 1736. Linnell, John, lin'-nel, an eminent English landscape and portrait painter, commenced life as a pupil of John Varley, the father of the existing school of Water-colour Painting, and first exhibited at the Academy in 1807, — two small landscapes ; at the British Institution, in 1808, — " Fishermen, a Scene from NAure ;" at the Academy again in 1821, — Landscape and Portraits. During the interval, many a view "in Wales" and elsewhere, "Morning" or "Evening" effect, or "Moonlight," or rustic scene of "Milking," &c., were painted. From 1818 to 1820 he exhibited with the Society in Spring Gardens. Throughout the earlier and greater part of Linnell's career, portraits far outnumbered landscapes. By portraits, minia- tures, engraving — by indefatigable industry, in short, in doing whatever he could get to do — the energetic artist subsisted, until, compara- tively late in his career, a fair demand came, with high prices, and conferred upon him fame and wealth. At the Academy, his landscapes were for twenty-five years the rare exceptions ; at the British Institution they were more numerous. Occasionally an incident from Scrip- ture history was introduced as a loftier key-note, to which the prevailing sentiment of studies from Nature was attuned. His portraits were works of art, and in a unique style: small in size, but deeply studied in character : simple and real. Among Linnell's numerous portraits, may be mentioned as specimens of his best style : — a " Family Group — the Artist's Children," a miniature on ivory; portraits of fellow-artists, — Calcott, Mul- ready, Phillips, Collins ; of such men as Malthus, Empson, Warren, Whately, the elder Sterling, and Thomas Carlylc ; of political notables, — Sir Robert Peel, Lord Lansdowne, &c. Among his best specimens of landscape, we may enumerate, "The Windmill," "A Wood Scene," "Eve of the Deluge," "The Return of Ulysses," "Christ and the Woman of Samaria at the Well," "The Disobedient Prophet," " The Last Gleam before the Storm," "Crossing the Brook," "The Timber Waggon," " Barley Harvest," " Under the Hawthorn," &c. b. 1792. Linn.eus, or Voir Linnb, Carl, lin'-ne-ut, a celebrated Swedish naturalist, was the son of a clergyman. After struggling with poverty during several years, he succeeded in gaining the notice of Professor Rudbeck, of the univer- sity of Upsal. That botanist took him into his house, and made him his assistant lecturer, giving him the use of a fine library and garden. In 1732 he went on his celebrated journey to Lapland, the results of which were published in his " Flora Lapponica." After residing for some years in Holland aud visiting England, he was, in 1710, appointed professor of physic and 653 Lisle botany in the university of Upsal. He ilso became physician to the king, who created aim a knight of the Polar Star, and conferred on him a pension, with a patent of nobility. He was the founder and first president of the Aca- demy at Stockholm, and a member of several foreign Societies. Linnams travelled into Nor- way, Dalecarlia, Finland, Lapland, Germany, Holland, France, and England, in eager pursuit of his favourite science. He invented a new method of dividing plants into classes, and ex- tended the same to animals. The ardour of Linnteus's passion for the study of nature, and the uncommon application which he be- stowed upon it, gave him a most comprehensive view both of its pleasures and usefulness. Availing himself of the advantages which he derived from a large share of eloquence and an animated style, he never failed to display, in a lively and convincing manner, the relation sub- sisting between the study of nature and the public good, and to incite the great to counte- nance and protect it. Under his culture, botany raised itself in Sweden to a state of perfection un- known elsewhere, and was thence disseminated throughout Europe. Linnaus's system of classifi- cation first gave to botany a clear and precise language; and, although his system was an artificial one, it yet paved the way for other discoverers, and undoubtedly led to the natural system of Jussieu. His chief works were : — " Systema Naturae," " Bibliotheca Botanica," " Hortus Cliffortianus," " Critica Botanica," " Flora Lapponica," " Genera Plantarum," " Amoenitates Academiene," and " Materia Me- dica." b. in the province of Smaland, Sweden, 1707 ; d. 1778. — His son Charles was professor of botany at Upsal. b. 1738; d. 1783. Lippi, Fra Filippo, lip'-pe, a celebrated Italian painter, whose life was a most romantic one. He was captured by a pirate, and carried to Africa, but was released by his master for having executed his portrait in chalk on a wall. He worked for Alfonso I. at Naples, and was employed by Cosmo de Medici at Florence. His greatest picture was the " Adoration of the Virgin." b. at Florence, 1412; D. 1469. Lipsics, Justus, lip'-se-us, a learned critic, who studied civil law at Louvain, and, in 1567, became secretary to Cardinal Granvelle, at Rome. In 1579 he became a professor of his- tory at Leyden. b. 1547; d. 1606. His changes in religion were remarkable ; being a Roman Catholic, then a Lutheran, afterwards a Cal- vinist, and lastly a Catholic again. His learn- ing was great, but his superstition intense, attributing some of his pieces to the inspira- tion of the Virgin Mary. His works were pub- lished at Antwerp, in 6 volumes folio, 1637. The principal were, a " Commentary on Taci- tus," " Saturnalia," " De Militia Romana," " Electorum," " Satira Menippaoa," " De Am- phitheatris," "De Recta, Pronunciatione Lingua? Latinos." Lislb, Sir George, lile, a gallant English officer, was the son of a bookseller in London; but on the breaking out of the civil wars, he entered into the royal army, where he behaved so well as to rise to a command. At the battle of Newbury, when it grew so dark that his men could not distinguish him, he put his shirt over his clothes, that they might be encouraged by his presence and example. He bravely held the town of Colchester a long time against the Parliamentary forces, and surrendered as OF BIOGRAPHY. Lisle prisoner of war, but was put to death by the victors, in 1648. Lisle, Joseph Nicholas de. (See Dei-isle.) •List, Frederick, list, a German political economist, who was long a member of the Par- liament of Wirtemberg, but was expelled in consequence of the boldness of his opinions. In 1819 he originated the Zollverein, or German customs union, which was afterwards adopted by nearly all the German States. He estab- lished a newspaper, in which he promulgated his opinions, and also published a number of useful works on economic science. Numerous disappointments, however, preying upon his mind, it became unhinged, and he put a period to his life in a fit of insanity in 1846, when not quite fifty-seven years of age. Liston, Robert, lia'-ton, a surgeon of great aelebrity, was born at the manse of Eccles- machan near Linlithgow, of which parish his father was the minister. After completing his studies at college, he took up his residence in Edinburgh, where he speedily rose to the highest eminence both as a lecturer and ope- rator. In 1834 he was appointed surgeon to the North London Hospital ; and subsequently became professor of clinical surgery in Univer- sity College, and continued until his death one of the brightest ornaments of that institution In 1846 he was appointed one of the examiners of the Royal College of Surgeons. His practice had become very extensive, and was steadily increasing; his name was familiar in every medical school throughout the world; a rich harvest of honour and wealth lay before him ; but in the zenith of his manhood and his repu- tation, he was struck down by sudden death. His chief work was his " Principles of Surgery," the first edition of which appeared in 1833; but his fame rests mainly on his accurate ana- tomical knowledge, and the extraordinary faci- lity with which he performed the most difficult operations, b. 1794; d. 1848. Liston, John, a very popular actor of low comedy, whose natural humour and peculiar drolleries afforded many a rich treat to the playgoers of London, was born in St. Anne's parish, Soho, and in the early period of his life was a teacher in a day-school. Forsaking the drudgery of a school-room, and fancying he possessed the necessary ability for the stage, he formed an acquaintance with Charles Mathews the elder, along with whom Liston often ap- peared as an amateur performer, preferring, like Mathews, the heroes of tragedy to the less exalted but more congenial characters of comedy. Having made sundry provincial trips, he was at length seen at Newcastle by Mr. C. Kemble, who recommended him to Mr. Colman, and in 1805 he appeared before a London audience at the Haymarket. He also obtained an engage- ment at Covcnt Garden, where he remained, increasing in public favour, till 1823, when Elliston having offered him £40 a week, he transferred his services to Drury Lane, and continued there till 1831; but the enormous salary of £100 a week tempted him to enlist under the banners of Madame Vestris at the Olympic Theatre, where he performed six sea- sons, and may be said to have closed his thea- trical career, having accumulated a considerable fortune, b. 1777 ; d. March 22, 1816. Lithgow, William, lilk'-go, an extraordinary Scotch traveller, who went through various parts of Eurone and the East on foot, and in 66? Liverpool his travels experienced many singular adven- tures. At Malaga, he was seized by the Inqui- sition, and put to the torture; but escaped with his life, and on his arrival in England was pre- sented to James I. on a feather-bed, being so mangled as to be incapable of standing. On his recovery, he applied to Count Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, who promised him a reparation, but deceived him, which so pr<»- voked Lithgow, that he assaulted him at cour^ for which he was sent to the Marshalsea) where he remained a prisoner nine months. He published a curious account of his travel d. 1640. Little, William, lit'-tel, an ancient English historian, known also by the name of Gulielmus Neubrigensis. He was a monk of the Abbey of Newborough, in Yorkshire, where, in his ad- vanced years, he composed a " History of Eng- land, from the Norman Conquest to 1197," in five books, b. about 1136; d. after 1220. Littleton, or Lyttleton, Thomas, lit'-tel- ton, a celebrated English judge. His family name, Westcote, was changed by him, in com- pliance with the wishes of his maternal grand- father. After receiving a liberal education, he entered at the Inner Temple. His abilities pro- cured him the place of steward of the court to Henry VI., and, in 1455, he went the northern circuit as a judge. Edward IV. appointed him one of the judges of the Court of Common Pleas, and, in 1475, he was created knight of the Bath. He compiled his famous book on " Tenures," according to Sir Edward Coke, while he was judge ; but it was not printed until after his death. His third son, Thomas, was knighted by Henry VII., for apprehending Lambert Simnel. The eldest son, Sir William, died at his seat in Worcestershire, in 1508. Sir Thomas Littleton's book of " Tenures" still remains an indispensable text-book of the law : it is gene- rally printed with Sir Edward Coke's Commen- tary. B. about 1421; D. 1481. Littleton, Edward, was also an English judge of ability. He was made chief justice of the Common Pleas in 1639, and next year be- came keeper of the privy seal, and was made a peer, by the title of Lord Littleton, b. 1589 ; r>. 1645. Liveepool, Charles Jenkinson, earl of, liv'-er-pool, the eldest son of Colonel Jenkinson, was educated at the Charterhouse, London, and at University College, Oxford. In 1761, he entered Parliament, and shortly after became under-secretary of state ; he was made a lord of the Admiralty in 1766, vice-treasurer of Ireland in 1772, secretary-at-war in 1778, and president of the Hoard of Trade in 1784. He was a great favourite with George HI., and was accused, and apparently with truth, of being one of the secret and unconstitutional advisers of thaf monarch. He was created Baron Hawkesbury in 1786, and Earl of Liverpool in 1796. b. 1727"; D. 1808. Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, son of the preceding, received his education at the same seminaries of learning as his father. On (putting college, he spent some time in foreign travel; was in Paris during the destruc- tion of the Bastille, and rendered himself useful at that period to the English government by the information he furnished to Mr. Pitt. He was elected M.P. for Rye in 1790, but did not take his -rat for a year, being of the time of his election uuder the agre required for members THE DICTIONARY Livia bf the House. In 1796, his father being created earl of Liverpool, he became Lord Hawkesbury, and was made a commissioner of Indian affairs. In 1801 he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs ; which office, four years after, he exchanged for that of the home department. This he resigned on the dissolution of the Ad- Uington administration; and, at vhe death of Mr. Pitt, succeeded him as lord warden of the Cinque Ports. In 1807 he was again minister for the home department; and on the death of his father, in the year following, succeeded to the title of earl of Liverpool. After the assas- sination of Mr. Perceval, in 1812, Lord Liver- pool was raised to the premiership, and held that elevated station till 1827, when an apoplectic and paralytic attack rendered him incapable of public business. His opposition to reform, and the prosecution of the friends of change be- tween 1817 and 1820, rendered him exceedingly unpopular, especially in Scotland, where his name, along with those of Lords Sidmonth and Castlereagh, was hated with a perfect hatred. B. 1770 ; D. 1828. Livia, liv'-i-a, a celebrated Roman lady, wife of Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom she had the emperor Tiberius and Drusus Germanicus. Augustus fell in love with her, and married her while she was pregnant. She prevailed on Augustus to adopt her children by Drusus ; but she was suspected of poisoning the emperor Vj procure the throne for her son Tiberius, who treated her with ingratitude, and when she died, a.d. 29, refused her funeral honours. Livingston, William, liv -ing-tton, an Ameri- can statesman, who was also an author, filled several important situations at New York, and, after the establishment of the native govern- ment, was chosen governor of New Jersey. He was a zealous advocate of American indepen- dence: wrote "A Review of the Military Operations in North America, from 1753 to 1758," "Philosophical Solitude," a poem; and several other works, b. 1723; d. 1790. Livingston, Robert, an eminent American politician, was a native of New York, in which city he practised the law with great success. He was one of the committee named to prepare the declaration of independence ; was appointed secretary of foreign affairs in 1780; and, through- out the war of the revolution, signalized him- self by his zeal and efficiency in the cause. He was afterwards chancellor of the state of New York ; and, in 1801, was appointed by President Jefferson, minister plenipotentiary to France, where, during a residence of several years, he was treated with marked attention by Bona- parte, who, on his quitting Paris, presented to him a splendid snuff-box, with a miniature like- ness of himself, painted by Isabey. b. 1746; d. 1813. Livingstone, David, liv'-ing-stone, a distin- guished African traveller, who, under consider- able difficulties, continued to pursue the studies of medicine and theology while engaged in a cotton factory at Glasgow. He subsequently requested to be sent as a missionary to China ; but England being at the time at war with that •ountry, he embarked, in 1840, for Africa. After residing some time at the Cape of Good Hope, in order to acquire the dialects spoken in the interior, lie entered upon his religious labours, and lived chiefly with fas Bechuanas, to whose customs he accommodated himself, and to whom he preached the doctrines of 0M Lloyd Christianity. In 1849 he set out, and succeeded in verifying the existence of Lake Ngami. He undertook a second expedition in the following year, but was arrested by illness. In 1851 he penetrated beyond the chief city of the Makololo tribe, and found a vast country, fertile, with navigable rivers, and rich in mineral wealth, and, at the same time, inhabited by a friendly and industrious people. After undergoing the severest hardships, he reached the Portu- guese station of St. Paul, on the west coast of Africa. He afterwards set out to traverse the continent towards the south, and reached Quil- limane in 1856. Returning to England, he was rewarded with the gold medals of the Geogra- phical Societies of London and Paris. He pub- lished, in 1857, a narrative of his labours and adventures, under the title, "Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa," a work which excited considerable interest. In 1858 he left England, provided with a steam-yacht of light draught, to ascend the African rivers, and with scientific apparatus to enable him to accurately determine his observations. From this time to 1863, he explored a great part of the country through which the Zambesi runs, and visited Lake Nyassa. In 1864 he once more returned to England, but started to make fresh explora- tions in Africa in 1865. In this expedition he went northward to lake Tanganyika, to deter- mine, if possible, whether this or lake Albert Nyanza was the most southern reservoir of the Nile. No news of the traveller reached Eng- land for several months, when in March, 1867, it was reported that he had been killed in a skirmish with the natives. An expedition sent out the same year to inquire into the truth of this rumour, proved it to be without founda- tion ; and, in 1868, news was received from the traveller himself of his safety, and that he was exploring the eastern parts of equa- torial Africa, between the equator and the northern limits of lake Tanganyika, b. 1817; d. 1873. Livius, Titus, liv'-i-us (Lrvr, liv'-e), an illus- trious Roman historian, of whose life very little is known. He appears to have resided at Rome, and to have been on intimate terms with Augustus, who made him tutor to his grandson Claudius. His history was originally produced in 142 books ; but out of that number only 35 arc now extant; the rest are irrecover« ably lost. It began with the foundation of Rome, and ended with the death of Drusus, in Germany, b.c. 9. The work is popular on account of its beautiful style ; but its author was deficient in "that love of truth, diligence, and care in consulting authorities," which are the first requisites of a truly great historian. The best German translation is that by Wagner j Baker's is, perhaps, the best English reproduc- tion. A literal translation has been published in Bonn's Classical Library, b. at Patavium (Padua), b.c. 69; n. a.d. 17. Lloyd, David, a biographical writer, was & native of Merionethshire, and was ordained at Oxford. He became reader at the Charterhouse, London, and then prebendary of St. Asaph. His most important works are — " Memoirs of the Statesmen and Favourites of England," " Memoirs of Persons who suffered for their Loyalty," a " History of Plots and Conspira- cies," &c. u. 1625; d. 1691. Lloyd, Robert, an English poet, who was some time an usher in Westminster school, and OF BIOGRAPHY. Lloyd while in that situation published a poem called the " Actor." On account of his irregularities, he was obliged to resign his place in the school, after which he subsisted almost entirely on charity, particularly that afforded by his friend Churchill. He was the author of the " Capri- cious Lover," a comic opera, and other dramatic works, d. 1764. Llotd, William, a learned English prelate, was educated at Oxford ; obtained a prebend in the collegiate church of Ripon soon after the Restoration ; was appointed chaplain to the kins? in 1666; made a prebendary of Salisbury the year following; and, in 1680, was raised to the bishopric of St. Asaph, when he joined Arch- bishop Sancroft and other prelates in presenting a petition to James II. deprecating his assumed power of suspending the laws against popery. After the Revolution he was made almoner to king William ; was promoted to the see of Lichfield in 1692, and subsequently to that of Worcester. His writings relate to divinity and history, and among them are, "A Dissertation upon Daniel's Prophecy of the Seventy Weeks," " An Account of the Life of Pythagoras," " The History of the Government of the Church," &c. B. 1627 ; d. 1717. Lloyd, Humphry, an eminent military officer and writer on tactics, served with great reputa- tion in the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies, and rose to the rank of general. On his return to England he surveyed the coasts, wrote a memoir on the " Invasion and Defence of Great Britain," "The History of the Seven Years' War," and other military treatises, b. in Wales, 1729; d. 1783. Llewelyn ap Gkifitii, loo-el'-in, the last prince of North Wales, who reigned from 1246 to 12.nl. He was a brave prince, and resisted the ambition of Edward I., king of England, a long time; but at last fell, and with him the inde- pendence of the Welsh as a distinct nation. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt, a Welsh prince, who iucceeded to the principalities of South Wales and Powys, in 993. In 1021, Anlaff, at the head of a Scotch army, invaded his territories, and was joined by Hywel and Meredydd, sons of Edwin ap Einijn. Llewelyn marched against them, and defeated them, but fell in the battle. Lob au, Count, lo'-bou, a distinguished French soldier, whose name was Mouton, was, at the breaking out of the revolution, employed as a journeyman baker in Phalsburg, Meurthe. On entering the army he signalized himself by acts of bravery, which obtained for him various steps of promotion, until, in 1804, at the camp of Boulogne, Napoleon, amid the applause of the whole army, made him his aide-de-camp, and gave him the command of the third regiment of the line. In the campaign of 1805 his gallantry obtained him the »ank of general of brigade, and in 1807 that of general of division. In the campaign of 1809 lie defended the little island of Lobau (from which he subsequently took his title) asrainst the Austrians, completely beat them off, and conducted his troops, compara- tively uninjured, across the Danube. In 1812 he was made aide-major of the imperial suard; in 1813, commander of the first corps of the grand army ; and, in 1814, a chevalier of St. Louis. During the " hundred days" he joined Napo- leon, and was made commandant of the first military division, and a member of the Chamber of Peers. la the brief campaign of 1815, he commanded 8m sixth corps of the army of the Locke north, and defeated the Prussians on the 8th of June, but was wounded and taken prisoner at. Waterloo. He remained in England till 1818; he was then permitted to return to France, and in 1828 was chosen deputy for the Meurthe, and took his seat on the opposition benches. He took an active part in the revolution of 1830 ; and when Lafayette resigned the command of the national guard, Count Lobau was appointed his successor. Shortly afterwards he received the baton of a marshal from Louis Philippe, by whom he was greatly respected, b. 1770 ; d. 1839. Lobeiba, Vasco, lo-beer'-a, author of the cele- brated romance of " Amadis de Gaul," was a native of Porta, in Portugal. In 1386 he was knighted by John I. on the field of battle at Aljubarotta. Southey translated Lobeira's work, and proved it to be an original, and not a trans- lation from the French, as many had previously imagined, d. 1403. Lobo, Jerome, lo'-bo, a Portuguese Jesuit, who travelled through Abyssinia as a missionary, and published a curious account of that country, which was rendered into French by Legrand, whence it was translated into English by Dr. Samuel Johnson, d at Lisbon, 1678. Lock, Matthew, lok, an eminent English com- poser, who set the music to " Macbeth," the instrumental music to the "Tempest," and wrote many other excellent pieces. He is also stated to have composed the music for the public entry of Charles II. into London, b. at Exeter, about 1635 ; d. 1677. Locke,' John, a celebrated English philoso- pher, who was educated at Christ Church, Ox- ford. After taking his degree in arts, he entered on the study of physic ; but, making the ac- quaintance of Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, who became his patron, and urged him to apply to the study of politics, Locke followed his advice, and rendered himself ser- viceable to his lordship and his party, who, hav- ing obtained the grant of Carolina, employed him in drawing up the constitution for the govern- ment of that province. Lord Shaftesbury being appointed chancellor in 1672, made Locke secre- tary of presentations, which place he lost the year following, when his patron was deprived of the great seal. He continued, however, his secretaryship of the Board of Trade, of which Lord Shaftesbury was president. In 1674 that commission was dissolved, and Locke, being apprehensive of consumption, went to Mont- pellier, and continued abroad till 1679, when he was sent for by Lord Shaftesbury, who was ap- pointed president of the council ; but, in 16S2, that nobleman, to avoid a prosecution for high treason, withdrew to Holland, and was accom- panied by his friend. In 1634, Mr. Locke wag removed from his student's place at Christ Church, by the king's command ; and, the year following, the English envoy demanded him of the States of Holland, on suspicion of his being concerned in Monmouth's rebellion, which occa- sioned him to keep private several months, during which he was employed in finishing his " Essay on the Human Understanding," which, however, wn: not published till after the revo- lution of 1683, when he returned to England. He spent the latter years of his life at Gates, in Essex, the seat of Sir Francis Masham, who invited him to reside in Ids family. His " Let- ters on Toleration" were published to promote a scheme which King William had much at THE DICTIONARY Locke feeart, — that of reconciling all sects of Christians. In his retirement he also wrote several of his works. His principal works are an " Essay on the Human Understanding," "Letters on To- leration," "Treatise on Civil Government," " Thoughts concerning Education," and letters and miscellaneous pieces, b. at Wrington, near Bristol, 1632; d. 1704. liOCKE, Joseph, an English civil engineer, studied under George Stephenson, the emi- nent railway engineer, and acted as one of his assistants during the construction of the Man- chester and Liverpool Railway. He was sub- sequently extensively employed as engineer of various railways, both in England and on the continent of Europe. The Paris and Rouen, Rouen and Havre, Paris and Lyons, Caen and Cherbourg, Barcelona and Mattaro, the Dutch, Rhenish, and several other lines, were con- structed under his auspices. In 1847 he was 1 returned to Parliament as member for Honiton ; whereupon he took his place among the liberals. He was a fellow of the Royal Society, and vice- president of the Institution of Civil Engineers. b. at Attercliffe, near Sheffield, 1805 ; d. 1860. Lockhabt, John Gibson, lok'-hart, a modern English writer, author of the " Life of Sir Wal- ter Scott," and other valuable contributions to literature, was the son of a minister of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and was edu- cated at Glasgow University, and afterwards at Balliol College, Oxford. After a short sojourn in Germany, he went to Edinburgh in 1816, intending to practise the law at the Scottish bar. He soon, however, became a prominent member of a small band of Scotch writers, whose chief was Wilson. In 1817, on the estab- lishment of " Blackwood's Magazine," Lock- hart was one of its principal writers. The Toryism of the new periodical, and of its writers, caused both to become especial favourites with Sir Walter Scott, whose political views were of the same nature. Lockhart, in a short time, became an intimate friend of the great novelist, who advanced his interests on every occasion. In 1820 he married Sophia, eldest daughter of Scott, and went to live near Abbotsford. During the succeeding five years he worked with great industry and success in literature. He pro- duced, among others, "Valerius, a Roman story;" " Adam Blair, a story of Scottish Life;" the " Life of Burns ;" the "Life of Napoleon ;" and published his translations of the Spanish Ballads. In 1826 he became editor of the " Quarterly Review," and retained the appoint- ment until 1853. In biography and biographical sketches he was particularly excellent, as is attested by his " Life of Scott," and the smaller piece, entitled " Theodore Hook." His health becoming delicate, he resigned the editorship of the " Quarterly Review," and went to Rome in 1853 ; but, after a short stay, he took up his residence in Scotland, b. at Cambusnethan, (Scotland, 1794; d. at Abbotsford, 1854. Lockman, John, lok'-man, an English author, who wrote " Rosalinda," a musical drama; " David's Lamentations," an oratorio; and was one of the compilers of the great " Historical Dictionary." d. 1771. Lodge, Thomas, lodj, an English author of the 16th century. The records of his life are very obscure, but he is believed to have been, in turn, lawyer, soldier, physician, and author. He was an industrious writer, and translated the works of Jos. 1839. Lofft, Capel, loft, a barrister, and the au- thor of several works in polite literature, was educated at Eton and Cambridge ; called to the bar in 1775 ; and, on succeeding to the Capel estates, in 1781, removed to Troston, in Suffolk, and became an active magistrate of the county till 1800; when, for having too zealously exerted himself as under-sheriff to delay the execution of a young woman who had received sentence of death, he was removed from the commission. Mr. Lofft was a very considerable contributor to most of the magazines of the day; and it was to his active patronage of Robert Bloomfield that the public was indebted for the " Farmer's Boy," and other poems by that author, b. 1751 ; ». 1824. Lopitjs, Dudley, lof-tus, an oriental scholar, who studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and at Oxford; and became vicar-general and judge of the Prerogative Court in Ireland. Among his writings are, a " History of the Eastern and Western Churches," " The History of our Sa- viour, taken from the Greek, Syriac, and other Oriental Authors," " A Translation of the Ethi- opic New Testament into Latin," &c. b. near Dublin, 1618 ; d. 1696. LoGAif, John, log'-an, a Scotch divine and poet, who, in 1781, published the " Philosophy of History," which he had delivered as lectures at Edinburgh. The same year he printed his poems in one volume. His last publication was a pamphlet, entitled " A Beview of the Principal Charges against Mr. Hastings," for which the publisher was tried and acquitted, b. in Scot- land, 1748; d. in London, 1788. Loggan, David, log'-gan, an eminent line- engraver, who went to London during the Com- monwealth, and settling there, was extensively employed. His plates of the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge were excellent specimens of art. During the reign of Charles II. he engraved nearly all the illustrious personages of the time. b. at Dantzic, 1635 ; d. in London, 1693. Lokmak, lok'-man, an Abyssinian philoso- pher, of whom hardly any authentic particulars are known. He appears to have been of humble origin, and some say he was a slave. It is re- lated that he obtained his liberty on the follow- ing occasion. His master having given him a bitter melon to eat, he ate it all. Surprised at his exact obedience, his master asked how it was possible for him to eat such a nauseous fruit Y The slave replied, that he had received so many favours from the kindness of his master, that it could be no wonder if, once in his life, he ate a bitter melon from his hand. This generous answer immediately procured him his liberty. There are so many circum- stances related of him that agree with what is JOHNSON, DR. SAMUEL. JOSEPHINE (EMPRESS OK FRANCE) JUXON, ARCHBISHOP. Plate XIX. OF BIOGRAPHY. .Lollard said of jEsop, and their fables are so much alike, that both are conjectured to have been one and the same person. Lokman's Fables were printed in a collection by Galland, at Paris, in 1724. Lollard, Walter, lol'-lard, the founder of a religious sect in (iermnuy, about 1315. His fol- lowers were the pioneers of the Reformation. The term "lollard" was applied in England to Wickliffe and his adherents. They were said liy the monks to have been grossly licentious and heretical ; but as to this we have only the testimony of their enemies. Lollard himself was burnt at Cologne in 1322. Lombard, John Louis, lom'-bar, an eminent French writer on military tactics, was edu- cated for the legal profession, but quitted it to become professor of artillery, first at Metz, and afterwards at the military school of Auxonne. He translated into French " Robin's Principles of Gunnery," and wrote, "Aide Mercoire," for the use of French artillery officers ; "Treatise on the Flight of Projectiles," &c. b. at Stras- burg, 1723 ; D. 1794. Lomonosov, Michael Vasilievitch, lo'-mo-no- tof, the father of modern Russian literature, was son of a fisherman, and, having fled from his father, took refuge in a monastery, where he received his education, which he afterwards improved at a German university. In 1741 he returned to his native country, and became member of the Academy of Petersburg, and pro- fessorof chemistry. In 1760 he was made rector of I lie university and gymnasium. The odes of Loinonosov are greatly admired for origi- nality of invention, sublimity of sentiment, and enersry of language ; and compensate for the turgid style which, in some instances, has been imputed ts them, by that spirit and fire which are the principal characteristics in this species of composition. Pindar was his great model. He enriched his native language with various kinds of metre. His works, in 3 vols. 8vo, con- sist of pieces in verse and prose, the last being chiefly philosophical dissertations. B. near Kholmogor, Russia, 1711 ; d. 1765. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, second Mar- quis of, lun'-dv.n-der'-re, a celebrated English diplomatist and minister, more generally known as Lord Castlereagh, first entered the British. Parliament in 1794, but did not make his maiden speech until the following year. In 1796 he became Viscount Castlereagh, and, in the first Parliament after the Union, sat for the county of Down. During the Pitt and Adding- ton administrations, he was in office as either privy councillor, president of the board of con- trol, or secretary of state for war and the colonies. In 1807 he joined the Portland ministry, and being generally believed to be answerable for the conduct of the war, be- came, after the disastrous Waleheren expedi- tion, perhaps the most unpopular of public men. His policy led to a duel between himself and Mr. Canning, at that time secretary for foreign affairs, in which the latter was severely wounded. He resigned shortly afterwards, and remained out of office until 1812, when he re- ceived the appointment of secretary of state fur the foreign department, and on the death of Mr. P. rceval became ministerial leader of the House of Commons. At the peace of Paris, May, 1814, he represented the king of England, as lie also did at the congress of Vienna some months later, and a.'ain in 1815, after the battle 057 Londonderry of Waterloo. For these duties his dignified person and manners peculiarly fitted him. In 1818 he was created knight of the Garter, and on the death of his father, three years after- wards, became marquis of Londonderry. As a statesman, h^ views were narrow and un- philosophical ; rns oratory was unequal, some- times approaching brilliancy, but often inele- gant and involved ; bat his great talents for business, combined with his firmness and eharrfi of manner, caused him to achieve higher thingr than more richly-gifted men. b. in Ireland 1769; d. by his own hand, 1822. Londonderry, Charles William Vane, Mai quis of, son of Robert, first marquis of London- derry, and half-brother of the famous Viscount Castlereagh, when little more than fourtetn year; of age entered the army as an ensign in the iosth Foot, accompanied the earl of Moira in his expcditioH to Holland in 1794, was at- tached to Colonel Crawfurd's mission to the Austrian armies from 1795 to 1797, and was severely wounded at th« battle of Dcnjuwei -t h. On his return home he w»s appointee aide-de- camp to his uncle, earl Camden, then lord- lieutenant of Ireland ; and after rising through the various grades of his profession, he joined Sir John Moore in the Peninsula, as brigadier- general, and distinguished himself in the field. He subsequently held the post of adjutant - general to the army under Sir Arthur Wellesley from 1809 to 1813. During the pursuit of Mar- shal Soidt's army across the Douro, he led two squadrons of the 16th and 20th Dragoons, which charged the enemy most gallantly, and took numerous prisoners; and on other occasions his name was honourably mentioned, particu- larly in the affair at El Bodon. For these ser- vices he received the thanks of the House of Commons, and was created a knight of the Bath and of various foreign orders. In 1813 he went to Berlin as ambassador ; and during the summer, acted as military commissioner to the armies of the allied sovereigns, and was espe- cially charged with the supervision of Berna- dotte, the Swedish king, who had armed his troops by the help of subsidies from England, and was at that time wavering in his policy. Next year he was raised to the peerage by the title of Baroa Stewart, was appointed ambassa- dor to Austria, and one of tlipk tant work is a translation of the " Divina Co- mcedia" of the Italian poet Dante, published 1867. Gothc, Jeau-Paul, and other German au- thors have had an especially marked influence on his writings, b. at Portland, Maine, U. S., 1807. Longinus, Dionysius, lon-ji'-nus, a Celebrated Athenian philosopher and rhetorician, was re- lated to Plutarch, and spent the early part of his life in travelling, after which he settled :,' Athens, where he taught the Platonic phil . sophy and rhetoric with great reputation; but was called thence by Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, to be tutor to her children. Th queen was then at war with the emperor Aurelian, and, being defeated by him near Antioch, was com- pelled to shut herself up in Palmyra. The emperor summoned her to surrender .ind she returned an answer, drawn up by Longinus, which filled him with anger; he laid siege to the city, which was surrendered to him a.d. 273. The queen and Longinus endeavoured to fly to Persia, but were overtaken and made prisoners. The queen, intimidated, laid the blame of vindicating the liberty of her country on its true author, and the brave Longinus was carried away to immediate execution. He com- posed critical remarks on the ancient Greek authors, but only a part of his inestimable " Treatise on the Sublime " exists. Longland. (See Langeland, Robert.) Lopez de Vega. (See Vega.) Lopes, Fernao, lo'-pais, a Portuguese his- torian, who wrote a work, the " Chronicle of Joain," describing the great struggle between Portugal and Castile, towards the close of the 14th century, which, as a picture of manners, has been compared to that of Froissart for ac- curate and dramatic reality. Lopes is the oldest of the Portuguese chroniclers. Lopez, Don Francisco Solano, lo'-pes, suc- ceeded his father, Don Carlos Lopez, as presi- dent of Paraguay in 1862. He declared war against Brazil in 1865, and maintained his ground against the allied troops of Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic until 1809, when he was compelled to quit the country, and seek safety in flight. Not content with causing the death of thousands of his country- men by hunger, privation, the bullet, and the sword during the war, he maltreated and exe- cuted every one whom he suspected of opposi- tion to his views, causing even his own brother to be almost cut to pieces by the lash of the executioner, and then shot. b. 1827. — After his flight from Paraguay he was closely pursued by Colonel Martinez, the husband of one of his victims, who had sworn to kill him wherever he might find him. d. 1870. Lohiot, Anthony J oseph, lo'-re-o, an excellent French mechanician, who, in 1753, presented to the Academy of Sciences a machine, by means of which a child might raise a weight of several thousand pounds. He afterwards constructed machines for the naval service, and for working the mines of Pompeau ; claimed the merit of inventing a kind of cement used in building, called " mortier Loriot," and a hydraulic ma- chine for raising water, b. 1716 ; d. 1782. Lorenzo be Medici. (See Medici.) Lobaine, Claude. (See Claude.) Lorain k, Cardinal de. (•SWGiriBn.Charlesde.) Loth A IBS !<> lo-tuir 1 , emperor of Germany, OF BIOGRAPHY. Lothaire was eldest son of Louie-le-Debonnaire, and was associated with him in the empire in 817, and named king of the Lombards in 820. He after- wards dethroned his father, and imprisoned him in a monastery ; upon which his brothers Louis and Charles joined their forces against him, and defeated him at Fontcnay, in 841. Two years afterwards, a treaty was concluded between the three brothers, by which Lothaire retained the title of emperor, with Italy and some French provinces beyond the Rhine and the Rhone. Louis had a tract of country border- ing on the Rhine, and Charles became king of France, d. 855. Lothaihb II., emperor of Germany and duke of Saxony, between 1125 and 1137, died in Italy, on his return from an expedition against Koger, king of Sicily. Lothaike, king of France, was the son of Louis I V., whom he succeeded in 954. He made war against the emperor (Jtho II. d. 986. I.oth a i in:, king of Loraine, was son of the emperor Lothaire I. d. 869. Loudon, John Claudius, lou'-don, a writer of considerable celebrity on agricultural and bo- tanical subjects. Between the years 1820-43 he produced a number of works of the highest importance to the scientific farmer, the gar- dener, and the botanist. The Encyclopaedias of Gardening, Agriculture, Plants, Cottage and Villa Architecture, may be quoted as examples of his great industry and usefulness, b. at Cam- buslang, Lanarkshire, 1783; d. 1843. Loudon, Mrs., wife of the preceding, wrote several valuable works, chiefly connected with botany ; such as " The Ladies' Flower Garden," " botany for Ladies," " The Ladies' Country Companion," &c. b. 1800; d. 1858. Lonis I., surnamed le Debonnaire, loo'-e, emperor of the West, and king of France, suc- ceeded l -i 3 father Charlemagne in 814. In 817 he associated his eldest son, Lothaire, with himself in the empire, and gave to his other two sons, Pepin and Louis, the kingdoms of Aquitaine and Bavaria. This division gave such ofl'ence to Bernard, king of Italy, the ille- gitimate son of Pepin, eldest son of Charle- magne, that he raised an army against the emperor, who put himself at the head of bis troops, and marched into Italy. Bernard, de- serted by his troops, was taken prisoner and deprived of sight. The reign of Louis was trou- bled by continual rebellions of his =ons. In 839, Louis of Bavaria, who thought h had not got a large enough share of his father's pos- sessions, invaded Suabia. The emperor marched against him, but died on his way, on an island of the Rhine, near Mayence, 84o. Louis II., surnamed the Young, was only son of Lothaire I., and was created king of Italy in 844, and ascended the imperial throne in 855. b. about 822; d. 875. Louis III., called the Blind, was the son of Boson, king of Provence, and Ermengarde, daughter of the emperor Louis the Young. He succeeded his father at the age of 10, and in 900 contested the imperial throne with Beren- ger, who, having surprised him at Verona, de- priveo him of his eyes. d. about 923. Louis IV., was the son of the emperor Arnul- phus, whom he succeeded in 899. The empire was a scene of desolation during his reign, being con- stantly ravaged by the Hungarians, d. 911. — He was the last prince in Germany of the Car- lovingian race. 659 Louis Louis V., commonly called Louis of Bavaria, was the son of Louis the Severe, duke of Bavaria. He was elected emperor in 1314, and at the same time Frederick le Bel was chosen at Cologne by another party of electors, which occasioned a war between them. Frederick was taken prisoner, but gained his liberty by renouncing his claim in favour of his rival. Pope John XXII. being opposed to that arrangement, in 1322 issued his bull of deposition against Louis, who, in return, appealed to a general council, and marched into Italy, where he procured the election of Peter de Corbiere (Nicholas V.), and by whom he was crowned at Rome. Five elec- tors, on the other hand, chose Charles of Luxem- burg to be emperor ; on which the civil war was about to be renewed, when Louis was killed by a fall from his horse, in 1347. Louis I., king of France. (See Louis I., emperor of the West.) Louis II., the Stammerer, so called from a defect in his speech, the son of Charles the Bald, was crowned king of Aquitaine in 867, and suc- ceeded his father as king of France in 877. He was obliged to deliver up Provence to Boson, by whom it was erected into a kingdom. His children were Louis and Carloman, who divided the kingdom between them, and a posthumous son, who was afterwards Charles the Simple. b. 846; d. at Compiegne, 879. Louis III., the son of the preceding, and brother of Carloman, enjoyed the kingdom with his brother. He defeated Hugh the Bastard, son of Lothaire, marched against Boson, kin.^ of Provence, and opposed the progress of the Normans. He died without issue, 882. Louis IV. was the son of Charles the Simple, and ascended the throne in 936. He invaded Nor- mandy, but was defeated and taken prisoner in 944. He regained his liberty the following year, after being obliged to cede Normandy to Richard, son of Duke William, and Laon to Hugh, father of Hugh Capet. He afterwards recovered the latter territory, and died of a fall from his horse, 954. Louis V., surnamed Faineant, or Do-Nothing. succeeded his father Lotharius in 9S6, and soon after took the city of Rheims. He was preparing to march to the assistance of the count of Barcelona, who was pressed by the Saracens, when he is said to have been poisoned by his queen, 987. After his death, the crown devolved by right to his uncle, Charles, duke of Lower Loraine , but that prince being disliked by the French, it was conferred on Hugh Caper,. Louis VI., called the Fat, the son of Philip I., succeeded to the throne in 1103. His reign was disturbed by wars with the Normans, and also by feuds among his vassals. He also quarrelled with Henry i. of England, and thus was com- menced the war between the English and French which lasted during three centuries. He was a good and wise monarch, and was ably supported by his minister, the Abbe' Suger. d. 1137. Louis VII. was the son and successor of the preceding. He had a dispute with Pope Inno- cent II. on the right of presenting to benefices, and was excommunicated by that pontiff, who also laid his kingdom under interdict. Thibault, count of Champagne, being devoted to the pope, Louis declared war against him, and ravaged his country. A reconciliation afterwards took place between them, and Louis, by the persua- sions of St. Bernard, engaged in a crusade, but uu a THE DICTIONARY Loui3 was defeated by Saladin, and, on his return to Kurope, was taken at sea by the Greeks, but delivered by the general of Roger, king of Sicily. Having divorced his queen, Eleanor, she mar- ried Henry of Normandy, afterwards Henry II. of England, to whom she brought, as her dower, the provinces of Poitou and Guienne. This pro- duced a new war between England and France, which lasted, with little intermission, twenty- one years, b. 1120; j>. 1180. Louis VII I., surnamed Coeur-de-Lion, was the son of Philip Augustus. He signalized himself in several expeditions during the lifetime of his father, and ascended the throne in 1223. He took Avignon, and wrested Rochelle and several other places from the English ; but died of a pestilential disease in his camp at Montpensier, >n Auvergne, in 1226. b. 1187. Louis IX., called Saint Louis, the son of the preceding, by Blanche of Castile, ascended the throne in 1226. He maintained a successful war against Henry III., king of England, which ended in a peace favourable to Louis, who, having been seized with a dangerous illness, made a vow that, if he recovered, he would take the cross for the purpose of regaining the Holy Land from the intidels. Being restored to health, he spent four years in preparing for this expedition, and, in 1248, embarked for the East with a great force, leaving his kingdom to the care of his mother. After taking Damietta, he passed the Nile, and obtained two great victories over the Saracens. At length famine and disease attacked his army, and the king, with his nobles, fell into the hands of the infidels. Louis, to recover his liberty, consented to pay a large ransom, to deliver up Damietta, and to con- clude a truce for ten years. After spending four years in Palestine, he returned to France. In 1270 he undertook another expedition against the infidels, but died in his camp before Tunis, in Africa, the same year. He was canonized in 1297. b. at Poissy, 1215. Louis X., surnamed Hutin, an old French term for " quarrelsome," succeeded Philip the Fair, his father, in 1314, having before been king of Navarre, in right of his mother. He recalled the Jews to his kingdom, and made a successful war against the count of Flanders, b. at Paris, 1289; d. at Vincennes, 1316. Louis XI., son of Charles VII., distinguished himself by his valour in his youth, parti- cularly against the English, whom he com- pelled to raise the siege of Dieppe, in 1443 ; but the glory he hereby acquired was tarnished by his rebelling against his father, who died of a broken heart in 1461. Louis, on ascending the throne, treated France as a conquered country, for which several of the nobility formed a league airainst him, and some of his own family joined the malcontents. After a severe but indecisive battle at Montlheri, in 1465, a peace was con- cluded, by which Louis gave to the leaguers all their demands; but not fulfilling his engage- ments, the war was rekindled, and he was made prisoner by the duke of Burgundy, who com- pelled him to make a peace still more disadvan- tageous than the former. In 1474, the dukes of liurgundy and Brittany formed a league with Edward IV., king of England, against Louis, who, however, contrived to disengage the Eng- lish monarch from the alliance, by a treaty con- cluded at Amiens in 1475. The duke of Burgundy was in consequence obliged to conclude a peace for nine years. Louis was a singular compound 6fl0 Louis of firmness and superstition. His most promi- nent trait was, however, duplicity of disposition ; his constant maxim being, " He who cannot dis- semble knows not how to reign." But, by protecting the middle classes and favouring industry, he was a benefactor of his country. B. 1423; d. 1483. Louis XII., surnamed the Father of his People, was the son of Charles, duke of Orleans. He succeeded Charles VIII. in 1498, and took Milan, Genoa, and Naples ; but, after ravaging Italy, the trench were expelled in 1513. Heuw,- VIII. of England, the Venetians, and the Swiss attacked Louis in his own dominions, and he was obliged to sue for peace, d. 1515. Louis XIII. was the son of Henry IV. Being only nine years old at the death of his father, the kingdom was placed under the regency ot his mother, Mary de Medici. The Marshal d'Ancre had an uncontrolled sway at court till 1617, when he was assassinated, with the king's consent, and his wife condemned to death as a sorceress. Vitri, the perpetrator of this act, was made a marshal of France ; the bishop ot Lucon, afterwards Cardinal Kichelieu, became prime minister. Rochelle, the stronghold of the French Protestants, was taken by the Cardinal, after a long siege, in 1628. Alter this event, so fatal to the Protestant interest in France, Louis assisted the duke of Mantua against the duke of Savoy, and entered on the campaign in per- son, in which he showed skill and bravery. In 1031 a treaty was concluded, by which the duke was continued in his estates. The year follow- ing, Gaston of Orleans, only brother of the king, revolted, out of dislike to Richelieu, and was assisted by the duke de Montmorency, who, being wounded and taken prisoner in 1632, was beheaded at Toulouse. Gaston took refuge with the duke of Loraine, who, for protecting him, lost his whole dominions. This was followed by a war with Spain, which lasted twenty-five years, and was attended with various success ; but it greatly impoverished the nation, and dis- contented the people. Louis and his minister the cardinal were attacked with a mortal dis- ease nearly together ; the latter died in 16i2, and the king in the following year. Louis XIV., son of the preceding, being only five years old on the death of his father, the regency was intrusted to the hands of the queen-mother, Anne of Austria, under whom Mazarin acted as prime minister. The nation was then involved in a war with Spain and the emperor of Germany, which was maintained with glory to the French arms by the prince ot Conde and the famous Turenne. France pushed her conquests into Flanders, Artois, Loraine, and Catalonia. The Swedes, who were in alli- ance with Louis, gained a great victory over the imperialists in Bohemia; Turenne took Treves and re-established the elector; Conde gained the battle of Nordlingen, took Furnes and Dunkirk, and defeated the archduke on the plains of Sens, in 1648, after reducing Ypres. The Spanish fleet was defeated on the coast of Italy by the French. This year a separate peace was made between Louis, Ferdinand III., Christina, queen of Sweden, and the states of the empire. By this treaty, Jletz, Toul, Ver- dun, and Alsace were attached to France ; but while Louis was successful abroad, his kingdom was distracted by internal divisions : the Parisians, irritated against Mazarin and the queen-mother, and headed by the duke de OP BIOGRAPHY. Louis Beaufort aud the prince of Cond6, took up arms. During this revolt, known as the civil war of La Fronde, the king, his mother, and the cardinal were obliged to fly. The Spaniards, profiting by these troubles, made several con- quests in Champagne, Loraine, and Italy. In 1651, the king assumed the government ; but Mazarin returning to power the year following, the civil war was renewed. Conde headed the malcontents, and defeated the Marshal d'Hoc- quincourt at Bleneau, but soon afterwards he was attacked by the royal army and made pri- soner. In the meanwhile, the archduke Leo- pold took from the French Gravelines and Dunkirk, and Don John of Austria made him- self master of Barcelona; but domestic tran- quillity being restored, these losses were re- paired. Turenne gained several battles, and took a number of places, which produced a peace between France and Spain in 1659. The principal article in this treaty was the marriage of the king with the infanta Maria Theresa. The minister of Finance, Fouquet, being con- demned to banishment for peculation, was suc- ceeded by Colbert, one of the ablest ministers and financiers that ever lived : arts and commerce were cherished and flourished ; foreign colonies were established; and at home was founded the Academy of Sciences and another of painting and sculpture. On the war breaking out be- tween England and Holland, Louis joined with the latter ; but after a few naval actions, peace was concluded in 1067. On the death of Philip IV., father of the queen, Louis laid claim to the vacant throne, and marched into the Low Countries, where he took a number of towns, particularly Lisle. His progress caused such alarm, that a treaty was entered into between England, Holland, and Sweden, to check his ambition; but, just as the treaty was completed, peace was restored between Louis and Spain. In 1672 the French king made an attack on Holland, and reduced some of the provinces in a few weeks. This invasion produced a new confederacy against Louis, between the emperor of Germany, Spain, and the elector of Branden- burg, in which all the allies were unsuccessful, and which terminated, in 1678, by the treaty of Nimeguen. Amidst all his glory, Louis com- mitted an act of impolitic cruelty by the revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes, granted by Henry IV. in favour of the Protestants. This measure drove from France a vast number of ingenious mechanics and others, who settled in England and Holland. About this time another league was formed against France by the prince of Orange, the duke of Savoy, and the electors of Bavaria and Brandenburg. To this league were afterwards added the emperor of Germany and the king of Spain. The dauphin had the command of the French army, and opened the campaign by taking Philipsburg, in October, 168a ; but he was soon forced to retreat before a superior force. In 1690 the French were more successful ; but were defeated in the naval action of La Hogue, by Admiral Kussell, in 1692. Louis, in person, took Namur, and Marshal Luxemburg gained the battles of Stecnkirk and Neerwinden. In 1696, Savoy made a separate peace with France, which was followed by a general one at Ryswick, in 1697. The tran- quillity of Europe, however, was again broken by the death of Charles 11., king of Spain, in 1700. He left his crown to Philip of France, duke of Anjou, who assumed the title of Philip jtt'l Louis V. In opposition to him, the archduke Charles laid claim to the throne, and was supported by the emperor of Germany, by Holland, and Eng- land. Prince Eugene had the command of the imperial forces, with which he took Cremona. In 1704, Eugene and Marlborough gained the battle of Blenheim : the year following, Nice and Villa-Franca were taken by the French, who also gained a dearly-bought victory a.' Cassano over Eugene; on the other hancl Barcelona surrendered to the archduke, and Gironne declared in his favour : the battle o\ Kamilies was gained by the duke of Marl- borough, and Prince Eugene saved Turin by defeating the duke of Orleans. In 1708, Lisle was retaken by the allies, who also gained the battle of Oudcnarde, and the imperialists made themselves masters of Naples. The year fol- lowing, the French lost Tournay, and suffered a defeat at Malplaquet. In 1713, a treaty of peace was signed at Utrecht by Francc.Spain, England, Savoy, Portugal, Prussia, and Holland ; and the next year peace was concluded with the emperor at Radstadt. Louis, by his first wife, had issue one son, Louis, Dauphin of France, who died in 1711, leaving three sons, Louis, Philip, and Gaston. Louis XIV. had several illegitimate children by his mistresses. Without forgetting the intolerance and cruelty of Louis towards those of a different religion from himself, it must be allowed that he was a remarkable and able man. One great fact stands forth promi- nently during his reign, — he was well served. But when we perceive how uniformly gracious he was towards those under his command ; how quick at discovering merit; how unwilling tn change the agents of his will ; we may cease to wonder that a stern man and absolute monarch should find even great intellects to obey his be- hests with zeal and devotion. His reign of 72 years was a brilliant epoch. It gave birth to Conde, Turenne, and Vauban; to Colbert and Louvois ; to Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, Boileau, Bossuet, Fcndlon, Lebrun, and Perrault. The most celebrated of Louis's many mistresses were Mesdames de la Val- liere, dc Montcspan, Fontanges, and de Main- tenon ; with the latter of whom, he, at the close of his life, when he had become serious and devout, engaged in a secret marriage. The best works to consult relative to this remarkable reign, are Voltaire's "Le Siecle de Louis XIV.;" some pieces of the king, published in 1806, under the title of" Works of Louis XIV. ;" the "Memoirs of De Ketz," and those of Saint- Simon. An abridged translation of the latter was produced by Mr. Bayle St. John in 1857. Louis XIV. was b. 1038; d. 1715. Louis XV. was the great-grandson of the preceding, and succeeded him in 1715, at the age of five years, under the regency of Philip, duke of Orleans. In 1723 ha was declared of age. The beginning of his reign was troubled by the Mississippi scheme of the famous Law, which ruined thousands of people. (See Law.) On the death of the duke of Orleans, in 1723, he was succeeded, as prime minister, by tlie duke of Bourbon, who was displaced in 1726, when Cardinal Floury entered upon that station. The same year the king married the daughter of the king of Poland. On the death of the last-mentioned monarch, in 1733, Louis sup- ported the election of his queen's relation Sta- nislaus against the elector of Saxony, which occasioned a war, known as the War of the THE DICTIONARY Louis Polish Succession, between Prance, Austria, and Russia. Stanislaus, however, was forced to abandon the throne ; but the French were suc- cessful in Italy, on which a peace was concluded in 1738. On the death of the emperor Charles VI., in 1740, the succession of the house of Austria was disputed by four persons, and Louis declared himself against Maria Theresa, daugh- ter of the late emperor, contrary to his own engagements. He supported the pretensions of tfcr "lector of Bavaria, who called himself Charles Ml. l$j£. wince took Prague, where he was crowned king c' Bohemia; but, in 1742, the city was retaken, and the allies, with the king of Great Britain at their head, gained the battle of Dettingen. In 1744, Louis took the field in person, and captured Courtray, Menin, and Ypres; he was also present at the battles of Fontenoy and Lawfeld. These advantages were accompanied by the taking of Ghent, Ostend, Brussels, Bergen-op-Zoom, and other places. On the other hand, the troops of the duke of Saxony and of the queen of Hungary ravaged Provence, and the English completely ruined the French commerce at sea; which induced the peace of Aii-la-Chapelle in 1748. In 1755 a new war broke out between France and Eng- land, in which the latter power had Prussia for an ally, while Austria leagued with France. At first the French were very successful, by taking Port Mahon, defeating the duke of Cumberland at Hastenbeck, and forcing the English general and his army to capitulate at Closterseven. The electorate of Hanover was conquered ; but, in 1757, the French and Austrians were de- feated at Kosbach : this was followed by other losses, both by land and sea, particularly of Canada. Nor was the fape of affairs altered for the better by the famous family compact in 1701, by which all the families of the house of Bourbon allied as in a common cause. A treaty of peace was signed at Paris in 1763. The year following, the order of the Jesuits was abolished in France. Louis was a debauched and feeble- minded monarch, and to his acts was chiefly due the storm that broke over the head of his unfortunate successor, b. at Fontainebleau, 1710; d. 1774. Louis XVI., was the son of Louis the Dauphin and of Maria Josephine, daughter of Frederick Augustus, king of Poland. On the death of his father, in 1765, he became heir to the throne, and, in 1770, married Marie Antoinette, arch- duchess of Austria. In 1774 he succeeded to the crown of France. At that period the finances were in an exhausted state, commerce was nearly ruined, the marine dismantled, and the national debt enormous. To repair the con- dition of public affairs, Vergennes was made secretary of state, and Turgot had the direction of the finances ; Malesherbcs was appointed a member of the council, Sartine had the manage- ment of the marine department, and Maurepas was placed at the head of the administration. The li st act of Louis was very popular; he dis- pense 1 with the customary tax paid by the peo;.'c at the beginning of every new reign. In 177 1 the parliament was assembled, and affairs be;; an to assume a favourable aspect, when, un- fortunately, the French government, always .Jft. ius of England, took part with the revolted ir, «ricans, and a ruinous war ensued between '.'it: two countries, which, though it terminated iB the loss of the colonies to the English, brought about a bloody revolution in France. The 662 Louis finances of the latter country were completely exhausted, and the Cardinal de Brienne, who had succeeded Calonne as minister, framed imposts which laid such intolerable burdens upon the people, that the parliament refused to register them. For this the members were exiled to Troyes, but were afterwards recalled by Louis, who, at their request, convened the States- General of three orders, — clergy, nobility, and commons. This assembly met in May, 1789. The public mind became violently agitated ; the people of Paris rose, and, on the 14th of July of that year, Btormed the Bastille. In October, the armed mob, with a prodigious number of women, marched to Versailles, which palace they forced, murdered the guards, and searched in vain for the queen, who would have shared the same fate had she not escaped from her bed. The result of this insurrection was the leading of the king and his family in triumph to Paris, amidst all the insults of a lawless rabble. In February, 1790, Louis was forced to accept the new constitution ; but, notwithstanding all his concessions, finding himself a mere prisoncj at Paris, and exposed daily to new injuries, he resolved to escape. Accordingly, in the night of June 21, 1791, he and his family quitted the Tuileries; but, at Varennes, his person was recognised, and he was conducted back to Paris, where he became a prisoner in his own palace, and sull'ered the vilest indignities. War was declared against France by the emperor and the king of Prussia, and the duke of Brunswick marched into the country, but was forced to retreat. In the mean time, the people were wrought up to a pitch of savage ferocity by factious leaders, and assaulted the iuileries. The king and family sought refuge in the .Na- tional Assembly, who ordered them to bo sent to the Temple. The Legiz'ative Assembly gave way to the National Conven'ion, which brought Louis to a mock trial. His defence was con- ducted by Malesherbcs, Tron.-het, and Deseze ; and hisown deportment was.as it had uniformly been during his confinement, firm and modest, dignified and resigned. In January, 1793, he was adjudged to death for conspiring against the public good, and, on the 21st of the same month, ascended the scaffold on the Place Louis XV., and would have addressed the people, but was prevented by the beating of drums purposely placed there. Louis XVI. had all the virtues that adorn private life ; but he was deficient in firmness, and, perhaps, even singleness of pur- pose. He was an accomplished prince, and was fond of mechanics ; as a locksmith, he was par- ticularly skilful, b. 1751; guillotined 1793. Louis XVII., second son of the preceding, was at first styled due de Normandie, and alter the death of his elder brother, Louis-Joseph, in 1789, became dauphin of France. Imprisoned in the Temple with his relatives, he was, after his father's death, styled monarch by the royal- ists and foreign powers. A cobbler, named Simon, was appointed hjs gaoler, with the derisive title of tutor. He died in 1795, it is suspected of poison, but it is more probable that his life was brought to a premature close by the harsh treatment to which he had been subjected in prison. Many impostors sought to pass for the veritable Louis XVII., but succeeded in obtaining but a small number of dupes. This prince was born in 17&5. Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI. As count of Provence, he had, during the first OP BIOGRAPHY. Louis-Philippe period of the Revolution, shown a liberal dis- position, and voted both in the Assembly of Notables and in the States-General against the government of his brother. Observing, how- ever, the violent tendencies of the Jacobins, he resolved to quit France, and took his departure shortly after Louis XVI., in June, 1791. More fortunate than his brother, he succeeded in effecting his escape out of Prance, and reached Brussels. In 1792, he placed himself at the head of 6000 men, and joined the Prussian army that was marching on Prance; but the defeat of Valmy destroyed all his hopes. On the death of Louis XVII., in 1795, the count of Provence assumed the title of king, as Louis XVI1L, and was recognised by the foreign powers. Alter residing at various places on the continent of Europe, he went to England, and lived at Hart- well, in Buckinghamshire, until the events of 1814. On the fall of Napoleon I., in May of that year, Louis was placed on the throne of France by the allies. His first act was to declare himself a constitutional and not an absolute monarch. In June, 1814, he laid before the legislature a charter, which afterwards became the base of the law of the kingdom. The sud- den return of Napoleon from Elba, in March, caused Louis to be abandoned by the army and a considerable portion of the nation. At this juncture he fled, and took refuge at Ghent : but after the battle of Waterloo, in June, 1815, was once more placed upon the throne, which he retained till his death. Louis XVIII. was, tor a Bourbon, a tolerably enlightened and liberal prince : he was a witty and cultivated man. He left no children, and was suc- ceeded by his brother, Charles X. b. 1755; n. 1824. Louis-Philippe, king of the French, was eldest son of Louis-Philippe-Joseph, due d'Or- leaus, styled Philippe- Egalite. Louis- Philippe bore the title of due de Ohartres until the death of his father, in 1793, after which he was usually styled due d'Orleans. Between the years 17t 9 and 1792, he served in the French revolutionary j army, and signalized himself at Valmy and Jemappes. Being cited, together with his faith- j ful friend General Dumouriez, to appear before the Committee of Public Safety, and well know- , ing the sanguinary nature of that tribunal, j which had, seven months before, sent his father to the guillotine, he fled across the Belgian frontier, and took refuge in the Netherlands, then under the sway of Austria. He was cordially received by the latter power, and a commission was offered to him, but he refused to tight against his native country. Alter travel- ling through Germany in disguise, he went to Switzerland, and at Zurich met his sister Adelaide, known as Mademoiselle d'Orleans, whom he shortly afterwards placed with Madame de Genlis, in a convent near Baumgarten. His funds being now exhausted, he sought and ob- tained the post of professor in the college of Keichenau, where, under the assumed name of Chabaud, he taught mathematics and geography during eight months. Thence he went to Baum- garten ; but, being discovered by the French authorities, he set out for Hamburg, in the hope of obtaining a passage to America. Disappointed in this expectation, he travelled on foot through Norway, Sweden, and Finland, as far as the North Cape. The Directory having ottered to release his two brothers, the "due de Montpensier and the count de Beauiolais. if Louis would eon- 063 L'Ouverture sent to emigrate to America, he went on board a vessel, and sailed for the United States in 1796. After an adventurous life in the New World, the three Orleans princes returned to Europe in 1800, and took up their residence in England. The due de Montpensier died at Twickenham in 1807, and his brother, the count de Beaujolais, in the following year at Malta, whither he had been accompanied by the duo d'Orleans. In the same year Louis went to reside with his mother and sister at Palermo, at which place the king of Naples and Sicily was dwelling, under British protection, Murat occu- pying the throne of Naples. In 1809 he married the king's daughter, the Princess Amelie. With the exception of a visit to Spain, in 1810, be continued to live at Palermo till 1814, when, on hearing the news of Napoleon's fall, he im- mediately set out for Paris. On Napoleon's return from Elba, Louis Philippe sent his family to England, and himself for a time joined the Army of the North, in obedience to the com- mand of Louis XVIII. He next went again to Twickenham, and remained there during the Hundred Days, but was recalled to Paris to take his seat in the Chamber of Peers. Aeing regarded with peculiar jealousy by Louis XVIII., he quitted Paris, and did not return to France until 1827, when he went to reside at Neuilly, where he lived in seclusion till he was summoned to the throne as king of the French, in 1830. During seventeen years he enjoyed his elective throne, France, in the mean while, growing wealthy and tranquil. He maintained peace with Europe, and added the colony of Algeria to France. But although he had ob- tained and earned the title of the " Napoleon of Peace," his rule was characterized by an insin- cere policy towards his allies, — the marriage of his son the due de Montpensier to a Spanish princess being a notable instance ; while at home, his restless subjects, tired of what La- martine termed his government of "vulgar utility," and harassed by illiberal restriclions, burst out into a revolution in 1848. Had Louis- Philippe been inclined to turn tlie bayonets of his soldiery upon the people, it may be doubted whether he would have lost his throne. He fled from Paris in disguise, however, and reached Newhaven in March, 1848. The queen of Eng- land assigned Clarcmont as his residence, and there ho continued to dwell till his death in 1850. i). at Paris, 1773. Louis, dauphin of France, was the son of Louis XV. and Maria Lcczinski. He was father of Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. b. 1729; d. 1705. Louiherboueg, Philip James de, loo'-tair~ boorq, an eminent landscape-painter, who, after obtaining considerable success in his profession at Paris, went to London, in 1771, and was for some time engaged as scene-painter at the opera-house ; a branch of art in which he is> said to have been without a rival, b. at Stras- burg, 174t) ; d. in London, 1812. L'OuviiBTUKi;, Toussaint, loo'-vail--toor, a negro, who, in 1795, assisted the French general Laveaux in driving the English and Spanish from the island of St. Domingo. He subse- quently became commander-in-chief of the armv of St. Domingo, and, in 1800, caused himself to be named president. In 180 ; he refused to recognise General Leclerc, who was sent to re- establish French authority, but was compelled to capitulate and was transported to Franco. l'HE DICTION ARV Louvet de Couvray where he died in prison, 1803. b. at St Domingo, 1743. Louvet de Couvbay, Jean Baptiste, lou'-vai de(r) koos'-rai, a French writer, and one of the members of the National Convention. He had the courage to oppose Robespierre when at the height of his power, and yet escaped the ven- geance of the tyrant. He wrote a romance, en- titled the " Amours of the Chevalier Faublas," a political journal called the " Sentinel," a " Jus- tification of Paris," and an account of himself, and the dangers which he passed through, b. at Paris, 1764; d. 1797. L»uvois, Francois Michel Letellier, Marquis de, lo-vwaw, prime minister to Louis XIV. To him are principally attributable the devastation of the Palatinate and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. After having served the "Grand Monarque" during 26 years, he fell under his displeasure, and was only saved from disgrace by sudden death. He was one of those men whose talents we may admire, while we abhor his acts. The Hotel des In- valides was founded by him. b. at Paris, 1641 ; d. 1691. Lovat, Simon Fraser, Lord, luv'-at, a Scot- tish chieftain, who, in 1715, took Inverness from the rebels; but, on the breaking out of the second rebellion in 1745, declared for the Pretender, for which he was taken prisoner and sent to London, where, in 1747, he was tried, found guilty, and beheaded, b. near Inverness, 1668. Loveb, Samuel, luv-er, poet, novelist, and painter, the son of a member of the Dublin stock exchange, first made himself known to fame as an artist, especially in the department of minia- ture portraits, in which he became famous, and was elected a member of the Royal Hibernian Society of Arts. While practising art, he found time to contribute to a periodical a series of " Legends and Tales Illustrative of Irish Cha- racter," which procured for him the entree to the best society in the Irish capital. He re- moved to London about 1827, where he found profitable employment for his pencil, if not for his pen. His engagements as an artist, how- ever, did not prevent him from continuing his Irish sketclkes in a second volume. He now became an extensive contributor to magazine literature, and produced a series of very charm- ing songs illustrative of the popular supersti- tions of his native country: "Angels' Whis- pers," " True Love can ne'er Forget," " Molly fiawn," " The May Dew," " The Four-leaved Shamrock," " Molly Carew," " Rory O'More," &c., and soon afterwards he published his songs in a collected form, as well as the novels of " Rory O'More," "Handy Andy," and the "Treasure Trove." He was also the author of several operas founded upon his own works, among which arc " Rory O'More," " The White Horse of the Peppers," "The Happy Man," &c. Finding that his sight was becoming im- paired by his unremitting devotion to pencil and pen, Mr. Lover decided on making his public appearance in London in a monologue interspersed with his own songs and recitations. This experiment he commenced in 1844, with perfect success, and continued the entertain- ment, varied and changed from time to time, at various periods, both in Great Britain and in America. After his return from the New World in ist-t, be illustrated his transatlantic experiences hi a second entertainment, wliich tittt Lowth was equally successful with the former. In 1859, he published an illustrated volume of poems, which contained some fine passages, but did not attract very much attention. He for several years enjoyed a pension for his literary services from the crown, b. 1797 ; d. 1868. Lowb, Rt. Hon. Robert, lo, was educated at Winchester and University College, Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1842. He was a mem- ber of the council of New South Wales from 1843 to 1850. In 1851 he returned to England, and after holding various minor appointments, was vice-president of the Council of Education from 1859 to 1864. Although holding advanced opinions, he opposed the reform bills of Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli of 1866 and 1867 ; but, notwithstanding this, he took office under the former in 1868 as Chancellor of the Ex- chequer, b. 1811. Lowendal, Ulrich Frederic Waldcmar, Mar- shal, lo'-"n-dal, a famous military officer and engineer, began his military career in Poland in 1713 ; but entered the Danish service during the war with Sweden. He afterwards served in Hungary, and next took part in the wars of Naples and Sicily. He returned to Poland in 1721, and was made colonel of infantry and commander of the royal horse guards. During the peace he studied gunnery and engineering, and was made field-marshal and inspector- general of the Saxon infantry in the service of Augustus, king of Poland. In 1734 and 1735 he was in the Austrian service ; and subsequently entered that of Russia. He accepted the com- mission of lieutenant-general in the French army in 1743, and distinguished himself at the sieges of Menin, Ypres, Friburg, &c, and also at the battle of Fontenoy, In 1747 he took Rergen-op-Zoom by storm, which, till then, had been deemed impregnable; for which and his other services he was created marshal of France. His knowledge of engineering and military tactics in general was of first-rate order ; he spoke all the European languages with fluency : and with these accomplishments combined mo- desty and amiable manners, b. at Hamburg, 1700; r>. 1755. Lowry, Wilson, F.R.S., lo'-re, an English engraver, was the son of Mr. Strickland Lowry, a portrait painter, at Whitehaven. Wilson Lowry was the inventor of a ruling-machine, capable of ruling successive lines, either equi- distant or in just gradations, from the greatest required width to the nearest possible approxi- mation; also of one capable of drawing lines to a point, and of forming concentric circles ; he likewise introduced the use of diamond points for etching, and many other useful improve ments in the art ; and was the first who suo cceded in what is technically termed " biting in" well upon steel. For thirty years before hit death he was engaged by eminent publishers on illustrated works ; and attained to the highest rank in his peculiar branch of art. n 1702; D. 1820. LowTir, William, louth, a learned Knglish divine, who wrote " Commentaries on the Four Greater Prophets," " Directions for the Profit- able Reading of the Holy Scriptures," " A Vin- dication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the Old and New Testaments," in auswer to Leclerc, and other important works. B. in London, 1661 ; D. 1732. Lowtb, Robert, a learned Knglish preluu. son of the above, who, in 1741, was elected OF BIOGRAPHY. Loyola professor of poetry at Oxford, and in that capa- city delivered his admirable lectures, which were printed at Oxford in 1753, under the title of "Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews." After passing through various minor grades of the church, he became bishop of London in 1777. Besides the above work, Bishop Lowth published a trans- lation of Isaiah from the Hebrew, an English (•rammar, the " Life of William of Wykeham," (ho Life of his father, in the " Biograplua Uritannica," a Poem on the Genealogy of Christ, some controversial letters with Bishop War- burton, and sermons on public occasions, b. 1710; d. 1787. Lotola, Ignatius, loi'-o-la, founder of the order of Jesuits, the youngest son of a Spanish nobleman of high birth, was brought up to the military profession, and obtained a com- mission in the Spanish army ; but, breaking his leg at the siege of Pampeluna, he made a vow to the Virgin, that if he recovered he would go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and devote himself to a religious course of life, which reso- lution he fulfilled. After studying Latin a short time at Barcelona, he commenced preaching, and began to gather disciples, for which he was imprisoned; but still persevered in adding to the number of the brethren of the Order of Jtsus, as they were called, and for which, at length, he obtained a confirmation by Pope Paul III. This order increased prodigiously during the lifetime of Loyola, who, however, was not the author of the pernicious maxims which afterwards disgraced it. b. 1491 ; d. 1550. Lucanus, Marcus Anmeus, Luean, lu-kai'-nus, a Latin poet. Going at an early age to Rome, his verses caused him to become the favourite of the emperor Nero; but being foolish enough to enter into competition with his imperial patron, who was desirous of being considered the first poet of his time, he was forbidden to publish any more poetry. He was subsequently condemned to death for conspiring against the life of Nero. The only poem of his at present extant is the " Pharsalia," which describes the war from the commencement to Csesar's meeting with Cleopatra in Egypt, b. in Spain, 38; d. 65. Lucian, lit.' she- an, a celebrated Greek writer. His father, who was poor, placed him with a sculptor; but, disliking that business, he studied law, which profession he also abandoned, and devoted himself to philosophy and elo- quence. Marcus Aurelius had a great esteem for his talents, and appointed him registrar of Kgypt. His works, which are written in the Attic dialect, consist mostly of satirical dia- logues, abounding with witticisms, but profane and obscene. The best editions of Lucian are those of Lehmann and Dindorf. Tooke, Bloont, and Francklin have given English translations of his writings, d. at an advanced age, about 200. Lucilius, Caius, lu-sil'-e-us, a Roman satirist, who served under Scipio in his expedition against the Numantians. He is considered by some as the author of a poetical satire ; but only a few of his verses remain, which are in the " Corpus Poetarum" of Mattaire. b. 148 B.C. ; i)., it is supposed, in 103 b.c. Lucius I., Pope, lu'-nhe-us, succeeded Cor- nelius in 252. and was martyred the year fol- lowing. Lucius II., a native of Bologna, succeeded Celestin II. in 114-1, and died in 11 15, of a bluw vhieh he received in a popular commotion. 665 Lucullus Lucius HI. succeeded Alexander III. in 1181. The Roman people having risen against him, he retired to Verona, but afterwards returned to Rome, and, by the help of the Italian princes, subdued his enemies. A new commotion com- pelled him, however, to retire again. He made a constitution for the extirpation of heresies, which laid the foundation of the Inquisition. d. at Verona, 1185. Lucretia, lu-kre'-she-a, a celebrated Roman lady, was the daughter of Lucretius, governor of Rome, and the wife of Collatinus, a relation of Tarquin. Her husband being at the siege of Ardea, a conversation took place one evening at supper, between him and the three sons of Tar- quin, respecting the prudence of their wives. At length it was agreed upon to ride to Rome and see how the ladies were employed. The daughters-in-law of Tarquin were regaling with some companions of their own age, while Lu- cretia was engaged with her maidens in working upon wool. The dispute having terminated in her favour, the young men returned to the camp; but Sextus, the eldest of the king's sons, conceived a violent passion for Lucretia, which he was determined to gratify, without any re- gard to the principles of honour. Accordingly, some days after, he secretly left the camp and visited Lucretia, who treated him with the civility due to his rank. After supper he was con- ducted to his chamber; and, when he thought that the family were asleep, he stole softly, with a sword in his hand, to Lucretia's room, and made use of every effort to prevail over her virtue. Finding his artifices fruitless, he threat- ened that, after slaying her, he would kill a slave, and lay the body by hers; then report that, having caught them together, he had slain them both. This menace succeeded ; for the dread of dishonourable reproach prevailed over Lucretia, and the base seducer returned in the morning to the camp. Lucretia, the next day, sent for her father and her husband, to whom she related the shocking circumstance. They endeavoured to console her, but in vain, for, drawing forth a dagger, she plunged it into her breast. Lucretia's death occasioned the liberty of the Romans, who, excited by Brutus, expelled the Tar quins from their city. Sextus fled to a town of the Gabii, where he soon after perished, r.ucretia died 509 b.c. Lucretius, Titus Carus, lu-kre'-she-as, a Roman poet and philosopher, was born of a good family, and educated under Zeno of Sidon,andPha>drus, both of the Epicurean sect. Cicero commends him lor his learning and elo- quence. His poem " On the Nature of Things" is elegant, but is founded on the doctrines of Epicurus. The writings of Lucretius have been translated into English, with notes, by Creech, and published in Bonn's " Classical Library." b. 95 B.C.; d. 52 b.c. Lucullus, Lucius Licinius, lu-kul'-lus, a cele- brated Roman general and consul, who gained a great victory overMithridates, on the borders of the Granieus, b.c. 74, and conquered Bithynia. He also defeated Tigrane?, king of Armenia, father-in-law of Mithridates, and took his capi- tal ; but the severity of Lucullus to his soldiers gave such offence, that he was recalled, and the command given to Pompey. On his return to Rome, he obtained a triumph, and then retired to private life, possessed of immense riches. He collected a prodigious library, and patro- nized learned men. b. about 115 n.c. ; d. 19 B.a THE DICTIONARY Ludlow Ludlow, Edmund, lud'-lo, an English Parlia- mentary general, who studied first at Oxford, and afterwards in the Temple; but the civil wars breaking out, he quitted the law for the army, and served under the earl of Essex. He was a firm republican, and was one of the mem- bers of the high court of justice which sen- tenced Charles I. to the scaffold. On the death of Ireton, he had the command of the army in Ireland; but was deprived of it for opposing the usurpation of Cromwell. In the parliament under Richard Cromwell, he obtained a seat, and was restored to his command in Ireland, but was again recalled. Just before the resto- ration of the king, he went to Vevay, in Swit- zerland, where he resided till 1688, when he ventured to return to England ; but the House of Commons applying to King William to cause him to be apprehended, he withdrew again to Vevay, where he died in 1693. b. about 1620. His memoirs, which are curious and accurate, were printed after his death. Luitpband, lice'-pran, a Lombard historian, was secretary to Berengarius, regent of the kingdom of Italy, who also employed him as his ambassador to Constantinople. He also became bit>hop of Cremona, and was sent, in 962, by Otho I., emperor and king of Italy, on a mission to Rome. In 968 he went on an embassy to Constantinople, where he was thrown into prison by the orders of Nicephorus Phocas, for his zeal in defending the interest of his master. After remaining in confinement some months, he returned to Italy. He wrote the History of the Affairs of Europe in his time, and other works valuable for their historical 'information, b. at Pavia, early in the 10th century; d. about 970. Lully, Raymond, lool'-le, was called, accord- ing to the custom of his age, the Enlightened Doctor. In early life he was a soldier, but, quit- ting the army, he retired to a lonely spot, where he remained in solitude, pretending to have visions, in which he was directed to convert the Moors to Christianity. After long years of preparation by study, he weut on a mission into Mauritania, where he was nearly stoned to death by the natives. His works on theology, physic, philosophy, chemistry, and law, have been frequently printed, but are very obscure. B. at Palma, Majorca, 1234; d. 1315. Lully, Jean-Baptiste, a celebrated musician, who became page to Mademoiselle de Montpen- 6ier, niece of Louis XIV., who caused him to be taught music, in which he attained such ex- cellence as to be made superintendent of music to that king. Lully composed a number of operas and the music of several of Moliere's plays, b. at Florence, 1633 ; d. at Paris, 1687. Lumsdejt, Matthew, LL.D., lumn'-den, pro- fessor of Persian and Arabic ill the college of Fort William, Calcutta, was author of two gram- mars of those languages. In 1825 he relin- quished the service of the East India Company, and returned to England, b. 1777; d. 1835. Lusignan, Guy de, loo-seen' -yawng, a cele- brated French nobleman, who went to the Holy Land in the time of the crusades, and espoused Sibylla, daughter of Amaury, king of Jeru- salem. He succeeded Baldwin V. in 1186, but he afterwards resigned his kingdom to Richard I., king of England, and received the isle of Cyprus in return, d. 119*. Lussait, Margaret de, loos'-$a, a French authoress of considerable talents, was the daxighter of one of Cardinal Fleury's coachmen. 666 Luther Among her most esteemed productions are, " La Comtesse de Gondez," " Anecdotes de Philippe Auguste," "Anecdotes of Francis I," "La Vie de M. Crillon," and "Histoire da Charles VI." b. 1682; time of death uncertain. Luther, Martin, loo'-tker, the"great religious reformer, was the son of Hans Luther, a miner and metal-worker. In 1501 he was sent to the university of Erfurt, where he studied philosophy and the civil law ; but walking one day in the fields with a fellow-student, his companion was struck dead by lightning, which so affected Luther, that he determined to retire from the world. He accordingly entered a monastery of the order of St. Augustine, where he led a pious and studious life ; and there happening to meet with a Latin Bible, he read it with the utmost care and avidity, and was struck with the manifest difference between the doctrines of the gospel and the practices of the Roman church. This impression became deeper in 1510, when he went to Rome on some business connected with his monastery. On his return he was created D.D., and became professor of divinity at the university of Wittenberg, then founded by Frederick, elector of Saxony. In 1517, Leo X. published the famous bull offering plenary indulgences, the purchasers of which obtained forgiveness of all sins committed by them. These pardons were sold in Ger- many by the Dominicans, in the most shame- less manner, and gave offence to all religious persons, and to Luther in particular, who published a "Thesis on Indulgences," at Wit- tenberg, in which he exposed, in the strongest manner, the iniquity of the traffic. The pro- positions of Luther's thesis were opposed by Tetzel, the papal agent ; but the people at large were convinced that the truth lay on the side of Luther. The dispute growing serious throughout Germany, the emperor earnestly pressed the pope to exert his influence to put a stop to it : and, accordingly, Luther was cited to appear at Rome, which he prudently declined. Leo also commanded the elector Frederick to deliver Luther up to the papal legate, which he refused, at the same time requesting that the cause might be heard in Germany. To this tho pope consented, and Luther appeared before Cardinal Caietano, at Augsburg, to whom he gave a full account of his faith ; but being re- quired to make an implicit submission to the decrees of the pope, he positively refused. On this, Leo issued a bull, threatening to excom- municate all who should presume to deny his power to grant plenary indulgences. Luther, on the other hand, appealed, in a public declaration, from the pope to a general council. The fol- lowers of Luther increased rapidly; Erasmus approved of his conduct in a great measure, and corresponded with him, but had not the courage to declare himself fully. The learned and ami- able Mclancthon attached himself firmly to Luther, and, by his prudence and moderation, rendered him essential service. In 1518, Luther had a dispute at Leipsic, with Eckius, professot of divinity at Ingoldstadt. In 1520 the pope issued a formal condemnation of Luther, which was immediately termed, by the reformer, " the execrable bull of Antichrist ;" and, calling the students of Wittenberg together, he flung the pope's bull and decretals into the fire. The year following, he attended the diet of Worms, by virtue of a safe-conduct from the emperor Charles V. ; and when his friends endeavoured OF BIOGRAPHY. Luxemburg to dissuade him frotn going, by urging the fate of Huss, he said, that " if there were as many devils at Worms as tiles upcu the houses, he would go." He was h?re required to retract his opinions, and to promise submission to the pope, both which he resolutely refused. On his return through a wood, he was seiaed by a party of horse, who conveyed him to a castle belong- ing to the elector of Saxony, where lie was so secretly kept, that no one knew what was be- come of him, except the persons concerned in the affair. In the mean time, the emperor pub- lished an edict against him, and put under the Dan of the empire those who should defend him. Luther, however, was secure in his retreat, which he called his Hermitage and his Patmos; and employed his time in conferences with his chosen friends, and in writing books. After an absence often months, he again made hisappear- anceat Wittenberg, where he wrotea severe reply to Henry VI II. of England, who had published a book against him on the doctrine of the Kucha- rist. About this time he published a translation of the New Testament into German, which was universally read, though proscribed by imperial authority. In 1523, Erasmus was prevailed on to write "against Luther, and chose for his sub- ject the freedom of the human will, which he defended against the reformer, who replied in a treatise entitled "De servo Arbitrio," which was answered by Erasmus in another, called " Hyperaspistes." In 1525, Luther married Catharine von Bora, a nun, who had escaped from a convent ; on which his enemies accused him of immorality and impiety; but Luther defended his act on spiritual grounds. In 1529 the emperor convened a diet at Spires, to pro- cure aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying religious disputes. In this assembly it was ordered that the mass should be universally observed throughout the empire. Against this decree the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, and other princes, entered their protest ; on which account the reformed party acquired the name of Protestants. These princes then entered into a league for their mutual defence against the emperor. In 1530 was drawn up by Melancthon the Confession of Augsburg, which was received as the standard of the Protestant faith in Ger- many. In 1534, Luther's translation of the Bible into German was published. In 1537, Luther was attacked with a dangerous illness, but recovered, and went on writing books, and labouring to promote the great work of refor- mation. The mind of Luther was ardent and impetuous, but honest, and earnestly bent on the discovery and propagation of religious truth. His manners were becoming his pro- fession, and his whole life evinced a zeal for the srlory of God and the welfare of man. He was a multifarious and voluminous writer : a com- p'ete edition of his works, in 26 vols., was pub- lished at Erlangen in 1833. A translation of Luther's "Table Talk" was published in London, In 1849. In 1868 a monument was erected to the great reformer at Worms by the Protestant princes and people of Germany, u. at Eisleben, Saxony, 1483; D. 1516. Luxemburg, Francis Henry de Montmorency, duke of, looks' -em-boorg, a famous general and marshal of France, was the posthumous son of Francis de Montmorency, count of Boutcville, beheaded under Louis XIII. for lighting a duel. At the age of 15, he was at the battle of Bocroi, 667 Lydiat under the great Conde. He served as lieutenant- general at the taking of Franche-Comte, in 1668, and in the Dutch campaign of 1672, about which time he effected a famous retreat with an army of 20,000 men against 70,000. In 1674 he was made marshal of France. In 1690 ho gained the battle of Fleurus, which was fol- lowed by the victories of Leusen, Steenkirk, and Neerwinden. b. 1628 ; ». 1695. LTCOPHRorr, lik'-o-J'ron, a pcet and gram- marian, who lived at the court of Ptolcnsf Philadelphus, and formed one of the seven poets known as the Pleias. He was a volu- minous writer, but only one of his poems has come down to our times, — that entitled " Cas- sandra," which is a long and enigmatical work that has been -much commented on by the Greek grammarians. Ovid states that he was killed by an arrow. Lived in the third cen- tury B.C. Ltcubgus, li-kur'-gus, the famous Spartan lawgiver. The records of his birth and of the period of his existence are very obscure ; but he is stated to have been the son of Eunomus, king of Sparta, and brother of Polydectes, who succeeded his father. After the death of Poly- dectes, his widow offered the crown to Lycurgus, though she was then with child ; but he refused, and faithfully discharged the duty of regent and guardian during the minority of his nephew Charilaus. When the young prince came of age, Lycurgus left Sparta, and travelled into several countries to observe their laws and manners. On his return home he found the kingdom in a state of confusion ; the king en- deavoured to reign despotically, and the people would not obey. Lycurgus undertook to reform the government, and introduced the most rigorous laws, yet such as were admirably adapted to civilize a disordered people. After this he quitted Sparta, and is supposed to have died in Crete, at an advanced age, about 870 b.c. Ltcubgus, an Athenian orator, who is said to have studied philosophy under Plato, and rhetoric under Isocrates. He was the friend of Demosthenes, and a zealous advocate of liberty. One of his orations is included in Kciske's col- lection of Greek orators, d. about 323 B.C. Lydgatk, John, lid'-gait, an Augustine monk of Bury St. Edmunds, in the reign of Henry VI., was a poet and the successor of Chaucer, and a most versatile and prolific writer. Kitson, in his " Bibliographica Poetica," has enume- rated no fewer than 251 short works by him. The "History of Troy," "Story of Thebes," and " Fall of Princes," are his best poems. He is also said to have been a good mathematician and an accomplished scholar, b. about 1375; d. about 1461. Lydiat, Thomas, a learned English divine, chronologcr, and mathematician, who was rector of Okerton, and wrote in twelve years more than six hundred sermons on the har- mony of the Gospels. Having become surely for a friend's debt, he was cast into prison, and remained there till the debt was discharged by Bishop Laud and sonic others. In the civil war he adhered to the king, suffered severely in consequence, and died in indigence in 1649. b. 1572. His works, which were mostly composed in Latin, were very numerous. His hard lot is referred to by Dr. Johnson iu the fol- lowing lines : — " If dreams yet flatter, once again attend; Dear Lydiat's fate, and Galileo's end." THE DICTIONARY Lydus Ltbus, Joannes Laurentiug, li'-dus, a cele- brated Greek writer, who, during forty years, filled several important posts at the court of the emperor Justinian. Three of his works have survived; these being treatises on the " Magistrates of the Roman Republic," on "The Mouths," and on "Omens and Prodi- gies," all of which were included in Bekker's "Corpus Scriptorum Historian Byzantina?," published at Bonn, 1837. b. about 490; ». about 560. Lyb, Edward, W, an English clergyman, who devoted himself, with the greatest success, to the study of the "Saxon and Gothic languages and literature. Besides other important works, he gave to the world a " Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic Languages," which was published in 1772, a few years after the compiler's death, n. at Totnes, 1704; d. 1767. Lyell, Sir Charles, U'-el, a distinguished modern geologist, was educated at Exeter Col- lege, Oxford, and ultimately commenced prac- tice at the bar ; but his private means making him independent of his profession, he gave himself exclusively to the study of geology. In 1832 he was named professor of geology at King's College, London ; but this appointment he soon afterwards resigned. From the com- mencement of the publication of the Geological Society's " Transactions," he was a regular and valuable contributor. In 1830 appeared the first volume of his great work, " The Principles of Geology." This was completed in 1834, passed through many editions, and attracted the attention of the whole geological world. Another extraordinary book by him was pro- duced in 1838, entitled " Elements of Geology." These two works have exercised the most marked influence upon geological inquiry since the date of their first publication. Siv Charles Lycll made two visits to the United States of America, and published many memoirs rela- tive to the geology of the New World. The continent of Europe was also travelled over, and its geological facts described by him. A general account of his journeys in Ame- rica was published by Sir Charles under the title of "Travels in North America," and " A Second Visit to the United States." His scientific observations, both in the New World and on the continent of Europe, were produced in the " Transactions" of the Geolo- gical Society, reports of the British Associa- tion, and in English and Americau scientific journals. His great services to the cause of geological science obtained for him, in 1848, the honour of knighthood. He was twice elected president of the Geological Society, and in 1855 his university conferred upon him the title of D.C.L. b. at Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 1797; n. 1875. Lyndhubst, John Singleton Copley, Lord, lind'-hurat, a celebrated modern English judge and statesman, whose father, an eminent painter, had emigrated to America, and there the future English peer first saw the light. When about two years of age, his father took him to Eng- land, where he was ultimately educated, first by a private tutor, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was elected fellow of his college, and received the appointment of " travelling bachelor ;" upon which he visited the United States. On his return to England, he commenced the study of the law, and in 1797 wa ■ !' •' ' '<> the bur. Although his great abili- Lynedoch ties were generally admitted amongst the mem- bers of his own profession, still he was almost unknown to the general public till the year 1817, when he assisted Sir Charles Wetherell in defending Watson and Thistlewood on their trial for high treason. His singular talents, as displayed on this occasion, recommended Mm to the governing party of the time; and, although he had hitherto evinced liberal views in politics, he embraced the offers made to him by the Tory party. In 1818 he became chief- justice of the county palatine of Chester ; and soon afterwards entered Parliament for the borough of Yarmouth, in the Isle of Wight. In 1819 he rose to the grade of king's serjeant, and was in the same year knighted and ap- pointed solicitor-general. In the following year he conducted the prosecution in two great trials — those of the Cato-street conspirators, and of Queen Caroline in the House of Lords. He became attorney-general in 1824, and in 1826 was made master of the Rolls. When the question of Roman Catholic emancipation came before the House of Commons, in 1827, he ener- getically opposed the measure : but two years afterwards strenuously supported it, declaring that he " felt no apprehension for the safety of the church." He had previously accepted the chancellorship, and had been created Lord Lyndhurst. In 1830 he was appointed chief baron of the Exchequer, and in that oapacity earned the highest distinction as an acute and impartial judge. During the proceedings con- sequent upon the introduction of the Reform Bill into the House of Lords, so strenuous wan his opposition, that he was regarded as the head of the Conservative party in the Upper House. At one period it was actually proposed to him to form a new ministry, in conjunction with the duke of Wellington ; a project which fell to the ground on account of the refusal of Sir Robert Peel and other moderate Conservatives to join his cabinet. In 1834, the great seal was con- fided to him under the Peel administration ; but he retired with his party a short time after- wards. In 1841, however, Sir Robert Peel re- turned to power ; whereupon Lord Lyndhurst, for the third time, accepted the chancellorship, and retained it until the retirement of liis chief, in 1846. From that period, his speeches in the House of Lords became fewer in number, but carried no less weight with his hearers. When past the great age of 80 years, he delivered remarkable speeches relative to the war with Russia, on Cambridge University reform, life peerages, and the defences of the country, b. at Boston, United States, 1772 ; d. 1863. Lynedoch, Thomas Graham, Lord, lin'-dok, a celebrated British geneial, did not enter the army until he was in his 45th year, aud did so then in consequence of the loss of a beloved wife. To alleviate his grief and restore his impaired health, he was recommended to travel ; and it was during his sojourn at Gibraltar that he fell into the society of the officers of the garrison, and thenceforth determined on devot- ing himself to the profession of arms. He first served as a volunteer at the siege of Toulon, under Lord Mulgrave, and or. his return raised from among his countrymen a battalion of the 90th regiment, of which he was appointed colonel-commandant. He then accompanied his regiment to Gibraltar; but soon growing tired of the idleness inseparable from garrison duty there, he obtained permission to join the OF BIOGRAPHY. Lyon Austrian array, where he found ample opportu- nities of studying the art of war, while he was enabled to take advantage of his position in sending to the British government intelligence of the military operations and diplomatic mea- sures adopted by the commanders and sove- reigns of the Continent. In 1797 he returned to England, and having joined his regiment, was appointed to act witli Sir Charles Stewart in the reduction of the island of Minorca, after which he was employed two years in the blockade of Malta. In 1308 he proceeded with Sir John Moore to Sweden, and afterwards served in Spain with that gallant officer during the campaign which ended in the battle and death of Moore at Corunna. Next year, Ge- neral Graham led a division at the siege of Flushing; in 1810 he commanded the British troops at Cadiz; and in 1811 fought and won the memorable battle of Barossa. After this he joined Lord Wellington, and was present at the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo; but ill-health rendered it necessary for him to revisit Eng- land for a short period. Early in 1813, however, he returned to the Peninsula, led the left wing at the battle of Vittoria, reduced the town and citadel of St. Sebastian, crossed the Bidassoa, and, after a severe contest, established the British army on the territory of France. On the 3rd of May, 1814, Sir Thomas Graham was created a peer by the title of Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan, on which occasion he refused a grant of £2000 per annum, to himself and heirs, which was intended to accompany his elevation. In 1820 he was appointed to the governorship of Dumbarton Castle. " Never," said Sheridan, " was there seated a loftier spirit in a braver heart." B. 1750; D. 1813. Lyon, George Francis, li'-on, a captain in the British navy, but more eminent as a traveller and explorer, entered the service in 1809, and was for several years engaged in the active duties of his profession, and was present at the battle of Algiers. His career as a traveller began in 1818, when he accompanied Mr. Ritchie in an expedition into the interior of Africa, which proved most disastrous. The adventurers suf- lered terribly from privation and disease, to which the leader of the enterprise, Mr. Ritchie, fell a victim at Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan. Mr. Lyon, however, returned to England, and published an account of the expedition, under the title of a " Narrative of Travels in Northern Africa, accompanied by Geographical Notes of Soudan, and of the course of the Niger." He now embarked in explorations in a widely dif- ferent scene, having, in 1821, in command of the Hecla, accompanied Captain Parry's expedition to the Polar Seas. Of this expedition he pub- lished an account in a " Private Journal." He was made post-captain in 1823, and in the Chripzr gun-brig, made another voyage of dis- covery in the Polar regions, during which he and his crew encountered great perils, and were compelled to come home without effecting the object of the expedition. Captain Lyon subse- quently visited Mexico as one of the commis- sioners of the Real del Monte Mining Company. He sutl'ered shipwreck, on his return in 1827, near Holyhead, losing everything belonging to him ; and after a second time visiting South America, died on the homeward passage, in ls32. b. at Chichester, 1795. The life of Captain Lyon was a continued scries of adversities and misfortunes, to which few parallel"/ can be found. Lyons Lyons, Israel, li'-ons, an astronomer, botanist, and mathematician, the son of a Polish J cw, who was a Hebrew teacher at Cambridge, was Sir Joseph Banks's instructor in botany, and ac- companied Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, as astronomer, in his voyage towards the North Pole. He was one of the calculators of the "Nautical Almanack," and wrote a " Treatise on F'luxions," &c. b. 1739 ; d. 1775. Lyons, Edmund, Lord, a distinguished British admiral, was sent, at a very early age, to Hyde Abbey School, near Winchester; hut little time was spent in a merely school education, as he entered the navy as a volun- teer of the first class in 1800, when but ten years and a half old. He -was first sent on board the Royal Charlotte yacht, and, after seeing some service in the Mediterranean, ac- companying Sir John Duckworth's expedition to the Dardanelles, and assisting at the demo- lition of the redoubt on Point Pesquies, on the Adriatic shore, he returned to England in 1807. In the mean time the battle of Trafalgar had been fought. The same year he went to the East Indies, where he remained for the next five years, and where he attained the rank of lieutenant. In the Indian seas he gained con- siderable distinction, obtaining honourable men- tion as among the first to scale the castle o. Belgica, in the island of Banda Neira, in 1810. F'or this he was appointed flag-lieutenant to Rear-Admiral Drury. But his most important service was the storming of Fort Marrack, which he took with scarcely any loss. Return- ing home in ill health, he was promoted to the command of the Rinaldo, 10, which vessel formed one of the squadron which, in 1813, escorted Louis XVIII. to France, and the allied sovereigns to England. In 1828 he assisted at the blockade of Navarino, and superintended the naval expedition sent to co-operate with the French in the reduction of the castle of Morea, the last remnant of the Ottoman power in the Peloponnesus. He was afterwards employed in cruising about the Mediterranean, and on one celebrated occasion entering the Black Sea in the first British man-of-war that had ever passed the Bosphorus, and actually visited the scene of his future labours— Sebastopol. In 1835, Captain Lyons, who had in the mean time received the honour of knighthood and the in- signia of several orders, exchanged the naval for the diplomatic profession, being appointed minister plenipotentiary at the court of Athens, which post he filled from 1835 until 1819. In 1849 he was appointed British minister to the Swiss confederation, and, in 1851, was sent to Stockholm in a similar capacity. There he re- mained until, in November, 1853, war being then imminent, he was appointed second in coirfmand of the Mediterranean fleet. If at the outset only second in command, Sir Edmund Lyons was from the first the ruling spirit of the British fleet, and to him was due, in an eminent degree, fflie success which attended the English arms on the shores of the Euxinc. He it was who organized and conducted tin- expedition to the Crimea, prepared the means of landing, and superintended all so closeL, that, " in his eagerness, he left but six inchen between the keel of his noble ship and the ground below it." Not only in this matter of the transport of the troops, but also in every subsequent stage of the expedition, Sir Edmund Lyons gave the most valuable assistance to Lord THE DICTIONAEY Lysander Raglan and his successors. At the battle of the Alma, he supported the French army by bringing the guns of his ship to bear on the left flank of the Russians. On the first bom- bardment of Sebastopol, his ship, the Ayamem- ton, was nearest to the Russian batteries. He was present at Balaklava and at Inkermann. It was he who, having eonveved the English soldiers to the Crimea, saved them from being compelled to leave it — baffled, if not vanquished. A day or two after the battle of Balaklava, he learnt, to his astonishment, that orders had been issued to the naval brigade to embark as many guns as possible during the day, for Balaklava was to be evacuated at night, — of course sur- rendering to the enemy the greater portion of the guns. On his own responsibility the ad- miral at once put a stop to the execution of this order, and went in search of Lord Raglan, who, it appears, had come to the resolution of abandoning Balaklava, in consequence of the opinion expressed by the engineers, that, after the loss of the redoubts in the rear, previously held by the Turks, the English strength ought to be concentrated on the plateau. Sir Edmund Lyons strongly opposed these views, and having shown to Lord Raglan that the engineers had been mistaken once, he argued they might be wrong again; and he positively declared the insufficiency of Kamiesch as a harbour for the allied navies, and that the abandonment of Balaklava meant the evacuation of the Crimea in a week. After some conversation, Lord Raglan said, " Well, you were right before, and this time I will act upon your advice." Sir Edmund obtained leave to countermand the orders which had been issued; Balaklava was maintained as the basis of operations, and the army was saved from what might have proved an inglorious defeat, if not a terrible disaster. This was, perhaps, the most important of all the services rendered by the admiral, and he well deserved the peerage which it earned for him. After a short command in the Mediter- ranean, he was summoned to escort her majesty to Cherbourg,— the last public duty he ful- filled, b. near Christchurch, Hants, 1790; d. 185S. Lysandeb, li-aan-der, a famous Spartan com- mander in the Peloponnesian war. He prevailed on Ephesns to withdraw from its alliance with Athens, and entered into a league with Cyrus the Younger. He also defeated the Athenian fleet, after which the city itself fell into his hands ; and thus terminated the Peloponnesian war, which had lasted 27 years. Lysander overturned the democracy, and restored the government of the Archons. After this he endeavoured to seat himself on the throne of Sparta, but was unsuccessful. He was .slain, fighting against the Thebans, 395 B.C. Lysias, H'-se-Hs, a justly celebrated Athenian orator. He assisted Thrasybulus against the Thirty Tyrants. Plutarch mentions 425 of his orations; but of these only 35 remain with fragments of some others. Editions of his orations have been published in English, by Taylor and others, b. at Athens, 458 B.C. ; r>. ^bout 37f* b.c. Lysias, general of Antioehus Epiphancs, king of Syria, who sent him against Judas Jlacca- ba-us, by whom he was surprised and defeated, with the loss of 5000 men. Lysias saved him- self by flight, and, after the death of Epiphanes, returned to power, as regent, under Antioehus 670 Lytton Eupator. He laid siege to Jerusalem; but learning that Philip, who disputed the regency with him, had taken possession of the capital of Syria, he raised the siege, marched against Philip, and defeated him. Both Eupator and himself were subsequently abandoned by their partisans, and slain by their guards, b.c. 162. Lysimachus, li-eim'-a-kut, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, after whose death he made himeelf master of Thrace, where he built a town called by his own name. He afterwards seized Macedonia, and expelled Pyrrhus troin the throne. He was killed in battle by Seleucus, 282 B.C. Lysippus, lisip'-pus, a celebrated Grecian sculptor, who is said to have been a self-taught artist. His greatest works were the statue of a man wiping and anointing himself aftL'r bathing, which was placed before Agrippa's baths at Rome, and a statue of the sun, represented in a car drawn by four horses, at Rhodes. Flou- rished in the 4th century b.c. LYTTELToy, Edward, Lord, lit'-tel-ton, keeper of the great seal in the reign of Charles I. In 1614 he was made colonel of a regiment in the king's army at York. d. 1645. Lyttelton, George, Lord, an English writer, who was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. On his return from travel on the con- tinent, he obtained a seat in Parliament, where he distinguished himself as a frequent speaker on the side of the opposition ; on which account he became secretary to Frederick, Prince of Wales, who adhered to that party. In 174-1, on the resignation of Sir Robert Walpole, he was made one of the lords of the Treasury. In 1756 he became chancellor of the exchequer : his qualifications for which office seem to have been somewhat meagre, as he is said to have been unable to master the simplest rules of arithmetic. He was raised to the peerage in 1759, and soon afterwards devoted himself ex- clusively to literature. His principal works are " Observations on the Conversion of St. Paul," " Dialogues of the Dead," " History of Henry II.," and "Poetical Works." Dr. Johnson has included his life amongst those of the English poets written by him. He was a great patron of the modern system of landscape gardening b. 1709; d. 1773. Lyttelton, Thomas, Lord, son of the pre- ceding, was a young nobleman of promising talents, but of dissipated manners. His death is said to have been preceded by a very extraor- dinary circumstance. He saw in a dream, or otherwise, a young woman dressed in white, who warned him of his dissolution in three days from that time. On the third day, his lordship had a party to spend the evening with him, and about the time predicted said, he " believed he should jockey the ghost;" but a few minutes afterwards, he became faint, and was carried to bed, whence he rose no more. r>. 1779. The " Quarterly Review," in 1852, endeavoured to set up a claim for this young nobleman to be considered the author of the " Letters of Junius" (See Junius); buc the hypothesis was soon aband ned. Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer, Baron, lit'-ton, a celebrated novelist and dramatic writer, who, after leaving the uni- versity of Cambridge, in 1826, commenced his literary career by the publication of a volume of poems, entitled " Weeds and Wild Flowers." His first novel, " Falkland," was published OF BIOGRAPHY. Maas anonymously in the following year, and was followed, in 1828, by " Pelham," a witty and brilliant work of fiction, the success of which decided its author to continue his labours in the same path, and he accordingly produced a series of the finest novels in the language. As a poet, Sir Edward displayed grace, feel- ing, and musical versification ; while, as a play- wright, he was the author, among other similar productions, of the most popular play of modern days,— "The Lady of Lyons." In 1831 he entered Parliament as member for St. Ives, and attached himself to the Whig party. After a long absence from the House of Commons, he was returned as representative for Herts in 1852, whereupon he became an adherent of the political views of Lord Derby, and, on the accession of the Conservatives to power, fermed a member of the ministry, as colonial secretary. A man of prodigious industry, he showed himself equal to the highest efforts in literature ; fiction, poetry, the drama, all were enriched by his labours. As a politician, he could scarcely be included in the first rank, and his oratory, though sufficiently fluent and impressive, could not be deemed of the highest order. In 1844 he succeeded, on the death of his mother, to the Knebworth estates, worth £12,000 a year, and, on that occasion, obtained the royal license to take his mother's maiden name, Lytton, for his surname, and be- came henceforth known as Sir Edward Bulwer- Lytton. During the Melbourne administration of 1835, he was created a baronet, and, in 1856, was chosen lord rectorof theGlasgow University. Both the wife and son of Sir Edward have dis- tinguished themselves in literature; the first as the authoress of several fashionable novels, written in a sarcastic stylo, and the latter as the writer of several volumes of poems, pro- duced under the pseudonym of " Owen Mere- dith." In j 866 Sir Edward was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton. b. 1806; d. 1873. M Maas, Nicholas, mas, a celebrated Dutch painter, who excelled in portraits and genre subjects. Three of his elaborately-finished pictures are in the National Gallery, b. at Port, 1632 ; d. at Amsterdam, 1693. MABiLtox, Jean, ma'-be-yairng, a learned French writer, who assisted Father D'Achery in compiling his " Spicilegium." The congre- gation of St. Maur appointed him to superin- tend their edition of the works of St. Bernard. He afterwards published the "Acts of the Saints of the Order of the Benedictines." Col- bert sent him to Germany, in 1683, to search for manuscripts and other works tending to illustrate the history of France. Mabillon re- turned with several valuable literary treasures, of which he published an account in a relation of his journey ; he afterwards went to Italy for the same purpose. Though his learning and acquirements were immense, he was extremely modest and diffident, b. 1632; d. at Paris, 1707. Madly, Gabriel Bonnet, Abbe 1 de, ma'-ble, an eminent French writer on historical sub- jects, and also the author of a celebrated work, ■ — " The Public Law of Europe, as founded on Treaties." b. at Grenoble, 1709; d. at Paris, 1785. Mabuse, or Maubeuge, John de, ma-boose 1 , 671 Macartney a celebrated artist, whose real name was John Gossaert, was employed by Henry VIII., whose children he painted, b. at Maubeuge, Hainault, 1499 ; d. it is supposed, 1562. Macabkr, mak-ai'-ber, an early German poet, author of a work entitled " The Danee of Death," consisting of a series of dialogues be- tween Death and a number of personages be- longing to various ranks of society. Latin, English, and French versions of it have been printed; and Holbein's celebrated paintings have contributed much to spread the author's fame. Macadam, John Loudon, mak-ad'-am, u Scotch surveyor, who invented the system of road-making called after his uame. His system was made known in two works, entitled re- spectively " A Practical Essay on the Scientific Repair and Preservation of Public Roads," and " Remarks on the Present State of Road- making." According to this system, excel- lent roads are formed by laying down layers of broken granite or other hard stone, which become hardened into a solid mass by the traffic passing over them. For this invention, Macadam was in 1827 granted a sum of £10,000 by the government, and offered a baronetcy, which honour he declined. In the same year he was appointed general surveyor to the com- missioners intrusted with the management of the metropolitan roads, b. in Scotland, 1756; d. 1836. MacCartht, Sir Charles, mak-kar'-the, a brave but unfortunate officer, who, after at- taining the rank of lieut.-eolonel, was appointed to the royal African corps in 1821, and while making preparations to attack the Ashantees, received a message from their king to the effect that he (the king) would soon have the head of Sir Charles as an ornament for his drum. Hostilities began in 1823; a battle was fought in 1824, when Sir Charles, being deserted by his native allies, was defeated, captured, and the savage threat of the Ashantee king literally carried out, on the 21st of January, 1824. The ghastly trophy was afterwards recovered by the British, and delivered to Sir Charles's relatives. Macartney, George Macartney, Earl, mii kart'-ne,a. distinguished British nobleman, who, after receiving a liberal education, and tra- velling on the continent, was, in 1764, ap- pointed envoy extraordinary to the empress of Russia. In 1767 he was constituted ambassador extraordinary to the same court, but soon after- wards returned, and was employed as secre- tary to Lord Townshend, viceroy of Ireland. In 1768 he represented Cockennouth in Parlia- ment ; and in 1772 was nominated a knight of the Bath. In 1775 he went out as governor to the island of Grenada; and, in 1776, was created an Irish peer, by the title of Lord Ma- cartney. He continued in Grenada till 1779, when, on the capture of those islands by the French, he was made prisoner and sent to France. In 1780 he was appointed governor of Madras, where his conduct obtained such uni- versal approbation that, in 1785, he was no- minated governor-general of Bengal; but this office he declined accepting, and returned to England. In 1786 he received a flattering tes- timony of respect from the Court of Directors, who granted him an annuity of £1500 for life. The same year he fought a duel with Major- general Stuart, whom he had superseded in THE DICTIONARY Macaulay India : in this affair his lordship was slightly wounded. In 1792 he was selected to proceed on his most remarkable employment, namely, the embassy to the emperor of China, which mission occupied nearly three years. After his return, he was created an earl of Great Britain. He wrote a " Sketch of the Political History of 1 reland," and a " Journal of the Embassy to China." b. near Belfast, 1737; d. at Chiswick , 1809. Mi.CAPi,AY,Catherme,ma-fc. 187:). MAcCBix.Thomas, miik-kre', a Scottish writer on ecclesiastical history and polemics, who, •78 after completing his education, was licensed as a clergyman by the presbytery of Kelso, and was at once chosen as pastor by a congregation at Edinburgh. In 1812 he produced his "Life of John Knox," a work popular with the edu- cated, no less than the uneducated classes of Scotland, marked as it is by great learning and research. Ho also wrote the " Life of Andrew Mclvill," and a " History of the Re- formation in Italy in the 16th Century." b. \o Berwickshire, 1772 ; d. 1835. MacCulloch, John Ramsay, milk' -kuV -lok, an eminent statistical wiiter.who, soon after the commencement of the Edinburgh "Scotsman" newspaper, was employed upon its staff, and ultimately became editor of the same print. He likewise contributed a series of valuable articles to the " Edinburgh Review." His most im- portant labours were, however, the compilation of his Dictionaries of Commerce and Geography, and the publication of several works relative to political economy. For his services to litera- ture, he received a pension of £200 per annum, and was appointed comptroller of the Stationery office. The titles of \m best works arc : " A Dictionary, Practical, Theoretuial and Histori- cal, of Commerce, and CommenliilNavigation;" " A Statistical Account of the British Empire;" "A Dictionary, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of the various Countries, l'laces, and Principal Natural Objects in the World;" an. I a new edition of Adam Smith's " Wealth <>t Nations." n. in Scotland, about 1790.; i>. 18i>4. Macculloch, Horatio, U.S.A., an eminent Scottish landscape painter, was named after Horatio Lord Nelson. He studied his art in Glasgow and at Edinburgh, and first exhibited, in 1829, a " View on the Clyde." In 1831 lie had in the Exhibition of the Scottish Academy no fewer than nine pictures. In misty and rainy moor scenes he excels more especially. In 1836 he was elected an associate of the Scottish Academy, and the following year re- moved to Hamilton, to study the scenery of Cadzow-wood in that neighbourhood. While residing there he painted two of his most cele- brated pieces, the "Highland l.oeh," and " Loch-an-Eilan." In 1838, in which year he was elected a member of the Scottish Academy, he exhibited a " View in Cadzow Forest," which was universally admired. In 183s he went to reside at Edinburgh ; and alter that time pro- duced, among miny other works, "Dream ol the Highlands," "Misty Countries," "Loch Achray," "Mist Rising off Mountains," " Edin- burgh from Dalmeny Park," &c. is. in Glasgow, 1806; n. 1867. Macdonald, John, F.R.S., mlik-don'-ald, only son of the celebrated Flora Macdonald, who si materially assisted in the escape of Charles Edwi'rd Stuart, in 1710, passed many years in the service of the East India Company, aiai attained the rank of captain in the corps ol engineers on the Bengal establishment. On his return home, he was appointed lieutena-. colonel of the royal Clan Alpine regimen! . .on commandant of the royal Edinburgh artillery He was a voluminous writer on military science, his product ions on that subject, however, being ohiclly translations from the French They includ-e "The Experienced! illicer," " Hides and Regulations for the Field Exercise and Man- oeuvres of Infantry," " Instructions for the Con- duct of Infantry on Actual Service," &c. Be- sides these he produced, in 1808, a " Treatise XX THE DICTIONARY Macdonald on Telegraphic Communication, Naval, Military, and Political;" and, in 1816, a "Telegraphic Dictionary," extending to 150,000 words, phrases, and sentences, b. 1759; d. 1831. Macdonald, ttienne, Duke of Tarentum and Marshal of France, who was descended from a Scotch family long settled in France, distinguished himself at the "battle of Ge- mappes, and served under General Pichegru in the Low Countries. He crossed the Waal on the ice, under a severe fire, a signal feat of bravery, which resulted in the capture of the Dutch fleet. He was then appointed general of division. In 1798 he was named governor of Rome ; subsequently he made a clever retreat before the superior forces of Suwarrow. Having fallen into disgrace for his defence of General Moreau, he remained for a long time without employment; but in 1809 Napoleon I. gave him the command of a division. He performed signal service at the battle of Wagram, and was honoured with the grade of marshal of the empire, and subsequently became duke of Tarentum. He also fought at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Leipsic. Afterthe abdication of Napoleon, he was nominated a member of the Chamber of Peers. In 1816 he became grand chancellor of the Legiou of Honour, b. 1765 ; B. 1810. MacDowell, Irvin, mdkdow'-tll, a genera' of the United States army, who was defeated at Dull Kun by the Confederate general, Beaure- gard, in 1861. b. in Ohio, about 1818. MacDowell, Patrick, R.A.,an Irish sculptor of considerable emiucnee, who, in his youth, was apprenticed to a coachbuilder, but ulti- mately turned his attention to making models of the human figure. He soon obtained many commissions for busts. His first work that brought him prominently into notice was the " Girl Reading," executed in marble and exhi- bited iu 1833. Shortly after this he became an A.R.A., and was made R.A. in 1846. Among his later works is the group of Europa, for the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park. B. in Belfast, Ireland, 1799; D. 1870. MACOiLLiVKAT,Wiillam,»na/c-flf':r-ii'«-rdia Britannica." His " Miscellaneous Works" were published in 3 vols. b. at Aldourio, near Inver- ness, 1765; d. 1832. Macklin, Charles, mak'-lin, a comedian and dramatic writer, whose real name was Mae- laughlin, which he altered to Macklin. He became a performer in the Lincoln's Inn com- pany in 1725, and not long after was tried for killing another player in a quarrel, and found guilty of manslaughter. His features were so strongly marked, that Quin exciaimed, " If God writes a legible hand, that fellow's a villain." His greatest character was Sbyloek, his per- formance of which drew from Mr. Pope this re- markable compliment: — "This is the Jew That Shaksperc drew." Macklin wrote ten plays, two of which, "Love a la Mode," and "The Man of the World," pos- sess considerable merit, and were frequently performed, n., it is said, in Ki'JO; d. 1797. M acknigiit, James, mak'-nitc, a learned Scot- tish divine, was born at Irvine, in \y rehire, and was ordained minister of Maybole.w here he com- posed his " Harmony of the Gospels," and his " New Translation of the Epistles." In 1772 he became one of the ministers of Edinburgh. He was occupied nearly thirty years in the execution of his "New Translation from the Greek of all the Apostolical Epistles," with commentaries and notes, n. 1721 ; i>. 1800. Mach ukin, Colin, miik-law -tin. an eminent X X a THE DICTIONARY Maclise Scotch mathematician, who received his educa- tion at the university of Glasgow, where he Applied himself to the study of mathematics. In 1717 he obtained the mathematical pro- fessorship in Marischal College, Aberdeen, and, two years afterwards, became a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1725 he was chosen assistant-professor of mathematics at Edinburgh. In 1742 he published his "Sys- tem of Fluxions," the most important of his works. In 1745, having taken an active part in fortifying Edinburgh against the Pretender and the rebels, he was compelled to fly, on which he took refuge with Archbishop Herring, at York. Maclaurin was a good as well as great man : his peculiar merit as a philosopher Being, that all his studies were conducive to general utility. Besides the above work, he wrote several papers in the " Philosophical Transactions ;" "Geometria Organica," "On the Percussion of Bodies," " A Treatise of Algebra," and an " Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philo- sophical Discoveries." b. at Eilmoddan, Argyle- Bhire, 1698; n. 1746. Maclise, Daniel, ma-kleexef, an eminent modern painter, who, from his earliest years, evinced a decided predilection for art, and, although placed in a banking house at Cork, quitted it at the age of sixteen, and gave hin> selfupto the study of draw ing and painting, maintaining himself XS8 while by selling sketches and portraits. He went to London in 1828, and entered the Boyal Academy, where he rapidly advanced in his studies, and carried off the medals for drawing from the antique, for drawing from the life, and for painting the best historical picture. After spending several months in Paris, he exhibited his first picture at the British Institution in 1833, after which period he acquired, with extraordinary rapidity, the highest reputation. In 1835 he became A.B.A., and five years later he was elected a Boyal Academician. His range of subjects has been very large, as the enumeration of a few of his best pictures will show. " Bobin Hood and Bichard Cceur de Lion," "Chivalrous Vow of the Ladies and the Peacock," " Banquet Scene in 'Macbeth,'" "The Sleeping Beauty," and "The Play Scene in 'Hamlet,'" which last, despite its defects of mannerism and disagree- able colour, is unquestionably the production of a master. It may be seen in the British col- lection at the South Kensington Museum. Maclise has likewise been extensively employed as a portrait-painter, particularly by the intel- lectual classes. His portraits of Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, Dickens, Ainsworth, and Majready, are well known, b. 1811; n. 1870. Macmahon, Marie-Patrick-Maurice, Count de, marshal of France, mak-mai'-hon, descended from an Irish family, which, after living with distinction for many centuries in Ireland, risked all for the last of the Stuart kings. The Macmahons, carrying their national traditions and historic name to France, mingled their blood by marriage with the old nobility of their adopted country, and obtained, with the hand of an heiress, the magnificent castle and extensive estates of Sully. The marshal's father, the Count de Macmahon, who was an officer of high rank, a peer of France, a Grand Cross of the order of St. Louis, and a personal friend of Charles X., espoused a lady of the ducal house of Caraman, and left four sons and four daughters. Of that numerous familv the 67« Macnish youngest was the hero of the Malakhoff and of Magenta. Macmahon entered the military school at St. Cyr, on leaving which, in 1825, he entered the French military service, and in 1830 joined the army of Algeria, where he soon distin- guished himself alike by his gallantry and his intelligence. After the combat of the Col de Terchia, in which he was aide-de-camp to General Achard, the latter said to him, " Can you carry to Colonel Bullieres, at Blidah, the order to change his march ? As the mission is dangerous, I will give you a squadron of light dragoons as an escort." The young ■ officer refused the escort, declaring that it was either too little or too much, and preferred going alone. On arriving at about half a mile from Blidah, he saw groups of the enemy's horsemen on each side, as well as behind him ; but he went firmly on, knowing that a deep precipice, called the ravine of Blidah, was a little way in front of him. He there drove his horse, a high-blooded animal, at the tremendous chasm, and the animal, without hesitation, sprang into mid-air. The rider held his seat immoveably, and escaped unhurt, but was obliged to abandon his charger, which had its fore-legs broken. Not one of the Arabs ventured to take the des- perate leap, and the young officer reached Blidah in safety. He rose rapidly through the different grades, and attained that of gene- ral of brigade _ in 1818. For a time he filled the position of governor of the pr.>\ ,■■>., . i Orau, and afterwards of Constantino ; and in 1852 became general of division. In 1855, when General Canrobert left the Crimea, General Macmahon was selected by the emperor to suc- ceed him in the command of a division ; and when the chiefs of the allied armies resolved on assaulting Sebastopol, he had assigned to him the honourable and perilous post of carrying the works of the Malakhoff. This task he success- fully performed ; for which service he received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and was nominated a knight grand-cross of the British order of the Bath. In the war in Italy in 1859, he commanded a division of the French army, and signally distinguished himself at the battle of Magenta, where, although he had received no orders to do so, he pressed forward and arrived in time to secure the victory to the French, a piece of service which gained him the highest rank in the French army, and the title dufce of Magenta. After filling various military posts at home, he was made Oovernor- Generai of Algeria, in room of Prince Napo- leon, in 1864. b. 1808. MAcMtmno, William, C.B., muk-mur-do, a Colonel in the British army, who, after a series of brilliant services in India under the late Sir Charles Napier, and in the Crimea, became, in 1859, Inspector-General of the Volunteer Forces, a post which he held until 1864. b. about 1819. Macnish, Robert, M.D., LL.D., maV-neesh, a native of Glasgow, who, while enjoying a con- siderable medical practice, devoted nis leisure hours to literary pursuits, and produced his " Anatomy of Drunkenness," " Philosophy of Sleep," " Book of Aphorisms," and " Metem- psychosis," &c, which gave him a prominent place among writers and thinkers. He likewise contributed to various magazines, under the sig- nature of the " Modern Pythagorean," by which designation he was long most generally known. H. 1802 ; D. 1837. Of BtOGKAfcHY. Macpherson Macpherson, James, mak-fer'-ton, a Scotch poet, whose first work, and that which brought him mostly into notice, was a translation of poems attributed by him to Ossian. These poems possess great beauty ; but their au- thenticity was disputed by Dr. Johnson and other writers, and as zealously maintained by the editor and Dr. Blair : it is now, however, generally admitted that Ossian's poems are a forgery. In 1773 Macpherson published a translation of the " Iliad " into heroic prose, a work of little value. He was aiso the author of an " Introduction to the History of Great Britain and Ireland," "A History of Great Britain, from 1660 to the Accession of the House of Hanover," and of some political pamphlets in defence of Lord North's administration, for which he obtained a place aud a seat in the House of Commons, b. in Inverness-shire, 1738; o. 1 79«'. Macreauy, William Charles, mak'-reed-e, a celebrated English tragedian, was the son of the manager of a provincial theatrical company, and lessee of several houses ; but, desiring a different profession for his son, sent the future actor to Rugby. At this celebrated school he acquired considerable reputation by his classical attain- ments, and gave promise of future celebrity at the bar, for which he was at that time destined by his parents. In his seventeenth year, whilst expecting to proceed to the university of Oxford, his father's affairs became deeply embarrassed, and the son resolved to aid his father with those talents which the latter had made sacrifices to improve. He exchanged the quiet of the school for the excitement of the theatre, and in June, 1810, made his first appearance at Birmingham in the character of Borneo. Having industry as well as talents, he was soon recognised as a valuable actor, and saw his exertions in behalf of his father crowned with success. Till Christ- mas, 1814, Mr. Macready remained with his father's company as a leading actor and stage- director ; and in the two following years visited the capitals of Ireland and Scotland, increasing his reputation, which was now thought sufficient to warrant him in making his appearance on the London stage. Accord- ingly, on the 16th of September, 1816, he came before a Covent Garden audience as Orestes in the " Distressed Mother." His debut caused much excitement in the theatrical world, and Kean, among other eminent actors, witnessed and applauded his performance. Notwithstand- ing this favourable debut, Macready had a hard battle to fight for many years. Kean, Kemblc, and Young were the great favourites of the town; and the monopoly which limited the re- presentation of Shakspeare's dramas to the two patent theatres narrowed the arena of competi- tion. Under these circumstances, Macready was compelled to refrain from assuming a number of Shakspearian characters in which he after- wards became a favourite with the play-going public. His Virginius and Bob Boy were pro- nounced very masterly personations. After his triumph in the first, lie speedily took his place as a Shakspearian actor. On removing from Covent Garden to Drury Lane, he became the original representative of the respective heroes of Mr. Sheridan Knowles's " Caius Gracchus" and " William Tell." He reappeared at Drury Lane in 1826, and from that time continued to hold a high place in public estimation. Mr. Macready under- took in turn the management of the two patent 677 Madoc theatres, and sustained considerable pecuniary loss in his endeavour to elevate the character of dramatic amusements. In 1826 he went to America, and in 1828 visited Paris, where he was enthusiastically received. In 1849 he paid a second visit to New York, where the jealousy of Forrest, as American actor, led to a riot, in which the Astor Opera-house, in which Macready was performing, was attacked by a mob, and the English actor barely escaped with his life. Mr. Macready returned to England shortly after- wards, where he was warmly welcomed by his friends. He commenced his final engagement at the Theatre Boyal, Haymarket, in the autumn of 1849 (Oct. 8), of which he was obliged to re- linquish the completion, when about half ful- filled, on account of in health; he resumed it in the autumn of the following year (October 28, 1850), and brought it to a conclusion, Feb. 3, 1851, and a banquet to him took place directly afterwards. He then retired from public life, living principally at Sherborne, Dorsetshire, and at Cheltenham, occupying himself with schemes for the education of the poorer classes. b. in London, March 3, 1793; d. 1873. Macro, Eneius Nsevius Sertorius, mii-kro, a favourite of the emperors Tiberius and Caligula, famous for his intrigues, perfidy, and cruelty. He destroyed Sejanus, raised himself on his ruin, was accessary to the murder of Tiberius, and obtained the goodwill of Caligula, but soon became unpopular, and was compelled by Caligula to kill himself, together with his wife, 38 A.D. Macrobius, Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius, ma-kro'-be-us, a Latin writer of the 5th centmry, is supposed to have been a Greek, but whether a Christian or pagan is unknown. He vvrote a commentary on Cicero's " Dream of Scipio ;" and also " Saturnalia, or Miscellanies." Mad an, Martin, mai'-dan, an English divine, was educated for the bar, but took orders, and became a popular preacher at the Lock chapel, till, by publishing an apology for polygamy, in a work entitled "Thelyphthora," he lost his popularity, and retired from the palpit. He was also the author of " A Commentary on the Articles of the Church of England," a " Treatise on the Christian Faith," and translated Ju- venal and Persius. n. 1726; d. 1790. Madden, Sir Frederick, mad-den, an eminent antiquarian writer, who, in 1826, entered the library of'the British Museum, and was entrusted with the post if keeper of the department of manuscripts in 1837. Both alone and in conjunc- tion with other learned gentlemen, he produced many valuable works, the chief of which are«n edition of the earliest English version of the Bible, made by Wycliffe and his followers; an abridged translation of M.Silvestre's" Universal Paleography," and several of the old metrical romances of the 13th century. He became a knight of the Hanoverian order in 1832. B. at Portsmouth, 1801 ; D. 1873. Madison, .lames, mad'-i-son, President of the United States of America, who commenced his political career in 177ft. He was a member of the first congress after the amendment of tlm constitution in 17*9, and became president in 1809, an office he filled during two terms, b. in Virginia, 1751; d. 1836. Madoc, ma-doc', the son of Owain Gwyncdd, a Welsh prince, who is said to have gone to sea in ten ships with 300 men, in 1170, after which no tidings were ever heard of him. It is the dictionary Madox supposed thatMadoc reached the American con- tinent, as it is 'said there was a tribe of white Indians on the northern branches of theMissouri river who spoke the Welsh language. Madox, Thomas, mad'-ox, an English anti- quary and historiographer royal, who published, in 1702, a " Collection of Ancient Charters and Instruments of divers kinds, taken from the Originals, from the Conquest to the Reign of Henry VIII." In 1711 appeared his "History and Antiquities of the Exchequer," which was reprinted in 1769. His last work was the " Firma Burgi ; or, Historical Essay concerning the Cities, Towns, and Boroughs of England." M.SCKNA8, Caius Cilnius, me-se'-nas, the intimate friend of Augustus, and so liberal a patron of men of letters, that bis name has been immortalised in consequence ; and it was chiefly through him thatVirgil andlloracewcre enabled to devote themselvo ; to poetry. According to Horace, he was descended from the ancient kings of Etruria. Augustus, one day, being engaged in the administration of justice, .and exhibiting an inclination to be over-severe in his judgments, Maecenas threw him a paper on which were the words: "Come down from the tribunal, thou butcher!" with which admonition the emperor was so struck, that ii • at once Quitted the judgment-seat without passing on I tie criminals before him thesenteuce of death he had intended. Virgil and Horace have both im- mortalised Maecenas in their works. He distin- guished himself also in the field, particularly at the battles of Modena and Philippi. When Augustus and Agrippa went to Sicily, Majcenaa had the administration of the government. He wrote some tragedies and other works, which are lost. d. 8 b.o. Magai.haens, commonly, but erroneously, called Magellan, Ferdinand, ma-gel'-lan, a famous Portuguese navigator. In 1510 he served under Albuquerque, and distinguished himself by bis bravery, and by his exact know- ledge of the Indian seas. On his return to Por- tugal he aspired to the rank of commander, but. being disappointed, entered the service of the emperor C harles V., who gave him the command of a fleet, with which, in 1520, he dis- covered the straits called by his name, at the extremity of South America ; after which he took possession of the Philippine islands, in the name of the king of Spain. He was slain at those islands in a skirmish with the natives, in 1521. Of this expedition, only one vessel, with eighteen men, returned to Europe. Magee, William, ma-gee', a learned Irish pre- late and theological writer, was born in humble life, and admitted as sizar at Dublin university. He was soon distinguished for his scholastic attainments ; and in 1806 became a senior fellow of Trinity College, and professor of mathematics. In 1801 he published " Dis- courses on the Scriptural Doctrines of the Atonement and Sacrifice," a work directed against the tenets of the Unitarians. In 1818 be was advanced to the deanery of Cork ; in 1819 was consecrated bishop of Kaphoe ; and, in 1822, translated to the see of Dublin, b. 1767; d. 1831. Magendie, Francois, ma-zhen'-de, a cele- brated French physician and physiologist, who, alter a brilliant career as a student, became, in 1818, a physician to the Hotel Dieu. He was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in 1819, and, in 1831, obtained the appointment of professor of anatomy in the College of France. 678 Magnentius Hisconiributiong to science were verynumerous • his " Elements of Physiology" was a standard text-book, during many years, in France, Ger- many, and England. He pointed out that non- nitrogenous substances were devoid of nutri- tion; proved that the veins were organs ol absorption ; that strychnia acts upon the spinal cord, and destroys the nerves of respiration by paralysis; that prussic acid was a remedy for certain forms of cough ; and finally, like Sir Charles Bell, demonstrated the precise functions of the spinal nerves. He wrote and contributed to various medical works, n. 1783; d.1855. Magenta, Duke of. (See MacMahon.) Maginn, William, LL.D., ma'-gin, one of the most fertile and versatile writers Of modern times, under the tuition of his father, made such rapid progress that he was enabled to enter Trinity College, Dublin, when only ten years of age. Having tried his powers as an author by contributing various papers to the " Literary Gazette," and, under a feigned name, to " Black- wood's Magazine," he settled for nearly three years in Edinburgh ; and continued to enrich the pages of " Blackwood" with much wit, elo- quence, learning, and fun, under the pseudonym of " Sir Morgan O'Doherty." He visited London for the first time in 1823, and settling there, wrote so much, and for such a variety of works, that an enumeration of his productions is im- possible here. Besides his labours as a con- tributor to periodicals of various kinds, he devoted a considerable part of his time to politics, and, about the year 1822, he became sub-editor of the " Standard," in which his newspaper talents and learning made him a formidable antagonist to the Liberals, and gave a proportionate degree of influence. While thus engaged, and while writing numerous light papers for publications, he also contributed voluminously to " Eraser's Magazine," in which he wrote a caustic review of a " fashionable" novel, entitled " Berkeley Castle." The author, the Hon. Grantley Berkeley, took offence, and, in company with a friend, committed a violent assault upon Mr. Fraser. Aroused by this ill- treatment of his friend and publisher, Dr. Maginn offered the offended author satisfaction and a hostile meeting took place accordingly. The duel proved a bloodless one, but it was very near having a different result, as the doctor wa< hit on the heel of his boot, and his opponent or. the collar of his coat. In the later years of his life, Dr. Maginn was involved in serious pecu- niary difficulties, which arose, however, not, as is affirmed, from self-indulgence, but from his indiscriminate kindness to others. Learned among the learned, witty among the witty, gentle and unassuming as a child among men of ability, Maginn was crushing in his sarcastic scorn against all whom he deemed enemies ol the constitution, b. at Cork, 1793 ; d. 18-12. Magliabecchi, Antonio, mag'-ye-a-baik' -ke, a learned Italian, who acquired such a store oi knowledge as to be appointed librarian to the grand-duko of Tuscany. He corresponded with most of the learned men in Europe, and asto» nishing things, bordering on the marvellous, are told of bis memory. His delight was wholly in books and manuscripts, and he refused pre- ferment and riches. An old cloak served him for a garment by day and a covering by night. He had one straw chair for his table, and another to sleep on. B. at Florence, 1633 ; d. 171-1. Magnentius, mag-nen'-she-us, a German, who OF BIOGRAPHY. Magnus Maimbourg rose, from being a private soldier, to the first employments in the empire. The emperor Constans had a great esteem for him, and, in a mutiny among the troops, delivered him from the fury of the soldiers, by covering him with his robe. Magnentius murdered his benefactor in 350, and assumed the title of emperor ; but Constantius II. avenged the death of his brother, and, after a bloody battle, Magnentius was de- feated ; whereupon he killed himself, 353. Magnus, Albertus. (See Albektus Mag- kus.) Mahmoud, ma'-mood, the founder of the Gasnevide dynasty, succeeded to the sovereignty of Khorassan and Bokhara in 997. He extended his territories by conquest, and formed a vast kingdom, extending from the banks of the Ganges to the Caspian Sea. He held his court at Balkh and Ghisni, and was the first eastern potentate who took the title of sultan (emperor) instead of emir (commander), which had been previously borne by his predecessors, d. 1030. Mahmoud I., sometimes called Mahomet V., sultan of the Ottoman Turks, was s«n of Mus- tapha II., and ascended the throne at Constan- tinople in 1730. He interfered but little in the government of his kingdom, choosing rather to live a life of luxury, while the cares of state devolved upon his ministers, b. 1696; d. 1751. Mahmocd II., sultan of Turkey, was placed upon the throne by Mustapha Bai'raktar, chief of the janissaries, in 1808. Under his reign, despite his greatest exertions, the decadence of Turkey was greatly accelerated. In 1812, Bes- sarabia was ceded to Russia by the peace of Bucharest. Between the years 1812 and 1817, Servia, Moldavia, and Wallachia were evacuated, ami tin- Ionian islands proclaimed their inde- pendence. In 1820, Greece broke out into in- surrection, and, after a struggle of eight years, threw oft the Turkish yoke. A fresh war next broke out between Turkey and Russia, and the latter power was only prevented from taking possession ot Constantinople by the interven- tion of the European powers, which brought about the peace of Adrianople, in 1829. During this time, Ali, pacha of Janina, had defied the sultan, and Mehemet Ali, pacha of Egypt, had rendered himself independent. The extermina- tion of the janissaries in 1826, and the intro- duction of some details of civilization, weakened the Turkish power, but did not benefit Mah- moud. In 1833 he was thrice defeated by the Egyptians, and the treaty of Unkiar-Skclcssi left him at the mercy of Russia. He was about to engage in a new war with Mehemet Ali, when his death took place, b. 1785; d. 1839.— lie was succeeded by his eldest son, Abdul-Mejid. (See Abdul-Mejid.) Mahomet. (See Mohammed.) Mahomet I., mai'-ho-met, emperor of the Turks, was the son of Bajazct I., and succeeded his brother Mousa in 1113. He re-established the glory of the Ottoman empire, which had been ravaged by Tamerlane, and fixed the seat of government at Adriauople, where he died in 1421, aged 47. Mahomet II. succeeded his father, Amuralh II., in 1451. He made many conquests, and was the first who assumed the title of Grand Seignior. After a long and victorious career, lie died as he was about to lead an attack against the Knights of St. John, at Rhodes. Mahomet is said to have been a freethinker, and to have ridiculed throughout the religion in which he 679 was brought up. His letters, translated into Latin, were published in 1520. b. 1429; d. 1481. Mahomet III. succeeded his father, Amu- rath II L, in 1595. He commenced his reign by strangling nineteen of his brothers, and drown- ing ten ot his father's wives. He entered Hun- gary, took Agram by capitulation, and then massacred the whole garrison. The archduke Maximilian marched against him, and nearly obtained a complete victory, when Mahomet, who had made a false retreat, suddenly returned to the charge, and routed the imperialists. He was afterwards less successful, and obliged to sue for peace to the Christian princes whose states he had ravaged, d. 1603. Mahomet IV. became emperor in 1649, after the tragical death of his father, Ibrahim I. The Turks were at this time engaged in a war with the Venetians, and made themselves masters of the isle of Candia in 1669, after losing 100,000 men. Mahomet marched in person against Poland, and, having taken several places, made peace with that country, on condition of an annual tribute being paid to him. John Sobieski, irritated at this treaty, raised an army, and the year following defeated the Turks near Choezim. He also obtained a number of other advantages over them, and a peace was concluded, favourable to Poland, in 1676. In 1683 the Turks laid siege to Vienna, on which Sobieski marched to its relief, and routed the besiegers. The year fol- lowing, a league was entered into against the Turks, between the emperor, the king of Poland, and the Venetians. The janissaries, attributing their misfortunes to the indolence of the sultan, deposed him in 16S7, and gave the sceptre to his brother Solyman III., who sent him to the same prison whence he had himself been taken. Mahomet died there, 1691. Mahomet V.' (See Mahmoud I.) MAi.Cardinal Angelo,ma'-e, an eminent Italian scholar, who, after having lived obscurely in a Jesuit convent, was promoted to the charge of the Ambrosian Library at Milan in 1813. In 1819 he was called to Rome, where his researches in the Vatican library brought to light many ancient works and fragments till then lost to the world. The most important of these were " The Republic " of Cicero, discovered in 1322, nearly in a perfect condition, and the letters of Fronto, the tutor of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. His valuable labours were rewarded with high distinction in the Church. He was created a uardinal in 1838, and suBse- qucntly became chief librarian of the Vatican, which office he held till his death, b. at Ber- gamo, 1782; D. 1851. Maillet, Benedict do, mail-Iai, a whimsical but ingenious French writer, who successively became consul at Egypt and Leghorn. His principal work, " Telliamed " (his name read backwards), contains a singular system of cos- mogony, in which he maintains that all the land of the globe was originally covered with water, and that every species of animal, man included, owes its origin to the sea. b. 1656; d. 1738. Maimboueg, Louis, maim'-loorg, a celebrated French ecclesiastical historian, who entered into the society of Jesuits; but having written ;> treatise in defence of the rights of the Galliean church against the see of Rome, was expelled the order. Louis XIV., however, made him amends by giving him a pension. His chief works are, "A History of Arianism," "A His- tory of Iconoclasts," "A History of the Cru- THE DICTIONARY Maimonides sades," and " Histories of Calvinism and Luthe- ranism." b. 1610; d. 1686. Maimonides, Moses, mai-mon'-i-dees, or Moses Ben Maimon, a celebrated Jewish rabbi. He is commonly called Moses .Sgyptus, because he lived in that country as physician to the sultan. He was versed in several languages and sciences, but particularly mathematics and medicine. He was also learned in theology, and the Jews ac- count him as second only to Moses the legis- lator. He wrote a "Commentary upon the Old Testament," a " Digest of the Hebrew Laws," and other valuable works, u. at Cordova, Spain, about 1133; d. 1204. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubign<5, Marchioness de, mon'-te-nawng, the mistress, and afterwards wife, of Louis XI V. In 1651 she married the celebrated comic poet Searron, who taught her the Latin, Spanish, and Italiau languages. In 1660 she became a widow in very narrow cir- cumstances ; but the queen allowed her a pen- sion, with which she retired to a convent at Paris. The death of her patron deprived her of her pension, and reduced her to great difficul- ties ; but, by means of her old friend Madame de Montcspan, the king's mistress, she obtained the renewal of her pension. By the command of his majesty she undertook the education of the children he had by Madame de Montespan, which trust she discharged with great fidelity. In this situation she acquired an ascendancy over the mind of the king, who, in 1674, pur- chased for her the estate of Maintcnon, which name she assumed. In 1685 the king made her his wife; but the marriage was never publicly avowed. On the death of Louis, she retired to St. Cyr, an institution she had herself founded tor poor girls of good family, b. 1635; d. 1719. Mainzer, Joseph, mmn'-zair, a distinguished musician, and introducer cf the system of teach- ing that is known by his name, began life as apprentice to mining engineering in the coal- field of Dutwciler and Sultzbach, but was obliged to quit this pursuit from ill-health. He then devoted himself to the study of music, for which he had always had a predilection, and after studying under various masters, and in different parts of the world, returned to Treves, his native place, and turned his attention to the development of his new system of teaching music, which he had long before conceived, and which soon began to attract attention in Ger- many. In 1830, he went to Paris, then in all the excitement of the second revolution, where he soon found a field for his plan of teaching and popularizing music; but the police became jealous of his popularity, and invited him to close his school, an invitation which he could not safely decline. During his residence in Paris, Mainzer was a constant contributor to the " Revue des Deux Mondes," the " Revue du Nord," " La Balance," published by Boerne, and for six years was the redacteur of the musical department of the "National." In 1844 he went to England, where his scheme of teaching singing to the masses was well received. Soon afterwards he established himself in Scotland ; and in 1848 definitively took up his abode in Manchester, where he laboured with great assi- duity and success till his death. He left a great number of works in almost every style of composition, b. 1801; d. 1851. Maibb, James Le, le(r)-mair', a Dutch navi- gator, who sailed from the Texel in 1615, with two vessels. In the following year he di»- 680 Maitlaud covered the strait which bears his name, in South America. After visiting New Guinea, ho sailed to Batavia, where he was made prisoner, and the only vessel he had left was confiscated, under the pretence of his having infringed on the rights of the Dutch East India Company. d. on his passage to Europe, in 1616. Maitland, Sir Richard, mait'-land, an early Scottish poet, distinguished also as a lawyer and a statesman, held the office of a lord of session, and in that capacity took the title of Lord Lethington, from his estate. He was ap- pointed keeper of the privy seal in the reign of Queen Mary ; which office, as well as his judi- cial seat, he resigned a few years after, and died in 1586. b. 1496. He wrote several poems, some of which are in Allan Ramsay's " Ever- green." — William Maitland of Lethington, the eldest son of Sir Richard, was secretary of state to Mary Queen of Scots. — John Maitland, second son of Sir Richard, succeeded his father in the office of lord privy seal, and tost it through his attachment to the interests of the queen. He was afterwards secretary to James VI., and at length chancellor of Scotland. In 1589 he attended the king on his voyage to Norway, where his bride, the Princess of Den- mark, was detained by contrary winds. The marriage was immediately consummated, and they returned with the queen to Copenhagen, whore they spent the ensuing winter. In 1590 Maitland was created Lord Maitland of Thurl- stane. Towards the end of the year 1592, the chancellor incurred the queen's displeasure for refusing to relinquish his lordship of Mussel- burgh, which she claimed as being a part of that, of Dunfermline. He absented himself for some time from court, but was at length restored to favour. Besides his Scottish poetry in the M ait- land collection, he wrote several Latin epigrams, &c., to be found in the "Delicise Poetarum Scotorum." d. 1595. Maitlaud, John. (S'eeLAUDEBDALE.Dukeof.) Maiiland, William, a native of Brechin, For- farshire, was originally a travelling hair-mer- chant, but turning his attention to literature, gained a competency, and was elected a member of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies. He wrote a " History of Edinburgh," a " History of London," and " The History and Antiquities of Scotland." b. about 1693 ; v. 1757. Maitland, Rear-Admiral Sir Frederick Lewis, the third son of a rear-admiral, commenced his naval career at a very early age. Passing over the earlier part of his career, in the course of which he saw much service, and greatly distin- guished himself, we find Captain Maitland commanding the armed launches employed to cover the landing of Sir Ralph Abercromby's army in Egypt in 1801, for which he received the thanks of the naval and military commanders- in-chief. His subsequent successes while cruis- ing in the Mediterranean as captain of the Loire, of 46 guns, brought him into general notice, and in 1813 he was appointed to the command of the Goliath, and subsequently to the Belle- rophon, of 74 guns, in which ship he was sent to watch the French coast oil' Rochefort. While there, Napoleon, after the events which followed the battle of Waterloo, resolved to throw him- self on the generosity of " the most powerful, the most constant, and the most generous of lis enemies;" and accordingly surrendered uncondi- tionally to Captain Maitland on the 15th July, 1815. The Belleropkon, with the illustrious KNOX, JOHN. KEMBLE, JOHN PHILIP. KINGSLEY, REV. CHARLES. KOSSUTH, LOUIS. OF BIOGRAPHY. Malatesta captive on board, proceeded to Plymouth, off Vhich port he was removed to the Northum- berland on the 7th of August, having previously offered to present Captain Maitland with his portrait set with dfamonds, of the value of 3000 guineas, which offer was politely declined. Maitland was subsequently appointed to the command of the Vengeur, of 74 guns; after- Wards attained to the rank of rear-admiral ; and was appointed commander-in-chief in the East Indies, where he died, after several years' ser- vice, Dec. 30, 1839. Malatesta, Malatesti, Lords of Eimini, mal-a-tah'-ta, a great Italian family during the middle ages, and the head of the Guelph party at Rimini. The tragedy which occurred in the household of one of this family forms one of the finest episodes in Dante's " Inferno." After being despoiled of their possessions by Pope Clement VIII., in 1528, the family retired to Venice, and their names were afterwards re- corded in the annals of that republic. Malcolm, mal'-kom, tl>e name of four kings of Scotland, who reigned between the 10th and I2th centuries. The most celebrated was Malcolm 111.,'son of that Duncan immortalized in Shakspcare's "Macbeth." After the murder of his father, he took refuge in England; but, upon the fall of Macbeth, in 1057, he recovered possession of the Scottish crown, He after- wards engaged in a war with William Rufus, and was slain fighting against the English, 1093. Malcolm, James Peller, an artist and an- tiquary, was a native of America, studied paint- ing in England, and eventually became an en graver. He was the author of " Londinium Redi- vivum," "Anecdotes of theManners andCustoms of London," " First Impressions," &c. d. 1815. Malcolm, Sir John, a celebrated British officer, and author of the " History of Persia," went to India at the age of thirteen, and, after serving with distinction in both political and military capacities, was appointed, in 18w, minister plenipotentiary to Persia. On his re- turn to England, in 1812, he was knighted, and three years afterwards published lis " His- tory of Persia," a most valuable contribution to literature, derived from native sources. He returned to India in 1817, and acted as second in command in the campaigns against the Mahrattas and Pindarees. On the conclu- sion of this war, he was nominated to the civil and military command of Central India, which, during his administration, became tranquillized and prosperous. He returned to England in 1821, but again went out to the East in 1827, as governor of Bombay. He finally left India in 1830, and soon afterwards entered Parliament. He was the author of a " Life of Lord Clive," " Political History of India," and a "Memoir on Central India." b. in Scotland, 1769; d. 1833. Malebranche, Nicholas, mal'-br>inzh, one of the most illustrious disciples of Dcs Cartes, whose philosophy he devoted his lite to propa- gate and explain. His works were numerous, and of the highest excellence, n. at Paris, 1633; d. 1715. Maleshkrbes, Chretien Guillaumc Lamoig- non, maU-hairb, an eminent French lawyer, whose talents procured him the place of pre- sident of the Court of Aids in 1750, which post he held with great reputation for upwards of twenty years, and then retired to his paternal estate. In 1775 he was recalled from his re- treat, and made minister of state for the in- 681 Malibran de Beriot terior. Under his administration, prisons were visited, and numerous abuses removed, but the year following he resigned. At the beginning of the Revolution he conceived a hope that it would have been productive of good, but the illusion soon vanished. He voluntarily pleaded the cause of the unfortunate Louis XVI., and defended him with all the ardour of conscious rectitude. This excellent man was condemned to death, with his daughter and grand-daughter, by the revolutionary tribunal in 1794. He wrote some treatises on natural history and agricul- ture, and a work entitled " Memoire sur la Liberte de la Presse." b. 1721. Malibban de Bebiot, Maria Felioita, mal'-i-bra dai bai'-re-o, a celebrated vocal per- former, was the eldest daughter of Manuel Garcia, a well-known tenor singer of the Italian Opera. She was taken to London by her parents when eight years old, devoted her un- ceasing attention to the study of music,and made her debut in 1825, when only sixteen years of age, as prima donna at the opera. In the succeeding year she accompanied her father to America, where her union with M. Malibran, an elderly French merchant at New York, took place. Shortly after their marriage her husband failed, and was thrown into prison ; and Madame Mali- bran, believing she had been deceived, separated from him, and returned to Europe. Intense study, the love of her art, and the motives she had for exertion, had already made her a performer of unrivalled excellence. The Parisian audiences were perfectly enraptured, and every night she concluded her performance amidst a thunder of applause and a shower of flowers. From Paris she went to London, where she shone with in- creased lustre, through the season of 1829, in the characters of Rosina, Tancredi, Desdemona, Semiramide, Zerlina, and N'inetta. Her reputa- tion now extended over the whole of Europe ; and after travelling great distances to fulfil different engagements, and receiving vast sums for her performances, she revisited England in 1835, and made her first appearance at Covcnt Garden, in an English version of " La Somnam- bula," on the 18th of May, and at once entranced her audiences with her marvellous powers of vocalization ; not only in the theatre, but also at numerous royal and noble entertainments to which she was invited, and at the concerts of professors. After almost incredible ex- ertions, in the evening, she often rose by five o'clock in the morning, and practised for several hours those wonderful passages by which audiences were again to be clcctritied. In March, 1836, Madame Malibran, while in Paris, having been freed, by the French courts, from her union with Monsieur Malibran, was married to Monsieur de Beriot, a Iielgian, whose ability as a violinist had placed him in the highest rank of his profession. In May follow- ing, she resumed her performances at Drury Lane Theatre ; and, at the close of the season, accompanied her husband to Brussels, and other cities on the Continent. But the close of her career was at hand. Having been engaged for the Manchester grand musical festival, she arrived in that town on the 11th of September, and, though indisposed.commenced her arduous task the next day. Her illness rapidly increased; and, though she endeavoured to conceal it, by sustaining her part with the apparent vigour of health and unusual energy, she sank under the effort. On Wednesday, the 14th, her last notes THE DICTIONARY Malins in public were heard, m the duet, " Vanne se alberghi in petto," from "Andronico," with Madame Caradori Allan. She fainted under the effort, was immediately bled, and removed to her apartments ; but notwithstanding she had the best medical attendance, she breathed her last on the 23rd of September, 1836. b. at Paris, 1803. Malins, Sir Eichard, ma'-Uni, an eminent Chancery barrister, who was appointed Vice- Chaucellor of theCourt of Chancery iuDecember, 1866. He graduated at Cambridge, and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1830. He represented Wallingford in the Conservative interest from 1852 to 1865, when he lost his seat in the general election of that year. He re- ceived the honour of knighthood in 1867, shortly after his appointment as Vice-Chan- cellor, b. 1805. Mali.et, David, mal'-Ut, a Scotch poet, was tutor to the sons of the duke of Montrose, with whom he travelled, and on his return settled in London, where he became an author by profession. In 1740 he published a " Life of Lord Bacon," which is a very insignificant work, and totally unworthy of the subject. The duchess of Marlborough left him a legacy of £1000 to write the life of her husband ; on which it was observed, that as he had forgot Bacon was a philosopher, so he would probably omit to notice M arlborough as a general : of this life, however, he never wrote a line. Frederick Prince of Wales appointed him his under- secretary. Lord Bolingbroke left him his phi- losophical works, whicli he published after the author's death. His poetical works were col- lected and published by himself in 1759. B. in Perthshire about 1700; d. 1765. Malmksbury, William of, mams'-ler-e, an old English historian, whose father was a Norman, his mother being an Englishwoman, was early in his life placed in the monastery whose name he is known by, and became its librarian. He wrote "The History of the Kings of England," " The History of the Prelates of England," and many less important works. His " History of the Kings " terminates at the year 1142: it has been reprinted in Holm's Anti- quarian Library. He is regarded as one of the most truthful and impartial of the early historians, b., it is supposed in Somersetshire, about 1095 ; d. about 1150. Malmesbuky, James Harris, first Earl of, an English diplomatist, was son of the celebrated James Harris, author of " Hermes." (See Harris, James.) He was appointed ambas- sador to the court of Frederick II. of Prussia in 1772, and subsequently 'illed the same post in Russia and at the Hague. In 1794 he negotiated the marriage between the Prince of Wales and Caroline of Brunswick ; and many valuable de- tails of the mission were afterwards published by him in his " Diary." His last employments were in 1790-7, at Paris and Lille, for the pur- pose of obtaining a treaty of peace with the French republic. His " Diaries and Corre- spondence" were published in 1844. b. at Salisbury, 1746; d. 1820. Malone, Edmund, ma' -lone, an Irish lawyer, who devoted his life to literature, and became celebrated for his commentaries and editions of Shakspcare's works, b. 1741 ; D.1812. Malte-Brun, Conrad, mal'-te bru(r)n, a cele- brated Danish geographer, commenced life by wr'ting poems and treatises in favour of liberty, 682 Manetho for which he was exiled in 1796. After taking refuge in Sweden for a short time, he went to Paris in 1800, where he was engaged as foreign editor of the "Journal des Debats," and pub- lished a number of highly-important geogra- phical works, the chief of which are " Geogra- phy, Mathematical, Physical, and Political," Summary of Universal Geography," and " Annals of Voyages and Travels." b. in Jut- land, 1775 ; d. at Paris, 1826. Malthus, Kev. Thomas Robert, mal'-thug, an English clergyman of the established church, who wrote several works on population and on political economy, which have attracted con- siderable attention. In the famous " Essay on Population," the proposition developed by Mr. Malthus were, that the population, when unchecked, doubles itself every twenty-five years, or increases in a geometrical Tatio ; the means of subsistence, on the other hand, could not be made to increase faster than in an arith- metical ratio. He then proceeded to show that the natural check for this was misery, which, together with vice, shortens human life. Mr. Malthus is said to have been much miscon- ceived ; he was certainly plentifully abused for his seemingly cold-hearted theories ; it is clear, however, that he was a good and philosophic man. Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote a number of others bearing on the same subjects, b. in Surrey, 1766; d. at Bath, 1834. Malus, Etienne Louis, ma-loo', a French ex- perimental philosopher and mathematician, was professor in the Polytechnic school, and after- wards served as an officer of engineers, both on the Rhine in 1797, and in Egypt under Bona- parte. He then devoted himself to experimental philosophy, particularly studying optics, and had the good fortune to discover the polariza- tion of light, for which he was elected a mem- ber of the Institute. The gold medal of the Royal Society, and honours from all quarters, were bestowed upon him, and he ultimately became director of the Polytechnic School, and superintendent of fortifications. B. at Paris, 1775; d.1812. Manco-Capac, man-lco Ica'-pak, founder and first inca of the empire of Peru, civilized and reunited the different tribes of Peruvians, to whom he pretended that he was born of the sun. After his death, ho was worshipped as a deity. He is said to have flourished about 1025. His dynasty endured 500 years, but be- came extinct soon after the conquest of Peru by Pizarro. Mandevilxb, Sir John, man -de-veel, an English traveller, who spent thirty-four years in travelling through various countries, in- cluding Palestine, Egypt, and a large portion of Asia. He lived for three years at Pekin, and on his return published a narrative of his voyages, which abounds in much curious matter, but blended with the most extravagant fictions. The first English edition of his travels was printed by Wynkyn de Worde, at Westminster, in 1499. b. "at St. Albans, about 1300 ; d. at Liege, 1372. Manetho, mai-ne'-tho, an Egyptian his- torian, who flourished in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, at Monde, or Heliopolis. He be- longed to the priestly caste, and composed, in Greek, a History of Egypt, of which a fragment only has come down to us ; there is, however, a complete work by him on the Influence of the Stars. OF BIOGRAPHY. Manfred Manfred, man'-fred, king of Naples and Sicily, was a natural son of the emperor Frede- rick II. After the death of his brother Conrad, he became regent of the kingdom, during the minority of Coiiradino, his nephew. Pope Inno- cent IV. exciting a revolt against him, he was driven from his kingdom ; but he reconquered it a year afterwards, and caused himself to be crowned in 1258. Pope Urban IV. excommu- nicated him, and offered his kingdom to Charles of Anjou Manfred perished in a desperate battle with the latter near Benevento, 1266. Mani, orMAHicnaus, ma'-ne, an heresiarch of the 3rd century, a Persian, who taught that there were two principles of all thingB, co-eternal and co-equal ; that all good pro- ceeded from the former, and all evil from the latter ; that the good being was the author of the New Testament, and the bad of the Old ; the one the creator of the body, and the other of the soul. Ills followers became numerous, and were denominated Manicha;ans. Maui was exiled by order of Sapor, king of Persia, for failing to cure his son, and was subse- quently flayed alive by llormisdas, successor of Sapor, in 27-1. Manilius, Marcus, mait'-il-e-us, a Roman poet, who flourished in the Augustan era. He undertook a didactic poem, of which we have but five books, entitled " Astronomiea." It is valuable chiefly as a work of science, but con- tains, however, a few beautiful passages, par- ticularly in the introductions. Maniu, Daniel, ma'-nii, an illustrious Italian patriot, formerly president of the Venetian re- public. The son of a distinguished advocate, young Manin was educated for the profession of the law. About 1825 he married, and went to reside at Mcstre, a small town near Venice. There he practised as an advocate, and occu- pied his leisure with historical studies, taking no part in the discussions or proceedings of the secret societies then existing in Italy, but hating Austrian rule, and hoping for the inde- pendence of Venice with the whole force of his nature. That such a man should come into collision with the Austrian government was perfectly natural ; and, at the beginning of 1818, he was imprisoned for the liberal opinions expressed by him as advocate during several trials. A few months later, the Austrians were driven from Milan ; the insurrection quickly spread throughout the Italian peninsula, and at Venice, Count Zichy, the Austrian governor, was forced to surrender. Manin here stepped forth, and exhorted his countrymen to act like men who were worthy of freedom. He or- ganized a government, at the head of which he was placed, with Tomaseo; formed a committee of defence, created ten battalions of garde mo- bile, and improvised a corps of artillery. When Charles Albert took the field against the Aus- trians, in the name of Italy, the Venetians agreed to a fusion with Lombardy and Piedmont, under the name of the kingdom of Northern Italy. The defeat of the Piedmontese, how- ever, destroyed that compact, and left Venice to defend herself alone against Austria ; there- upon a republic was proclaimed, Manin being named chief triumvir, and the military com- mand confided to the Neapolitan general Pepe. Venice was besieged by the Austrians in August, 1818, but held out heroically until the end of the same month in the following year, and did not surrender before it had been sub- 683 Mansfield jected to a fearful bombardment. According to the terms of capitulation, Manin was permitted to go into exile, and thereupon retired to Paris, where he supported himself by giving lessons in Italian, b. at Venice, 1804: d. at Paris, 1857. Manlby, Mary de la Riviere, man'-le, the daughter of Sir Koger Manley, governor of Guernsey, a gentleman who suffered much for his adherence to Charles I., and also distin- guished himself as a writer. She was left to the care of a cousin, who seduced her under the mask of a pretended marriage, and then abandoned her. Being thus dependent on her own exertions for support, she became a dra- matic and political writer. Her first effort was " The Royal Mistress," a tragedy, which was successful. She then composed " The New Atalantis," in which, under feigned names, and with much warmth and freedom, she re- lates the amours and adventures, real and sup- posed, of many distinguished persons of the day. For the libels contained in this work she was committed to the custody of a messenger, but afterwards admitted to bail; and a Tory administration succeeding, she lived in high reputation and gaiety. She was also employed in writing for Queen Anne's ministry; and when Swift relinquished the " Examiner," she continued it for a considerable time with great spirit. Besides the works before mentioned, she wrote "Lucius," a tragedy; "The Lost Lover," a comedy; "Memoirs of Europe to- wards the Close of the Eighteenth Century," "Court Intrigues," "Adventures of Eivelle," &c. d. 1724. Manlius Capitolinus, Marcus, Tcap-i-to-W- nus, a celebrated Roman consul and commander, who, when Rome was taken by the Gauls, re- tired into the Capitol, and preserved it from a sudden attack made upon it in the night. The dogs which were kept in the Capitol made no noise; but the geese, by their cries, awoke Manlius, who had just time to repel the enemy. Geese from that period were always held sacred among the Romanf, and Manlius was honoured with the surname of Capitolinus. He after- wards endeavoured to obtain the sovereignty of Rome, for which he was thrown from the Tarpcian rock, 381 B.C. Manlius Torquatus, tor-kwai-tus, a famous Roman, who displayed great courage in his youth as military tribune. In a war against the Gauls he accepted a challenge given by one of the enemy, and having slain him, took his chain (torques) from his neck ; on which ac- count he assumed the name of Torquatus. He was the first Roman advanced to the dictator- ship without being previously a consul. But he tarnished his glory by putting his son to death for engaging in single combat with an enemy contrary to his order. This greatly disgusted the Romans, and, on account of his severity in his government, all edicts of ex- treme rigour were called " Manliana Edicta." lie flourished 310 b.c. Mansfield, mana'-feeld, William Murray, Earl of, an illustrious lawyer, received his education at Westminster School, whence he was elected student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1723. After taking his degree as M.A., ho went abroad, and on his return, entered of Lincoln's Inn, where ho was called to the bar. His eloquence and legal acquirements soon gained him an eitensive practice, and when he THE DICTIONARY Mant pleaded, the court was crowded. Pope, with whom he was intimate, complimented him with the appellation of "silver-tongued Murray." In 1743 he became solicitor-general, and was elected member of Parliament. In 1754 he was made attorney-general, and in 1756 chief justice of the King's Bench; soon alter which he was created Baron Mansfield. In 1776 his lordship was created an earL His conduct on the bench at the trials of the publisher of Junius's Letters, and of Wilkes, caused him to become very unpopular, and during the famous riots of 1780 his house in Bloomsbury-square was burnt down by the mob, who also threatened his life. By that disaster, he lost a prodigious number of valuable manuscripts and books ; yet, when the House of Commons voted him a compensation for the injury, he refused to accept it. After filling his high office with great dignity many years, he resigned it on account of his in- firmities, in 17/88. His reputation is that of a great lawyer, an upright man, and an elegant scholar. His remains were interred in West- minster Abbey, b. at Perth, 1704; b. 1793. Mant, Right Rev. Richard, mant, Bishop of Down, Connor, and Dromore, was educated at Winchester and Oxford, where he gained the chancellor's prizefor an English essay "On Com- merce," 1799; and, after taking his degree of M.A., travelled for some time on the continent ; on his return he became successively curate at Buriton and Sparsholt in Hampshire. In 1810 he was presented to the vicarage of Great Coggeshall, in Essex ; and the sermons which he preached at the Banipton Lecture, in 1812, having attracted general attention, he rose rapidly in the church. In 1815 he became rector of St. Botolph's, Bishopsgate-street, and, three years later, vicar of East Horsley, Surrey. In 1820 he was consecrated bishop of'Killaloe, and translated to the see of Down and Connor in 1823, and the care of the diocese of Dromore devolved upon him in 1842. During his long life, Dr. Mant was constantly engaged in authorship, chiefly on subjects connected with his professional duties. Of his numerous writings, those which have gained him greatest celebrity are, probably, the edition of the Bible with notes and commentaries, which he pre- pared in conjunction with Dr. D'Oyly, and tracts printed by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, such as " A Step in the Temple," &c, "Romanism and Holy Scrip- ture Compared," " The Churches of Rome and England Compared." b. 1776; d. 1848. Mantell, Gideon Algernon, man'-tel, a dis- tinguished English geologist, who, while par- suing his profession as surgeon at Lewes, studied the geological formations of Sussex with the greatest assiduity and success. His works written upon the science of geology are peculiarly attractive to the general reader, in consequence of the elegant and lucid style in which the information is conveyed. The first of these works was published in 1822, and was entitled " The Fossils of the South Downs," which was followed by "Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex." For his great discoveries of the iguanodon and its colossal allies, the Geological Society, in 1835, awarded him the Wollaston medal and fund. In 1825 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and this learned body also marked its sense of his dis- covery of the iguanodon by awarding Mm the royal medal. In 1839 he went to reside at C84 Manutius Clapham. About the same time the trustees of the British Museum purchased his collection of fossils for £5000. His well-spent life had two phases — original discovery and popular teach- ing. At the former we have glanced in men- tioning his discovery of the gigantic fossil ; and in proof of his labours in the latter direction, we may mention the delightful " Wonders oi Geology," and "The Medals of Creation," works long and deservedly held in the highest esteem by the general reader. Dr. Mantell was also an industrious contributor to scientific Transactions ; and in the " Zoology and Geo- logy" of Agassiz and Strickland no less than sixty-seven articles have been attributed to him. b. at Lewes, Sussex, about 1790 ; r>. 1852. Manuel Comnenus, man'-u-el, emperor of the East, was the son of John Comnenus, whom he succeeded in 1143, to the prejudice of Isaac, his elder brother, whom his father had dis- inherited. Roger, king of Sicily, invaded the empire in his reign ; but Manuel expelled him, and then turned his arms against Dalmatia and Hungary with various success. He also marched into Egypt, which country he would have conquered, had he not been betrayed by Amauri I., king of Jerusalem, his allv. b. 1120; d. 1180. _ Manuel Pal.eologto, emperor of Constan- tinople, was the son and successor of John Palajologus I. The Turks having invaded his dominions, he applied to the Latins for succour, but without effect, on which he resigned his sceptre to John Pala;ologus II., his son, and took a religious habit, b. 1318; d. 1425. Manuel, Jacques Antoine, entered the re- publican army as a volunteer in 1793, and rose to the rank of captain. After the peace of Campo Formio, he quitted the army, studied law, was admitted to the bar at Aix, and soon acquired a high reputation for talent. In 1815 he was elected to the chamber of deputies which was convoked by Napoleon, and after the abdication of that monarch, Manuel strenuously contended for the rights of his son. In 1818 he was elected a member of the cham- ber of deputies by three departments, and be- came one of the most formidable opponents of the ministers. He was fervid and ardent in the cause of the party to which he had attached himself; but having used some violent expres- sions in his first speech, iu the session of 1823, on the subject of the Spanish war, his expul- sion was loudly demanded ; the result of which was that a body of the gendarmerie was intro- duced to arrest him ; but he was again chosen to the chamber of deputies in 1824. b. 1775; D. 1827. Manutius, Aldus, man-oo'-ska-us, or Manuzio, Aldo, a celebrated Italian printer and author, of the 15th and 16th centuries, was born at Bas- sano, in 1447; became tutor to Alberto Pio, prince of Carpi ; and in 1488 established a printing office at Venice. He printed nume- rous valuable editions of Greek and Latin classics; compiled a Greek and Latin Dic- tionary and Grammar; and was the inventor of the Italic character, hence called Aldine, for the exclusive use of which, for a term of years, he obtained a patent. r>. 1515. — Paolo Manu- zio, son of the preceding, distinguished as a classic scholar, no less than as a printer, was born at Venice, in 1512, and died in 1574. — Aldo Manuzio, the younger, was a son of Paolo, OP BIOGRAPHY. Manzoni and equally celebrated as his father and grand- father, b. 1547; d. 1597; and with him expired the glory of the Aldbie press. Manzoni, Alessandro, man-zo'-ne, a cele- brated Italian poet and novelist, who, after completing his education at Milan and Pavia, went to Paris in 1803. While in the French capital, he produced a poem in blank verse, of strongly deistical opinions, but after his return to Italy, in 1807, he became a zealous Roman Catholic, and his subsequent poetical works were imbued with a devotioral feeling. He is known throughout Europe as the author of a fine historical novel, called "The Betrothed Lovers," which has been translated into English, French, and German, and is allowed to be worthy of taking rank with the best pro- ductions of Sir Walter Scott. After the death of his first wife, in 1833, Manzoni continued to live in retirement near Milan, b. 1784; r>.1873. Mapks, or Map, Walter, maips, an old English poet, who was chaplain to Henry II., by whom he was despatched on a mission to the court of Louis VII. of France. He wrote some satirical and convivial poems, in Latin, which were edited and published by Thomas Wright, in 1841. He was also the author of several prose works, both in Latin and Norman- French, from which a large portion of the romance of the Hound Table is said to be taken. Mapes rose.to high posts in the church; but, after he became archdeacon of Oxford, in 1196, no further mention is made of him. b. probably in Herefordshire, about the middle of the 12th century. Mabaldi, James Philip, ma-ral'-de, a cele- brated Italian mathematician and astronomer, who was employed under Cassini in construct- ing the great meridian through France. He left behind a valuable catalogue of the fixed stars, and a body of important " Observations." b. at Nice, 1665 ; d. 1729. Mabat, Jean Paul, ma'-ra, a notorious dema- gogue, who went to Paris, where he studied physic, and set up as an empiric, selling his nostrums at an extravagant price. On the first outbreak of the Revolution, in 1789, he became a leader among the most violent of the revolu- tionary factions. In his first journal, the " Publiciste Parisien," he attacked Necker, and other eminent men. This was followed by his " Friend of the People," in which he excited the troops against their generals, the people at large against their king, and declared in print that France could never become happy until 270,000 heads had been struck oft' by the guillo- tine. Named deputy for the department of Paris in the Convention, he appeared there armed with pistols. The most atrocious mur- ders were committed by his means, and he ap- peared to delight in nothing but the effusion of blood, when he was assassinated, in the midst of his career, while taking a bath, by Charlotte Corday. (See Corday.) Marat published a work on Man, or "Principles of the Reciprocal Influence of the Soul and Body," and Tracts on Electricity and Light, in which he attacked the Mewtonian system, b. near Neufchatel, 1741; assassinated, 1793. M aratti, Carlo, ma-rat -fe, an eminent Italian painter, who became the pupil of Andrea Sacchi, and chiefly applied himself to painting female saints. Pope Clement IX. gave him a pension, and conferred on him the order of knighthood. He was alio painter in ordinary 685 Marciaims to Louis XIV. b. at Camerino, in the March of Ancona, 1625 ; d. at Rome, 1713. Mabbeck, John, mar'-bek, a musician of the 16th century, who is believed to have been the first composer of the cathedral service of the Anglican church. He held the office of organist at St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and wrote a " Concordance of the Bible," " Lives of the Saints, Prophets, and Patriarchs," &c. Mabceau, Francois Severin Desgraviere, mar-so, a distinguished French general, eminent equally for his military skill and courage, and for his virtue and humanity. These qualities he displayed in La Vendee, at Fleurus, and on the Rhine. He was killed at Hochsteinbach, and when buried in the entrenched camp at Coblentz, so high was the respect in which he was held, that both the French and the Austrian armies fired volleys of artillery in honour of the cere- mony, b. at Chartres, 1769 ; killed, 1796. Mabcellinus, mar-sel-li'-nus, a pope and saint, succeeded Caius in 296. He signalized himself by his courage in a severe persecution. The Donatists charged him with having sacri- ficed to idols ; from which he was vindicated by Augustine, d. 304. Maecello, Benedict, mar-sail' -lo, an eminent composer, denominated in Italy the Prince of Music. This highly-gifted man was equally eminent as a poet, philosopher, and musician. His compositions in music were numerous. His principal prose work was his "Teatro alia Moda" (the Fashionable Stage), intended as a ludicrous criticism on modern operas, b. at Venice, 1686; d. 1739. Mabcellus, Marcus Claudius, mar-seV-lus, a famous Roman general, who, after the first Punic war, had the command of an expedition against the Gauls, where he obtained the spolia opima, by killing with his own hand Viridomarus, the king of the enemy. Soon after he was in- trusted to oppose Hannibal in Italy, and was the first Roman who obtained any advantage over him. Marcellus, in his third consulship, was sent with a powerful force against Syra- cuse. He attacked it by sea and land, but his operations proved ineffectual, the inventions of the philosopher Archimedes baffling all the efforts and destroying all the great and stupen- dous military engines of the Romans, during three successive years. (See Archimedes.) The perseverance of Marcellus at last gave him the victory. After the conquest of Syracuse, Marcellus was called upon to oppose Hannibal a second time. He displaj-ed great military talents in his operations against this general, but was not, however, sufficiently vigilant against the snares of his adversary. He im- prudently separated himself from his camp, and was killed in an ambuscade, B.C. 208. BIakcellus I., Pope, succeeded Marcel linus. The emperor Maxentius banished him from Rome for excommunicating an apostate, d. 310 Marcellus II. was secretary to Paul III., who made him a cardinal, and one of the pre- sidents at the council of Trent. He succeeded Julius III. in 1555, but died a few weeks alter his election. Mabcianus, mar-shi-ai'-mig, a Thracian of obscure family, who obtained the imperial throne on the death of Theodosius II., in 450. His reign, though it lasted little more than six years, was marked by peaceful anil energetic measures, u. about the "nd of the 4th century ; D. 457. THE DICTIONARY Marco Polo Maria Theresa Mabco Polo. (See Polo.) Mabdonius, mar-do' -ni-ua, a famous Persian general, a son of the satrap Gobryas, and a cousin of Xerxes. When Darius determined to invade Greece, the command of the immense army and fleet that was raised to crush that power was entrusted to him ; but a storm de- stroyed his ships off Mount Athos, while his army was beaten in Macedonia. He accompanied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, some years after, in 480 b.c, and was left in occupation of Athens, which he held for some months after the return of Xerxes to Asia. He was defeated and slain by Pausanias, at the battle of Platica, September 22, 479 b.c. Mabgabet, mar'-ga-ret, daughter of Walde- mar IJI., king of Denmark, and wife of Haco VII., king of Norway, was placed on the throne of both kingdoms, on the death of her son, Olaf IV., in 1387. The Swedes, dissatisfied with their king Albert, offered their crown to Margaret, who accepted it, and defeated Albert in 1394. Three years afterwards, the states of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway passed a law, known by the name of the Union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms were united, and the monarchy limited. Margaret, however, violated the conditions of the Union, and was called the Semiramis of the North, b. 1353 ; d. 1411. Mabgabbt, daughter of Rend of Anjou, king of Sicily, and wife of Henry VI., king of Eng- land. In the civil wars between the nouses of York and Lancaster, she displayed the charac- ter of a heroine. Her husband being taken pri- soner, in 1455, by the earl of Warwick, she levied forces, set Henry at liberty, and entered London in triumph. But, in 1460, her army was defeated at Northampton, and Henry again became a prisoner; the queen, however, escaped into Scotland, and collected another army, with which she marched against the duke of" York, who fell in the battle of Wakefield. She next defeated Warwick at the second battle of St. Albans; but was routed, after a bloody contest, at Towton ; on which she fled to France, to implore succour from Louis XI., who refused her any assistance. This intrepid woman then returned to England, where she was joined by several of her party, but was defeated at Hex- ham. In 1471 she sustained a final defeat at Tewkesbury, where she and her son were taken prisoners. In 1475, her brother Louis XI. of France purchased her liberty by a large ransom. She then retired to France, where site died in 1482. b. about 1425. Mabgabet, Countess of Richmond and Derby, {See Bbaufoet, Margaret.) Mabgabet of Valois, queen of Navarre, and Bister to Francis I., king of France, was the daughter of Charles of Orleans, duke of Angou- leme. In 1509 she married Charles, duke of Alencon, two years after whose death she be- came the wifeof Henry d'Albret, king of Navarre, by whom she had Jeanne d'Albret, mother of Uenry IV. Margaret assisted her husband in Anproving his dominions, and greatly encou- raged the Protestants. Besides other works, she' wrote the " Ilcptameron," a collection of tales after the manner, and with more than the license, of Boccaccio, b. 1492 ; d. 1549. Mabgabet of France, queen of Navarre, daughter of Henry II., ranked as one of the greatest beauties of her age, with talents and accomplishments corresponding to the charms of her person. She married Henry, then prince 6^9 of Beam, but afterwards king of France. On his accession to that throne, he proposed to dissolve their marriage, to which she consented, on condition of receiving a suitable pension; and, having returned to Paris, lived in great splendour and dissipation till her death in 1615. b. 1552. Some very agreeable poems by her are extant, and her " Memoires" are curious. Mabia Leczinskj, ma-ri'-a lei-zing 1 ' ki, daughter of Stanislas, king of Poland, married Louis XV. of France in 1725. d. 1768. Mabia Thebesa, tai-rai-sa, archduchess ot Austria, queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and empress of Germany, was the daughter of the emperor Charles VI. and of Elizabeth Christina, of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel. Her father having lost his only son, the archduke Leopold, consti- tuted Maria Theresa the heiress of his estates. In 1713 was framed the famous Pragmatic Sanction, by which, in default of male issue, the succession passed to the eldest of Charles's daughters. She married, in 1736, Francis Stephen of Loraine, afterwards emperor by the name of Francis I. In 1740 her father died, which event plunged Europe into war. Frederick of Prussia invaded Silesia, to which conquest he added Moravia. The elector of Bavaria aspired to the crowns of Bohemia and the empire ; was sup- ported by France in violation of the Pragmatic Sanction ; and was crowned emperor at Frank- fort, in 1742. Meanwhile, Maria Theresa threw herself upon the support of her Hungarian sub- jects, to whom, with her child in her arms, she made this pathetic address :—" Abandoned by my friends, persecuted by my enemies, attacked by my nearest relations, I have no other resource than in your fidelity, in your courage, and con- stancy : I commit to your hands the child of your kings." At this spectacle, the warlike Hungarians drew their sabres, and exclaimed, .is with one voice, "Moriamur pro rege nosfro Maria Theresa." (We will die for our sovereign Maria Theresa.) A powerful army was formed, with Kevenhuller at its head, which recovered ■evcral important places. Maria formed a treaty with England, which supplied her with money and troops, and, what was of greater eon- sequence, detached the king of Prussia from the league, on condition of his retaining Silesia and Gratz. Maria Theresa was crowned queen of Bohemia, at Prague, in 1743; and, in June of the same year, the king of England and his son, the duke of Cumberland, gained a great victory at Dettingen. The king of Sardinia now declared himself for the queen of Hungary, who in 1745, had placed the imperial crown on the head other husband, at Frankfort. After eight years of war, a peace was concluded at Aix-la- Chapelle, by which Maria Theresa was secured in her rights. (See Fredeeick II.) She em- ployed the interval of peace in organizing her armies, repairing or constructing fortifications, regulating and encouraging commerce, founding military schools, and in erecting colleges of learning. She also caused obscrvatoriesto be built at Vienna, Gratz, and Tyrnau, which she supplied with the best instruments. The wounded and infirm soldiers found an asylum in hospitals, and the widows and children of officers were liberally provided for. In 1756 this calm was disturbed by the king of Prussia, who marched into Saxony and Bohemia; Count Daun, however, eventually forced the Prussian* to raise the siege, by gaining the victory of Kol'in (1757.) On this occasion. Maria Theresa OF BIOGRAPHY. Maria Louisa Marie Antoinette instituted the military order called by her name. After many engagements, peace was concluded in 1763, -leaving Austria and Prussia with the Bame boundaries as before the war. Her hus- band died in 1765, and she never put off her mourning attire till her death. In 1772 she, somewhat unwillingly, joined Ihe king of Prus- sia and the empress Catharine in the dismem- berment of Poland. On the death of Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, in 1777, war was rekindled between Austria and Prussia, but was terminated in 1779 by the peace of Tesehen, which added to the former state a »mall portion of Bavaria. Maria Theresa was one of the most energetic and noble of rulers; and so well and wisely had she governed her people, that she- earned, and fully merited, the name of mother of her country, b. 1717 ; d. at Vienna, 1780. Maria Louisa, mfi-ri'-a loo-e'-m, ex-empress of the French, and second wife of Napoleon Bonaparte, was the eldest daughter of Francis I., emperor of Austria (who must not be con- founded with Francis I., emperor of Germany). In 1810 she was married to Napoleon I., then in the zenith of his power; in 1811 she presented her husband with a son— afterwards called king of Itome- to the great joy of the French nation ; and, in 1813, on his departure to the army, she was nominated regont. In 1814 she refused to accompany Napoleon to Elba on the plea of ill-health ; and having obtained, by treaty with the allied powers, the duchies of Parnia and Placentia, &c, she repaired thither with her chamberlain, Count Neipperg, for whom she had conceived an attachment, and whom she subsequently married. Maria Louisa was endowed with considerable talents, which she had cultivated with some care. Her mar- riage with Napoleon being purely conventional, it is not surprising that, with his well-known domestic qualities, he failed to elicit either her affection or her esteem : but she is still liable to the charge of selfishness of character and coldness of heart, which the difficulties of her position may perhaps extenuate, but cannot justify, b. 1791 ; d. December 18, 1847. Mariana, Juan, ma-re-a'-na, a celebrated Spanish historian, who at the age of 17 entered the order of the Jesuits. lie distinguished him- self by a famous book, entitled " De Rege ct Regis Institutione," in which he justified the assassination of heretical princes : it was burnt at Paris by order of Parliament. His greatest work is "The History of Spain," written first in Latin and afterwards in Spanish. Besides the abo\T, and several other learned works, he wrote a "Treatise on Weights and Mea- sures," and another on the " Faults of Govern- ment and Society," in Spanish, n. at Talavera, 1536; D. 1623. Marib be* Mkdici, me-de'-che, daughter of Francis I., grand-duke of Tuscany, married Henry IV. of France, in 1600. The union was rendered unhappy in consequence of the jealous, obstinate, and violent character of the queen ; but, although she was constantly quarrelling with Henry, the most reliable historians acquit her of the odious charge with which some writers have sought to brand her, — that of being privy to the king's murder. On the death of Henry IV., in 1610, she was named regent; but her administration was disgraced by the countenance she afforded to unworthy favourites. She even quarrelled with her son, afterwards Louis XIII.. who was compelled to 68* quit the court. A reconciliation was, however, effected between them by Richelieu. That minister subsequently forced her to leave France. The remainder of her life .was spent in exile, in England, Belgium, and Germany. In 1642 her death took place at Cologne, where she was almost without the common necessaries of life b. at Florence, 1573. Marie Antoinette, ma -re an'-twoi-net,quecn of France and archduchess of "Austria, was the daughter of the emperor Francis I. and of Maria Theresa. In 1770 she married the dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XVI. At the celebration of the ceremony, in May of that year, two tremendous thunderstorms happened ; and at the fete given by the city of Paris, a few weeks afterwards, above 1200 persons perished by the falling of a building erected for letting off fireworks, and a great number of spectators fell into the Seine and were drowned. The dauphiness, on that melancholy occasion, sent all the money she possessed to the lieutenant of police, for the relief of the distressed. At the death of a monarch in France, it was the custom for the people to pay a tax to the new queen ; this she caused to be dispensed with, when, by the demise of Louis XV., she ascended the throne. When the Revolution burst forth, in 1789, the public fury was directed against her; but she supported herself, amidst the vilest in- dignities and brutal scenes, with unshaken for- titude. On the famous 6th of October, when the frantic mob led the royal family in triumph from Versailles to Paris, and uttered dreadful exclamations against the queen, she presented herself before them alone, when her intrepid air for a period disarmed their malice, and turned their menaces into applause. On that me- morable journey the mob carried before the carriage the heads of two of the king's guard on pikes. The courage of the queen, after being arrested at Vareimes and conducted back to the Tuileries, remained unshaken. In the Temple her behaviour was marked by heroic fortitude. When apprised of the condemnation of her husband, she felicitated him on the ter- mination of his sufferings, and upon his ap- proach to an immortal crown. (See Louis XVI.) In July, 1793, she was separated from her son, which excited in her the most affecting grief; and in August she was conducted in the night to the Conciergerie, where she was confined in a dark and damp dungeon. In October she was brought to trial on the chirge of having embezzled the public property, corresponded with foreign enemies, and transmitted large sums to the emperor. Accusations of crimes the most unnatural were also produced ; to which she opposed the spirit and resolution of conscious innocence. Though nothing was proved, sentence of condemnation was passed against her, which she heard with triumph. On the 16th of the same month she was conducted in a cart to the scaffold, where, after elevating her eyes to heaven, she suffered the fatal stroke. Her body was thrown into a grave and con- sumed by quicklime. Her misfortunes had made great ravages in her beautiful coun- tenance, and altered the colour of her hair. Jlarie Antoinette possessed an accomplished mind; she spoke the French language with purity, and the Italian as her own tongue. Sho understood Latin, and had a perfect knowledge of geography and history. She was kind-hearted and honest ; thoughtlessness was perhaps the THE DICTIONARY Marignano greatest vice that could be attributed to her ; and it caused her to be most unjustly slandered on several occasions. She left a son, who died in prison. (See Louis XVII.) b. at Vienna, 1755; guillotined 1793. Mabignano, John James Medichino, mar 1 - •(f) -nan, Marquis de, a celebrated commander, l)orn at Milan, in the beginning of the 16th century. Francis Sforza, duke of Milan, em- ployed him and another officer to murder Visconti, a Milanese nobleman ; after which he determined to sacrifice the two instruments, lest he should be discovered as the author of the assassination. The one perished, but Medichino escaped, and obtained the government of Musso. In 1528 he en'ered into the service of the em- peror, and exchanged Musao for Marignano. In 1511 he defeated the French, commanded by Marshal Strozzi, in Tuscany, and took the cily of Siena, where he committed horrible cruelties, d. 1556. Marino, John Baptist, ma-re'-no, an Italian poet. His father having discarded him for re- fusing to study the law, he became secretary to the grand admiral of Naples, after which he went to Rome, where he was patronized by Cardinal Aldobrandino. His principal poem was entitled " Adonis," dedicated to Louis XIII. at the time when Marino was at Paris, whither he had been invited by Marie de' Medici. He afterwards retired to his native city. n. at Naples, 1569; n. 1625. Makino Falieri. (See Fat.ieri.) Mariottb, Kdme, ma'-re-ot, an eminent mathematician, who was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, in 1C60. He distinguished himself by his hydraulic expe- riments. His principal works are, " A Treatise on Philosophy," " On the Motion of Waters," "On the Movement of Pendulums," "Experi- ments on Colours," " Treatise on Levels." The whole were published in a collected form at Leyden, in 1717. d. 1681. Marius, Caius, ma'-ri-us, a celebrated Roman, who was seven times consul. He was of obscure origin, and in his youth was a husbandman ; which employment he quitted for the army, and became a lieutenant under Scipio, who, when asked one night at supper where as good a feneral as himself might be found when he was ead, replied, placing his hand on the shoulders of Marius, " Here, perhaps." Marius ended the war with Jugurtha, whom he conducted in triumph to Rome. After this, he served against the Cimbri and other barbarous nations who had invaded Italy; but tarnished the glory of his victories by the basest cruelties to the vanquished, especially the women. Plutarch reports that, having experienced some dis- advantages in contending with the Cimbri, he was warned, in a dream, to avert the wrath of the gods by sacrificing his daughter Calpurnia, which inhuman direction he obeyed. In his Bixtb consulate he had Sylla for his rival, who marched to Rome with his army, and obliged Marius to quit the city. After wandering some time, he was retailed to Rome by Cinna, with whom he was chosen consul, B.C. 86, in which year he died from excessive drinking, b. at or near Arpinum, about 157 n.c. — His son, Marius the Younger, had all the ferocious characteristics of his father. He usurped the consular dignity 82 B.C.; but was defeated by Sylla, and slew himself at Praneste. Marius, Marcus Aurelius, a smith and cora- 688 Marlborough mon soldier in the reign of Valeriamw G allienns, who attained to supreme command in the army, and, on the death of the former, seized the im- perial throne, but was shortly afterwards killed by a soldier, d. about 260. Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de, ma'-re-vo, a celebrated French writer, whose comedies and romances are distinguished by their moral tendency. His best works are, " The Poor Philosopher," " Marianne," " Le Paysan Parvenu," "Pharsamon." He also wrote a work entitled " The French Spectator." b. at Paris, 1688 ; D. 1763. Mark, a pope and saint, succeeded Sylvester L in 336, and died the next year. There passes under his name an epistle addressed to St. Athanasius. Mark Antony. (See Antonius, Marcus.) Markland, Jeremiah, mark'-land, a learned critic, who in 1723 distinguished himself by his " Epistola Critica," after which he published " Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to Brutus, and of Brutus to Cicero ; with a Dissertation on Four Orations ascribed to Cicero." He wrote several other works, and assisted many learned men in their labours, b. in Lancashire, 1693; d. near Dorking, Surrey, 1776. Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of, marl'-bur-o, an illustrious English general and statesman. He received but an indifferent education, for his father, Sir Winston Churchill, a royalist gentleman of ancient family, took him to court at the age of 12 years, where he became page to the duke of York, and, in 1666, obtained a commission in the guards. His first service was at the siege of Tangier, against the Moors, and on his return to England, be be- came the favourite of the duchess of Cleveland, who gave him £5000, with which he purchased an annuity for life. He served afterwards under the great Turenne, who was so pleased with his person and bravery, as to call him the " Hand- some Englishman," and further declared that he would one day prove a master in the art of war. He distinguished himself so erallantly at the siege of Maestricht, that the king of France publicly thanked him at the head of the regi- ment. On his return to England he was made lieutenant-colonel, gentleman of the bedcham- ber, and master of the robes to the duke of York. He attended that prince to Holland and Scotland, and about this time married Miss Sarah Jennings, maid of honour to Princess, afterwards Queen Anne. In 16S2 he was ship- wrecked with the duke of York, in their passage to Scotland, on which occasion his royal high- ness expressed the utmost anxiety to save his favourite. The same year he was made a peer, by the title of Baron Eymouth, in Scotland; and when James came to the crown, was sent to France to notify the event. In 1685, he was created Lord Churchill of Sandridge, and, soon afterwards, materially assisted in suppress- ing Monmouth's rebellion. He continued to serve King James with great fidelity till the arrival of William of Orange ; whereupon he went over to that prince, an act of treachery which has been stigmatized by several writers, and not unjustly, as fraught with base ingrati- tude. His own apology was a regard for the religion and constitution of his country. King William created him earl of Marlborough in 1689, and appointed him commander-in-chief of the English army in the Low Countries. He next served in Ireland, and reduced Cork, with OF BIOGRAPHY. Marlborough. other strong places. But in 1692 he was sud- denly dismissed from his employments, and committed to the Tower ; whence, however, he was soon released. After the death of Queen Mary, he was restored to favour'; and at the close of YVilliam's reign he had the command of the English forces in Holland, and was appointed ambassador extraordinary to the States, who chose him captain-general of their forces. On the commencement of Queen Anne's reign, he recommended a war with France and Spain, which advice was adopted. In the first cam- paign of 1702 he took a number of strong towns, particularly Liege. He returned to England the following winter, and received the thanks of both Houses, and the honour of a dukedom from the queen. In 1704 he joined Prince Eugene, with whom he fought the French and Bavarians at Blenheim and obtained a com- plete victory, taking Marshal Tallard prisoner. Just before this event, he had been created a prince of the empire. In the winter he returned to England, bringing with him Marshal Tallard, and 26 other officers of rank, 121 standards, and 179 colours. He again received the thanks of Parliament, and the grant of the crown lands at Woodstock, a village near Oxford. In 1706 he fought the famous battle of Rainilies, in which his life was frequently in the most imminent danger, a cannon-shot taking off the head of Colonel Bingly as he was helping the dnke to remount. This victory accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other important places. He arrived in England in November, and received fresh honours and grants from the Queen and Parliament. A bill was passed to settle the titles upon the male and female issue of his daughters; and Blenheim House was ordered to be built to perpetuate his gallant services. He had also a pension of £5000 a year granted him. The following campaign presented nothing worth recording; but the ensuing one was pushed with such vigour- being distinguished by the victory at Oude- narde, followed by the passage of the Schelde and the capture of the fortress of Lisle — that the French king was glad to enter into a negotiation for peace, which, however, had no result. In 1709, Marlborough defeated Marshal Villars at Malplaquct; for which victory a ge- neral thanksgiving was solemnized. In the winter of 1711 he returned to England, having added considerably to his laurels; but soon after was dismissed from his employments. To add to this disgrace, a prosecution was com- menced against him for applying the public money to his private purposes. Thereupon he went into voluntary banishment, accompanied by his duchess, and remained abroad till 1714, when he landed at Dover, amidst the acclama- tions of the people. Queen Anne was just dead, »nd her successor restored the duke to his mili- tary appointments ; but his infirmities increas- ing, he retired from public employment, having survived his intellectual faculties. b. in De- vonshire, HS50; d. 1722, and his remains were interred with great pomp in Westminster Abbey. Marlborough, Sarah, Duchess of, wife of the preceding, was a lady of strong mind, but overbearing passions. For a long time she exercised over the weak and easy nature of Queen Anne a most commanding inlluence. lilic queen threw off all royal etiquette when corresponding with the haughty duchess. In «S0 Marmora their letters, Queen Anne was simple "Mrs, Morley," while the duchess was addressed as " dear Mrs. Freeman." In the end, however, the queen felt her yoke to be intolerable, and after a long struggle for power, the duchest was dismissed the court, the duke, her husband, sharing in her disgrace. She outlived the duk) several years, d. 1744. Marlowe, Christopher, mar'-lo, an English dramatic writer, who studied at the university of Cambridge, and took his degree as M.A. in 1587. It is said he subsequently became a writer for the stage, and, perhaps, an actor. His course of life appears to have been very bad, and he met his death in a disgraceful quarrel. The plays which have been attributed to him are, "Dr. Faustus;" "Edward the Second ;" " The Jew of Malta ;" " Tamburlaine the Great;" " Lust's Dominion ;" "Dido, Queen of Carthage;" and "Massacre at Paris." All these works have reached our times in a very imperfect condition, owing to the carelessness of the printers ; but they convey, nevertheless, abundant proof of the great power their author possessed of drawing characters more than human in their intense malignity and terrible depth of villany. Marlowe's productions were the link between the plays of Shakspeare and the old "Moralities." b. about 1561; killed, 1593. Marmokt, Marshal. (See Ragusa, duke of.) Makmoniel, Jean Francois, mar'-mon-tel, a celebrated French writer, who in early life was professor of philosophy at Toulouse. In 1745 he went to Paris, and obtained the friendship of Voltaire. His talents and virtues procured him a pension and the place of historiographer of the royal buildings, and also the management of a journal called the "Mercure;" but, having written a satire against a nobleman of distinction, he was sent to the Bastille. On obtaining his re- lease, he recommenced his literary career, and wrote some tragedies and an opera; but his fame rests principally, if not wholly, upon his " Moral Talcs," a work universally known and esteemed. The French Academy appointed him perpetual secretary in 1789. During the Revolution he led a retired life, and though re- duced to destitution, remained secure amidst all the violent scenes of that event. In 1797 he was chosen deputy of the Council of Ancients by the department of Eure. Besides his dra- matic pieces and " Moral Tales," he wrote the romance of " Belisarius," " The Literary Ob- server," " The Charms of Study," an epistle ; a French translation of Lucau's " Pharsalia," " Poetique Fran?oise," " The Incas : or, the Destruction of the Empire of Peru," " Essay on the Revolutions of Music," " Elements of Literature," and several articles in the French " Encyclopedic." B. in France, 1723; D. 1799 Maruoiia, Alfonso, Marquis dclla, mar'-mo- ra, a modern Italian general, who received hit education in the military school at Turin. In 1823 he entered the artillery as lieutenant, and rose, during the ensuing twenty-five years, through the intermediate grades, till, at the latter period, he attained the rank of major- general. During the struggle between Pied- mont and Austria, in 1848, he held office as minister of war ; and on the abdication of Carlo Alberto, he was appointed to reorganize the shattered army. In 1S55 he went out to the Crimea, as commander-in-chief of the Pied- iKontese army uf 15,000 men, which had been Y Y THE DICTIONARY Marochetti &ent thither to co-operate with the English and French against the Russians, and, with his broops, took an active part in the defeat of the Russians on the Tchernaya. At the conclusion of peace Delia Marmora resumed office under Cavour as minister of war. He was not en- gaged in the field during the Italian war of 1859 ; but in 1861 became commander-in-chief of the Italian army, and in 1862 was viceroy in the Neapolitan provinces. During the years 1861-66 he was twice premier of Italy, and in the last-named year took an active part in the war between Italy and Austria, b.1804; d.1878. Marochetti, Charles, Baron, mar-o-ket'-te, an eminent modern sculptor, who, having com- menced the practice of his profession at Turin, went to Paris, and afterwards to London, where he remained, constantly employed by the most fashionable circles. The English public became acquainted with him during the Great Exhibition of 1851, when he contributed his colossal model of Richard Cceur-de-Lion, which was placed in the open air at the western end of the Crystal Palace. He was afterwards extensively employed by the royal family and the highest nobility to carve busts, &c. In 1856, he produced a bust of her Majesty in stained marble, and two years before he executed a colossal equestrian statue of the queen, for the citizens of Glasgow. One of his last works was a bust of Sir Edwin Land- seer, exhibited in 1867, and another, a statue of Lord Ciyde, which was completed in the same year. b. at Turin, of French parents, 1805; d. 1867. Marozia, mar-o-ze'-a, a Roman lady, who married, about 906, Alberic, count of Tusculum and marquis of Camerino. Becoming a widow while still young, she exercised, by her beauty and intriguing spirit, great influence over the most powerful nobles of Rome, and during many years set up or deposed popes almost at her mere whim. She made herself mistress of the city, and caused, in succession, the election of Sergius III. in 90-1, Anastasius III. in 911, and Lando in 913. In 928 she deposed John X., who had been elected through the influence of Theodora, her sister and rival, and put him to death, with the assistance of Guido, duke of Tuscany, her second husband. In 931 she seated in the pontifical chair her son, under the title of John XL (See John XL) In the following year she married her third husband, Hugh of Provence, who became king of Italy ; but that monarch having struck Alberic, eldest son of Marozia, he, out of revenge, roused the Roman youths, and massacred the guards of his father-in-law, who sought safety in flight. Ma- rozia was imprisoned in the castle of St. Angelo, where she died. Mabpukg, Frederic William, mar'-poorg, an eminent German writer on the theory of music. Of his personal history scarcely any- thing authentic is known, further than that he was either counsellor of war to Frederick II., or secretary to one of his ministers. His " Manual of Harmony and Composition" is so correct and sound that it has earned the title of the " Musi- cal Euclid." Dr. Burney remarks of Marpurg, that "he was the first German theorist who could patiently be read by persons of taste, so addicted were former writers to prolixity and pedantry." n. in Prussia, 1718 ; d. 1795. Mabbast, Armand, mar-rast', an eminent French political writer, who, after completing his education, went to Paris, where he soon distin- 690 Mars guished himself by his brilliant attacks upon the government of Charles X. In 1830 he started " La Tribune," in which Louis Philippe and his ministry were subjected to an unceasing flow of the most pungent satire. Fines and law ex- penses, however, put an end to that remarkable journal, and at one time its former editor wa3 compelled to seek refuge in England. He sub- sequently became sub-editor of " Le National," then under the guidance of the unfortunate Armand Carrel. (See Cabrel.) When the latter fell, in a duel with Girardin, Marrast succeeded to the editorship in chief of " Le National," and therein contributed, in no slight degree, to bring the government of Louis Philippe into contempt, as well as to produce the great crisis of 1848, which resulted in the loss of his throne by the old monarch. After the fall of the La- martine administration, Marrast retired into private life. b. 1802 ; d. 1852. Marryat, Frederick, mar'-re-at, a celebrated English novelist, who, before he had commenced the first line of his first novel, had proved himself a man of heroic mould in many des- perate conflicts. After receiving some educa- tion at various schools in the vicinity of London, he entered the navy at the age of fourteen. His first ship was the famous Imperieuse, 41 guns, commanded by that brilliant seaman, Lord Cochrane, afterwards Earl of Dundonald. Under this celebrated chief, the young sailor fought in upwards of fifty engagements, between the years 1806 and 1809. The reputation for bravery and skill which he had acquired under his first commander, was continued and increased during his after-career. On five occasions he rescued sailors from drowning by leaping overboard to their assistance. After various services, he was gazetted commander in 1815 ; in 1823 he sailed in command of the Lame, 18 guns, to the East Indies, where he co-operated in the attack on Rangoon. For his services he received the thanks of the governor-general, and, after his return home, became C.B.; a further honour was bestowed upon him by the Royal Humane Society, which awarded its gold medal to him, in reward of his efforts at saving seamen's lives. He served with the Channel fleet during the years 1828, 1829, and 1830. At the age of forty he took up the novelist's pen, and produced, in rapid succession, a series of excellent works of fiction, most of them depicting life at sea. To enumerate a few of them will suffice for the present purpose: — "Peter Simple," "Jacob Faithful," " The King's Own," " Japhet in Search of a Father," " Midshipman Easy," " Rattlin the Reefer," " Poor Jack," the" Pirate and the Three Cutters," " Masterman Ready." The preceding are his best novels, but almost everything he wrote was excellent. In 1837 he produced a most valuable work, entitled " A Code of Signals for the use of vessels employed in the merchaut service," for which Louis Philippe bestowed upon him the cross of the- Legion of Honour. The code is now in use both in the English and foreign navies. For several years before his death he was incapa- citated from literary labour by shattered health. It must be mentioned that the sole reason why this bold and skilful seaman did not rise in his profession, was that he had given free utterance to his opinions against the practice of impress- ment. He was a fellow of the Royal Society. B. in London, 1792 ; d. in Norfolk, 1818. Mars, Mademoiselle, mar, a great French of biography. Marsden comedian, made her debut at the early age of thirteen, and enjoyed the rare privilege of re- taining the public favour till an advanced age, having kept the boards of the Theatre Francais at Pans, where she had gained innumerable triumphs, till 1841, when she retired in her 63rd year. b. 1779; B. 1847. Marsden, William, mars'-den, a distin- guished Orientalist, who was educated at various schools in Dublin, with the view of proceeding to Trinity College, and entering the church. His father was, however, induced to send him out to India when he had attained his sixteenth year. He reached Bencoolen in 1771, and en- tered the civil service of the government. While fulfilling the duties of secretary, he mastered the Malay language, and acquired a large and valu- able store of local knowledge, which, at a later period, he turned to good account in his writings. After residing at Sumatra during eight years, he returned to England, where he made the acquaintance of Sir Joseph Banks, who intro- duced him to most of the scientific and learned men of the day. In 1782 he published his ex- cellent " History of Sumatra." The success of this work was, from the outset, very decided ; and through the influence of distinguished per- sons, whose acquaintance he had made, the author became second secretary, and afterwards chief secretary, to the Admiralty. While he held that appointment, the battles of St. Vincent, Camperdown, the Nile, and Trafalgar took place; and, during that stirring and glorious period, Jlr. Marsden' s efforts were marked by untiring energy, integrity, and intelligence. In 1807 he retired upon a pension of £1500 per annum ; and five years afterwards produced his " Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Lan- guage," which was followed, after several years' interval, by a translation of the " Travels of the celebrated Marco Polo." His other im- portant works were "Numismata Orientalia; or, Description of Eastern Coins," and some treatises on the Polynesian or East Insular Languages. In 1831 he voluntarily gave up his pension to the public ; an act of liberality which elicited the warmest thanks of the House of Commons. At his death he bequeathed his collection of coins and medals to the British Museum, and his library to King's College. b. at Dublin, 1754; n. 1836. Marsh, Right Kev. Herbert, D.D., marsh, bishop of Peterborough, was chiefly known as. the translator of the profound and elaborate work of " Michaelis on the New Testament." After finishing his classical studies at St. John's College, Cambridge, he resided for many years at Gottingen, where he acquired an intimate acquaintance with the German language. On the invasion of Germany by the French, he returned to Cambridge and took his B.l). de- gree, and in 1807 was elected Lady Margaret's professor of divinity, delivering his lectures in English instead of in Latin, as had been the practice previously; and as he lectured from the university pulpits, all ranks flocked to hear him. Besides several important translations from the German, and a long list of controver- sial pamphlets, he published " A Course of Lec- tures, containing a Description and Systematic Arrangement of the several Branches of Divi- nity," 4c.; "A History of the Translations which have been made from the Scriptures ;" and "Hone Pelasgica;." In 1806, Mr. Marsh was created D.D. by royal mandate; ia 1816 he 681 Masigli was made bishop of Llandaff ; and, three years later, translated to the see of Peterborough. Eminent as were his talents and learning, and unwearied as was his zeal as a divine, he pro- bably owed much of his success in life to some important information on public affairs, which he transmitted to the English government during his residence in Germany, and which Mr. Pitt considered to be so important, that he rewarded it with a pension, b. 1758; n. 1838. Marshall, William, mar-thai, a distinguished modern writer on agricultural and rural eco- nomy, among whose works are, "Minutes of Agriculture," " Planting and Rural Ornament," " The Rural Economy of the Midland, Southern, and Western Counties," and " Experiments and Observations concerning Agriculture and the Weather." b. 1745; d. 1818. Marshall, William Calder, R.A., sculptor, was educated at Edinburgh, and for some years practised his art there. He next studied under Chantrey in London, and under Baily; and in 1836 visited Rome. He first exhibited at the English Academy in 1835 ; and took up his ri si- dence iu Loudon permanently in 1839. In Is 12 he was elected associate of the Scottish, in 1844 of the English Academy, and in 1852, R.A. Mr. Marshall resisted the attractions of the more lucrative branch of his art, portrait-busts, and devoted his great skill as a modeller of this figure to poetic sculpture; and with gradual success. The "Broken Pitcher" (1842), "Re- becca," and other models in plaster, were selected by Art-Union prizeholders ; and the former executed iu marble to the jur; 'laser's order. A reduction of the " First Wh.sper of Love" (1845), was 'chosen by the holder of a £300 prize. The "Dancing Girl icposing" ob- tained the Art- Union premium of £500; re- duced copies in Parian being distributed among the subscribers. One of his Lest works for refinement of feeling and of execution is " Sa- brina" (1847). For the new Palace at West- minster, Marshall, one of the three sculptors employed, executed the fine statues of Hyde, Lord Clarendon, the historian, and Lord Somers. He was also selected for important statues erected by public subscription — that in bronze to Peel at Manchester; others proposed to be placed in public sites, to Jcnner, Campbell, and Cowper. In 1857, Mr. Marshall obtain; i the first prize of £700, for a design for the u itional monument to the duke of Wellington ; und was employed to execute various str.t;:..s to the memory of Prince Albert, b. 181 i*. Marshait, Sir John, mar' ..-...•,.*, a learned English writer, who, after studying the law, became one of the six clerks iu Chancery. During the civil wars, he adhered to the royal cause, and in 1660 was chosen membei of Par- liament for Rochester. Charles II. conferred on him the honour of knighthood. He is dis- tinguished for his " Diatribe Chror.ologica," oi a Chronological Dissertation, whevein Le exa- mines the principal difficulties which occur iu the chronology of the Old Testament; an en- larged edition of which work he afterwards produced, n. in London, 1602 ; B. 1635. — His son, Sir John Marsham, made large collec- tions for a history of England, but never pub lished them. He also wrote a " History of the English Boroughs." Maesigli, Count Louis Ferdinand, mar'-seec- ye, an Italian naturalist. He served with repu- tation hi the imperial army, and in LJ83 waa YY2 THE DICTIONARY Marston taken prisoner by the Tartars, who sold him to the Turks. The year following he was ran- somed, and obtained a colonel's commission. He was afterwards advanced to the rank of general ; but when the Count d'Arco was con- demned for giving up the fortress of Brisach to the duks of Burgundy, Marsigli, who com- manded under him, was dismissed the service. He then retired to Bologna, where he formed a museum, and erected a printing-office ; the first he bequeathed to the senate, and the last to the Dominicans. He also founded the Academy of Arts and Sciences at that place. Count Mar- sigli was a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and of the Koyal Society of London. He wrote, among other important works, "A Philosophical Essay on the Sea," " A Descrip- tion, Historical, Geographical, &c., of the Da- nube," and " A Treatise on the Bosphorus." B. at Bologna, 1658 ; d. 1730. Mabston, John, mar'-atan, an English dra- matic writer of the time of Elizabeth and James I., who is said to have been a student of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and an intimate friend of Ben Jonson ; but beyond these facts, nothing is known of the circumstances of his lite. Nine of his plays have been printed separately: one of them, " The Malcontent," is a very fine pro- duction ; it is said, however, to have been altered from Webster. His miscellaneous poems were collected and edited in 1764. He also assisted lien Jonson and Chapman in writing "East- ward Hoe." Maktial, Marcus Valerius, mar'-she-al, a Latin epigrammatic poet. From some hints contained in his own works, it is ascertained that he went to Home when young, and re- mained there during 35 years, after which he retired to his native place, Lilbilis, in Spain. The emperor Domitian conferred on him many favours, and raised him to trhc office of tribune. Martial, in return, complimented him as more than human ; but, after his death, painted his enormities in glowinjr colours. His epigrams are very pointed and severe, d. about 103. Martin I., Pope, mar'-tin, succeeded Theodore in 649. He held a council at Rome, in which the heresy of the Monothelites was condemned. This giving offence to the emperor Constantius, he caused Martin to be sent to Constantinople, whence he was removed to the Crimea, where he died of ill-usage, in 655. Martin 11. succeeded John VIII. in 882. He condemned Photius, patriarch of Constanti- nople. r>. 881. Mabtin III., a Eoman, succeeded Stephen VIII. in 912. He founded many churches and charitable institutions. D.946. Martin IV., a Frenchman of noble birth, succeeded Nicholas III. in 1281. He excom- municated the emperor Michael Palseologus, and Peter I., king of Sicily, and gave the kingdom of the latter to Charles de Valois, son of Philip the Hardy, king of France, d. 1285. Maktin v. (Otho Colonna) was elected pope in 1417, after the abdication of JohnXXIIl. and of the antipopes Benedict and Gregory. His inauguration was very pompous, and he was attended, in a submissive manner, by the emperor and the elector-palatine. He perse- cuted the followers of Huss in Bohemia, and closed the council of Constance, in 1417. i>. 1431. Martin, Claude, a Frenchman, who attained thorauk of mujur-generalia the English service 692 Martin in India, received a good mathematical edu- cation at a public school, and at the age oJ 20 entered the army with one of his brothers. His regiment was sent to India with General Laily, and in the war of 1756 he behaved with great gallantry; but, being ill-treated, he de- serted into the English service, in which he signalized himself by many acts of bravery. Being employed to make a map of the estates of the nabob of Oude, he recommended himself to his patronage. The nabob loved the European arts, in which he was assisted by Martin, who opened a profitable bank and other commercial institutions under his protection, and thereby gained prodigious wealth. Having settled at Lucknow, he built there a magnificent but curious house, in a style of his own, and in which he could enjoy all the mildness and cool- ness of a European climate, with the fervour of the Ashitic. He also erected another on the banks of the Ganges, which was fortified in the European manner. He formed a large museum of natural history; constructed an immense garden, stocked with a prodigious variety of plants; and built an observatory, which he furnished with the best astronomical instru- ments. At his death, his great wealth was dis- tributed principally in charity. He founded at Lyons a school of commerce and industry which is called La Martiniere, after him. b. at Lyons, 1732; d. 1800. Martin, John, a modern English painter, of considerable originality. Having in early life evinced a desire to become an artist, his lather apprenticed him to a Newcastle coachmaker, for the purpose of learning heraldic painting; his indentures, were, however, cancelled after a short time, and he was placed in the studio of Bonifacio Musso, an enamel painter. In 1806 he went to London with his master, who ob- tained employment for him in the firm of Mr. C. Muss, his son. Martin, speaking of his life at that period, says, "By close application till two or three o'clock in the morning, in the depth of winter, I obtained that knowledge of perspective and architecture which has since been so valuable to me. 1 was at this time, during the day, employed in Mr. C. Muss's firm, painting on china and glass ; by which, and making water-colour drawings, and teaching, I supported myself; in fact, mine was a struggling artist's life when 1 married, which I did at 19." In 1812 he resolved to paint a large picture ; he set to work, and in a month produced " Sadak in search of the Waters of Oblivion." This obtained a place in the Koyal Academy Exhibi- tion, and was purchased for 50 guineas. Thus encouraged, the painter worked diligently, and became, for a period, the most generally popu- lar artist in his native country. He produced a number of striking works, which, as depicting awe-inspiring subjects, in a manner charac- terized by fervid imagination and a feeling for the grandeur of nature, captivated the general public, and caused Martin to be regarded as pos- sessing a " sublime style." Some of his most attractive and successful pictures, were — " Bel- sha/.zar's Feast," " The Seventh Plague," " The Fall of Nineveh," " The Eve of the Deluge," and " The Destruction of Hcrculaneum." He out- lived the extravagant popularity which gieeted his first efforts, and his last pictures, illustrative of the "Last Judgment," were coldly received. He devoted considerable time to projects for the sanitary improvement of the metropolis. OF BIOGRAPHY. Martineau published some pamphlets on the subject, and took out patents for sewer-pipes, &c. At one time, ab> services were eagerly sought by publishers us an illustrator of boobs; and for one set of drawings— those made for an edition of Milton's poems — he is said to have been paid 2000 guineas, b. in Northumberland, 1789 ; d. 1854. Martineau, Harriet, mar'-te-no, an eminent modern authoress, was descended from a family of French extraction, which, on the revoca- tion of the Edict of Nantes, commenced and carried on, during several generations, the busi- ness of silk-manufacturers at Norwich. In early youth she displayed great earnestness of character, and an unremitting eagerness to acquire knowledge. Her talent for literary com- position was also very decided. Her father be- coming embarrassed in his commercial affairs, Harriet, the sixth of eight children, resolved to support herself by literature. She commenced accordingly by publishing, in the year 1823, a volume of "Devotions for Young People," which was succeeded by her " Christmas Day" and " The Friend," in the two following years. Some tales and tracts occupied her pen up to 1830, when she published a more ambitious work entitled " Traditions of Palestine." About the same time she gained the prizes offered by the British and Foreign Unitarian Association for three tracts on the " Introduction and Promo- tion of Christian Unitarianism among the Ro- man Catholics, the Jews, and Mohammedans." Her next efforts were the "Illustrations of Po- litical Economy," which, although they had been rejected by the Society tor the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge and several publishers, proved a most decided success. " Illustrations of Taxa- tion" and " Poor- Law and Paupers" appeared next, and in 1837 she gave to the world her " Society in America," which was the result of a visit to the United States. " Deerbrook" ■■n-lcan'-ye, a celebrated Italian anatomist, who was professor at Siena, Pisa, and Florence, and was elected an asso- ciate of the College of France. He completed the fine collection of anatomical preparations contained in the Museum of Florence. Several learned works were produced by him j among the rest, " Universal Anatomy," which appeared after his death, at Pisa, illustrated by many fine engravings, and which is one of the most com- plete and valuable works of its class, b. in Tuscany, 1752 ; n. 1815. Mascaron, Julius, mas'-lcii-rawtig', an emi- nent French ecclesiastic, entered among the priests of the Oratory ; and soon became so popular a preacher, that multitudes thronged from all quarters to hear him. In 1C66 he was called to court, to preach before Louis XIV.; and successively became bishop of Tulle and Agen. At the latter place he founded an hos- pital. A collection of his "Funeral Orations" was published, among which the most admired are those on Marshal Turenne, the Duke of Beaufort, and the Chancellor Scguier. b. at Versailles, 1634; d. 1703. Mascheroni, Lorenzo, mas'-Jcai-ro'-7ie, an Italian mathematician, who published notes on the " Integral Calculus" of Euler, and assisted in the experiments performed by the Institute of Bologna, with a view of proving the figure of the earth by the descent of bodies. The in- vention, however, which has rendered his name conspicuous, was his celebrated Geometria del compasno, "the compass geometry." b. at Ber- gamo, 1750; n. at Paris, 1800. Masenius, or Masen, James, mas-en'-e-us, a Jesuit, who wrote a Latin poem, called " Sar- cothea, or the Fall of Man;" which Lauder brought into notice by pretending that Milton was indebted to it for part of his " Paradise Lost." He was also the author of " The Art of Poetry," " Palaestra Styli Romani." " The Lives of Charles V. and Ferdinand," " Notes on the Annals of Treves," &c. b. 1606; d. 1691. Maseres, Francis, ma'-sair, an eminent Eng- lish mathematician, who was descended from an old French family. He was educated at Cambridge, and adopted the law as his profes- sion. After spending some years in America as attorney-general for Canada, he returned to England in 1773, and afterwards became cur- sit or-baron of the Exchequer, deputy-recorder of London, &c. He was not only an able ma- thematician, but a most munificent patron of the science. At his own expense, he reprinted many valuable works relating thereto. His own works were, " Elements of Plane Trigono- metry," " Principles of the Doctrine of Life Annuities," and an " Apppe&Ktix to Friend's 4 Principles of Algebra.'" Between the years 1791 and 1807 be published, at his own expense, a collection of works on Logarithms, in 6 large volumes, entitled, " Scriptores Logarithmici." At. a later period, he produced reprint* of the 696 Mason optical treatises of James Gregory, Descartes, Huygens, Barrow, and Halley. b. in London, 1731; b. atReigate, 1824. Mash a m, Mrs. Abigail, miish'-Sm, the favourite of Queen Anne, and cousin of the duchess of Marlborough, who placed her in the queen's service as waiting-maid. She subsequently supplanted the duchess, and obtained a power- ful influence over the queen. Harley, after- wards earl of Oxford, entered into an alliance with her, and the pair, during some time, virtually ruled at court. Her husband, Mr. Masham, was raised to the peerage, and both took a large share in the secret negotia- tion with France for placing the Pretender on the English throne. After the death of the queen, she retired into private life. ». 1734. Masius, Andrew, ma-si'-us, a learned gram- marian, who became counsellor to the duke of Cleves. His principal works are, "A Syrias Lexicon and Grammar," and " A Commentary on the Book of Joshua." b. 1516 ; d. 1573. Maskelyne, Rev. Nevil, mas'-ke-line, an eminent English astronomer, was educated at Cambridge, and, in 1755, took orders; but, becoming acquainted with Bradley, the astro- nomer, assisted him in his scientific labours. In 1761 he made a voyage to St. Helena, to ob- serve the transit of Venus. Four years after- wards, he became astronomer royal, and, in 1767, commenced the publication of the world- famous "Nautical Almanack." In 1790 he gave to the world some of the results of his official labours at the Greenwich Observatory, in a work entitled " A Standard Catalogue of Stars." b. in London, 1732; D. 1811. Mason, William, mai'-son, an English poet and divine, who, in 1748, published a poem entitled " Isis," which being considered as an attack on the university of Oxford, was an- swered by Mr. Warton in another, called "The Triumphs of Isis." In 1754 Mason entered into orders, was appointed chaplain to the king, and presented fc> the living of Aston, in Yorkshire. He also obtained the precentorship of York cathedral, which leading his mind to church music, he composed a book on that subject. Gray, the poet, appointed him one of his execu- tors; and Mason wrote the life, and published the letters, of his friend. He also composed the epitaph for Gray's monument in Westmin- ster Abbey. In the American war, Mr. Mason showed himself a warm defender of the rebels, as they were termed ; for which he was struck out of the list of royal chaplains. The horrors of the French revolution are said to have caused an entire change in his political opinions. His " Elfrida" and " Caractacus," two dramas on the Greek model, are esteemed the best of bis works. He also wrote a poem, entitled " The English Garden," and translated into English verse Du Fresnoy's " Art of Painting," to which Sir Joshua Reynolds added valuable notes, b, 1725 ; D. 1797. Mason, Sir John, an eminent English states- man, who, becoming a favourite with Henry VIII., was employed in several embassies, and made a member of the privy council. He after- wards served Edward VI., and contrived to hold his places under Mary. Queen Elizabeth made him treasurer of her chamber, and he was chosen chancellor of the university of Oxford. His favourite maxim was, " Do, and say nothing." b. at Abingdon, Berks, about 1500; d. 1566. Mason, John, a dissenting minister, born at OF BIOGRAPHY. Masque de Fer Dunmow, Essex, was the author of an excellent tittle volume of ethics, entitled "Self-know- ledge," of which there have been numerous editions; he also wrote "Practical Discourses tor the use of Families," " An Essay on Elocu- tion," two " Essays on the Power of Poetical and Prosaic Numbers," "Christian Morals." B. 1706; D. 1763. Masque he Fbb, mask-de(v)-fair, or the " Iron Mask," the name of an unknown person in France, who was conveyed in the most secret manner to the castle of Pignerol in 1662, whence he was transferred to the isles St. Margaret in 1686. He was a man taller than ordinary, and extremely well made. His accomplishments were evidently great, and he had a fine taste for music. He always wore a mask, according to some, of velvet, while others assert it to have been of steel, furnished with springs, which was so con- structed as to allow him free liberty to eat and drink. His keepers treated him with the greatest respect. At Pignerol he was intrusted to the charge of an officer named St. Mars, on whose appointment as lieutenant of the isles, this unknown personage accompanied him, as he finally did to the Bastille, where he died in 1703, and was buried under the name of Mar- chiali. Two gentlemen, who were prisoners in the room over him, contrived to hold some con- versation with him by means of the chimney, and found that he was a man of general learn- ing ; but he informed them that a discovery of his name and rank would be death both to him and them. Numerous conjectures have been formed, and dissertations written, on this histo- rical subject, which, nevertheless, still remains in impenetrable obscurity. It has been conjec- tured that he might have been the count de Vermandois, son of the duchess de la Valliere, thus imprisoned for having given a blow to the Dauphin; or a twin-brother of Louis XIV., so disposed of to prevent rivalry between the two brothers. This last opinion is that of Voltaire, and appears to derive some support from the Memoirs published by the Duke de Kichelieu in 1790. Massena, Andr£, mas'-se-na, prince of Ess- ling, duke of Itivoli, and marshal of France, joined a French regiment at an early age, and distinguished himself in the first wars of the Revolution. In 1795 he was promoted to the rank of general of division, and bore a glorious part in the Italian campaigns of Bonaparte. In 1798 he was placed at the head of the army charged to establish the republican government In the Papal States ; but both his own soldiers and the inhabitants of the subjected states com- plaining of his insatiable avarice, he was com- pelled to resign his comnwtnd. He remained unemployed until the following year, when he was given the command of the armies of the Danube and Switzerland, and defeated the Rus- sians at the battle of Zurich ; thus saving France from invasion. He was next sent to defend Genoa from the attacks of an Austrian army and the English fleet. In 1304 he was nomi- nated marshal of France and duke of Rivoli, and in the following year received the command- in-chief of the army of Italy, when he succeeded in driving the archduke Charles before him, and effecting a junction with Napoleon. In 1806 he accompanied Joseph Bonaparte to Naples; and, by defeating the insurgent Calabrians, enabled Joseph to take possession of the throne, He Mather commanded the fifth corps in Austria in 18091 and decided the victory at Egsling, for which Napoleon created him prince of Essling. He was charged, in 1810, with the task of driving the duke of Wellington out of Portugal, but met a signal failure before the lines of Torres Vedras ; and, after a masterly retreat into Spain, he was recalled in 1812. Ill-health prevented his taking part in the Russian campaign j and, in 1813, while commanding a division at Toulon, he declared his adhesion to the Bourbons. After the Hundred Days, he became commander-in- chief of the National Guard of Paris. He was chosen a member of the council of war before which Ney was arraigned, but formed one of the number who pronounced the court to be incom- petent. This remarkable general, who was called by Napoleon " the spoilt child of Victory," was one of the ablest tacticians among Napo- leon's subordinates ; but although he possessed in the field all the best qualities of a commander, his character was disgraced by an avarice which was apparently without limit. Disraeli appears anxious to establish the fact that Masstinawas a Jew. In his "Coningsby" he says, "several of the French marshals, and the most famous — Massena, for example, was a Hebrew: his real name was Manasseh." b. at Nice, 1758 ; d. 1817. Massit.lost, Jean Baptiste, mns'-see-yawng, a famous French prelate, who at the age of 18 entered the congregation of the Oratory. He acquired a superiority over all the preachers of his time; and Louis XIV. once said to him, " Father, when I hear other preachers, I go away much pleased with them ; but when I hear you, I go away much displeased with myself." In 1717 he was appointed bishop of Clermont, and, in 1719, admitted a member of the French Academy. His works were printed in 12 vols, in 1746. b. at Hieres, Provence, 1663 ; d. 1742. Massingkr, Philip, miis'-sin-jer, a celebrated English dramatic author, was the son of one of the earl of Pembroke's retainers, and was sent to the university of Oxford. Having lost his patron's favour, for what reason is uncertain, he quitted the university without a degree, and went to London in 1006, where he en- gaged in dramatic composition until his death. At the outset he appears to have assisted others in writing plays, but, in 1622, pro- duced an entire play of his own — " The Virgin Martyr." Some of the best of his remaining extant plays are, "A New Way to pay Old Debts," the " Maid of Honour," the " Fatal Dowry," the "City Madam," and the " Bashful Lover." b. at Salisbury, 1584; d. 1640. Massoit, David, mag-son, an English littera- teur, who, after completing his education at the university of Edinburgh, went to London, and devoted himself to literature, and was engaged to write articles for the " Edinburgh Review," for " Fraser's Magazine," &c. ; the best of which are those on Thackeray, Carlyle, the " Genius of Rabelais," the "Dignity of Labour," "Modern prc-Raphaelitism," Shakspeare, Giithe, &c. In 1859 he undertook the editorship of "Macmil- lan's Magazine." b. at Aberdeen, 1822. Mastkrs, Thomas, mas'-ters, a poet, was born at Cotes, in Gloucestershire, and educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford. He was the author of various Greek poems and orations ; assisted Lord Herbert of Cherbury in his " Life of Henry VIII. ; " and had a share in writing his "Tractatus de Veritate." i>. 1613. I MATnKK, Cotton, mai'-ther, an eminent THE DICTIONARY Mathew American divine, became assistant to his father, also a clergyman, and distinguished himself by his piety and learning. In 1710, the university of Glasgow conferred on him the degree of D.D., and in 1714, he was chosen a member of the Royal Society of London. He -wrote a number of books ; among which are, an " Ecclesiastical History of New England ;" "The Christian Philosopher;" "The Wonders of the Invisible World, being an Account of the Trials of several Witches lately executed in New England ;" &c. In this last work, he showed an astonishing degree of credulity, b. at Bos- ton, 1663; d. 1728. Mathew, Rev. Theobald, ma'-thu, the "Apos- tle of Temperance," was the 60n of an illegi- timate member of the Llandaff family, and was educated for the Roman Catholic priesthood, at St. Patrick's College, Maynooth. After being appointed missionary at Cork, he acquired the greatest respect and consideration from all classes, and established religious societies for visiting the sick and poor. At a later period, he became president of a temperance association at Cork. He then devoted himself to the task of inducing spirit-drinkers to " take the pledge" of abstinence ; and in a few months, converted no less than 150,000 in Cork alone. He afterwards made a progress through Ireland, visited Dublin, Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow, and London, where the same success greeted his philan- thropic efforts. A striking proof that he disre- garded his temporal interests in the cause he had espoused, was afforded by the fact that a large distillery, owned by his brother, and from which he himself drew almost his whole in- come, was shut up in consequence of his crusade against alcoholic liquids. In recognition of his services, he was granted a pension of 3001. per annum, b. in Tipperary, 1790; d. 1856. Mathews, Charles, a comedian of transeend- ant ability, and one who was long regarded as the master-mind of the mimic art, was the son of a bookseller in the Strand, London, who had placed him in Merchant Taylors' School, and apprenticed him to learn his own business. The stage, however, proving more attractive to young Mathews than the shop of his father, the latter gave him twenty guineas and his inden- tures, with permission to follow the bent of his inclinations; and a promise of twenty guineas more if he would abandon histrionics, and "turn to an honest calling." He rambled about with provincial companies for a time : but the great versatility of talent he possessed soon placed him at the top of his profession, and rendered him a general favourite with the public. After a long career of successful per- formances, his metropolitan engagement grew irksome, from managerial interference and pro- fessional rivalries, and he determined to "set up fi ir himself;" and to depend solely on his own exertions. For sixteen years previous to his death, he was accustomed to entertain whole audiences by his single efforts, in a species of entertainment entitled " Mathews at Home ;" and never were admiring crowds more highly delighted than in witnessing the vivid portraits which he drew. The "At Homes" of Mathews were not only well received throughout Great Britain and Ireland, but also in America, where some of his most felicitous portraitures were sketched. While on his passage from that country he was taken ill, and on arriving at Li- verpool his malady rapidly increasing, expired Mattheson on his birthday, June 28th, 1835. b. 1776. Mathews was twice married, but had one child only, Charles Mathews the younger, also a famous actor of genteel comedy, and for some years lessee of the Lyceum Theatre, London. Matthias Cokvinus, ma'-thi-us kor'-vi-nug, called thp Great, king of Hungary and Bo- hemia, was the son of John Hunniades. The enemies of his father confined him in prison in Bohemia; but, on regaining his liberty, he was elected king of Hungary, in 1458, when only fifteen years of age. His election, however, was opposed by many of the Hungarian lords, who offered the crown to Frederick III. The Turks, profiting by these divisions, invaded the country, but were expelled by Matthias, who compelled Frederick to yield to him the crown of St. Stephen, of which he had obtained pos- session. The war was afterwards renewed, and Matthias, overrunning Austria, took Vienna and Neustadt ; on which the emperor was obliged to make a peace, in 1487. Matthias reformed many abuses, particularly with respect to duels and lawsuits, and was preparing an expedition against the Turks, when he died of an apo- plexy, in 1490. B. 1443. M atignon, Jacques dc,ma'-teen-yawng, prince of Montagne, and count of Thorigni, a famous general of France. He displayed great courage when young, in several battles, and in 1572 commanded the royal army in Normandy. In 1579 he was made a marshal of France, and as- sisted as constable at the coronation of Henry IV. B. 1525; D. 1597. Matilda, or Maud, ma-til'-da, the daughter af lienry i., king of England, and wile of Henry V., emperor of Germany, was nomi- nated by her lather, in 1135, successor to the English throne; but, in her absence, Stephen, the nephew of Henry, usurped the title. Ar- riving in England with a large army, in 1139, she defeated Stephen, and was acknowledged queen by a parliament held in 1141. Stephen afterwards defeated the empress ; on which the people declared for him, and Matilda was obliged to leave the kingdom. On the death of the emperor, she married Geoffrey Plantagenet, carl of Anjou, by whom she had a son, after- wards Henry II. of England, b. 1100; d. 1167. Matilda Caroline, queen of Denmark, the daughter of Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales, and father of George III., was married at the age of fifteen to Christian VII., king of Denmark ; but, having been accused of an in- trigue with the minister, Struensee, was di- vorced and sent into exile, b. 1751 ; d. at Zell, Hanover, 1775. Matsts, Quintin,«ia/'-si«,an eminent painter, of the Dutch school, is stated to have been brought up as a blacksmith, which trade he abandoned on falling in love with a young lady, to obtain whose hand ho studied painting, and became an excellent artist. A " Descent from the Cross," in the cathedral of Antwerp, is his mas- terpiece, and there is a celebrated picture by him, called "The Two Misers," at Windsor Castle, b. at Antwerp, 1460 ; d. 1529. Mattheson, John, ma'-the-son, an cmincnl musical composer and performer, was a native of Hamburgh, and of so precocious talent, that at nine years of age he was able to perform compositions of his own at the organ. He com- posed music for the church and for the theatre, and was always present at the performance of it. Notwithstanding he gave up so much time OF BIOGRAPHY. Matthew Cantacuzexms Maurice of Nassau to the pursuit of his favourite science, producing operas, authems, and treatises on music, he held the office of secretary to the English resi- dent in Hamburgh for several /ears, and was intrusted with the conduct of various important negotiations, b. 1681; d. 1764. Matthew Cantacuzenus, kan'-ta-ku-se -nus, the son of John, emperor of the East, and his associate in the empire in 1347. John abdicated f.he throne some time after, on which Matthew remained emperor, with John Palseologus I. These princes at length disagreed, and had re- course to arms. A battle was fought between them in Thrace, and Matthew being taken pri- soner, was compelled to renounce the throne to hi a rival. He then retired to the monastery of Mount Athos, where he composed commentaries on the Song of Solomon. Matthew of Westminster, an English monk and historian of the 14th century, who wrote a chronicle entitled "The Flowers of History," published at Loudon, in 1567, in which he com- mences with the creation of the world; but the most valuable portion is that which he devotes to the chronicle of English events from the Conquest to the end of Edward l.'s reign. A translation of the work has been published in Bohn's "Antiquarian Library." Matthews, Thomas, mdth'-thews, an English admiral, who commanded in the Mediterranean in 1744, and fought an obstinate but indecisive battle off Toulon, with the combined fleets. Owing to his not being supported by Lestock, his second in command, Admiral Matthews failed to gain a complete victory ; and yet for this he was dismissed the service, and Lestock was acquitted. He retired to his estate in Glamorganshire, and died there, 1751. Matthias, math-tht-as, emperor of German)', was the son of Maximilian II., and succeeded his brother, Rodolph II., in 1612. The empire was then at war with the Turks, with whom Matthias concluded a peace in 1615; but the war was renewed in 1618, and continued during thirty years, b. 1557 ; d. at Vienna, 1619. Matthieu, Peter, mat'-ye(r), a French his- torian and poet, was a zealous partisan of the League, and attended Louis XIII. to the siege of Montauban. He wrote "A History of Memorable Events in the Keign of Henry the Great," the history of the death of that monarch, "The History of St. Louis," "The History of France, from Francis I. to Louis XIII." b. 1563 ; D. 1621. Matueik, Rev. Charles Robert, mat'-u-rin, an Irish divine, who produced several successful novels, and, in 1816, brought out a tragedy, entitled " Bertram," at Drury-lane Theatre, b. m Ireland, 1782 ; d. 1825. Maty, Matthew, mai'-te, an eminent phy- sician, who took his doctor's degree at Ley den, and, in 1740, settled in England. In 1750 he commenced a periodical work, printed at the Hague, called " Le Journal Britannique," giving an account of the principal productions of the English press. In 1758 he was chosen fellow of the Royal Society, to which, in 1765, Le became secretary. He also rose to be libra- rian of the British Museum. The life prefixed to the "Memoirs of the Earl of Chesterfield," and many smaller works, were written by him. ». near Utrecht, 1718 ; n. 1776. Matt, Paul Henry, son of the preceding, be- came chaplain to Lord Stormont, ambassador at Paris, and afterwards one of the librarians of 690 the British Museum, and, in 1773, a secretary of the Royal Society. In 1782 he commenced a literary review, which was continued till 1786. In 1784, wheh there were great divisions in the Royal Society, occasioned by the dismissal of Dr. Hutton from the post of foreign secretary, Maty resigned his place, b. 1745; d. 1787. Macpebtuis, Peter Louis Mareau de, mo'- pairt-we, a celebrated French philosopher, was some time in the military service, which he quitted, and devoted himself to scientific pur- suits. In 1723 he became a member of the French Academy, aud, about four years after, was chosen a member of the Royal Society of London. In 1736 he was sent, with other academicians, to the north, to determine the figure of the earth, which service they performed with perfect success. At the invitation of the Prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the Great, he went to Berlin in 1740, and was ap- pointed president and director of the Academy. He accompanied that king in his campaigns against the Austrians; but exposing himself too much at the battle of Molwitz, he was made prisoner, and sent to Vienna, where he was well received by the emperor. He was soon per- mitted to return to Berlin, after receiving several marks of the imperial favour. He was of a vain and irritable temper, and had a dispute with Kcenig, and another with Voltaire, who exerted his satirical talents against him. This, however, was not much to the credit of the poet, who had before paid the highest compli- ments to Maupertuis, and from whom he had received no injury to justify his wanton attacks ; Frederick, however, ordered the satire to be burnt by the executioner ; upon which Voltaire quitted Berlin. His works are, — " The Figure of the Earth determined," " The Measurement of a Degree of Meridian," " Discourse on the Figure of the Stars," " Elements of Geography," "Nautical Astronomy," "Elements of Astro- nomy," " Reflections on the Origin of Lan- guages," &c. b. at St. Malo, 1698 ; r>. 1759. M aurepas, Jean Frederic Phelippeaux, Count de, ■mor'-pa, a French statesman, who, at an early age, was made secretary of state. In 1725 he was made superintendent of the marine, and, in 1738, minister of state. By the intrigues of Madame de Pompadour, he was exiled to Hourges in 1749. He was not recalled till 1774, when Louis XVI. intrusted the public affairs to his management. He entirely remodelled the marine department, and was a liberal encou- rager of the sciences. His memoirs, by himself, are curious, but carelessly written; they were printed at Paris in 1792. b. 1701 ; d. 1781. Maurice op Nassau, Prince of Orange, mor'-ice, was the son of William the Silent; after whose death, in 1584, he governed the Low Countries, being then only eighteen years old. He evinced, however, great courage and talents; and being named captain-general of the United Provinces, established that liberty which his father had begun. He made him- self master of Breda in 1590, and this waa followed by the capture of Zutphen, Deven- ter, Ilulst, Nimeguen, and Gertruydenburg. He defeated the archduke Albert in 1597, and, in the same year, compelled the Spaniards to abandon the Low Countries. In 1600 he was forced to raise the siege of Dunkirk, but he soon afterwards obtained a great vic- tory over Albert near Nieuport, This waa followed by numerous conquests. In 16]9 THE DICTIONARY Maurice of Saxony- aiming at the sovereignty of Holland, he was opposed by the virtuous Barneveldt, who was sent to the scaffold for resisting the ambition of Maurice. He was one of the greatest captains of his age, but his cruelty to those who opposed his aspirations to absolute power has cast a Main upon his memory, b. 1567 ; d. 1625. Maubice op Saxony. {See Saxe, Marshal.) Maurice, Thomas, a learned Oriental scholar and historian, was educated by Dr. Parr, and at St. John's and University Colleges, Oxford ; and distinguished himself as a writer. In 1791, he published the first two volumes of his " Indian Antiquities ;" which were succeeded, at inter- vals, by five more. In 1795, appeared the first volume of the " History of Hindostan," which was completed in a third volume, in 1709. In 1802, he produced the first volume of the " Mo- dern History of Hindostan ;" and in 1804 the second volume. Besides the works above men- tioned, Mr. Maurice wrote "Poems," "Ser- mons," his own •'Mcnioirs,"&c. b. at Hertford about 1754; n. 1824. Maurice, Rev. Frederic Denison, a modern English divine, regarded as the chief of the " Broad Church" party, was son of a Unita- rian clergyman, and was sent to the univer- sity of Cambridge, where, although he did not take a degree, he passed his examinations with considerable distinction. After leaving Cam- bridge, he went to London, and was employed to write for the " A thenseum" upon its being started by Mr. Silk Buckingham. He likewise pro- duced, at the same period, a novel, entitled " Eustace Conway." His religious views next undergoing considerable modification, he went to Oxford, took his degree there, and became a clergyman of the Church of England. His orthodoxy on many doctrinal points has been brought into question, but by every section of the clergy his moral and intellectual worth has been freely admitted. He wrote largely on theo- logical matters, and contributed treatises on Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy to the " Encyclopedia Britannica." He was one of the promoters of the Christian Socialist move- ment, which had for its object the abolition of the sytem of competitive labour, and the association of the working classes into small communities, which should undertake work in common, and divide the proceeds. He is the founder and principal of the Working Men's College, an institution at which instruction is given at nominal charges, to those who arc desirous of self-improvement, b. 1805 ;d. 1872. Maurus, Terentianus, maw'-rut, a Latin poet and grammarian, who flourished under Trajan, and is alluded to with respect by St. Augustine. The only work by him which has survived, is a dissertation on the Art of Poetry. Maury, Jean Siffrein, Cardinal, mor'-e, a dis- tinguished French orator, who, after pursuing his theological studies at Avignon, went to Paris in his 18th year, to gain a livelihood by the exercise of his talents. His first works attracted considerable attention ; but, being re- solved to devote himself to pulpit eloquence, he took orders, and having produced, in 1772, an elogy on Fentflon, was nominated a vicar- gencral. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1785, and was sent four years sub- sequently to the States-general as a deputy of the clergy. He took a prominent part in the debates upon every great question, whether of finance, ecclesiistical affairs, or general administration. 700 Maxentius A partisan of the aristocracy, his eloquence was constantly brought to bear against Mirabeau, whose most formidable antagonist he became. Upon the closing of the National Assembly, he left France, and went to Italy, when Pope Pius VI. nominated him cardinal, and bishop of Mon- tefiascone. In 1804 he was permitted to return to France, and from that period he became the devoted servant of Napoleon. The latter made him archbishop of Paris in 1810, a dignity he retained until the fall of his master, in defiance of the pope's commands to the contrary. The events of the year 1814 compelled him to ag.iin 6eek a refuge in Italy ; whereupon the pope, for his former disobedience, imprisoned him for some months. Cardinal Maury was an acute logician and fluent orator, but was far from possessing the energy and eloquence of Mira- beau. As a divine, his habits were not a mode, for imitation. An edition of his works was published at Paris in 1827, under the title oi "Select Works of Cardinal Maury." b. in France, 1716; o. at Home, 1S17. Maubt, Matthew, a distinguished American hydrographer and astronomer, who, at the age of nineteen, entered the United States navy as midshipman, and made a voyage round the world, which lasted four years. After his return, he passed his examination, and was appointed, with the grade of lieutenant, to the Falmouth. Subsequently, he was charged with the astro- nomical department of an expedition dispatched to the South Sea. He was next placed at the head of the hydrographical department of the United States Naval Board. In this last posi- tion he constructed his "Wind and Current Charts," a work deduced from a great number of nautical journals and logs, and of the highest utility to seamen. Of a similarly excellent character is his work entitled " The Physical Geography of the Sea," which has been trans- lated into all the European languages. During the Civil War of 1S61-C4, he held a commission as captain in the naval service of the Confede- rate States, b. in Virginia, 1806; i>. 1878. Mavob, Rev. William, L L.D., mai-vor, a native of Aberdeenshire, who went to England early in life, and after acting as assistant in a school at Burford, established himself as the master of an academy at Woodstock, where he gained the lavour and patronage of the Duke of Marl- borough, entered into holy orders, and was presented to the vicarage of Hurley, Berkshire. It is, however, as an author and compiler of useful books tha* Dr. Mavor will be chiefly remembered. Among his literary labours are a " Universal History," in 25 small volumes, a collection of " Voyages and Travels," also in 25 vols.; "The British Tourist," 6 vols. ; "The Modern Traveller," 4 vols. ; Histories of Greece, Rome, and England; Spelling and Class Books; Miscellanies in Prose and Verse; and many others, b. 1758; d. 1837. Mawe, Joseph, maw, an eminent mine- ralogist and conchologist, who travelled in various parts of South America, and published numerous works on the subject of his researches. Among them are, "Travels in the Interior of Brazil," a " Treatise on Diamonds and Precious Stones," " Familiar Lessons on Mineralogy and Geology," " The Linniean System of Concho- logy," and "The Mineralogy of Derbyshire." b. about 1755; D. 1829. Maxkntius, Marcus Aurelius Valerius, miix- en'-ske-uM, Roman emperor, was the son of OF BIOGRAPHY Maximianus Maximianus Hercules, and declared himself emperor in 306. He was opposed by Galerius Maximianus, who was defeated, and slew him- self. Maxentius then marched into Africa, where he rendered himself odious by his cruel- ties. Constantino afterwards defeated him in Italy, and he was drowned in crossing the Tiber, 312. Maximianus, Marcus Aurelius Valerius, max-im-i-ai'-nus, a Roman emperor, who, from being a common soldier, was associated in the government by Diocletian, in 286. He distin- guished himself by his military skill and bravery against the barbarians, and defeated Aurelius Julius, who had assumed the imperial title in Africa. When Diocletian abdicated the crown, in 305, he compelled Maximianus, much against his will, to do the same ; but, about a year after- wards, lie resumed the dignity, and opposed his son, Maxentius. The troops, however, mutinied against Maximianus, who fled into Gaul, where he was put to death by order of Constantine, 310. Maximianus, Galerius Valerius, emperor of Borne, was originally a shepherd in Dacia, afterwards a soldier, and raised to the imperial dignity by Diocletian, who also gave him his daughter in marriage. He conquered the Goths and Dalmatians, but was defeated by the Per- sians, over whom he afterwards gained a com- plete victory. In 305 be induced Diocletian to abdicate the throne ; but his cruelty soon rendered him odious to the Romans, who raised Maxentius to the throne. He was a bitter per- secutor to the Christians, whose god he implored for relict' in his last illness, after vainly seeking aid from the heathen deities, d. 311. Maximilian I., maxi-mil'-yan, emperor of Germany, was son of Frederick 111., and was created king of the Romans in I486. Upon the death of his father, in 1403, he became emperor. He engaged in several wars with France, in most of which he was successful. Forming the design of making himself pope, he, to further his purpose, assumed the ancient title of the Roman emperors, Pontifex Maximus, and en- deavoured to prevail upon Julius II. to admit him as his coadjutor. He united with England against France, and served under Henry VIII. in 1513. He wrote some poems, and the Me- moirs of his own life. b. 1159 ; d. 1519. Maximilian 11., emperor of Germany, the son of the emperor Ferdinand I., was elected king of the Romans in 1562. He was chosen king of Hungary and Bohemia, and succeeded his father in 1564. He was a tolerant ruler and a lover of peace, and greatly encouraged the arts and sciences, b. 1527 ; d. at Ratisbon, 1576. Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, in the 17th century, was named, on account of his courage and success, the Defender of Germany, and, for his singular prudence, he acquired the name of Solomon. He zealously opposed the Protestants, and was considered as one of the principal sup- porters of the Catholic religion. In 1620 he gained the battle of Prague, against Frederick, prince palatine, who had been elected king of Bohemia. For these services Maximilian was named an elector of the empire, b. 1581 ; n. 1651. Maximilian Emanuel, e-man'-u-el, elector of Bavaria, rendered great service to the em- peror Leopold. He signalized himself at the siege of Neuheusel, in 1085; at that of Buda, in HS>H; and, the year f'llowing, in the battle of Muliatz. He commanded, about this time, the army of Hungary, and took Belgrade, sword in 701 Maxwell hand, in 1689. He was afterwards governor ol . the Low Countries; but, taking part with France in the war of the Spanish succession, was put under the ban of the empire, and, in 1706, deprived of his states, regaining them at the general peace, b. 1662; d. at Munich, 1726. Maximilian Joseph I., jo'-eef, king of Ba- varia, succeeded his uncle, Charles Theodore, in 1799. Attaching' himself to the fortunes of Napoleon, he gave his daughter in marriage to Eugene Beauharnais, in 1805. In the same year his duchy was erected into a kingdom. In 1813, however, he formed a member of the league against the emperor, and, by that pro- ceeding, retained his throne after the fall of Napoleon. His reign was marked by a great number of reforms m the administration of his kingdom, b. 1756; n. 1825. This prince 'wire the title of Maximilian Joseph II., as elector of Bavaria, from 1799 to 1805. Maximilian Joseph II., king of Bavaria, succeeded Louis Charles, his father, in 1848. B. 1811 ; n. 1864. Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico and brother of Francis Joseph, the present emperor of Austria, ascended the imperial throne of Mexico in 1864, being summoned thither by the nobles of that country, and having the promise of material support from Napoleon HI. The French troops, however, that had been sent to Mexico prior to the coming of Maximilian, were withdrawn in 1866, and the emperor, after a vain effort to assert his authority, was betrayed by treachery, captured, and shot at Queretaro by order of Juarez, June 19, 1867. b. at Schoenbrun, 1832. Maximinus, Caius Julius Verus, max-i-mi'- nus, emperor of Rome, was the son of a Thra- cian peasant.and having displayed great courage in the Roman armies, rose to command. On the death of Alexander Severus, he caused him- self to be proclaimed emperor, 235. His strength was such that he is said to have stopped a chariot in full speed with one of his fingers. He was killed in a revolt of his soldiers, 238 a.d. Maximus, Magnus, mdx'-i-mui, a Spaniard, was general of the Roman army in Britain, when he proclaimed himself emperor, 383. Having made himself master of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, he fixed the seat of his empire at Treves. He next marched into Italy, where he committed dreadful cruelties ; but was at last besieged in Aquileia, by the emperor Theodo- sius. His soldiers delivered him up to Theodo- sius, who ordered him to be beheaded, in 388, A.D. Maximus of Tike, a Platonic philosopher, who visited Rome in 146, but died in his own country, in the reign of Commodus. Maximus the Cynic, and tutor of Julian the Apostate, was a native of Ephesus. He professed magic, and initiated Julian into the Eleusinian mysteries, and assured him of suc- cess in his Persian expedition ; he was put to death by the emperor Valens, in 366. Maxwell, Lord Robert, mdx-'wel, one of the lords of the regency that governed Scotland in 1530, while James V. was absent in France upon a matrimonial expedition. At a subsequent period, taking offence at the appointment of Oliver Sinclair to the command of the army, he, with many of the Scottish nobility, surren- dered to the English at Solway Moss. After the death of James V. he was ransomed, and returned to bis native country, where, in 1643 THE DICTIONARY May he presented to the Lords of Articles a bill for the authorization of the Scriptures to be read in the vulgar tongue ; an act which formed one of the most important of those which preceded the Reformation. The measure became law, despite the energetic opposition of Cardinal Beaton and the hierarchy. Lord Maxwell was soon afterwards apprehended, at Beaton's command, but escaped, j>. 1546. May, Thomas, mat, an English dramatic poet and historian, was educated at Cambridge, after which he entered at Gray's Inn, where he wrote some plays, and translated several authors, par- ticularly Lucan's " Pharsalia." Charles I. em- ployed him in writing two historical poems ; one on the life of Henry II., and the other on the reign of Edward III.; but, in the civil war, May joined the Parliament, and was appointed their secretary and historiographer. He pub- lished the History of the Parliament which be- gan in 1640, and a " Breviary of the History of the Parliament of England." He is said to have written five plays, two of which are printed hi Dodsley's collection, b. 1595; d. 1650. Mayenne, Charles of Loraine, Duke of, mai'- yen, was the second son of Francis of Loraine, duke of Guise. He displayed great courage at the sieges of Poictiers and Rochelle, and at the battle of Moncontour ; he also defeated the Protestants in Guienne, Dauphiny, and Sain- tonge. When his brothers were killed, at the meeting of the States at Blois, he declared him- self head of the League, and assumed the title of lieutenant-general of Prance. He proclaimed the cardinal of Bourbon king, by the name of Charles X. ; but was defeated by Henry IV. at the battle of Arques, and again at Ivry. In 1596 he was reconciled to the king, who made liim governor of the Isle of France. B. 1554 ; d. 1611. Mayeb, John Frederick, mi'-er, a Lutheran divine, who became superintendent of the churches of Pomerania, and professor at Stettin. His greatest work is the " Biblio- theca Biblica," printed hi 1713. Besides this, he wrote "A Treatise on the Method of Study- ing the Holy Scripture," "Dissertations on Particular Parts of the Bible." b. at Leipsic, 1650; d. 1712. Mayeb, Tobias, a celebrated German astro- nomer, who was self-taught, and, by his own application, acquired a knowledge of the Latin language. In 1 750 the university of Gottingen appointed him mathematical professor. Mayer made several discoveries in geometry and astro- nomy, and published some excellent works, the chief of which are his " Table of Refractions," " Theory of the Moon," and " Astronomical Tables and Precepts;" for which last the English Board of Longitude gave his widow £3000. b. at Wiirtcmberg, 1723 ; d. 1762. Mayebne-Tcbqubt, Theodore de, Baron d'Aubonne, mni'-yern, an eminent physician and chemist, was physician to Henry IV. of Fiance ; but, on the death of that monarch, went to England, and was appointed physician to James I., who conferred on him the honour of knighthood. He continued in favour with Charles I., to whom he adhered in the civil war. b. 1575; D. 1655. Mayhew, Henry, mai'-Ku, a modern English litterateur, whose father, a solicitor in good practice, sent him to Westminster school, whence he twice ran away, and subsequently made a voyage to Calcutta on board a sliip of war. Returning tu England, he served three 702 Mayne years in his father's office as articled clerk. He next spent some time in Wales, and, on bis return to London, commenced his literary career. With his old schoolfellow, Mr. Gilbert A'Beckett, he took the Queen's Theatre, in London, and there produced his first farce, called "The Wandering Minstrel." About the same time he started the comic publication, " Figaro in London ;" he was also the chief originator of " Punch," which was commenced in 1841, and of which he was for a long time the editor. Between the years 1846-1851, he published, in conjunction with his brothers Horace and Augustus, a series of humorous tales, which became very popular. Some of these were entitled " The Greatest Plague of Life ; or, the Adventures of a Lady in Search of a Servant," " Whom to Marry, and How to get Married," " The Image of his Father," and "The Adventures of Mr. and Mrs. Sandboys and Family at the Great Exhibition of 1851." Mr. Mayhew's most important work was that produced in 1851, entitled " London Labour and the London Poor ; a Cyclopaedia of the Condition and Earnings of those that will work, those that cannot work, and those that will not work." Of a similar character was " The Great World of London," commenced by Mr. Mayhew in 1856; but the former only oi these works was completed. He likewise wrote a series of excellent books for boys ; one, founded on the life of Sir Humphrey Davy, called 'The Wonders of Science;" another, entitled "The Peasant-Boy Philosopher," being based upon the life of James Ferguson; and a third on the "Boyhood of Luther." b. 1812; n. 1872. Mayhew, Horace and Augustus, brothers of the preceding, besides assisting in the composi- tion of several of the above-mentioned works, were the authors of a number of tales and sketches of a broadly humorous character, which enjoyed a considerable share of popularity. The novel, entitled "Paved with Gold," was com- menced by Henry and Augustus in co-partaer- shlp, but was soon afterwards continued and conducted to a most eil'cctive termination by Augustus alone, who has also written " The Prettiest Girl in Bloomsbury,"anda great variety of lively and interesting tales and sketches, puq. lished in various periodicals. — Horace Mayhew was for many years a principal contributor to Punch, d. Horace, 1872; Augustus, 1875. Maykabd, Sir John, mai'-nard, an English statesman and lawyer, who, after having studied at Exeter College, Oxford, entered at the Middle Temple, was in due course called to the bar, and distinguished himself as one of the prosecutors of Strafford and Laud ; but afterwards opposed the violent proceedings of the army, and the usurpation of Cromwell, for which he was twice sent to the Tower. After the Restoration ho was knighted, but refused the honour of being a judge. At the Revolution he displayed great talents in the conference between the Lords and Commons, on the question of the abdication of the throne by James II., and warmly advocated that measure. When William III., in allusion to Serjeant Maynard's great age, remarked that he must have outlived all the lawyers of his time, Sir John happily replied, " Yes ; and if your highness had not come over to our assist- ance, I should have outlived the law too." He was appointed one of the commissioners of the great seal in 1689. b. about 1602; d. 1690. Mayne, Jasper, main, an English divine and OF BIOGRAPHY. Mazarin poet, who was educated at Westminster school, whence he removed to Christ Church, Oxford, of which he became student. In 1646 he was created D.D., and two years afterwards was de- prived of his studentship for his loyalty. At the Restoration he was promoted to a canonry of Christ Church. Mayne was a man of consi- derable wit and humour, which he often carried to some excess, particularly in his will, wherein he left his servant man, who was fond of tippling, an old trunk, in which, says he, there is some- thing to make him drink. The man eagerly sought for his legacy, and, on opening the trunk, found a red herring. Dr. Mayne wrote some poems, now obsolete, sermons, and two plays, called the " City Match," and " The Amorous Warre," the latter of which was a satire upon the Puritans, b. 1604; d. 1672. Mazabih, Julius, maz'-a-ra, a Roman cardi- nal and minister of State to Louis XIV. of France, who, being appointed nuncio-extraordi- nary to France, acquired the friendship of Riche- lieu" and the confidence of Louis XIII. In 1641, Popo Urban VIII. made him cardinal, and, on the death of Richelieu, Louis appointed him minister of state. He was also nominated one of the executors of the king's will, and had the principal management of affairs during the minority of Louis XIV.; but at length the murmurs of the people rose so high against him, that he found it expedient to quit the kingdom, and a price was set on his head. He afterwards recovered his power, and continued to render the state the most important services, the principal of winch was the restoration of peace between France and Spain in 1659. His application to business produced a disease which caused his death, b. 1602; n. 1661. His letters have been published in 2 vols. — One of his nieces, Hortense Mancini, duchess of Mazarin, was celebrated for her wit and beauty. She married, in 1661, the duke de la Meilleraie, from whom she separated, and went to Eng- land, where she was surrounded by a crowd of admirers, but particularly patronized St. Evre- mond. d. in London, 1690. Mazeppa, John, ma-zep'-pa, hetman or com- mander-in-chief of the Cossacks of the Ukraine, was the son of a Polish gentleman, and be- came a page at the court of John Kasimir, king of Poland. After his return to his native pro- vince of Podolia, he engaged in an intrigue with the wife of a neighbouring lord, who sur- prised him and caused him to be bound naked upon the back of a wild horse. The frightened animal ran with his burden until it reached the country of the Cossacks of the Ukraine, where Mazeppa was released and restored to health. He subsequently adopted their course of life, and rose by degrees to the rank of their hetman. In that capacity he displayed great energy and talent, and succeeded in gaining the esteem of the Czar Peter, who appointed him prince of the Ukraine. Being desirous, however, of ren- dering himself independent, Mazeppa fought against the Czar, and enlisted his forces under the banner of Charles XII. at the battle of Pultowa. After the defeat of the Swedish king, he took refuge first in Wallachia, and afterwards at Bender. His extraordinary ride forms the subject of one of Lord Byron's poems, b. about the middle of the 17th century; d. in Turkey, 1709. Mazza, Angelo, mat'-sa, an eminent Italian poet, a native of Parma, in the university of which city he was afterwards professor of Greek 703 Mazzini literature. He translated the odes of Pindar, and Akenside's "Pleasures of Imagination;" and, having attained a high degree of literary reputation, was admitted into the Arcadian Academy at Rome. b. 1740; d. 1817. Mazzhingi, Joseph, Count, mat'-ten-je, a distinguished composer, the descendant of an eminent Tuscan family, was born in England, of an English mother. He was very early noted for his musical ability, and so diligently did he pursue his studies, that he was considered qua- lified for the post of director of the opera house when but little more than 18 years of age. The theatre having been destroyed by tire in 1789, among the valuable property lost was the whole of the music of Paesiello's opera, "La Locanda," and Mazzhingi re-wrote the orchestral parts from memory. " The Blind Girl," the " Turn- pike Gate," " Paul and Virginia," and a long list of other once popular pieces, were from his fertile pen, and Sir Walter Scott warmly thanked him for the maimer in which he set to music some of that author's poetry, b. 1764; d. 1844. Mazzini, Giuseppe, mat-te'-ne, a modern Italian politician, who was educated for the law; but being inspired with an enthusiastic love of liberty, abandoned his profession soon after he had commenced its practice. Allying himself with a small circle of ardent Genoese gentlemen, he became the soul of a movement which had for its object the regeneration of Italy. In furtherance of their ideas, these young Genoese established a. literary journal, which was soon suppressed, but was again com- menced at Leghorn. In 1830 Mazzini became an active member of the secret society called the Carbonari, but being denounced to the police, was arrested. After a detention of six months, he was set at liberty, on the understanding that he should quit Italy. He took refuge at Mar- seilles, and founded there a journal and a society, both of which were significantly named " Young Italy." The main idea of both was that " the freedom of Italy, both from domestic and foreign tyranny, could only be attained by a union of all the separate states into one nation — Romans, Piedmontcse, Tuscans, Nea- politans, Lombards, Venetians, &c— all merging their separate interests in the one common name of Italians, and under this name forming a single powerful European nation." The pre- cise form of government was to be decided by circumstances ; Mazzini liimself preferred the republican. After months of secret plotting, a conspiracy was organized, which from Genoa as a centre, spread through all Italy, from the Alps to the extremity of Sicily, and even the officers and soldiers of the Piedmontese and Neapolitan armies were concerned in it. This formidable organization was discovered, however, and a great number of the chief agents therein cither lost their lives or sought safety in flight. This took place in 1833, and from that year until 1848, Mazzini was mainly employed in a propa- gandism of his ideas throughout the Italian peninsula. He resided in France, in Switzer- land, and was expelled from both countries in turn ; upon which he went to London, always keeping up a close correspondence with his party in Italy. In 1844, Sir James Graham, then home secretary, authorized the opening of several letters in the post-office. It was thereby ascertained that the brothers Bandiera were plotting an insurrection in the Venetian state* This was communicated to the Austrian govern. THE DICTIONARY Mazzuoli ment, and the lives of the Bandieras were lost in consequence. After the French revolution of 1848, and the insurrection at Milan, Mazzini went to Italy with the view of giving a turn to the great Italian movement in conformity with the ideas he had so long advocated. After the defeat of Charles Albert, and the consequent re- cstablishment of the Austrian rule in Italy, Mazzini was accused of nullifying the king's efforts by causing the republican party to keep aloof from him. He next travelled about in Garibaldi's wake, and, in 1849, went to Rome. The pope had fled before his arrival, and an assembly, elected by universal suffrage, had passed decrees for the total abolition of the temporal sovereignty of the pope, and for the creation of the Roman states into a republic. Mazzini's advent at this crisis was hailed with acclamations by the Romans. With Saffi and Armellini, he was appointed triumvir, and charged to defend the republic against its enemies. The French, under General Oudinot, landed soon afterwards at Civita Veechia. It was generally believed that the French would be allowed to enter Rome without impediment; but Mazzini and his great ally, Garibaldi, pre- pared for a desperate resistance. Garibaldi had only 14,000 regular troops under his command ; he nevertheless maintained the city against the invaders during two months, with an obstinate bravery that excited the astonishment and ad- miration of Europe. On the entrance of the French, Mazzini returned to England and re- sumed his pen. His ideas were promulgated as zealously as before ; and the expulsion of the Austrians from Lombardy, and its annexation to Piedmont in 1859; the subsequent adhesion of Tuscany, Modena, Parma, Naples, Sicily, and other portions of the country to the kingdom of Italy, have gone far to realize the idea origi- nally broached by Mazzini ; and although these events have been brought about directly by somewhat different agencies from those which he contemplated, it is certain that the influence of his writings on the minds and actions of the Italians has of late years been very potent in- deed, b. at Genoa, 1808; d. 1872. Mazzuoli, Francesco, mat'-soo-o'-le, commonly called Parmigiano, a famous Italian painter, who has also been designated as the inventor of the art of etching. He had an admirable genius for painting ; his invention was ready, and he had a peculiar talent in giving grace and sweetness to his figures, b. at Parma, 1504; d. f540. Mead, Kichard, mede, a celebrated English physician, who studied under Gnevius, at Utrecht, after which he removed to Leyden, and contracted a close intimacy with Bocrhaave. On completing his studies in that celebrated school of physic, he went to Italy, and took his doctor's degree at Padua. In 1696, he returned to his native country, and commenced the prac- tice of physic at Stepney, where he resided Etven years. In 1702 he published his treatise on Poisons, which procured him considerable reputation. In 1704 he was admitted a member of the Royal Society, of which, in 1707, he be- came vice-president, and, in 1727, he was ap- pointed physician to George II, He was also author of " A Discourse concerning the Plague," a treatise ,- On the Scurvy," and " Mcdicina Sacra." His works were very popular at the time when they were written, and have beec translated in Italy, France, and Germany, u. in London, 1673; u. 1761. 70* Mede Meade, George Gordon, a major-general in the United States army, who graduated at the military academy of West Point in 1835, and received his commission as second-lieutenant of artillery. He resigned his commission the following year, but entered the army again in 1842, and served with great distinction in the subsequent war with Mexico. He was raised to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteer* in 1862, during the American Civil War, and. took part in the battles of Antietam and Fredericksburg in the same year, in the latter of which, the troops of the Northern States, commanded by General Burnside, were routed with much loss. In 1863 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army of the Poto- mac, and soon after fought the battle of Gettysburg. In the following year, General Grant, who had been nomiuated commander- in-chief of the United States armies, tool command of the army of the Potomac, and Meade being second in command, rendering able assistance in the operations that brought the war to a close, b. at Cadiz, 1816 ;d. 1S72. Mechain, Pierre Francois Andre, mek'-ii, an eminent French astronomer, whose great merits were first discovered by Lalande. In 1782 he gained the prize of the Academy for his memoir on the comet of 1661, which was expected to return in 1790. He became editor of the " Con- naissance des Temps," which work he improved. In 1792 he was employed in the great work of measuring the arc of meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona. He returned from this task in 1798; but wishing to extend it as far as the Ba- learic Isles, he set out for them in 1803 ; but death prevented the accomplishment of his object. b. in France, 1774; d. 1805. Mechitab, or Mekhitab, mek'-hi-tar, the founder of the order of Mechitarists, and re- viver of Armenian literature, in 1691 entered an Armenian convent at Sebaste, and subse- quently became secretary to Archbishop Michael. Meeting with a work by an Italian priest on the reconciliation of the Armenian church with that of Rome, he secretly became a proselyte to the latter church. In 1700 he sought to reconcile the two parties of the Armenian priesthood at Constantinople; but, meeting with little suc- cess, he openly preached submission to the pope. The Armenians were so enraged at this, that, to save his life, Mechitar was compelled to fly from the city. He went first to Smyrna, and afterwards to the Morea, then under the domi- nion of Venice. On the conquest of the Morea by the Turks, he went to Venice, where he was permitted to found a convent, wherein he set up a printing-press, which, in his hands and in thoce of his followers, produced hundreds of volumes in the form of Armenian translations of the best works in European literature. Me- chitar published an Armenian Bible in 1S33, and an Armenian Grammar and Dictionary, b. at Sebaste, Cappadocia, 1676; d. 1749. Mede, Joseph, meed, a learned English divine, who, in 1602, entered at Christ's College, Cam- bridge, where he studied with intense applica- tion, was chosen fellow, and proceeded to his degree of bachelor in divinity. He refused several preferments, particularly the provostship of Trinity College, Dublin, which was repeatedly offered him by Archbishop Usher. His works were collected into one volume folio, and pub lished in 1672. The principal is his " Commen tarj ob the Apooalypse," in explaining which OF BTOGKAPHY. Medici hit plan has been followed by Bishops Newton and Hurd, and a number of other great divines. B. at Berden, Essex, 1586; d. 1638. Medici, Cosmo de", med'-e-cke, called the Elder, and the Father of his Country, founder of an illustrious family at Floremce, was a merchant, who acquired great wealth, which he appro- priated to the noble purposes of advancing learning and supporting learned men. H« »ol- lected a noble library, which he enriched with inestimable manuscripts. The envy excited by his riches, raised liim many enemies by whose intrigues he was obliged to quit his native country. He then retired to Venice, where ho was received as a prince. His fellow-citizens afterwards recalled him, and he bore a prin- cipal share in the government of the republic of Florence during thirty-four years. On his tomb was engraved this inscription: "The Father of his People, and the Deliverer of his Country." B. 1389; D. 1464. Medici, Lorenzo de', surnamed the Magnifi- cent, was the son of Peter, grandson of Cosmo, and brother of Julian de' Medici. These two brothers, who enjoyed an almost absolute power in Florence, were viewed with a jealous eye by Ferdinand I., king of Naples, and Pope Sixtus IV. At their instigation the potent family of Pazzi formed a conspiracy against the Medici in 1478, and Julian was assassinated as he was attending mass. Lorenzo was also wounded, but escaped with his life, and was conducted to his palace by the people, with loud acclamations of joy. Having inherited the great qualities of his grandfather Cosmo, he was accounted the Maecenas of his age. It was a singular but noble spectacle to observe the citizen engaged in commerce at one moment, and managing public affairs at another; now entertaining merchants, and next receiving ambassadors; giving public shows to the people, and erecting asylums for the sick and unfortunate; orna- menting his country with magnificent buildings and sending learned men to the East in search of valuable Greek manuscripts : such a man was Lorenzo, whom the Florentines, grateful for all these benefits, declared chief of the republic. He drew to his court a number of learned men, and sent John Lascaris into Greece to purchase literary treasures to enrich his library. Lorenzo himself cultivated letters, particularly poetry, and his compositions have been several times printed. He was so universally esteemed that the princes of Europe were glad to choose him as arbitrator in their differences. This illus- trious man had three sons, — Peter, who suc- ceeded him, Julius, and John, who became pope by the name of Leo X. Lorenzo forms the subject of a splendid biography by William Eoscoe. b. 1448 ; n. 1492. Medina, Sir John, mai'-de-na, a portrait painter, was born at Brussels, went to England in 1686 ; and after painting a great number of pictures, proceeded to Scotland, where be was knighted, b. 1659; d. 1711. Mehemed, or Mohammed, mai'-kai-maid, the nauie of seven kings of Granada, who reigned between the years 1238 and 1454. Mkhemet Ali, me'-ke-met, Pacha of Egypt, commenced his remarkable career as the keeper of a small shop at Cavalla, in Koumelia ; but, abandoning the pursuits of a trader for the profession of arms, he took an active part in suppressing a rebellion of the pirates of Candia. In 1799 he headed a corps of Albanians, and 706 Mehemet All went to Egypt, where he fought on the side of the British, and assisted in the expulsion of the French from that country. He soon acquired great influence in Egypt, and formed an alliance with the Mamelukes, against Khosrew Pacha, the viceroy of the sultan. The Mamelukes having regained all their former influence, chose Mehe- met as their viceroy. The sultan created him pacha of Cairo in 1806, and added to this dignity the pachalic of Alexandria in the following year, ostensibly for the services rendered to the Ottoman empire, but gained over, in reality, by Mehemet's gold. His next step was to turn against the redoubtable soldiery that had helped him to gain so much power, and, after a vain effort to reduce the turbulent Mamelukes to subjection, he ordered them to be exterminated. In 1811, 470 of the Mamelukes were invited within the citadel of Cairo, where they were ruthlessly put to the sword, 1200 more being massacred throughout the country. By this step Mehemet Ali became the undisputed master of Upper Egypt. The Wahabees, a fanatical sect, were his next victims, and these he de- stroyed after a war which lasted six years. He subsequently dispatched an army into Nubia, under the command of one of his sons, Ismail Pacha, who succeeded in conquering the pro- vinces of Dongola, Sennaar, Kordofan, &c. Upon the Greeks raising the standard of inde- pendence, he assisted the sultan against them, by dispatching to the shores oi the Morea a fleet of 163 vessels, under the com- mand of his son, Ibrahim Pacha. This fleet wrought havoc upon the country during three years, but was destroyed at Navarino by the combined squadrons of England, France, and Russia, in 1827. As a reward for his eo-opera- tion against the Greeks, the sultan ceded to Mehemet Ali the island of Candia, in 1830 ; but this was not sufficient to gratify his ambitious desires, for he further demanded of the sultan the cession of Syria. This being refused, he invaded the country with a powerful army, and rapidly conquered the province, After a great victory at Konieh, in 1832, he was in triumphant march upon Constantinople, but was brought to a halt by European intervention : he succeeded, nevertheless, in gaining, by the treaty of Kutayeh, the possession of Syria and the pro- vince of Adana. In 1839 the sultan, Mahmoud II., resolved to regain Syria ; but suffering de- feat at the hands of Mehemet Ali, he sought the assistance of England and other Euro- pean powers. B i this means, Mehemet, after having been defeated near Beyrout, and find- ing Alexandria blockaded, consented to forego his claims upon Syria, on condition that his family should be constituted hereditary pachas of Egypt. Thenceforth he ruled in peace, but in 184S resigned the government to his son, Ibrahim Pacha, who dying soon afterwards, the pachalic was vested in Abbas Pacha, Mehemet's grandson. During the last two years of his life he was deprived of reason. Mehemet Ali was unquestionably an extraordinary man and wise ruler: he introduced European organiza- tion and tactics into his army, encouraged agri- culture, commerce, and industry, and founded military and medical schools in his dominions. His rise was due to his native intelligence and indomitable courage ami energy ; for it is a re- markable fact that this former Albanian peasant wan throughout his earlier career totally desti- tute of education. He only learnt to read at ZZ THE DICTIONARY Mehul the age of forty-five. It is, however, to be regretted that his rise was assisted by such violent measures as intrigue, treason, and assas- sination. For the French people he had a particular admiration, and sent to Paris two of his sons and a number of Egyptian youths to receive their education, b. at Cavalla, Rou- melia, 1769; d. at Cairo, 1849. Mehul, Stephen Henry, me(r)l, a «elebrated oomposer, who, in 1779, went to Paris, and there became the friend of Gluck. In 1790 he pro- duced, at the Or-era Comique, " Euphrosyne" and " Coradin," both of which were eminently successful. He subsequently composed, among other operas, " Stratonice," " Joseph," "Cora and Alonzo," and " Melidor." A large number of hymns, sonatas, and the celebrated republican airs, "Chant de la Victoire," " Du Depart," and "Du Retour," issued from his pen. b. 1763; b. at Paris, 1817. Meiwehs, Christopher, mi'-nert, a German historian and miscellaneous writer, who studied at Gottingen, where he became professor of phi- losophy; and subsequently pro-rector. Among his numerous works are, "A History of the Origin and Progress of Philosophy among the Greeks," "On the Origin and Decline of the Sciences among the Greeks and Romans," and others on kindred subjects, b. in Hanover, 1747 ; d. 1810. Meissweb, Augustus Gottlieb, mite'-ner, a popular German writer, who composed a large number of romances, essays, and tales. His style was exceedingly agreeable, lively, and shrewd. The most important of his works were " Alcibiades," " Bianca Capello," and " Spar- tacus." b. in Upper Silesia, 1753 ; n. 1807. Meissonnier, Jean Louis Ernest, mi-gon'- e-air, a celebrated French painter, of the style termed in France genre. His most celebrated works were, — " The Painter in his Studio," " Le Corps-de-Garde," and " A Barricade — June, 1848." All his works were painted with Flemish care and finish, but were, nevertheless, tho- roughly original in their treatment. His pic- tures, although generally of a small size, brought very large sums, and he stood at the head of a crowd of enthusiastic imitators. He was likewise very successful as a designer of book illustrations. The best of these last were the sketches for " Paul and Virginia," Balzac's novels, and "The French People painted by themselves." b. at Lyons, 1812. Mela, Pomponius, tne'-la, a Latin geogra- phical writer, was a native of Spain. His valu- able work, entitled " De Situ Orbis," is divided into three parts, and contains a description of the world as it was known in his time. Flou- rished in the early half of the 1st century. Melancthon, Philip, me-lank -than, the fa- mous reformer, and friend of Luther. His family name was Schwarzerde, or black eurth, which Reuchlin, his friend, altered to the cor- responding Greek word, Melancthon. He made rapid progress in his studies at the university of Heidelberg, whence he removed to Tubingen, where he continued six years. In 1518 he ob- tained the Greek professorship of Wittenberg, where he formed a close friendship with Luther, whose opinions he defended both in his public lectures and in his writings. In 1527 the elector of Saxony appointed him to visit the churches in his territories; but his greatest labour was in drawing up the Augsburg Confession of Faith. Jlis learning and moderation, became famous 706 Melho througnout Europe, and the kings of Franc* and England invited him to their kingdoms, with flattering offers, which he declined. During the progress of the Reformation, he exhibited a different temper from Luther, being more cau- tious and timid; on which account he was often reproved by him in severe terms. The prudence of Melancthon, however, was of great ser- vice, and tended considerably to the propagation of the Protestant doctrines, by guarding them from the abuses of intemperate zeal. In 1529 Melancthon assisted in the conferences at i Spi-es, and, in his journey thither, visited his mother, a pious woman, who asked him what ' she should believe, and how she should pray ' amid these religious disputes, at the same time repeating her simple creed and form of devotion. "Continue," said her son, "to believe and to pray as you do at present, and do not trouble your- self about controversies." He distinguished himself in the conferences held at Ratisbon in 1541 and 1548. He wrote a "Censure of the Interim," and all the papers presented at those conferences. The works of this learned and amiable man were collected in 154-1, and pub- lished at Bale. b. at Brctten, or Bretheim, in the palatinate of the Rhine, 1497; d. at Witten- berg, 1560. Melas, mel'-a, a celebrated Austrian general, who, in 1796, commanded against the French in Italy, and uniting with Suwaroff, in 1799, de- feated Championnet at Genola, but was himself beaten by Napoleon at Marengo, in the follow- ing year. d. 1807. Melbourne, William Lamb, Viscount, mel'- born, an English statesman, who entered the House of Commons in 1805, under the auspices of the Whigs. Canning appointed him secretary of state for Ireland, a post he filled with very distinguished success. In 1828 he was called to the upper house, after the death of his father, and while a member of Earl Grey's cabinet greatly contributed to the passing of the Reform Bill. In 1834 he became first lord of the Trea- sury, and head of the Whig party, a position he retained, with only one short interruption, until the year 1841. Lord Melbourne was but little qualified to head the ministerial councils of a great nation ; but his engagin? and con- ciliatory manners secured the allegiance not alone of the Whig, but also of several distin- guished members of the Tory party. n.1779; d. 1843. Melho, Philip de, mel'-lo, an eminent divine and Biblical translator, and the first native of Ceylon who was admitted into the Christian ministry. His learning and labours earned him the titles of " Rabbi de Melho," and the " Great Labourer." As an oriental poet, also, he ranks high. After being educated at the only semi- nary in his native town, and passing an exami- nation in Hebrew and Greek, he was licensed to preach before attaining the age of 21, and officiated with much distinction in Portuguese, Dutch, and Tamul. His principal works are Tamul versions of the New Testament from the Greek, the Dutch liturgy, and the Psalms of David; a work against Popery, entitled "Triumph of the Truth"; a Catechism in Portuguese; and a Version of the Pentateuch from the Hebrew, published in 1790. At his death, he left translations of the books of Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, in MS. He also wrote many original poems of great merit, i st Colombo, Ceylon, 1723; o, 1780 OP BIOGRAPHY. Meli Mbli, Giovanni, mai'-le, a celebrated Sicilian poet, was a physician by profession, and for some time held the professorship of chemistry at the university of Palermo. He was most successful in bucolic verse, and has been placed by his admirers after Theocritus. He "likewise produced odes, canzoni, satires, epistles, fables, s>nd some captivating short poems, b. at Pa- lermo, about 1740 ; d. 1815. Mklissus, me-lW-us, a philosopher of Samos, who flourished about 431 B.C., and who is dis- tinguished not only as a teacher of the Eleatic doctrines, but, in the history of his country, as a statesman and naval commander. Mklitcs, mel-i'-tut, a Greek orator and poet, and the principal accuser of Socrates. The Athenians, out of compunction for their unjust treatment of that great man, put Melitus to death, B.C. 400. Mellon, Harriet, mel'Aon, Duchess of St. Alban's, was the posthumous daughter of a Mr. Matthew Mellon, who held a commission in the East India Company's service, and whose widow married a Mr. Entwistle, a musician. Mrs. Entwistle, who was an accomplished woman, went on the stage ; her husband became leader of the band in various provincial theatres ; and the services of Harriet were put in requisition at a very tender age, in order to augment a g-janty income. After passing her childhood in playing juvenile characters in the provinces, she appeared, under the auspices of Sheridan, at Drury Lane, in January, 1795, as Lydia Lan- guish, in the "Rivals ;" and although attracting but little notice at first, gradually rose in public estimation, and ultimately attained to a con- siderable degree of professional celebrity, par- ticularly in characters of a vivacious or hoyendish cast. Thomas Coutts, the wealthy banker, mar- ried her in 1814, and died in 1822, appointing his widow universal legatee, and bequeathing to her his share in the banking house and business in the Strand, and all benefit and in- terests to arise therefrom. She was now im- mensely rich, and rumour was soon busy in naming the fortunate suitor of the banker's widow ; till at length, in June, 1827, the question was settled by her marriage with William, duke of St. Alban's, then in the 27th year of his age. The bulk of her immense property, in- cluding the half profits of the banking house, her mansion in Stratton Street, and all her movables, plate, diamonds, &c, she bequeathed to Miss Angela Burdett, youngest daughter of Sir Francis liurdett, and grand-daughter of Mr. Coutts, who in consequence took the name of Coutts. B. about 1775; D. 1837. Melmoth, William, mel-motk, an English writer, who was a bencher of Lincoln's Inn, and, in conjunction with Williams, edited Vernon's " Reports." He was the author of the " Great Importance of a Religious Life," a valuable little book, which has gone through many editions. B.1666; d. 1743. Melmoth, William, son of the preceding, published some well-executed translations of Pliny's and Cicero's Epistles, and was a so the author of the letters which bear the name of Sir Thomas Fitzosbornc ; some poems in Dods- lcv's Collection, and Memoirs ot his father, b. 1710; d. 1799. M elville, Sir James, meU'vil, a Scotch writer, who became page to Mary queen of Scots, whom he attended in her last moments : he afterwards entered the service of the duke of 707 Melville Montmorency. On his return to Scotland, in 156], he was appointed privy councillor and gentleman of the bedchamber. He was the author of 6ome very curious " Memoirs of Affairs of State." b. about 1535 ; d. 1607. Melville, Andrew, a celebrated Scotch re- former, who, four years after the establishment of the Reformation in Scotland, left the uni- versity of St. Andrews, where he had acquired considerable proficiency in languages and philo- sophy, for that of Paris. After studying in France during five years, he went to Geneva, where he was appointed to the chair of Humanity in the Academy. In 1574 he returned to Scot- land, on which occasion Beza wrote a letter to the General Assembly, declaring that " Melville was equally distinguished for his piety and his erudition, and that the church of Geneva could not give a stronger proof of affection to her sister church of Scotland than by suffering her- self to be bereaved of him, that his native country might be enriched with his gifts." A» a writer, teacher, and reformer of the church of his native country, Melnlle soon displayed un- common ardour. The overturning of episcopacy and establishment of presbytery were the objects of his constant efforts. In 1580 he was appointed principal of St. Mary's College, in the university of St. Andrews, and there taught the Hebrew, Syriac, and Chaldee languages. His boldness giving offence to the Scottish court, he was cited before the privy council, which sentenced him to be imprisoned, and to be punished in his person and goods. On this he made his escape to London, where he remained for nearly two years. After James I. had ascended the English throne, he invited him to London ; but Melville, having written a short epigram in contempt of a rite of the English church, the privy council convicted him of gross scandal, and after a year's confinement in the houses of the dean of St. Paul's and the bishop of Westminster, he was sent to the Tower, where he remained nearly four years. In 1611 he was released, and went to the university of Sedan, whence he never again returned. M'Crie says of Melville : "Next to the Reformer, I know of no individual from whom Scotland has received such important services, or to whom she continues to owe so deep a debt of national respect and gratitude." b. 1545; r>. at Sedan, 1622. Melville, Henry Dundas, Viscount, the son of Lord Arnistone, a Scotch judge, and the friend and coadjutor of the younger Pitt, received his education at the university of Edin- burgh. In 1773 he became solicitor-general; and soon after was appointed to the offices of lord advocate, and joint keeper of the signet for Scotland. In 1782 he was made privy-councillor and treasurer of the navy ; and from that time took a leading part in all the measures of the Pitt administration. He was appointed presi- dent of the board of control at its formation ; in 1791, became secretary for the home depart- ment; and, in 1794, secretary of war, which latter post he held till Mr. Pitt's retirement from office. He was then created a viscount ; and when Mr. Pitt again became premier, Dundas was made first lord of the admiralty. In 1805 he was impeached by the Commons on a variety of charges of peculation, &c; and though he was acquitted of the alleged mal- versations, and only proved to have been negli gent of his duty with respect to his agents, he took no further part in public affairs. His ZZ 2 THE DICTIONARY Melville influence was for many years supreme in Scot- land, and he did not always wield his power with much consideration for opponents. In fact, his will was law, and the fiat of "the Dundases" was sufficient to repress all comment on public matters in that part of the country. A monument was, however, erected to Lord Mel- ville's memory in Edinburgh, b. 17-10; d. 1811. Melville, Herman, a modern American novelist, who, incited by passion for maritime adventure, in his eighteenth year went . on board ship as a common sailor. In 1811 he joined a whaling vessel, and went on a cruise. After eighteen months of that monotonous mode of life, he took advantage of the vessel putting into Noukahiva, to desert, in company with another young sailor. He gained the interior of the island, but was detained a prisoner during four months by a savage tribe. A vessel from Sydney having put. into the port, he succeeded in getting on board. He afterwards visited Ta- hiti and the Sandwich Islands, and, in 1843, returned to Boston, after four years of travel and adventure. In 1847 he married, and went to reside upon his farm in Berkshire, U.S. "Typce," the first work of this author, had an immense popularity, and in it was recounted in a delight- ful manner his adventures in the Marquesas Islands. In his next works, " Omoo," " Mardi," and "Redburn," the unknown regions of the Pacific Ocean were described with all his former vigour ; but his style became by degrees eccen- tric and unequal. "The White Jacket," "Peter," and " Israel Potter," were subsequently pro- duced, and were greeted with almost as much popularity as his first works. Mr. Melville also supplied a number of romances and sketches to the periodical literature of his country, b. at New York, 1819. Memling, Hans, mem'-ling, a celebrated painter and missal illuminator of the 15th cen- tury, of the circumstances of whose life very little that is authentic is known. He is said to have become an inmate of the hospital of St. John, at Bruges, in 1477, and to have therein painted the exquisite pictures which still adorn the establishment. His most celebrated works are the "History of St. Ursula," "The Mar- riage of St. Catharine," and " The Descent from the Cross." As a decorator of missals and church books, he was eminently successful; and the specimens of his art which have been preserved are accounted inestimable treasures. d. at the close of the 15th century. Mbmnon, mem -non, a Greek historian, who wrote an account of the rulers of Heraclia, of which fragments have been preserved by Pho- tius. They have also been translated into French by Gedoyn, and inserted in the fourth volume of the " Memoirs of the Academy of In- scriptions." Flourished in the 2nd century. Memnok, of the isle of Khodes, an able gene- ral of Darius, king of Persia, whom he advised to desolate his country, in order to impede the progress of Alexander the Great, and then to attack Macedon ; but this «ounsel was over- ruled by the other generals. After the battle of the Granicus, Memnon defended Miletus with vigour, took the isles of Chios and Lesbos, car- ried terror into Greece, and was near putting a stop to the conquests of Alexander, when he was carried off in the midst of his successes. His wife was taken prisoner with the family of Darius, and became the mistress of Alexander. p. at Mitylene, B.C. 333. 708 Mendoza Menander, me-nan'-der, a Greek comic poet, who was called the prince of new comedy, and preferred to Aristophanes. All his plays are lost ; but the six comedies of Terence were bor- rowed from him ; by which we may form some judgment of his excellence, b. 341 B.C. ; i>. 290 b.c. , Mendelssohn, Moses, men' -del-tone (which signifies Moses the son of Mendel), a learned German Jew. He was brought up for the pur- suits of commerce, but devoted himself to lite- rature, in which he attained a distinguished reputation. In 1755 he published his first piece, entitled " Jerusalem ;" in which he pretended that the principle of the Jewish religion is deism. His next work was " Phsedon ; or, a Discourse on the Spirituality and Immateriality of the Soul." In this excellent treatise" the principle of the immateriality of the soul was acutely maintained. On account of this book, the author gained the appellation of the Socrates of the Jews. He also wrote " Philosophical Works," " Letter to Lavater," " Commentary upon Ecclesiastes," and a translation of the first book of the Old Testament, b. 1729 ; d. 1786. MENDELSsoHN-BAKiiioLDY,Felix,aeelebrated German musician, was grandson of the preced- ing. As early as his 16th year, he distinguished himself as a pianist and musical composer. His first work was the opera entitled " The Wed- ding of Camacho ;" this was quickly followed by the overture to Shakspeare's " Midsummer Night's Dream." In 1829, having just com- pleted his 20th year, he made his first visit to England, where nis overture was played, and received with enthusiasm. Thenceforth, he paid an almost annual visit to this country, where he felt he was even more appreciated than in his native land. " St. Paul," his first oratorio, was composed for an English musical society, as was " Elijah," his third and best work of the same kind. His last visit to Eng- land took place in 1847, when he conducted his " Eiyah" at London, Birmingham, and Man- chester. In the same year, his health, which had been declining for some time, became very bad, and he went to reside in Switzerland ; but, although he appeared to derive considerable benefit from the mountain air, he was carried off by an affection of the brain, soon after his return to Leipsic. He left behind a large col- lection of musical manuscripts, portions of which were published. Mendelssohn's works embrace every department of the musician's art; and it is the firm conviction of the most competent critics, that his oratorios " St. Paul" and " Elijah" will live to charm and delight the world as long as the "Messiah" and the " Israel in Egypt" of the immortal Handel, b. at Hamburg, 1809 ; d. at Leipsic, 1847. Mendez, Moses, men'-des, an English poet, born in London of Jewish parentage, who re- ceived a liberal education at Oxford, and gradua- ted as M.A. in 1750. He wrote some very popu- lar musical entertainments, and several poems, which were published in one volume; and was the intimate friend of Thomson, d. 1758. Mendoza, Diego Hurtado, men-do '-tha, an eminent Spanish statesman and scholar, under Charles V., who distinguished himself as a soldier, diplomatist, geographer, historian, and poet. Charles V. intrusted him with several important missions, and, during six years, he held the military command of Tuscany. He made a noble collection of Greek and Arabic OF BIOGEAPHY. Menecrates manuscripts, and used all the resources of his wealth and power to advance learning. Under Philip II. he fell into disgrace, and was banished from the Spanish court ; but his leisure was occupied by the composition of his "War against the Moors," and in collecting upwards of 400 Arabic manuscripts. At his death he bequeathed his library to the king. b. at Granada, 1603 ; d. at Madrid, 1575. Menecbates, me-nek'-rai-tees, a Greek phy- sician, celebrated for his pride and vanity. He crowned himself like the master of the gods, and, in a letter which he wrote to Philip, king of Macedon, expressed himself thus: "Mene- crates Jupiter to King Philip, greeting." The Macedonian monarch replied, " Philip to Mene- crates, greeting and better sense." Philip once invited nim to his board ; but a separate table was set for the arrogant physician, served only with perfumes and frankincense, while before the other guests wa< placed good and sub- stantial cheer. Menecrates lived 360 b.c. Menedemus, men-ed'-e-mui, a Socratic philo- sopher, who was a native of Eretria. He was first a tent-maker, then a soldier, and lastly a disciple of Plato. He was called the Eretrian bull, on account of his grave and stolid look. d.301b.c. Menenius A gkippa.. (5e«AGBippA,Menenius.) Mengs, Anthony Raphael, mengs, a celebrated German painter, who studied under his father, painter to Augustus III., king of Poland, and subsequently greatly improved himself at Home. Charles III. of Spain invited him to his king- dom, and became his patron. Mengs formed his style after Kaffaelle, Correggio, and Titian. To his excellence as an artist, he added literary talent, and wrote several works in Italian; as, " The Life of Correggio," " Reflections on Beauty," and a treatise on " Taste in Painting," "On the Principal Pictures at Madrid," &c, which have been translated into English, with his life prefixed, b. at Aussig, Bohemia, 1728; d. at Home, 1779. Mennes, Sir John, mens, an English poet and wit of the 17th century, was a native of Sandwich, in Kent, and by profession a naval officer. He was knighted by Charles I., and obtained the post of comptroller of the navy, but was removed from his station during the civil war. At the Restoration, however, he regained his appointment, and attained to the rank of admiral. His poetical productions are comprised in a small volume, entitled " Musa- rum Deliciae." d. 1671. Mbnno, Simonis, or Simon, men'-no, chief of a sect which sprang up in Germany at the time of the Reformation, and which was called after his name, was originally a minister in Friesland, but left his parish, and, for a time, joined the Anabaptists. He gathered about him a number of disciples in Germany, Holland, and Flanders, maintained the necessity of rebaptism in adults, and denied that Jesus Christ received a human body from the Virgin. The Mennonites still continue a considerable sect in Holland, and are not to be confounded with the Anabaptists. A considerable amount of curious information relating to Menno and his followers is to be found in Mosheim's "Ecclesiastical History." ». 1606 ; d. in Holstcin, 1561. Menschikoff, Alexander, men' -ski-kof, a prince of the Russian empire, was the son of a peasant, and the servant of a pastry-cook, who employed him to cry pies about the streets. His appearance pleasing Peter the Great, be 700 Mercator took him into his service. Menschikoff soon insinuated himself into the confidence of his sovereign, who, in 1704, made him governor of Ingria, with the rank of major-general, and at length conferred on him the title of prince. In 1713 he was accused of peculation, and con- demned to pay a heavy fine, which the czar re- mitted, and restored him to favour. Under the Czarina Catharine he had still more power, and his daughter was married to Peter II., who made Menschikoff duke of Cozel, and grand master of the imperial hotel ; but, by the in- trigues of Dolgorousehki, mistress of the czar, he fell into disgrace, and was banished to his estate, where he lived in such magnificence that Peter was persuaded to send him, for his own safety, to Siberia, where he died in a poor hut, 1729. b. at Moscow, 1674. Menschikoff, Alexander Serjevitsch, Prince, a Russian admiral and general, was the grand- son of the preceding. He was at first attached to the embassy at Vienna ; but, becoming aide- de-camp to Alexanderl.,inl812, he shared in the military service of the period, and attained the grade of general. When Nicholas ascended the throne, he dispatched Menschikoff on a mission to Abbas-Mirza, shah of Persia, who, taking advantage of a revolt in the Russian army, sud- denly broke off the negotiations, and the am- bassador narrowly escaped death. In 1824 he commanded a division of the Russian army which took Anapa, and was afterwards severely wounded at the siege of Varna. In 1831 he was appointed governor of Finland, and in 1834 attained the rank of admiral. In 1853 the Czar Nicholas sent him to Turkey on an embassy relative to the holy places ; but his hauglitiness and obstinacy were little suited to further the end he had in view. In a short time he pre- sented his ultimatum ; his departure soon fol- lowed. The war with Russia was the result of this act, and when the allied forces landed in the Crimea, he was in the chief command of the Russian forces. Defeated at the Alma, he hastily fortified Sebastopol, and sank the Russian fleet at the entrance to the port. Shortly after the defeat at Inkermann, and the death of the Czar Nicholas, he fell ill, and was superseded in his command in the . Crimea by Prince Gortschakotf. A few months later he was, however, charged with the defence of Cron- stadt against the allied English and French fleets, in 1856 ho was recalled to occupy a position at the court of the emperor Alexander II. B. 1789; i). 1869. Mentok, men -tor, a Greek artist of the age of Pericles. He excelled in polishing cups and engraving flowers upon them. Menu, me-nu', a Hindoo legislator, and the supposed author of a code of laws and morality. This vast work, which is still extant, is written in verse, and in the Sanscrit language. Sir Wil- liam J ones translated it into EngKsh in 1796. The Hindoos consider Menu as the son of Brahma, and the first created man. There is no authen- tic date to be assigned for his birth, but the ode which is attributed to him is considered to be older than the Vedas, which latter were composed about the 11th or 12th century b.c. Mekcatob, Gerard, mer-kai'-tor, a celebrated geographer, who composed a Chronology, a greater and lesser Atlas, and "Geographical Tables ;" also " A Treatise on the Creation," &c. He was the first to represent the meri- dians by equidistant parallel lines, and the THE DICTIONARY Mercator parallels of longitude by lines at right angles with the meridian; whence the name Merca- tor's Projection, now employed in nautical maps. He engraved and coloured his own maps. B. in Flanders, 1512; d. 1594. Mercator, Nicholas, an eminent Danish mathematician, who settled in England, where he became fellow of the Royal Society, and pub- lished several valuable works on astronomy. b. 1640 ; r. about 1690. Mercirb, Louis Sebastien, mair'-te-ai, a celebrated French author, who wrote works in almost every department of literature. In 1781 he commenced his celebrated " Picture of Paris," wherein he dissected the social system of the , French capital with so much vigour and truth, that he judged it prudent to leave Paris and carry on the publication in Switzerland. So completely did this work exhibit the corruption and frivolities of French society, that its publi- cation has been claimed as one of the great pre- cursors of the French revolution. He returned to France after the revolution, and edited the "Patriotic Annals," a republican journal, but moderate intone, b. at Paris, 1740; n. 1814. Merian, Matthew, mer'-i-an, a German en- grayer, who set up a book and print business at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. Many of his engrav- ings were excellent. He published the " Topo- graphy of the Universe," in 31 volumes, b. at Basel,"l593; D. about 1650. Mekian, Matthew, an eminent German painter, chiefly of portraits, was son of the pre- ceding. As a student, he derived instruction from Sandrart, from Vandyck in London, from Le Sueur at Paris, and from Carlo Maratti at Rome. Although he produced some historical pieces, his fame chiefly rests upon his portraits. The emperor Leopold I. and some of the highest German princes and nobles sat to him. Upon the death of his father, he carried on his busi- ness, without, however, neglecting his profes- sional efforts, b. at Basel, 1621 ; d. 1687. M erian, Sibylla Maria, a celebrated natu- ralist, who excelled in drawing insects, flowers, and fruits, was sister of the painter, and daughter of the engraver, mentioned above. She became the wife of John Andriez Graft', a painter, in 1665 ; but her own name was so celebrated as an artist, that her husband's was prevented from being adopted. She painted flowers and insects after nature with scrupulous exactness, and, in 1699, undertook ii voyage to Surinam in order to make drawings of the insects of that country. Although her fame mainly rests upon her artistic performances, she was an excellent writer. Her principal work was, the "Origin ofCaterpillars; their Nourishment and Changes," which was afterwards enlarged by herself and daughters, and was reproduced in France by Marret, under the title of "Histoire Generale des Insectes de 1' Europe." She also wrote "Generation and Transformation of the Insects of Surinam." Both of these works were pub- lished in Pari., under the general title of" His- toire des Insectts de 1' Europe ctde l'Amerique," in 1771. Sir Hi as Sloane purchased many of her drawings foi \ considerable sum, and they are now containe I in the print department of the British Musei m. Several collections of her fine drawings are -ilso preserved at St. Peters- burg, in Holland, 'ind at Frankfort, b. at Frank- fort-on-the-Maine, 1647; D. at Amsterdam, 1717. Merimes, Pro; tier, mer'-e-mai, a modern French litterateur *yho was educated for the 710 Mersch profession of the law ; but after the revolution of 1830 obtained high employment under the cons% tutional government. In 1831 he was appointed to an inspectorship of the antiquities of France. The duties of his office caused him to make several archaeological tours throughout France, and the result was the publication of a number of illustrated works of considerable importance In 1844 he was elected a member of the French Academy. In addition to his archaeological labours, he wrote historical works, romances, and plays. His best-known historical studies were the " Jacquerie" and " Chronicle of the Reign of Charles IX." Of his novels, one be- came European in its popularity; — this was " Colomba," a wonderful picture of Corsican life and revenge. As a writer for the stage, he obtained onlv a small amount of success. b. at Paris, 1803; i>. 1870. Merlin, Ambrose, mer'-lin, a British writer, who lived about the year 480, and was regarded in his time as a magician and prophet. The idlest tales are told of him by some ancient writers; such as that he was engendered by an incubus, and that he conveyed by enchantment the stupendous stones on Salisbury Plain from Ireland. There also pass under his name some extravagant predictions. Near Carmarthen is a mount called Merlin's Hill, beneath which traditon relates that he was buried. Merov^us, mer-o-ie'-us, king of France, suc- ceeded Clodion in 448, and defeated Attila in 451. He is said to have extended the bounds of his kingdom to Treves, which city he took and plundered. He began the race of French kings called Merovingian, b. about 411 ; d. 458. Merrick, James, mer'-rik, an English divine and poet, termed by Lowth one of the best of men and most eminent of scholars. He pub- lished a translation of Tryphiodorus' " Capture of Troy," and poems on sacred subjects; but his principal performance is a version of the Psalms, with annotations. B.1720; d. 1769. Merry, Hobert, mer'-re, a dramatic writer, was the son of a London merchant, and received his education at Harrow and at Christ's Col- lege, Cambridge, after which he entered at Lincoln's Inn; but, abandoning legal study, bought a commission in the Guards, which ser- vice he also quitted, and went abroad. He be- came a member of the Delia Cruscan Academy at Florence, and affixed that signature to a number of poems, which appeared in the Eng- lish newspapers, and became the object of the satire of Gifl'ord, in his " liaviad" and " Marviad." In 1791 Merry married Miss Brunton, an actress, with whom he went to America, where he died. His dramatic compositions are, " Lorenzo," a tragedy; "The Magician no Conjuror," " l"6- nelon," and "Ambitious Vengeance." b. 1755; D. 1798. Mehsch, John Andrew van dcr, mairsli, tl, famous leader of the Brabant patriots in , i78'.- entered the French service, in. which he acquired the title of "The Brave Fleming." He after- wards served in the Austrian army, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. By a serie? of successful operations agamst the imperial troopi in the Netherlands, Ghent and Brussels fell into his hands, and the chief command of the Bel- gian troops was intrusted to him. Through party intrigue, however, he was removed from his command, and thrown into prison, where he remained until the Austrians recovered pos- session of the country, d. 1792. OF BIOGRAPHY. Mersenne Mersenne, Marin, mait-sen', an eminent French mathematician, who in 1615 was ap- pointed professor of philosophy at Nevers. After resigning this office, as well as that of superior of the convent in which he lived, he travelled in Italy, Germany, and the Nether- lands. He subsequently took up his final resi- dence at Paris. His chief work was " Harmonie L'niverselle," which contains a variety of useful iniormation connected with the science of music, b. 1588 ; d. at Paris, 1648. Mertoit, Walter de, mer'-ton, a learned and munificent prelate of the 13th century, and founder of the college which bears his name at Oxford, was born at Merton, in Surrey, and educated at the convent of that place. After obtaining several preferments, he became lord chancellor in 1253 ; was deprived of the seal the same year by the barons, but restored to it in 1201, and in 1274 consecrated bishop of Roches- ter, d. 1277. Mesmeb, Frederick Antony, mes'-mer, a cele- brated German physician, who first propagated the doctrines of animal magnetism, long called Mesmerism, after his name. In 1766 he took the degree of M.D. at the university of Vienna, and wrote a treatise on the " Influence of the Planets upon the Human Body." In conjunc- tion with Father Hell, a Jesuit and professor of astronomy at Vienna, Mesmer, in 1772, engaged in a series of investigations relative to the in- fluence of the loadstone in curing disease. They achieved what they termed an " extraor- dinary success;" but Hell having published a work in which he declared Mesmer to be only a physician who had been employed by him to practically test the new discovery, the latter engaged in a violent controversy with his rival. All the scientific men of Vienna, however, sided with Hell, and Mesmer, who was pronounced to be an impostor, was obliged to quit the city. He visited several parts of Germany and Swit- zerland, everywhere working astonishing cures, and, in 1778, reached Paris, where he speedily became the most popular professor of the heal- ing art in the French capital. Thousands of people, from peer to peasant, flocked to his apartments for the purpose of being " mesme- rized." In a short time, however, he found a rival in a French physician, who embraced his doctrine, and practised it with each success as to gain £100,000 in fees from his patients. Mesmer declared that he was ruined, and ap- plied to the government to grant him " a cha- teau and its lands, where he might be enabled to continue his treatment at leisure, and inde- pendently of persecution." The French govern- ment would not comply with this request, but Mesmer was offered a very large sum, on condi- tion that he would permit certain individuals named by government to witness his proceed- ings, and report thereon. He soon afterwards left France and settled at Spa, whither a crowd of wealthy patients followed him. A subscrip- tion was subsequently entered into for his benefit, and the sum of £14,000 was raised. With this money Mesmer returned to Paris, and again commenced his public treatment ; but those persons who had conducted the subscrip- tion having set up a society for gratuitously practising animal magnetism, Mesmer, finding no more money was to be got out of his disco- very, left France, and repaired to England, where he lived under an assumed name. He subsequently returned to his native country, 711 Metcalfe where he occupied himself in the composition of a new work upon his discovery. Mesmer"s principal works were " Memoirs on the Disco- very of Animal Magnetism," and "Collection of Facts and Documents relative to Animal Magnetism. "B.atMarsburg,Baden,1734;D. 1815. Messaliita, Valeria, men-ea-le'-na, wife of the emperor Claudius, was of a most libidin- ous character, and committed adultery with all the officers of her court. Having been repu- diated by Claudius, she espoused her favourite, Silius, who was put to death with her, by order of the emperor, ad. 46. She was as cruel as she was debauched, and caused many distin- guished Romans to be put to death.— There was another of the same name, who was the third wife of Nero, after her first husband, Atticus, had been put to death by that tyrant. On the death of Nero, she devoted the remainder of her days to study, and acquired a great re- putation. Mestok, William, mes'-ton, a burlesque poet, was educated at Aberdeen University, where he became professor of philosophy in Marischal college. He was an accomplished scholar and mathematician ; but is best known by his bur- lesque poems called "Mother Grim's Tales." B. 16S8 ; D. 1745. Metastasio, the Abbe Peter Bonaventure, ma'-tas-ta'-se-o, an eminent Italian poet, who early displayed a genius for poetry, and wrote verses at the age of six years ; and was only fourteen when he composed his tragedy, "II Giustino." A celebrated lawyer and critic, named Gravina, was his instructor, and made him his heir when he died. In 1724 Metastasio pro- duced his play of " Dido," acted at Naples, with the music of Sarro. The success of this piece stimulated him to follow up the same career ; and, in i729, the emperor Charles VI. invited him to Vienna, where he gave him a large pen- sion. The empress Maria Theresa bestowed upon him magnificent presents, as also did Ferdinand VI., king of Spain. The emperor offered him a patent of nobility, and the empress the order of St. Stephen ; but he declined both. He wrote a great number of operas and other dramatic pieces, which are highly admired in his native country, b. at Rome, 1698; d. at Vienna, 1782. InEngland he is chiefly known as the author of the libretti of several operas, such as " Artaserse," " La Clemenza di Tito," and " Semiramide." METCALFE,CharlesTheophilus, hoid,met'-kqf, a distinguished British colonial statesman, at the age of fifteen was sent out to India as a cadet in the Company's service, where, for seven years he tilled various offices, and in 1803 was selected by Lord Minto to take charge of a diffi- cult mission to the court of Lahore, the object of which was to secure the Sikh states, between the Sutlej and Jumna rivers, from the grasp of Runjeet Singh. In this he fully succeeded, tho treaty being concluded in 1809. He subsequently filled several other high offices of trust ; and, in 1835, upon Lord W. Bentinek's resignation, wai provisionally appointed governor-general, which olficc he held until Lord Auckland's arrival, in the year following. During this short period he effected many bold and popular reforms, not the least of which was the liberation of the press of India from all restrictions. This, how- ever, giving umbrage to the directors, caused his resignation, and return to Europe, when he was appointed governor of Jamaica— the difficult THE DICTIONARY Metelli duties of which (the emancipation of the negroes having but recently occurred) he discharged to the satisfaction both of the government and the colonists. After two years' residence, the climate proved so unfavourable to his health, that he was compelled to resign; but was shortly afterwards selected to undertake the government of Canada. In this important post, his judgment, firmness, and general states- manlike qualities were most advantageously exerted; and he was raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Metcalfe. His health, how- ever, was greatly impaired by long service in such widely different climates as India and Canada, and in 1845 he once more returned to his native country, but did not long survive. b. in Berkshire, 1785 ; d. 1846. Metelli, Augustin, mai-tai'-le, an eminent painter, who excelled in painting perspective and architecture; and, in conjunction with Michael Angelo, produced several great works. b. at Bologna, 1609; d. at Madrid, 1660. Mbtellus, Q. Caecilius, me-tel'-ug, an illustri- ous Roman, who distinguished himself against Jugurtha, king of Numidia (b.c. 109), and thence acquired the name of Numidicus. Metius, James, me'-te-ut, a native of North Holland, who is said by Descartes to have been the inventor of the refracting telescope. About the beginning of the 17th century, this in- dividual, " while one day amusing himself with a few burning-glasses, after looking through them singly, began to look through them by pairs, placing one at each extremity of a short tube. In this way a convex and concave lens happening to be employed together, the first refracting telescope is said to have been con- structed." Barlow, in his " History of Optics," however, declares that the refracting telescope must have been known in England at a much earlier date. Metius lived in the 17th century. Meton, me' -ton, an Athenian mathematician who invented what is called in chronology the golden number. Flourished 432 b.c. Mkteodokus, met-ro-dor'-zm, a disciple of Democritus, and the master of Anaxarchus and Hippocrates. He was a physician of Chios, and maintained that the matter of the universe is eternal. Flourished -144 b. c. Mettebkich, Clement Wenceslas, Prince, met'-ter-nik, a celebrated German diplomatist. His ancestors had been distinguished in the wars of the empire against the Turks, and his father, Count Metternich, had obtained some distinction as a diplomatist, and as the asso- ciate of Kaunitz. At the age of fifteen, he entered the university of Strasburg, and, two years afterwards, removed to Mayence, to com- plete his studies. In 1790 he made his first appearance as master of the ceremonies at the coronation of the emperor Leopold II. ; and, in 1794, after a short visit to England, was attached to the Austrian embassy at the Hague, in the following year marrying the heiress of his father's friend Kaunitz. AH this time he was serving his apprenticeship in diplomacy. He first came into notice at the congress of Rastadt, where he represented the Westphalian nobility, after which he accompanied Count Stadion to St. Petersburg; was, in 1801, appointed minister at the court of Dresden ; then, in 1804, pro- ceeded as ambassador to Berlin, where he took a leading part in forming the well-known coali- tion which was dissolved by the battle of Aus- teilitz. After the neace of Presburg. he became 712 Meulen Austrian minister at the court of Napoleon. The rise of the young ambassador had been un- usually rapid, and the French emperor greeted him with the remark, " You are very young to represent so powerful a monarchy ;" " Youi majesty was not older at Austerlitz," replied Metternich, with all the address of a courtier. When war broke out, in 1809, he returned to the Austrian court, then about to seek refuge in the fortress of Comoro, and was appointed minister of foreign affairs. It was during his tenure of office, that He struck out the idea of a marriage between Napoleon and an Austrian archduchess. Napoleon was divorced from Jo- sephine, and Maria-Louisa was escorted by Met- ternich to Paris. But Austria had only adopted this course as an expedient, and, after the French defeat in Russia, again declared war against France. The grand alliance was signed at Toplitz in the same year, and Metternich was, upon the spot, created a prince of the empire. He took a very prominent part in the subsequent conferences and treaties, and signed the treaty of Paris on behalf of Austria. He afterwards paid a visit to England, and received the honour of a doctor's degree from the university of Oxford. Upon the opening of the congress of Vienna, he was chosen pre- sident. With the continental statesmen, the war against Napoleon was also a war against revolutionary principles. England, however, fought not against principles, but for self-pre- servation. What the potentates of the conti- nent desired quite as much as the putting down of Napoleon, was the extinction of revolution. This was the aim of that "Holy Alliance" which has been the object of merited oblo- quy, and of which Metternich was the pre- siding genius. In 1822, when Canning assumed the direction of the Foreign Office, England entered an indignant protest against this in- famous compact. After the French revolution of 1830, the emperor Francis exclaimed, " All is lost ;" Metternich, however, thought otherwise. When Pius IX. ascended the papal throne, in 1846, his professions aroused all Italy, and Aus- trian influence was shaken throughout the peninsula. The French revolution followed, and half the thrones of Europe were emptied of their occupants. At Vienna the shock was also felt ; the government fell, in spite of the resist- ance of Metternich, who maintained his state policy to the last. To calm the people, the old diplomatist was asked to resign : he answered, "I will not resign, gentlemen; I will not re- sign." The archduke John, without replying to Metternich, simply repeated his former state- ment ; " I have already told you, Prince Met- ternich, resign." " What ! is this the return I get for my fifty years' services ?" he said, and the next day left the city with an escort of cavalry. He went to England, where he re- mained some time. In 1851 he again appeared at the Austrian court ; but the old diplomatist was never again requested to undertake office ; Ms power was really gone. Renowned rather than great, — venerated more for his age than for power, — admired, but not lamented, the old statesman passed away. b. 1773 ; d. 1859. M evleh, Anthony Francis van der, me(r) '-len, a celebrated painter, who always accompanied Louis XIV. on his campaigns, the incidents of which he perpetuated with his brush. In draw- ing the horse, he was without an equal in his time. b. at Brussels, 1634; d. 1690. OF BIOGRAPHY. Meyer Meter, Jeremiah, mi'-er, a miniature pain- ter, a native of Tubingen, who went to England in 1749, with his father, a portrait painter, who plaeeS him under Zincke, the eminent painter in enamel, but he soon surpassed him. In 1761, the Society of Arts having offered a premium for the best drawing of a profile of the king, the prize was gained by Meyer ; and he was after- wards appointed painter in enamel to their majesties, and was one of the founders of the Royal Academy, b. 1735; J). 1789. Meterbeee, Giaeomo, mi'-er-bair, a cele- brated composer, of Hebrew descent, who came of a wealthy family, and was the schoolfellow of Carl Maria von Weber. His first dramatic piece, " Jephtha's Daughter," was produced at Berlin when he was only 18 years of age. His style was formed upon the Italian models. His best operas were " Semiramide," " Robert le Diable," "Les Huguenots," "Le Prophete," " L'EtoileduNord,"and " Dinorah." Another opera, entitled " L'Afrieaine," was produced in 1865, after his death, b. at Berlin, 1794 ; d. 1864. MKTRicK.SirSamuel B.ush,mer'-rik,an eminent antiquary, whose chief works were " Arms and Armour," " Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands," and " A Critical Enquiry into Ancient Armour, as it existed in Europe, but more particularly in England, from the Norman Conquest to the Reign of Charles II." B. 1783; d. 1848. Mezerai, Francois Eudes de, mez'-e-rai, an eminent French historian, who was educated at the university of Caen; on leaving which, he obtained a military employment, and served two or three campaigns in Flanders. Having aban- doned the army, he projected the " History of France," while writing which he was liberally encouraged by Cardinal Richelieu; and on its completion in 1651, obtained a pension from the king. He was also admitted a member of the Academy, and had a principal share in the compilation of their dictionary. Besides his " History of France," and an abridgment, he wrote a treatise on the " Origin of the French," a continuation of the " History of the Turks," several satires against the ministry, " History of a Mother and Son," &c.. b. 1610; d. 1683. Mezzofanti, Joseph Caspar, met-so-fan'-te, a celebrated linguist, was the son of a carpenter, and was intended for the same trade ; but being taken under the patronage of Father Respighi, was sent to the university of Bologna, where he so distinguished himself, that at the age of 22 he was appointed professor of Arabic. At that period he was master of the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Spanish, French, German, and Swedish languages. During the war of which northern Italy was so long the field, Mezzofanti came into contact with soldiers of the Austrian, Russian, and French armies, and always turned the opportunity such meetings afforded him of studying the modern languages to the best account. In 1812, he became assistant, and in 1815, chief librarian of his university; and every traveller through Bologna made a point of seeing the great linguist. Lord Byron, when he visited the place, called him "a walking polyglot, a monster of languages, and a Briareus of parts of speech." In 1822, according to Lady Morgan, he spoke forty languages. Although he had received many nattering offers to take up his residence in Paris, Vienna, and Rome, it was not until 1831 that he was induced to settle in the last-named city. After being appointed to Michael some minor posts, he was nominated keeper of the Vatican library, retaining the post until the year 1838, when he was created a cardinal. Mezzofanti, although incomparably the greatest linguist that ever lived, left no works, philo- logical or otherwise, to perpetuate his fame; and notwithstanding his ability to express him- self in fifty-six different languages, and his acquaintance with sixty-four others, he wrote nothing of importance relative to any one of them. b. at Bologna, 1774; d. at Rome, 1849. Michael I., mi'-kel, emperor of the East, suc- ceeded to the throne on the death of btauiM- chius, in 811. He was a great prince, and the father of his people; but was deposed by Leo the Armenian, his general, in 813. He then retired to a monastery, where he spent the remainder of his days in devotion. Michael II. was born in Upper Phrygia, of an obscure family; but was ennobled by Leo the Armenian. That monarch afterwards sent him to prison, and condemned him to death ; but the night previous to his intended execu- tion, Leo was assassinated, and Michael placed on the throne, a.d. 820. He endeavoured to force his subjects to celebrate the Jewish sab- bath and passover, and was guilty of great cruelties; on which his general, Euphemius, revolted, and proclaimed himself emperor ; but was slain near Syracuse in Sicily, d. 829. Michael III. succeeded his father Theo- philus, in 842, under the regency of his mother Theodora, whom he compelled to enter a mo- nastery with her daughters. He at first asso- ciated Bardas, his uncle, with himself in the empire, and, at his instigation, sent St. Igna- tius, patriarch of Constantinople, into exile. Michael afterwards put Bardas to death, and elevated Basil the Macedonian to the title of Caesar, by whom he was assassinated in 867. Michael IV., usually styled the Paphla- gonian, from the country where he was born, of obscure parentage, obtained the imperial throne in 1034, through the influence of the empressZoe, who.having fallen in love with him, murdered her husband, Romanus Argyropulus, to obtain her wishes. Michael made war, with. success, against the Saracens and Bulgarians ; and afterwards retired to a monastery, where he died in 1041. Michael V. succeeded his uncle, the preced- ing emperor, in 1041, after having been adopted by the empress Zoc, whom he exiled a few months afterwards, which so irritated the people, that they deprived him of his eyes and sent him to a monastery. Zoe and her sister Theodora then reigned in conjunction. Michael VI., or the Warrior, reigned after the empress Theodora, in 1056 ; but, the year following, was compelled to relinquish the sceptre to Isaac Comnenus; on which Michael retired to a monastery. Michael VII. was the eldest son of Constantino Ducas and of Eudocia. That princess, a few months after the death of her husband, married Diogenes, a Roman, whom she caused to be proclaimed emperor ; but, in 1071, the usurper was taken prisoner by the Turks, and Michael regained the throne. In 1078, Nicephorus took Constantinople by the aid of the Turks, and Michael was obliged to retire to a monastery. He afterwards took orders, and became archbishop of Ephesus. Michael VIII., surnamed Palreologus, was re- gent of the empire daring the minority of John t&E DlCTIONAitY Michael Angelo Lascaris, whom he deprived of his throne and his eyes, in 1260. The year following, he retook Constantinople. He signed an act for effecting a union between the Greek and Latin churches, which, however, did not succeed. Pope Martin IV. excommunicated him, as the supporter of heresy and schism, d. 1232. — From the termi- nation of the short reign of Isaac II , in 1201 until 1261, the seat of the Eastern empire uuder its Greek princes was at Nice. Michael Angelo Buonarotti, an'-jai-lo bo-na-rof-te, a celebrated Italian painter, sculp- tor, and architect, was born of an ancient Tuscan family, and evinced, from his earliest youth, the greatest talent for art. He was placed under the tuition of Doracnichino and Ghirlandajo, the two most celebrated artists of the time; but quitted them at the age of fifteen years, having already acquired all that they could teach him. Lorenzo de' Medici soon afterwards as- signed him apartments in his palace, and treated him as if he were his own son. At the death of his magnificent patron, his fame was estab- lished. Pope Julius Ii. invited him to settle at Rome, where Michael Angelo carved the mau- soleum of that pontiff; he also painted in fresco the ceiling of the Sistine chapel, and was, in succession, the favourite artist with three popes, — Leo X., Paul III., and Julius III. Atthe age of forty, he turned his attention to archi- tecture, and constructed jone of the grandest examples of that art, — the cupola of St. Peter's. Michael Angelo's commanding genius has never been contested : all place him in the first rank as painter, sculptor, and architect. At Mantua there is a "Sleeping Cupid," and at Rome a " Bacchus," which Raffaelle said were worthy of Phidias or Praxiteles. His " Last Judgment" remains a marvellous proof of his great genius as a painter. Beauties and excellences of all kinds are to be seen in his works ; but his man- ner was sometimes exaggerated, — a defect which may be pardoned in one who was ever seeking to attain the sublime in art. He was the author of some sonnets, b. 1475 ; d. 1564. Michaelis, John David, m if -ai-lis, a learned orientalist and biblical critic, was born at Halle, in Saxony, and there educated. He visited England, and for a time was preacher at the German chapel, St. James's palace; and on his return to Germany was made professor of theology at Gottingcn; was honoured with the order of the Polar btar, conferred on him by the king of Sweden ; and was made an aulic coun- cillor of Hanover. Among the most valuable of his works are his "Introduction to the New Testament," translated into English by Bishop Marsh, and his "Commentaries on the Law of Moses." b. 1717; d. 1791. Michaud, Joseph, me'-sho, a French his- torian, who was a member of the Institute under the first empire, and celebrated, in verse, the marriage of Napoleon and the birth of the king of Home. Under the restoration he acted as newspaper censor. His principal works were, " History of the Crusades," and " History of the Hundred Days." u. in Savoy, 1767; d. 1339. MicnKi.ET, Jules, me'-she-hii, an eminent modem French historian, who, in 182G, was appointed teacher of history and langur ges at the College llollin. He commenced his literary career by the composition of several elemen- tary works on the study of history, which, ob- taining considerable popularity, attracted the attention of the government towards him as a 714 Middleton writer of research. He received the appoint- V ment of chief officer in the historical depart- ment of the French Archives, and was soon afterwards selected by Guizut to continue the latter's lectures on history to the Faculty of Literature. In 1838 he'was appointed professoi of history in the College of France. In 1845-46 considerable attention was directed towaids two works of this author, translations of which appeared in England, under the titles, " The People," and " Priests, Women, and Families." In consequence of the attacks made in these works upon the ecclesiastical party, Guizot, the prime minister, interdicted his lectures. In 1847 he co nmenced his " History of the Freneh Revolution ;" upon which, and the " History of France," he was for several years engaged. His latest works are " The Bird," " The Insect," " The Sorcerer," and two small treatises on social questions, b. at Paris, 179S; d. 1874. Mickle, William Julius, miU-el, a poet, born at Langholm, in Dumfriesshire, was first engaged in business as a brewer ; but not suc- ceeding, went to London, and devoted him- self to literature. In 1765 he was employed as corrector of the press in the Clarendon printing- office at Oxford, where he published a poem, called " The Concubine," in imitation of Spenser, which he afterwards republished under the title of " Sir Martyn." His principal produc- tion, a translation of " The Lusiad" of Camoens, appeared in 1775 ; prefixed to which is a histo- rical and critical Introduction, with a life of Camoens. He was also the author of many of the finest pieces in Evans's " Old Ballads ;" and in 1778 accompanied his friend Commodore Johnstone on a mission to Lisbon as secretary. B. 1734; D. 1788. Middleton, William, mid'-el-ton, a Welsh poet, 6oldier, and sailor, was born at Gwenynog, Denbighshire, served in the armies of Queen Elizabeth, and afterwards commanded a ship of war. He wrote a paraphrase of the Book of Psalms in Welsh verse, and was also the author of the " Art of Poetry." d. 1595. Middleton, Thomas, an English dramatic author, who wrote in conjunction with Jonson, Fletcher, and Massinger. Three of his plays, — "A Mad World, my Masters," "The Mayor of Queenborough," and " The Roaring Girl," — are included in Dodsley's collection of old plays. These were his bestworks ; but there are many others by him. d. about 1026. Middleton, or Mtudleton, Sir Hugh, a wealthy citizen and goldsmith of London, who, in 1606, offered, at his own cost, to supply Lon- don with pure water, liis proposal being ac- cepted, he commenced what he termed the " New River," selecting the Chadwell and Amwell springs at Ware, in Hertfordshire, as the sources thereof. The river had a course of 37 miles, aud its projector had stipulated to complete it in four years ; but the mechanical appliances of that day not proving equal to such a speedy accomplishment of the work, and Middleton's fortune being, moreover, exhausted, he applied to his fellow-citizens for assistance. Meeting with no response, he petitioned James I., who entered into an agreement with him to pay half the present or prospective expenses, on condition of being entitled to half the pro- perty. In little more than a year the great work was completed, and on the 29th of Septem- ber, 1613, the water of the New River entered a reservoir prepared for its reception at Sadlers OF BIOGRAPHY. Middleton Wells, near Pentonville. The work had occu- pied five years and five months in its execution, and had cost £500,000. There was no dividend, however, for nineteen, years, and then only one under J612. Meanwhile Middleton had been , knighted, but had been compelled to sell his shares, and made a profession of what is now termed civil engineering. In acknowledgment of his services, he was created a barouet in 1622. These services were set forth as follows : — " For bringing to the city of London, with excessive charge and greater difficulty, a new cut, or river of fresh water, to the great benefit and inestimable preservation thereof. 2. For gain- ing a very great and spacious quantity of land, in Brading Haven, in the Isle of Wight, out of the bowelles of the sea ; and, with banks and pyles, and most strange defensible and charge- able mountains, fortify ing the same against the violence and fury of the waves," &e. In 1636, Charles I. made over to Sir Hugh the whole of his father's shares in the New Kiver for a yearly rent of JE500. b. date unknown; d. about 1640. Middlf.tox, Conyers, a celebrated English divine and critic, received his academical edu- cation at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he was chosen fellow in 1706. In 1717 he was created D.D., on which occasion he resisted the claim of Dr. Bentley, regius professor, to ex- orbitant fees. This occasioned a lawsuit, in which Middleton triumphed. A personal enmity was the consequence of this affair; and when Bentley printed his proposals for a new edition of the Greek Testament, Middleton attacked them with such force that the design was aban- doned. In 1724 he spent some time in Italy, and on his return published his famous " Letter from Rome," showing that the religious rites of the Koman Church were drawn from the heathens. An attack on Dr. Waierland's " Vin- dication of the Scripture," in 1731, drew upon Middleton the charge of infidelity, and he nar- rowly escaped academical censure. In 1741 ap- peared his " Life of Cicero," a very curious and valuable work, and highly necessary towards formingajust idea of the character and writings of thut great man, as well as exhibiting an exact picture of the Roman republic in his time. In 1/43 he published the Epistles of Cicero to Bru- tus and those of Brutus to Cicero, in Latin and English, with a vindication of their authenticity. In 1749 appeared his "Inquiry into the Miracu- lous Powers supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church, from the earliest ages." This work gave great alarm to the clergy, and nu- merous answers were written to it. In 1752 ap- peared an edition of all his works, with the exception of the " Life of Cicero." Dr. Middle- ton's style is admirable, and his learning was profound and multifarious, b. 1683; d. 1750. Mibris, Francis, meer'-is, called the Elder, a celebrated Dutch painter, was the disciple of Gerard Douw, whose manner he imitated. His pictures are very valuable, b. at Leyden, 1G35; i). 1681.— He had a son, William Micris, called the Younger, who was a good landscape-painter, and a modeller in clay and wax. b. at Leyden, 1062; n. 1747. — Hits grandson Francis was also an artist in the same line. n. 1089 ; d. 1763. Migwabd, Peter, meen'-yard, called the Ro- man, from his long residence in Rome, was the favourite artist of Louis XIV., whose portrait he painted ten times. He also adorned the palaces of St. (loud and Versailles, and was ennobled by Louis, b. 1610 j D. 1695. 716 Mill Mignet, Francis Augustus Alexis, meen'- jrai, a modern French historian, who was edu- cated for the legal profession at Aix, hut re- moved to Paris.where he lodged with M. Thiers, and in 1824 produced, when only 28 years of age, his " History of the French Revolution, from 1789 to 1814." He was afterwards extensively employed as a journalist, and was associated with Armand Carrel and Thiers in conducting the " National." After the revolution of 1830, he was appointed director of the archives in the foreign ministerial department, which office he vacated in 1848. His principal works are, " History of Mary Stuart," "Charles V.," "Ne- gotiations relative to the Spanish Succession under Louis XIV.," and several treatises on Moral and Political Science. B. at Aix, 1796. Mildmat, Sir Walter, mild'-may, a statesman of great integrity, who filled several situations under the Tudors. Under Henry VIII. he was employed in the court of augmentation; under Edward VI. he had an office in the mint; in queen Mary's reign he sat in Parliament as member for Cumberland ; and in Elizabeth's, he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer, an office which he held for 23 years, and discharged with zeal and impartiality. He was the founder of Emanuel College, Cambridge, d. 1589. Milhousb, Robert, mil'-koos, by trade a weaver, possessed much of the poet's power as well as of the poet's feeling. His " Vicissitude" and " Sherwood Forest " contain passages of which any poet might be proud ; but are greatly marred by a melancholy and querulous tone. His productions made him many generous friends ; and though not rich, he escaped from the sufferings attendant on genius in poverty. Shortly before his death he published " The Destinies of Man," a poem in two parts, which contains several beautiful passages, d. 1839. Mill, John, mil, a learned divine and biblical critic, was born at Shap, in Westmoreland; received his education at Queen's Collcgf, Ox- ford; became rector of Bletchingdon, in Oxford- shire, prebendary of Canterbury, and chaplain in ordinary to Charles II. He was employed 30 years in preparing a valuable edition of the Greek Testament, with various readings, a- mounting in number, it is said, to upwards of 30,O(>0. B . 1645; d. 1707. Mill, James, an eminent historian, who, after receiving some education at the grammar-school of Montrose, and continuinsr it in the house of Sir John Stuart, M.P. for Kincardineshire, was sent to the University of Edinburgh to study for the Church. After distinguishing himself as a Greek scholar, he obtained a license to preach in 1798; but, changing his views, he, two years afterwards, went to London with Sir John Stuart. For some time he supported him- self by means of the " Literary Journal;" and, on the discontinuance of that print, was en- gaged to write for others, and occasionally con- tributed to the " Edinburgh Review." He com- menced his " History of British India" in 1806, and completed it in 1818. This great work was much decried at one time. Maeaulay wrote bit- terly against both it and its author, but re- tracted his censures at a later period. The knowledge and ability displayed in the course of this history, led to bis being employed as head of the Correspondence Department of the East India Company. Besides his great work on India, Mr. Mill contributed articles on Education, Government, Jurisprudence, Law of THE DICTIONARY Mill Nations, Liberty of the Press, &c., to the " En- cyclopaedia Rritannica." In 1822 he published ""The Elements of Political Economy," and, seven years subsequently, " The Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind." His latest efforts were the "Fragment on Macintosh," and the articles on " The Formation of Opinions" and "The Ballot," in the "Westminster Be- view." b. at Montrose, 1773 ; d. 1836. Mill, John Stuart, an eminent writer on po- litical economy, the son of the preceding, was at an early age appointed to a clerkship in the East India House, and rose to the grade of exa- miner of Indian correspondence, the post for- merly held by his father. His first literary efforts appeared in the form of contributions to the Westminster and Edinburgh Beviews; but the work which made him generally known was his " System of Logic, Katiocinative and Inductive," the first edition of which was pub- lished in 1843. The practical portion of this work was, says its author, "an attempt to contribute something towards the solution of a question which the decay of old opinions and the agitation that disturbs European society to its inmost depth, render as important in the piesent day, to the practical interests of human life, as it must at all times be to the complete- ness of our speculative knowledge." His next work was the "Essays on some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy," in 1844. The more extensive " Principles of Political Eco- nomy " succeeded this in 1861. Among his other works may be named "An Essay on Liberty," and " Thoughts on Parliamentary Beform," produced in 1859; "Considerations on Bepresentative Government," in 1861 ; and an " Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy," in 1865. He was one of the mem- bers for the city of Westminster from 1SC5 to 1868. b. 1806; n. 1873. Millais, John Everett, mil'-lais, an eminent English painter, and the acknowledged head of that body of innovators in modern art termed the " Pre-Baffaellite" school, or, as it was for- merly called, the " Pre-Baffaellite Brother- hood." A student of drawing from a very early period, he entered the Boyal Academy school, and, by the time he had reached his nineteenth year, had carried off all the honours to be gained in that probationary sphere. With Wil- liam Holman Hunt (see Hunt) and others, he assisted in founding the "Brotherhood" men- tioned above, and, in 1849, exhibited his first picture in the new style, which was afterwards to become celebrated. The picture was not named, but was a representation of the child Jesus in the shop of his reputed father, Joseph the carpenter. This picture shadowed forth all the great qualities, no less than the defects, of the painter. It was harsh, uncouth, and medi- teval in its drawing and perspective ; but it was full of thought, invention, richness of colour, and displayed great power over pencil and brush. Year after year Mr. Millais departed further from his old manner, and ultimately became one of the best of modern English Eainters. Most people are acquainted with his eautiful works, called, resftectively, " The Huguenot," " The Proscribed Koyalist," " The Order of Eelease," and " Autumn Leaves." He likewise drew a number of illustrations to books, short tales, and sketches. He became A.B.A. in 1853, andB.A. in 1863. b. at South- unpton, 1829. 718 Miller Millar, John, mil'-lar, a learned writer, was born at Shotts, in Lanarkshire, and educated at Glasgow, where, by the interest of Lord Kames, in whose family he had been a tutor, he obtained, in 1761, the professorship of law, which he held for nearly forty years. He was the author of " The Origin of the Distinction of Banks in Society" and " An Historical View of the English Government." b. 1735; d. 1801. ■ Milleb, Joseph, mit-ler, a witty actor, who was a favourite low comedian about the time that Congreve's plays were fashionable, to the success of which, it is said, his humour greatly contributed. The compilation called " Joe Miller's Jests" was the work of John Motley ; but Miller's name has not only been used to pass off the original stock, but thousands of other jokes and witticisms manufactured long after the bones of Joe were deposited in the churchyard of St. Clements, Strand ; where a stone still exists, with an epitaph written by his friend, Stephen Duck. b. 1684; d. 1738. Miller, James, a political and dramatic writer, received his education at Wadham Col- lege, Oxford ; and while at the university, wrote a satiric piece, called " The Humours of Ox- ford," which created him many enemies, and hindered his preferment. He also published several political pamphlets against Sir Bobert Walpole : and also some plays, the principal of which is the tragedy of "Mahomet." b. in Dorsetshire, 1703 ; d. 1744. Milleb, Edward, Mus. Doc., was the son of a pavior at Norwich, and bred to the sime business ; but having a dislike to it, he ran away, and became a pupil of Dr. Burney, who was then resident at Lynn. In 1756 he became organist of the church of Doncaster, where he remained till his death. Dr. Miller published " Institutes of Music," " The Elements of Thorough Bass and Composition," "The Psalms of David, set to Music, and arranged for every Sunday in the Year," and " The History and Antiquities of Doncaster." d. 1807. Mill?r, Hugh, an eminent geologist, whose father was lost at sea on board a small vessel of which he was the owner, while Hugh was still a child. He was sent to the parish school, and in course of time was apprenticed to the trade of a stonemason. From the time he had mas- tered the art of reading, he had been assiduous in his search after knowledge, and a love of natural history had been fostered in him by his uncle. While hewing stones in the quarry, he was engaged in observing their geological facts. Of poetry, also, he was very fond; and, after seeking in vain to get a certain effusion in rhyme inserted in a newspaper, he published a volume of verse, which brought him into notice, and obtained for him the clerkship of a bank in his native place. The leisure afforded by this occupation he turned to good account. After contributing for a short period to the " Inverness Courier," he published " Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland." He was next selected by the " Free Church" party to edit their organ, the " Witness" newspaper, a post which he continued to fill until his death. His first geological paper appeared in this print, and having been followed by a series of others, when the Geological Association met at Glasgow, Sir Charles Lyell, Dr. Buckland and Sir Boderick Murchison, all expressed themselves astonished and delighted at the la- bours of the new scientific writer. One «f the OF BIOGRAPHY. Millin fishes described by him in this series, was named by Professor Agassiz after Mr. Miller. A republication of the papers afterwards took place, under the title of the " Old Red Sand- stone ; or, New Walks in an Old Field." His ready, picturesque, and vigorous pen was henceforth constantly employed; and he pro- duced, after a visit to the south, " First Im- pressions of England and its People ;" " Foot- prints of the Creator," — an answer to some of the statements of the "Vestiges of Creation;" the "Geology of the Bass," and the "Testi- mony of the Rocks." He also lectured upon his favourite science in Edinburgh and London, and, in 1855, read a paper on the Fossil Flora of Scotland, before the British Association at Glasgow. In addition to the above-mentioned works, he gave to the world a most interesting account of his early life, in a work called " My Schools and Schoolmasters." Miller shot him- self in 18uC, while labouring under disease of the brain, b. at Cromarty, 1802. Millin, Aubin-Louis, mee'-yd, a celebrated French antiquary, who acted as keeper of the medals and antiquities in the Royal Library at Paris. His chief works were, " Dictionary of the Fine Arts," " Dictionary of Mythology," " Monuments of Antiquity," and " Gallery of Mythology." He edited the " Magasin Ency- elopedique" during twenty years, and also pro- duced a number of works relative to the anti- quities of his native land, Savoy, &c, whi h were full of valuable historical matter. B. 1759; d. 1818. Millingkn, James, mil'-lin-'en, an English archaeologist, who, about the '..me of the French revolution, went to Paris with his father, but was arrested at the instance of the National Convention. After his liberation, he became partner in a bank at Paris, and henceforth de- voted his leisure to archaeological pursuits. He was fortunate enough to become the purchaser of several vases full of gold coins of the Roman emperors, dug up at Abbeville. Being afflicted with disease of the chest, he was compelled to repair to Italy, where he resided until his death, making, however, occasional visits to the French capital, where he was always welcomed by antiquaries as the bearer of some valuable ancient relic. His most important works were, "A Medallie History of Napoleon," "Ancient Coins of Greek Cities and Kings," "Ancient Inedited Monuments of Grecian Art," and " Remarks on the State of Learning and Fine Arts in Great Britain;" besides which he was the author of many valuable papers in the " Transactions" of the Royal Society of Litera- ture of London, b. in London, 1774; d. 1845. Millot, Claude Francois Xavier, mee'-yo, a French historian, who was for some time a member of the Society of Jesuits, which order he was permitted to quit, after officiating as a preacher at Versailles and Luneville. He was professor of history al Parma many years, and on his return to France became tutor to the due d'Enghien. His works are, " Elements of the History of France," " Elements of the History of England,'' " Elements of Universal History," " History of the Troubadours," " Memoirs for a History oi Louis XIV. and XV.," and " Translations ot Orations from the Latin Historians." b. 1720; d. 1785. Milman, Rev. Henry Hart, mil' -man, an emi- nent English historian and poet, who was edu- cated at Eton and Brasenose College, Oxford, 717 Milnes becoming fellow of his college. Tn 1815 he pub- lished "Fazio," a tragedy, which was played at Covcut Garden Theatre without his cousent, in consequence of the defective state of the law at that period. In 1817 he entered into holy orders, and obtained a living at Reading. In 1820 he produced " The Fall of Jerusalem," a sacred poem, founded upon Josephus's narra- tive. The university of Oxford appointed him its professor of poetry in the following year. The " History of Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in tlu Roman Empire," was his next important pub- lication. In 1819 he produced a beautiful edi- tion of Horace, adding to it a most interesting life of the poet. In the same year he was ap- pointed dean of St. Paul's, and shortly after- wards gave to the world a continuation of his " History of Christianity," under the title of a " History of Latin Christianity." He likewise produced a new and copiously annotated edition of Gibbon's " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." In addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author of "The Martyr of Autioch," " Beishazzar," " Anne Boleyn," and a " History of the Jews." b. 1791 ; i>. 1868. Milne, Colin, miln, a divine and naturalisi, was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, of which city he was a native. He afterwards became rector of North Chapel, Essex, and was the author of a " Botanical Dictionary," " Insti- tutions of Botany," " Indigenous Botany," &c, works held in liigh repute with the learned in his favourite science, d. 1815. Milne a, John, mil'-ner, a catholic divine, and writer on theology and ecclesiastical antiqui- ties, was educated at the schools of Sedgley Park, near Wolverhampton, and Edgbaston, Birmingham, and completed his studies at the college of Douay. In 1777 he was ordained a priest, and commenced his pastoral duties in 1779, at the Catholic chapel, Winchester. After publishing some controversial pieces, he devoted his attention to the study of ecclesiastical ar- chitecture, and in 1790, became a member of the Royal Society of Antiquaries. He contri- buted several papers to the " Archajologia;" and published, in 1798, a "Dissertation on the Modern Style of Altering Cathedrals, as exempli- fied in the cathedral of Salisbury," a " History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and a Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester," and, subsequently, a " Treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England." He was afterwards engaged in some controversial squabbles, in which he strenuously upheld popery against the attacks of Dr. Sturgcs and others, lie was appointed bishop apostolic in the midland district in 1803, with the title of " bishop of Castabala," and in 1814 visited Rome, where he stayed about a year. He published, in 1818, a work entitled the " End of Religious Controversy," in which he vindicated Roman Catholicism on those points of faith usually attacked by Protestants, and was more or less engaged in similar con- tests till shortly before his death, n. 1752 • i>. 1826. Milnes, Richard Monckton, Lord Houghton, miliix, a politician, poet, and prose writer, who, a few years alter concluding his university career at Cambridge, was elected member ot parlia- ment for Pontefract, and distinguished him- self therein as a zealous supporter of all ques- tions relative to popular education and complete religious equality. His literary efforts were THE DICTIONARY Milo Yarious in kind and of an excellent character. Asa poet, he produced " Poems of M any Years," " Memorials of Many Scenes," " Poems, Legen- dary and Historical," and " Palm Leaves." His " Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats" was an appreciative and deliehtful com- memoration of departed genius. He was un- derstood to have been the writer of several interesting articles in the "Westminster Re- view." He published several of his speeches, delivered from his place in the House of Com- mons, and wrote a number of political pam- phlets, the most important of which were " Thoughts on Party Politics," and "Real Union of England and Ireland." He was raised to the peerage as Baron Houghton in 1(S63. b. 1809. Milo, mi'-lo, a famous athlete of Crotona, in Italy, who is said to have carried a bullock on his shoulders above forty yards, and then killed it with one blow of his fist, after which he devoured it in one day. He received the prize 'seven times at the Pythian games, and six at the Olympic. Many other marvellous things are related of his enormous strength. According to Ovid, he was devoured by wild beasts, about 500 n.c. Milo, Titus Annius, a Roman, who made several parties for the purpose of obtaining the consulate. He was opposed by Clodius, and supported by some of the first members of the senate. In a quarrel between Clodius and Milo, on the Appian Way, the former was slain by some of the domestics of the latter. Cicero un- dertook to plead the cause of Milo; but the ros- trum being surrounded by soldiers and a crowd of people, who expressed their disapprobation, he was so dismayed as to be unable to proceed. Milo was exiled to Marseilles, whither the orator sent him his discourse; on which he said, " O Cicero ! if thou hadst spoken this, Milo would not have been now at Marseilles." Killed 48 B.C. A iltiades, mil-ti'-u-deeg, a celebrated Athe- nian general, who succeeded his brother in the government of the Athenian colony in the Chersonese, B.C. 513. He proposed to destroy the raft over which Darius had passed in his Scythian expedition, and so cut oft' the Persian king's retreat: his comrades, however, over- ruled the proposal, and Miltiadcs became so unpopular as to be compelled to return to Athens. Twenty years afterwards, the Persians having declared war against Greece, their army landed in overwhelming numbers at Marathon. The Athenians, under Miltiades, were very few; yet, by his superior skill, the Persians were de- feated with great slaughter, and part of their fleet destroyed, 490 b.c. After this, he had the command of a naval squadron, with which he took several islands ; but being obliged to raise the siege of Paros, and also dangerously wounded, he returned to Athens, where he was accused of holding intelligence with the Per- sians, and condemned to death, which sentence was altered to imprisonment. He died shortly after of his wound, B.C. 4S9. Milton, John, mil'-ton, an illustrious Eng- lish poet, was educated first at St. Paul's school, and afterwards at Christ's College, Cambridge, where lie took his degrees in arts, being designed for the bar or the church ; but, not having an inclination tor either tailing, he returned to his father, who had retired from business with a good fortune, and settled at Horton, in Buckinghamshire. Here the poet 718 Milton wrote his " Comus," " L* Allegro," " II Pense* roso," and " Lycidas ;" poems of such merit as would alone have immortalized his name. In 1637 he travelled into France and Italy. On his return to England, he settled in Lovdon, and undertook the tuition of his nephews, for which profession he appears, by his " Tractate on Education," to have been well calculated. On the outbreak of the differences between the King and Parliament, Milton engaged as apoli- tical writer on the popular side ; and having a great animosity to the hierarchy, he published some pamphlets against the bishops. In 1643 he married the daughter of a justice of peace in Oxfordshire; but, his wife having been brought up with different sentiments from her husband, and disapproving of his zeal, left him, and returned to her friends. He repu- diated his wife, and published some tracts on divorce, to vindicate this act, which he was about to carry into effect, when his wife's friends brought about a reconciliation. He continued an ardent champion for the Parlia- mentary party, even after the execution of Charles I. He also wrote with great asperity against the king's book of prayers and medita- tions, entitled " Eikon Basilike." About this time he was wholly deprived of his sight, owing to a natural weakness and intense ap- plication to his studies. In 1652 he lost his wife, and soon afterwards took another. He was a determined republican, and wrote with energy against monarchical government, " the very trappings of which," he said, " would support a commonwealth," while, as Latin secretary to the Council of State, he rendered good service to the cause of national liberty. Milton endea- voured to prevent the Restoration; which event he had undoubted cause to dread, considering the active part taken by him in the rebellion. And when the Restoration took place, he was excepted from the act of indemnity; on which he kept himself concealed some time. By the interest, however, of Sir William Davenant and others, he obtained a pardon, soon after which he lost his second wife. In the time of the plague he removed, with his family, to Buck- inghamshire, where he completed his " Paradise Lost," which was first printed in 1667. This immortal work he sold to a bookseller for £5. For the idea of it he is said to have been in- debted to an Italian drama on the Fall of Man; and it is certain that he had himself an inten- tion at first of writing only a tragedy on the same subject. As the work grew under his hand, his soaring genius gave it the form and consistence, the variety and elegance, of an epic poem. He subsequently composed " Paradise Regained," which, though abounding in beau- ties, is in all respects inferior to " Paradise Lost," thoughMilton, remarkablyenough.is said to have considered it the better poem. " Para- dise Lost" was unknown in the poet's lifetime, and for many years after. It was not till Mr. Addison wrote his admirable critique upon it in the " Spectator," that its beauties became ge- nerally understood, and the whole merits ol the poem to be admired. Drydcn had, indeed, given his approbation of the work and hi» opinion of the author in an excellent epigram, which is usually piefixed to the "Paradise Lost." Hesides this, and the other poems men- tioned above, Milton wrote a drama on the Greek model, entitled " Samson Agonistes," which possesses uncommon beauties, though OF BIOGRAPHY. Mimnermus not adapted for theatrical representation. His " Comus" has been several times performed, and the first time was for the benefit of the author's granddaughter, Mrs. Clarke, a widow in reduced circumstances. On that occasion Johnson wrote a prologue. Among the prose works of Milton, we shall only mention his " History of England," which comes down only to the Conquest, and his " Areopagitica," in which he pleaded the cause of a free press with great force. The whole of his prose works have been published in five volumes in Bonn's Standard Library. When at Cambridge, he was so handsome as to be called " The Lady of Christ's College," and retained his comeliness to the last. By his first wife he had three daughters, two of whom used to read to him in eight languages, though they understood only their own, it being a usual saying with him, that " one tongue was enough for a woman." His remains were interred at the parish church of St. Giles, Cripplegate, where a monument has been erected to his memory ; and there is another in Westminster Abbey, b. in Bread Street, London, 1608; d. 1674. Mimu ermt/s, mim-ner'-mut, a Greek poet and musician, was a native of Colophon, and con- temporary with Solon. He excelled in elegiac poetry, the invention of which has been ascribed to him. Some fragments of his are included in the " Analecta" of Brunck. Flourished about 630 b.c. Misa, Don Francisco Espozy, me'-na, a distin- guished Spanish general, who for a long time was commander-in -chief of the Catalonian army, first distinguished himself in guerilla warfare, and by the incessant activity and admirable presence of mind he displayed. Having co- operated in the blockade of Pampeluna, and recovered several other places, he was mortified to find that, at the general peace in 1814, he had been labouring only to re-establish the despotic policy of Ferdinand VII., and made an inef- fectual effort in the cause of freedom to gain over the garrison of Pampeluna. He then sought an asylum in France; but whilst resi- dent in the French capital, was arrested by a commissary of police, employed by the Spanish ambassador. On this occasion the conduct of Louis XVIII. was most honourable; he dis- missed the commissary, insisted upon the am- bassador being recalled, and not only released Mina, but granted him a pension of 1000 francs. When the army of Cadiz, in 1822, unfurled the standard of freedom, by proclaiming the consti- tution of 1812, Mina hastened to Navarre, and was advancing against Pampeluna at the head of a few hundred followers, when he was in- formed that the king had accepted the consti- tution. He was subsequently appointed captain- general of the three armies of Navarre, Cata- lonia, and Arragon ; but when, by the interven- tion of France, Ferdinand was again enabled to discard his professed adherence to the constitu- tion, Mina left Spain for England. After the accession of Isabella II. under the regency of her mother Christina, Mina took an active part against Don Carlos; and to him and his wife the charge of educating the young queen was committed, b. in Navarre, 17a2; d. 1836. Minie', Claude-Btirnne, tnin'-e-ai, commonly min'-e, the inventor of the rifle which bears his name, entered the French army as a private soldier, and rose to the grade of brigadier, lie was among the first of those scientific gentlemen 719 Mirabeau who tn recent times endeavoured to perfect th« long-known but neglected principle of the rifle. Although it 18 now superseded, the Minie' was for same time the best rifle extant. The Mini6 ball was a great advance upon everything of the kind that had preceded it. It was an elongated one, conical at its point, and with a hollow be- hind, in which was placed a metal cup or thimble. Captain Norton, Mr. Greener, and M. Caron, a French artillery officer, arrived at similar results with M. Minie ; but, at any rate, his inventions were the first to become exten- sively employed, and they form, undoubtedly, the first steps in that grand march of improve- ment in gunnery which has taken place within the last few years, b. at Paris, 1800. Mibabat/d, Jean Baptiste de, mir'-a-bo, a French writer, who was at first a member of the Congregation of the Oratory, and afterwards in the army. His works are translations of Tasso' 4 " Jerusalem" and Ariosto's " Orlando" into French. In 1770 was published, under his name, an atheistical book, entitled " The Sys- tem of Nature," which was translated into Eng- lish, and attracted much attention at its first appearance. This work, though it still passes under the name of Mirabaud, was in reality the production of Baron d'Holbach and others. b. at Paris, 1675; d. 1760. Mikabeau, Victor Biquetti, Marquis de, mir'- a-bo, born of an ancient famiy, in Provence, was one of the principal institutors of a poli- tical sect called Economists. For his " Th6- orie de l'lmpot," a tract in which he made some free remarks on the finances and govern- ment, he was incarcerated in the Bastille for some time. His principal work was entitled " L'Amides Hommes" (the Friend of Mankind). In this work the author displayed considerable knowledge of rural and political economy, and also furnished some judicious hints for the good of society, b. 1715; d. 1789. Mieabeau, Honore Gabriel Riquetti, Count de, one of the leaders, and the greatest orator during the French revolution. After serving some time in the army, he espoused a rich heiress of Aix ; but he soon squandered away the fortune he had received with her, and plunged himself into debt. He was confined in different prisons, and on obtaining his liberty, eloped to Holland with tne wife of a French nobleman, the Marquis de Monnier. For this he was afterwards imprisoned in the castle < t Vincennes, and remained there a considerable time. In 1780 he regained his liberty, and pub- lished his work on " Lettres de Cachet." He subsequently visited London, and, on his return to Paris, employed himself with literature. In 1786 his great abilities recommended him to the not-ice of the minister Calonne, who dispatched him on a secret mission to Prussia. The French revolution offered Jlirabeau an ample field for his activity. Imbibing the doctrine of equa- lity, he opened a shop, over the door of which was inscribed "Mirabeau, dealer in drapery." He was elected deputy of the third estate for Aix, and the courtiers termed him the Plebeian Count. In the National Asscmb'y he displayed the very highest powers of an orator, but died in the midst of his political career, as is sup- posed, of poison, and his obsequies were cele- brated with great pomp. Mirabeau wrote "A Comparison between the Great Conde and Scipio Africanus," "History of Prussia under Frede- rick the Great," a collection of his orations in the THE DICTIONARY Miranda National Assembly, "Secret History of the Court of Berlin;" this book was burnt by the common executioner. The character of this remarkable man, who might be styled the Alci- biades of the Revolution, was, till lately, but imperfectly understood. It is certain, that if he crushed the old aristooacy upon the one hand, he, on the other, kept down the fury of demo- cracy. When he became president of the Na- tional Assembly, in 1791, he rendered immense services to his country, in introducing clearness and order where all had before been entangle- ment and confusion. Had his life been pro- longed, it is more than a question whether the French revolution would have been other than a bloodless one — a simple change from despo- tism to constitutional monarchy. " I carry to the grave," he once said, " the last shreds of the monarchy." His death was a public cala- mity. His ambition was not to set up or destroy absolute monarchy, but to raise himself to the position of prime minister of a constitutional regime. "Much has been said of the venality of Mirabeau," says his friend Dumont, " as if his talents were actually put up to the highest bid- der; but this is an exaggeration. It may be admitted that he was not over scrupulous in money matters j but he was too proud to be dis- honest, and he would have thrown through the window any one who dared to make a nurai- liating proposal." At one time he received a pension from Monsieur (afterwards Louis XVIII.), and subsequently, during the last six months of his life, one from the King ; but he considered himself as an agent intrusted with their affairs, not to be governed by, but to govern and direct, those who granted them. " When I am gone," he said, " my value will be appreciated. Misfortunes, to which I have put a stop for the present, were overwhelming France in every direction ; but that base faction (the Jacobins), which I now overawe, will be let loose upon the country. They want to govern the king, instead of being governed by him ; but soon neither they nor he will govern : a vile faction will rule the country, and debase it by the most atrocious crimes." b. at Bignon, near Nemours, 1740; d. 1791. M iraxda, Francisco, me-ran'-da, the founder of the independence of Spanish America. He rose to be colonel in the Spanish army, and was for some time intrusted with important matters by the governor of Guatemala; but, taking part hi a conspiracy against the Spanish viceroy, he was compelled to fly from his native country. He went to Paris in 17S9, and allied himself witli the republican party, who ap- pointed him to a command under General Du- mouriez. In 1806 he resolved to achieve the independence of his country; and, after a long struggle, succeeded in establishing a republic at Caracas, in 1811. He sustained a defeat by the Spanish army subsequently, and was trea- cherously betrayed to the Spanish general, who sent him in chains to Spain, where he died in the prison of the Inquisition, 1816; b. at Caracas, about 1750. Mirandola, Giovanni Pico dolla, mer'-an- do'-la, Count and Prince of Concordia, was one of the brightest ornaments of literature in the 15th century. In his youth he gave astonishing proofs of genius ; and, when little more than twenty, set up in all the universities of Italy a uumber of difficult problems in the sciences, which lie engaged publicly to defend He finally Mitchell fixed his residence at Florence, where he lived on terms of intimacy with the most distin- guished men of the age, particularly Lorenzo de' Medici and Poliz!ano. b. 1463; d. 1494. Mitchell, Sir David, mif-chel, an eminent naval commander in the reign of William III., was descended from a respectable family in Scotland. He commanded the Elizabeth of 70 guns at the battle off Beachey Head, where he behaved with great gallantry. In 1693 he was made rear-admiral of the Blue, and in 1694 had the honour of knighthood conferred upon him. He was employed in bringing over to England and carrying back Peter the Great, czar of Muscovy, and was also sent on a diplo- matic mission to Holland, d. 1710. Mitchell, Joseph, a dramatic writer, whe was patronized by Sir Robert Walpole. He wrote "The Fatal Extravagance," a tragedy; " The Highland Fair," a ballad opera, 8vo. ; and several poems, b. in Scotland, 1684; d. 1738. MiicHELL.Sir Andiew.a British admiral.born in Scotland, accompanied Sir Edward Vern«n to India.in 1776,as a midshipman ; and while there did such good service that he was rapidly pro- moted to the rank of post -captain. On the commencement of hostilities with the French republic, he was appointed to the command of the Asia, of 64 guns, and next to the Impreg- nable, of 90. In 1795 he was made rear-admiral; and, in 1799, shortly after being promoted to the rank of vice-admiral of the White, he joined Lord Duncan off the coast of Holland, and en- tering the Texel, the Dutch fleet surrendered to him without firing a shot. He was now created a knight of the Path, and in 1802 was appointed commander-in-chief on the American station. B. about 1757; d. at Bermuda. 1806. Mitchell, Sir Thomas Livingstone, an sWe geographer and military surveyor, who served with distinction during the Peninsular war as an officer of the staff. The military maps which he constructed throughout the campaign are preserved in the Ordnance Office, as models of accuracy and excellent execution. In 1827 he produced " Outlines of a System of Survey • ing for Geographical and Military Purposes," and was about the same time nominated deputy surveyor-general of New South Wales, which post he retained until his death. He proved himself one of the most distinguished explorers of the Australian continent, and, under circum- stances of great difficulty and danger, traced the course of the river Darling to its junction with the river Murray, and discovered Australia Felix. An account of these labours was pub- lished in 1838, in a work entitled " Three Expe- ditions into the interior of Eastern Australia, with descriptions of the recently explored re- gion of Australia Felix." On coming to Eng- land for the purpose of passing his works through the press, he received the honour of knighthood from her Majesty, was elected fellow of the Royal and of the Geographical Societies, and became D.C.L. of the university of Oxford. He subsequently discovered the Victoria river, and invented a new propeller for steam-vessels, on the principle of a weapon used by the abo- rigines of Australia. While staying in England^ in 1853, he read an account of his invention at the United 'Service Institution, and afterwards published it, with the title, "Origin, History, and Description of the Boomerang Propeller." In addition to the works we have already men- tioned, he produced a " Map ol the Colony of OF BIOGRAPHY. Mitford New South Wales," in three sheets ; " Journal of an Expedition into the Interior of Tropical Australia," and "Australian Geography, with the Shores of the Pacific." He attained the grade of colonel in 1854, and at his death his re- mains were honoured by a public funeral at Sydney, b. at Craigend, Stirlingshire, 1792; b. at Sydney, 1855. Miifobd, William, mit-ford, an eminent Eng- lish historian, who studied at Queen's College, Oiford, and subsequently entered himself at the Middle Temple; but, succeeding to the family estates upon the death of his father in 1761, he retired into the country, and devoted his life to the study of the Greek language and literature. In 1769 he was appointed captain in the South Hampshire militia, of which Gibbon was the major. Some conversations between the his- torian of the " Decline and Fall" and himself led, it is said, to his undertaking a history of Greece. That history was produced in successive vo- lumes, the first of which appeared in 1784. Although superseded at the present time by the works of Grote and Bishop Thirlwall, Mitford's history affords new and accurate views of many important events. The great defect of the work is the strong prejudice of the author against democracy, — a prejudice which caused him to regard Philip of Macedon as a perfect hero, and the Athenians as a set of miscreants. With him Demosthenes was nothing less than an un- principled demagogue. Mr. Mitford also pub- lished a treatise on the Religions of Ancient Greece and Home. He was returned to Par- liament in 1785, and sat there during many years; but his speeches were principally made upon the militia laws. A treatise by him upon "The Military Force, and particularly the Militia of England," created some excitement in its day, but is now forgotten, b. in London, 1741; d. in Hampshire, 1827. MiiFoan, Mary Russell, an eminent modern authoress, was the daughter of a clever phy- sician, but whose unthrifty habits involved him m constant pecuniary embarrassments. When the future authoress had attained her tenth year, her father made her a present of a ticket in the Dublin lottery, which eventually turned up a prize of £20,000. This large sum was, however, dissipated by the extravagant parent, who was, nevertheless, a most kindly man and affectionate father. Mary was placed at school at Chelsea, where she met as pupils, at various times, Miss Landon (L. E. L.), Fanny Kemble, and Lady Caroline Lamb. Before she reached her twentieth vear, she put forth a volume of verse, which was demolished by the " Quarterly Review." Nowise disheartened, she brought out another, and, in reality, adopted literature as a profession. For some time, her pen was engaged upon short tales and sketches for the magazines, the success of which em- boldened her to take a higher flight. The " Sketch Book" of Washington Irving was pub- lished about that period, and attained the greatest popularity. This led Miss Mitford to turn her attention to the composition of a series of rural tales and descriptions of rustic life and scenery. She had long been residing at a pleasant village on the borders of Berkshire and Hampshire, and was familiar with every house, cottage, and green lane, and dweller therein. She accordingly set to work to give faithful delineations of the place and its in- habitants. Her first essays were sent to the 711 Moellendorf " New Monthly Magazine," but the then editor, Thomas Campbell, at once rejected them. After many disappointments, they appeared in the "Lady's Magazine." These were afterwards put forth in a collected form, and were en- titled " Our Village," a book which justly merits its great popularity, being truly un- rivalled of its kind. Five series of "Our Village" were published. "Belford Regis; or, Sketches of a Country Town," subsequently appeared, the materials for which were drawn from the town of Reading. Her later, though less celebrated works, were " Stories of Country Life," and " Atherton," a novel. She also wrote several dramas. Her "Julian" was performed in 1823, Macready enacting the leading part. The "Foscari" and * xticnzi" were also very success- ful ; but " Charles the First" was interdicted by Colman, who at the time was licenser of plays. It was subsequently played at a minor theatre, but soon disappeared from the stage. Her latest effort was "Recollections of my Literary Life ; or, Books, Places, and People," which is a light gossiping commentary upon many of the people and of the circumstances which influenced her life. b. at Alresford, Hampshire, 1786; ». at Swallowfield Cottaxe, near Heading, 1855. MiTHBinATES, mith'-ri-da'-tees, the name of six kings of Pontus, of the first five of whom there is nothing particular to record. MiiHRinAiEs VI., the greatest of the name, and one of the most determined enemies that the Romans encountered, succeeded to the throne b.c. 120, at which time he was only eleven years of age. The Romans, anxious to weaken his power, declared war against him, and he, in revenge, ordered all the Romans in his dominions to be massacred. He then marched with a powerful army against Aquilius, whom he defeated; but Sylla, after some vic- tories, forced Mithridates to make peace, b.c. 84. He renewed the war in alliance with Tigranes, king of Armenia. After conquering Bithynia, Mithridates laid siege to Cyzicum, in the Propontis ; but Lucullus, having marched to its relief, besieged Mithridates in his camp. The king of Pontus defeated the Romans in two combats, but was completely vanquished in a third. Glabrio being sent to supersede Lucul- lus in the command, this change was advanta- geous to Mithridates, who recovered the b. 185 J. Moitte, Jean GuilUume, moit, a famous French sculptor, whose father was an engraver of some eminence. After studying under Pigal and Lemoyne, he obtained the grand prize for sculpture, in 1768, for a statue of David with the head of Goliah. This entitled him to be sent to complete his studies at Rome, from which city he returned to Paris in 1773. He was admitted a member of the French Academy in 1783. His chief works are bas-reliefs, the most worthy of notice of which are the great basso-relievo of the front of the Pantheon, which was removed after the restoration of the Bourbons, and one in the gallery of the Luxembourg. Among his sta- tues are the colossal figures of Britanny and Nor- mandy at the barrier des Bons Hommes, and an equestrian statue of Napoleon, b. 1747; n. 1810. Mola, Pierfrancesco, mo'-la, a clever histori- cal and landscape painter, a pupil of Albani. b. at Coldre, in the Milanese, about 1621 ; d. 1666. Moivbe, Abraham de. (See Demoivbe.) Molai, Jaques de, mo'-lai, was the last grand- master of the order of Templars. The pro- digious wealth of the knights having excited the envy and hatred of Philip the Fair, king of France, he resolved to suppress the order. Ac- cordingly, a violent persecution broke out against the knights, on charges the most ab- surd and abominable. Molai was tried, con- demned, and burnt alive near Paris, in 1314. He endured his suffering with fortitude, and vindicated the innocence of his order to the last. Mole', Francis Rend, mo-'lai, an eminent French comedian, who during the revolution became an associate of the Jacobins, and offi- ciated in the church of St. Koch, as the priest of the goddess of Reason, b. 1734; d. 1802. Mole', Louis Mathieu, Count de, a distin- guished French statesman, was the son of Pre- sident Mole, who fell a victim to the French revolution. After living some time with his mother in Switzerland and England, he re- turned to France in 1796, studied at the Ecole Centrale, which was subsequently converted into the Polytechnic School, and in 1806 at- tracted the attention of Napoleon, by a volume of " Essais de Morale et de Politique," which con- tained opinions of a highly absolute cast. From this time his rise was rapid, and in 1813 he was appointed minister of justice, and received the title of count. On the fall of Napoleon he was made a peer of France, and in 1817 filled the office of minister of the navy under the Duke of Richelieu, but quitted this post when his col- leagues displayed the reactionary tendencies which ended in the expulsion of Charles X. from the throne. After the revolution of 1830, Count Mold, for a brief period, held the office of minister of foreign affairs; and in 1836 was ele- vated to the post of prime minister, of which he was dispossessed in 1839 by the coalition of Thiers and Guizot. After the revolution of 1S48, though elected both to the constituent and the legislative assemblies, he took comparatively little interest in political affairs, but remained stanch to his conservative views, and alter the coup-d'itat of 1851, against which he protested, retired into private life. b. 1780; d. 1855. Moleswoeth, Lord Robert, moles' -zcci-th, a nobleman who contributed so effectually to the revolution of 1688, that William III. admitted him of the privy council, and dispatched liim 723 upon an embassy to the court of Denmark. Having given some offence at Copenhagen, he was recalled, and after his return to England, published an account of the kingdom of Denmark, which enjoyed great popularity. Under George I. he acted as commissioner of trade and plantations. The same monarch also advanced him to the Irish peerage in 1716. b. at Dublin, 1656 ; d. 1725. Moleswoeth, Sir William, an English states- man and man of letters, was the eighth baronet in his family, an old Cornish one, originally of Irish extraction. After spending some time at Cambridge and Edinburgh, where an Italian refugee was his tutor in classics, metaphysics, and mathematics, he repaired to Germany. Philology and history were his chief studies in the latter country; and, after com- pleting his collegiate course, he made the tour of Europe, and returned to his native land in 1831. In the year following he was returned to Parlia- ment as member for East Cornwall; was re- elected in 1834 ; but, in 1837, declining to con- test this seat, he sought and obtained the suf- frages of Leeds. He represented this latter place until 1841, after which time he remained out of Parliament during several years. The constituency of Southwark chose him as their representative in 1845, and in that capacity he sat In the House of Commons until his death. In the Aberdeen administration^ 1853, he was appointed first commissioner of public works, and in 1855 commenced his short but bril- liant career as secretary for the colonies. As a speaker, he was too philosophical to be generally popular; but several of his speeches were as well received as they, and, indeed, nearly all he uttered, deserved to be. These were orations on the colonies, on the state of the nation and con- dition of the people, and on transportation. He was for some time the proprietor and conductor, in conjunction with his friend John Stuart Mill, of the " Westminster Review." Many valuable articles from his pen likewise appeared in the newspapers and periodicals. A noble edition of the works of Thomas Hobbes (see Hobbes), in 16 volumes, was produced by him at his own expense, b. in Cornwall, 1810; d. 1855. Molie're, Jean Baptiste, mol'-e-air, a cele- brated French comic poet, whose real name was Poquelin. His father, who was a tapestry- maker, intended him for the same business; but young Poquelin being in the habit of visit- ing the theatre, conceived a violent inclination fori he stage. At the age of 14 he commenced his studies under the Jesuits, and made a rapid progress in belles lottres. His father becoming reduced in circumstances, the youth associated himself with some persons of his own age, who had a like attachment to dramatic representa- tion. It was in consequence of this connexion that he took the name of Moliere. This event took place in the year lt>45, after which time we hear no more of him until 1653, when he was appointed by the prince de Conti who had known the youth at college, director of an histrionic company at Langucdoc. He subse- quently went with his players to Lyons, where, in 1653, he brought out his first comedy, entitled " L'Etourdi," or, " The Blunderer," which piece was received with great applause, and greatly pleased his patron, the prince de Conti. That prince otl'ered to make him his secretary, which honourable station Moliere declined, saying, that, "though ho was a passable 3 a a THE DICTIONARY Molieres author, he should make but a bad secretary." After performing at various places, Moliere's company visited Paris, where, in 1658, they performed several of his plays before Louis XIV., who took the troupe into his own service, and gave their leader a pension. During the subsequent fifteen years, Moliere worked hard as a dramatic author and actor, and received many substantial marks of the royal favour. His last piece, " L'Hypocon- driaque; ou, le Malade Imaginaire," occasioned his death ; for, by his exertions in performing Argan, the principal character, he was seized with a convulsion, of which lie died. The arch- bishop of Paris refused to allow his remains to be interred in consecrated ground, on account of his profession, till he was compelled to do so by the king. Moliere left a widow, with whom he had lived a very unhappy life, and who mar- ried a comedian named Guerin, and died in 1728, aged 92. The works of Moliere have been often printed ; one of the best editions is that of Paris, 1838. They have been translated into English ; and several of his comedies have been adapted to our stage with success. Moliere is justly called the French Aristophanes, b. at Paris, 1622 ; d. 1673. MotiEBES, Joseph Privat de,mol'-e-air, a phi- losophical writer, became a member of the con- gregation of the Oratory, and was a pupil of Malebranche, on whose death he quitted the society and devoted himself wholly to physics and mathematics. He was afterwards professor of philosophy at the royal college, and died in 1742. Molieres' works are, " Philosophical Lec- tures ;" " Mathematical Lectures," and " La Premier Partie des Elemens de Geometric." b. at Tarascon, 1677; d. 1742. M olin a, Louis, mo-le'-na, a celebrated Spanish Jesuit. He completed his studies at Coimbra, after which he was professor of divinity at Evora during twenty years. Molina wrote " Commen- taries on the 'Summa' of Aquinas," a treatise " De Justitia et Jure," another " De Concordia Gratia? et Liberi Arbitrii." The last is a work of merit, and occasioned great disputes afterwards between the Jesuits and Domini- cans, the latter order accusing Molina of re- viving Pelagianism. b. 1535 ; d. 1601. Molinos, Michael, mo-le'-nose, a Spanish di- vine, who published a book called the "Spiritual Guide," in which he maintained that man must annihilate himself, or reduce his mind to an absolute quiescence, in order to enjoy God. For this he was sent to the prison of the Inqui- sition, where he died. The religious opinions of Molinos occasioned great disputes in France, where they were known by the name of "quiet- ism," on account of the passive disposition of mind which they inculcate. Pension and Ma- dame Guyon were the great advocates and im- provers of this system, b. 1627; d. 1696. Mollot, Charles, mol'-loi, a dramatic writer, who became a student of the Middle Temple, and was the editor of a periodical paper called " Common Sense." His plays are, " The Per- plexed Couple," "The Coquette," and "The Half-pay Officers." b. in Dublin, 1706; d. 1766. Molo, mo'-lo, a rhetorician, who went to Rome b.c. 87. lie taught rhetoric with great reputa- tion, and had Cicero and Julius C;esar among his pupils. The former followed him to Rhodes to profit by his instructions. Some years afterwards, Molo was sent ambassador by liis 724 Moncey countrymen to the Roman senate, and was re- ceived with great honour. Molyneux, Sir William, mol'-i-noo, a gallant knight in the reign of Henry VIII., who dis- played great bravery at the battle of Flodden Field. On his death-bed he gave this advice to his son : " Let the underwood grow ; the tenants are the support of a family, and the commonalty are the strength of a kingdom. Improve this fairly ; but force not violently, either your bounds or rents, above your forefathers'." MotTNEDx, William, an eminent mathemati- cian, who received his education at Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, after which he entered as a student of the Middle Temple, Loudon. The Philoso- phical Society, established at Dublin in 1683, owed its origin to his endeavours, and he became the first secretary. Soon after, he was appointed surveyor-general of the works and chief engi- neer. In 1685 he was chosen a member of the Royal Society, and in 1689 settled with his family at Chester, where he employed himself in finishing his " Treatise on Dioptrics," which was published in 1692. In this year he returned to Dublin, and was chosen one of the representa- tives for that city. Besides the above, he wrote : " Sciothericum Telescopium;" or, a description of a Telescopic Dial invented by him ; also, " The Case of Ireland stated, in relation to its beinsr bound by Acts of Parliament in England;" some papers in the "Philosophical Transactions;" and several letters between hiin and Mr. Locke. b. at Dublin, 1656 ; d. 1698. — Samuel, son of the preceding, became secretary to George II. when Prince of Wales, and was distinguished by his skill in astronomy. He improved the method of making telescopes, and presented one m;ide by himself to the king of Portugal. Rut being appointed a commissioner of the Admiralty, he was left without time to pursue his scientific inquiries. He gave his papers on the subject to Dr. Smith, professor ofastronomy at Cambridge, who printed them in his "Treatise on Optics." b. at Chester, 1689 ; d. 1738. Monboddo, James Burnett, styled Lord, mon-bod'-do, a learned Scotch writer, and one of the lords of the Court of Session, received his education at Aberdeen, and at the university of Groningen. In 1738 he returned to Scotland, commenced the practice of the legal profession, and was, in 1767, elevated to the bench. As a writej, he was profound but paradoxical. Bos- wcll, in a note in his " Tour to the Hebrides," says, " there were several points of resemblanco between him and Dr. Johnson : learning, clear- ness of head, precision of speech, and a love of research on many subjects which people in ge- neral do not cultivate." Foote paid Lord Mon- boddo the compliment of saying, "that he was an Elzevir edition of Dr. Johnson." His most important works were, a " Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of Language," and "Ancient Metaphysics." He held the singular notion that men were only a civilized species of mon- keys, and that the savage state was that in which virtue and happiness could be best attained. His extravagant admiration of the ancients led him to make, like them, supper his principal meal, and at these entertainments he had Dr. Nash, Dr. llntton, and many of the learned ot Edinburgh, as his guests, b. at Monboddo, Kincardineshire, 1714; n. at F.dinburgh, 1799. Moncey, Adrien, mawn'-sai, dukeofConeg- liano and marshal of France, who, though he entered the army at 15 years of age, did nc* be- OF BIOGRAPHY. Monge come a captain till 1791. In 1793, having been sent to the Pyrenees at the head of the " chas- seurs Cantabres," he so distinguished himself by his gallantry, that in a short time he became successively general of brigade and general of division. In 1795 and 1796 he made most successful campaigns in Spain and Italy ; and, after the peace of Luneville, was appointed inspector-general of the gen- darmerie ; in which capacity he rendered such important services to Napoleon, that he was made one of his first marshals in 1804, and soon afterwards created duke of Conegliano. In 1 808 he once more took part in the war with Spain, and contributed to the capture of Sara- gossa in 1809; but, during the last years of the empire, he ceased to participate in military ope- rations which he disapproved, and did not re- appear till 1814, when he tried, as major-general of the national guard, to defend the walls of Paris, laying down his arms only after the ca- pitulation was signed. After the " hundred days," Moncey refused to preside at the council of war appointed to try Marshal Ney; and for thin generous act was imprisoned in the for- tress of Ham for thi-ee months, deprived of all his functions, and expelled from the chamber of peers, to which, however, he was readmitted in 1819. In 1823 he joined the Duke d'Angouleme in his invasion of Spain, and finished his mili- tary career with a success worthy of his first exploits. He was afterwards nominated gover- nor of the Hotel des Invalides, and in this capacity received the ashes of Napoleon in 1840. B. 175i; d. 1812. MoifGE.Gaspard, mawnzh, an eminent French geometrician, was the son of an hotel-keeper, and was employed, at the age of 16, to teach natural philosophy in the college of Lycfas. In 1780 he became member of the Academy of Sciences, and, three years afterwards, was ap- pointed examiner of naval aspirants. Ener- getically espousing the principles of the Eevo- lution, he became, in 1792, minister of marine, which post proving to be little in accordance with his genius, he renounced the. employment soon afterwards, and turued his attention to providing his country with the most efficient methods of defence. He was one of the foun- ders of the Polytechnic School, accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, and became president of the Institute of Cairo. The emperor subse- quently nominated him senator, Count de Peluse, and loaded him with honours. After the restoration of the Bourbons, he fell into disgrace. His various works on geometry are among the clearest and best in the French language, which is particularly rich and excel- lent in this department of science, b. 1746 ; D. 1818. Monge, Lieutenant-colonel, was sent to Vienna by Napoleon, after his escape from Elba, to carry off Maria Louisa and her son to France ; and, under various disguises, reached the Austrian capital, and had nearly succeeded in his mission, when the police got notice of the project. Monge was obliged to flee, but effected his escape to France, rejoined the emperor, and fought at Waterloo. He was ultimately reduced to such poverty as to be obliged to work as a common labourer, d. in the hospital of St. Louis, 1829. Monk, George. (See Albemaele, duke of.) Monmouth, James, duke of, mon' -mouth, na- tural son of Charles II., was, at his father's restoration, created earl of Orkney, and, at a 725 Monroe subsequent period, became duke of Monmouth and knisrht of the Garter. He was for some time in the service of France, with an English regiment, and signalized himself against the Dutch ; for which he was made lieutenant- general. On his return to England he was sent, in 1679, to quell an insurrection in Scotland ; after this he joined the disaffected party, who were for excluding the duke of York from the succession to the throne. He was also con- cerned in a plot against his father, for which he was pardoned, and then went to Holland, whence he returned on the accession of James II. ; and having landed in Dorsetshire, obtained followers, but was defeated at Sedgemoor, in Somersetshire, and being taken prisoner, was conveyed to London, where he was tried and sentenced to death, b. at Rotterdam, 1649; beheaded, 1685. MoNxoTfiB, Jean Baptiste, mo-nwoi'-yai, a celebrated fruit and flower painter, who was employed by Le Brun to decorate the palace at Versailles with examples of his ait, and became member of the French Academy of Painters. His fame reaching England, he was invited to London about 1680, by the duke of Montague, to embellish his house (the late British Museum). These beautiful decorations were, however, de- stroyed when the palace was pulled down to allow of the erection of the present building. Monoyer likewise decorated the mansions of several others of the English nobility, and four- teen flower-pieces by him are to be seen in the room called George the Second's private cham- ber, at Hampton Court Palace. He etched a collection of his own designs, which was pub- lished in a folio volume, b. at Lille, 1635; n. in London, 1699. Monbo, Alexander, mun-ro, a celebrated phy- sician, who studied at Leyden, and contracted an intimate friendship with Boerhaave. In 1719 he returned to Edinburgh, where he read lectures on anatomy. His most important and valuable works are,—" Osteology," " Anatomy of the Nerves," several papers in the "Medical Essays" of Edinburgh, and on the " Success of Inoculation in Edinburgh." They were collected and published together in 1781, in one volume. B. in Scotland, 1697 ; d. 1767. Monroe, James, fifth president of the United States, was of Scotch descent, and entered the American army of independence, as volunteer, in his 16th year, and, at the close of the war, became colonel, on the recommendation of General Washington. He next studied the law at the William and Mary College, in Virginia, and was sent as representative of Westmoreland county to the legislature. After forming a member of the senatorial body of the United States for three years, General Washington ap- pointed him minister to France. In 1796 he was recalled, but was, two years afterwards, chosen governor of his native state of Vir- ginia. He held that office for three years, at the end of which he again went to France as United States minister. While in Paris, he ne- gotiated the purchases of New Orleans and of Louisiana. He next represented his native country at the courts of Spain and Great Britain, and, in 1808, returned home. After serving as secretary of state under President Madison, he was chosen president, in 1A16, and re-elected in 1821. Upon the termination of his presidentship, he retired to Virginia, where he acted as a justice of the peace. During the las* THE DICTIONARY Monsey years of his life, he lived at New York. The line of policy known as the "Monroe Doctrine" was first promulgated by Monroe. It reserves the whole American continent for the inhabi- tants of the United States, and declares that no foreign power ought to possess jurisdiction over any portion of it. b. in Westmoreland county, Virginia, 1751; d. at New York, 1831. Monsbt, Messenger, mon'-te, an English phy- sician, was a man of great eccentricity of man- ners, and of considerable talents, and was for many years physician of Chelsea Hospital. Having a great aversion to interment in churches or churchyards, he ordered, by his will, that his body be dissected, and the skeleton preserved in Chelsea Hospital, b. 1692; s. 1788. Monsow, Sir William, mon'-$on, an English naval officer, born at South Carlton, in Lincoln- shire, was educated at Baliol College, Oxford, and entering the naval service, served in several expeditions in the reign of Elizabeth. He was knighted by the Earl of Essex, for his conduct in the expedition to Cadiz ; and in the reign of James I. he distinguished himself against the Dutch. B. 1569 ; D. 1-643. Monstrelet, Er.guerrand de, mon'-stre-lai, a celebrated French chronicler, relative to whose early life nothing authentic is known. He was appointed provost of the city of Cambrai, and bailifTof Wallaincourt, which offices he retained until his death. His chronicles commence about the time that Froissart's terminate, and, like his predecessor, he gives a clear and pictu- resque narrative of the wars of France, and of the principal persons engaged in them, from the year 1400 to 1453. The best modern edition of Monstrelet's Chronicles is that of Buchon, published in 1836. An English translation of the work was made by Mr. Johnes, in 1810. b. about the close of the 14th century; d. 1453. Montagu, Basil, mori-ta-gu, an English writer on law, and editor of the works of Lord Bacon, after concluding his educational career at the university of Cambridge, en- tered himself at Gray's Inn, and was called to the bar in 1798. Possessed of little talent as a pleader, he turned his attention to the laws of bankruptcy, obtained a good practice in that department, and wrote many valuable works connected therewith. Lord Erskine, while lord chancellor, appointed him a commissioner of bankrupts ; but Mr. Montagu, convinced of the injury done to suitors by this mode of adminis- tering the law, published, and presented to the House of Commons, some statements which led to the abolition of the commissionerships and the enactment of a new law, under which he received the post of accountant-general in Dankruptcy, and retained it for ten years. His legal works are too numerous to be here nuoted ; but in general literature the most important of his labours were " Selections from the Works of Taylor, Hooker, Hall, and Lord Bacon ;" " The Works of Francis Bacon, Lord Chancellor of England," in 16 vols., to which was added a life of that great writer. Altogether, he is said to have published forty volumes, leaving behind him upwards of a hundred more in MS. b. in London, 1770; n. 1851. Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, was the eldest daughter of Evelyn Pierrepoint, earl, and after- wards duke of Kingston. She received a liberal education, and taught herself the elements of the Latin language. In 1712 she married 726 Montagu Edward Wortley Montagu, grandson of the first earl of Sandwich. This gentleman distinguished himself in Parliament as an able and upright senator, and was the intimate friend of Addison. In 1716 he was appointed ambassador to the court of Constantinople, whither he was accom- panied by his lady. During this embassy, she wrote an elegant and interesting description of Constantinople, in letters to her friends. Of these, a surreptitious edition appeared in 1763, in 3 vols., to which was afterwards added a fourth volume. The editor was the notorious Cleland. These letters were so well received, as to pass through several issues, ana to be translated into many languages. A genuine edition of these, and Lady Mary's other works, was published under the authority of her son, the marquis of Bute, in 1803. While at Con- stantinople, she obtained information of a prac- tice among the villagers, of inoculating for the small-pox. This operation she performed on her son, and by this means was instrumental in introducing inoculation into the east of Europe. At the end of 1718, Lady Mary returned to England, and settled at Twickenham, where she formed an intimacy with Pope ; but the friendship was afterwards broken off, and the poet did not scruple to write satires against her talents and reputation, which, however, he was mean enough to deny. In 1739, on account of her health, Lady Mary went to Italy, and took up her residence in Venice, where she remained till 1761, when, at the re- quest of her daughter, Lady Bute, she returned to England, b. at Thoresby, Nottinghamshire, 1690; d. 1762. A complete edition of her writings was published by her great-grandson, Lord Whamcliffe, in 1836, under the title of " Letters and Works of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu." Montagu, Edward Wortley, son of the pre- ceding, whom his niece, in her biography of his mother, describes as " betraying from the be- ginningthat surest symptomof moral (or mental) disease, an habitual disregard of truth, accom- panied by a fertile and ready invention, never at fault." He received his education at Westmin- ster sehool, whence he ran away, and entered into the service of a chimney-sweeper. His family had given him up as lost, when a gentleman recognised him in the street, and took him home to his father. He escaped a second time, and engaged with the master of a fishing smack ; after which he shipped himself on board a vessel bound to Spain, where he served as a muleteer. In this situation he was disco- vered and conveyed home to his friends, who placed him under a tutor, with whom he tra- velled abroad. His father being rather scanty in his remittances, owing probably to the son's extravagance, the tutor is said to have com- mitted a curious fraud to obtain a supply. This was the printing a book entitled " Observations on the Rise and Fall of Ancient Republics, by Edward Wortley Montagu, Esq." This work, whether the production of the son or not, gave great pleasure to the old gentleman, who ac- knowledged it in a handsome manner. Edward was for some time in Parliament, and conducted himself in a manner becoming his rank. He afterwards went to the Levant, where he adopted the dress and manners of the Turks. Out of pique against his family, he caused nn advertisement to be inserted in the English papers, for a wife without fortune, in order that, OF BIOGRAPHY. Montague by having an heir, he might disappoint his re- lations, which expedient, however, failed. He wrote " Observations on Earthquakes," and some curious papers in the " Philosophical Transactions." b. 1713; d. 1776. Montague, George, a distinguished English naturalist, was one of the original members of the Linnsean Society of London. His " Orni- thological Dictionary, or Alphabetical Synopsis of British Birds," was first published in 1802, and may be advantageously consulted by the student of natural history, even at the present time. In the following year, he put forth a "Natural History of British Shells, Marine, Land, and Fresh-water," to which a supple- ment was added in 1809. His most important contributions to the Transactions of the Lin- mean Society were, a " Description of three Rare Species of British Birds," " On some Spe- cies of British Quadrupeds, Birds, and Fishes," " Of several New or Hare Animals, principally Marine, found on the South Coast of Devon- shire," and "Some New and Rare British Ma- rine Shells and Animals." Mr. Montague was a gentleman of ancient family, who resided upon his estate in Wiltshire, and afterwards at Kingsbridge, in Devonshire, and his works were the result of a polished and lettered case. b. 1815. Mohtague, Richard, a learned English pre- late, who, in 1616, became dean of Hereford, and in 1621 published a learned answer to Sel- den's " History of Tithes." He afterwards engaged in a controversy with the Roman Catholics, on which occasion he wrote his " Appello Ca?sarem," for which he was ordered to appear at the bar of the House of Commons in the first Parliament of Charles I., on the charge of maintaining Arminian and popish errors. He was made bishop of Chichester in 1623, whence he was translated to Norwich in 1638. His principal work is an " Ecclesiastica' History," in Latin, In which his learning ap pears to great advantage, b. in Buckingham- shire, about 1577; d. 1641. Montague, Elizabeth, an English authoress, the care of whose education was undertaken by the celebrated Dr. Conyers Middleton. (See Middlkton, Conyers.) In 1769 Mrs. Montague published " An Essay on the Writings and Genius of Shakspcare," which obtained a great and deserved reputation. She formed a literary society, known by the name of the Blue-Stock- ing Club, from the circumstance that a gentle- man belonging to it wore stockings of that colour. Mrs. Montague was noted for another peculiarity, — that of giving an annual dinner on May-day to the chimney-sweepers of the metropolis, to celebrate the fact of her kinsman (tee Montagu, Edward Wortley) having been for some time a chimney-sweep. George Lord Lyttleton was a warm admirer of Mrs. Mon- tague, and was assisted by her in the composi- tion of his "Dialogues of the Dead." b. 1720; D. 1800. Montaigwe, Michel, Seigneur, or Lord of, mon'-tain, a celebrated French essayist, was intended for the bar, but afterwards re- nounced that profession, and travelled into Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, making his observations rather on human nature than on places and curiosities. At Rome he was honoured with the citizenship. In 1581 he was chosen mayor of Bordeaux, in which post he gave such satisfaction as to be elected to fill this office 727 Montalembert a second time. He took part in the meeting of the States-general atBlois in 1588, when t he Duke de Guise and his brother were treacherously murdered. After an active life, he retired to his seat of Montaigne, in Perigord, where he de- voted himself for the remainder of his life to philosophical studies. The celebrated " Essays" were written at a time when Montaigne was suffering from deep melancholy, which had been induced by the horror with which the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) had in- spired him. He kept a journal of his tour in Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, which was discovered two centuries afterwards, in his family chateau, and given to the world under the title of " Journal of the Travels of Michel de Montaigne." The "Essays,"which were justly called by Cardinal du Perron " the breviary of free-thinkers," treated of the most diverse sub- jects, were evidently composed without plan, and were the simple and truthful expression of Montaigne's mind upon certain occasions. They are written in a facile and quaint style ; on which account, as well as for their deep sin- cerity, they have a great charm for most readers. The most remarkable essays are those on friendship, the education of children, and on the administration of justice. The best English translation of the "Essays" is that of Cotton. b. at Montaigne, Perigord, 1533 ; d. 1592. Montalembert, Mare Ren6, Marquis de, mon-tal'-em-bair, a celebrated French engineer general, and member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, displayed great military talent in the French, Russian, and Swedish services; but is best known by his works, which were, " Per- pendicular Fortifications; or, the Art; De- fensive superior to the Art Offensive, by a New Manner of employing Artillery;" "Corre- spondence with Ministers and Generals," and some comedies and poems, b. at Angouleme, 1714; d. 1800. Montalembert, Charles Forbes, Count de, a celebrated French writer, who sprung from an old family of Poitou, and whose father was a peer of France, and ambassador at Stockholm from the court of Charles X. His mother was a Scotch lady. He received his education at the university of Paris. At the outset of his career he was an advocate of the union of Catholicism and democracy, of which Lamennais was the apostle (see Lamennais), and was one of the editors of a journal founded to advocate that union, called " L'Avenir." He subsequently commenced a kind of crusade against the uni- versity, and opened, in 1831, with Lacordaire, a school called the " Ecole Libre." (See La- cordaire.) His opposition to the then existing government at length brought him before the tribunals of justice ; but, during the process of trial, his father died, and as he thus became a peer of France, he claimed the right of being tried by the upper chamber, by which he was condemned to a fine of a hundred francs. His defence, pronounced before the chamber, may be considered as the beginning of his political career ; but he was prevented, not having at- tained the legal age of 30, from taking his seat until 1840. The condemnation of Lamennais by the pope greatly increased the severity of Montalembert's orthodoxy, and, both by writing and speaking, he thenceforward made himself known as the great champion of Catholicism. In 1836 he published his famous " Life of Elizabeth of Hungary." In 1843 he strongly THE DICTIONARY Montanus opposed the educational measure of M. Ville- main, and in the following year published his Catholic manifesto. In 1843 he delivered, in the Chamber of Peers, three remarkable peeches on the liberty of the church, the liberty of education, and the liberty of the monastic orders. He also made himself notorious by the part he took on behalf of oppressed nationali- ties ; and in 1847 had a solemn funeral service celebrated in Notre Dame to the memory of Daniel O'Connell. After the establishment of the republic, M. de Montalembert was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly, and then acted with the opposition party. He was opposed to the measure for again requiring journals to furnish security, to the continuance of the state of siege, and to the admission of Louis Bonaparte. At the end of the session, however, he supported a bill for the restriction of the press, and highly approved of the French tipedition to Rome. He was re-elected to the Legislative Assembly, and distinguished himself by his frequent encounters with M. Victor Hugo, his only rival in oratory, and by his defence of the president. When the coup d'etat came, he protested strongly against the im- prisonment of the deputies, but was never- theless named a member of the Consultative Commission, — a distinction he declined, and was, in 1852, elected into the Corps Legislatif. At the election in 1857 he lost his seat, and retired into private life, but came before the public again as the writer of an article in the ■' Correspondant," which led to his being sum- moned before the bar of the correctional police, and to his subsequent trial, which attracted the attention of all Europe. For that effusion he was fined 3000 francs, and ordered to be im- prisoned for six months. M. de Montalembert was likewise known in England as the author of two eloquent works, entitled, respectively, " Catholic Interests in the 19th century," and l he " Political Future of England." The first was a brilliant but partial review of Catholicism in Europe: the conclusion arrived at being, that that form of religious belief promised to spread and to endure. In the latter work he displayed great knowledge and still greater sympathy with English intelligence and energy : its schools, its journalism, and its political institutions, were discussed in a liberal and enlarged spirit ; but the work can have little practical benefit, on account of the singular view of the author, that England would gain by renewing her con- nexion with Rome. Both these works have been translated into English. M. Monta- lembert proved himself one of the first men in Europe, both as a writer and as a speaker; and, by his eminence and his great interest in literature and education, was among the leaders of the French Academy, of which he was elected a member in 1852. b. in London, 1810; n. 1870. Montanus, mon-tai'-nus, the founder of the sect of Christian heretics called Montanists, or Cataphrygians, pretended that the Holy Spirit descended upon him, as well as upon two of his followers, Priscilla and Maximilla, ladies of considerable property. He denied the doctrine of the Trinity, and condemned second marriages as adulterous. His followers, who were numerous, affected extraordinary agita- tions of the body, as the effects of the Spirit, and pretended to make prophecies. Among others who were gained over to this strange sect was 728 Montecuculi the learned Tertullian; but, in the end, h« separated himself from them. B. about the middle of the 2nd century, at Ardaba, in Mysia; D. at the beginning of the 3rd century. Montausieb, Charles de St. Maure, duke de, mon-to'-se-ai, peer of France, was appointed by Louis XIV., in 1668, governor of the dauphin. He was a man of inflexible integrity and austere virtue, and inculcated in the mind of his pupil the purest sentiments. Bossuet and Huet were nominated by him as the young prince's pre- ceptors; it was for the use of the dauphin that the Delphin edition of the ancient classics was first made. Before his marriage with his wife, he presented to her a poetical offering, entitled " The Garland of Julia," which contained ma- drigals transcribed by the caugraphist Jarry, and was decorated with floral designs by the painter Robert. This splendid volume excited much interest on account of its beauty, b. 1610 ; d. 1690. Montcalm, Louis Joseph, Marquis de, monf- kam, a brave and distinguished French general, who entered the army at an early age, and sig- nalized himself on many occasions, particularly at Piacenza, in 1746. In 1756 he became field-marshal, and was appointed to command the French army in Canada, where he opposed Lord Loudon with considerable skill and suc- cess. He afterwards defeated Abercromby, his lordship's successor ; but in the battle fought under the walls of Quebec, in 1759, Montcalm received a mortal wound, as did also his brave opponent, the English general Wolfe, b. at Candiac, near Nimes, 1712. Montecuculi, Count Sebastian, mon'-tai koo'-koo-le, an Italian gentleman, who went to Prance in the suite of Catherine de* Medici, and became cupbearer to the dauphin Francis, son of Francis I. He was accused of having poi- soned the young prince at Valence, in 1536, and, being put to the torture, confessed that he was hired to do it by the partisans of Charles V. The friends of the emperor, however, fully re- futed the abominable charge, and threw it back upon his patron, Catherine de' Medici, wife of Henry II., brother to the dauphin. Put to death 1536. Montecuculi, Raymond, Count de, a famous general in the service of Austria, entered early into the army, under his uncle, who com- manded the artillery of the emperor. The first action in which he distinguished himself was in 1638, when, at the head of 2000 men, he sur- prised 10,000 Swedes, who were engaged in be- sieging Numslau, in Silesia, and whom he com- pelled to abandon their baggage and artillery, but was subsequently taken prisoner by General Pannier. He did not regain his liberty till two years afterwards ; but employed that time to great advantage in study. On returning to his profession, he defeated the Swedes in Bohemia. After the peace of Westphalia, he travelled in different countries. In 1657 he was appointed field-marshal, and sent to the relief of John Casimir, king of Poland, who was attacked by Sweden and the prince of Transylvania. After defeating the latter, he took Cracow from the Swedes, and gained several important successes, which produced a peace. He next served against the Turks, and drove them out of Transylvania, for which he was made president of the imperial council. In 1673 he was sent against the French, and had to oppose the great Turenne, who fell in the contest, and Monte- LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE. LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN. I AVATER, JOHN GASPAKD. LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF, Plate XXI. OF BIOGKAPHY. Montemayor cuculi, in his despatch to the emperor, regretted the loss of a man who was an honour to humanity. He afterwards acted with great courage and skill against the Prince de Conde. B. at Modena, 1608 ; D. 1680. Montejiayob, George de, mon'-tai-ma-yor, a Castilian poet, who took his. name from the place of his birth. After serving in the army, he was employed at the court of Philip II. He wrote " Diana," a pastoral romance, which was continued by Gil Polo. b. 1520; d. 1562. Montespah, Madame de, mon'-tes-pa, a cele- brated French lady, who was wife of a noble- man of that title, and mistress of Louis XIV., over whom she gained a complete ascendancy, which she maintained till that monarch became attached to Madame de Maintenon. Madame de Montespan had children by the king, one of whom became duke of Maine and another count of Toulouse, b. 1641 ; d. 1707. Montesquieu, Charles de Seeondat, Baron de, mon'-tes-kyu, an eminent French writer, who was educated for the legal profession. His first literary performance that became famous was entitled " Persian Letters," published in 1721, which gave proofs of a fine genius and a sound judgment. The year following he pleaded with , so much eloquence against the imposition of a new tax, that it was suppressed. In 1728 he was admitted a member of the French Academy, though not without opposition from Cardinal Fleury, who conceived that there were some things dangerous to religion in the " Persian Letters." Montesquieu having formed the de- sign of his great work, the " Spirit of Laws," travelled into Germany and Holland, and lastly to England, where he resided two years, calling this the country for thinking and France that for living. On his return home he published his treatise " On the Causes of the Greatness and Declension of the Romans." In 1748 appeared his "Spirit of Laws," which ought rather to have been termed the Spirit of Nations. In it the author distinguished three sorts of govern- ment, the republican, the monarchical, and the despotic ; all of which he examined with much clearness, the whole work being an admirable exposition of political science as it was under- stood in the author's time. Montesquieu was an upright man and a conscientious judge, b. near Bordeaux, 1689 ; d. 1755. Montezuma, mon-te-zu'-ma, the last emperor of Mexico, was a prince of noble qualities. He opposed the invaders of his country with firm- ness, but was at last seized by Cortes, who forced him to acknowledge himself a vassal of Spain. The Mexicans having assembled in great numbers against the Spaniards, Cortes, being apprehensive that he was not sufficiently strong to resist them, obliged his royal captive to appear in his robes, in order to appease his subjects. The insurgents, however, discharged their arrows while he was speaking, and mor- tally wounded him, in 1520. Prescott has finely narrated his history in his " Conquest of Mexico." Montezuma left two sons and three daughters, who embraced the Christian reli- gion. The eldest received an estate and the title of count from Charles V. d. 1608. Montfaucon, Bernard de, mawnt'-fo-kau-ng, a learned French antiquary, who in his youth served as a cadet in the army ; but the death of his parents made so great an impression upon his mind, that he entered the congregation of the Benedictines of 9t. Maur, in 1675, He ap- 729 Montgolfler plied himself to study with prodigious applica- tion, and acquired a great knowledge of lan« guages, theology, history, and general litera- ture. In 1698 he went to Italy, to consult the public libraries there, and was received with much distinction at Rome, by the college of car- dinals and Pope Innocent XII. On his return to Paris, in 1702, he published a curious relation of his journey, under the title "Diarium Itali- cum." His principal works were, "Analecta Grseca," an edition of the works of St. Athana- sius, Greek and Latin, with notes ; a collection of ancient Greek writers, a French translation of Philo's " Contemplative Life," with notes; " Pa- lceographia Grceca," "Antiquities Explained," in French and Latin, and a supplement to the same (this is a work of immense erudition, and of the greatest value to students of art) ; " Mo- numents of the French Monarchy," an edition of the works of Chrysostom, " Dissertation on the History of Judith." b. at Soulage, Langue- doc, 1655 ; n. at Paris, 1741. Montpobt, Simon, Count de, mawnt'-fort, a famous French general, who, in 1209, conducted the crusade against the Albigenses, on which occasion he tarnished his reputation by his cruelties. In 1213 he gained a complete victory over Raymond, count of Toulouse, b. 1165 ; killed at the siege of Toulouse, 1218. Montfobt, Simon de, earl of Leicester, mont- fort, was younger son of the preceding, by an English lady. He went to England in 1236, to assume the English title in right of his mother, and was well received by Henry III., who ap- pointed him to the government of Gaseony, with the title of seneschal, and gave him his sister in marriage; but, rendering himself odious by his cruel rule, he incurred the dis- pleasure of the English monarch. In revenge, he incited the English barons to revolt, placed himself at their head, in 1258, and forced the king to convoke a Parliament, called, by the old chroniclers, "the Mad Parliament," at pxford, and extorted from him many important concessions. During many years, he exercised almost absolute power in England, and took the king and his son Edward prisoners at the battle of Lewes, in Sussex, in 1264. In the following year, however, Prince Edward made his escape from Hereford, where he had been confined : and, in the same year, the royal and baronial forces having met at Evesham, the latter were defeated with immense slaughter, both De Montfort and his son being among the slain. Much difference of opinion has existed among historians as to the character of De Montfort ; but he was cer- tainly a brave and able man, and, although pro- bably more ambitious than he had openly professed to be, was undoubtedly greatly instru- mental in founding English national liberty. Killed, 1265. Montgolfier, Jacques Etienne, mon-go'-fe-ai, the inventor of air-balloons, was a native of Vidalon-les-Annonai. In conjunction with an elder brother, he devoted himself to seientilio pursuits, and was the first who manufactured vellum paper, still so much admired for its beauty. One day while boiling water in a coffee- pot, the top of which was covered with paper folded in a spherical form, he saw the paper swell and rise — a circumstance that suggested to him the idea of a light machine, made buoyant by inflation, for traversing the air. Afte various trials, it being ascertained that a bal- loon, with a car attached to it, could be kept THE DICTIONARY Montgomery suspended by a supply of heated air, the experi- ment was repeated on a large scale at Versailles, when the Marquis d'Arlandes ascended in the presence of the royal family, and a vast con- course of people, b. 1745; d. 1799. Moktgomebt, Gabriel de, Count of, mont- gom'-e-re, a celebrated French nobleman, of Scottish descent, who, in 1559, had the misfor- tune to kill Henry II. of France, by accidentally wounding him in the eye, as they were tilting at a tournament given by that monarch, on the occasion of the marriage between his daughter Elizabeth and the king of Spain. After this uufortunate disaster, Montgomery went to Italy, and lived there ai»i iu other countries, till the civil wars recalled him to France, where he at- tached himself to the Protestants, and became one of their principal chiefs. He defended Rouen in 1562 against the royal army; and, when the city was taken by assault, he escaped to Havre. In 1569 he raised the siege of Bearne, in Navarre, then closely pressed by the Catho- lics, after which he followed the besiegers to Orthez, which he took by assault. Montgomery was at Paris at the time of the massacre of the Protestants in 1572, but escaped, though closely pursued. With his family, he retired first to Jersey, and afterwards to England. In 1573 he returned to Normandy, where he was joined by some of the Protestant nobility at St. Lo, at which place he was besieged by Matignon, lieutenant-general in Lower Normandy; but Montgomery escaped, and went to Domfront, whither he was followed by Matignon, who, after a prolonged contest, made him prisoner. This gallant nobleman was subsequently con- demned to death by Catherine de" Medici, who was then regent of the kitgdom, and beheaded in 1574. Montgomfrt, James, an English poet, was the son of a Moravian preacher, and was sent to be educated at the settlement of that sect at Fulneck, near Leeds. There he was principally distinguished for his indolence and melancholy • and, although poetry and fiction were strictly forbidden, he contrived to read, clandestinely, " Robinson Crusoe" and Cowper's poems. His inattention to his studies caused him to be placed by the school authorities with a shop- keeper, from whom, in 1789, he ran away. A few months afterwards he sent a volume of poems to a London bookseller, and followed it himself to the great metropolis. The poems were declined; but Wie young poet obtained a situa- tion in the publisher's office. In 1791 he wrote a tale, his first prose production, for the " Bee," an Edinburgh periodical, and soon afterwards published a novel, which was declined, because the hero gave utterance occasionally to a strong expression. The young author was greatly hurt at this, for he was of a deeply religious cast of mind, and imagined he had only done that which was right in imitating Fielding and Smollett. He returned to a situation for some time, and at length entered the service of Mr. Gales, a printer and bookseller at Sheffield, who per- mitted him to write political articles for the "Sheffield Register," a paper conducted on what were then termed revolutionary principles. A warrant being issued for the apprehension of Gales, he fled to America, and Montgomery started a paper on "peace and reform" princi- ples, called the "Sheffield Iris," and was soon afterwards indicted for producing some doggrel Terses, which had been brought to his printing- 730 Montgomery office to be printed. For this he was fined £20, and sentenced to three months' imprisonment. On another occasion, for publishing an account of a riot at Sheffield, he was fined £30, and was imprisoned for six months. His subsequent career was comparatively uneventful. In 1806 he produced " The Wanderer in Switzerland," which quickly ran through three editions, and was subsequently followed by other and better works of the same nature, the chief of which were, " The West Indies," " The World before the Flood," and "Greenland," a poem descrip- tive of the establishment of the Moravians in that desolate region, which sect he had again joined. In 1823 he produced "Original Hymns for Public, Private, and Social Devo- tion." In 1825 he resigned the editorship of the " Sheffield Iris ;" whereupon he was entertained at a public dinner by his fellow- townsmen. His interesting "History of Mis- sionary Enterprise in the South Seas" was produced in 1830. Five years later he was offered the chair of rhetoric in the university of Edinburgh, which he declined. Sir Robert Peel, about the same time, bestowed upon him a pen- sion of £150. In 1836 he left the house of his old employer Gales, where he had lived during forty years, for a more convenient abode. He delivered several courses of lectures upon "The* British Poets," at Newcastle-on-Tyne and other places, during some years; but, in 1841, he visited his native country on a missionary tour. His last effort was a lecture "On some Passages of English Poetry but little known." b. at Irvine, Ayrshire, 1771 ; d. at Sheffield, 1854. MoNTGoitEKT.Rev. Robert, apopular preacher and poet, of whose boyish years nothing is known till he conducted, at an early age, a periodical publication in Bath. In 1828 he produced his " Omnipresence of the Deity," which attained an astonishing degree of popularity, twelve editions having been sold in as many months. Another volume of religious poems soon followed, con- taining " A Universal Prayer," " Death," " A Vision of Heaven," and " A Vision of Hell." A third production, entitled "Satan," was next put forth, and obtained almost as much success as its predecessors. In 1830, the religious poet resolved to devote himself to the Church, en- tered at Lincoln College, Oxford, and graduated B.A. in 1833. Two years afterwards he was or- dained, and became a curate at Whittington, in Shropshire. In 1836 he went to London, where he officiated as minister of Perey-sireet Chapel, which he quitted for the Episcopal chapel of St. Jude's at Glasgow ; but, although his preaching drew large congregations in the latter place, so much of controversy was en- gendered, that he resigned the incumbency. In 1843 he again commenced his minis- terial labours at Percy-street Chapel, which he continued to fulfil until his death. In addition to the works already quoted, he published many others, nearly all of which shared the success of his early efforts. The principal of these were, " The Messiah, a Poem in Six Hooks ;" " Luther, or the Spirit of the Reformation ;" and "Sacred Meditations and Moral Themes." Lord Macau- lay, in his essay on the Rev. Kobert Montgomery, attributes the great success of his poems to un- blushing puffery ; but the real reason was, doubt- less, that he addressed a very large class with whom poetry is usually rejected as profane, and who found in Montgomery's verse a mental food which had hitherto been denied to them. As a OF BIOGRAPHY. Montholon preacher, he is described as combining a mixture of rant and affectation ; his manner was, how- ever, engaging, and he was undoubtedly a general favourite with his congregations, b. at Bath, 1807 ; d. at Brighton, 1855. Montholon, Charles Tristan, Count de, mon'- to-latcnq, one of the most faithful adherents of Napoleon I., who, after serving for a short time in the navy, quitted it, and obtained a commis- sion in a cavalry regiment, with which he went through the campaigns in Italy, Germany, and Poland ; rose to the grade of colonel, and greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Wagram, where he received five wounds. Ap- pointed chamberlain to the Emperor in 1809, he served him in that capacity until Napoleon's first abdication, when the count requested to be allowed to accompany him, but could not obtain that honour. During the Hundred Days he acted as one of Napoleon's aides-de-camp. Upon the deportation of the Emperor to St. Helena, the count accompanied him, and remained near his person until his death. He was one of the ex-emperor's executors, and to him were confided all the MSS. which had been composed at St. Helena. These he afterwards published under the title of "Memoirs towards the History of France under Napoleon, written at St. Helena." In 18-10 he took part in Louis Napoleon's descent at Boulogne, and was sentenced to imprison- ment with his leader, b. 1779; d. 1853. Monti, Vmcenzio.mon'-te, a celebrated Italian poet, was, in his youth, secretary to Don Luigi Braschi, nephew of Pope Pius VI. ; but after- wards entirely devoted himself to poetry. De- sirous of rivalling Alfieri, he wrote the tragedies of "Caius Gracchus" and " Aristodemo," and then composed several poems in imitation of Dante. He, in the first instance, ridiculed the French ; but after the successes of the republic in Italy, he became one of the greatest eulogists of Napoleon. He next became professor of eloquence at Pavia, of belles-lettres at Milan, and, finally, historiographer of the new kingdom of Italy ; but after the fall of Napoleon, he sang the praises of the Austrian empire, a versatility of opinion which caused him to lose the esteem of his countrymen. Besides the works we have quoted, he made a beautiful translation of Homer's " Iliad," and published some polemical writings. B. 1754; D. 1828. Montluc, Blaise de, maumt-look', a celebrated French general, who rose through the different ranks in the army to that of marshal of Prance. His first services were in Italy ; and at the battle of Pavia, in 1525, he was taken prisoner. In the wars of Piedmont he served with great reputation, and, in 1546, recovered Boulogne from the English. The city of Siena, in Tuscany, having driven out the imperial gar- rison, and solicited the protectiou of France, Montluc was appointed to command the forces sent thither in 1554. He sustained a siege of eight months agaiust the imperial army, com- manded by the Marquis de Marignano, who was obliged, after several attacks, to convert the «iege into a blockade. It was not till the gar- rison and inhabitants had endured the utmost extremity of famine, that the place capitulated, when Montluc and his troops marched out with the honours of war. He commanded in Guienne during the wars which ravaged France on ac- count of religion, and defeated the Huguenots in several actions, but was guilty of great cruelties to the vanquished. At the siege of Montpensier Rabastens, in 1570, he was so severely wounded in the face, as to be obliged always to wear a mask to hide his deformity. At the age of 76 he wrote the memqirs of his military life, under the title of "Commentaries;" and therein re- counted, with horrible frankness, the story of his numberless acts of cruelty, b. at the chateau of Montluc, Guienne, about 1502; d. 1577. Montmobency, Matthew de, mawnt '-mo-ran- $e, or mont'-mo-ren'-te, a distinguished French general, who signalized himself by his valour at the battle of Pont-a-Bouvines, in 1214, and, the year following, was employed against the Albi- genses, in Languedoc ; for which services he received the sword of constable of France, and was made general of the army. He afterwards took several places from the English. Louis VI II. committed his sou to the care of the constable, who, by his prudence, dissolved a league which had been formed against the queen-mother during the minority of Louis IX. d. 1230. Montmorency, Anne de, a descendant of the preceding, displayed great military talents at an early age, and was at the battle of Marignano in 1515. in 1521 he defended the city of Meziers, and compelled the count of Nassau to raise the siege. He accompanied Francis I. to Italy, as "marshal of France, and was taken prisoner, with the king, at the battle of Pavia. The impor- tant services he had rendered to the state were rewarded with the sword of constable in 1538 ; but, several years afterwards, he fell under the displeasure of Francis. In the reijrn of Henry II. he regained favour at court, anil was employed in military serviee, but- was again disgraced through the intrigues of Catherine de' Medici. Charles IX. recalled him, and he served against the Calvinists, but was taken prisoner by them at the battle of Dreux, in 1562. Having ob- tained his liberty the year following, he took Havre from the English, b. at Chantilly, 1193 ; died of wounds received in battle. 1567. Montmobency, Henry, duke de, was grand- son of the preceding, and was beloved by the people of France for his bravery, generosity, and other great qualities. Having joined Gaston of Orleans against Cardinal Richelieu, Montmorency took up arms in the province of Languedoc, of which he was governor. The king sent against him the marshals De la Force and Schomberg, and a battle ensued at Castel- naudary, where the duke was made prisoner, and, notwithstanding the earnest and general solicitations for his pardon, was beheaded at Toulouse in 1632. b. at Chantilly, 1595. Montpbnsieb, mawnt'-pa'-se-ai, Anne Maria Louisa, Duchess de, was the daughter of Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII. She was generally known by the name of Made- moiselle, and embraced the cause of Conde in the civil wars. She caused the cannon of the Bastille to be fired on the French troops, and showed, on many occasions, a most impetu- ous spirit. After trying in vain to espouse several sovereign princes, among the restCharles II. of England, she is said to have secretly married the Count de Lauzun. Mademoiselle passed her last years in devotion, and wrote her memoirs, which are very curious, and full of anecdotes relative to the Court of Louis XIV. and the Fronde leaders, b. at Paris, 1627; d. 1693. Montpbnsieb, Duke de, younger brother of Louis Philippe. (See Loots Philippe.) THE DICTIONARY Montrose Montbosb, James Graham, Marquis of, mon- tro/e', was descended from one of the oldest families ia Scotland. He married young, and went abroad, but returned to Scotland about 1633, and was generally considered one of the most accomplished gentlemen of his time. He was at first one of the most violent of the popu- lar leaders, and took a principal part in the preparation of the National Covenant; but, think- ing himself slighted by the Covenanters, went over to the royal side. In 1644 he was nomi- nated by Charles I. captain-general of the forces to be raised in Scotland, and immediately commenced his attacks upon the Covenanters with various success. At the battle of Tipper- muir, however, he defeated the Covenanters with immense slaughter; but, being surprised at Philiphaugh, in 1645, by General Lesly, his forces were routed, and he and a few followers only succeeded in gaining the Highlands after considerable difficulty. In 1646 he was allowed to take his departure for Norway. He went to Prance, and served witu great distinction in the army of that power, and was offered the grade of lieutenant-general of the Scots in France, and other high appointments, all of which he refused. After the death of Charles I., Montrose was deputed by Charles II. to invade Scotland, and accordingly dis- patched some troops to the Orkneys, joining them himself shortly afterwards ; but, in the very first encounter with the Covenanters on the mainland, he was utterly routed. He escaped in the disguise of a Highland rustic ; but was soon delivered up to General Lesly, and taken to Edinburgh, where he was subjected to many barbarous indignities, and sentenced to death. His demeanour throughout this crisis was dig- nified and self-possessed, and caused many to sympathize with him who had before regarded him as the cruel agent of a tyrant. In 1650 he was hanged on a gibbet, after which his limbs were severed from his body, and affixed to the gates of the chief towns in Scotland. Charles II., at the Restoration, reversed the sentence, and ordered the scattered remains of the unfor- tunate nobleman to be collected ; which was ac- cordingly done, and they were buried with great solemnity in Edinburgh, b. in Scotland, 1612. MoNTucr.A, Jean Etienne, mawn-took'-la, a French mathematician and scientific writer, was an associate of the National Institute, and a member of the Academy of Berlin. He accom- panied Turgot to Cayenne, as secretary of the government and royal astronomer. On his re- turn to France, he was appointed first commis- sioner of public buildings. His principal works were, "Researches on the Quadrature of the Circle," " Collection of Tracts upon Inocula- tion," and " History of Mathematics." This last is valuable, and has been translated into English, b. at Lyons, 1725 ; d. 1799. IIontucci, Antonio, rnon'-toot-che, a learned philologist, particularly excelling as a Chinese scholar, studied at the university of Siena, de- voting himself to the living languages with almost incredible application. In 1785 he was appointed professor of English in the Tolomei college; and, in 1789, accompanied Mr. Wedg- wood to England as Italian teacher in his family. Being in London in 1792, when preparations were making for Lord Macartney's embassy to China, Montucci took the opportunity of obtain- ing assistance from some Chinese youths at- tached to the embassy in acquiring their lan- 73? Moore gunge, with which he was before only imper- fectly acquainted. In 1806 he went to Berlin, on the invitation of the king of Prussia; but the invasion of the country by Bonaparte for some time interrupted his Dlans ; and, returning to Italy, he died at Siena, in 1829. b. there, 1762. He was the author of a " Chinese Dic- tionary," an " Italian Pocket Dictionary," and several elementary works in that language; and edited the " Poesie inedite" of Lorenzo de' Me- dici, published at the expense of Mr. Roscoe. Moore, Sir Jonas, moor, whose mathematical knowledge recommended him to Charles II., who employed him in several works and made him surveyor-general of the ordnance. He was one of the governors of Christ's Hospital, and mainly instrumental in inducing Charles to endow a school for mathematics in that institution, for the use of which Sir Jonas compiled a " Gene- ral System of Mathematics," in 2 vols., which was published subsequent to the author's death. b. about 1620 ; r>. 1681. Moore, Edward, an English poet, who wrote " Fables for the Female Sex;" " The Gamester," a tragedy ; " Gil Bias," a comedy, and other pieces. He was likewise editor of The World, a weekly paper, for which Lords Lyttleton and Chesterfield and Horace Walpole wrote, b. 1712; D.1757. Moore, Dr. John, a physician and miscella- neous writer, who received his education at Glasgow, where he applied to the study of me- dicine. In 1747 he became assistant-surgeon in the army in Flanders, where he remained till the general peace. After the war, he pursued his medical studies at London and Paris : at the latter place he was appointed surgeon to the household of Lord Albemarle, the English am- bassador. On his return to Scotland, he became partner with Dr. Gordon, an eminent practi- tioner at Glasgow ; but, in 1772, he accepted an invitation to travel with the young duke of Hamilton. After spending five years abroad, Dr. Moore settled in London, and* in 1779, pub- lished the fruits of his travels, in " A View of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland, and Germany." This work was so well received that, in 1781, he added to it two volumes, enti- tled, " A View of Society and Manners in Italy." In 1785 he published " Medical Sketches." His next performance was a novel of a very superior character, entitled "Zelueo," which abounds with incident, though the principal character is so atrocious as to excite the reader's horror. In 1792 he accompanied Lord Lauderdale to Paris, and witnessed some of the principal scenes in the Revolution, of which ho published an inte- resting account in 1795. The year ibKowing ap- peared his novel entitled " Edward," intended as a contrast to " Zelueo," but inferior to it. In 1799 he gave to the world " Mordaunt ;" being sketches of life, characters, and manners in various countries. This work is neither a ro- mance, novel, nor book of travels ; but it con- tains many lively and instructive observations. b. at Stirling, 1730; d. at Richmond, 1802. Moore, Sir John, a brave and distinguished English genera!, was son of the preceding, and entered the army in his fifteenth year. His father possessing great influence in aristo- cratic circles, caused the young soldier to rise rapidly, and to gain the rank of lieutenant- colonel before he had seen any service. In 1794, however, he showed that he was possessed of great military qualities, by the part he took OF BIOGRAPHY. Moore in Paoli's descent upon Corsica. His next ser- vices were in the West Indies in 1796, in Ireland during the rebellion of '98, and in Holland shortly afterwards. In 1801 he commanded the reserve. of the army dispatched to Egypt, and greatly signalized himself, receiving a wound at the head of his men. Upon the renewal of the war in 1802, he applied to be placed in com- mand of a camp of instruction upon the Kentish coast. His request was granted, and he success- fully trained a number of light infantry regi- ments, which afterwards formed the celebrated light division of the duke of Wellington's army in the Peninsular war, and evinced, by their deeds, a valuable proof of the soundness of Moore's method. In 1808 he went, with an army of 10,000 men, to Sweden, to assist/ }>.>«- tavus Adolphus IV. in defending his kingdom against the designs of Napoleon; but, becoming involved in a dispute with that monarch, he returned to England with his troops. In August of the same year he was sent to Portugal, and was placed in command of an army of 30,000 infantry and 5000 cavalry, which was ordered to co-operate with the Spanish troops against the French in the north of the peninsula. Two months afterwards he commenced his march from Lisbon ; but, on entering Spain, discovered that the whole of the Spanish forces with which he was to act had been thoroughly routed. Ho had sent his cavalry and artillery by another route than that which he had pursued, and a wide tract of country still lay between himself and a portion of his army, which had been sent to him from England under Sir David Baird, and which had landed at Corunna. Sir John Moore remained for a time inactive at Sala- manca, urged to advance by the British ambas- sador in Spain, but himself inclined to retreat into Portugal. Suddenly discovering that the French intended to surround him, he com- menced a rapid, if not too hasty, march to Corunna. In that memorable retreat through the mountains of Galicia, in the depth of a severe winter, Sir John Moore displayed the highest qualities of a military commander. Be- fore the battle of Corunna the British troops were, to all appearance, completely disorganized and exhausted ; yet, animated by the example of their heroic leader, they turned upon their advancing foes, and inflicted upon them a de- cisive repulse. The victory was dearly bought, for Sir John Moore fell, but in a manner worthy of the last moments of Epaminondas, Bayard, and Wolfe. With his expiring breath he hoped, " that the people of England would be satisfied —that his country would do him justice." The student who desires to learn more of the per- sonal history of this hero, may turn with ad- rantagc to the first volume of Napier's "History of the War in the Peninsula," to Southey's " Peninsular War," and to Jones's " Account of the War in Spain and Portugal." b. 1701 ; n. 1809. Mocub, Thomas, a celebrated poet, was the son of a small tradesman at Dublin, and after receiving some education at a school in the same city, was entered at Trinity College, Dublin, in 179-i, He had already commenced rhyme- making, and had inserted two poems in a Dublin magazine. His collegiate career was somewhat distinguished; but being of the Roman Catholic faith, he was not permitted to take honours. About 1799 he went to London, and entered himself of the Middle Temple, with the view of 788 Moore adopting the law as his profession. In 1801 he produced the " Odes of Anacreon," which ho had composed while at college, and in the fol- lowing year, " The Poetical Works of the late Thomas Little," a collection of lyrics in imita- tion of Catullus. He now began to be intro- duced to the fashionable circle in which, throughout his after life, he sought to move. Through the influence of Lord Moira he was, in the following year, appointed to a post at Ber- muda; but finding, on his arrival, that the situation was distasteful to him, he returned almost immediately. He pursued his homeward journey throughout the United States, and visited New York, Virginia, Boston, Niagara, and Quebec. Soon after his arrival in England, he put forth his " Odes and Epistles," which being severely criticised by Jeffrey, led to the "bloodless duel" between himself and that gentleman satirized by Byron in his " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers." (See Jeffrey.) At this period he was much courted by the noble and the fashionable, and was a constant guest at Holland and Lansdowne Houses. He had a sweet voice, and being a good musician, was in the habit of singing the melodies of his native land with much success at aristocratic reunions. This fact led to his engaging himself to write a series of Irish melodies, the accompaniments to which were to be adapted from Irish airs by Sir John Stevenson. This task was not completed until 1831. Of a similar character were his " National Airs" and "Sacred Songs." In 1812, his friend Mr. Perry, editor of the "Morning Chronicle," negotiated on his behalf with the Messrs. Longman the sale of a quarto volume of poems, for which Moore was to receive 3000 guineas. Five years afterwards, this poem ap- peared under the title of " Lalla Rookh," and was immediately highly successful. This bril- liant composition was something quite new to the public, who were captivated with its rich co- louring, its melody, and its oriental spirit. The " Fudge Family in Paris" was his next work, and was the result of a visit to the French capital, made in company with Mr. Rogers. He soon afterwards learned that his deputy at Bermuda, " after keeping back from him "the proper receipts of his office, had made free with the proceeds of a ship and cargo deposited in his hands." For this, Doctors' Commons made a claim upon him to the amount of £6000. The poet's friends proffered assistance; but he ho- nourably resolved to pay off the claim out of the earnings of his pen. The remaining years of his life may be described as an untiring pur- suit of poetry, prose, and fashionable society. As Byron said, he dearly loved a lord, and was never so happy as when he was in the presence of the noble. The simple enumeration of his chief productions will show, however, that he did not trifle with or neglect the magniticrnt gifts with which nature had endowed him. During the subsequent twenty years he laboured incessantly, and gave to the world, among others, " The Loves of the Angels," a poem ; " The Epicurean," a prose-poetioal romance ; "Fables of the Holy Alliance,'' "Memoirs of Captain Rock," " The Summer Fete," " The Life of Lord Edward Fitzgerald," the " History of Ireland," and the " Life of Sheridan." Some time previously to the year 1821, Lord Byron intrusted Moore with his manuscript autobio- graphy, which was to be published for Moore'a bene tii, but not until after Byron'* death. la •the dictionary Morand 1821 Moore sold the MS. to Murray, and engaged to edit it for the gum of 2000 guineas. In 1824 Byron died, but Lady Byron deeming that the publication of the autobiography was calculated to injure the character of her husband and his family, offered to repay to Mr. Murray the sum he had advance d to Moore. This the poet would not accede to, but, after some altercation, Moore himself repaid the sum he had obtained from the publisher, and the MS. was burnt. He, however, wrote a Life of Byron for the Messrs. Longman for a like sum. As a poet, he displayed grace, pathos, tenderness, and a luxu- riant imagination ; his melody was tender and flowing, but it was deficient in power and naturalness. His literary merits obtained for him, in 1835, a pension of £300 per annum. The "Irish Melodies" and "Lalla Rookh" have passed through many editions, and are still exceedingly popular. .During the last years of his life, Moore was engaged in completing a collected edition of his poetical works, which was published after his death. His character was vain but kindly, and many proofs of his goodness of heart appear in the " Memoirs and Correspondence of Thomas Moore," edited by Earl Russell in 1855. b. at Dublin, 1779; n. 1852. Mobakd, Saveur Francois, mo-rant', a cele- brated French surgeon, who went to England in 1729 to avail himself of the instructions of Cheselden, whose esteem he acquired. On his return to his own country, he became surgeon- major of the Guards, and director of the Aca- demy of Surgeons. He was also made chevalier of the order of St. Michael, and admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society of London. His chief works were, — "A Treatise on the High Operation for the Stone," " Discourse on the Necessity that a Surgeon should be learned," " Experiments and Observations on the Stone," and " Miscellaneous Works." b. at Paris, 1697; d. 1773. Mohant, Philip, mo-rant', an English anti- quary and divine, who became rector of Aid- ham, in Essex, and was appointed by the House of Peers to prepare the votes of Parliament for the pross. He edited several works, and wrote a " History of Colchester," the " History of Essex," and some Lives, which were inserted in the " Biographia Britannica." b. in Jersey, 1710; d. 1770. Mobdackt, Charles. (See Petebbobough, Lord.) Mobb, Sir Thomas, mor, a distinguished English statesman and writer, was the son of Sir John More, one of the judges of the King's Bench. He received his education at Oxford, and afterwards became a student of Lincoln's Inn. As soon as he came of age he obtained a seat in Parliament, where he opposed a subsidy demanded by Henry VII. for the marriage of his eldest daughter, with such eloquence that it was refused by the House. At the accession of Henry VIII., he was called to the bar, and, in 1508, appointed judge of the sheriff's court in London, which was then a considerable post. By the interest of Wolsey, he obtained the honour of knighthood and a place in the privy council. In 1521 he was made treasurer of the Exchequer, and, in 15123, chosen speaker of the House of Commons, where he resisted a motion for an oppressive subsidy, which gave great offence to Cardinal Wolsey. Sir Thomas was made Chancellor in 1530, and, by his indefati- 734 More gable application in that office, there was, in a short time, not a cause left undetermined. To the high qualities of learning, wit, and libe- rality, he joined a stanch adherence to the Roman Catholic religion and the papal autho- rity. This led him to deny the king's supremacy as head of the church in England, for which he was sent to the Tower, tried, and con- demned to lose his head, which sentence he courageously endured. Sir Thomas More wrote several works against the Heformation, and some epistles to Erasmus and other learned men. The best of bis works is a kind of poli- tical romance, composed in Latin, entitled " Utopia," wherein the author delineates what he conceives to be a perfect commonwealth, sii Sate in an imaginary island. This work has '-ce.i translated into English by Bishop Burnet, Cayley, and others. Sir Thomas had four chil- dren. His eldest daughter, Margaret, married a gentleman named Roper, who wrote the life of his father-in-law. She was an accomplished woman, and well read in the Greek and Latin languages. She wrote a treatise on the " Four Last Things," and died in 1544. Sir Thomas More's character has been much misrepre- sented by Foxe, in his " Martyrology," and by Bishop Burnet in his " History of the Reforma- tion," both charging him with cruel persecu- tion of the Protestants while chancellor. Eras- mus, however, distinctly testifies, that "whilst More was chancellor, no man was put to death for these dogmas." All his contemporaries describe him as being of a singularly amiable disposition, and unaffectedly and sincerely pious. Erasmus, who was his frequent guest, says, " With him you might imagine yourself in the Academy of Plato. But I sh mid do injus- tice to his house by comparing it to the Academy of Plato, where numbers and geometrical figures, and sometimes moral virtues, were the subjects of discussion : it would be more just to call it a school and an exercise of the Chris- tian religion. All its inhabitants, male and female, applied th. Morgan, William, mor'-y Henry Estieune,orStephens,in his "Philosophi- cal Poetry of the Ancients." — There was another of the same name, who wrote a poem called " Hero and Leander." He is supposed to have flourished in the 5th century of the Christian era. Mubjius, John Charles Augustus, a German writer, who studied theology at the Univer- sity, with the intention of entering into holy orders. Relinquishing theology for ge- neral literature, he, in 1760, published a pa- rody on Kichardson's novel, entitled "Gran- dison the Second," the success of which urged him to make renewed efforts as an author. It was not, however, until after an interval of eighteen years that he gave to the public his "Physiognomical Travels," a satire upon Lavater. In the interim he had supported himself by teaching at the gymnasium of AVeimar. His fame was secured by this last production ; and he thereupon proceeded to collect and write his " Volksmarchen der Deutsehen," or " Popular Legends of Germany," which were a series of charming narratives ga- thered from the peasantry, and dressed up in a simple and beautiful style. His other works were a collection of novelettes and tales for children, and a number of satirical sketches entitled "Freund Heins Erscheinungen," or " Death's Advent,*' in which Musseus treated of the many human undertakings cut short by the summons of that inevitable visitor. Some of his posthumous sketches were collected by his pupil Augustus von Kot/.ebue, and published in 1791, with the title, "Some Traits of the Life of the good Musieus." Musseus was no less witty and captivating as a writer than kindly and generous as a man. b. at Jena, 1735; d. 1787. Mcsobavb, William, mu»'-gruiv, an English 750 Mustapha physician and antiquary, who, in 1684, was chosen secretary to the Royal Society. He edited " Geta Britannicus," which is the life oi Geta, by Capitolinus, and a number of medical works, b. 1657 ; d. at Exeter, 1721. Musschenbboeck, Peter van, moosh'-tnen- bre(r)k, an eminent Dutch natural philosophei and mathematician, who, with Gravesande, first introduced the Newtonian philosophy into Hol- land. He became professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at his native place; and was a member of the Royal Society of London and of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. His " Course of Natural and Experi- mental Philosophy" is a valuable work, and has been translated into English by Colson. He also wrote, in Latin, treatises on the Magnet, Capillary Attraction, Cohesion, and Meteorology. b. at Leyden, 1692; n. at the same place, 1761. MusstT, Alfred de, moos'-sai, an eminent modern French poet, playwright, and novelist. After completing his education at the col- lege of Henry IV., where his fellow-pupil and intimate friend was the duke of Orleans, son of Louis Philippe, he essayed the most diverse studies. The law, medicine, finance, painting, were in turn engaged in, in turn abandoned. In 1830 he put torth a small volume of poetry, entitled " Tales of Spain and Italy." The suc- cess which the work obtained was quite un- deserved — in a moral point of view, at least ; but this early favour encouraged its author to proceed, and to achieve better things. A celebrity at 23, the young poet made a jour- ney to Italy with George Sand, under the name of confidential secretary. Between the years 1836-40, he produced several works, more or less characterized by an affectation of Byronio misanthropy and disgust of things mundane. Two or three collections of poems and a num- ber of plays succeeded, the best of which last, however, were not adapted for the stage. At the revolution of 184S, he lost his post of libra- rian to the ministry of the interior, but re- gained it after the establishment of the empire, with the additional appointment of reader to the empress. During his last years he gave himself up to play and even grosser pleasures. His last volume of verse was published in 1850, and showed a premature decay of the*author's powers : he was nevertheless elected a member of the French Academy in 1852. At his death, he left some poems and a drama uncompleted. B. at Paris, 1810 ; d. 1857. Mustapha I., mus'-ta-fa, sultan of Turkey, succeeded his brother Ahmed I. in 1617; in tho same year ho was, however, deposed by the Janissaries, and thrown into prison. He was afterwards released and replaced upon tho thron ■, but again deposed by the Janissaries, and strangled in 1623. Mustapha II., son of Mahomet IV., suc- ceeded Ahmed II., his uncle, in 1695. He de- feated the Austrians at Temeswar, and made war, with success, against the Venetians, Poles, and Russians. Fortune at length turning against him, he was forced to make peace. He was deposed by his subjects, and died in 1703. Mustapha HI., the son of Ahmed III., ascended the throne in 1757. He was a weak prince, and, by trusting to his favourites, greatly exhausted the public treasury. His brother Abdul Ahmed succeeded him. d. 1771. Mustapha IV. ascended the throne in 18o7, after the deposition of Selim HI. MustapK OF BIOGRAPHY. Musurus Balraktar, pasha of Rudshuk, collected an army and marched upon Constantinople, demanding that the deposed Selim should be given up to him: but Selim had been already strangled, and his dead body was brought to Balraktar, who thereupon deposed Mustapha IV., and placed his brother Mahmoud upon the throne (see Mahmoud II.) by whom Mustapha was put to death in 1808. Mcsurus, Constantine, mu-su'-rus, a Turkish diplomatist, the representative of an ancient Cretan family of high rank. After serving his country in various diplomatic missions to Athens and Vienna, he was sent as ambassador to London in 1855, and since that time has continued to represent Turkey at the court of St. James's, b. at Constantinople, 1807. Menus, Ca;lius, mu'-ski-us, first named Cor- dus, and afterwards Scasvola, an illustrious Soman, who distinguished himself when Por- senna besieged Rome, 507 b.c. Mutius entered the camp of Porsnnna to assassinate him, and, by mistake, stabbed one of his attendants. Being seized and brought before Porsenna, he said that he was one of 300 who had engaged, by oath, to slay him ; and added, "This hand, which has missed its purpose, ought to suffer." On saying this, he thrust it into the coals which were burning on the altar, and suffered it to be consumed. Porsenna, struck with this intre- pidity, made peace with the Romans. The name of Sc*vola, or left-handed, was given as a mark of distinction to Mutius and his family. Mylne, Robert, miln, an eminent architect and civil engineer, who built old Blackfiiars Bridge, taken down 1804, and erected Sir Chris- topher Wren's monument in St. Paul's Cathe- dral, to which establishment he acted as sur- veyor, a. at Edinburgh, 1734; d. 1811. Mybox, mi'-ron, a celebrated sculptor of ancient Greece, whose praises were frequently sung by both the Greek and Roman poets. He excelled in carving animals. He was the mo- deller of the Discobolus or Quoit-thrower, an ancient marble copy of which is in the British Museum. He flourished in the 5th century B.C. Mttens, Daniel, mi-tens, a Dutch painter, who went to England, and became the best portrait-painter at the court of James I. He painted portraits of James I., Prince Rupert, and the dwarf, Sir Jeffrey Hudson. When Vandyck became popular, Mytens retired to the Hague, b. in Holland, 1590 ; d. about 1660. N Nabis, nai'-bis, tyrant of Sparta, whom Philip, king of Macedon, appointed governor of Argos. He was guilty of the greatest cruelties, and had a statue, carved to resemble his wife, which, by springs, would embrace any one that touched it, and then pierce the victim through the body with spikes. This machine Nabis devised as a means of extorting money from his people; and when any one refused, he threatened to intro- duce him to his wife. He was slain B.C. 192. Nabon assab, aai- bo-nas's'tr, king of Babylon. He is celebrated by the famous epoch which bears his name, and which commenced in the year 747 b.c. He is supposed to be the same with Baladan, the father of Merodach, men- tioned in Scripture. Reigned between 748 and 734 B.C. NABC-POLAanAB, na'-bo-po-ku'-tar, king of Ba« 76> Nadir-Shah bylon, united with Astyages against Assyria, which empire they conquered, and having divided it between them, founded two kingdoms, that of the Medes under Astyages, and that of the Chaldeans under Nabopolassar, B.C. 621-05. Nadir Shah, na'-dir-sha, called also Tamasp Kouli Khan, king of Persia, and a famous conqueror, was son of a maker of sheepskin coats, who belonged to the race of Affshar, a Turkish tribe, which had attached itself to the king of Persia. Nadir, after he had become great, was fond of alluding to his mean origin ; and when one of his sons, who was about to marry a princess of the royal family of Delhi, was requested to name his ancestors for seven generations, Nadir replied, "Tell them that you are the son of Nadir-Shah, the son of the sword, the grandson of the sword, and so on, till they have a descent of seventy, instead of seven generations." From his earliest youth he dis- played great courage and boldness. At the age of 17 he was taken prisoner bv the Usbeks in one of their annual incursions into Khorassan. After a captivity of four years, he effected his escape, returned to his native country, and sub- sequently entered the service of the governor of Khorassan, who appointed him to command an army sent against the Tartars. Nadir gained a -omplete victory with an inferior force, and took the Tartar general prisoner. The governor at firsi treated him with great distinction ; but becoming jealous of his aspiring spirit, re- fused him a grade in the army he had promised him, and when Nadir complained of this breach of faith, caused him to be bastinadoed. Exas- perated at this dishonourable treatment, Nadir became the leader of a band of robbers. With this troop he rose to great power. In 1727 ho joined Tamasp, son of the monarch of Persia, who had been pushed from the throne by the Affghan conquerors of Persia. His first act was to kill Futteh Ali, the commander of the Per- sian forces; after which he took the supreme command. In the same year, he drove the Aft- ghans out of Mushed. After several great vic- tories, he took Ispahan, and put to death Ashraff, the Affghan king. He next took tho name of Tamasp Kouli, or "the slave of Ta- masp," and was also ennobled with the title of Khan. He was likewise granted the four finest provinces of the kingdom. But this did not satisfy his ambitious nature, and upon the first opportunity he deposed Tamasp, whose son, an infant eight months old, he proclaimed king, at the same time constituting himself regent. In 1735, he gained the battle of Erivan, in which the Turks lost 50,000 men. The infant monarch died in the same year ; upon which Nadir called a great council of the kingdom, at which more than a hundred thousand persons are said to have attended, by whom he was acknowledged king. With the view of destroying the Affghans as an independent power, he invaded the pro> vince of Candahar, and in 1738 the city of that name fell into his power. In the following year he marched into Hindostan, and after defeating the Mogul troops, entered Delhi, where he ac- quired immense riches. After his return to Persia, he turned his arms against the king of Bokhara who was compelled to submit. Nadir next marched along both banks of the Oxus, as far as the Caspian, which territory he conquered, and put its monarch to death in 1740. lie had thus secured peace for Persia, whose dominions were extended in every direction. Bat his last THE DICTIONARY Neevius Napier years were characterised by cruel tyranny, which excited universal hatred against him; and at length a conspiracy of some of the highest officers of his court was formed, and he was assassinated in 1747. b. in Khorassan, 1688. Njsvius, Cneius, ne'-vi-us, a Latin poet, who served in the first Punic war, upon which he wrote an epic poem. He likewise produced several comedies, one of which was so displeas- ing to Metellus, the consul, that he expelled him from Rome. Neevius retired to Utica, where he died about 204 b.c. Some fragments of his are extant. Nsvius, a famous augur in the reign of Tar- Uuin, of whom it is related, that, in order to convince the king and the Komans of his super- natural power, he cut a stone with a razor, and thus turned the ridicule of the populace into admiration. Cicero, however, who had himself been an augur, treats this miraculous event as a mere notion. Nahl, Johann August, nal, an eminent Prus- sian sculptor, who executed the colossal statue oi me landgrave Frederick, which stands in Frederick's Square, Berlin. In 1755 he was appointed professor of the Academy of Arts at Cassel. b. at Berlin, 1710; d. at Cassel, 1781. Nakhimov, Nicolaevitoh, nak-he'-mof, a Rus- sian poet, who received his education at the university of Moscow ; after which he entered the army, but soon quitted it, and devoted him- self to literature. Possessed of considerable wealth, he retired to his estates, where he occupied himself with the composition of his " Fables" and a large number of prose satirical pieces. His satire in verse, entitled " The Speaking Monkey," was written in derision of the French subsequently to the invasion of Russia by Napoleon I. This production is pro- nounced to be not inferior to the writings of Voltaire, b. at Kharkov, 1782; d. 1814. Naldi, Sebastiano, nal'-de, a famous Italian buffo singer, who went to London early in the nineteenth century, and obtained great eclat. He was accidentally killed at Paris in 1819, by the explosion of an apparatus which had been invented for cooking by steam. This person, who possessed a marvellous power of facial con- tortion, has been consigned to immortality by Byron, in the line — " Watch each distortion of a Naldi's face," which occurs in the " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers." Nalson, John, val'-son, an English divine, who, after having gone through the usual course of a university education at Cambridge, obtained the living of Doddington, and a prebend in Ely eathednal. He was the author of "An Imperial Collection of the Affairs of State, from the Scotch Rebellion to the Murder of Charles the First," and also wrote an account of the trial of that monarch. B. 1638 ; d. 1686. Nani, John Baptist, nd-ne, a Venetian histo- rian, who in 1641 was admitted to the College of Senators, and sent ambassador to France. He returned to Venice in 1648, having obtained from Louis XIII. considerable succours for car- rying on the war against the Turks. In 1654 he was sent as ambassador to Germany, where he rendered great services to the republic. He continued to serve his country on many great occasions, and was appointed procurator of St. Mark. He wrote the History of Venice. B.1616; ». 1678. Najthi, John, nan'-iM, a celebrated orna- 76* mental artist, who received instructions from Raffaelle, and decorated the Vatican with groups of birds, plants, fruits, &c._ b. 1487 ; i>. 1564. Nanteuil, Robert, nan'te(r)-e, a celebrated French miniature-painter and engraver, who drew the portrait of Louis XIV., in crayons, with such elegance, that the king appointed him de- signer and engraver to his cabinet. His engrav- ings of portraits are highly valued, b. at Rheims, 1630; d. at Paris, 1678. Napieb, John, Baron, of Merchiston, nA-peer 1 , a celebrated Scotch mathematician, who, to- wards the close of the 16th century, discovered the method of superseding long and laborious arithmetical operations by the invention of his logarithmic tables, which, says Laplace, in his " Systeme du Monde," " by reducing to a few days the labour of many months, doubles, as it were, the life of an astronomer, besides freeing him from the errors and disgust inseparable from long calculations." The principles of this great invention were detailed by Napier in two works, published in the years 1614 and 1619. Besides other works, he wrote a curious pam- phlet, entitled "Secret Inventions profitable and necessary in these Days for the Defence of the Island," the original of which is kept in the archbishop of Canterbury's library at Lambeth. b. at Merchiston Castle, near Edinburgh, 1550j d. at the same place, 1617. Napieb, William John, Lord, a British naval officer, entered the service at the age of 16, and was a midshipman on board the Defiance at the battle of Trafalgar. In 1833 he was appointed superintendent of the interests of the British nation in China, and arrived at Macao in July, 1834. Obstacles were placed in the way of his mission by the governor of Canton, who was desirous of obtaining delay until he could com- municate with Pekin ; but Lord Napier was not inclined to delay the superintendence of those interests which he had been appointed to pro- tect, and sailed up the Canton river, and arrived at the Canton factory in his boat on July 24. The next morning the governor issued orders that he should return to Macao, which were replied to by a positive refusal : commercial transactions between the British and Chinese merchants were prohibited by the governor; on which Lord Napier sent the Imo- gene and Andromache frigates up the Bogue river, which were fired at by the forts, and the Chinese forts were demolished by the ships' guns. This was on the 17th of September; and the ships, owing to calms, being obliged to anchor for several days, Lord Napier became seriously indisposed on the 14th, and the men- of-war were ordered to " move out of the river," in order to avoid further interruption to com- merce, and Lord Napier returned to Macao, where, on the 11th of October, 1834, he expired. b. at Kinsale, 1787. Napieb, Sir Charles John, a modern British admiral, who, in 1799, at the age of 13, entered the navy, and served in the North Sea on board the Martin sloop of war. In the following year he went to the Mediterranean station, where he took part in several minor actions, and had his thigh broken by a shot during an engagement between the Recruit brig and a French corvette. In 1809 he displayed signal bravery at the taking of Martinique, being the first to scale the walls. For this and some subsequent services he was made post-captain; after which he 6erve