THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 <J 

 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 By 
 WILLIAM SKARSTROM, M. D. 
 
 Associate Professor of Physical Education 
 Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. 
 
 AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 DISTRIBUTING AGENT 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 
 
 1914
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1914 
 
 BY 
 WILLIAM SKARSTROM
 
 GV 
 
 363 
 PREFACE. 
 
 For a number of years some of my friends had been asking me 
 to write on the subject of Gymnastic Teaching, and finally Dr. 
 J. H. McCurdy persuaded me to undertake the task. Like "Gym- 
 nastic Kinesiology" it was done, with the exception of the Appen- 
 dix, in the form of monthly contributions to the PHYSICAL 
 EDUCATION REVIEW during the past three years. 
 
 In this presentation I cannot claim to have added anything new 
 to the subject. Nor have I tried to make an exposition of any 
 particular system. It is merely an attempt to pick out and eluci- 
 date some of the principles underlying all gymnastic work and to 
 show some of the possibilities of their varied application under 
 different conditions. While some phases of the subject, such 
 as the values and effects of the work, are still largely in the 
 theory stage, the practical aspects of the work methods and 
 technique of teaching it, and the management of gymnastic mate- 
 rial have been abundantly tried and their effectiveness reason- 
 ably well proven. Indeed, the part of the discussion which deals 
 with this side of the subject is but the summary of results of 
 more than twenty years of study, observation and experience in 
 teaching the work under fairly varied conditions in the Y. M. 
 C. A., in secondary schools, colleges and normal schools. 
 
 The book is offered to teachers and students of physical educa- 
 tion with the hope that it may prove helpful in the adaptation of 
 gymnastic work to all kinds of conditions, but especially with a 
 view to meeting conditions in educational institutions. If it will 
 contribute to a broader, more liberal point of view, to a greater 
 interest in and more effective teaching of gymnastic work, and 
 thus to a fuller realization of its potential values, the effort will 
 not have been made in vain. 
 
 My grateful acknowledgment of helpful suggestions would 
 include all the friends with whom I have been associated during 
 the past twenty-two years. Among those who aroused my interest 
 and guided me during my first years of teaching are Drs. J. H. 
 McCurdy, C. J. Enebuske and L. Collin. In forming my point 
 of view and general ideas on the subject I owe much to profitable 
 discussion with these friends as well as Drs. L. H. Gulick, G. L. 
 Meylan, C. W. Crampton, T. D. Wood, F. Leonard and others. 
 In the systematizing and grading of apparatus work for men I 
 received much help from Dr. G. L. Meylan, Mr. J. A. Davis and 
 Mr. A. I. Prettyman while engaged in teaching the work at 
 Columbia University. And to the stimulating, encouraging and 
 steadying influence of Miss Amy Morris Homans I shall always 
 attribute a large part of whatever success I may have attained 
 in teaching the practical as well as theoretical side of the subject. 
 
 Wellesley, June, 1914. 
 
 674363
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Principles of selection and systematizing, grading and progression of 
 
 activities are fundamental in education. 
 Place of gymnastics in physical education. Diversity of theory and 
 
 method. 
 
 The element of definitcness in gymnastics. 
 The spirit of the work and the spirit of teaching. 
 
 II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 1. SOME ESSENTIALS FOR SUCCESSFUL TEACHING. 
 
 Personality of the teacher. 
 Knowledge of principles and methods. 
 
 2. CONTROL AND CLASS MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Incentives. 
 
 Will power. 
 
 Interest: Getting and keeping in touch with class. 
 
 * 3. DISCIPLINE AND ATTENTION.' 
 4. LEADERSHIP AND FRIENDLY RELATIONS. 
 Suggestion and ex-ample. 
 Personal relations between teacher and class. 
 
 III. METHODS AND TECHNIQUE. 
 
 1. FORMATIONS, DISTRIBUTION AND POSITION OF CLASS ON THE FLOOR. 
 
 Variation in the formation, by facings, during class exercises. 
 
 2. GYMNASTIC COMMANDS. 
 
 Essential features of commands. 
 
 Different kinds of commands. 
 
 General factors in the use of commands. 
 
 3. THE TECHNIQUE OF COMMANDS. 
 
 The preparatory part of the command. 
 
 The pause in the command. 
 
 The final part of the command. 
 
 The use of the numerals. 
 
 Commands for stopping rhythmic exercises. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 4. THE ACTIVE AND RELAXED GYMNASTIC POSITIONS. 
 
 5. INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Preparation of teacher. 
 
 Presentation of exercises. 
 
 Supplementary instruction: Cues, admonitions and stimulation.
 
 vi CONTENTS 
 
 6. CORRECTION. 
 
 Systematic observation of class work. 
 Causes of faults. 
 
 Summary of methods of correcting. 
 The technique of manual correction. 
 
 7. REVIEW AND SUMMARY OF METHODS OF TEACHING DIFFERENT TYPES 
 
 OF WORK. 
 
 Exercises of the indefinite type. 
 Methods and technique of teaching. 
 The definite type of exercises. 
 Methods of teaching. 
 Rhythm and definiteness. 
 
 IV. SUBJECT-MATTER. 
 
 1. AIMS AND VALUES OF GYMNASTICS. 
 
 (1) The hygienic aim. 
 
 (2) The educational aim. 
 
 Objective and subjective motor training. 
 Good posture and erect carriage. 
 Equalization of growth and development. 
 Acquisition of useful forms of agility. 
 Mental, moral and social training. 
 
 (3) The recreational aspect of gymnastics. 
 
 (4) Adaptation of aims to conditions. 
 
 2. SELECTION. 
 
 3. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 (1) Order exercises. 
 
 (2) Leg and arm exercises. 
 
 (3) Arching movements. 
 
 The factors which determine posture. 
 Faulty posture. 
 Posture training. 
 
 (4) Compensatory movements. 
 
 (5) Lateral trunk exercises. 
 
 (6) Abdominal exercises. 
 
 (7) Back and shoulder blade exercises. 
 
 A. Shoulder blade movements. 
 
 Fixation of shoulder girdle. 
 
 B. General back movements. 
 (8). Charges. 
 
 (9) Balance exercises. 
 
 ( 10) Suspension exercises. 
 
 (11) Arm support exercises. 
 
 (12) Jumping and vaulting. 
 
 (13) Running and running games. 
 
 (14) Respiratory exercises. 
 
 4. THE CONTENT AND CHARACTER OF THE GYMNASTIC LESSON. 
 
 Proper distribution of work. 
 
 Warming up. 
 
 Progressive organic activity as guide. 
 
 Totality or all-round character. 
 
 General lesson plan. 
 
 Arrangement. 
 
 Outline of series of free-standing exercises.
 
 CONTENTS vii 
 
 Modifications. 
 
 Variety in selection, combination and sequence. 
 
 The apparatus work. 
 
 Running, marching and breathing exercises. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 5. PROGRESSION. 
 
 Progression as applied to gymnastic lessons. 
 Within the lesson. From lesson to lesson. 
 Repetition. 
 
 Principles of progression of free-standing exercises. 
 General considerations. 
 Types and their relative difficulty. 
 Complexity. 
 
 Combination and alternation. 
 Speed. 
 Rhythm. 
 
 Derived starting positions. 
 
 Terminology of starting positions and the movements through 
 which they are reached. 
 
 6. APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF PROGRESSION IN THE VARIOUS CLASSES 
 
 AND TYPES OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES. 
 Leg and arm movements. 
 Arching movements. 
 Compensatory exercises. 
 Lateral trunk exercises. 
 Back exercises. 
 
 A. Shoulder blade movements. 
 
 B. General back movements. 
 Abdominal exercises. 
 Balance exercises. , 
 Charges. 
 
 7. PROGRESSION OF APPARATUS EXERCISES. 
 
 General considerations. 
 Suspension exercises. 
 Arm support exercises. 
 Jumping and vaulting. 
 
 A. Jumping. 
 
 B. Vaulting. 
 
 c. Swing jumps. 
 
 8. PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS. 
 
 Series i. High School Girls. First year. 
 
 Series 2. High School Girls. Second year. 
 
 Series j. High School Boys. First year. 
 
 Series 4. High School Boys. Second year. 
 
 Series 5. College Women. First year. 
 
 Series 6. College Women. Second year. 
 
 Series 7. College Men. First year. 
 
 Series 8. College Men. Second year. 
 
 V. APPENDIX. 
 
 1. PROGRESSION LISTS OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES. 
 Leg and arm movements. 
 
 (1) Foot placings, heel raising, etc. 
 
 (2) Knee bending, alternate knee bending, side lunge, etc.
 
 viii CONTENTS 
 
 Arching movements. 
 Compensatory movements. 
 Lateral trunk exercises. 
 
 (1) Trunk twistings. 
 
 (2) Side bendings, leg flinging sidew., etc. 
 Back and shoulder blade movements. 
 Abdominal exercises. 
 
 Balance exercises. 
 
 Arm movements. 
 
 Charges. 
 
 Free-standing jumps, toe jumps, etc. 
 
 2. PROGRESSION LISTS OF APPARATUS EXERCISES. 
 TERMINOLOGY. 
 
 (1) APPARATUS EXERCISES FOR WOMEN. 
 
 Horizontal Ladder. 
 
 High Boom. 
 
 Low Boom. 
 
 Double Boom. 
 
 Saddle Boom. 
 
 Vertical Ropes. 
 
 Window Ladder. 
 
 Rope Ladders. 
 
 Vaulting Box. 
 
 Side Horse. 
 
 Long Horse. 
 
 Buck. 
 
 Parallel Bars. 
 
 High Jumps. , 
 
 Broad Jumps. 
 
 (2) APPARATUS EXERCISES FOR MEN. 
 
 Horizontal Ladder. 
 Suspended Parallels. 
 Vertical Ropes. 
 High Horizontal Bar. 
 Low Horizontal Bar. 
 Side Horse. 
 Buck. 
 
 Parallel Bars. 
 High Jumps. 
 Broad Jumps. 
 Tumbling. 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 INDEX.
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING. 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The principles of selection and systematizing, grading and 
 progression of activities are fundamental in all education. 
 
 The complex conditions of modern civilized life necessitate the 
 employment of a variety of means and an increasing amount of 
 time in preparing the youth of the race to take their places in the 
 community. The means used aim to produce in the average individ- 
 ual the greatest possible amount of adaptability to his environ- 
 ment, the greatest possible efficiency as a unit in the social struc- 
 ture. To attain this end it is not enough that he be sheltered and 
 nurtured and have his bodily needs supplied, while growth and 
 development bodily, mental and moral (or social) are left to 
 "nature," that is, to haphazard contact with the environment. 
 In most progressive countries such education is considered so 
 inadequate that the law of the land compels the individual to 
 submit to an artificial process, a kind of forcing process, intended 
 to give him at least the rudiments of general knowledge and such 
 intellectual and moral discipline as will enable him to become a 
 safe and useful citizen. 
 
 In this educational process the agencies used are selected activi- 
 ties, adapted to the powers of the individual at any given stage 
 of his development. These activities offer a certain amount of 
 difficulty, at no time too great to be overcome, but so gauged to 
 the individual's ability that success may only be attained through 
 concentrated and persistent effort. In other words, the activities, 
 besides being carefully selected and systematic, are graded and 
 progressive. The haphazard, hit-or-miss principle of learning 
 by blundering, unguided experience is too wasteful of time to 
 be of use in this training process. The selection aims to be inclu- 
 sive and varied enough to give full scope to all the growing pow- 
 ers of the individual. The ordering and progression of the sub- 
 jects and the methods of teaching are such as to demand sus- 
 tained and concentrated attention, careful observation, correct 
 deduction and expression. In this way habits of logical thinking 
 and rational action are promoted and the capacity for further 
 growth insured.
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 In that part of the educational process which comes under the 
 head of physical education, the same general purposes are aimed 
 at. Here particular attention is paid to instruction in the care 
 of the body, to the formation of ideals and habits of healthy 
 living. Physical education also aims to make a definite contri- 
 bution to the all-round training of 'the individual. It gives oppor- 
 tunity for and guidance in those bodily activities involving the 
 large muscle groups, which are so essential for the proper growth 
 and development of the somatic organs and of the bony and mus- 
 cular systems, as well as of all the fundamental nerve centers 
 and, indeed, of the whole central nervous system. Such neuro- 
 muscular training is recognized as basal to all other training. 
 
 In physical education, as in all other departments of the edu- 
 cational scheme, the principle of selection is applied. Efforts are 
 made to select those activities which promise the greatest returns 
 in health and social training, harmonious bodily growth and devel- 
 opment, increased neuro-muscular efficiency. Here, as every- 
 where, there is some diversity of opinion regarding the values 
 which are most worth striving for, to the attainment of which 
 the limited time and resources at our disposal should be devoted. 
 Again, even when, in the main, there is agreement in this respect, 
 there are different theories regarding the best means of securing 
 these values : such as selection of the right activities, the details 
 of management and methods which will produce the surest and 
 quickest results. This diversity of theory and procedure is no 
 doubt for the best, as out of it will probably be evolved, eventu- 
 ally (indeed is already being evolved), the underlying principles 
 which should guide in the adaptation of the work to different con- 
 ditions, groups and individuals. 
 
 The place of gymnastics in physical education. Diversity of 
 theory conducive to growth, even though it lead to some confusion 
 and ineffective teaching. 
 
 Of the activities employed in physical education gymnastics 
 have offered, and still do offer, large scope for individual initia- 
 tive and variation in the selection of material, in definition, in 
 arrangement and in methods of teaching. Here, too, there is 
 abundant need as well as opportunity for the evolution of funda- 
 mental principles. Most systems of gymnastics represent attempts 
 to embody such fundamental principles. At any rate, they may 
 be said to be traditional applications of certain principles, some 
 of which may be fundamental and essential, others not. Because 
 they are traditional, however that is, associated with and the 
 outgrowth of a certain set of conditions and circumstances they 
 are not necessarily suited to all other conditions. In each there
 
 INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 will be found valuable features in subject matter, procedure or 
 method which may be readily adapted to and included in any 
 scheme of work systematized with a view to meet new or special 
 conditions. Thus, for example, the definite, clean-cut character 
 of the exercises in Swedish gymnastics, the rhythmical continuity 
 of German and Y. M. C. A. gymnastics, and much of the appara- 
 tus work in each, are features which will probably always be 
 deemed desirable and made use of in any effort to organize and 
 systematize gymnastic work to meet conditions in this country. 
 A distinct American system of gymnastics may some day be 
 evolved, but with our present political and educational organiza- 
 tion that day seems as yet far off. In the meanwhile, each one 
 must solve his or her own local problem by modification or adap- 
 tation of the principal types or systems of gymnastics as practiced 
 and taught by their respective exponents. The emphasis on one 
 feature or another will vary with the conditions to be met, and 
 with individual judgment, predilection or bias. 
 
 In this effort to adapt gymnastic work to a variety of condi- 
 tions there is bound to be some confusion of ideas, some clashing 
 of conceptions and theories regarding selection and management 
 of material, methods of teaching and procedure. Not infrequently 
 more interest and energy is given to discussion and controversy 
 about the theoretical aspects of these questions, than to their 
 practical application in daily teaching and guidance of the pupils. 
 This tends to lower the estimate placed on teaching ability and 
 skill, to relegate the actual teaching to young and inexperienced 
 teachers, and even to the neglect, or at least curtailment, of the 
 practical preparation of teachers in the science and art of teach- 
 ing. To resulting inefficient teaching is to be attributed, in a large 
 measure, the lack of interest in gymnastic work which is too 
 often apparent among older children and adolescents, as well as 
 the lack of appreciation and recognition for such work on the 
 part of school authorities. Such an attitude in turn reacts unfa- 
 vorably on the teachers, tends to dampen their enthusiasm and 
 compels them to resort to various devices to make the work 
 attractive in a superficial way. This often involves a loss of time 
 for honest, effective work, or else so thoroughly disguises the 
 latter that there is little chance of its recognition. All such 
 efforts, when carried too far, indicate a lack of conviction or 
 strength on the part of the teacher, and tend to place gymnastics 
 in the position of a pill, more or less bitter, that has to be taken 
 as a corrective to the unfavorable influences of school life on 
 posture. 
 
 While the right kind of gymnastic work undoubtedly does 
 serve this corrective purpose better than any other agency, to
 
 4 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 limit its application to this function alone, to deny its claim to a 
 wider field of usefulness, is willfully to ignore the lessons of the 
 past and the evidences of a more general effectiveness so obvious 
 to any intelligent observer. Such a reactionary attitude toward 
 the work is unfortunate and unwarranted. It tends to bring it 
 into disfavor and to retard its development as a positive educa- 
 tional factor,- capable of contributing an important part to the 
 all-around training of the individual and deserving a recognized 
 place in the educational curriculum. That it serves a broader 
 and more constructive purpose than merely a corrective one, is 
 admitted by an increasing number of educators, and is shown 
 by the greater amount of time and credit allotted to it in edu- 
 cational institutions. 
 
 To justify the claims of gymnastics for recognition as an inte- 
 gral part of the school and college curriculum, it behooves the 
 gymnastic teachers to make the work appreciated at its true worth 
 by both pupils and school authorities. They must infuse into 
 it an element of life and enthusiasm that will make it interesting 
 and enjoyable to the pupils; enjoyable not as fun or play (except 
 in the case of young children), but through the sense of exhilara- 
 tion and satisfaction of doing something worth while, something 
 which is immediately and permanently beneficial, which is beau- 
 tiful, because vigorous, effective and well done, something in 
 which a number of individuals work together in unison, each 
 reacting on the other and each having a share in the success of 
 the work as a whole. Educators must be convinced, by the 
 results obtained, that gymnastic work is something more than 
 corrective exercises ; that its true function is to serve as a means 
 of subjective motor education, in which posture education is 
 included and emphasized ; that it is capable of being used inten- 
 sively and systematically, by procedure and methods suited to 
 educational institutions and harmonizing with other educational 
 material and methods as regards grading, progression, examina- 
 tions, interest, incentive, and the permanent influence on the indi- 
 vidual's development and personality. 
 
 The element of defwiteness in gymnastics. 
 
 If the object of gymnastics is to be more than merely muscular 
 exercise either for the purpose of stimulating the physiological 
 functions, or of producing local muscular development ; if it is 
 to be more than a form of amusement or a pretty show; if the 
 work is to make good its claim to recognition as a positive edu- 
 cational factor, it should be of such a character as to require and 
 train power of voluntary attention, a sharpened kinesthetic sense, 
 the habit of quick and accurate response to motor stimuli. It
 
 INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 should offer and demand correct solution of definite motor prob- 
 lems, involving precision, speed, balance, quick and sure weight 
 adjustment, rhythm. It should conduce to erect bearing by 
 requiring a good posture in all exercises, and by including a num- 
 ber of exercises in which the muscles responsible for good posture 
 are given vigorous and sustained work under varying difficulties, 
 all with a view to increase the tone, endurance and localized con- 
 trol of these muscles, and to cultivate a good posture sense. 
 
 To accomplish these objects "gymnastic work must be selected, 
 defined and taught in a way to focus attention, to exercise the 
 discriminative and inhibitory powers and to elicit vigorous, clean- 
 cut, well-adjusted motor reactions. To be capable of presenta- 
 tion to, and execution in unison by, a number of individuals, and 
 in a manner to bring out their full effects, the exercises must be 
 relatively simple, or at least capable of subdivision into simple 
 elements, each of which may be presented and executed as a 
 complete movement. These elements must be sharply defined in 
 every detail, such as plane or direction, kind, extent and speed 
 of movement; the parts of the body involved; the exact rela- 
 tion of these parts in the position reached by the movement ; 
 relative length of time spent in the movement and in holding 
 position rhythm. 
 
 "With this exactness of definition, there must be insistence on 
 promptness, precision and unison in the execution. Whether the 
 exercises are done singly on command, or repeated rhythmically, 
 each movement or part (if compound or alternating) must be 
 completed and the position marking its completion held an appre- 
 ciable length of time, before the return, or the next part is begun. 
 This involves checking momentum and overcoming inertia at 
 every point, introduces the element of balance and redistribution 
 of weight more frequently or more prominently, compels more 
 complete, powerful and varied muscular action, and gives the 
 pupil an opportunity to note and understand what he is doing, 
 as well as the teacher a chance to help him, if necessary."* 
 
 This "definiteness" of gymnastic movements makes them in a 
 sense artificial. Only rarely, in the lives of most of us, is there 
 call for elementary, isolated movements of this kind. But, surely, 
 concentration of attention and effort, exactness, completeness and 
 speed of muscular contraction, and power of localizing movement 
 are elements which enter into all skilled and efficient action and 
 are therefore applicable to the ordinary movements of daily life. 
 
 Moreover, unless artificially "definite" in this way, gymnastic 
 exercises, like ordinary movements, will tend to be done in lines 
 of least resistance, in regions of the body where the movement 
 
 *Gymnastic Kinesiology, Wm. Skarstrom.
 
 6 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 is easiest, by moderate contraction of many muscle groups and 
 those usually the strongest, best developed. Exercises in which 
 this definiteness is lacking are apt to consist chiefly of acquired 
 reflex coordinations, and do not compel the discriminating and 
 inhibitory guidance of the higher motor centers involved in learn- 
 ing new combinations of muscular group actions. They there- 
 fore give very little opportunity for the refinement of motor 
 control, for the opening up of new connections of motor associa- 
 tions, for increasing the power of muscular localization. Instead 
 of improving they rather tend to confirm undesirable habits 
 of movement and posture. Then, too, "indefinite" exercises 
 are difficult to standardize in a way to enable the pupil to judge 
 the result of his effort, or the teacher to express his criticism and 
 to offer suggestion or assistance in an effectual manner. The 
 tendency to distribute movement over wide areas, and so to save 
 the complete and powerful contraction of circumscribed muscular 
 groups: is unchecked. This tendency to save effort locally leads 
 to habits of listless, cumbersome or slovenly movement (or 
 at least makes improvement of such habits a difficult matter), 
 and precludes proper development and localized control of the 
 muscles.* The curtailment of the range of motion in the joints, 
 or at least of certain kinds of motion, which is sure to occur 
 sooner or later as age advances, is favored by this tendency 
 to distribute movement. Gymnastic exercises of the "definite," 
 localized type combat this tendency. By demanding strong con- 
 traction of all parts of the muscles and the full range of motion 
 in the joints, they are conducive to completeness of muscular 
 development, tend to increase the power of localizing movement 
 as well as muscular contraction and to retard the gradual limita- 
 tion of mobility. 
 
 From the foregoing it must not be inferred that all gymnastic 
 exercises should conform in all respects to the above characteriza- 
 tion of definite movements. Definiteness in the gymnastic 
 sense does not fix a limit for the selection and combination of 
 movements, although it undeniably leads to some restriction in 
 these respects. It is rather a quality or style of execution which 
 may be infused into any kind of exercise to a greater or less 
 degree. Nor does it imply exclusion of movements of a general 
 character, which by virtue of greater distribution of muscular 
 action are particularly well suited to bring out the organic or 
 physiological effects of exercise. On the contrary, the effort to 
 retain the quality of definiteness as far as possible in such move- 
 ments, especially as regards completeness, vigor, speed, etc., will 
 enhance their value and increase their effectiveness in stimulat- 
 
 *The all-or-none theory of muscular contraction is of interest in this connection.
 
 INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 ing the great organs. Moreover, as rhythmical continuity is by 
 no means incompatible with definiteness if the exercises are 
 properly taught the majority of the exercises in a lesson, when 
 done serially or rhythmically, may be made to contribute in a con- 
 siderable degree to this general effect. 
 
 In attempting to describe a certain character and spirit of 
 gymnastic work and to include it all in the rather inadequate term 
 "definiteness," the customary setting forth and discussion of the 
 aims and objects of gymnastics has been more or less incidental. 
 (These will be restated and discussed in a later chapter, prelimi- 
 nary to the study of selection, classification and arrangement of 
 exercises.) The division of the gymnastic lesson into groups of 
 exercises representing, respectively, the corrective, educational 
 and hygienic phases of gymnastics, should not be so prominent 
 in the teacher's mind that, while striving for one kind of effects 
 by one set of exercises, he allows himself to lose sight of the 
 effects aimed at by the others. Rather it should be a question 
 of emphasis. The mental attitude of the teacher in this respect 
 is of considerable practical importance. It may make or mar 
 the success of the lesson and of the whole work. But the thorough 
 application of the principle of definiteness and the constant striv- 
 ing for a greater degree of it will more or less obscure any 
 lines of demarcation and will tend to make every exercise effective 
 in the several directions, though perhaps more in some than in 
 others. At all events, the striving for definiteness, as an ideal in 
 teaching, cannot fail to improve the quality and increase the 
 effectiveness of gymnastic work. 
 
 The spirit of the work and the spirit of teaching. 
 
 Careful selection and clear definition of the exercises do not, 
 in themselves, insure that definiteness of execution by the class 
 which is necessary in order to produce the desired results. The 
 arrangement and combination of movements in making up the 
 lessons, rational progression from day to day, as well as techni- 
 cal skill in teaching and class management are at least equally 
 important in getting the work done properly. Above all, the 
 teacher's personality his enthusiasm, vitality, strength of con- 
 viction and purpose, as expressed through the technical resources 
 of the art of teaching, or through his influence in making the 
 pupils apply what they learn in class to daily habits of movement 
 and posture will determine the degree of success of the work, 
 here as everywhere. 
 
 To elicit the response and secure the cooperation necessary for 
 effective work, the teacher must create a "spirit of the work," 
 expressing itself in snappy and energetic action and cheerful alac-
 
 8 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 rity. To make that spirit grow, he must imbue the pupils with 
 his own enthusiasm and interest in the work, give them some 
 idea of its main purpose, character and plan. Then demand, as 
 a matter of course, the best efforts of which they are capable; 
 insist, without nagging, that they do full justice to themselves and 
 the work. Assume, in general, that any lapse, or failure to do 
 good work, is due to a lack of understanding, either of a particu- 
 lar exercise, or of the spirit of the work. Make them feel that 
 the teacher is not a taskmaster, but is working with them and for 
 them. 
 
 To foster this spirit of cooperation, every teacher should give 
 of himself freely, spend himself almost to the limit of his powers, 
 be indefatigable in his interest in each individual. As his techni- 
 cal teaching skill increases he should not use it to save himself, 
 but rather to get greater results from his efforts : better response, 
 more vigorous and accurate execution of the exercises, deeper and 
 more lasting impressions on the pupils. Then follow up the class 
 teaching by admonitions, advice, help or encouragement outside 
 of the classroom in the examining room, in the office, on the 
 gymnasium floor outside of class hours, in the dressing room, on 
 the campus, yard or even street. Mingle with the pupils freely 
 and try to get at their point of view. Enter into their interests. 
 Satisfy their minds, as far as possible, on matters of administra- 
 tion and management as well as on subject matter, whenever 
 there is frank, honest questioning or misapprehension. Do not 
 keep aloof. Treat them as fair-minded beings and take them 
 into your confidence as far as feasible. Meet them on terms of 
 human equality at all times ; make them feel that the classroom 
 discipline and formal relations are merely devices necessary to 
 facilitate instruction and make possible cooperative action in 
 which each has an equal share. Such a spirit will always be 
 appreciated by a class and insure the hearty support and willing 
 cooperation of a majority of its members.
 
 II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 1. SOME ESSENTIALS FOR SUCCESSFUL TEACHING. 
 
 The elements of strength and success of a teacher lie within 
 himself rather than in external conditions and circumstances. 
 They are dependent largely on inherent qualities which are not to 
 be acquired-by imitation of someone else, or by trying to live up to 
 certain rules or formulas. Style, method, system, while of some 
 importance, are not essential. Good results may be obtained in 
 various ways, if fundamental principles are adhered to. While 
 some successful teaching is achieved by untrained teachers who 
 instinctively or by long experience have found and followed 
 main principles, or who make up for lack of technical skill by 
 enthusiasm, devotion, and energy, it must be admitted that a great 
 deal of mediocre work is done which might be vastly improved if 
 the teachers were better trained, not only in the sciences on which 
 the work itself is based, but in the art of teaching it. Here, as 
 everywhere else, there is the same difference between skilled and 
 unskilled work, between crude if ever so honest efforts and finished 
 workmanship. Even the born teacher, the natural genius, may 
 profit and the quality of his work be improved by a study of 
 principles and technique, with a view to making him a finished 
 artist; while those who are more modestly equipped by nature 
 may gain proficiency and facility by the same process. 
 
 Learning by practice and experience, while perhaps the most 
 effective way, is not always sufficient. It is costly, severe, and 
 often slow in its results. Many mistakes and trials may be avoided 
 by understanding from the outset certain general principles which 
 underlie all teaching and certain details of method and procedure 
 peculiar to our own work. Proficiency is never attained without 
 experience, but theoretical considerations and careful, intelligent 
 observation may enable us to derive a larger measure of profit 
 from our own experience, and to increase it considerably by turn- 
 ing to profitable account the experience of others. 
 
 Three things, then, are indispensable for complete success: 
 
 L Natura^L aptitude and a strong personality. 2. A study of 
 
 principles and methods with observation of their practical applica- 
 tion. 3. Actual practice and experience in teaching. Any one 
 or two without the other (s) will leave something to be desired; 
 too great reliance on any one with neglect of the others will 
 militate against the fullest measure of success.
 
 10 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Personality of the teacher. The first of these essentials in- 
 cludes the character, the living power, keen insight, resourceful- 
 ness, zeal, faithfulness, energy, enthusiasm, willingness to give of 
 himself without stint in short, all those qualities, ideals, and hab- 
 its of the teacher which taken together make up his personality. 
 These cannot be communicated or subjected to rules and defini- 
 tions, being infinitely varied and subtle. The qualities which make 
 one teacher successful may not be the same as those which make 
 another equally strong and successful. 
 
 Perhaps in no other calling does personality play such an 
 important role as in that of teaching. In most occupations the 
 efficiency of the worker depends mainly on his special physical 
 and mental qualifications, the dealings between people which are 
 involved being related to material things. But with the teacher, as 
 with the minister and physician, the working material itself is the 
 human mind, and here the influence of personality finds its greatest 
 scope. This is especially true in gymnastics because of the intimate 
 relation and close association between teacher and pupils. Here, 
 even more than anywhere, it is as much a question of what a man 
 is, as what he does. Among the personal attributes which make 
 for the success of a teacher are : Patience, cheerfulness, good 
 temper ; keen sense of humor, ready wit, a level head ; sympathy, 
 sense of justice, self-control, leadership ; vitality and a fairly good 
 physique; quick eye and ear and a good voice. Many of these, if 
 existing in an undeveloped state, may be cultivated and made 
 stronger by resolute desire and effort of will, and by creating as far 
 as possible an environment favorable for their growth from 
 within. Some of them may also be developed by formal training. 
 
 Knowledge of principles and methods. While the personality 
 of the teacher the sum total of his natural endowment, his educa- 
 tion and general experience is perhaps the most important single 
 item on which successful work depends, his technical training and 
 teaching skill constitute an almost equally essential part of his 
 equipment. Such technical training should include a study of the 
 main anatomical, physiological, and psychological facts on which 
 the selection, definition, arrangement and progression of the 
 work are based ; a working knowledge of the general principles of 
 all teaching, sufficient to an understanding of the little peculiari- 
 ties of human nature that are constantly met and have to be 
 reckoned with, serving to warn him against and enable him to 
 avoid many pedagogical pitfalls and difficulties faults of com- 
 mission or omission which experience has shown to be conducive 
 to ill success. Along with this general theoretical training should 
 go a' study and practice of the subject-matter to be taught, with a 
 view to attaining at least moderate ability and skill as a performer,
 
 ESSENTIALS FOR SUCCESSFUL TEACHING 11 
 
 and insuring an ample, varied, and accurate knowledge of the 
 material. Familiarity with the subject-matter should be much 
 wider than the exigencies of any particular class-teaching at 
 any given time might require, so as to have a reserve for emer- 
 gencies, to allow for leeway and loss in transmission, and in order 
 to give the teacher a sense of security and confidence. It will 
 enable him to meet unexpected contingencies, such as stating 
 reasons for a given procedure, or the preference for one rather 
 than another. Finally, the earnest and most painstaking efforts 
 of every prospective or actual teacher should be given to a con- 
 sideration of the devices by which instruction in this particular 
 work is made effective, the methods used for accomplishing the 
 results that the work stands for: the use of language, voice, 
 demonstration, etc. ; in short, the technique of teaching gymnas- 
 tics. 
 
 That any special technical training is required, or, indeed, that 
 there is any such thing as a special technique in teaching gymnas- 
 tics, is hardly realized by the public or even by teachers of other 
 subjects. This is not to be wondered at, considering that it is 
 not so long since the chief qualification of a teacher was considered 
 to be skill or reputation as a performer. Until recently very 
 little emphasis has been given to the technique of teaching, even 
 in normal courses. And this in spite of the fact, attested by 
 teachers who have had other experience, that gymnastics is one 
 of the most difficult subjects to teach, requiring as it does absolute 
 attention, vigorous effort, and intelligent cooperation of all the 
 pupils at the same time. 
 
 Although some crude teaching still passes muster either be- 
 cause the public has not yet learned to judge the work critically, 
 or because the supply of well-trained teachers has not yet caught 
 up with the demand, or because, even when poorly taught, the work 
 may still yield some obvious, beneficial results nevertheless the 
 demand for skilled teachers is growing and the standards of 
 professional competence are rapidly advancing. In the normal 
 schools more and more attention is given to courses on the 
 principles and technique of teaching and greater facilities are 
 offered for practice-teaching. To qualify as teachers or super- 
 visors in public schools candidates are subjected to practical 
 tests in teaching and criticism as a part of their examination. 
 Other things being equal, the technically best equipped teachers 
 gjavitate toward the most desirable positions and so compel those 
 less thoroughly trained to seek opportunities for study and im- 
 provement, as witness the large and constantly increasing attend- 
 ance at summer schools and special courses. All these factors 
 are making for greater efficiency in teaching, for greater effective-
 
 12 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 ness of the work with correspondingly increased appreciation 
 and recognition. 
 
 In attempting to analyze the elements or factors which go toward 
 making gymnastic teaching effective or the reverse, and which 
 may be properly included in a study of the technique of teaching, 
 we are at once confronted with the difficulty offered by the 
 diversity of conditions under which the work is taught, the vary- 
 ing emphasis on the objects aimed at, and the consequent variations 
 in the style or type of work called for. Rules of technique and 
 method might lead to a stereotyped, lifeless style of teaching, a 
 feeling that only one way is right and all others wrong. To discuss 
 in a comprehensive and detailed manner all possible variations 
 would be too great and difficult an undertaking. Not until we 
 can foresee and provide for all possible conditions and discuss 
 methods in the light of a wide experience of each of these condi- 
 tions; not until we possess a complete knowledge of psychological 
 and physiological laws, can final, adequate rules be formulated. 
 Such a time will probably never come, nor would it be desirable, as 
 that would imply limitation to personal initiative and growth. It 
 will, therefore, be necessary to limit the discussion to certain topics 
 or phases of the subject, each embodying a few principles and 
 technical features which are applicable in greater or less degree to 
 all kinds of work. Among such topics are the following: Control 
 and class management; formations and the placing of the class 
 on the floor ; presentation and demonstration of exercises ; admo- 
 nitions and corrections ; commands ; the use of the active and 
 relaxed position ; combination and arrangement of exercises ; pro- 
 gression. In connection with some of these a few variations in 
 method or procedure will be considered and their respective 
 advantages or disadvantages pointed out. 
 
 2. CONTROL AND CLASS MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Some means by which control may be maintained. Whatever 
 may be the style of work taught, or the conditions under which 
 the work is carried on, or its aims and objects, the prime requisite 
 for successful teaching is that the teacher at all times have the class 
 well in hand, be the undisputed leader and the master of every 
 situation. Class control and management are at once the test 
 and the result of the teacher's personality, his understanding of 
 human nature, his ability to adjust himself to conditions as he 
 finds them (or better yet, his ability to make conditions suit him), 
 and his correct application of the principles underlying the work 
 and the technique of its teaching. Control may sometimes be 
 attained only after a struggle (of wits) in which the new teacher
 
 CONTROL AND CLASS MANAGEMENT 13 
 
 is compelled by the class to prove his right to leadership. But 
 even the best behaved class will, at the outset and from time to 
 time, often in subtle and apparently innocent ways, put the 
 teacher to the test, and if the latter fails to measure up to the 
 proper standard, if he is found wanting in those qualities which 
 may be expressed by the term power of command, the class will 
 gradually, but inevitably, drift away from habits of order, disci- 
 pline and good work to slackness, disorder, and mischief. Or the 
 interest in the work may fail either to materialize at all, or, if 
 existing at first, to be sustained. 
 
 How to secure and maintain control is a question the full 
 answer to which cannot be given, at least briefly, as it involves 
 everything: personality of the teacher; interest of the class in 
 the work, aroused and sustained by proper adaptation, progres- 
 sion and presentation of the work to the class ; the degree to which 
 the teacher is able to appeal to the various motives and incentives 
 of the class or individual members of it ; the teacher's will power 
 and vitality generally, and at any given lesson ; his ability to "get 
 in touch" with the class, to establish and maintain the right 
 personal relations; his attention to all the technical details of teach- 
 ing. 
 
 Incentives. Some teachers control largely by "exercising their 
 authority," by virtue of the awe or fear they inspire, by constantly 
 holding the whip of compulsion over their pupils. This form of 
 appeal is the lowest and should never be resorted to, except once 
 in a while in the case of refractory individuals after all other means 
 have failed. Other teachers control their classes through the 
 respect and affection they are able to inspire, by imbuing their 
 pupils with a desire to do their best in order to please the teacher 
 and gain his approbation ; others again because they are able to 
 arouse the sense of duty in their pupils, inducing them to try 10 
 do the work well because it is worth doing, or simply because it 
 is a part of their obligation to the institution ; or by appealing to 
 intelligent self-interest, to a commendable desire to derive the 
 greatest possible benefit from the work; still others chiefly by 
 communicating to their pupils their own enthusiasm and interest 
 in the work. All these avenues of appeal, except the first, are 
 useful and legitimate means of maintaining control, and the most 
 successful teachers are those who know how to play upon these 
 different motives and incentives of the class most skillfully, in 
 the right proportion and at the proper time. 
 
 Will power. One of the essentials in getting and keeping con- 
 trol of a class is a strong, well-trained will and a positive, deter- 
 mined mental attitude on the part of the teacher. Even when the 
 conditions under which he is working are in the main favorable, 
 he usually has to overcome the natural inertia, the disinclination
 
 14 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 to vigorous mental and bodily exertion on the part of the class 
 (and often of himself). This is particularly apt to be the case in 
 the beginning of the lesson, at the first "plunge" into the work, 
 before the class has become "warmed up" to it. But it is also 
 true to an almost equal extent throughout the lesson. To make 
 every member of the class execute each movement in the best 
 possible manner, in a way to accomplish the purpose for which it 
 is given, in perfect unison, with the utmost effort and painstaking 
 care, whether at the time agreeable or not, requires a combination 
 and interplay of will power between the teacher and the class 
 which taxes the strength and tests the mettle of both. Such com- 
 bined exercise of the wills of the leader and the group, the leader 
 furnishing the initiative, the impetus and the stimulation, is the 
 essential feature of all cooperative action. It does not mean 
 slavish obedience, the subjection of the pupil's will to that of the 
 teacher, but rather the guidance of the former by the latter in 
 the accomplishment of some definite object. The work, the duty, 
 or the cause is the real driving power of both the leader and the 
 group. In this sense obedience willing cooperation on the part 
 of the pupil is really induced exercise of the pupil's will and may 
 justly be considered effective in training of the will. At any rate, 
 cooperative action of this sort, produced in the 'first place by the 
 exercise of the teacher's will, and comprising as it does both 
 positive effort and inhibition of undesirable action, cannot fail to 
 inculcate habits of obedience to law and constituted authority, to 
 the self-restrictions imposed by an intelligent and worthy plan 
 of life, and to the suggestions or guidance of a chosen leader. 
 All these forms of obedience are necessary in any true democracy, 
 and must be rendered by every good citizen. "The habit of 
 obedience to law, of. bringing our actions into harmony with it, 
 is one of the first conditions of an orderly and well-disciplined 
 
 life Obedience is a habit and must be learned like any 
 
 other habit, by practice." (J. G. Fitch.) 
 
 The degree of obedience or willing cooperation on the part 
 of the class will then be the measure, for one thing, of the teacher's 
 will power. This in turn is expressed through his self-control, his 
 strength of purpose, and his ability to liberate energy. It will 
 vary with his physical condition, with his mental state, his ideals, 
 and temperament. Undue fatigue, emotional disturbance, even 
 atmospheric conditions may blunt the keen edge of his will power 
 and be reflected by slackness or poor quality of work on the part 
 of the class. Will power in the teacher will show itself among 
 other things by his self-possession, by a firm, decided, animated 
 attitude, manner, tone of voice; the lack of it by a nervous, 
 irritated, or uncertain manner, hesitation in voice and bearing, 
 aimless movements, superfluous speech, nervous mannerisms, etc.
 
 CONTROL AND CLASS MANAGEMENT 15 
 
 A quiet but determined manner, an air of expecting to be 
 listened to and obeyed as a matter of course, being an expression 
 of the real feeling that such is the case, will go a great way toward 
 securing that willing obedience which is the first requisite to 
 cooperation. On the other hand, "obedience cannot be gained 
 by demanding it (in words or by gestures which are supposed 
 to be manifestations of will power), or by explaining its useful- 
 ness, or by entreaty, or by threat all these are signs of weakness 
 and lack of will power." (Fitch.) 
 
 Interest: Getting and keeping in touch with the class. Class 
 control is very much dependent on the interest of the pupils in the 
 work. When this is lacking, control can only be maintained 
 through "the exercise of authority" in an undesirable way. In- 
 terest in turn depends on the proper adaptation, character, plan- 
 ning, progression, and presentation of the work. It also indicates 
 the teacher's ability to get in touch with the class, to establish 
 and maintain the right mental relations, to infuse into the class 
 his own interest in the work. While the teacher's personality 
 is a large factor in this as in everything, a judicious "introduction" 
 of the work to the class is of great help. A certain amount of 
 explanation by the teacher of the nature, plan, and purpose of the 
 work is always possible and should be given at the first meeting 
 of the class. The form and comprehensiveness of such a pre- 
 liminary statement will vary with the age of the pupils, their 
 probable attitude toward the work, and the conditions under which 
 it is carried on. At such a time, after having stated briefly and 
 clearly the objects of the work as he conceives them and what 
 kind of work in his judgment will best attain these objects, the 
 teacher may in a straightforward, simple way ask the pupils to 
 give him their cheerful cooperation in his efforts to organize the 
 class and to drill it in those details which are necessary to enable 
 him to handle it like a well-adjusted machine. He may appeal 
 to the "group spirit" by pointing out the necessity of each member 
 doing his best in order to insure unison, good quality, and finish 
 to the work of the class as a whole. He may suggest the advan- 
 tage of going slowly in the beginning so as to master fundamental 
 details before attempting more rapid and complex work, with a 
 view to progressing farther and faster in the long run. In conclu- 
 sion, he may show the importance of starting and finishing all 
 exercises in a good fundamental position. Then begin the lesson by 
 practicing this is an exercise in response to the command "Atten- 
 tion!" and in a way to make the contrast between this fundamen- 
 tal and the relaxed position as striking as possible. 
 
 When physical examinations are made before the work begins, 
 the teacher has a good opportunity to arouse the individual 
 pupil's interest by pointing out his needs for improvement and by
 
 16 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 giving him a general idea of the kind of work which will best 
 accomplish this. Here he can show him how to stand and walk 
 erect and urge him to practice this as a special exercise until he can 
 do it with ease and almost unconsciously. He can also emphasize 
 the importance of maintaining this forced erect carriage through- 
 out all individual and class exercises, and urge the advantage of 
 doing each exercise with the utmost accuracy and power. 
 
 The extent to which the teacher can in this way prepare the 
 minds of the pupils and enlist their cooperation beforehand will 
 determine the character of the work and the method of teaching, 
 at least in the beginning. If the age and intelligence of the class 
 and its serious interest in the work warrant it, he may, for 
 example, find it feasible and wise to drill on fundamental details 
 to demand quick response to commands and a fair degree of 
 precision and unison in the execution of a few simple movements 
 at the first lesson, even if the continuity and quantity of the 
 muscular work have to be sacrificed for the time being. If, on 
 the other hand, the class is of an age or mental attitude in which 
 that kind of a lesson would fail to be appreciated and arouse 
 interest, because its purpose could not be readily understood, it 
 would be wiser to spend less time on details, to use the more 
 indefinite types of exercise and at once to strive for continuity, 
 swing and go. Such work would be more likely to catch and 
 hold the attention of the pupils, to call forth their most vigorous, 
 even if crude efforts, and to produce the immediate and obvious 
 organic effects which they are capable of appreciating. In 
 most cases it will probably be best to mix the two kinds of work 
 in varying proportions. If this is done judiciously, beginning 
 and ending the lesson with lively exercises, the teacher will at 
 once get in touch with the class, there will be no slackening of 
 interest and therefore no danger of loss of control. 
 
 3. DISCIPLINE AND ATTENTION. 
 
 Discipline. Among the most fundamental and obvious ele- 
 ments or expressions of control are orderly behavior, decorum, 
 obedience and attention to duty collectively included in the term 
 discipline. This term also implies inhibition and repression, as 
 well as measures producing these. Poor discipline in teaching 
 means imperfect control and slovenly, ineffective work. 
 
 With favorable conditions, such as good morale and traditions 
 of the institution, a recognized standing and good backing of 
 the work, and the right relations between teacher and class, dis- 
 cipline is rarely a problem. Good discipline is then a matter of 
 course, the natural, normal condition of things. It is insured
 
 DISCIPLINE AND ATTENTION 17 
 
 and maintained by giving the class abundant work requiring the 
 constant exercise of the mental and bodily powers of the pupils, 
 and of such a character as to arouse and keep their interest. 
 Then it needs no mention or sign of conscious management on 
 the part of the teacher. And yet, the maintenance of such a 
 desirable state of things requires his thoughtful consideration 
 and watchfulness, his constant self-control, ready resourcefulness 
 and good judgment. There will always arise occasions, even in 
 well-behaved classes, when something occurs which, if not prop- 
 erly met, might lead to a breach of discipline and at least tempo- 
 rary loss of control. It may be some little slackness in the begin- 
 ning of a lesson, insufficient alacrity, some thoughtlessness or ex- 
 cessive high spirits on the part of one or a few pupils, of no great 
 harm or consequence in itself, but apt to lead to other things or 
 to be "catching." All such little deviations from good order and 
 discipline, especially such as are out of keeping with the spirit 
 of the work, must not be allowed to pass without notice, lest 
 they grow and multiply. A word, or even a look, not neces- 
 sarily severe but sufficient to indicate that the incident has been 
 observed and disapproved, may be sufficient. If any considerable 
 number have been guilty, a few words of censure to the class 
 as a whole, spoken calmly and without any show of personal 
 annoyance or resentment, may be advisable, especially if the 
 pupils are very young. If really flagrant breaches of discipline 
 should occur, more vigorous measures may be necessary, such as 
 sharp reproof of individuals before the class, the imposition of 
 a suitable penalty in keeping with the customs of the institution, 
 loss of privileges and even exclusion from the class for the time 
 being. Perhaps the best and most effective way in such cases 
 is to ask the offending pupil to see the teacher after class. Then 
 the matter can be talked over quietly, the reasons for and the 
 circumstances leading up to the offense inquired into, and the 
 right kind of appeal or pressure be brought to bear. In this 
 way a deeper and more lasting impression is made and repetitions 
 are less likely to occur. The moral effect on the rest of the class 
 is also considerable. 
 
 If a whole class show a spirit of mischief or antagonism to a 
 new teacher, he can in most cases conquer it by a fearless and 
 apparently unconcerned manner on noting the first signs; then, 
 perhaps, by reprimanding one or two in quiet tone, but with a 
 look and manner conveying the impression of unlimited reserve 
 power, of perfect understanding of the situation and ability to 
 deal with it. In the meanwhile he may decide in his own mind 
 what to do in case of further trouble ; then, if it seems unavoid- 
 able, make the issue in a few well chosen words, and "land hard" 
 on the first offenders, using whatever legitimate means he has
 
 18 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 at his command. If possible, meet the issue smilingly, but in 
 any case with firmness and determination. Above all, give no 
 sign of being disconcerted or irritated, as that is exactly what a 
 mischievous class desires. When a class finds that a teacher is 
 fearless and cool, seems to know his business and to understand 
 the mental workings of the group and of every individual, it 
 soon settles down to a business-like attitude. When two or more 
 individuals habitually incite each other to mischief or inattention, 
 separation may be all that is necessary. 
 
 Under all circumstances, it is essential that the teacher keep his 
 temper and administer reproof or punishment in a manner free 
 from any suggestion of personal animosity. While a show of 
 righteous indignation or even wrath may on rare occasions be 
 justifiable, and very effective, it is safest to avoid any explosive 
 reaction, any violent collision with individuals or class. It is 
 always desirable to control by gentle means as far as possible and 
 to keep the idea of compulsion by severe measures in the remote 
 background. Make the pupils feel that you take for granted 
 obedience and good behavior on their part and treat any small 
 lapse with surprise and disappointment. Do not be too quick to 
 make a rule or a threat, especially if enforcement or fulfilment 
 would be difficult. But if for any reason compelled to make the 
 issue squarely, then stick to it to the bitter end (providing you 
 are in the right), no matter what trouble or discomfort may 
 grow out of it to yourself as well as to the pupils. 
 
 The manner of showing disapproval is of great importance. 
 This applies to the execution of an exercise as well as to the 
 general behavior of the class. Reproof, reproach or punishment 
 of any kind is a matter requiring much pedagogical tact and judg- 
 ment. Whenever possible without spoiling the result, inject a 
 little humor into the situation. This is often more effective than 
 sternness, especially in minor matters. It gives the class the 
 feeling that the teacher can easily handle any situation, has plenty 
 of reserve power, does not criticise or censure from a spirit of 
 pedantry or fussiness and does not take himself too seriously. 
 But be sure that the humor is of a kindly nature and spontaneous. 
 Avoid sarcasm of a biting, and especially of a sneering kind. It 
 is sure to be resented, as it always means that the teacher is tak- 
 ing advantage of his position in an unfair way. 
 
 Knowing when and how to express disapproval or mete out 
 punishment, and above all, not overdoing it, is one of the chief 
 factors of success in maintaining discipline and at the same time 
 keeping on good terms with the class. Another is to furnish an 
 abundance of hard, but interesting work. No general rules can 
 be laid down, except that of being just and impersonal. Assuming 
 as far as possible that minor infractions are unintentional lapses,
 
 DISCIPLINE AND ATTENTION 19 
 
 due to momentary forgetfulness or inability promptly to change 
 from a state of playful excitement or inertia to one of serious 
 attention and alacrity, rather than to willful desire to annoy or re- 
 luctance to work, and treating them as such, will usually be the 
 best way. But guard against letting the class think that even little 
 things can pass unnoticed or will be accepted that the teacher is 
 "easy." "Nip things in the bud!" Always show gentle but firm 
 and unmistakable disapproval of the least breach of discipline, 
 slackness, mind wandering or whatever the case may be, and so 
 make the possibility of really serious trouble increasingly remote 
 and out of the question. 
 
 Attention. If discipline may be said to represent the negative 
 side of class control, the ability to secure and maintain attention 
 constitutes its positive or active phase. Discipline implies inhibi- 
 tion or repression of impulses and actions subversive of good 
 order and the right conditions for work. Attention in the ordi- 
 nary sense, and also including all that is implied in such terms as 
 alertness, alacrity, response, readiness and willingness to think and 
 to do is an essential feature of the work itself. Lacking this 
 positive, controlled, fixed and willingly given attention, the work 
 is but a sorry spectacle, devoid of life and interest, perfunctory,, 
 listless and of doubtful value, even though there be perfect 
 decorum and a kind of submissive, passive "pseudo"-attention. 
 When active attention has been established and every individual 
 is ready and willing to work, understands what to do and how 
 to go about it, there will be no need for repressive measures, no 
 call for the exercise of authority to maintain discipline. This is 
 but the application of the common principle of forestalling and 
 inhibiting undesirable action by inducing right action, of diverting 
 aimless, useless or mischievous impulses and energy into useful 
 channels, into purposeful activity. It will readily be seen that 
 not only control but the success of the work from all points of 
 view hinge on the teacher's ability to stimulate and hold this 
 active, directed, fixed attention. How to focus the mental pro- 
 cesses of a number of mind-wandering, indifferent, inert and per- 
 haps even antagonistic individuals, or a lot of excited, rollicking, 
 contending, play-fighting, wildly shouting young savages, as the 
 case may be, upon the serious, orderly, formal work in hand ; 
 how to keep these various minds steadily and unswervingly 
 applied to definite, discriminating, vigorous efforts, the purpose 
 of which may be only vaguely understood and the incentive for 
 which is at best distant and more or less abstract, is often a task 
 of considerable magnitude and difficulty. It taxes the vitality, the 
 strength of will, the natural and trained powers of leadership of 
 the teacher and all the technical resources of the art of teaching.. 
 Indeed, this is the very essence of the art of teaching.
 
 20 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 While it would be futile to attempt to enumerate and describe 
 all the factors which enter into this problem, all the means which 
 may be legitimately used to secure, stimulate and hold attention, 
 or the mistakes which lead to a loss of it, a few suggestions at 
 this time may be appropriate and helpful as having a bearing on 
 class control. In the detailed discussion of the technique of 
 teaching, later, the subject of attention will be often referred to 
 and always borne in mind. 
 
 The beginning of the lesson is usually the most difficult and 
 critical time in all respects. Especially is this true when the 
 pupils enter the gymnasium in an informal manner and are 
 allowed to run around and amuse themselves -in any way they 
 choose for a varying length of time before the lesson. When 
 control becomes difficult on this account, it may be feasible and 
 wise to curtail their free use of the place to some extent, as in 
 the use of apparatus, balls, etc. But even so, it will hardly be 
 possible or wise entirely to curb youthful spirits by negative means 
 restriction, repression, interdiction. It would be better not to 
 allow them on the floor at all before the lesson, but to keep them 
 in the dressing room or hall until all are ready, and then to march 
 them in in good order. This is done in many schools. On the 
 other hand, when a fairly long time is allowed between periods, 
 it becomes a question of whether it is not better to let them romp 
 and play on the gymnasium floor rather than to try to keep them 
 quiet and orderly in a crowded and often poorly ventilated dress- 
 ing room. The former is probably preferable and in many places 
 other than schools may be the only feasible way. In such cases 
 it will usually take a little time and several steps to get the class 
 lined up and ready for work. 
 
 It would be unreasonable to expect an instantaneous change 
 from the varying mental states of hilarity, excitement or inertia to 
 one of quiet but alert attention. Often the teacher's voice may 
 not be adequate to arrest and change the condition of things. A 
 bell or a whistle may be necessary as a preliminary signal. A 
 class may be trained to subside into quiet and even silence on this 
 signal, and then to form promptly on the command "Fall in !" or 
 "Line up !" Or this may be done without any special command. 
 In any case, it will be worth while to drill a class in prompt re- 
 sponse to whatever signal is given, and to line up in some agreed- 
 upon manner with the utmost alacrity. Try to stimulate their 
 pride and spirit of emulation in this respect ; make each individual 
 feel responsible and loth to be the last, or the cause of delayed 
 and poor alignment. It is wise to allow a little time for this pre- 
 liminary formation before calling the class to attention by the 
 formal command. It paves the way for and insures a more per- 
 fect response to the first command "Attention!" But make con-
 
 DISCIPLINE AND ATTENTION 21 
 
 stant efforts to shorten this time. With young pupils, and occa- 
 sionally with older, actually timing this manoeuver may prove a 
 good stimulus. Even ordering a class, when the first attempt has 
 been unsatisfactory, to break ranks, scatter and try it again, may 
 be effective in the beginning, or later when there is sign of slack- 
 ness. But this expedient might not be safe if used too often, 
 or with classes difficult to handle. 
 
 Having in an informal way got the class under partial control 
 and arranged in an approximately correct formation on the floor, 
 try to get silence and readiness for the real beginning of the 
 lesson by standing still before the class, running the eye along the 
 lines and indicating by look, bodily attitude, slight gesture or 
 even a brief admonition, that something is about to happen ; then 
 command "Attention!" in the most effective voice and manner 
 possible. This does not mean in a loud voice, necessarily. It may 
 be done that way, or more quietly, but always in a tone and with 
 a manner indicating force of will, energy and reserve power, as 
 well as expectancy to be obeyed instantly and absolutely. At the 
 same time there ought not to be too strong a suggestion of master- 
 fulness in a personal way. Rather try to convey the idea of 
 something more than that, of a motive power which is compelling 
 and binding on teacher and pupils alike, namely the duty, the work 
 which both are to accomplish. This applies to the giving of all 
 commands. To convey this idea more clearly (without saying 
 anything about it) and at the same time to help, by suggestion, 
 to get a satisfactory response to the command "Attention!" it 
 is well for the teacher himself to respond to his own command 
 with the utmost vigor, by assuming the fundamental gymnastic 
 position suddenly, and retaining it rigidly for a moment before 
 proceeding further. If the response of the class is not satis- 
 factory, if it is lacking in promptness and does not show a marked 
 contrast to the position of ease, then give "In place rest!" and 
 repeat, having first made an admonition, if necessary. After a 
 moment's immobility and perfect silence, proceed briskly with 
 the next step in the lesson usually the alignment. Or, if there are 
 any announcements or special statements to make, do so at this 
 time. But first give "In place rest I" then begin to speak immedi- 
 ately after this command has been properly responded to. This 
 procedure insures their attentiveness while relieving them from 
 the strain of holding the fundamental position for a considerable 
 length of time. On the other hand, it avoids an inevitable lapse 
 from the fundamental position, due to fatigue or forgetfulness, 
 which is very undesirable from a pedagogical standpoint. When'- 
 ever during the lesson there is an intermission or lengthy explana- 
 tion, the class should be formally relieved from the fundamental
 
 22 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 position and allowed to stand at ease, though not relaxed to such 
 an extent as to mean slouching or poor posture. 
 
 Very often control is lost, in a small way at least, by failing 
 to check the tendency of most pupils to try to adjust their places 
 in the line after attention has been called. It usually represents 
 good intention, perhaps a mistaken idea of what is wanted, an 
 imperfect understanding of the significance of the command 
 "Attention!" or at worst a belated attempt to do something which 
 should have been done before. In any case, it is obvious that 
 the command has failed to produce the desired effect, and such 
 failure should not be accepted or countenanced. The acceptance 
 of every such failure, no matter what the reason, weakens 
 the teacher's power of command and class control, as well as the 
 pupils' habit of active, concentrated attention. In this particu- 
 lar case it also tends to confusion of ideas. Make the distinction 
 between the commands "Attention!" and "Right dress!" clear, 
 and insist that each be responded to in the right way and at the 
 right time. 
 
 When speaking to the class, either for the purpose of instruc- 
 tion, description of an exercise, comment or admonition regard- 
 ing its execution, or on any other matter, it is important that the 
 teacher stand in a place and at a distance from which he can be 
 heard and preferably seen by all. He should face the class and 
 keep his eye on all parts of it. A platform may be useful for 
 this purpose but is not always necessary or even convenient. Be 
 sure that voice and enunciation are such that the pupils farthest 
 away are reached. Guard against the not uncommon, usually 
 unconscious, mistake of addressing those standing nearest. 
 
 Do not begin to speak until all are quiet and attending. If 
 inadvertently failing to wait, or if a few pupils become inatten- 
 tive, and especially if any one speaks or otherwise disturbs the 
 absolute quiet, stop immediately and abruptly, in the middle of 
 a sentence preferably. Then by look, gesture or quiet verbal 
 reminder, gain or restore complete attention. Do not resort to 
 vehement demands for silence and attention or show any signs 
 of irritation. If reproof seems necessary, administer it in a calm, 
 self -controlled manner, then resume speaking as if nothing had 
 happened. Occasionally it may be necessary to command "Atten- 
 tion!" and then give "In place rest!" as described above. If the 
 teacher goes on speaking and accepts inattention and even con- 
 versation from a part of the class, this part will grow larger and 
 larger, and soon the majority will feel that strict attention is not 
 expected. This is one of the most common ways in which the 
 teacher's hold on the class is weakened. Moreover, the pupils 
 are encouraged to form habits of discourtesy and disrespect.
 
 DISCIPLINE AND ATTENTION 23 
 
 Interest in the work is an essential factor in securing and hold- 
 ing attention. To arouse and sustain interest, the work must 
 be adapted to the needs and abilities of the class. It must meet 
 in the first place those needs of which the pupils are aware : the 
 needs for exercise, for bodily action which will produce the 
 immediate organic effects and the exhilaration or sense of well- 
 being associated with it. The _ work should also be of such 
 a character that it tests and makes full use of the various abilities 
 already possessed by the class, as regards strength, agility and 
 skill, and at the same time is most conducive to perceptible 
 improvement in these directions. On the other hancl, it must be 
 simple enough to enable the average pupil to do it reasonably 
 well, thus giving him a sense of satisfaction and encouragement. 
 The proper selection, grading and adaptation of the work must 
 be backed up with good presentation, animated, inspiring, techni- 
 cally correct teaching and rational progression. The class must 
 be made aware of progress in some way. It is well, for example, 
 when introducing a new type of exercise, or a new combination, 
 to indicate by a few words its purpose, its relation to similar exer- 
 cises with which the class is familiar wherein it differs, what 
 constitutes the increased difficulty, or its particular effectiveness, 
 what final form or type it leads up to, etc. 
 
 Having aroused the interest and gained the confidence of the 
 pupils, the teacher can gradually modify their mental attitude 
 toward the work, lead them on to different and broader points of 
 view, indicate needs of which they were not aware at first, and 
 arouse interest in work suited to those needs. This enables the 
 teacher to appeal to motives and furnish incentives which pre- 
 viously would not have been available or effective. Also he can 
 make the pupils appreciate phases of the work which require a 
 certain amount of progress and training to be understood and 
 valued. Thus a skillful teacher may continually open up new and 
 varied lines of interest, stimulate a constantly increasing appre- 
 ciation of the value and beauty of the work and so secure the 
 attention and willing cooperation of the class. 
 I/The technical side of teaching also plays an important role in 
 maintaining attention throughout the lesson. The teacher must 
 have facility and be sure of himself in such technical matters as 
 the presentation of exercises, the giving of commands to start 
 and stop movements or to handle the class generally. He should 
 know how to describe and demonstrate the exercises in a lucid, 
 concise way, with as little loss of time as is consistent with clear- 
 ness and vividness. The commands should be suitable, simple and 
 self-explanatory as far as possible ; properly intoned and inflected, 
 carrying a strong suggestion of how the movement should be 
 done ; with sufficient pause between the preparatory and final parts
 
 24 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 to insure perfect unison in the execution. When the exercises 
 are done rhythmically, he must be able to keep the class together, 
 "head off" an impending break of unison, guide and modify the 
 rhythm in a way to elicit snap, speed, accuracy and steadiness of 
 movement and keep it from becoming mechanical, oscillatory, 
 slovenly or listless. He must at all times be ready and willing 
 to exert himself to the utmost and be able to keep a clear head 
 while trying to do several things at the same time: stimulating, 
 admonishing, warning and correcting in a general way, constantly 
 moving about between the lines or in front of different portions 
 of the class* observing everything in a systematic way, helping 
 by example, word or touch first one individual or group, then 
 another ; all the while keeping his eye and ear on the class as a 
 whole, marking the time, steadying the rhythm and from time to 
 time vigorously participating in the movement in order to stimu- 
 late, through suggestion and example, to greater effort and atten- 
 tion to details in its execution. 
 
 Special ways of stimulating a class. Dullness and poor re- 
 sponse, restlessness and inattention, are usually traceable to the 
 non-observance by the teacher of pedagogical principles and 
 technical details of teaching, or else to some shortcoming or 
 peculiarity in his physical make-up or manner. But these things 
 may occasionally be due to entirely extraneous causes, such as 
 cold, or humid, sultry weather, "spring fever," insufficient light, 
 the effects of a vacation just ended or impending, excitement 
 about something that has happened or is going to happen out- 
 side of the class, and having nothing whatever to do with 
 the class, the teacher or the work. At such times the teacher 
 is often at a loss what to do to get in touch with the class, 
 how to secure its attention, create the right mental attitude 
 and elicit the snap and vigor he usually obtains. Unless he 
 sizes up the situation correctly, he is apt to lose patience or 
 presence of mind, become irritated, annoyed, do the wrong thing 
 and thus make matters worse. 
 
 Under such circumstances various expedients to stimulate in- 
 terest may be tried. The class may perhaps be rallied by greater 
 effort than usual on the part of the teacher to infuse animation 
 into the work through his own manner, voice and movements 
 by liberating some of his reserve energy and taking active part 
 in the exercises. 
 
 Or the attention may be focused by drilling the class in stop- 
 ping rhythmical movements in any intermediate position with- 
 out much or any warning and time allowance, providing such 
 demand is not unreasonable. 
 
 Similar effect may be obtained by quick changes of position 
 in response to command, or some lively marching involving
 
 DISCIPLINE AND ATTENTION 25 
 
 rapid changes of direction, but not requiring any lengthy explana- 
 tions or teaching of new elements. Such work, if not carried 
 to the point of confusion, may serve to put the pupils on their 
 mettle by making those who are inattentive conspicuous and 
 perhaps a little ludicrous. 
 
 The spirit of emulation and rivalry may also be stimulated by 
 judicious comparisons with the^work of other classes in the in- 
 stitution. Such comparisons, however, must be expressed in a 
 tactful way, either humorously or seriously. In the latter case 
 they may even be carried to the point of actual competition. 
 
 Another expedient, which may prove effective, is to start the 
 lesson in a way strikingly different from the customary order. 
 For example, a short run, or running with various kinds of steps, 
 or combined with arm and body movements. This works well 
 on a cold day. Or let the class do some lively passing of the 
 medicine ball, using as many balls as possible and rather short 
 distances. 
 
 At times it may be advisable to change the character of the 
 lesson, to give simple, indefinite exercises that can be done with- 
 out too much attention to detail, but with considerable vim and 
 continuity. Mimetic exercises of a not too complicated charac- 
 ter, or familiar to the class, are often suitable at such times. 
 In the case of young children, such exercises may represent 
 various natural activities of man or characteristic movements of 
 animals. For older children, and especially for boys, movements 
 occurring in or representing striking features of games and sports 
 are suitable. In all such mimetic exercises the interest is se- 
 cured or reenforced by enlisting the pupils' imagination. 
 
 With classes of young children a teacher may occasionally 
 arouse lively interest and give much innocent pleasure to the 
 children by letting them take turns in giving exercises to the 
 class. This is, of course, really a modification of the game "Fol- 
 low the leader," but the children probably do not think of it in 
 that way. 
 
 In any class whatever, the substitution of a game for a part 
 or the whole of a lesson that threatens to be a failure is almost 
 invariably satisfactory. But it must be a game that is familiar 
 or easily organized, and in which every one has a chance, or 
 rather is compelled, to be active, both mentally and physically. 
 In such a game the teacher should, if possible, take part with 
 genuine animation and enthusiasm. 
 
 Finally, if none of these or similar expedients are feasible 
 for any reason, or if some of those first mentioned are ineffect- 
 ive, the only alternative is to accept the situation as cheerfully 
 and patiently as possible. Let the class know that you are aware
 
 26 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 of the probable cause, and treat the situation good-naturedly or 
 humorously, as the case may be, taking the attitude that after 
 all it is only a temporary condition and will be made up for 
 next time. 
 
 4. ENERGETIC LEADERSHIP AND FRIENDLY RELATIONS. 
 
 The influence of suggestion and example. The teacher's men- 
 tal state and physical condition, as shown in his manner and 
 appearance before the class, greatly influence the quality of the 
 work, the atmosphere and tone, and therefore the degree of suc- 
 cess of the lesson. The class quickly senses and accurately reflects 
 any temporary or habitual condition of low vitality, any sign of 
 depression or overfatigue on the part of the teacher. Both the 
 teacher and class have "off days" and not infrequently these 
 coincide, sometimes when least expected. Occasionally the cause 
 of such coincidence may be perfectly obvious, such as atmos- 
 pheric conditions, external disturbance, etc. ; but more often it 
 can be explained only by attributing it to the unconscious reaction 
 of the teacher on the class and vice versa. The potency of sug- 
 gestion, for good or ill, is always to be reckoned with and should 
 be constantly borne in mind. It is largely through the suggestive 
 power of example that the right spirit of the work is created 
 and sustained. 
 
 Appearing before the class irritated, nervous and disturbed, or 
 dull, absent-minded and careless, will invariably lead to un- 
 steadiness, inattention, slackness or listlessness on the part of 
 the class, and so will weaken the teacher's control. On the other 
 hand, a brisk, energetic, business-like manner acts like a stimu- 
 lus and tends to produce a like mental state in the pupils. 
 
 Vigorous participation by the teacher in the exercises has a 
 similar effect. It is always helpful in suggesting the proper 
 speed of a movement, steadiness in retaining each intermediate 
 position, sureness in the rhythm. It may sometimes succeed in 
 rousing a class to spirited action when other means of stimulation 
 have proved unavailing. Indeed, it is one of the most common 
 expedients and the chief resource of. many teachers in their en- 
 deavor to put life and enthusiasm into a lesson. 
 
 Like all good things, however, this participation in the work 
 may be overdone. If indulged in too freely (and to teachers 
 with abundant vitality the temptation to do so is often strong), 
 it tends to lose its effectiveness for the purpose of stimulation 
 as the class becomes accustomed to it. Also, it is liable to limit 
 the teacher's chances and defeat his efforts to obtain a good 
 quality of work in other respects than those of continuity, swing
 
 LEADERSHIP AND FRIENDLY RELATIONS 27 
 
 and go. For if the teacher remains most of the time in one 
 place, strenuously going through all the exercises with the class 
 while counting to keep time, he does so at the expense and to 
 the neglect of other important phases and duties of teaching. 
 He is bound to fall short in systematic and critical observation 
 of the work of all the pupils, in careful attention to details of 
 execution, in individual stimulation and correction. In the 
 nature of things he has neither breath nor opportunity for any- 
 thing more than very brief, general admonitions and a "vvhoop- 
 it-up" kind of stimulation. This sometimes takes the form of 
 an extravagant speeding up of the rhythm coupled with numer- 
 ous repetitions of the same movement, and may be carried to 
 such an extreme that all semblance to definiteness and even uni- 
 son in execution is lost. At such times it is not unusual to 
 see one after another of the members of the class discontinuing 
 the exercise from sheer breathlessness and local fatigue, until 
 only the teacher and a small portion of the class are working. 
 Only rarely is such a procedure justifiable, and in the long run 
 it will militate against the best interests of the work as well as 
 the teacher. 
 
 One other objection may be urged against habitual or exces- 
 sive execution of the exercises by the teacher. If the class is 
 constantly carried along by the teacher in this way the work be- 
 comes too nearly imitative, amounting often to nothing more 
 than reflex action. The pupils are given less opportunity to 
 think and act for themselves, to execute -voluntary movements 
 in the true sense. They come to depend too much on the 
 teacher's movements and too little on their own initative. They 
 are given an apparent short-cut to their solving of motor prob- 
 lems and even then, as likely as not, they fail to get the correct 
 solution. 
 
 In view of the drawbacks inherent in this style of teaching, 
 and sometimes on other, less valid grounds (such as inability 
 to do the movements well, disinclination to vigorous bodily exer- 
 tion, failure to dress appropriately, etc.), many teachers refrain 
 entirely from participation in the exercises. In so doing they 
 deprive themselves and the class of a valuable help in teaching 
 and a legitimate means of stimulation. It is unquestionably an 
 advantage to a teacher to be able and prepared at any time, and 
 especially in the beginning of a lesson or the starting of an exer- 
 cise, to throw himself into the movement with abounding energy, 
 executing it with more power and "finish" than any member 
 of the class. But the wise teacher will not do it too much and, 
 above all, not in a routine way. 
 
 Good results may also be obtained by applying this principle 
 in a slightly different way. Put the suggestion of snap and
 
 28 
 
 effort into the voice when giving the commands or while guid- 
 ing the rhythm, and also by bodily attitude, gesture and even 
 facial expression (unconscious of course), when making general 
 admonitions and correction. By thus working with and for the 
 class with mind and body, by word, cues and other forms of 
 suggestion, if not by detailed execution of all the movements, the 
 teacher can not only elicit the most vigorous action from the 
 class, but also arouse the spirit of emulation, and establish the 
 sympathetic relations without which cheerful cooperation cannot 
 be expected. The cold, formal way of teaching, merely giving 
 commands interspersed with routine, stereotyped instruction, 
 sharp, peremptory corrections or warnings and trite, timeworn 
 admonitions, will soon deaden interest and enjoyment in the 
 work and make it lifeless and perfunctory. It puts the teacher 
 in the role of a taskmaster, and is incompatible with the true 
 spirit of the work. 
 
 Personal relations between teacher and class. Most teachers 
 probably aspire to be popular with their pupils. Such a desire 
 is commendable, providing the popularity is of the right kind. 
 It should be based on respect and affection for the teacher's per- 
 sonality combined with a serious and intelligent appreciation of 
 his professional attainments, namely, the effectiveness of his work 
 and his skill in teaching it in such a way as to make it interest- 
 ing. A teacher may sometimes be popular by virtue of some 
 natural advantage of appearance, charm of manner, social quali- 
 ties, or commanding presence. But unless he can make such per- 
 sonal attributes count in his teaching, can offer his pupils the 
 .kind of work adapted to their needs and abilities, can present 
 such work and get it done in a way to serve the best interests 
 of all the pupils, his popularity is of a shallow kind. It is apt 
 to wane in the long run, or to be confined to a limited number. 
 Almost any teacher with an attractive personality, or with a pre- 
 dilection for and skill in some particular phase of the work, can 
 get a personal popularity or following of this limited kind, and 
 for a time achieve a certain kind of success. But it is not the 
 genuine kind unless the results of the work are what they ought 
 to be. 
 
 Whatever the natural advantages of a teacher may be, if he 
 have force of character and the spirit of teaching, combined with 
 a thorough knowledge of the subject, he may command the 
 esteem, respect and in due time even the affection of his pupils 
 through their appreciation of his work, by the justice or "square- 
 ness" of his dealing with them, and by the genuine, sympathetic 
 interest he takes in their welfare. Nor need he fear that a firm 
 insistence on order and discipline, attention and vigorous effort
 
 LEADERSHIP AND FRIENDLY RELATIONS 29 
 
 will detract from his popularity. Quite the contrary. The more 
 he can imbue them with a sense of the value and beauty of a 
 strict, business-like atmosphere in the classroom; the stronger 
 his will power in the sense of proceeding undeviatingly to a 
 desired end and bringing the pupils along with him, demanding 
 their best and accepting nothing less : the more they will respect 
 and appreciate him and the work. But this will power must 
 be of the lasting kind. It must be guided and tempered by rea- 
 sonableness, patience and sympathy. A part of the teacher's 
 business is to know how much he can expect from a class, both 
 in the way of work and behavior. He must bear patiently with 
 the shortcomings, understand and gauge the ability, the effort 
 and the possibilities of the class and its individual members. To 
 combine encouragement with stimulation and prodding; to con- 
 done while administering rebuke, to correct and admonish in a 
 spirit of helpfulness in short, to work and deal with his pupils 
 in a sympathetic, friendly way, to the best of his knowledge and 
 ability, is the surest way to control a class and at the same time 
 to secure and retain its good will. 
 
 A due respect for the sense of justice and the feelings of the 
 class and of its individual members is essential to friendly rela- 
 tions and the right spirit of cooperation. Do not annoy or harass 
 a class by unjust scolding and nagging. Refrain from excessive 
 repetition of certain movements in order to eliminate non-essen- 
 tial faults, or in order to correct and rebuke a few individuals. 
 A little of this kind of stimulation may be effective at times, if 
 accompanied by explicit statement of reasons for such repetition, 
 but it is easily overdone. 
 
 Cultivate the habit of maintaining a friendly attitude toward 
 the class even when obliged to censure severely some individuals. 
 Guard against the temptation to reproach the class as a whole for 
 slackness, misbehavior, tardiness, etc., on the part of a few of its 
 members. Such a course is manifestly unjust and is always re- 
 sented. If habitual it lowers the respect of the pupils for the 
 teacher and leads to indifference, antagonism and ill will. The 
 same is true of sarcasm, peremptory admonitions, imperious or 
 outright "bossy" manner anything which humiliates or wounds 
 the self-respect of the pupils, individually or collectively. Avoid 
 the use of the personal pronoun in giving directions. "I want 
 you to do thus and so" carries too strong a suggestion of purely 
 personal masterfulness akin to arrogance. It implies that the 
 class is working for the teacher instead of for itself. 
 
 The matter of praise is of considerable importance. Be prompt 
 to acknowledge good work, especially when the class, after some 
 slackness or ragged performance, has made obvious efforts to
 
 30 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 pull itself together in response to the teacher's stimulation, cen- 
 sure or quiet demand for better work. Extravagant praise and 
 even routine approbation of ordinary performance is of course 
 weakening, both to the teacher and class. It indicates superla- 
 tiveness, or too low standards of quality on his part, while it 
 conduces to mediocrity and easy complacence on the part of the 
 class. But considering that good teaching necessarily involves 
 frequent correction and criticism, unsatisfactory trials and repeti- 
 tions, it is wise to offset this negative element to some extent 
 by a reasonable modicum of praise, when the work is such as 
 to justify it. Approbation of this kind, rendered as the just 
 due to honest effort, gives more point to the constant admonitions, 
 the necessary insistence on close attention to detail, which other- 
 wise would easily degenerate into tedious nagging. 
 
 Furthermore, such simple expressions of approval as "Good !" 
 or "That's better!" or "You are doing well, keep it up!" or 
 some humorous comment of laudatory character, if made with 
 the ring of sincerity and genuine satisfaction in the voice, have 
 a marked stimulating effect. The pupils are gratified and spurred 
 to greater willingness and intelligent effort. Their eyes and 
 facial expressions show this, as well as the increased snap, vigor 
 and unison of their movements. Finally, when a whole lesson 
 has been unusually satisfactory from the teacher's standpoint, 
 it is well for him to say so, before dismissing the class, in as 
 simple and gracious terms as he can muster. 
 
 Prompt admission of being at fault, when such is the case, 
 effectively heads off trouble and is conducive to good relations. 
 Whenever the teacher is guilty of an error of judgment or makes 
 a slip in his teaching, the mistake must be corrected and any 
 unfavorable impression effaced as soon as possible. If the error 
 is of a technical character, a prompt acknowledgment with due 
 appreciation of the humorous aspects of the situation will 
 strengthen rather than weaken the teacher's power, providing 
 such occurrences are not too frequent. If the mistake involves 
 the personal relations between teacher and class (or some individ- 
 ual), an open-minded willingness to see all sides of the case, a 
 frank, dignified admission and regret if in the wrong, are usually 
 sufficient to allay resentment or any tendency to antagonism. 
 
 The teacher can do much toward establishing cordial rela- 
 tions between himself and the class by taking and showing inter- 
 est in its members outside of actual class work. The way he 
 greets them and chats with them on informal occasions or chance 
 meetings has much to do with their feelings toward him. So does 
 real community of interests, as in their games and athletics, their 
 social affairs or their hobbies. It makes for better acquaintance
 
 LEADERSHIP AND FRIENDLY RELATIONS 31 
 
 and good fellowship. Understanding of and sympathetic interest 
 in their school work, their ambitions and particularly their health 
 and physical condition, are conducive to confidence. Be ready 
 to give help, advice and encouragement whenever needed, yet 
 without being officious. All these things are natural and legiti- 
 mate channels for the expression of good will and comradeship, 
 points of contact through which the teacher can get into personal 
 touch with his pupils in a dignified yet democratic way. 
 
 Where physical examinations are a part of the work the teacher 
 has many opportunities for friendly service other than purely 
 professional. Here he can not only help the pupils to a better 
 understanding of their physical needs and point out the right 
 line of action, but may often be the means of clearing their minds 
 of misconceptions, of influencing their points of view. He may 
 be able to plant seeds of suggestion or to give advice which may 
 lead to better standards and higher ideals of life and work. The 
 real service a teacher can render in this way hygienically, morally 
 and socially is as much a part of his function as the formal 
 teaching. Indeed, when the relations between teacher and pupils 
 have come to be of mutually friendly and confidential nature, 
 the teacher can often do more good in an informal way than in 
 the actual teaching. At any rate, he can follow up his formal 
 teaching and try to induce the pupils to supplement the class work 
 by making efforts to apply what they have learned to their daily 
 habits. 
 
 It pays to be approach'able, to spend time and patient effort in 
 friendly discussion with pupils outside of class, giving reasons 
 for doing some things in a certain way, for omitting or post- 
 poning other things; in explaining the mechanism and effects of 
 exercises in a way which they can readily understand ; in contrast- 
 ing the values of different forms of exercise. Sometimes it may 
 be advisable to prove, as far as feasible, the reasonableness, jus- 
 tice or necessity of requiring a pupil to do something which may 
 be inconvenient or onerous to him at the time. It is good policy, 
 generally, to satisfy the pupils' minds and take them into your 
 confidence as far as your time allows and your judgment and 
 sympathy dictate.
 
 III. METHODS AND TECHNIQUE. 
 
 The several factors of successful teaching personality, un- 
 derstanding of pedagogic principles, knowledge and proper man- 
 agement of gymnastic material, and the special technique of 
 teaching are all so intimately related that in practice it would 
 be difficult to dissociate them. Yet, we may recognize distinc- 
 tions in these respects. Some teachers may get results in certain 
 directions chiefly by virtue of their personality, while they fall 
 short in other directions owing to deficient knowledge of prin- 
 ciples, or insufficient skill in the technique of teaching, or both. 
 The reverse may also be true to some extent. At any rate, for 
 purposes of analysis and discussion, certain phases of teaching 
 may be grouped under the head of technique. Such, for example, 
 are methods of formation and distribution of the class on the 
 floor; the uses of commands; of the active and relaxed posi- 
 tions ; methods of demonstration, instruction and correction ; de- 
 vices for stimulation; variations in the style of work whether 
 single movements on command, or rhythmical; the selection and 
 combination of movements according to the style of work and 
 the method of teaching it. All these technical details represent, 
 of course, applications of pedagogic principles, and their effect- 
 iveness is largely dependent on proper progression and arrange- 
 ment, as well as on the personal qualities of the teacher. 
 
 1. FORMATIONS, DISTRIBUTION AND POSITION OF CLASS ON THE 
 
 FLOOR. 
 
 The choice of formation and the methods of opening order 
 will be determined, among other things, by the facility of teach- 
 ing them, by the ease and speed of their execution, by the amount 
 of time and room available. Other considerations are the spac- 
 ing and distance suitable for the kind of work to be taught, the 
 distribution most favorable for giving the teacher a full view 
 of the class and for enabling all members of the class to see and 
 hear the teacher. The extent to which the class can "see itself" 
 is also of some consequence through its influence on unison and 
 rhythm. Finally, the symmetrical and orderly arrangement of 
 the class and the manoeuvering necessary to obtain it are not 
 without effect on its members. The close attention required, as 
 well as the suggestion of order and discipline, are conducive to 
 the proper spirit of the work.
 
 POSITION OF CLASS ON FLOOR 33 
 
 The following are some of the more common and simple pro- 
 cedures : 
 
 1. Perhaps the simplest and easiest way to get a class arranged 
 in open order is to have the pupils, on the signal, take their 
 places on spots painted on the floor at proper distances (say at 
 intervals of five feet, in rows about four feet apart, the spots 
 in each row being placed half way between those of the next). 
 This obviates the necessity for 'any preliminaries, such as align- 
 ment, numbering, facings and marching steps. It may be of ad- 
 vantage under conditions where the spirit and traditions are 
 strongly against anything savoring of formality or military dis- 
 cipline, or where the necessary time for preliminaries cannot be 
 spared. It is especially useful in large classes, with irregular 
 attendance, where the main purpose of the work is hygienic, and 
 the educational or disciplinary value of even a few simple manoeu- 
 vers necessary to open order would not be appreciated. In classes 
 where record of attendance is kept, and each member is assigned 
 a numbered spot, the roll call may be simplified by noting the 
 absences on a plotted sheet of paper or on a numbered name file. 
 Spots may also be used to advantage in conjunction with some 
 of the more formal procedures of opening order, especially those 
 preceded by marching. 
 
 2. The next easiest way to get a class together and into open 
 order is to line it up in a single rank, count twos, let numbers 
 One take one or two steps forward and numbers Two the same 
 number of steps backward. The spacing and distribution are 
 such that most movements can be executed without interference 
 of the pupils with each other, if the class is faced toward one 
 end. A few exercises, however, such as the prone falling posi- 
 tion, forward and backward charges, require that the class be 
 faced to the front. 
 
 This formation is suitable for small classes (of twenty or less). 
 It is so simple that a class soon learns to make it with speed and 
 precision. It gives the teacher a good view of each pupil from 
 any side of the class. When the class is faced toward one end, 
 the lines are easily kept straight, serving as guides for the plane 
 and direction of movements. The spacing is readily maintained 
 or adjusted. All the pupils can see the teacher without difficulty 
 and the majority can see a considerable portion of the lines. 
 
 3. Another simple and fairly easy method of opening order, 
 differing but slightly in principle from the preceding, is to form 
 one rank, count threes (fours, or even fives, according to the 
 size of the class), then let each individual take as many (long) 
 steps forward as is indicated by his number, or twice as many 
 (short) steps backward. Or let numbers One stand still, num-
 
 34 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 bers Two take one step forward, numbers Three two steps, etc. 
 (or twice as many backward). Or, in case of threes, numbers 
 Two stand still, numbers One take one step forward, numbers 
 Three one step backward. In such a formation all exercises can 
 be done with the class facing to the front, except perhaps club 
 swinging and exercises with very long bar bells. 
 
 The disadvantage here, as in the preceding, is that the class 
 is spread out too much in one direction, and space is not used 
 economically. This may be an important item if the class is 
 large and the room scant. Then, too, the lines are apt to be less 
 distinct and not very readily straightened. The class cannot "see 
 itself" to the same extent as in formations where many pupils 
 stand behind each other in long, straight lines. The importance 
 of the last is, of course, not very great, but should be considered. 
 Furthermore, when a different number of steps are taken by 
 different portions of the class, all starting together, but finish- 
 ing one after another, the unison and rhythm are apt to suffer. 
 There are lacking the symmetrical appearance and the full, 
 rhythmic sound of uniform action which stimulate a class to 
 lively response. However, this formation works fairly well with 
 semi-informal classes in which the membership is varying and 
 the attendance irregular. 
 
 4. The next in order, as regards simplicity, or at least facility 
 of execution with a large class, is to line up in one rank near 
 one of the long sides of the gymnasium; count fours (fives or 
 sixes) ; face right (or left), making a long single file facing one 
 of the ends of the hall. Then command "Forward, march!" 
 "Column left (or right), march!" and continue marching until 
 the first group of four (five or six) has turned the corner and 
 taken ample distance. On the command this group then faces 
 left (or right) and marches forward with short steps while the 
 next group turns the corner, takes full distance, faces, marches 
 forward, and so on, until the whole class is marching down the 
 hall in an open column of fours (fives or sixes). If hand ap- 
 paratus is to be used, this can be taken from the racks while 
 the class marches once around the hall in a single file. 
 
 As a slight variation on the above method the groups may 
 remain in close order after turning the corner, and the lateral 
 distance may be obtained by taking side steps after the class has 
 arrived at the proper place on the floor and is marking time. 
 This may be made a rather pretty manoeuver if executed with 
 precision and good alignment. Some such command as "Form 
 column of fours: Fours, by the left flank, march!" may be used 
 to change the single file into a column of fours. 
 
 Other variations on this method of opening order readily sug- 
 gest themselves. When marching is used regularly as a part
 
 POSITION OF CLASS ON FLOOR 35 
 
 of the lesson, a column of fours may be formed, either from a 
 stand still or while marching, by giving "Fours right (or left), 
 march!" or "Fours right (or left) oblique, march!" or by any 
 of the various manoeuvers so well described by Mr. Schrader 
 in his article on the "Teaching of Tactics."* 
 
 5. With classes of children the following may be used to 
 advantage: After marching half-way around the room in single 
 file, turn at one end and march down through the center. At- 
 the other end alternate pupils are turned right and left respec- 
 tively and march up on opposite sides of the room. They then 
 meet and march down the center in pairs. Then alternate pairs 
 are turned right and left, meet again and form fours, march 
 down the center and open up as described in the preceding 
 paragraph. This manceuver takes considerable time, but it makes 
 numbering unnecessary. When the children come into the gym- 
 nasium in a double file the whole procedure can be managed 
 fairly quickly, only one division and one circuit of the room 
 being necessary. 
 
 6. When classes are large enough to make a preliminary 
 formation on two ranks desirable, modifications of the methods 
 described in paragraph four may be used, providing the class 
 is proficient enough in marching to warrant it. Modifications 
 of the methods described in paragraphs two and three may be 
 used, with or without preliminary marching, as follows: 
 
 7. If the method described in paragraph three is used, the 
 ranks are first opened by three or four steps forward or back- 
 ward by one rank, or by each rank taking two steps in opposite 
 directions. Then numbers One, Two and Three open up as 
 described for one rank. The disadvantages of this formation 
 are similar to those already suggested as inherent in this method 
 with the single rank formation. 
 
 8. With classes of moderate size from twenty to sixty a 
 modification of the method described in paragraph two is, on 
 the whole, the most satisfactory. The preliminary formation 
 consists of two ranks, a little more than arm's distance apart. 
 After aligning and counting twos (in the front rank only), the 
 ranks are opened by the front rank taking two steps forward 
 and the rear rank two steps backward. Numbers One in both 
 ranks then take one step forward, numbers Two take one step 
 backward. The class is then faced toward the short end and , 
 the lines straightened. In the beginning, each part of the/ 
 manceuver is best done on separate, command, even each of the 
 two steps taken in opening ranks. Later the whole may be done 
 on one command, including the facing. Still later the facing 
 
 *The Teaching of Tactics. Carl L. Schrader. Am. Phys. Ed. Rev., Feb., 1912.
 
 36 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 may be taken first, the lines are then opened by each taking two 
 clean-cut side steps in opposite directions, after which numbers 
 One take one step to right (toward the side of the front rank), 
 numbers Two one step to left (toward the side of the rear 
 rank). In its final, perfected form the whole manoeuver may 
 be executed on one command such as "Left (or right), open 
 order, march!" To attain speed, unison and "finish" in this 
 method of opening order requires considerable practice, as well 
 as good discipline and perfect attention on the part of the class, 
 and unlimited patience and perseverance on the part of the 
 teacher. But it is worth the effort in the long run. To insure 
 unison and proper rhythm, make the pause between the facing 
 and the steps, as well as between each step, relatively long; in- 
 sist that the weight is not transferred to the advancing foot until 
 the last moment, and that the following foot is lifted clean and 
 clapped smartly to the other. Dragging the following foot makes 
 the whole movement slovenly. With classes of varying mem- 
 bership and irregular attendance this procedure would probably 
 not be satisfactory. 
 
 With classes numbering more than sixty or seventy the same 
 principle of opening order may be used from a preliminary for- 
 mation of three ranks. The middle rank stands still while the 
 front rank takes four steps forward, the rear rank four steps 
 backward (or each takes the same number of side steps in op- 
 posite directions). Numbers One and Two then open up by one 
 step each, in opposite directions. This is not a very satisfactory 
 method, however, owing to the difficulties of getting the prelimi- 
 nary alignment and numbering done quickly and well. 
 
 A better way in the case of very large classes is to line up 
 in two or more divisions at proper distances, each on two ranks, 
 and then proceed exactly as when the class is undivided. The 
 only difference is that the divisions stand on lines parallel with 
 the short axis of the room. When such divisions are necessary, 
 it is well to have assistants or monitors help supervise the pre- 
 liminary alignment and numbering. With such large classes a 
 platform is very convenient, if not necessary, for occasional use. 
 
 Variation in the formation, by facings, during class exercises. 
 
 Having arranged the class in open order on the floor, it is not 
 always best nor even practicable to keep it facing the same way 
 throughout the lesson. Thus, for example, if the spacing is 
 close and alternating, certain movements cannot be very well 
 executed when the class is facing to the front, shoulder to 
 shoulder (front or rank formation), such as arm movements 
 and leg raisings sideways and side lunges; while such exercises
 
 POSITION OF CLASS ON FLOOR 37 
 
 as the prone falling position, movements from the lying position, 
 leg flinging forward, and forward or backward charges cannot 
 be done without risk of interference when the class faces one 
 end, pupils standing one behind the other in long files (flank or 
 file formation). 
 
 Occasionally an oblique formation may be necessary for the 
 proper, unhindered execution of most of .the exercises. This 
 applies especially when the pupils in contiguous files stand abreast 
 of each other, as would be the case if the methods of opening 
 order described in paragraphs four and five have been used, and 
 when the spacing is necessarily inadequate from lack of room. 
 This difficulty might also be obviated by having every other file 
 take a step forward. When work is carried on in school rooms, 
 between the desks, the oblique formation gives most room and 
 freedom from interference by desks or neighbors. 
 
 Besides varying the choice of the three formations front, 
 flank and oblique on grounds of convenience as regards the 
 execution of movements, the formation may also be varied for 
 the purpose of aiding the pupils to execute the movements cor- 
 rectly. This applies especially when beginning work with an 
 untrained class, but it is helpful at all times in giving the pupils 
 guides or landmarks by which they may be aided in finding the 
 right plane or direction of movements. For example, in a trunk 
 bending sideways, the chances for exact performance, uncompli- 
 cated by other elements like twisting, forward or backward bend- 
 ing, are a little better when done in 'a flank than in a front for- 
 mation. This enables the pupils to look along their own lines 
 and usually al^o along the lines or boards on the floor. In for- 
 ward bending of trunk, forward foot placings and charges, a 
 front formation seems to work better than a flank formation. 
 For oblique charges the oblique formation may be helpful at 
 first. 
 
 Another consideration, and an important one, by which the 
 choice of formations should be determined, is the degree to which 
 it facilitates systematic observation of the work by the teacher. 
 Each ensemble movement may be observed better from one point 
 of view than from any other. With the class faced in the most 
 suitable way and the teacher standing at a point or moving along 
 a line giving the best view of the greatest number, he can "sight" 
 along the lines of pupils and easily see every deviation from cor- 
 rect execution. For example, a forward or "backward" bending 
 of trunk, a forward charge qr a toe-support (reverse) charge 
 can be best seen from one end of the class when in front forma- 
 tion ; trunk twisting and exercises in which the arms are held in 
 or pass through any of the cross positions (side horizontal, bent
 
 38 
 
 or straight) are best observed from one end of the class when in 
 flank formation. 
 
 Finally, as has already been suggested, the mental effect on 
 the pupils of seeing a large part of the class doing exercises in 
 unison is worth considering, and the choice of formation may at 
 times be determined on this ground. In this sense appearances 
 count. Then, too, snap, unison and steady rhythm are most 
 easily obtained when the greatest number can see the greatest 
 number. This is usually in the flank formation. Sometimes 
 all these considerations coincide and all are met better by one 
 formation than by any other. At other times they conflict, in 
 which case the most important consideration will determine the 
 choice. This is usually a matter of judgment and experience. 
 
 2. GYMNASTIC COMMANDS. 
 
 The words of command are essentially signals, descriptive or 
 not, as the case may be. They are used in class-teaching primarily 
 to insure unison and uniformity of movement, as well as to train 
 quickness of response. Their purpose and use are in all respects 
 similar to the familiar device for starting a number of individuals 
 in a race: "On the marks!" "Get set!" "Go!" Or they may 
 be likened to the preliminary raising of the baton or arms, and 
 the final arm, head and body movements of the leader which 
 start the playing of an orchestra. As signals for starting and 
 stopping movements the use of the commands is largely a tech- 
 nical matter, which anyone may learn by practice. But aside 
 from this, the commands constitute one of the channels through 
 which the teacher's personality, as well as his ideas and ideals 
 about the work, find expression. For after their proper use, tech- 
 nically, has been acquired and become automatic, they may yet be 
 varied in their suggestive quality, their intonation, intensity, etc., 
 so as to have a marked influence on the class and the quality of the 
 work. They may stimulate' or deaden, quicken or slow down ; in 
 short, they may, and generally do, reflect the teacher's mental and 
 bodily state very accurately. 
 
 Essential -features of commands. Generally speaking, any 
 agreed-upon device may serve the main purpose of a command. 
 It may be a noise made in any way, such as tapping the floor 
 with a stick, or clapping the hands ; or a gesture ; or a preliminary 
 chord on the piano, followed by a sharp movement of the 
 teacher's head, arms or whole body; or a warning word, such 
 as "All ready!" and then a more or less exaggerated movement 
 by the teacher, which becomes the first part of the gymnastic 
 exercise. Such devices, and especially the two last mentioned,
 
 GYMNASTIC COM M. -1. \ OS 39 
 
 are by no means uncommon. They are often used when the 
 work is entirely rhythmical, "oscillatory," or approaching the 
 dancing type. With a little practice a class may learn to begin 
 an exercise in this way with a fair degree of unison. Often, 
 however, there is apt to be some hesitation, and many pupils 
 do not "get under way" until the first or second repetition of 
 the movement. With these methods of starting, the movement 
 is usually discontinued, with or without any special signal, 
 when a certain number of repetitions have been made, as indi- 
 cated by the count or by the music. 
 
 Even in such rhythmical exercises, however, it will be of 
 advantage to start and stop each movement by a proper com- 
 mand. This may be of the simplest character, so long as it 
 embodies the main features of all commands, namely, a prelimi- 
 nary, descriptive or warning part, a pause, and a final, execution- 
 ary part. The preparatory part states or reminds briefly what is 
 to be done, and with the following pause tends to focus attention 
 and give every one an opportunity to get ready for instant action. 
 The final part is the real signal to go ahead. On the proper use 
 and relation of these parts of the command as regards distinct- 
 ness, intensity, pitch, intonation, inflection and duration depend, 
 more than on anything else, the degree of unison, snap and preci- 
 sion of the movement. These details will be discussed later. 
 
 Different kinds of commands. For rhythmical exercises the 
 name of the movement, if sufficiently brief and expressive, may 
 serve as the preparatory part of the command. When a de- 
 scriptive term for a complex, compound movement is lacking, 
 or would be too cumbersome to use as a part of a command, 
 some such warning as "Ready," or "All together," or "To the 
 left," following a description and demonstration of the move- 
 ment, answers the purpose very well. Such a warning may also 
 be used in conjunction with a descriptive term in order to make 
 sure of the preparedness of every one. After a sufficient pause 
 the final part of the command is then given by the sharp enuncia- 
 tion of some such word as "Begin!" "Start!" "Go!" or "March!" 
 Having made a satisfactory start and a sufficient number of 
 repetitions, the exercise is discontinued by some such command 
 as "Stop!" "And Stop!" "Hold!" "Halt!" or "Class, Halt!" The 
 choice will be determined partly by taste, partly by the style of 
 the work, or by the character of the particular movement. (See 
 section on the technique of using commands.) 
 
 When exercises are done singly on command, whether such 
 exercises be simple or combined movements, followed by return 
 to the starting position, or parts of compound movements, the 
 commands may be made in two ways.
 
 40 UVMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 1. A descriptive command with the verb in the imperative 
 for each movement or part, using the name of the movement 
 as a basis. The words of the descriptive term are slightly modi- 
 fied and their order changed. The noun and adverb are put 
 first, serving as the preparatory command, while the imperative 
 verb is put last, as the command of execution. For example, 
 the command for the simple movement "Forward bending of 
 trunk" would be "Trunk forward bend!" This would neces- 
 sitate a command for the return to the starting position. In the 
 example given this might be "Trunk raise!" 
 
 For a combined movement, such as "Arm bending with alter- 
 nate foot placing forward," the command would be "Arms bend 
 and left (right) foot forward place!" The simplest command 
 for the return movement, in this case, would be "Position!" 
 
 As an example of making the commands for the parts of a 
 compound movement from its name, take the movement "Heel 
 raising and knee bending." Here the commands would be 
 "Heels raise!" "Knees bend!" "Knees stretch !" "Heels 
 sink!" 
 
 When the starting position is other than the fundamental posi- 
 tion, the command for the movement by which this derived posi- 
 tion is reached should always be of this kind. For example, if a 
 movement such as "Side bending of trunk" is to be done repeat- 
 edly from a starting position with the hands behind the neck 
 and feet apart, the command for the latter would be "Hands 
 on neck and feet sideways place!" When the real movement 
 (side bending) has been repeated a sufficient number of times, 
 the return to the fundamental position is most easily accom- 
 plished by the command "Position!" 
 
 2. Another way to make the command is to use the descriptive 
 (or empirical) term serving as the name of the movement 
 usually consisting of a noun, the present participle of a verb, and 
 an adverb for each element of the movement as the preparatory 
 command for the movement as a whole, while the numerals 
 are used as executionary commands for the respective parts. The 
 return to the starting position, in reverse order, is implied. Thus, 
 in the examples given above, the commands would be "Forward 
 bending of trunk One! Two!" and "Heel raising and knee 
 bending! One! Two! Three! Four!" 
 
 When to use these methods, respectively. For simple or 
 compound movements, in which only one part of the body moves 
 at a time, either of these methods may be used with equal 
 advantage. The second method is perhaps the safer, or at least 
 the more readily available in case of uncertainty. When it is 
 desired to make many repetitions on command the second is by 
 far the more suitable, as the frequent repetitions of descriptive
 
 GYMNASTIC COMMANDS 41 
 
 terms are superfluous and take too much time. In such cases it 
 may be of advantage to use the descriptive command with the 
 verb in the imperative the first time, then for the repetitions 
 some such word as "Repeat," or "Again," or "Once more" as 
 preparatory command, and the numerals as final commands. 
 
 In combined movements that is, movements in which two or 
 more parts of the body move simultaneously the second method 
 is often the more suitable, as the first would be too cumbersome. 
 Take for example such a movement as "Arm flinging sideways 
 with knee bending." Using that term as the preparatory com- 
 mand and "One! Two!" as the final commands for "going" 
 and "returning," respectively, is simpler and is more readily 
 spoken than such a clumsy combination as "Arm sideways fling 
 and knees bend!" followed by an even more cumbersome and 
 therefore embarrassing combination of descriptive commands to 
 get the class back to the fundamental position. 
 
 The above applies with even greater force to combined, com- 
 pound movements, especially when of a fairly complex charac- 
 ter, such, for example, as "Arm bending with side lunge, then 
 arm stretching sideways with side bending of trunk." In such 
 a case the best way is to demonstrate the movement carefully, 
 naming each part while showing it, then command "Attention !" 
 (if the class has been standing at ease) "All ready, left One! 
 Two! Three! Four!" Again, in many of these combined, 
 compound movements a combination of the two methods of 
 making the commands may be advantageous. For example in 
 such a movement as "Arm flinging sideways-upward with alter- 
 nate foot placing forward and heel raising," there is at least a 
 fair choice between the second method throughout, and the fol- 
 lowing combination of the two methods: "Arm sideways fling 
 and left foot forward place!" "Arm flinging upward with heel 
 raising One! (Return) Two!" "Position!" Then: "Repeat to 
 right (on four counts) One! Two! Three! Four!" Such a 
 combination of methods is especially useful when the class is 
 familiar with the elements of the compound movement, but when 
 the descriptive term for it would be too lengthy to be readily 
 apprehended or remembered. By using the above combination 
 of methods in such movements, detailed demonstration as well 
 as too lengthy descriptive terms may be avoided, thus saving 
 time and insuring continuity of work and attention. 
 
 General factors in the use of commands. The effectiveness 
 of the commands in eliciting promptness and unison of response, 
 vigor and precision of execution depends on many factors. 
 Foremost of these are the kind of personality of which they 
 are an expression and the strength of the teacher's hold on the
 
 42 (,y.MNASTIC TEACH1.\\; 
 
 class his "power of command." While a teacher with a strong 
 personality may get along tolerably well in spite of faulty or 
 clumsy technique, a skillful use of technical devices will 
 strengthen his power and control, and will make the work more 
 effective as well as more interesting. The simplicity, judicious 
 use and proper delivery of the commands contribute materially 
 to the smooth progress, the continuity and the life of the lesson. 
 
 Simplicity and correct language. Try as far as possible to 
 select simple, self-explanatory commands. Avoid too technical 
 terms, or words and phrasings which are bizarre and out of keep- 
 ing with ordinary, correct use of language. Such terms attract 
 too much attention to themselves (or to the teacher), and too 
 little to what they stand for. They may require considerable 
 mental effort to commit to memory and therefore need frequent 
 explanation. This means divided attention on the part of the 
 class, a great deal of unnecessary talking on the part of 
 the teacher, and loss of time for both. 
 
 Stick to agreements. All commands, or rather the meanings 
 attached to them, are in the nature of agreements. Therefore 
 it behooves the teacher to stick to a given usage, once agreed 
 upon. If he thinks he can improve on any command previously 
 used, or deems a change desirable for any reason, he should make 
 an explicit statement to that effect make another agreement 
 superseding the old and stick to the new usage. Nothing is 
 more puzzling or harassing to a class than varied and incon- 
 sistent use of commands by the teacher; and nothing could be 
 more unfair than reproaching a class for failure to execute move- 
 ments properly, when such failure is obviously due to the teach- 
 er's bungling or confusion of commands. 
 
 Voice and enunciation. Make the commands distinct and 
 clear, and in a voice sufficiently loud to be easily heard by those 
 farthest away (if attentive). While excessive loudness is not 
 advantageous, the main efforts of the pupils should be spent in 
 doing the work, not in trying to hear and understand the com- 
 mands. It is well to cultivate the power to make people listen, 
 rather than to make them hear ; but that refers more to secur- 
 ing their attention by well modulated use of the voice (as well 
 as other means), than trying to overcome their inattention by 
 loud shouting. Here, as always, superlativeness and excess in- 
 dicate lack of adaptation to purpose, and are therefore weaken- 
 ing. Let the pupils feel that the teacher has a good deal more 
 voice power than he is using that he has abundant reserve, 
 should occasion demand it. 
 
 Instead of depending exclusively on volume and intensity of 
 sound strive for more perfect enunciation, for a better "plac-
 
 GYMNASTIC COMMANDS 43 
 
 ing" of the voice, as the voice teachers express it. This is 
 attainable, to some degree at least, even without special train- 
 ing, if the teacher will cultivate the habit of observing himself 
 in a detached way; then practice speaking the difficult or in- 
 effective words and sounds in a way to make them carry farther. 
 
 Do not overlook any little thing that may help in attaining 
 greater carrying power of the voice. Be sure to face the class 
 and hold the head high when delivering the command. Find the 
 "focal" points in the various formations, from which every mem- 
 ber of the class can be most easily reached. With large classes, 
 and in gymnasia with poor acoustic properties, all these things 
 are of considerable importance, not only in making commands 
 and instructions effective and understood, but in conserving the 
 vitality or at least the voice of the teacher. 
 
 Commands following each other too rapidly. As a rule do not 
 give a command before the next preceding has been executed 
 and the position held for a moment, unless there are good and 
 sufficient reasons for so doing. Such may be the case, for exam- 
 ple, in marching. When desiring to make rapid and successive 
 changes of direction or formation, during the march, it is often 
 necessary to begin a new command while a previous one is in 
 process of execution. 
 
 The mistake of giving commands too rapidly is sometimes 
 made in the effort to stihiulate a class to quick response and 
 "snappy" execution. It is then a case of a good thing carried 
 to excess. A rapid change of movement or position does 
 stimulate the attention and tends to produce alacrity and speed. 
 But if the changes are so rapid that many pupils cannot follow, 
 or can only half do the movements, the net result is confusion and 
 slovenly work. If this is allowed to pass it is equivalent to ac- 
 ceptance of poor response from the class as a whole. The 
 effectiveness of the commands is weakened rather than strength- 
 ened, and this will react unfavorably on the general quality of 
 the work as well as on the teacher's hold on the class. The 
 attention is not stimulated. It may even be dispersed, its object 
 varying so rapidly that a proper focusing never has a chance 
 to occur. 
 
 Recalling movement already under way. In complex serial 
 movements a recall may sometimes be necessary before the first 
 cycle of the movement has been completed. This often happens 
 even in comparatively simple movements when "trying" a class 
 and finding that the majority do not understand what is wanted, 
 or are unable to do the movement properly. Under such circum- 
 stances it may be wise to command "Stop!" or "Position!" (or 
 both) sharply. Or it may be as well to wait until the failure 
 is complete, in order to impress the class, and then say, in-
 
 44 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 formally, "Stop! Come back!" Give the class "In place rest," 
 then make the necessary explanations and start all over again, 
 perhaps in a different way (such as doing each part separately, 
 or even giving another movement). 
 
 A similar procedure might also be tried when the class fails 
 to execute the movement because of inattention or mischievous- 
 ness. In that case the explanations or re-demonstrations should 
 be replaced by reprimand of the guilty pupils. Recall should 
 also be made promptly when failure and confusion are due to a 
 faulty or wrong command. This may happen to any teacher 
 occasionally and should always be acknowledged. 
 
 Superfluous commands. The mistake is not infrequently made 
 of giving two executionary commands for one movement. This 
 is most likely to occur when the parts of a compound move- 
 ment are given singly, as for example "Left face! One! Two!" 
 (when it is desired to have the class hold the position reached 
 by the first part of the facing). Here, as in many similar move- 
 ments, the command for the complete movement is of course 
 sufficient for, and by agreement applies only to, the first part. 
 A class can be readily made to understand that. It is the fear 
 that the class will not stop after the first part has been executed, 
 or the feeling that it is illogical to say "Two !" without previously 
 having said "One !" that leads inexperienced teachers to make this 
 mistake. Sometimes this fault does not produce the failure of 
 unison in the response that might be expected. This is because 
 the imperative of the verb the first executionary command is 
 not preceded by a pause and is not pronounced with the sharp- 
 ness and inflection which should characterize the final command, 
 while the numeral serving as the real final command is delivered 
 with proper emphasis and intonation. The imperative verb is 
 then not truly an executionary, but rather a part of the prepara- 
 tory command. This redeems the inconsistency to a great extent, 
 and the chief criticism in that case is on incorrect use of language. 
 The present participle of the verb would be more logical. More 
 often, however, there is some suggestion of the final command 
 when the imperative of the verb is used, and this generally 
 "draws" a number of the pupils while others wait for the "One !" 
 Unison and precision of response are of course out of the ques- 
 tion under such circumstances. When this mistake habitually 
 occurs in giving parts of compound movements singly on com- 
 mand, the principal object that of drilling the class in quick 
 and accurate response is defeated, and the quality of the work, 
 generally, is lowered. While a class may, after a time, be trained 
 to ignore the first and respond only to the second, the habit of 
 giving double commands cannot fail to increase the teacher's
 
 THE TECHNIQUE OF COMMANDS 45 
 
 difficulties and to give at least some of the brighter pupils a feel- 
 ing that something is wrong with the method of teaching. In 
 any case duplicating commands is to be deprecated on grounds 
 of superfluity and illogical use of language. 
 
 3. THE TECHNIQUE OF COMMANDS. 
 
 The preparatory part of the command, as already stated, serves 
 two purposes. One is to express briefly and concisely what is to 
 be done. The other is to focus attention, to produce a mental 
 and bodily state of readiness for instant action. Both of these 
 purposes are accomplished by using the name of the exercise, if 
 not too long, as the preparatory command ; by speaking it in a 
 clear, even tone of voice, pitched relatively low, or with only a 
 slightly rising or falling inflection ; by taking the utmost pains 
 to enunciate every word distinctly ; by using enough volume and 
 intensity of sound to reach those farthest away. Preferably the 
 teacher should face the class. 
 
 When the exercise is sufficiently familiar to the class to make 
 a detailed demonstration and explanation unnecessary, it is well 
 to accompany the preparatory command by a "cue." This con- 
 sists of a rapid, more or less detailed execution of the movement 
 by the teacher while naming it. It may be a mere suggestion of 
 the main features of the exercise, serving as a reminder ; or it 
 may be done with full vigor, accurate detail and exact rhythm, 
 according to the requirements of the occasion. In this way much 
 time may be saved and the teacher may avoid too frequent breaks 
 in the continuity of the work occasioned by giving the class "In 
 place rest," while explaining and demonstrating the exercise. 
 
 On the other hand, too lengthy preparatory commands should 
 be avoided. Whenever possible, let them be suggestive rather 
 than too descriptive. While a warning or stimulating admonition 
 at times may be of advantage as a part of the preparatory com- 
 mand, it is not wise to do this too much, or too frequently. 
 When used habitually and in a routine way this device loses its 
 force. Besides, the class feels that the teacher does not have 
 sufficient confidence in its ability and good intention. 
 
 An excessively lengthy preparatory command for compound, 
 combined movements, especially when very complex, may be 
 avoided in two ways: 1. Either give each part of the compound 
 movement separately the first time, using a combination of the 
 two methods of forming the command, as suggested in a previous 
 section, followed by, "Repeat One! Two! Three! Four!" 
 Then use some such term as "Continue "or "Keep it going " or 
 "In rhythm " or "In Series " as preparatory command, and
 
 46 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 "Begin!" or "Start!" or "Go!" as final command for further 
 rhythmic repetitions. 2. Or give the class "In place rest," 
 demonstrate the complete exercise, then command ".Ittcntion!" 
 "All ready One!" " Two!" etc. In this way the pupils are 
 not held immobile in a state of high tension too long on the one 
 hand, and on the other there is less opportunity for a slackening 
 of the fundamental position with a consequent loss of readiness 
 and a failure of prompt response. But a rational progression will 
 obviate the necessity for too frequent interruptions of this kind 
 and will enable the teacher to use the first method the greater 
 part of the time. For if the majority of the exercises in the 
 lesson consist of new combinations of movements with which 
 the class is familiar, the more deliberate method of demonstra- 
 tion and explanation with the class in a relaxed position may be 
 reserved for new types, or for the more difficult combinations of 
 known elements. 
 
 The pause between the preparatory and final command is per- 
 haps the most important single factor in insuring unison of re- 
 sponse. The sudden cessation of speaking, the following com- 
 plete silence and stillness have the effect of all sharp contrasts 
 of attracting and focusing attention. The pause makes possible 
 and brings about that state of readiness and high tension so 
 necessary for vigorous and united action. 
 
 The duration of the pause should correspond to the time needed 
 by the pupils to comprehend what is required of them and enable 
 them to gather themselves together for the proper effort. The 
 more complex and difficult the movement, or the rhythm, the 
 longer should be the pause. In this short period of stillness the 
 teacher, by a sweeping glance, should try to ascertain if all under- 
 stand and are ready. Such a rapid survey of the class during 
 the pause may save the necessity of a recall (after the movement 
 has begun) because of partial or entire lack of unison and poor 
 execution. The teacher may discover inattentive pupils and by 
 word or gesture bring them to attention. Or the expression in 
 the pupils' faces may warn him that they do not feel sure of 
 themselves, that they do not understand what they are expected 
 to do. This usually means that the explanations, etc., have been 
 inadequate and that it is necessary to begin all over again. The 
 movement may then be countermanded, in an informal way, 
 before the final command has been given, and the confusion en- 
 tailed by a total failure of execution may be averted. 
 
 To make a proper pause between the two parts of the com- 
 mand, although apparently such a simple matter, is one of the 
 hardest things for many young teachers to learn, or to stick to 
 after learning. To acquire the habit, it may be helpful, in the
 
 THE TECHNIQUE OF COMMANDS 47 
 
 beginning, to think the word "pause," or even to speak it in- 
 audibly, before giving the final part of the command. 
 
 The tendency of every class to anticipate the command, to 
 make a "false start," often induces the unwary teacher to shorten 
 the pause, or to neglect it altogether, in an unconscious effort to 
 forestall a failure of unison. Hurried commands, with insuffi- 
 cient pause, in turn increase the tendency to anticipation. This 
 is sometimes an expression of eagerness and alacrity on the part 
 of the pupils. More often, perhaps, it is due to inability or dis- 
 inclination to wait until the proper signal has been given. This 
 requires control, power of inhibition and considerable effort of 
 mind and body. It is the line of greatest resistance. In any case 
 such- anticipation is fatal to unison and quick response from the 
 class as a whole. The first impulse of the teacher (as of a 
 starter in a race) is to try to save the situation by getting ahead 
 of those who show signs of making a false start. But hurrying 
 the command by shortening the pause is rarely effective in pro- 
 ducing unison of response, as many of the pupils are caught un- 
 prepared. The next time these pupils will anticipate the com- 
 mand and the unison will be still more impaired. 
 
 This reaction of teacher and class on each other is particularly 
 apt to occur when single movements on command are repeated 
 many times, and the intervals between the commands are too 
 uniform as well as too short. It not infrequently happens in 
 such cases that the class begins doing an exercise on command 
 and after a few repetitions is doing it rhythmically. At first the 
 teacher makes desperate efforts to keep ahead of the class by 
 hastening the command, but the ultimate "catching up" is in- 
 evitable. 
 
 If the descriptive command with the imperative of the verb is 
 used, the only thing to do to prevent this "sliding" into rhythmical 
 movement with its attendant lack of unison is to stop and allow 
 the class to make one false start ; then recall the movement in an 
 informal way and admonish the class to wait for the command. 
 After that be more careful to have a sufficiently long and varied 
 pause between the two parts of the command. 
 
 If the numerals are used as commands the same method may 
 be employed to head off the tendency of a movement given on 
 command to become rhythmical. Often, however, things have 
 gone too far before the teacher fully realizes the situation. If 
 he then stops giving the command the class will continue in a 
 scattered way for some time. Reproach for not waiting for the 
 command is then not only inconsistent but unjust. Under such 
 circumstances it would be wiser to accept the situation, frankly 
 allow the movement to become continuous and try to steady the 
 rhythm. The numerals are then no longer commands, but simply
 
 48 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 aid in keeping the time and serve as a vehicle for stimulation. 
 They correspond to the rhythmical movements of the baton, arms 
 and head of the leader in guiding the playing of an orchestra, 
 and are spoken at the end of the movement, instead of preceding it, 
 as is the case when they are used as commands. To discontinue 
 such a rhythmical gymnastic movement a proper command is 
 necessary. The mere cessation of counting will not stop it. 
 
 The tendency to anticipation by the class is greatly increased 
 if the teacher is himself guilty of the same offense while doing 
 the movement with the class. In extreme cases of this kind the 
 class is really not doing the movement in response to the com- 
 mand, but is simply following the movements of the teacher by 
 direct imitation. There is then usually, very imperfect execution 
 and entire lack of unison until the movement has gradually be- 
 come rhythmical. Such a confusion of methods is to be depre- 
 cated, even though a class may become accustomed to it after a 
 while. It is illogical and conducive to poor quality of work. 
 If the teacher finds it difficult to time his own movements prop- 
 erly, it is better to refrain altogether from participation in the 
 work, until he has learned by practice how to do it in a way to 
 help the class rather than the reverse. 
 
 The duration of the pause may be made excessively long. 
 This entails an unnecessary strain on the attention keeps the 
 class "on edge" too long and makes the purely mental part of 
 the work too prominent and severe. Like every other good prin- 
 ciple, this one may be unduly emphasized to the detriment of the 
 work and the weakening of the teacher. If the pause is too long 
 the attention is apt to relax after a while. This is sometimes seen 
 in marching. When the class is allowed to take several steps 
 before the final command is given the result is often failure of 
 execution. With a well-trained class the pause in the different 
 types of movement comes to be of a customary length, with al- 
 ways enough variation and uncertainty to produce zest and alert- 
 ness, but without annoyance. 
 
 The only commands in which a pause may be dispensed with 
 are "Right dress!" "Count twos (threes, etc.) !" and "Class 
 halt!" In the first a pause would be desirable, but by agreement 
 with the class may be left out in order to distinguish this com- 
 mand from "Right face!" and so save confusion. A pause is 
 unnecessary in any command for counting off, as this applies 
 only to one individual, and there is then no question of unison. 
 In "Class halt!" the word "class" is somewhat drawn out during 
 one movement and the "halt!" may be given on the next. As it 
 is customary to do two movements before the class comes to a 
 standstill, there is ample time to check momentum in marching
 
 THE TECHNIQUE OF COMMANDS 49 
 
 and recoil in such movements as "alternate knee-upward bend- 
 ing" or "jumping on toes." 
 
 The final part of the command is the signal for the execution of 
 the movement. It is usually and preferably only one syllable. 
 It varies in quality, pitch and inflection of voice, in sharpness and 
 intensity of sound according to the character of the movement to 
 be done. Thus a quick movement requires a short, sharp, snappy 
 executionary command, usually though not always pitched 
 higher than the preparatory command, and with a rising inflection. 
 It is of a somewhat explosive character, the effect of sudden con- 
 traction of the abdominal muscles. Often the aspirate sound of 
 the letter "h" is thus produced, as in "place" and "stretch." These, 
 when short and sharp, are pronounced as if they were spelled 
 "pl'hace" and "str'hetch." A slow movement, on the other hand, 
 requires a more drawn out executionary command, usually pitched 
 lower than the preparatory command, and with a falling inflection. 
 
 While it is true that high pitch and rising inflection are suitable 
 for quick movements, and low pitch or falling inflection for 
 slow movements, it is often necessary to depart from this rule 
 in order to avoid too much sameness. Thus, when giving 
 the parts of a compound movement separately on command, it 
 is wise to vary the pitch or inflection of successive commands, 
 even though all the parts of the movement are of equal speed. 
 For example, in the movement "Heel raising and knee bending," 
 done slowly, the inflection of the commands for the parts might 
 with advantage be as follows: "Heels raise!" (falling), 
 "Knees bend!" (rising), "Knees stretch!" (rising) and 
 "Heels sink!" (falling). Or the first and third might be given 
 with rising, the second and fourth with falling inflection. Simi- 
 larly, if the movements are to be done quickly, the successive 
 commands (in this case the numerals) may be varied in pitch, 
 although collectively they are pitched higher than the prepara- 
 tory command. For example : "Heel raising and knee bending 
 (falling inflection) "One!" (short and sharp, with rising inflec- 
 tion), "Tivo!" (somewhat lower pitch), "Three!" (rising again), 
 "Four!" (falling). There are unlimited possibilities for varia- 
 tion in pitch and intonation of commands, and it is very desirable 
 that this be kept in mind whenever it is necessary to give a series 
 of commands in rapid succession. Indeed, the proper inflection 
 and constantly varying intonation of commands are as much of 
 an asset in teaching gymnastics as is a well modulated and vary- 
 ing tone of voice in ordinary conversation or in public speaking. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the imperative of the verb used for 
 the final command is suitable only for a quick, or more often 
 a slow movement. In such cases another word must be substi- 
 tuted, as for example, "fling" for "raise" in straight arm move-
 
 50 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 ments. Again, the method of using the name of the movement 
 for the preparatory command and the numerals for the final 
 commands is always available. The numerals, up to four, are 
 as useful in this respect as in simplifying lengthy or cumbersome 
 commands for combined movements. As an example, take the 
 movement "Arm bending with heel raising." If the movement 
 were to be slow, it might be possible to use the descriptive com- 
 mand with the verbs in the imperative, although it would be rather 
 clumsy. As this combined movement is usually done quickly, 
 however, the descriptive command with the imperative verbs 
 "bend!" and "raise!" can hardly be enunciated in a way to sug- 
 gest speed. Here the other method is not only simpler but more 
 natural and infinitely more effective. Compare "Arms bend and 
 heels raise!" (the last word pronounced with short vowel, if 
 that were possible, and with rising inflection) ; then "Arms 
 stretch and heels sink!" on one hand, with "Arm bending with 
 heel raising One! Two!" on the other. 
 
 When, for any reason, it is particularly desirable to use the 
 descriptive command with the verb in the imperative, but the 
 sound of the command does not suggest the desired speed of the 
 movement, then it is necessary to accept the speed suitable to 
 the command when doing the movement the first time. For 
 repetitions the numerals may be used as final commands and the 
 speed of the movement made whatever the teacher wishes. The 
 movement "Heel raising and knee bending" may again serve as 
 an example. 
 
 The only difficulty in using the numerals as executionary com- 
 mands is that the tendency of the class to anticipate is greater 
 and more difficult to check than when the other form of command 
 is used. This has already been discussed and shown to be due 
 to an insufficient or too uniform pause between the commands. 
 If the teacher is on his guard against this fault, and against the 
 equally common mistake of anticipating his own command when 
 doing the movements with the class, there need be no difficulty 
 in the use of the numerals. One other point might be mentioned 
 in this connection. When making many repetitions on command 
 (in itself an undesirable thirig) and using the numerals, it is 
 better not to "count up," but to repeat those numerals which stand 
 respectively for the first, second, third and fourth parts of the 
 movement. If the movement consists of more than four parts, 
 the corresponding numerals must of course be used. But for 
 the vast majority of suitable exercises the first four numerals 
 are all that is necessary. The fact that they are all of one syllable 
 and have vowels capable of being pronounced either quickly or 
 slowly, with any kind of inflection or intonation, make them 
 peculiarly adaptable to any kind of movement. This is not true
 
 THE TECHNIQUE OF COMMANDS 51 
 
 of most of the numerals above four. Besides, counting up in- 
 definitely has a stronger tendency to produce anticipation and 
 to make the movement rhythmical than any other way of giving 
 commands. Nor has it any special merit or advantage, except 
 that it indicates the number of repetitions. This is too insignifi- 
 cant a consideration to have any weight in the choice of method. 
 The use of the numerals as a device for marking time should 
 be clearly distinguished from their use as commands. Simple 
 as this distinction is, in practice confusion in the two ways of 
 using the numerals is not at all uncommon. It is partly respon- 
 sible for, and to a certain extent also caused by, the illogical pro- 
 cedure of "sliding," by gradual steps, from doing single move- 
 ments on command to rhythmical, continuous movement. The 
 reverse is also seen occasionally. In trying to start a rhythmical 
 movement an inexperienced teacher may fail to do so for two 
 reasons. Either the command "Begin!" has been delivered in an 
 ineffective manner or not given at all; or the numerals, intended 
 in this case as time-markers, are pronounced too sharply, with 
 too much inflection and not exactly, on time. This causes many 
 of the pupils to hesitate at the next movement, to wait for the 
 next count, unconsciously mistaking the counts for commands. 
 The unison is thus broken up, and if the teacher stops counting 
 the class stops working. To all intents and purposes the class 
 is doing each single movement on command, even though it be 
 in a ragged manner; while the teacher is under the impression 
 that a rhythmical movement is in progress and is puzzled why 
 he cannot get it under way. Here, as in the opposite case (a 
 class going ahead of the command and "sliding" into a ragged 
 rhythmical movement), it is best to stop. In this case it would 
 be even more unjust than in the other to expostulate with the 
 class. It would perhaps be better for the teacher to admit being 
 at fault. In any case, it behooves him not to make the same mis- 
 take again. Instead, he should try to make the command 
 "Begin!" sharp and ringing, guard against anticipating the com- 
 mand in his own movement, make his counts in an even tone, 
 in a slightly lower pitch and with less sharpness than the word 
 "Begin !" The count in a rhythmical movement coincides with 
 the end of the movement. Of course the teacher must know how 
 to carry a steady rhythm. If he wishes to change this while the 
 movement is in progress, an admonition to that effect is advis- 
 able. This is followed by a gradual or sudden acceleration or 
 retardation, as the case may be. It is not an easy matter and 
 depends for its success on the teacher's skill in giving the count 
 and doing his own movement slightly ahead or behind the ma- 
 jority of the class.
 
 52 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 The custom of "counting up" indefinitely, or at least to sixteen, 
 or to eight and then backward, instead of using repeatedly the 
 first two, four or six numerals according to the number of 
 parts in the compound movement may be a matter of taste. 
 At any rate it is a matter of differing opinion. There is this to 
 be said against counting up: It implies that the teacher thinks 
 it his duty to count or otherwise mark the time throughout, and 
 that he habitually does so. This may not be the best thing to do. 
 For one thing, the class should as often as possible be given an 
 opportunity to carry a given rhythm unaided by the teacher. 
 Again, the teacher should find other things to do besides mark- 
 ing time. And if he should interrupt his counting to make admo- 
 nitions or corrections, it is more difficult to hit the proper count 
 when he wishes to resume the counting, after an interval, in 
 order to steady the rhythm. If he begins from the beginning 
 each time, or at any count not the correct one, there is no point 
 to continued counting. Finally, most of the numerals above six 
 are not as well suited to convey stimulation or to influence the 
 work by variation in tone of voice and enunciation as those 
 below six. The only advantage of counting up lies in the auto- 
 matic registering of the number of repetitions. When the cus- 
 tomary method of counting up to sixteen (or twenty or twenty- 
 four) is used, the discontinuance of the movement is also auto- 
 matic, for unless the teacher substitutes for the last two counts 
 an order for the repetition of this dose, or a change to another 
 movement, the class will stop. Often the preparation for this 
 will begin quite a few counts before the last, as shown by less 
 extensive and vigorous movements, and even by the "premature" 
 stopping of some individuals. 
 
 To stop a rhythmical, continuous movement by command is the 
 only sure and logical way, whatever the method of marking time 
 may be. But the kind of command used and the way it is given 
 will vary, not only with the method of marking time, but with the 
 character of the particular movement and of the work in general. 
 
 If the class is used to a certain number of repetitions and 
 these are indicated by the count or by the music, a command is, 
 as already stated, not absolutely necessary. But it would un- 
 doubtedly be better to have the understanding with the class that, 
 unless a command to stop is given, the class is to continue doing 
 the movement. To stop it at the end of the first or any subse- 
 quent series of repetitions is then a very simple matter. The 
 word "Stop!" or "And Stop!" spoken instead of the last count 
 or two, with only slightly raised voice, is usually effective. Many 
 use the term "Hold!" or "Halt!" 
 
 To stop a continuous movement repeated an indefinite number 
 of times in fast rhythm, marked only by an occasional counting
 
 THE TECHNIQUE OF COMMANDS 53 
 
 or other device, requires a command given with a good deal of 
 power and timed just right. There are two distinct kinds of 
 such rhythmical exercises, each requiring its own distinctive 
 command. 
 
 1. In such exercises as marching, running, alternate knee- 
 upward bending, rhythmical jumping and dancing steps no inter- 
 mediate or terminal positions are held. There is momentum, 
 or rebound, and the body weight is continually being shifted 
 from one leg to the other. This would make it extremely diffi- 
 cult, if not impossible, to stop immediately after the signal is 
 given. For all such movements the command "Class halt!" is 
 the most suitable. The agreement is made with the class that 
 two complete movements are to be executed (three, in running) 
 after the command has been given. The teacher should insist 
 upon having this agreement strictly lived up to, and reserve the 
 command "Class halt!" exclusively for exercises of this type. 
 If used in other kinds of gymnastic movements there is apt to 
 be confusion. 
 
 2. In exercises demanding at least a momentary retention of 
 terminal and intermediate positions it is unnecessary to give 
 much or any warning, such as is implied in the command "Class 
 halt!" The body weight is more evenly distributed, the equilib- 
 rium is fairly stable and the momentum is (or should be) 
 checked as the position is reached. To stop such an exercise a 
 single word, spoken sharply, is usually sufficient. The word 
 "Halt!" is not entirely satisfactory because of the possibility of 
 confusion with "Class halt!" It is, however, effectively used by 
 many teachers. The word "Hold!" is also commonly used and 
 answers fairly well. Like "Halt!" it is somewhat inadequate 
 because of the long vowel. Then, too, the word "Hold !" is very 
 useful in admonitions to the class to emphasize positions while 
 doing a rhythmical movement. It might very well be reserved 
 for such purposes. The word "Stop!" with its penetrating "s" 
 and short "o" seems on the whole the most satisfactory. If pre- 
 ceded by the word "and" the latter may be given on the preceding 
 count, but this is not necessary. Both words may be spoken 
 together in such a way that the "Stop!" coincides exactly with 
 the arrival of the class to a given position, or is spoken just an 
 instant before. The more definite the type of exercise, and the 
 better the class is trained to hold positions, the later may the 
 command be given. Shortening this little interval of time, or 
 even eliminating it altogether and stopping the class unexpectedly 
 in any position, may, indeed, be used as a device for stimulating 
 a class to alertness, to greater steadiness and accuracy in main-
 
 54 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 taining, temporarily, all intermediate and terminal positions. The 
 pupils rather like being put on their mettle in this way from time 
 to time. 
 
 Summary. To be effective as technical devices in gymnastic 
 teaching, the commands must be selected with forethought and 
 care. The terms used must be simple, brief and explicit. They 
 should be in harmony with ordinary, correct usage of language, 
 not bizarre or slovenly perversions of it. They should be given 
 in a clear voice, sufficiently loud to be heard, but not shouted. 
 The preparatory part should always be enunciated as distinctly 
 as possible, the final part in a manner that will compel response. 
 The pause between the two parts should rarely, with but few 
 exceptions, be neglected, and never be of quite the same length 
 in successive commands. 
 
 Variety in intonation of the preparatory command ; in the 
 duration of the pause, in the sharpness, pitch, inflection and force 
 of the executionary command all these serve not only to sug- 
 gest the way the movement should be done, but also help to 
 relieve and prevent monotony, enliven the work, inspire, stimu- 
 late and put life into a class. They make the work interesting as 
 well as effective. While there is nothing so deadening and fatal to 
 the success of a lesson as faulty, inconsistent, lengthy and too 
 numerous commands, delivered in a monotonous voice, a skillful 
 use of the commands may lift the lesson to a period of pleasant, 
 interesting and spirited activity. 
 
 4. THE ACTIVE AND RELAXED GYMNASTIC POSITIONS. 
 
 The commands most frequently used, next to "Begin!" and 
 "Stop!" are probably "Attention!" and "In Place Rest" ("Rest" 
 and "At Ease"). The intelligent use of these commands is of 
 the utmost importance is securing and retaining the attention of 
 the class, in eliciting promptness and unison of response to all 
 other commands, as well as vigor and correctness of execution in 
 the exercises. On the other hand, their misuse or lack of use 
 are conducive to slackened interest, poor fundamental position 
 and incorrect execution. The proper response to these commands, 
 therefore, should be worked for and insisted on, and should be 
 secured at all hazards. Perhaps no other single item of the 
 technique of teaching is as sure a test and index of the teacher's 
 hold on the class or of the pupils' attitude toward the work 
 as their response to the command "Attention!" The promptness 
 and vigor of the response to this command determines to a con- 
 siderable extent the spirit and quality of the work as a whole.
 
 ACTIVE AND RELAXED POSITIONS 55 
 
 The active or fundamental gymnastic position, or position of 
 
 attention. 
 
 This is in many respects an exaggerated position. It should 
 be made clear to the class that it means something more than 
 merely standing in an easy, "natural" position, even though this 
 may be fairly correct and acceptable from an aesthetic standpoint ; 
 that it means something more than mere attentiveness, however 
 complete this may be. The fundamental gymnastic position 
 whether assumed on the command "Attention!" from the relaxed 
 position, or on the command "Position!" from any other gym- 
 nastic position, or at the end of a serial movement involves hard 
 work of both mind and body. It implies, of course, alertness, 
 readiness to think and to do, and the nervous tension that this calls 
 for. But, besides, it should be so defined as to demand hard 
 muscular work, work of a kind and in directions largely neglected 
 in ordinary activities static contraction of those muscular groups 
 of the upper back and abdomen which are habitually relaxed or 
 subjected to passive tension. It is on the control, tone and en- 
 durance of these muscle groups that good posture ultimately 
 depends. The fundamental gymnastic position should be con- 
 sidered an exercise for good posture. Indeed, maintaining a 
 good fundamental position while walking or doing any other 
 exercise is perhaps the most effective way of permanently improv- 
 ing posture. Hence the importance of starting every gymnastic 
 movement from a good fundamental position. 
 
 When the command "Attention!" has been given and a prompt, 
 satisfactory response obtained, it is well for both teacher and 
 class to hold the fundamental position a moment before proceed- 
 ing with the next exercise. Following the less constrained bodily 
 and mental attitude and the buzzing of conversation permitted 
 in the relaxed position, such a brief period of rigid immobility 
 and silence emphasizes the contrast between the relaxed and 
 the active position ; it gives opportunity for some "belated" pupils 
 to get their attention focused, and so helps to steady a class. 
 For similar reasons the fundamental position should be held a 
 second or two at the end of a gymnastic movement, before the 
 command for the next exercise or for the relaxed position is 
 given. 
 
 On the other hand avoid holding a class motionless in the 
 position of attention longer than necessary. Immobility of any 
 kind is always difficult and irksome. The nervous tension of 
 expectancy, as well as the muscular strain demanded in the funda- 
 mental position, makes it particularly severe on the pupils who 
 are willing and able to hold a strong position ; while those who are
 
 56 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 disinclined to sustained mental and bodily exertion, or who lack 
 the requisite endurance, training and understanding of the work, 
 very soon begin to show signs of diminishing muscular effort and 
 dispersed attention. In fact, it is next to impossible to keep the 
 whole class in the extreme position of attention very long. Any 
 attempt to do so, whether intentional or not, will almost invariably 
 result in partial relaxation, muscular or mental, or both, on 
 the part of many members of the class. This either means going 
 on and accepting a faulty position and imperfect attention, or 
 it necessitates giving the command "Attention!" once more. The 
 former leads to poor work, the latter is equivalent to repeating a 
 command because it has been ineffective the first time. That 
 would be a confession of weakness and would tend to lessen the 
 teacher's control. Both procedures are pedagogically undesir- 
 able. The best thing to do when the first command "Attention!" 
 fails to evoke an acceptable response, or when any considerable 
 number of pupils relapse to a state of partial inattention or poor 
 fundamental position, is to give "In Place Rest!" ; then immedi- 
 ately, or after a brief admonition, command "Attention!" in a 
 way to compel a sudden and emphatic assumption of the funda- 
 mental position. During its momentary retention the teacher 
 has time to scan the class and make sure that every pupil is 
 erect and attentive. Then, and not until then, give the command 
 for the next exercise. In the beginning of the lesson it may be 
 necessary to repeat this procedure several times before a good 
 result is obtained. (Especially is this true of an untrained class.) 
 
 It is a very common mistake to give explanations or descrip- 
 tions of exercises or lengthy admonitions while the class is in 
 the position of attention. These, unless very brief, should be 
 made while the class is standing at ease. To secure the pupils' 
 attention at any time when they have been allowed to relax to 
 a considerable extent and there is more or less talking, etc. (such 
 as might be safe to permit), command "Class Attention!" Then 
 give "In Place Rest!" and begin speaking as soon as this last 
 command has been executed. The attention of the pupils will 
 be retained while they are formally relieved from the muscular 
 strain of the rigid fundamental position. As soon as the explana- 
 tions, etc., have been made the teacher should at once command 
 "Attention!" If he has succeeded in holding their attention while 
 speaking and no opportunity is given for mind wandering or 
 complete relaxation the class should be readily brought to the 
 fundamental position. 
 
 Occasionally it may be expedient to make an exception to what 
 has been stated in the foregoing paragraphs and deliberately hold 
 the class motionless in the fundamental position for some little 
 time. It may be done, for example, when the majority of a class
 
 ACTIVE AND RELAXED POSITIONS 57 
 
 has responded to the command "Attention!" in an acceptable 
 manner, while a few members are so deeply engrossed in con- 
 versation or "day dreaming" that they fail to hear the command. 
 It is then amusing to the rest of the class to see the delinquents, 
 often with some embarrassment, gradually wake up to the fact 
 that everybody else is ready to go ahead and only awaiting their 
 belated "arrival." The moral effect on the class as well as on the 
 inattentive members is apt to be good. While in one sense it is 
 an unjust hardship on the majority, there is usually enough of 
 the humorous element in such a situation to redeem it. It is 
 safest to keep it on that plane. The teacher may contribute to 
 this by standing himself at rigid attention, indicating by a quiet 
 word or two, or by looking significantly at the culprit, the pur- 
 pose of the prolonged delay. But do not resort to this expedient 
 too often, nor continue it too long at any time. If overdone the 
 class might fail to enter into the spirit of it, and the effect might 
 be opposite to what was intended. 
 
 The relaxed gymnastic position. 
 
 This may be defined as a partial relaxation from the muscular 
 strain and nervous tension of the active gymnastic position. It 
 is assumed on the command "In Place Rest!" ("Rest!" or "At 
 Ease!"). To a certain (agreed upon) extent this command also 
 signifies temporary relief from the restraint of formal class disci- 
 pline. The relief does not begin, however, until the movement 
 leading to the position has been executed. This should be con- 
 sidered a gymnastic movement and treated as such. Insist upon 
 having the command responded to like any other gymnastic com- 
 mand with promptness, precision and unison. Only when that 
 has been done is the class allowed to relax. 
 
 The customary movement consists in advancing one foot 
 diagonally outward or directly sideways. If diagonally, the 
 weight remains on the stationary foot. Many teachers require 
 that the right foot be advanced so that the body weight may rest 
 on the left foot, on the theory that this reverses the habitual 
 easy standing position (with the left foot out, the right hip pro- 
 jecting and the spine convex to the left) assumed by the average 
 person. Encouraging the opposite position would tend to correct 
 any slight lateral deviation of the spine. This may be a matter 
 of opinion, and it probably makes but little, if any, difference 
 which foot is advanced, provided that all move the same foot 
 in response to the command. When that has been done it is 
 advisable to allow the pupils to stand as they please, so long as 
 they retain their places in the line and do not assume an outright 
 faulty posture in the upper part of the body. As to the degree
 
 58 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 of mental relaxation whether, for example, conversation is to 
 be allowed that is a matter for the teacher's judgment and will 
 depend upon circumstances. With a well-behaved class con- 
 siderable latitude in this respect is usually safe. If abused, so 
 as to lead to noise and disorder, the privilege may be curtailed 
 or withdrawn, temporarily at least. Any tendency in this direc- 
 tion must be watched for and promptly checked. One way to 
 check it is to make the periods of relaxation rather brief and also 
 less frequent. If the class is made to work as hard and as 
 rapidly and for as long periods as is consistent with safety, there 
 will not be much desire for mischief when a rest is given. 
 
 The technique of using the relaxed position, while not difficult, 
 is often faulty because of mere carelessness. Teachers, as well 
 as classes, are prone to forget that the command "In Place Rest!" 
 is really a gymnastic command and calls for a specified movement. 
 Not only is the teacher apt to accept a poor response to this 
 command, but he often brings it about by giving the command in 
 an ineffective manner hurriedly, without any particular intona- 
 tion, as something not meaning a great deal, in parenthesis as 
 it were, not expected to elicit any definite response. It is a habit 
 even experienced teachers readily fall into. 
 
 Beginning to speak to a class before the command has been 
 properly executed is another very common cause for poor re- 
 sponse. It usually goes together with an ineffective command. 
 Both faults tend to weaken the teacher's power of command and 
 his hold on the attention of the class. 
 
 Many teachers do not use the relaxed position at all. That 
 is, they do not give the command "In Place Rest!" (or its equiva- 
 lent in other terms). But the class will relax more or less of 
 its own accord whenever there is a pause in the lesson. The 
 command "Attention!" is then also frequently neglected. Whether 
 these commands are given or not, slackness or neglect in the 
 use of the relaxed position is usually associated with listlessness 
 or poor posture, or both, in the active position. For on the 
 proper use of the relaxed position depends to a large extent the 
 degree of success attained in securing and maintaining a good 
 active position mental and bodily. Making the contrast between 
 the two as striking as possible and the transition from one to 
 the other sharp, sudden and uniform is conducive to good disci- 
 pline as well as good spirit and quality of work. 
 
 Simply forgetting to give "In Place Rest!" when the teacher 
 really knows that it should be given is a fault often seen. A 
 little watchfulness and practice will soon overcome this habit. 
 On the other hand, the use of the relaxed position may be over- 
 done and very often is, even by experienced teachers. A few 
 suggestions as to its use may be helpful.
 
 INSTRUCTION 59 
 
 When to use the relaxed position. (1) When actually needed 
 by the class after hard work. This means that the work shall 
 have been of a character and duration to make a short rest ap- 
 preciated. Signs of such need should always be watched for and 
 noted by the teacher. He may judge by the vigor of the work, 
 the color and expression of the pupils' faces, hard breathing, the 
 heaving of a sigh at the end of a movement, etc. 
 
 .(2) When speaking to a class; when making explanations, 
 descriptions or demonstrations of exercises, or making general 
 (verbal) corrections of a lengthy character when the first attempt 
 of a movement has not been satisfactory. 
 
 (3) When making individual corrections in a way that takes 
 some time and cannot well be done while the class is working. 
 Also when wishing to reprove or speak to an individual about 
 any matter which does not concern, the whole class. But it is 
 not wise to do this very often. 
 
 When not to use the relaxed position. (1) In a perfunctory, 
 routine way, between every movement, whether needed or not. 
 
 (2) For the teacher's convenience, while he is trying to think 
 what to do next, or is absorbed in a lengthy study of his memo- 
 randum, etc. Such practice not only needlessly interrupts the 
 work, but puts the teacher in an unfavorable light before the 
 class. Pauses of this kind are always more or less embarrassing. 
 
 (3) When very brief explanations or admonitions are given. 
 
 5. INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Under this head may be grouped those procedures which make 
 up the positive side of teaching, such as presentation or explana- 
 tion and demonstration of exercises ; cues, admonitions, stimula- 
 tions and warnings, either before the exercise is started or during 
 its progress: devices for guiding or modifying the rhythm, for 
 varying the speed or other features of the movement, etc. When, 
 how and to what extent each of these are to be used will depend 
 on the objects and character of the work as well as the general 
 method of teaching. 
 
 Preparation. Before taking up the detailed consideration of the 
 above topics it may not be out of place at this time to suggest that 
 the teacher owes it to himself as well as to the class to be well pre- 
 pared for each lesson. In the first place he should meet each class 
 with a clear and definite plan of the lesson in his mind. While 
 extemporaneous teaching may be indulged in occasionally, or for 
 a short series of lessons, by an experienced teacher with safety and 
 sometimes even with distinct advantage as regards animation 
 and interest in the work, to do so habitually is, to say the least,
 
 60 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 unwise. There is great liability to get into ruts, to use constantly 
 certain types of exercises and to neglect other types which may 
 be equally useful and interesting. The progression, too, is apt 
 to suffer. But a general plan of the lesson (and preferably 
 series of lessons) is not always enough in the way of preparation. 
 If we wish a class to do an exercise correctly, the first requisite 
 is that we know exactly what we want that we ourselves have 
 a clear idea of each movement. This is not always the case, 
 especially with young and inexperienced teachers, and it usually 
 means insufficient preparation. Not only is it advisable to commit 
 to memory the names and order of the exercises, but it may be 
 well to go through the movements mentally at least, but actually 
 is even better before giving the lesson. Being fortified as far 
 as possible by a thorough preparation the teacher will be able 
 to put his whole mind on getting the work done satisfactorily, 
 rather than in embarrassing efforts to think what to do next 
 and how to go about it. It will also reduce to a minimum the 
 necessity for frequent and lengthy reference to a memorandum. 
 
 Presentation or explanation and demonstration of exercises. 
 Given a reasonable amount of willingness and cooperation on 
 the part of the class, the first essential in presenting an exercise 
 is to make the pupils understand exactly what they are to do, i.e., 
 produce a clear, vivid image of the exercise in their minds. This 
 may be done in several ways. 
 
 1. The exercise may be described clearly and concisely, using 
 such terms as the class will readily understand. The important 
 features are emphasized, the difficulties are pointed out and faults 
 which are liable to occur are warned against. Suggestions regard- 
 ing the kind of muscular efforts needed for correct execution may 
 be made in terms of some familiar activity, thus bringing the 
 imagination and the associative processes to bear on the new or 
 difficult elements of the exercise. With children a teacher may 
 go far afield in this respect and illustrate the movement in a 
 great variety of ways appealing to the childish imagination. With 
 adults he is more limited, but with a little ingenuity he will find 
 abundant material for suggestive illustrations in well-known games 
 and sports as well as in many forms of labor. For example, in 
 giving such a movement as "Running in place with knee-upward 
 bending" to a class of children the teacher may finish the brief 
 description with the suggestion that the pupils do it "like a high- 
 stepping horse." Or if giving a slow, resisted "Arm bending 
 and stretching upward" to a class of older pupils the teacher 
 may tell them to do the movement as if they were pushing up 
 and pulling down a heavy weight.
 
 INSTRUCTION 61 
 
 The descriptive method of presentation is hardly ever sufficient, 
 by itself, to produce a clear picture of the exercise, except possibly 
 in the simplest kinds of movements or with very well-trained 
 classes. Unless accompanied by more or less detailed demonstra- 
 tion it is apt to be too lengthy, time-consuming and tedious, as 
 well as inadequate. It involves too much talking in order to 
 make every detail clear. It requires a closer attention and greater 
 ability to understand than we have a right to expect from any 
 class and tends to make the lesson too much of a mental drill. 
 
 2. Another method depends entirely on the demonstration of 
 the (complete) exercise. Little or no description, explanation 
 or suggestion is made. Counting as he executes each part of the 
 movement before the class, the teacher may add some general 
 direction or admonition regarding rhythm or vigor in the execu- 
 tion, then with a preparatory "All ready," and a final "One! 
 Two!" etc., or "Begin!" (or even without any final command) the 
 exercise is started. 
 
 This method has the advantage of simplicity and brevity. But 
 it depends too, much on unaided observation and visual memory. 
 If the exercise is unfamiliar or fairly complex, many pupils are 
 likely to overlook important details and retain only an incomplete 
 or faulty mental picture of it. Or they may fail to execute it 
 correctly because without helpful suggestions they do not know 
 how to make the right muscular efforts. 
 
 3. A third method uses th% "Follow-the-leader" principle 
 exclusively. As the teacher executes each movement, or part 
 of a compound movement, the pupils imitate it as closely and as 
 quickly as their interest, attention and power of coordination 
 permit. The teacher usually counts, and for the first "round" or 
 two does not expect or even attempt to get the exact rhythm 
 or atiy semblance of unison. That would of course be unreason- 
 able. But after a few repetitions the class gradually "slides" into 
 the rhythm of the movement and may attain a fair degree of 
 unison, especially when accompanied by music. The method is 
 employed extensively in teaching dancing. Many teachers of 
 gymnastics use it inadvertently, or from a mistaken desire to 
 help a class, or as a misapplication of the principle of "cues," 
 when trying to give single movements on command. By doing 
 the movement while giving the final command, instead of after 
 finishing it, they induce the class. to do likewise. This may be 
 carried to such an extent that the class follows the teacher's 
 movement by direct imitation without paying any attention what- 
 ever to the command. The latter might just as well be dispensed 
 with. When used in this way the method has nothing to recom- 
 mend it. It usually means ragged work and often leads to mis-
 
 62 t;y.\l X.-IST1C TEACH l.\(, 
 
 understanding and dissatisfaction. This has already been pointed 
 out in the discussion of gymnastic commands. 
 
 When skillfully employed, however, the method may serve well 
 enough in some forms of rhythmical gymnastic work of a more 
 or less indefinite character and approaching the dancing type. 
 It may be useful under certain circumstances, as, for example, 
 when teaching very young children, or classes of adults in which 
 it is desirable to eliminate as far as possible the purely mental 
 work. 
 
 On the other hand this method is wholly inadequate when it 
 is desired to give work of the definite type with a view to 
 increasing the power of conscious or volitional motor control. In 
 such work the pupils are required to construct their own motor 
 images or to reproduce, after a varying interval of time, a 
 movement which they have been shown. This might be called 
 volitional or deliberative reproduction, and is a more complex 
 process than the immediate or perceptual imitation which the third 
 method calls for. 
 
 The methods of presentation most used, because giving great- 
 est satisfaction from all points of view, are combinations of the 
 first two described, viz., a descriptive explanation accompanied 
 by a more or less detailed demonstration. The proportion of each 
 will vary with different teachers, with the style of work taught 
 as well as with the conditions under which the work is carried 
 on. The total amount of instruction required for each exercise 
 will of course depend on the stage of progress of any class and 
 its familiarity with a given exercise or the elements of which it 
 is composed. With well-trained classes and rational progression 
 a considerable number of movements require no other presenta- 
 tion than a descriptive command, at most accompanied by a "cue." 
 
 Cues. The detailed instruction given when presenting an exer- 
 cise may, as stated, be replaced by a "cue." The word is used here 
 to mean a quick or fragmentary representation of the exercise, 
 neither complete nor accurate enough to be called a demonstra- 
 tion, and serving merely as a reminder or suggestive indication 
 of a movement with which the class is supposed to be familiar. 
 // is (jircn as the preparatory command is being delivered. It 
 insures the correct interpretation of the command by all the 
 (attentive) members of the class and aids in their construction 
 of the "image" of the exercise. When the movement is com- 
 pound and fairly complex, several parts of the body moving 
 simultaneously as well as successively, the preparatory command, 
 if descriptive, is usually quite long. In that case there is time, 
 if occasion calls for it, to make the cue sufficiently detailed 
 to amount to a rapid demonstration, finishing it just before the
 
 INSTRUCTION 63 
 
 final command is given. Cues of this kind are very useful as 
 time-saving devices. The extent to which they may be used 
 depends, like every other feature of the instruction, on the pro- 
 gression and the stage of advancement of the class. 
 
 The term cue may also be applied to suggestive reminders 
 movements by the teacher accompanied or not by admonitions 
 while a rhythmical movement is in progress. They are partic- 
 ularly useful in the more complex combinations of movements, 
 such, for example, as charges or lunges combined with dissimilar 
 arm movements and even trunk and head movements in opposite 
 directions. 
 
 Cues are also used to assist a class in going through memorized 
 gymnastic drills, in the same way as when teaching dances. As 
 the class is executing the last part of one exercise, the teacher 
 indicates the next by a movement varying in extent from a 
 slight gesture to a complete and exact demonstration of the first 
 part of the next exercise. Such a movement takes the place 
 of a verbal reminder when a suitably brief and concise term 
 is lacking, or when the music or noise made by dumb-bells, etc., 
 might make it difficult for many pupils to hear. 
 
 Admonitions and stimulations. Admonitions may be given as 
 a part of the presentation, or as supplementary instruction. In 
 the latter case they may follow the presentation directly, serving 
 to emphasize or reenforce some essential point already made, or 
 adding another. For example, after demonstrating and explain- 
 ing such an exercise as "Alternate arm flinging sideways-upward 
 with opposite leg flinging sideways" the teacher may add: "Re- 
 member to make the down-stroke just as vigorous as the up- 
 stroke." Or admonitions may be given after the class has 
 assumed the position of attention and the command for the 
 exercise is about to be given. They may even be made a part 
 of the preparatory command. Giving the rhythm for a contin- 
 uous movement or restating it may serve as examples of the 
 former; indicating the speed of the movement by some such 
 word as "Slowly" or "With utmost speed," etc. as examples 
 of the latter. In either case the admonition should be as brief 
 as possible, in order not to hold the class immobile too long in 
 the fundamental position. 
 
 When each movement, or part of a compound movement, is 
 done on command, the short periods spent by the class in holding 
 positions may be utilized by the teacher in giving further or 
 repeated admonitions regarding the execution of the next move- 
 ment, as well as in correcting the position or criticising the move- 
 ment by which it was reached. Such admonitions are often of 
 a warning character, asking the class to look out for some fault
 
 64 C,y.MNASTIC TEACH IX (i 
 
 or shortcoming apparent in the execution of the preceding move- 
 ment. They are then somewhat in the nature of corrections, 
 and if given in the right way in a spirit of helpfulness are very 
 effective. Here again they must be brief and to the point, for 
 the pupils are (or should be) working hard holding a gymnastic 
 position often even more fatiguing than the fundamental position. 
 Finally, admonitions find their greatest field of usefulness when 
 the work consists of rhythmical, continuous exercises. Even 
 when the rhythm is smooth and uniform and there is little or 
 no effort made to hold positions, an energetic teacher will find 
 occasion for frequent admonitions. But when exercises of a 
 definite type are done serially or continuously, with syncopated 
 and often broken or undulating rhythm, and the intermediate as 
 well as terminal positions are held a varying length of time, then 
 admonitions constitute a large and most important part of the 
 instruction. Here they are often of necessity in the form of 
 warnings and corrections, but even more frequently they are, 
 or should be, of a positive character suggestive, stimulating. 
 To maintain a rhythmical gymnastic exercise on the plane of 
 conscious, volitional effort, to keep it from becoming an easy, 
 "mechanically" executed movement a purely reflex action with- 
 out much or any conscious coordination or effort requires con- 
 stant and varied stimulation. A wide-awake, enthusiastic teacher 
 may find it to advantage to keep up a continual stream of stimulat- 
 ing admonitions, now directed to one part of the class, now to 
 another, but more often addressed to the whole class. Such 
 stimulation may be needed to steady the rhythm, to slow it down 
 or to accelerate it; to increase the speed in one movement and 
 to decrease it in another; to get the class to try for more pre- 
 cision, more vigor in the execution ; to insure the holding of 
 positions longer and with greater steadiness, more perfect weight 
 distribution; to aid the class in beginning and finishing each 
 movement with more accent and with better unison ; to remind the 
 class of agreed-upon signals for and different methods of stopping 
 the exercise, etc. There is no limit to the variety of form and 
 the degree of intensity of such stimulation. While a partial 
 list might be made of expressions actually used by various teach- 
 ers in stimulating classes, it is doubtful if it would be of much 
 value, except as suggestive material. Any attempt to use such 
 a list verbatim would be in the nature of imitation, would, 
 therefore, with difficulty be made to appear spontaneous, and con- 
 sequently would be more or less ineffective. Again, general use 
 of language and special terms suited to one class might not and, 
 in fact, rarely would, be suitable to another class. Each teacher 
 must depend on his own ingenuity, inspiration and sense of fit- 
 ness of things to hit on adequate and appropriate methods of
 
 INSTRUCTION 65 
 
 stimulations Some general principles regarding the use of 
 stimulation may, however, be suggested. 
 
 1. As in the case of discipline, so with stimulation: never use 
 any stronger means than is necessary to attain the desired end. 
 With a new class, unaccustomed to the teacher's ways or to the 
 kind of work he is to give and with the spirit of willing coopera- 
 tion often shown in the beginning, suggestions expressed in 
 moderate terms without great intensity of voice may be sufficient. 
 Such moderation in the beginning is usually the wisest course for 
 two reasons : At first there are a great many details in the work 
 calling for the use of stimulating admonitions. Some discrimina- 
 tion must be used in treating each according to its relative im- 
 portance. Second, as the work progresses its quality is expected 
 to improve, and if the strongest measures have been used to 
 attain mediocre' results, how are the finer and more difficult 
 distinctions and effects to be obtained? Besides, as the pupils 
 become accustomed to a teacher's methods of stimulation they 
 naturally grow less sensitive and responsive to them. This makes 
 it necessary for the teacher to use constantly new forms of ex- 
 pression, and, up to a certain limit, with increasing intensity and 
 power in order to be effective. For these reasons it behooves 
 a teacher to husband his resources, always keeping something in 
 reserve; to be patient and not expect everything at once; to be 
 satisfied with a fair degree of responsiveness, alacrity, speed, 
 unison, etc., at first and trust to the combined effects of the 
 work and his whole teaching (supplemented by gradually increas- 
 ing stimulation) for further improvement in the quality and finish 
 of the work. 
 
 2. In apparent contradiction to the above, it may sometimes 
 be wise to use extravagant terms of expression (not at too early 
 a stage, however). It may be justifiable if such terms are of a 
 particularly suggestive character and especially if they are at 
 the same time more or less humorous, either by virtue of their 
 extravagance or otherwise. For example, when trying to stimu- 
 late a class to greater effort and wider range of movement in 
 the exercise "Alternate knee upward bending" it may be permis- 
 sible to use such an admonition as "Try to touch the chin with 
 the knee without ducking the head forward" even though in a 
 literal sense such a thing is an impossibility. The class soon 
 finds this out, if it does not know it before, but that does not 
 detract from the effectiveness of the suggestion. The pupils 
 usually take such a thing humorously while responding as desired 
 to the implied stimulation. 
 
 3. Most admonitions may be increased in their effectiveness 
 by being timed so as to coincide with, or only slightly precede, the 
 particular movement or position for which they are intended.
 
 66 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 They must then be given very quickly. This requires some skill, 
 but with a little practice any one may learn to do it. Examples 
 of such timing are the admonitions for varying the speed of 
 a movement given at the end of the preceding; or "Hold it a 
 moment" spoken just as the class arrives in a position. "Cues" 
 and verbal reminders of the next movement in any exercise 
 composed of several dissimilar elements are timed in much the 
 same way. Intercepting a movement in this manner is very 
 effective, if skillfully done. 
 
 6. CORRECTION. 
 
 This is one of the most important parts of teaching and one of 
 the most difficult. It is complementary to instruction and in one 
 sense may be considered the negative side of teaching. On the 
 promptness, effectiveness and tact with which corrections are 
 made depends to a large extent the quality of the work obtained 
 from the pupils as well as their attitude toward the work, their 
 ideals, standards and general conceptions of it. Corrections, gen- 
 eral and individual, may be so made that the majority come to 
 hate both the work and the teacher; or they may be made in a 
 way to stimulate, to arouse interest in the work and esprit de 
 corps, as well as respect and regard for the teacher. The prin- 
 ciple of learning by repetition of acts, discarding those that are 
 wrong and retaining in memory those that are right, and grad- 
 ually forming habits of doing things in the right way, is abso- 
 lutely dependent on correction. "The teacher must stamp out the 
 wrong ones and stamp in the right ones," as Thorndike so tersely 
 puts it.* 
 
 To be able to correct at all, it is of course absolutely neces- 
 sary for the teacher to know when correction is needed. He 
 must have a clear idea of what can be accepted and what cannot, 
 as well as tact and judgment enough to know when to correct 
 and when to refrain from doing so. What, when and how to 
 correct depends on circumstances and conditions to some extent 
 and also on the objects and aims of the work under any given 
 conditions. It would make a great deal of difference, for ex- 
 ample, whether the class is that of a mother's club in a Settlement, 
 of second grade children in a public school, or boarding school 
 girls between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. It must always 
 be borne in mind that the standards we set ourselves are relative 
 in this, as in most respects. 
 
 While having in his mind a definite and high, but reasonable, 
 standard of the work, based on his conception of its purpose, 
 
 E. L. Thorndike, "Notes on Child Study."
 
 CORRECTION 67 
 
 scope and adaptation to given conditions, the teacher must use 
 constant judgment and discrimination in correcting. For if his 
 standards are high and his observation keen, he will find a great 
 deal to correct, especially in the beginning or when giving a new 
 and difficult exercise. The important things, the main essentials, 
 should receive attention first, and finer details be left for another 
 occasion, when by practice and repetition the class has learned 
 to do the exercise in a way that insures the' accomplishment of 
 its main objects. For example, when posture and general motor 
 training are of prime importance, the position of head, chest, 
 shoulders, lower back and often of the arms, the inclination of 
 the body, etc., should be corrected first, and minor details, such 
 as the position of fingers, wrists, feet, etc., later. When the 
 immediate organic effects are aimed at primarily, the vigor and 
 magnitude of the movement, its rhythmic swing and continuity, 
 will form the main theme for correction or rather for stimulating 
 admonitions. Other details are then of secondary importance. 
 
 Keen power of observation, natural and trained, is a necessary 
 qualification in teaching and should be cultivated and striven for. 
 On the teacher's ability to see errors depend both the quality of 
 the work and the discipline. Accepting slovenly or faulty work 
 at once lowers the standard of excellence which the class feels 
 the teacher demands, and less effort will be made to approach 
 perfection. If faults are riot seen, the pupils may either think 
 that they are doing the exercises satisfactorily ; or, as often hap- 
 pens, especially with children (if they know that they are not 
 doing things correctly), they form a poor opinion of the teacher's 
 power of observation, think he is "easy," and will promptly take 
 advantage. The teacher should try to notice everything rhythm, 
 exactness and vigor of execution, promptness and unison of re- 
 sponse and in some way let the class know whether satisfac- 
 tory or not. By timely comment and individual correction every 
 pupil is thus made to feel that he is observed, that nothing escapes 
 the teacher's notice. It is well to make a practice of systematic 
 scanning or inspection of each line or portion of the class during 
 the execution of every movement. In time such systematic obser- 
 vation will become habitual. 
 
 To facilitate systematic observation, the position of the teacher 
 relative to the class and the distribution and formation of the 
 class on the floor should be given careful consideration. (This 
 has already been discussed in a previous chapter.) For example, 
 a faulty forward bending is very readily seen if the class is in a 
 rank (front) formation and the teacher views it from the end 
 of each rank ; an oblique charge is perhaps best observed from a 
 file (flank) formation, the teacher again viewing it from one end, 
 preferably facing the class.
 
 8 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Causes of Faults. The method and manner of correcting, as 
 well as the amount and kind of correction, will vary with the 
 nature and causes of the faults and shortcomings. It is, there- 
 fore, necessary that the teacher be able to judge or ascertain 
 surely and quickly such causes. The following are some of the 
 more important : 
 
 1. Insufficient, unclear or faulty instruction and demonstra- 
 tion. This is a not uncommon occurrence, even among good 
 teachers. Especially is this true as regards demonstration. A 
 teacher may not be aware of habitual slackness in this respect 
 unless somebody calls his attention to it. It may put him in an 
 embarrassing position before the class, if he finds it out at the 
 time, especially if he has reproved the class for not doing the 
 exercise correctly. If he remains unaware of the fact, the class, 
 or some of its members, may misconstrue his criticisms or doubt 
 his sense of justice. One can never be absolutely sure of perfec- 
 tion and therefore it is wise occasionally to admit to the class 
 that the exercise as demonstrated may not be correct in every 
 particular. 
 
 2. The instruction and demonstration may have been correct, 
 sufficient and clear to the majority, but some may not have seen, 
 heard or understood everything. These may, therefore, have a 
 wrong picture of the exercise in their minds and execute it in a 
 faulty manner. It is wise for the teacher to assume this to be 
 the case nearly always, particularly when not absolutely sure of 
 the cause. It gives the individual (or class) the benefit of the 
 doubt and is not likely to produce resentment, because it implies 
 that perhaps the teacher was at fault. The same principle may 
 be applied in a broad way to all kinds of correction individual 
 and general ; in class and out of class. It is a good mental atti- 
 tude, conducive to friendly relations. 
 
 3. Again, faults may be due to actual inability on the part of 
 a class or individuals. Such inability may be dependent upon 
 lack of coordination. This is the most common. If this applies 
 to great numbers, simpler work rather than much correction 
 may be the best course. Structural defects and peculiarities are 
 often causes of poor work, e.g., tightness around the shoulders,- 
 pronounced round or hollow back, lateral deviations of the spine, 
 flat or otherwise deformed chest, shortness of hamstring muscles, 
 etc. In such cases special work as well as encouragement and 
 stimulation may be helpful. Not infrequently a faulty execution 
 may be due to some temporary disability, as lame ankle, knee or 
 shoulder; or to general fatigue, malaise or poor condition. The 
 teacher must be quick to notice signs which point to any one of 
 these possibilities, so as to avoid being unjust. Of course, pupils
 
 CORRECTION 69 
 
 may have some little thing the matter with them and for reasons 
 of their own try to make the most of such disability. Then the 
 teacher's judgment and resourcefulness must determine the best 
 way to deal with the case. But be charitable when judging 
 doubtful cases. 
 
 4. Inattention may be and often is the cause of faulty or 
 slovenly execution. When sure of it the teacher should show that 
 he is aware of the fact by disapproval of some kind. But if not 
 sure, be slow to assume it. Rather put it down as being a case of 
 failure to understand. Find out if the pupil's hearing is good. 
 
 5. Mischievousness. The same applies to this as to the pre- 
 ceding. If you have a clear case, it may be wise to deal with it 
 peremptorily, even if the offense is relatively small. "Nip things 
 in the bud" is always a good rule in preserving discipline. 
 
 Summary of methods of correcting. 
 
 I. General corrections (addressed to the class as a whole). 
 
 1. The presentation, as already suggested, may well include 
 warnings against the faults which are most likely to occur. Do 
 not, however, unduly emphasize or dwell too much on possible 
 faults. Rather make any such warning serve as the shading or 
 contrast by which the positive parts of instruction, the essential 
 points in the picture, are made more vivid. 
 
 2. A warning admonition may be given as a part of the pre- 
 paratory command, e.g., "Without letting the head (and elbows) 
 droop: Trunk forward bend!" This, so far from suggesting 
 the fault, puts the pupils on their mettle to avoid it. 
 
 3. Admonitions of a corrective character may be given during 
 the exercise. This form of correction is particularly useful in 
 continuous, rhythmical movements. The teacher may increase 
 the effectiveness of such admonitions by doing the exercise with 
 the class in an energetic manner, even exaggerating the correct- 
 ness and vigor of the execution, if that were possible. In this 
 way he can throw a great deal of suggestion into his admonitions. 
 Here also it may be wise to illustrate the fault, by way of helping 
 the understanding of the class. 
 
 4. General corrections and admonitions may be given while 
 a gymnastic position is being held. This applies especially when 
 doing single movements on command. This method should 
 always be tried before resorting to individual correction. 
 
 5. Stopping a rhythmical movement and giving the class "In 
 place rest," then reillustrating and reexplaining the movement, 
 making admonitions more emphatic and demonstrations more 
 careful than the first time.
 
 70 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 6. Recalling a compound movement before the completion of 
 the first cycle, if the teacher judges that it is too difficult for the 
 average ability of the class, and, after making the necessary ex- 
 planations and admonitions, beginning all over, or giving only 
 a part of it, or substituting something else less difficult. 
 
 II. Individual Correction: 
 
 1. By admonitions while the movement is being done, or while 
 the position is being held. The attention of the individual may 
 be secured by naming him, if necessary, or by catching his eye 
 and then by look or gesture, etc., making it clear that the admo- 
 nition is directed to him. 
 
 2. By assistance and manual correction during the exercise. 
 This is often a delicate matter, but is seldom resented when 
 accompanied by admonitions in an undertone, given in a decidedly 
 friendly manner, making it clear that you are simply trying to 
 help the pupil. If the teacher has the right mental attitude the 
 pupils generally appreciate such efforts rather than the reverse. 
 They are keen to judge this attitude, however, and if the teacher's 
 manner while thus correcting is peremptory suggestive of bossi- 
 ness or impatience or if the manipulations are at all rough, they 
 will show their resentment in one way or another. Such failure 
 of appreciation may be expressed by resisting, or by doing worse 
 than before, or by making no effort at all, or by discontinuing the 
 movement and perhaps looking annoyed and even resentful. 
 
 3. By showing and explaining after the class has finished the 
 movement, so that the individual will be able to do better next 
 time. 
 
 4. By stopping the class and giving "In place rest" while help- 
 ing the individual, then letting the class continue the movement. 
 This procedure is not very advisable. The teacher must be sure 
 of his class, for interruptions of this kind are apt to lead to slack- 
 ened attention and loss of interest. Do not resort to this expe- 
 dient often, and always be as quick as possible about it. 
 
 5. By helping an individual after class, especially if the gen- 
 eral quality of his work is unsatisfactory. The teacher can then 
 ascertain the causes of poor work by careful questioning and, if 
 dependent on wrong mental attitude toward the work, can set 
 this right by speaking to him in a way to make him understand 
 the purpose and catch the spirit of the work. 
 
 General corrections and admonitions are to be used in prefer- 
 ence to individual, even when only a few are at fault. In that 
 case try to make the individuals in question know that the admo- 
 nitions are intended for them.
 
 CORRECTION 71 
 
 When a considerable number do the exercise in a faulty manner, 
 stop the movement, give "In place rest," redescribe and illus- 
 trate both the correct and faulty way of doing it. 
 
 When making individual and especially manual corrections, do 
 not forget the class. If a gymnastic position is being held many 
 pupils will become too tired to maintain it (or simply take advan- 
 tage of the teacher's momentary "absence"), and all are liable 
 to relax somewhat if the position is held too long. There will 
 then be more and more to correct. Rather make rapid correction 
 of a few, let the class return to the fundamental position, then 
 repeat the same exercise and correct a few more. If the class 
 is doing a continuous movement, keep an eye (and ear) on the 
 class while assisting individuals. From time to time give a gen- 
 eral admonition, steady the rhythm by counting through a few 
 movements, etc., then resume work with the individual. Too 
 much should not be attempted in this direction, however, both 
 on account of the difficulty to make clear (quickly) to the indi- 
 vidual what you want, and because of the liability to forget the 
 class. Sometimes it may be wise to let the individual stop, then 
 put him through the exercise slowly once or twice, the class in 
 the meanwhile keeping on. But this is nsky unless the class is 
 exceptionally reliable and well trained. 
 
 The technique of manual correction. How to take hold of a 
 pupil and by pressure and counter-pressure, assistance and resist- 
 ance, put him in the right position or guide him in the execution 
 of the movement is quite an art in itself and must, in the main, 
 be acquired by experience. In each movement and position 
 various faults are likely to occur, and each requires its own 
 method of manual correction. A few general principles may 
 perhaps be stated and the "holds" in some of the more common 
 types of movements and positions described. 
 
 As a rule stand behind or on one side of the pupil, rarely, if 
 ever, in front. When approaching from behind, make a point of 
 speaking to the pupil before touching him. Give some admonition, 
 make some comment or simply say, "Let me help you get this 
 right." Whatever form such warning may take, be sure to make 
 the pupil feel that the purpose of the manipulation is to help him. 
 If the teacher really has a friendly mental attitude and goes 
 about it in a brisk and business-like manner, manual corrections 
 will rarely be resented. 
 
 When trying to correct one fault, be careful that the necessary 
 yielding and adjustment of one part of the body as arms, head, 
 knee, foot do not induce a faulty position or an undesirable 
 movement in another part, or disturb the body equilibrium. 
 
 Use a firm and steady touch, not too sudden and never with 
 such force as to suggest roughness. Avoid touching the pupil's
 
 72 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 face, but if necessary as in correcting a forward position of the 
 head use the finger tips only. 
 
 When the pupils' arms and shoulders are bare refrain from 
 manual correction if the hands are very cold. Wait until they 
 are warmed up by exercise and friction. 
 
 Do not persist in the use of manual correction if a pupil is 
 excessively ticklish. It only makes matters worse. 
 
 Be careful not to mistake natural limitation of mobility for 
 resistance on the part of the pupil. In general, do not resort to 
 manual correction until other means have been tried and found 
 unavailing. 
 
 \Yhen trying to put a pupil in correct position the teacher may 
 find that two hands are not enough. To steady the pupil and 
 localize the movement properly by pressure and counter-pressure, 
 he may have to use his elbows, shoulders, head, chest, hip, knee 
 and even foot. The following methods of manual correction of 
 common faults in a few representative types of exercises have 
 proved effective and may serve as illustrations. 
 
 When doing an arm stretching or flinging upward, pupils often 
 fail to bring the arms far enough back. To assist them in reach- 
 ing the correct final position the teacher should stand on the 
 pupil's left (or right) side and a little behind'; the left forearm 
 is then placed across the pupil's arm in front and presses back- 
 ward, while the right hand is placed between the pupil's shoulder- 
 blades and presses forward. 
 
 To correct the position reached by placing the hands behind 
 the neck, the teacher, standing behind the pupil, grasps the latter's 
 elbows and pulls backward, at the same time exerting counter- 
 pressure by gently pressing his own elbow or chest against the 
 pupil's shoulder-blades. 
 
 The same procedure may be used in correcting the position 
 reached by forward bending of arms, or arm raising sideways. 
 
 When a forward position of the head accompanies a faulty 
 position of the arms in the above movements, the teacher stands 
 at one side of the pupil (left), his left hand grasping the pupil's 
 right elbow (or arm) from the front, his left arm or forearm 
 pressing the pupil's chin backward, his left shoulder or chest (or 
 his head) pressing the pupil's left elbow (or arm) backward, 
 while his right elbow and hand exert counter-pressure against 
 the pupil's shoulder-blades and occiput. 
 
 To correct a faulty position of head only, with chin protruding, 
 place the finger tips of one hand on the pupil's chin, pressing 
 firmly backward and upward, while steadying the pupil's head 
 with the other hand placed on the occiput. 
 
 Side bending of trunk with the hands on hips or behind neck, 
 overhead or in one of the cross positions (side horizontal) is often
 
 CORRECTION 73 
 
 executed with a rounded back and forward positions of arms and 
 shoulders, a bend at the hips or twist in the body. Whether one 
 or several or all of these faults are present, the movement may 
 be corrected by grasping the arms or shoulders from behind and 
 pulling backward (or twisting, as the case may be), while the 
 pupil's equilibrium is steadied by the opposition of the teacher's 
 chest or hip. 
 
 A faulty forward bending of trunk (with the arms in any of 
 the high positions) is corrected from the side, the teacher stoop- 
 ing down and placing one arm in front of the pupil's arms or 
 shoulders, the other on the pupil's shoulder-blades, in a way 
 similar to that described for correction of faulty position of the 
 arms. 
 
 An oblique charge requires the same method as far as the 
 position of the back and arms is concerned. Insufficient bend 
 and forward position of the advanced knee of the pupil as well 
 as unduly arched back require a stronger forward and downward 
 pressure by the teacher's hand on pupil's shoulder-blades, while 
 the teacher's knee forces the pupil's knee out into the correct 
 position. The teacher may even find it necessary to use his foot 
 in pushing the pupil's foot to the proper position. 
 
 The leaning forward so common in knee bending may be cor- 
 rected by the teacher taking hold of the pupil's shoulders (or 
 arms) from behind and pulling him backward against his hip 
 and thigh, then releasing his hold gradually as the pupil becomes 
 accustomed to "leaning backward" and his sudden, exaggerated 
 efforts to steady himself are replaced by more moderate and 
 better coordinated contractions. 
 
 Excessively hollow back, whether it is the habitual posture, or 
 is associated (as is only too often the case) with gymnastic move- 
 ments and positions calling for vigorous contraction of the upper 
 back and shoulder-blade muscles, is very difficult to correct by 
 any means whatever. The following method has been found 
 helpful when accompanied by admonitions to retract the abdo- 
 men and push the hips forward. The teacher, standing on one 
 side of the pupil, places one hand on the pupil's abdomen, the 
 other on the pupil's sacral region, and his head behind the pupil's 
 shoulder-blades. By pressure and counter-pressure at these three 
 points the pupil may be helped or gently forced into the correct 
 position. It may be necessary at first to ask the pupil to relax 
 all his back muscles. This usually leads to a rounding of the 
 upper back and a collapse of the chest and shoulders. But by 
 careful muscular efforts erect posture in the upper part of the 
 body may be regained, while a relatively straightened position in 
 the lower back is retained. If the first attempt fails, try it again.
 
 74 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 By repeated attempts with assistance the pupil will gradually 
 learn to localize his muscular efforts to the upper part of the 
 back and the abdominal region and in time be able to assume the 
 correct position without assistance. 
 
 7. REVIEW AND SUMMARY OF METHODS OF TEACHING 
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORK. 
 
 In discussing the various phases of teaching from a technical 
 standpoint frequent reference has been made to the necessary 
 modifications and variations of method according to the style 
 of work taught, the objects aimed at and the conditions under 
 which the work is carried on. With style of work is meant the 
 general character of the exercises, such as their relative simplicity 
 or complexity the number and kind of elementary movements 
 of which they are composed, the kind of combination, the sequence 
 and alternation of these elements the amplitude, speed, power, 
 rhythm, etc., of the exercises; the relative emphasis on sustained 
 position or on continuity of movement. 
 
 While no sharp lines of differentiation can be drawn, it may 
 simplify discussion to refer all exercises to one of two types : 
 indefinite and definite. These terms are admittedly inadequate, 
 for while retaining their ordinary connotation they are also used 
 here to express a number of differences in character and quality 
 of gymnastic exercises. Such differences of quality are often 
 relative and partial and are not necessarily inherent in the 
 exercise. The same exercise may approach one type or the other 
 at different times according to the way it is defined and executed. 
 Again many exercises have some characteristics of each type. 
 
 1. Exercises of the indefinite type are relatively complex, 
 widely distributed movements, not readily capable of sharp defini- 
 tion or standardization ; their various elements are so blended and 
 interdependent that the exercises cannot easily or to any great 
 extent be divided into component parts without destroying or at 
 least changing their character. They are usually continuous, i.e., 
 the movements are repeated in rhythmic alternation and sequence, 
 not separated by sustained positions. The momentum or recoil 
 of one movement gives the impetus for the next, or one move- 
 ment begins before the preceding is completed. Typical examples 
 are walking, running, jumping, throwing; rocking, swaying or 
 undulating movements. Such exercises may approach the danc- 
 ing type, being then usually of moderate range and speed, the 
 movements flowing smoothly one into the other. Or they may 
 be oscillatory movements swinging, thrusting, revolving or cir- 
 cling of considerable amplitude, speed and power, such as con-
 
 TEACHING DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORK 75 
 
 tinuous large arm swings or circles; quick arm bendings "and 
 stretchings ; some forms of knee upward bendings and leg fling- 
 ings ; circumduction of trunk, "chopping," "paddling" and similar 
 mimetic exercises ; combined stooping and trunk twisting or bend- 
 ing with or without arm movements, etc. 
 
 Many such partly or wholly "indefinite" movements are ex- 
 tremely useful and valuable exercises. For in the first place 
 their complexity usually implies wide distribution of muscular 
 work. If executed vigorously they represent large total quantity 
 of muscular contraction without too great local fatigue. They 
 are correspondingly effective in stimulating the circulatory, res- 
 piratory, digestive and excretory organs as well as all parts of 
 the heat-regulating mechanism production as well as elimina- 
 tion with all that this implies. The fact that such exercises 
 are usually done with rhythmic continuity emphasizes their gen- 
 eral organic effects. If the repetitions are numerous and little or 
 no rest is given between the exercises as in memorized drills 
 there may result considerable gain in endurance. If the exercises 
 are quick rather than powerful, increased capacity for speed of 
 muscular action will undoubtedly be gained. Nor can any kind 
 of consciously executed movement be practiced persistently with- 
 out yielding some result in the way of subjective motor control. 
 Many "indefinite" or "semi-indefinite" types may be of consider- 
 able value in this respect by demanding frequent changes of 
 weight distribution, by offering difficulty of balance, of sequence 
 and alternation. Most of their values, however, depend on wide 
 distribution, numerous rhythmic repetitions and continuity of the 
 muscular work. Some of them depend on the fact that practically 
 every specified movement consciously performed is at least to 
 some degree "definite" and to that extent demands and cultivates 
 discrimination and volitional motor control. 
 
 The methods and technique of teaching the indefinite type of 
 exercises are on the whole comparatively simple. The demonstra- 
 tion and the direct imitation methods, or combinations of these, 
 are generally used. In the former case demonstration of the 
 whole exercise, supplemented or not with explanations and direc- 
 tions for execution and rhythm, is followed by a preparatory 
 "Ready" or "All together" and the movement is started, either by 
 such a command as "Begin!" "Go!" "Start!" "Now!" or without 
 any final command, a movement of some kind by the teacher, or 
 the beginning of the music, taking its place. Whenever necessary 
 and feasible, complex exercises are of course divided as far as 
 possible, the component parts practiced separately, then put 
 together and the whole executed as a compound movement. 
 
 During the progress of such a rhythmical movement the teacher 
 can, if he wishes, give supplementary instruction and more detailed
 
 76 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 directions. These usually take the form of general, stimulating 
 admonitions, exhortation for greater speed, more vigor and snap, 
 faster rhythm ; sometimes they are intended to produce greater 
 precision and better unison. They are then occasionally in the 
 nature of criticism and correction. Quite often, however, the 
 teacher merely marks the time by counting and depends for 
 stimulation and suggestion on the tone of his voice, his animated 
 manner and his example in the vigorous and correct execution 
 of the exercise. 
 
 After a customary number of repetitions, as indicated by the 
 count or by the music, the class usually of its own accord dis- 
 continues the movement. A command such as "Hold!" or "Halt!" 
 or "Stop!" may or may not be given in place of the last count. 
 Though not necessary, it is usually best to do so. If the teacher 
 wishes further repetitions he may substitute the words "Again" 
 or "Once more" for the command to stop, also given in place 
 of the last count or two. Or he may start the next exercise in 
 the same way, by naming it, with or without a cue, or by a cue 
 alone, providing the class is familiar with the exercise. In this 
 way a long series of movements and numerous repetitions may be 
 done without any break of continuity, and marked organic effects 
 may be obtained. 
 
 The direct imitation method differs from the preceding chiefly 
 in the presentation and starting of the exercise. Instead of 
 demonstrating the exercise as a whole while the class is standing 
 still and observant trying to retain or reconstruct a mental picture 
 of the exercise, as in the case of the other method, the class here 
 follows immediately and as -closely as possible each movement 
 of the teacher. At first there is usually some uncertainty and 
 not much unison, while the rhythm is slow and not very true. 
 But with each repetition there is gradual improvement in these 
 respects, until the movement is progressing smoothly with what- 
 ever rhythm the teacher desires. In this method music is of 
 great assistance in securing unison and keeping the rhythm. It 
 curtails the teacher's resources in other respects, however, espe- 
 cially in the effective use of his voice for purposes of stimulation 
 and correction. In so far as some (and perhaps it would be fair 
 to say many) of the teacher's duties and opportunities are dele- 
 gated to the music, it becomes necessary to see that the right kind 
 of music is furnished, so that the character of the work may be 
 what the teacher intends. This can be done, but it is not always 
 the case. Not infrequently the method of teaching, the selection 
 and arrangement of the exercises and the character of the music 
 are such as to make the work resemble dancing. It is then usually 
 intended mainly to furnish gentle and pleasant exercise, without
 
 TEACHING DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORK 77 
 
 too much stimulation and expenditure of nervous energy, and 
 undoubtedly serves this purpose very well. The method is also 
 suitable for teaching young children. 
 
 2. The definite type of exercises and the effects or values for 
 which they are practiced have been discussed at length in the 
 introductory chapter. Briefly restated, they are clean-cut, sharply 
 defined, localized movements, relatively simple or capable of 
 subdivision into simple elements. Each element usually employs 
 the full range of one kind of motion in one or only a few joints 
 and therefore maximal, localized contraction of circumscribed 
 muscular groups, with corresponding stretching of opposing 
 muscular and fibrous structures. At the same time large muscular 
 areas are kept in static contraction in order to keep other parts 
 of the body from moving. Thus there is both localization and 
 wide distribution of muscular action, the apparent contradiction 
 implying that the action is of different kind: concentric (shorten- 
 ing) in the former case, static and eccentric (lengthening while 
 offering resistance) in the latter. Herein lies perhaps the chief 
 difference, physiologically, between the definite and indefinite 
 types of exercises. In the latter the muscular action, while widely 
 distributed, is of the same kind : large systems of closely allied 
 muscle groups being allowed to contract and shorten in accord- 
 ance with their natural or habitual modes of association, thus 
 causing moderate movement of many segments rather than 
 extensive movement of a few. In the definite exercises the local- 
 ization is always of such a character as to cultivate mobility of 
 a kind and in directions more or less neglected in the ordinary 
 activities of daily life. Similarly the muscular action is such 
 as to increase localized muscular control everywhere and espe- 
 cially of those muscular groups responsible for good posture the 
 upper back and shoulder-blade muscles, those of the abdominal 
 wall and the hip joint extensors. With increased control of 
 these muscular groups, definite exercises also aim to increase 
 their tone habitual state of contraction as well as their endur- 
 ance. At the same time such exercises aim to stretch and increase 
 the power of localized relaxation (if such a term may be per- 
 mitted) of the opposing muscular groups the upper chest and 
 lower back muscles. It is on the ability to contract the upper 
 back and posterior scapular muscles without much associated 
 contraction of the lower back muscles that good posture in the 
 upper part of the body, without excessive "hollow back," depends. 
 This is true both in the practice of gymnastic exercises and in 
 the habitual carriage while sitting, standing, walking or moving 
 about in a natural way. In the latter case good posture is main- 
 tained by the "tone" of the upper back and abdominal muscles,
 
 78 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 in the former by conscious contraction of these groups supple- 
 mented by the hip joint extensors. 
 
 By their careful selection and definition, their localized charac- 
 ter, their completeness of range in movements and their sustained 
 muscular action local as well as general while positions are 
 being held, definite gymnastic exercises aim to cultivate the 
 posture sense and the kinesthetic sense generally, to increase the 
 power of equilibrium, to train habits of correct weight distribu- 
 tion, of quick and accurate motor reactions in short, efficient 
 motor habits and subjective motor control. 
 
 Methods of teaching definite exercises. The presentation may 
 vary between the extremes of the most elaborate, complete and 
 even repeated demonstration accompanied by detailed explanation, 
 comment, suggestion, warnings, etc., on one hand, and the mere 
 naming of the movement in the preparatory command, with or 
 without a cue, on the other. The degree of explicitness will de- 
 pend on the age, intelligence and active attention of the 
 pupils, on their familiarity with the work in general and 
 with the particular exercise, as well as on the difficulty of that 
 exercise. It will also vary with the teacher's ability, or the lack 
 of it, to give effective supplementary instruction in the form of 
 admonitions, stimulation, general and individual correction after 
 the movement is in progress or while positions are being held. 
 The teacher's judgment is the principal determining factor in this 
 respect and this, too, will vary with his temperament, experience 
 and even momentary inclination. It is always wise to make the 
 presentation as brief as possible consistent with clearness, and 
 rely for good execution on supplementary directions and stimula- 
 tion after starting the exercise. 
 
 The most logical and under certain (favorable) conditions the 
 surest way to attain definiteness is to have the class do each 
 movement on the word of command and hold the position reached 
 an indefinite length of time. Either of the two forms of descrip- 
 tive commands may be used the imperative of the verb for each 
 part of the exercise, or the present participle as preparatory 
 command for the exercise as a whole and the numerals as final 
 commands for the respective parts. Repetitions are not apt to be 
 numerous and should not be, if the teacher is wise. The position 
 is emphasized rather than the movement. This gives ample 
 opportunity for correction, admonition and stimulation. It is 
 preeminently suited for, and effective in, posture training, and to 
 bring out quick and accurate motor response. This method and 
 its technique have been brought to a high state of perfection in 
 Swedish gymnastics, and when skillfully applied undoubtedly 
 accomplish in a most effective manner most of the objects for
 
 TEACHING DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORK 79 
 
 which gymnastic work 'stands. When unskill fully applied, how- 
 ever, there is apt to be a lack of continuity, owing partly to unduly 
 prolonged maintenance of position, partly to too lengthy and too 
 frequently repeated descriptive commands. Also there is an ele- 
 ment of uncertainty, of high nervous tension, in doing single 
 movements on command, which, while it may stimulate at first, 
 may, if long continued, lead to nervous fatigue and defeat its 
 own object by causing listlessness. This means poor response 
 and lack of vigor in movement or position, or what is really a 
 manifestation of the same thing, anticipation of the command 
 by many members of the class with resultant loss of snap and 
 unison. Such anticipations, as has already been pointed out in 
 discussing gymnastic commands, occur if the repetitions are 
 numerous and follow each other at uniform intervals, approach- 
 ing a rhythm. Finally, most people have an elemental, instinctive 
 appreciation of and desire for rhythmic movement. This is partly 
 responsible for the tendency of all classes to get ahead of the 
 command when movements are repeated many times. The lack 
 of opportunity to satisfy this instinct makes the execution of 
 exercises on command throughout a lesson seem tedious to many 
 people. For these reasons many teachers arrange fcheir lessons 
 in such a way that in one part the exercises are of the definite, 
 localized, so called "corrective" type, done on command ; while 
 in the other parts of the lesson more indefinite, complex, rhyth- 
 mical exercises are given, in which there is more continuity of 
 movement, wider distribution of muscular action, no distinct 
 holding of position and less attention paid to posture or other 
 details. 
 
 Rhythm and definiteness. Now, if this element of definiteness 
 is essential for effectiveness in certain directions, and rhythmical 
 continuity for effectiveness in other directions, why may not 
 these features be combined and both kinds of effects be obtained 
 to a high and approximately equal degree from a majority of 
 the exercises in the lesson? Why may not the bulk of the 
 material be so selected, arranged and taught, that either feature 
 may be emphasized at various times, or both may be attained at 
 the same time in a measure sufficient to insure the effectiveness 
 of each? This would remove most of the objections to or short- 
 comings of either style of work and satisfy all demands. It would 
 give greater elasticity or latitude in efforts to adapt the work to 
 varying conditions and groups. 
 
 It is submitted that gymnastic material can be managed in a 
 way to do all this. That it would be possible, for example, to 
 arrange a series of lessons at the beginning of which all the 
 exercises are of the indefinite, rhythmical type, not calling for
 
 80 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 much exactness in execution nor sustained positions, but having 
 sufficient "swing and go" to interest a class at once and to produce 
 the organic effects and the exhilaration of vigorous exercise that 
 all classes appreciate. The element of definiteness could then 
 be introduced gradually by modifying the exercises originally 
 used so that they can be subdivided and practiced with more 
 accuracy of detail. Or simpler types may be substituted from 
 time to time, until, at the other end of the series, the majority 
 of the exercises would be capable of execution on command or 
 in rhythm as might be desired. This transition might be made 
 so gradual that at no time need there be any more loss of con- 
 tinuity than might naturally be expected in teaching any new 
 exercises, even those of purely rhythmical and indefinite type. 
 But the character of the rhythm and of the execution of the 
 rhythmical movements will be changed. Instead of more or less 
 even uniform rhythm and blended or oscillatory movements, there 
 will be many kinds of rhythm, usually syncopated. The move- 
 ments may all be quick and yet the rhythm be slow, if the pauses 
 between the movements are long, as for example in arm bendings 
 and stretchings, trunk twistings, leg flingings, charges, etc. Or 
 both movements and rhythm may be slow, as in trunk bendings, 
 arm raisings, slow heel raising and knee bending. Again, the 
 pauses between movements may be varied one- long, the other 
 short, as in arm bending and stretching; or all different, as in 
 one form of heel raising and knee bending. Or successive parts 
 of a compound movement may be done with different speed, the 
 first two quick, the second two slow, or vice versa; or the first 
 and last quick, second and third slow and so on. In all cases 
 where the speed of or the length of pause between successive parts 
 of a movement varies, the rhythm will, of course, be uneven 
 "broken" or "undulating" rhythm. Most of the movements will 
 be distinct from each other, punctuated, as it were, by positions. 
 Such progression from indefinite to definite style of work might 
 be suitable to classes of children, or of adolescents and adults 
 who could not be expected to give enough thought and effort to 
 the work to become interested in it in any other way. It might 
 be called the most natural mode of progression. The reverse 
 order, starting with the simplest types of definite movements, 
 done on command, and demanding from the outset great atten- 
 tion to detail, then gradually introducing the rhythmical element 
 and more complexity, but without any loss in definiteness, is 
 entirely practicable, and the desired results are more surely and 
 quickly obtained than by the other method. Such progression 
 might be suitable for classes of adolescents or adults whose intel- 
 ligent cooperation and interest can be secured, by one means or
 
 TEACHING DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORK 81 
 
 another, from the beginning, or who have had adequate previous 
 training, as for example upper elementary, high school and college 
 students. 
 
 How to combine definiteness of execution with rhythmical 
 continuity is primarily a question of skillful teaching. But it 
 is also a matter of choice, definition and combination of move- 
 ments, as well as careful progression. It means that the majority 
 of the exercises will be such as are capable of at least some 
 degree of subdivision, or are built up of simple elements into 
 various combinations and alternations. Each part can then be 
 practiced separately on command as much as is desirable in order 
 to obtain correct execution and quick response. But the bulk of 
 the repetitions may be made rhythmically, while familiar move- 
 ments may be started rhythmically at the outset. Thus sufficient 
 total quantity and continuity of muscular work with commen- 
 surate organic effects can be secured. During this rhythmical 
 repetition there is apt to be some loss of definiteness. But with 
 the right spirit of enthusiasm, energy and perseverance on the 
 part of the teacher, by his constant attention to details, his insist- 
 ence on correct execution and momentary retention of positions, 
 coupled with judicious choice and progression, the two principles 
 rhythm and definiteness may be harmonized and the maxi- 
 mum values represented by each obtained simultaneously. 
 
 Having in the previous chapters discussed at some length the 
 various phases of teaching, the remaining chapters will be devoted 
 to a consideration of such topics as classification of exercises, 
 principles of selection, definition and combination of movements, 
 arrangement of lessons, and progression.
 
 IV. SUBJECT-MATTER. 
 
 1. AIMS AND VALUES OF GYMNASTICS. 
 
 As a basis for the discussion of the content and character of 
 the gymnastic lesson a consideration of the aims, purposes and 
 effects of the work would seem in place. While there is now 
 no great diversity of opinion as to the principal objects aimed at 
 and the real values represented by gymnastic work, there still 
 exist some confusion and misconception, at least in the minds 
 of the laity, regarding what constitutes rational gymnastics and 
 what results may or may not be accomplished by the work. 
 
 It is unfortunately true that at present gymnastic work suffers 
 from the extravagant claims made for it by some of its earlier 
 enthusiastic advocates in this country, and from the limitations 
 imposed by loyalty to traditional, more or less empirical concep- 
 tions and methods. It is often placed in a false position and made 
 to appear at a disadvantage by superficial and specious compari- 
 son with dancing, play, games and athletics, and by being classed 
 indiscriminately with these in general and cursory discussions of 
 the values of physical education. Again, the reactive effect of 
 excessive claims on the one hand, and all too numerous examples 
 of poor teaching and poor work on the other, have led some sincere 
 and thoughtful exponents of physical education to relegate gym- 
 nastics to the role of a mere therapeutic agent, to be used only 
 in cases requiring correction of faulty anatomical relations, de- 
 velopmental defects, etc. By implication or direct statement it 
 has even been denied that the work has much, or any, educational 
 value, or that it is capable of supplying the need for general 
 exercise in an adequate and interesting manner. 
 
 That there are numerous instances of work carried on in a 
 way to justify views like these is undoubtedly true. There may 
 also be found examples of work which fails to accomplish even 
 the so-called corrective purpose. Perhaps this is more often the 
 case than not. But such extreme depreciation of gymnastic work 
 is unwarranted and exceptional. That it has a place, and an im- 
 portant one, both as a hygienic agent and as a positive factor in 
 education, is recognized by the vast majority of leaders in physi- 
 cal education as well as by an increasing number of men and 
 women identified with efforts to advance the scope and effective- 
 ness of education in all its phases.
 
 AIMS AND I' A LUES 83 
 
 (1) The hygienic aim of gymnastics. 
 
 This is to furnish muscular exercise of an all-round character, 
 sufficient in quantity, continuity and vigor to promote a lively 
 tissue metabolism and thereby to insure a marked organic reac- 
 tion. In the brief period usually allotted to a gymnastic lesson 
 this organic stimulation must necessarily be as powerful as is 
 consistent with safety, in order to produce lasting and permanent 
 effects. The work must, therefore, be concentrated enough to 
 cause immediate and progressive increase of heart action, with 
 accompanying acceleration of the whole circulation ; rise of arte- 
 rial pressure ; relief of venous and lymph stasis everywhere, and 
 especially in the body cavities and internal organs; flushing and 
 heightened activity of the skin ; deeper and more rapid ventilation 
 of the lungs ; vigorous stimulation of the abdominal organs. 
 
 All these immediate organic reactions are brought about in 
 two ways: (1) By the mechanical effects of the exercises the 
 pumping action exerted on the venous and lymphatic circulation 
 by alternate contraction and relaxation of muscles, by move- 
 ments in joints and by increased thoracic aspiration; increased 
 peristalsis and more vigorous action of the glandular organs, 
 induced by greater variations of intra-abdominal pressure con- 
 sequent on more extensive action of the diaphragm and abdominal 
 muscles, as well as the shaking and mutual massage of the 
 abdominal organs. (2) By the adjusting influence of the central 
 and sympathetic nervous systems in response to direct or reflex 
 stimulation by the products of muscular activity. When these 
 organic effects are obtained in a moderately high but not exces- 
 sive degree through the execution of exercises in a well-planned 
 and skillfully conducted gymnastic lesson, they are accompanied 
 and followed by a sense of exhilaration and physical well-being 
 as enjoyable and refreshing as they would be if produced by 
 any other form of bodily activity. The frequent and regular 
 repetition of such exercise is bound to increase the functional 
 efficiency of all the organs, to favor all the processes which make 
 for health, vitality and organic vigor. That such is the case is 
 abundantly attested to by observations of teachers and medical 
 directors in school, college and especially in Y. M. C. A. gym- 
 nasia. 
 
 (2) The educational aim of gymnastics. 
 
 This is primarily the training of subjective motor control. 
 Such control is shown on the one hand in ability to assume and 
 maintain good posture, in erect carriage, ease of bearing, grace 
 and economy of ordinary movement; on the other, it leads to 
 general agility, ability to manage one's body to best advantage
 
 84 i;Y.\L\'ASTIC TEACH 1\(, 
 
 under any circumstances in short, to have one's body well in 
 hand for any purpose whatever. 
 
 Objective and subjective motor training* The formal educa- 
 tional process is preceded by and based on the informal and more 
 or less spontaneous, self-directed psycho-motor training of the 
 earliest years of life. During the first years of school life the 
 further training in motor control receives some attention. But 
 the guidance offered is directed mainly to the development of 
 the accessory neuro-muscular mechanisms and their coordina- 
 tions. As regards the larger, fundamental movements, and the 
 further cultivation of their coordinations and adaptations, the 
 child is often left to his own devices. It is assumed that he will 
 get sufficient training in this direction through spontaneous play 
 and games. And to a certain extent he does. But here he is 
 likely to follow trends and habits already acquired, to be re- 
 stricted by these and by correlated structural peculiarities. Unless 
 the activities are abundant and infinitely varied in character, the 
 number and delicacy of coordinations so acquired will be limited, 
 and his range of motor adaptation, outside the habitual activities, 
 will be equally restricted. Supervision and guidance of play and 
 games from kindergarten to playground represent efforts to 
 widen the scope and increase the effectiveness of this kind of 
 motor training. Under ideal conditions (such as probably never 
 will be realized) it is conceivable that such training might be 
 made adequate for all purposes. But at best school life will 
 always represent a relatively large proportion of time spent in 
 sedentary work, with its unfavorable effect on posture and its 
 tendency to deficient or faulty development of the motor organs. 
 
 Furthermore, the motor control resulting from play and games 
 is largely .objective, unconscious ; it makes use mainly of already 
 acquired, reflex coordinations, following lines of least resistance, 
 and does not tend to great diversification, except in so far as 
 the activities are diverse. It is true that such activities, when 
 numerous and varied enough, cultivate the kind of bodily control 
 which relates the individual to external things, and especially to 
 moving objects ; that they train the ability to judge distance, speed 
 and momentum, and to gauge correctly the muscular efforts with 
 reference to these, and so may result in a fair degree of general 
 agility. This may be called applied or objective motor training 
 and is of direct practical value as an element of objective physical 
 efficiency. The values in social and moral ideas and habits of 
 thought associated with and accruing from this kind of training 
 are of course of overshadowing importance and would alone 
 
 *For a farther discussion of this subject see introductory part of Gymnastic Kinesi- 
 ology, by Wm. Skarstrom.
 
 AIMS AND VALUES 85 
 
 justify giving such activities a prominent place in any thorough- 
 going scheme of education. 
 
 Efficiency in activities of this objective character is dependent 
 on and in turn will tend to increase the amount of purely subject- 
 ive motor control. With this is meant the ability to manage to 
 best advantage the parts of the body with reference to each other 
 and the body as a whole with reference chiefly to space, gravity, 
 momentum and balance. The degree of such subjective control 
 may be said to represent the individual's potential power of motor 
 adaptation, and is applicable to any form of activity with which 
 it has elements in common. It expresses itself in the individual's 
 general bearing, posture and habits of movement. Ease, poise, 
 grace, agility and their opposites are terms denoting relative 
 degrees of subjective control or the lack of it. 
 
 For this purely subjective training, gymnastics and dancing are 
 particularly effective. They are both subjective forms of activity. 
 They both require conscious attention to the movements and the 
 posture of the body as a whole or its parts. In each the move- 
 ments are predetermined and their execution represents efforts to 
 conform to more or less clearly defined standards. The move- 
 ments are artificial in the sense that there is no immediate 
 objective application. In gymnastics, especially, they are often 
 more extreme in range or more localized and sharply denned than 
 would be called for in ordinary activities, but not more so than 
 might at some time be called for and applied to the accomplish- 
 ment of some objective purpose. In this predetermined, clearly 
 denned character, this definiteness of gymnastic work, lies its 
 distinctive effectiveness as a means of subjective motor training. 
 It makes possible the cultivation, in a systematic manner, of the 
 latent, potential powers of coordination which might otherwise 
 remain dormant ; the opening up of new paths of motor associa- 
 tions ; the perfecting of existing but vague and uncertain coordina- 
 tions until they become assured, well adjusted, requiring less and 
 less conscious attention and are finally automatic. A good illus- 
 tration of these processes is the acquiring of ability to land 
 lightly, with sure balance and good fundamental position, in 
 jumps, vaults and dismounts from gymnastic apparatus, under a 
 great variety of conditions as regards height, amount and direc- 
 tion of momentum, position and movement of the body in the 
 air, etc. 
 
 The ability to assume and maintain good posture is really a 
 phase of the general subjective motor control aimed at by rational 
 gymnastics. Erect carriage, easy poise and fine bearing, when 
 habitual, signify perfect adjustment, weight distribution and bal- 
 ance of the different parts of the body. They represent economi-
 
 86 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 cal distribution of muscular tension, a high degree and even 
 balance of muscular tone, equalized pressure on the surfaces of 
 joints and minimum tension on their fibrous structures. All this 
 implies readiness for all kinds of action, elimination of unneces- 
 sary strain, conservation of energy. Good posture also means 
 the most favorable conditions for the internal organs as regards 
 room, free circulation, relative position and natural support. 
 Thus it makes for health and efficiency, as well as beauty and 
 harmony. 
 
 The degree of erect posture and well-balanced poise attained 
 by an individual will vary with his natural endowment (inherited 
 tendencies), the number, kind and diversity of activities in which 
 he engages, and the habits he forms or is led to form during the 
 first fifteen or twenty years of his life. In perhaps the majority 
 of cases, where little or no attention is given to the matter, the 
 individual falls far too short of his possibilities in this respect, 
 as well as in the matter of general motor efficiency subjective 
 and objective. That such discrepancy between the potential and 
 the actual may not be due entirely to insufficient quantity or 
 variety of bodily activity in early life (though that is probably 
 the chief cause) is suggested by numerous instances of young 
 men who have engaged freely in various games and sports from 
 childhood, and who yet, in their carriage and subjective motor 
 habits, seem to be in need of considerable further training. 
 
 We are accustomed to think of certain primitive peoples, like 
 the Indians before they were touched by civilization, as naturally 
 endowed with erect carriage and fine bearing, this being a racial 
 trait, associated with and the result of a free and active outdoor 
 life. But while this may have been true to a certain extent, it 
 was also the result of conscious effort and training associated 
 with their ideals of manly qualities, of bodily prowess and beauty, 
 and of a proper pride and dignity of character. So also with 
 the Bedouin nomads of the Arabian deserts, noted for their 
 superb carriage, dignified bearing and grace of movement. 
 According to the accounts of travelers, their children are really 
 educated to this by parental precept, admonition, reproof and 
 suggestion. 
 
 One of the aims of gymnastics, then, should be to emphasize 
 posture training throughout. Every exercise should be selected, 
 defined and executed in a way to further this aim, directly or 
 indirectly. And not merely as a corrective for faulty posture, 
 whether in the lower or upper part of the body. But rather the 
 ideal of correct execution of all exercises, of efficiency and grace 
 of all movement, should include the maintenance of the best 
 possible posture, no matter what the difficulty, magnitude, speed
 
 AIMS AND VALUES 87 
 
 or power of the movement. Any exercise incompatible with good 
 posture should be discarded. In so-called corrective exercises 
 the element of posture training is merely emphasized by so defin- 
 ing the movements as to demand supreme efforts in the direction 
 of correct posture, or by introducing difficulties making such 
 extreme efforts necessary in order not to lose correct posture. 
 
 Equalization of growth and development may also be con- 
 sidered a legitimate aim of gymnastics, closely associated with 
 posture training. The exercises selected and defined with a view 
 to their effectiveness as a means of postural and general subjective 
 motor training will also exert the most favorable influence on 
 growth and be conducive to a harmonious muscular development. 
 \Yhen necessary these should be supplemented by special exercises 
 of a more powerful and localized character. 
 
 The acquisition of useful forms of agility. The attainment of 
 proficiency in primitive forms of bodily prowess, such as various 
 kinds of leaping, vaulting and climbing, is one of the 'practical 
 results of the subjective training aimed at by gymnastics. Speed 
 and endurance in running may also be included in this category. 
 A moderate proficiency in such matters may be needed urgently 
 from time to time even under the sheltered and comfortable condi- 
 tions of modern, civilized life. At any rate it gives the possessor 
 a sense of confidence and assurance of being able to take care 
 of himself in ordinary emergencies or mishaps. 
 
 In the matter of moral and social training gymnastic work is 
 inferior to games or athletics. But while the excessive claims 
 made for it in this respect have not been borne out by experience, 
 the work may not be devoid of value in its influence on the individ- 
 ual's mental life and his character. The execution of precise and 
 vigorous movements, whether in response to a command, or timed 
 exactly to conform to a given rhythm and to be in unison with 
 the movements of the other members of the class, requires con- 
 centrated attention, discriminating and often supreme effort. 
 Aside from the mental processes involved in relating kinesthetic 
 sense perceptions and their associated motor ideas to volitionally 
 coordinated movements, and the purely motor training this repre- 
 sents, such work cannot but make for improved habits of atten- 
 tion and strengthened will power, while self-control and a spirit 
 of cooperation are cultivated through the appreciation of the 
 beauty and power of orderly and disciplined group action. 
 
 The individual's realization of the benefits received from a 
 conscientious performance of the work might reasonably be ex- 
 pected to lead to the formation of wholesome habits of life. 
 Having once experienced the satisfaction and sense of well-being, 
 of power and efficiency, associated with regular, systematic, 
 rational exercise, he is more likely to treat his body with due
 
 88 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 respect, to heed its laws and recognize its possibilities as well 
 as its limitations. The influence of this kind of self-respect 
 on the individual's whole life and character is not to be underrated. 
 
 (3) Gymnastics as recreation. 
 
 While the hygienic and educational values are dependent on 
 the personality and skill of the teacher as well as on the character 
 of the work, this is true in an even greater degree as regards the 
 immediate enjoyment and interest in the work. Although gym- 
 nastics should never be placed in the false position of serving 
 as fun and amusement, or be made to take the place of play 
 and recreation, there is no reason why a skillful and enthusiastic 
 teacher cannot make the work (and it is always real work, if 
 it is to amount to anything) interesting and enjoyable. He may 
 do this partly by suggestion, by making his own animation, earn- 
 estness and enthusiasm contagious, partly by adapting the work 
 and his style of teaching to the varied and changing interests of 
 his pupils. 
 
 With classes of young children the work may be presented 
 and carried on in a spirit of play and make-believe, enlisting 
 their imagination and their natural desire to express their ideas 
 in terms of representation movements. This no doubt is fun 
 to them. But after the age of twelve or thereabouts gymnastic 
 work cannot be expected to appeal directly to the pupils as fun 
 or even to be interesting for its own sake. Indirectly, however, as 
 means to an end, and to a certain extent through the spirit of 
 emulation which the teacher may legitimately arouse, the work 
 may continue to be of interest. And, at all times, when properly 
 conducted, there is the pleasure and satisfaction of vigorous 
 action, the inspiration of doing something worth while and doing 
 it as well as possible, in unison and cooperation with others, and 
 with the knowledge that it will result in immediate and permanent 
 benefit. Only in this sense can gymnastic work be considered 
 recreation. And that it is so considered by large numbers is 
 indicated by the enthusiastic and unflagging interest maintained 
 in the optional classes of the Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A., Turn- 
 verein, Settlement and Municipal gymnasia all over the country. 
 
 (4) Adaptation of aims to conditions. 
 
 The emphasis given to any of these aims and values, and 
 therefore the character of the work, will vary with the age, sex, 
 ability, state of training and physical condition of any given 
 group of pupils. It will also depend on the mental attitude 
 toward the work shown not only by pupils but by responsible
 
 AIMS AND VALUES 89 
 
 authorities. Finally the work and its aims must be in accord 
 with the general purpose and fit in with the other activities of 
 the institution in which it is carried on. 
 
 1. In educational institutions the responsibility of the school 
 (or college) to see that no ill effect is produced by its curriculum 
 on the health and development of the pupils must be recognized. 
 This implies the necessity to counteract the unfavorable tendencies 
 of school life its effects on general metabolism, on the abdominal 
 and thoracic organs and on the spine inevitably associated with 
 sedentary, indoor occupation. Besides attention to hygienic condi- 
 tions in the matter of ventilation, light and seating, as well as 
 the most favorable distribution of school work, this more or less 
 negative aim is to be accomplished by giving the pupils frequent 
 short periods of exercise in the form of gymnastics, plays and 
 games. The gymnastic work of such brief relief periods would 
 aim to bring out as strong organic and corrective postural effects 
 as possible in the short time. 
 
 In addition to counteracting the unfavorable tendencies asso- 
 ciated with the sedentary character of school life, the school is 
 responsible for such psycho-motor training as the individual 
 needs in order to be able consciously to control his own body. 
 The training of such subjective control, in which posture training 
 should always be a large element, is, therefore, to be emphasized 
 in the gymnastic work of the regular school period devoted to 
 physical education. It is best accomplished by exercises of the 
 definite type, representing the simpler elements of movement out 
 of w r hich are composed the more complex movements of ordinary 
 activities, as well as of dances, games and athletics. But while 
 emphasizing the educational aspects of the work, it should be 
 conducted in such a way as to produce the greatest possible 
 hygienic effects at the same time. In the successful combination 
 and accomplishment of these aims lies the opportunity of the skill- 
 ful teacher to make the work appreciated, interesting and enjoy- 
 able. 
 
 2. In non-educational institutions including social service 
 and philanthropic enterprises of a more or less educational charac- 
 ter the emphasis may be, and often is, put chiefly on the hygienic 
 aspect of the work. At the same time efforts are made to have 
 it represent as much wholesome recreation as possible in its 
 character, teaching and accessories or adjuncts. The style of 
 work which most readily lends itself to the accomplishment of 
 these aims comprises the rhythmic, more or less indefinite types 
 of exercises, often in the form of memorized drills, practiced 
 partly with a view to eventual public performance. But even 
 here it will be advantageous and desirable for the teacher from 
 the standpoint of maintaining interest as well as in the matter
 
 90 C.y.MX.lSTIC TEACH 1\C, 
 
 of rendering service to keep in view the educational possibilities 
 of the work. By striving to make the pupils understand and 
 appreciate these values he will gradually create a demand for 
 and an interest in the kind of exercises which most effectively 
 represent them, and thus make opportunity for increasing the 
 scope of the work. 
 
 2. SELECTION. 
 
 The necessity for care and judgment in the selection of gym- 
 nastic exercises is now generally recognized. The principle of 
 selection has not always been universally accepted, however. It 
 was held by some of the older Germans, for example (notably 
 Spiess and later DuBois Raymond), that if an exercise could 
 be done, that was sufficient reason for doing it. This all-possi- 
 bilities theory led to the use of much work which was either of 
 a nature tending to produce undesirable results, or else trivial, 
 purposeless and even absurd. The theory is now generally aban- 
 doned, but the effects of it are still seen in the use or encourage- 
 ment of types of exercises which are, to say the least, of doubtful 
 value. Some such types, for example certain exercises on gym- 
 nastic apparatus with the body supported on the arms, are 
 admitted, even by many teachers who use them, to have obvious 
 objectionable tendencies, and can be defended only on grounds 
 of popular interest based largely on traditions and associations. 
 
 Principles of selection. In the selection of exercises we should 
 be guided by what practical and theoretical knowledge we possess 
 regarding the immediate and remote effects of the exercises, their 
 suitability as material for class work under any given conditions, 
 and their adaptability to the purposes for which the work stands. 
 In the last analysis this will mean an understanding of the main 
 features of the anatomical mechanism of the movements, a work- 
 ing knowledge of the physiology of exercise, and the correct appli- 
 cation of these to the needs and abilities of any given group of 
 pupils. 
 
 Only such exercises should be selected as contribute, directly 
 or indirectly, to one or more of the main objects of the work. 
 Such as would distinctly tend to defeat any of these objects, even 
 though they might represent value in some directions, should be 
 excluded. In the latter category would fall, for example, a num- 
 ber of apparatus exercises on the horse, parallel bars, rings and 
 horizontal bar in which the joint mechanism and muscular 
 action are such as to make a good posture of head, chest, should- 
 ers and upper back extremely difficult, if not impossible. Simi- 
 larly, exercises subjecting the organism to excessive strain, local
 
 SELECTION 91 
 
 or general, or involving too great risk of injury from falls, or in 
 any other way, should be discarded for use in class work, and even 
 discouraged when indulged in outside of class. This does not pre- 
 clude the practice, after proper preparation and with sufficient 
 safeguards, of feats of strength, skill and agility of a character in 
 keeping with the normal structure and natural use of the body, 
 and having a bearing on possible legitimate demands which may 
 be made upon it. In considering the question of harmful exer- 
 cises it is to be remembered that, while occasional performance 
 of any exercise with undesirable tendencies cannot always be 
 asserted to be directly harmful, the inclusion of such exercises 
 in class work, or their encouragement outside of class, is equiva- 
 lent to the teacher's stamp of approval. The teacher's selection 
 and definition of exercises determine or strongly influence the 
 pupils' ideals and standards of quality, their ideas of what is 
 correct and permanently beneficial. 
 
 In selecting exercises for different groups, the age, sex, 
 strength, ability, state of training and mental attitude of the 
 pupils must of course be given due consideration. Values and 
 effects are often relative. What may be safe, beneficial, or 
 interesting to one individual or class may be the reverse to an- 
 other. In this respect selection is often bound up with progres- 
 sion. 
 
 3. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 No single exercise embodies all the desirable features, all the 
 beneficial effects for which gymnastic work is practiced. The 
 same is true as regards athletics, games and sports. The nearest 
 approach to it is perhaps found in breast-stroke swimming. In 
 formal gymnastics such all-round exercises do not occur. And 
 even if, by dint of ingenuity, a few such exercises could be 
 invented, it would not be desirable nor even feasible to limit our- 
 selves to their exclusive use. As soon as they were mastered 
 they would cease to represent educational value and therefore 
 lose interest. 
 
 There are, of course, many, combinations of movements which 
 are of a more or less all-round character, and they are very use- 
 ful in rounding out a gymnastic lesson, particularly in the matter 
 of obtaining marked organic effects. Where this is the main 
 object, and in classes requiring that the bulk of the work be 
 of the indefinite type, a considerable proportion of the exercises 
 may be of this all-round character. But generally it is not wise 
 to have too many in a single lesson. 
 
 While all gymnastic exercises have certain main characteristics 
 in common e.g., they all involve muscular contraction, coordina-
 
 92 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 tion, some form of mental effort, fatigue, etc. they differ in 
 details in the amount of these various features, and in the local 
 effects they produce on the body. According to these details and 
 local effects they may be referred to one or more of a few main 
 groups, each of which represents some special features, such as 
 circumscribed muscular action, or pronounced effects on certain 
 organs, or wide distribution with great intensity of muscular 
 effort and with correspondingly heightened organic reaction. 
 There are, of course, no sharp lines of demarcation between 
 these groups; they all overlap more or less, and many of the 
 distinctions are relative. Often an exercise may be referred to 
 one group at an early stage of training and to another group 
 later. Thus classification may be dependent on progression. 
 Again, many exercises embody several important features at once. 
 Such may be either put in a group by themselves and labelled 
 "miscellaneous" or "all-round" exercises, or designated by some 
 descriptive term, such as charges. Or they may be referred to any 
 one or all of the classes the characteristics of which they repre- 
 sent. 
 
 The classification employed in Swedish gymnastics seems on 
 the whole satisfactory for all practical purposes. With slight 
 modifications it will be adhered to both as regards terms and 
 characterization. It comprises the following groups: order ex- 
 ercises, principally marching; leg and arm exercises (especially 
 leg) ; arching movements (for the upper back) ; compensatory 
 movements (for the lower back) ; lateral trunk exercises; balance 
 exercises; abdominal exercises; back and shoulder blade exer- 
 cises; suspension and arm support exercises; jumping, vaulting, 
 and running (precipitant exercises), and slowing-down or breath- 
 ing exercises. 
 
 (1) Order Exercises. 
 
 In this group are included marching and evolutions, facings, 
 march steps of stated number any exercises involving quick and 
 unexpected changes of position, direction or momentum, and 
 therefore demanding a continuous and high degree of concentrated 
 voluntary attention. The element of purely "mental" work 
 alertness, quick perception, understanding, decision and instant 
 response without much preparation is emphasized. The pri- 
 mary purpose of this class of exercises is to wake up a class: 
 to stimulate it without producing too much fatigue; to focus 
 a more or less dispersed attention, to change it from a pre- 
 dominantly reflex to a more voluntary character and to direct 
 it toward the prompt execution of precise, vigorous and con- 
 sciously controlled movements. The exercises in this group
 
 CLASSIFICATION 93 
 
 are generally of a character demanding muscular contractions of 
 only very moderate intensity, but widely distributed, including 
 all or most of the fundamental and naturally associated groups. 
 They are usually repeated a great number of times in rhythmic 
 cadence and in general are of the indefinite type. (This does 
 not appply to quick changes of gymnastic positions executed on 
 command.) For this reason they are very effective as a means 
 of moderate organic stimulation. 
 
 These two characteristics focusing and determining the line 
 of active attention, and producing a moderate but general organic 
 reaction make this group of exercises eminently suitable as 
 introductory to the rest of the gymnastic lesson. They may be 
 truly designated as "warming up" exercises, preparing the pupils 
 and putting them into the proper mental attitude and bodily 
 condition for the work to follow. When well presented and 
 conducted, they are usually interesting to the class. The pupils 
 are put on their mettle to keep wide awake, to contribute to the 
 successful and finished performance of the group action. The 
 incentive to wholehearted cooperation, to concentrated attention, 
 to conscientious and careful effort, is here greater than perhaps 
 under any other circumstances. The least mistake is not only liable 
 to jeopardize the success of the group action, but may make the 
 individual who is guilty of it conspicuous in a way that would 
 chagrin even the rrtost apathetic and make him anxious to avoid 
 it e.g., colliding with or being stepped on by his mates, marching 
 off alone in a wrong direction, causing loss of alignment, rhythm, 
 etc. 
 
 Aside from training habits of attention, quick response and 
 cooperation which work of this character undoubtedly does, it 
 also may be made to contribute appreciably to the general sub- 
 jective motor training of the individual. It would chiefly tend 
 to improve gait and carriage ; cultivate the sense of equilibrium 
 and rhythm; teach economy of effort in the management of 
 momentum and weight distribution, in blending and smooth 
 sequence or alternation of movement. The element of coordi- 
 nation while not very prominent, at least as regards learning 
 new forms, is of a character directly applicable to the ordinary 
 activities of daily life. 
 
 Finally, the exercises in this group serve the useful purpose 
 of teaching the class certain manoeuvres, evolutions and forma- 
 tions which enable the teacher to handle it with ease, facility, 
 orderliness and minimum expenditure of time. In this sense, as 
 well as in the sense of compelling attention, lively action and 
 proper cooperation, these exercises are of a truly disciplinary 
 character.
 
 94 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 The principal type is marching. The progression may be from 
 flank marching single or double file of a rather indefinite 
 character, in which the class practically "follows the leader" and 
 the leader is guided informally by the teacher, with or without 
 commands. This is especially suitable for classes of young chil- 
 dren and serves mainly to teach them to keep time and step. 
 After a time facings and steps, executed on command, are taught 
 separately. Then, gradually, the resultant training in rhythm, 
 response, and unison of action is applied to real marching, making 
 possible at first front and rear marching; then changes (with- 
 out halting) from one or the other to flank marching and vice 
 versa; still later starting a march with a facing left, right or 
 about and coming to a halt with a facing; changing from single 
 to double file, or to a column of fours, etc. ; and finally the whole 
 field of tactics and evolutions. At whatever stage in the pro- 
 gression, the work should always be of a brisk, snappy charac- 
 ter, with the element of uncertainty or unexpectedness prominent. 
 
 With older pupils, whose kitelligent interest and cooperation 
 can be relied on from the outset, the progression may with 
 advantage be from simple facings and steps to front and rear 
 marching, etc., without the preliminary "indefinite" flank march- 
 ing. 
 
 The other type of order exercises consists of quick changes 
 from one gymnastic position to another on the. word of command. 
 Such exercises may be used in the place of marching or as 
 supplementary order exercises, especially with children, and in 
 the schoolroom, where the best type of marching cannot be 
 well carried out. While undoubtedly effective in stimulating 
 attention, it is not wise to use this type too often or too much at 
 any one time. Pupils do not always react as expected, and if they 
 fail to enter into the spirit of lively action which the movements 
 are intended to elicit, the object for which they are given is de- 
 feated and the opposite conditions may result. This is particularly 
 apt to happen if the commands follow each other too rapidly, re- 
 gardless of the failure of many pupils to respond promptly and 
 with precision. 
 
 (2) Leg and Arm Exercises. 
 
 The chief features of this class of exercises are the amount, 
 localization and to some extent the character (rhythm, speed, 
 range, etc.) of the muscular work demanded. Aside from the lively 
 interplay of the trunk muscles which always occurs when the body 
 weight is shifted, and which in some of the exercises of this 
 group is an incidental feature of considerable importance, the 
 main muscular action involves the large and massive groups
 
 CLASSIFICATION 95 
 
 of hip, thigh and lower leg. To this is added, in combined arm 
 and leg movements, the powerful contractions of the fairly 
 large sized muscles about the shoulders as well as the less bulky 
 arm muscles. The repeated contractions of these large muscular 
 masses even if moderate in range or speed alternating with 
 more or less complete relaxation, profoundly influence the blood 
 and lymph circulation. And not only locally, but all over the 
 body. The arterioles of the working muscles dilate as do those 
 of the corresponding skin areas. The first effect of this would 
 be to lower general blood pressure. But this is prevented, and 
 the pressure is even increased, by the compensatory constriction 
 of arteries in the abdominal and other body cavities, as well as 
 by increased heart action, all brought about reflexly by adjusting 
 nervous mechanisms. The auxiliary forces of the (venous) cir- 
 culation pumping action on veins (and lymphatics) exerted by 
 muscular contractions, movements of joints and thoracic aspira- 
 tion are brought into full action. Thus the circulation of both 
 blood and lymph is accelerated and equalized. Venous and lymph 
 stasis of internal organs is relieved, while the skin all over the 
 body becomes flushed and its glands are more active. Other 
 organs are affected correspondingly. Indeed, this class of exer- 
 cises represents the hygienic element Organic stimulation 
 perhaps as typically as any. This is particularly the case when 
 the movements are repeated rhythmically. Many of the exercises 
 in this class demand a relatively small amount of nervous tension 
 in the way of alertness, difficult coordination and fine discrimi- 
 nation of effort (providing the progression is what it should be). 
 At the same sime they may be defined and taught in a way to 
 have considerable "go" and rhythmic action. These character- 
 istics, as well as the great variety of combination to which they 
 readily lend themselves, make possible a fairly accurte grada- 
 tion or adjustment of quantity and intensity of the muscular 
 work, with corresponding gauging of organic stimulation. For 
 all these reasons they are admirably adapted to be put at the 
 beginning of the lesson. The pupils are made to feel that they 
 are doing something. They are readily led to direct their atten- 
 tion and will to vigorous and controlled muscular action. When 
 these exercises are done rhythmically the pupils "get into the 
 work" of the lesson in a way that is both interesting and satis- 
 factory. 
 
 Besides the general effects noted above, the exercises of this 
 group develop size, strength and coordination of the leg muscles 
 in a most effective manner. This is particularly true of the deep 
 knee bendings and the lunges, which employ the complete range 
 of contraction, or great speed, or both, of all the muscular groups
 
 96 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 from the hips down. For this reason, as well on account of their 
 general effects, they should not be left out of the lesson, even 
 if the pupils consider that they get enough leg work in other 
 ways, such as walking, running, standing for long periods of 
 time, etc. 
 
 Some of the smaller movements such as heel raising, toe 
 raising, foot placings, etc., may be defined and executed in a way 
 to strengthen the arches of the feet. The foot placings also call 
 for quick, widely distributed and well-controlled action of the 
 large trunk muscles, needed in the sudden changes of weight 
 distribution, in gathering and checking momentum. The arm 
 movements that are used in combination with the leg movements 
 may be considered to serve partly the same general and special 
 purposes, partly to increase the complexity, difficulty and total 
 muscular work of the leg movements. They also serve as pre- 
 paratory or supplementary training for similar types when used 
 for special purposes in other groups, either by themselves or in 
 combination and alternation with trunk movements. 
 
 (3) Arching Movements. 
 
 The exercises of this group represent posture training in gym- 
 nastics more distinctly and exclusively than those of any other 
 group. They are so defined that when properly executed they 
 tend to exert an influence on posture in the upper part of the 
 body diametrically opposite to that exerted by the conditions of 
 daily life, and especially those conditions associated with sedentary 
 occupations. 
 
 The factors which determine posture. Aside from such 
 general conditions as health, vitality, good nutrition and self- 
 respect, the chief factors which determine posture are: (1) the 
 size and shape of bones and their articular surfaces; (2) the 
 relative length and tension of opposing muscles and fibrous 
 structures. 
 
 The relative size or shape of ribs, clavicles, scapulae and verte- 
 brae, as indicated by the general configuration of chest, shoulders 
 and back, is largely a matter of heredity (when not interfered 
 with by disease or malnutrition). But in some measure it is also 
 influenced by the use the body is put to, especially during the 
 growing period. Use exercise not only influences the size and 
 form of the bones directly, through the stress of pressure and 
 tension to which it subjects them, but also indirectly, through 
 the resulting muscular tone and the constant tension on the bony 
 segments that this implies. 
 
 The other factor relative length and tension of opposing 
 muscles and fibrous structures is even to a greater degree
 
 CLASSIFICATION 97 
 
 associated with and dependent on muscular tone, and this in turn 
 is largely determined by habits of posture and movement. 
 Frequent complete contraction against moderate resistance, or 
 remaining in almost complete static contraction for considerable 
 periods of time, while seldom being subjected to prolonged or 
 complete stretching, are conditions conducive to increase of 
 muscular tone and a shortening of muscles as well as fibrous 
 structures. The opposite conditions prolonged passive tension 
 (stretching) and "eccentric" or even static and "concentric" con- 
 traction of slight or only moderate range result in a decrease of 
 muscular tone and a permanent lengthening of muscles as well as 
 fibrous structures. For fibrous, like muscular, tissue tends to 
 shorten when not frequently stretched and to lengthen when 
 subjected to frequent or prolonged tension. 
 
 Faulty posture. In the ordinary standing or sitting position, or 
 while walking and moving about, the weight of the head, 
 shoulders and arms tends to increase the natural forward curve 
 of the thoracic spine. This is practically always associated with 
 a drooping or forward projection of the head, a forward dis- 
 placement of the shoulder girdle and more or less depression of 
 the chest. The only provision for checking this tendency of the 
 upper part of the column to collapse forward is the tonic con- 
 traction of the upper back and posterior scapular muscles. The 
 force of gravity, therefore, acting for long periods of time, 
 subjects these muscles to strong passive tension. When they yield 
 and become lengthened, because of insufficient tone and endur- 
 ance, the superimposed weight is in part carried by the posterior 
 ligaments of the spine and shoulder girdle. At the same time the 
 pressure on the anterior part of the vertebrae and disks is 
 abnormally great, while the joint surfaces of the vertebras and of 
 the bones of the shoulder girdle are not in their normal relations. 
 
 On the other hand, the anterior muscles and ligaments are 
 relaxed during long periods and are rarely stretched to their 
 utmost. As the arms are moved forward most of the time, the 
 anterior shoulder and scapular muscles often contract through 
 their whole range and sometimes remain contracted and con- 
 siderably shortened for varying periods of time. Everything is 
 thus favorable for a relative increase of tone and a shortening of 
 these muscles as well as of all the fibrous structures in front of 
 the shoulders, including the ligaments. 
 
 Altered conditions of tension and pressure in and about the 
 joints of the upper spine, shoulder girdle and chest thus lead to 
 gradual adaptive changes, not only in the length and tension of 
 opposing sets of muscles and ligaments, but probably also in the 
 bones and their articular surfaces. Moreover, once the balance
 
 98 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 in muscular tone is lost and faulty posture becomes habitual, the 
 individual's habits of associated muscular action are also changed, 
 so that almost every powerful effort emphasizes the faulty 
 posture. He soon loses both the muscular strength and control 
 necessary to assume correct posture. Any effort in this direction 
 makes him feel strained and "unnatural." Hence, so far from 
 correcting itself by any general activity, faulty posture rather 
 tends to become aggravated by anything the individual does in a 
 "natural" manner. 
 
 Posture training. In gymnastics, and especially in arching 
 movements, as well as in the closely related back and shoulder 
 blade exercises, the character of the muscular action and the 
 mechanical conditions of habitual, relaxed posture are, as far as 
 possible, reversed. The exercises are denned and graded with a 
 view to give the pupils an ideal of good posture ; to cultivate the 
 kinesthetic sense in regard to posture in the upper part of the 
 body ; to train the coordination and power of localized contraction 
 of the upper back muscles ; to increase the tone and endurance of 
 these muscles ; to permanently shorten both the muscles and the 
 fibrous structures in this region ; and to stretch to lengthen 
 the opposing muscles and fibrous structures of the upper front 
 chest and shoulder region. 
 
 We seek to obtain these results, in part at least, through the 
 practice of exercises which, under the rather inadequate designa- 
 tion of arching movements, are really variations of a single type 
 of movement chiefly characterized by forcible extension even 
 effort at hyperextension, if such were possible of the thoracic 
 spine, with accompanying extreme chest expansion. Whatever 
 the degree of difficulty and intensity be it moderate, as in the 
 fundamental standing position and simple "backward bending of 
 head" ; or extreme, as in so-called "backward bending of trunk" 
 from difficult starting positions as regards arms and legs, or 
 accompanied by powerful arm and shoulder blade movements ; 
 or done with the hands fixed on apparatus like the bar stalls, 
 while the body is inclined backward from the ankles the mechan- 
 ism of the exercises is always the same in its main features. 
 This may be described briefly as the most complete and localized 
 contraction of the upper back muscles of which the individual is 
 capable at the time. It involves at the same time a powerful 
 stretching of the upper front chest and shoulder muscles, even 
 though these may be in a state of moderate contraction ("eccen- 
 tric") to help guide the movement or maintain the proper position. 
 The anterior fibrous structures fasciae, fibrous coverings and 
 septa of muscles, anterior ligaments of the spine and of the joints 
 of the shoulder region all these are similarly stretched. The
 
 CLASSIFICATION 99 
 
 pressure on joint surfaces is also the reverse of that obtaining in 
 the relaxed position. 
 
 The motor and postural training represented by this type of 
 exercise consists, then, in part at least, of temporary and perhaps 
 to some extent permanent improvement of anatomical relations. 
 The permanent results in this respect may, indeed, be rather medi- 
 ocre after growth has been completed or nearly so. And even 
 during the growing period the results of the exercises, as practiced 
 in the gymnastic lesson alone, may not be sufficient to lead to any 
 marked anatomical change. To have the desired permanent 
 effects on posture such exercises must be supplemented by similar 
 and often repeated efforts on the part of the individual, for long 
 periods of time. 
 
 But aside from some increase of tone in the responsible 
 muscles and some stretching of resistant structures, the chief 
 claim that can be made for the exercises is that they suggest the 
 ideal of correct posture and are conducive to the kind of muscular 
 control which is a prerequisite in any endeavor to improve posture 
 by conscious effort. Furthermore, in stimulating a class or an 
 individual to correct execution of such exercises, the teacher has 
 an opportunity to impress on the pupils the importance of good 
 posture, to urge them to strive for it at all times, to suggest 
 definite, practical ways of attaining it ( for example, by maintain- 
 ing for a specified period of time each day a forced erect carriage 
 while walking) and so to start them in habits which will ultimately 
 lead to permanently improved posture. 
 
 The difficulties, in the way of faulty execution, are of two kinds. 
 One is the tendency to merely tilt the head backward and at the 
 same time to draw the shoulders back and up. The other is the 
 strong tendency to excessive hollowing hyperextension in the 
 lower back. They may go together, though the latter is more 
 often associated with and aggravated by successful efforts to draw 
 the shoulders back and down. Both are highly undesirable and 
 are due to inability to localize properly the muscular efforts. 
 Most people lack the power to control the upper back muscles 
 independently of the lower. Any effort to straighten up inevitably 
 leads to an increase in the lower (lumbar) curve of the spine. 
 This may result in a leaning backward from the waist or in an 
 excessive backward displacement of the hips. Besides being ugly 
 such a posture is undesirable for other reasons. It means a weak 
 position of the back in cases of falls or missteps, causes painful 
 fatigue and strain in this region, is associated with excessive 
 pelvic obliquity and lax abdominal muscles, and is therefore 
 unfavorable for the abdominal and pelvic organs and the pelvic 
 joints.
 
 ioo I;YM.VASTIC TEACHING 
 
 To resist this faulty tendency, and so to avoid acquiring one 
 faulty posture while making efforts to improve another, it is 
 necessary to contract the abdominal muscles almost as powerfully 
 as the back muscles in all exercises of the type designated by the 
 term arching ^novements. The contraction of the abdominal 
 muscles tends to tilt the pelvis to a more horizontal plane, to 
 straighten the lower spine, and so to neutralize the effect of 
 excessive contraction of the lower erector spinae group of muscles. 
 In other words, it enables the individual to localize the movement 
 high up in the back. With practice some power to localise the 
 muscular contraction to the upper back region is acquired, so that 
 at least moderate efforts to straighten up may be made without 
 inducing much or any increased lumbar hyperextension. Corre- 
 spondingly decreased contraction of the abdominal muscles will 
 then be needed, and the whole position loses some of the feeling 
 and appearance of stiffness which are apparent at first. Thus, 
 gradually, the ability is acquired to maintain erect carriage 
 without much or any conscious effort. It becomes more "natural" 
 and finally habitual. As the power of localized muscular control 
 increases, maximal contractions of the upper back and abdominal 
 muscles (and even of the hip joint extensors) are insured in 
 practice by doing the movements from more difficult starting 
 positions, or by combining them with arm movements, or both. 
 
 The final effect in the way of muscular control, resulting from 
 a diligent practice of arching movements, is an ability to dis- 
 sociate, to some extent at least, the action of the upper back 
 muscles from that of the lower ; to be able to associate the former 
 with vigorous action of the abdominals and even with the hip 
 joint extensors. Such ability to make the innervation and asso- 
 ciation of action of muscular groups cross from the back to the 
 front and again to the back of the body literally to take in the 
 slack on the convex parts is not possessed naturally, even by 
 individuals whose habitual posture and carriage as well as general 
 muscular control are very good. They do not need it. But to 
 overcome faulty postural tendencies and habits such ability is 
 absolutely necessary. 
 
 Because of the great difficulty of doing these exercises with full 
 vigor without increasing lumbar hyperextension and thus culti- 
 vating a "hollow back" posture, the progression has to be very 
 slow and carefully graded. At first, even attempts to assume a 
 good fundamental standing position will induce this fault. This 
 is still more the case in such derived starting positions as those 
 reached by arm bending (with hands at the shoulders and elbows 
 close to the side of the body), by placing the hands behind the 
 neck, by arm raising sideways or by raising the arms straight 
 overhead.
 
 CLASSIFICATION 101 
 
 At first the movement should be called "backward bending of 
 head," in order to suggest to the pupils the right kind and localiza- 
 tion of muscular effort. When the chin is kept from being tilted 
 upward the backward movement of the head is really due to an 
 extension in the upper thoracic spine. As the pupils learn to do 
 this movement correctly and with full vigor with the arms in the 
 various derived positions, the name may be changed to "backward 
 arching of trunk," giving the pupils to understand that the 
 movement is the same, but is now to be done with the utmost 
 effort to arch the whole upper back without participation of the 
 lower. But constant watchfulness on the part of the teacher is 
 needed to see that the majority actually succeed in doing the 
 movement correctly. If not, then return to a simpler form. It 
 may be that the class can never be given the most advanced types, 
 such as backward arching of trunk with the arms overhead and 
 one foot in front. The type done at the bar stalls, called true 
 arch flexions (or span bendings) in Swedish gymnastics, is still 
 more precarious as regards liability to produce hollow back. It 
 is doubtful if its use is justifiable in any but exceptionally well- 
 trained classes. 
 
 The free-standing arching movements are best done singly on 
 command for some time. Not until the class has reached a point 
 where the average pupil has good control of the back and 
 abdominal muscles, and is accustomed to the "definite" style of 
 work, is it safe to attempt doing arching movements rhythmically. 
 A fair degree of correctness of execution may then be attained by 
 alternating the "backward arching" with foot placings or arm 
 movements. The best rhythm will be the uneven, syncopated 
 kind, which strongly contrasts the slow, carefully controlled arch- 
 ing movement with the quick arm or leg movement ; the whole 
 exercise being guided by constant stimulations and admonitions. 
 To head off the common tendency to assume a poorer position 
 after the return from the "backward arching" than obtained 
 before the beginning of the movement, try to have the class retain 
 the "arch" position, with only slight muscular relaxation, during 
 the "return" count. There will always be sufficient unconscious 
 relaxation during the intervening arm or leg movement to give 
 opportunity for an appreciable -"backward arching" at each rep- 
 etition. 
 
 When repeated rhythmically a reasonable number of times, and 
 each part of the exercise is done with the proper vigor and speed, 
 or steadiness, the compound and combined arching movements 
 represent a not inconsiderable amount of muscular work. Thus 
 they may be made to contribute in a moderate degree to the 
 general organic stimulation produced by the lesson as a whole.
 
 102 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 (4) Compensatory Movements. 
 
 This group comprises two types of exercises: forward and 
 forward-downward bendings of trunk ; knee-upward bending and 
 leg flinging forward" These may also, and more specifically, be 
 classified respectively as back exercises and abdominal exercises. 
 Because of their effects on the lower spine they are used as supple- 
 mentary or compensatory exercieses to the arching movements 
 and immediately follow them in the lesson. By inducing a marked 
 straightening and even reversal of the posteriorly concave curve of 
 the lower back they (1) alter, temporarily, the conditions of pres- 
 sure and tension of joint surfaces, intervertebral disks, ligaments, 
 nerves, etc., in this region. The circulatory conditions of the 
 parts are also undoubtedly influenced favorably by these changes 
 in pressure and tension. All this gives a sense of relief from the 
 strain and fatigue incident to the greater or less degree of lumbar 
 hyperextension inevitably induced by the arching movements. 
 (2) They supplement and emphasize the training in localized 
 muscular control furnished by the arching movements. 
 
 In arching movements correct execution calls for maximum 
 contraction of the upper back muscles with minimum participa- 
 tion of the lower erector spins. The compensatory exercises 
 necessarily require as much relaxation as possible of the lower 
 back muscles, while at the same time efforts are made to maintain 
 the upper back muscles strongly contracted. Only by so doing 
 can a forward-downward bending of trunk be carried to the 
 utmost limit with the upper back straight and the head, chest and 
 shoulders in good fundamental position. The knee upward 
 bending (or knee raising as high as possible) and leg flinging 
 forward accomplish the same purposes in a different way. When- 
 ever the femur moves forward-upward the pelvis is tilted to a 
 more horizontal position. This can only be done by a movement 
 of the nature of flexion in the lumbar spine, amounting to a 
 straightening or even reversal of the natural curve (hyper- 
 extension). To allow such a straightening the lower erector 
 spinae must yield, while the effort to keep the upper back, chest, 
 shoulders and head from "slumping" necessitates strong contrac- 
 tion of the upper back muscles. This type of exercise also 
 strengthens the abdominal muscles, on whose tone and control a 
 good posture in the lower back largely depends. 
 
 As regards training of localized muscular control, then, the 
 compensatory movements may be said to do negatively what the 
 arching movements aim to accomplish positively. Or, to put it 
 differently, arching movements train the power to localize con- 
 traction of and tend to shorten the upper back muscles ; compen-
 
 CLASSIFICATION 103 
 
 satory movements aim to increase the power to localize relaxation 
 of and tend to lengthen the lower back muscles. Each tends to 
 increase mobility in the spine in directions opposite to the natural 
 curves, and in general to straighten the whole spine to"take in 
 the slack" of the muscles and fibrous structures on the convex 
 side of the curves. 
 
 The importance of having in each gymnastic lesson at least 
 one, and preferably more than one, exercise of the type designated 
 as compensatory movements, must be obvious to any one who 
 has observed the hollow back position assumed by pupils whenever 
 strong contractions of the back muscles are called for. This 
 occurs not only in the fundamental position and in arching move- 
 ments, but in shoulder blade and general back exercises, in trunk 
 twistings and side bendings, in charges and in many apparatus 
 exercises. In fact the bulk of gymnastic work, when done with 
 vigor, strongly tends to produce this undesirable posture. This 
 tendency is due to several factors, chief of which are: 
 
 1. The inability of everyone (who has not been specially 
 trained) to contract the upper back muscles without contracting 
 the whole erector spinas group. 
 
 2. The preexistence of an anteriorly convex curve and free 
 mobility in the direction of hyperextension in the lumbar spine. 
 In many young people this curve and mobility are not only 
 exaggerated, but located higher up than normal, including the 
 lowest two or three thoracic vertebrae/ 
 
 3. The greater mechanical advantage of the lower back 
 muscles, pulling, as they do, over a concave surface, while the 
 upper back muscles are stretched over a convex surface. 
 
 4. The erector spinae is a much thicker and more compact 
 bundle of muscle here than higher up. Its tone is also greatest 
 in this region. 
 
 5. There is no very direct muscular mechanism to antagonize 
 this tendency to excessive hyperextension at the dorso-lumbar 
 junction, the abdominal muscles being the only group which can 
 be so considered. These do not affect the upper lumbar and lower 
 thoracic as much as the lower lumbar spine. The diaphragm 
 and psoas muscles contribute, rather than otherwise, to the hyper- 
 extension by pulling forward the vertebrae to which they are 
 attached. 
 
 6. In gymnastic positions with the arms stretched backward, 
 and especially overhead, the latissimus dorsi is probably also a 
 factor. This is particularly apt to be the case when the range of 
 motion in the shoulder joint is limited, due to tightness of the 
 muscles and fibrous structures in front, and efforts are made to 
 force the arms backward or to expand the chest.
 
 104 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 While gymnastic exercises like the compensatory and abdominal 
 movements cultivate the muscular strength and control necessary 
 to resist the tendency to excessive hollow back in gymnastic work, 
 they do not adequately train the sense of correct posture and 
 proper weight distribution in the lower trunk region. Such correct 
 posture sense is a prerequisite for the right application of muscu- 
 lar efforts, in ordinary movements and positions as well as in 
 gymnastic exercises. For the acquisition of this sense of ^position 
 and the kind of muscular efforts needed, individual assistance and 
 guidance by the teacher are most effective. Such help may very 
 well include forcible manipulation, preferably before a large 
 mirror, so that the pupil can both see and feel what he has to do. 
 
 Besides their special effects on posture, in developing and 
 strengthening the back (or abdominal) muscles and increasing 
 their control, the exercises in this group represent a considerable 
 quantity of muscular work. The majority of the forward and 
 forward-downward bendings readily lend themselves to combina- 
 tion or alternatipn with arm movements, foot placings and even 
 knee bending. The knee upward bendings and leg flingings 
 forward have all the characteristics of abdominal exercises and to 
 some degree those of leg movements. All are suitable for 
 rhythmic repetition and so may be made to contribute largely to 
 the general organic effects of the lesson. For this reason, too, it 
 is wise, if time permits, to have more than one representative of 
 this group in each lesson. 
 
 (5) Lateral Trunk Exercises. 
 
 This is one of the three groups of trunk exercises, the other 
 two being the abdominal and the back movements. As its name 
 implies, the localization of the muscular action is chiefly in the 
 waist or loin region. There being no lateral trunk muscles, prop- 
 erly speaking, the contiguous abdominal and back muscles of 
 each side act together in such types as side bending and leg mov- 
 ing sideways ; while in trunk twisting the different layers of 
 oblique abdominal muscles on each side act in conjunction with 
 the oblique back muscles. 
 
 Exercises of this group thus involve fairly wide distribution 
 of muscular action. When of a vigorous character (and most 
 of them are or may be) the total quantity of 'muscular work is 
 therefore considerable. The organs of circulation and respira- 
 tion are correspondingly active. Besides these general effects, 
 lateral trunk exercises influence the various organic functions in 
 special ways. The circulation in the abdominal cavity and espe- 
 cially the portal flow is stimulated and aided by the alternate 
 compression and stretching of the organs. These variations of
 
 CLASSIFICATION 105 
 
 pressure and tension also mechanically stimulate the intestine to 
 more vigorous peristalsis. 
 
 The conditions under which breathing takes place are modi- 
 fied. Respiration is apt to be interfered with owing to the 
 powerful contraction of the abdominal muscles in some of the 
 exercises, notably trunk twistings. This increases the intra- 
 abdominal pressure and hinders the descent of the diaphragm. 
 Inspiration must therefore be accomplished mainly by move- 
 ment of the ribs. The change of form of the thorax in many 
 of the exercises requires all or nearly all of the mobility of which 
 the chest is capable, leaving but a slight range for purposes of 
 breathing. The tension of the abdominal muscles and of those 
 oblique back muscles attached to the ribs tends to reduce still 
 further the mobility of the chest, at least on one side at a time. 
 While free respiration is thus hindered at the extreme limit of 
 each movement, the effort to maintain it gives good training to 
 the inspiratory muscles, teaches the individual to manage his 
 breathing to best advantage under difficulties, and cultivates the 
 mobility of the chest, all parts of which are made to do full duty 
 during the different phases of the movement. Because of these 
 difficulties, pupils are apt to hold their breath for considerable 
 periods and need frequent reminders from the teacher to try 
 to breathe deeply and evenly. 
 
 The development and increased control of the abdominal and 
 back muscles is another valuable feature of lateral trunk exer- 
 cises. The average person of sedentary habits is greatly in need 
 of this kindof training. The ordinary movements of daily life 
 rarely call for complete or varied action of these large and im- 
 portant muscle groups. This is particularly true as regards the 
 abdominal muscles, which are so often undeveloped, relaxed and 
 covered with fat. 
 
 In view of the many valuable effects general and special 
 of lateral trunk exercises, at least one and preferably two or 
 more free-standing movements of this class should be given in 
 each lesson, especially when there is little or no apparatus work. 
 The principal types side bending and twisting may be com- 
 bined and alternated with arm movements, foot placings, charges, 
 lunges, and other trunk movements, as well as with each other, 
 thus offering great possibilities for variety and a carefully graded 
 progression. Leg raising sideways offers less opportunity in 
 this respect, being limited to variations of speed and range, to 
 combination with a few arm movements, and alternation or com- 
 bination with jumps on toes or dancing steps. 
 
 Besides the free-standing types mentioned, many forms of 
 jumping, tumbling, vaulting, climbing and other apparatus work 
 embody some or all of the features of lateral trunk exercises.
 
 106 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 So do such athletic exercises as shot put, hammer and discus 
 throw, hurdling, pole vaulting, paddling, etc. These are often 
 of an even more powerful character than the free-standing move- 
 ments. 
 
 (6) Abdominal Exercises. 
 
 In these the localization of the work on the abdominal muscles 
 is more direct and exclusive than in any other class of exercises. 
 The principal types are knee-upward bending, leg raising for- 
 ward and leg circumduction from the standing, hanging and lying 
 position ; trunk raising from the lying to the sitting position with 
 feet fixed or, what is the same thing, leaning backward from the 
 sitting position and returning to it. Another type is backward 
 leaning of the trunk while in the kneeling position, on one or 
 both knees. Moving the arms forward upward and forward 
 downward with "chest" weights in the hands and the body 
 in a lying or reclining position (as on the quarter circle) may 
 also be included. So may the prone falling position (front lean- 
 ing rest) as well as many forms of jumping, tumbling, vaulting 
 and climbing. 
 
 In the majority of these exercises the thighs are flexed on the 
 trunk, or the trunk on the thighs, against the resistance of gravity. 
 The action of the hip joint flexors under these conditions is 
 always associated with contraction of the abdominal muscles. 
 Under certain conditions of fixation the pectorals and anterior 
 neck muscles similarly tend to act in conjunction with the abdomi- 
 nal muscles or vice versa. Indeed, all the anterior muscle groups 
 may be considered parts of one great system of muscles whose 
 associated action tends to produce a general "curling up" of the 
 whole body. In the majority of the types of exercises enumer- 
 ated, however, it is desirable to resist the effect of the contraction 
 of pectorals and anterior neck muscles (by vigorous contraction 
 of the upper back muscles) and to localize the movement as much 
 as possible to the hip joint. The contraction of the hip joint flexors 
 tends to tilt the pelvis forward (increasing its obliquity) and to 
 produce excessive hyperextension of the upper lumbar spine. 
 The associated contraction of the abdominal muscles not only 
 prevents this, and steadies the pelvis, but even flexes it on the 
 trunk (decreasing its obliquity) through a straightening (and 
 reversal where that is possible) of the natural curve in the lower 
 spine. 
 
 In their general organic effects, associated with powerful con- 
 traction of large muscle groups, the abdominal exercises are on 
 a par with the lateral trunk movements. Their special effects on 
 the abdominal organs are also similar, but more pronounced. The
 
 CLASSIFICATION 107 
 
 same is true as regards increasing the strength, tone and control of 
 the abdominal muscles. In this connection the exercises may 
 even be considered as supplementary to the compensatory move- 
 ments in posture training of the lower trunk and hip region. 
 
 Like the lateral trunk movements, the abdominal exercises tend 
 also to hinder free respiration. But whereas the former compel 
 expansion of different parts of the chest during different phases 
 of the movement, the latter always tend to depress the chest, to 
 round the upper back and to draw the head forward. To prevent 
 these faulty tendencies it is necessary, as already stated, to con- 
 tract the upper back muscles with considerable vigor. Thus, indi- 
 rectly, the abdominal exercises contribute to posture training in 
 the upper part of the body by offering difficulties in maintaining 
 good posture in that region. 
 
 Because of the relative scarcity of free-standing types of 
 abdominal exercises and a rather limited progression within each, 
 it may not always be feasible to have a representative of this 
 group in each lesson without frequent repetition of the same 
 types, viz., knee upward bending and leg flinging forward (or 
 forward-sideways), backward leaning of trunk from the kneel- 
 ing position, and prone falling position with or without foot plac- 
 ing forward and backward. Letting a whole class lie down on 
 the floor and in this position giving leg movements is, of course, 
 also feasible. When no apparatus work is given, at least one of 
 the above types should be included in the lesson. When appa- 
 ratus work is a part of the lesson, many of these exercises should 
 be of a kind embodying the valuable features of the abdominal 
 group. 
 
 (7) Back and Shoulder Blade Exercises. 
 
 In these the work is localized on the back muscles. According 
 as the emphasis is placed chiefly on the extreme contraction of 
 the upper back and posterior scapular muscles, or the work is 
 more uniformly distributed over all the muscular groups of the 
 back, including the hip joint extensors, the exercises of this group 
 may be respectively designated as shoulder blade movements and 
 general back movements. 
 
 A. Shoulder Blade Movements. Under this head come the 
 various arm movements, such as arm bending and stretching side- 
 ways, diagonally upward, upward, forward, backward both 
 arms in the same direction or each in diverse directions quick, 
 or slow and resisted; forward bending and sideways flinging of 
 arms; half sideways bending of arms (to side horizontal, elbow 
 half flexed) ; arm raising or flinging forward, sideways, forward- 
 upward, sideways-upward ; arm circles large or small, quick or
 
 108 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 slow ; swimming movements with the arms ; placing hands on 
 hips, behind neck or over head ; changes from one of the positions 
 reached by these movements to another. The difficulty, intensity 
 and total amount of muscular work in these movements are in- 
 creased by doing them from a position with the body inclined 
 forward, as by being bent at the hips (prone standing position) ; 
 in charges; in lying face downward on the floor, or supported 
 by a bench under the thighs (prone lying position). They may 
 also be combined with leg movements, arching and compensatory 
 movements, or alternated with these and almost any other free- 
 standing movement. 
 
 Their main purpose, aside from the general one of contribu- 
 ting to the total amount and greater complexity of the muscular 
 work, is to increase the strength, endurance, control and tone 
 of the upper back and scapular muscles, to cultivate the posture 
 sense, and thus to furnish the basis and means for effective pos- 
 ture training in the upper part of the body. In this respect they 
 resemble and supplement the arching movements, to which they 
 are closely allied. 
 
 Fixation of the Shoulder Girdle. The habitual position of the 
 shoulder girdle relative to the thorax is largely a matter of bal- 
 ance of tone on the part of the anterior and posterior scapular 
 muscles. If the posterior muscles are slack and the anterior are 
 in a relatively higher state of tonic tension, the latter will draw 
 the scapula away from the spine and the point of the shoulder 
 forward. The weight of the shoulders, naturally tending forward, 
 acts with greater leverage the farther this forward displacement 
 is allowed to go. In movements of the arms in front of the body 
 the pectorals, in conjunction with the serratus magnus, will move 
 the shoulder girdle forward as far as it will go, before the full 
 force of the pectoralis major is exerted on the arms. If the 
 posterior muscles are very slack (long), the final checking of the 
 forward movement of the shoulder girdle will devolve largely 
 on fibrous structures ligaments and fasciae. Such checking by 
 passive tension on muscles and fibrous structures may be called 
 passive (ligamentous or natural) fixation of the shoulder girdle. 
 
 The shoulder blade movements enumerated should be so de- 
 fined and executed that there is a minimum forward displace- 
 ment (or upward, as the case may be) of the shoulder girdle in 
 movements of the arms. That means vigorous and sustained 
 contraction of the scapular depressors and adductors throughout 
 the exercises, and may be called active (muscular or artificial) 
 fixation of the shoulder girdle. The resulting increased tone and 
 endurance of the posterior scapular muscles would insure a more 
 posterior position of the shoulder girdle in passive fixation dur- 
 ing arm movements as well as a better habitual posture, not only
 
 CLASSIFICATION 109 
 
 of the shoulders, but of the upper back and chest as well. It is 
 another case of "taking in the slack" on the convex side. 
 
 B. General Back Movements. These comprise forward and 
 forward-downward bending of trunk from the standing and 
 prone lying position, the latter with support under the thighs 
 (feet fixed) ; forward and oblique charges, reverse and toe-sup- 
 port charges and forward bending added to these ; the fall-hang- 
 ing and front rest positions and related exercises, as well as a 
 number of suspension exercises and vaults. All involve active 
 contraction of the whole muscular region of the back and the 
 posterior hip joint muscles (extensors). These are active in 
 efforts to maintain the extended position of the whole body 
 against gravity, or are partly relaxed at the lower level to permit 
 flexion at the hip and in the lumbar spine, while those in the 
 thoracic region remain completely contracted to keep the upper 
 spine straight. In returning to the extended (erect) position 
 against the resistance of gravity they all contract equally. 
 
 The difficulty of the exercises and the intensity of the muscular 
 work will depend on the degree of projection of the body beyond 
 the point of support and on the height at which the arms are 
 carried. Both increase the weight leverage. The horizontal 
 position in forward bending represents the greatest weight lever- 
 age. The higher and more difficult positions of the arms not 
 only raise the center of gravity but also increase the static action 
 of the scapular and upper back muscles. When arm movements 
 are added, the intensity of the muscular work is still further 
 heightened. All these factors should be taken into account in 
 the progression of these exercises and in deciding where to place 
 them in the lesson. 
 
 The purpose of general back movements is to develop, 
 strengthen and increase control of all the back muscles ; to favor 
 the correct growth of the spine; to correct minor lateral devia- 
 tions ; to maintain and increase mobility in the directions least 
 cultivated by the ordinary movements of daily life extension in 
 the upper part, flexion in the lower. The intensity and wide 
 distribution of the muscular work also represent considerable 
 organic stimulation. These general effects are enhanced by 
 rhythmic repetition alternating with foot placings or arm move- 
 ments. 
 
 (8) Charges. 
 
 Forward and oblique, reverse and reverse oblique charges ( feet 
 about three foot-lengths apart, body inclined about 45 degrees and 
 in line with the rear leg) have already been mentioned under 
 lateral trunk and back exercises. They have many of the char-
 
 110 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 acteristics of these groups, as well as of leg movements, and are 
 therefore truly all-round exercises. 
 
 On account of the varied and widely distributed muscular 
 action, charges admirably fulfill the purpose of general exercise. 
 They are also very valuable as a means of training the kinesthetic 
 sense and the power of coordinating the action of trunk and leg 
 muscles, requiring, as they do, accurate alignment and quick 
 readjustments of weight distribution. Because of their difficulty 
 and vigorous all-round character, as well as their appearance, 
 they are usually interesting to pupils. But in order to insure 
 correct execution they should not be given too early, and the 
 progression should be slow and careful. As the possibilities for 
 variations are considerable by combining and alternating with 
 arm and trunk movements this type of exercise may be repre- 
 sented more than once in each lesson without excessive repetition 
 of each variety. 
 
 (9) Balance Exercises. 
 
 As the name implies, the chief feature in this class of exercises 
 is the maintaining of equilibrium. The types used are positions 
 or movements in which the base is progressively reduced and 
 the center of gravity raised. Such are : standing on the toes with 
 toes together, or one foot in front of the other (close toe stand- 
 ing and walk toe standing positions) ; or on one foot with the 
 other raised forward, sideways or backward ; head, arm or leg 
 movements (including heel raising and knee bending) from these 
 positions; the toe-support charge position, and raising of the rear 
 leg from that position (horizontal half standing position) ; for- 
 ward bending and side bending of trunk on one foot, the other 
 leg in line with the trunk ; leg raising from the side falling posi- 
 tion (side leaning rest) ; opposite arm and leg raising from the 
 prone falling position (front leaning rest); balance marching; 
 walking forward, backward and sideways (with various modifi- 
 cations) on the balance beams. 
 
 While the muscles of the legs are usually the principal groups 
 involved, all parts of the muscular system, especially the large 
 groups of the trunk, are more or less active. There is constant 
 interplay of opposing groups. Sometimes the action is brief and 
 only very moderate. Again it may be quite violent in efforts to 
 recover the equilibrium when the oscillations have become too 
 large. 
 
 Although the distribution of the muscular work is usually over 
 wide areas, the exercises are ordinarily not repeated a sufficient 
 number of times to produce any marked organic effect. This 
 is true even when they are done rhythmically (as it is possible
 
 CLASSIFICATION 111 
 
 to do in some types). But in such cases the rhythm should be 
 slow, the positions being held relatively long. Otherwise the 
 exercise represents too little difficulty in keeping the balance. 
 
 The chief value of exercises of this kind consists in the train- 
 ing of subjective motor control. They cultivate the sense of 
 equilibrium and the kind of muscular coordination required to 
 make quick and accurate adjustments of weight distribution, to 
 check promptly too great or sudden deviations from the proper 
 alignment and poise of the various segments of the column. 
 
 When many of the exercises in the lesson offer some degree 
 of difficulty in maintaining a steady balance or require frequent 
 and quick changes of weight distribution, as is the case in charges 
 and in many movements done from the walk standing or close 
 standing positions, special balance exercises may be dispensed 
 with. Often, however, a balance exercise of not too great diffi- 
 culty may with advantage be put between two vigorous trunk 
 movements, serving thus as a relief from or break in what might 
 otherwise be too long or severe a muscular exertion. 
 
 The heel raisings and knee bendings from more or less difficult 
 starting positions may be practiced at first as balance exercises 
 and later, when they offer little or no further difficulty in regard 
 to balance, they may be used as leg movements in the beginning 
 of the lesson. The side bending and forward bending of trunk 
 while standing on one foot, as well as the toe-support charge and 
 horizontal half standing positions, may also be considered ad- 
 vanced lateral trunk and back exercises, respectively, and take 
 the place of representatives of these groups in the lesson. 
 
 (10) Suspension Exercises. 
 
 In these the body is suspended on the arms, the typical exer- 
 cise being the (active) hanging position. Whatever modifications 
 or additional movements are made from this position, such as 
 arm bending, momentary suspension on one arm in hand travel- 
 ing, swinging, leg movements, etc., the essential features are 
 always more or less the same. These are : a marked chest expan- 
 sion ; at least a moderate straightening of the thoracic spine ; vigor- 
 ous action of the flexors of the elbow, of the muscles which bring 
 the arm down to the side (latissimus, teres major and pectoralis 
 major), of the rotators downward, adductors and depressors of 
 the scapula (rhomboids, pectoralis minor and trapezius), as well 
 as of the deltoid and abdominal muscles. 
 
 The chest expansion is caused partly by the straightening of 
 the thoracic spine, partly by the great tension (passive or active) 
 of the pectorals and latissimus. The straightening of the thoracic
 
 112 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 spine is due both to traction of the lower part of the body and to 
 the contraction of the erector spinae associated with the action of 
 the posterior scapular muscles. 
 
 The breathing takes place under the same modified conditions 
 as occur in the arching movements. The thoracic walls being 
 practically fixed in the expanded position, the diaphragm is the 
 chief factor of the respiratory movements. Its descent in inspira- 
 tion takes place against increased intra-abdominal pressure, due to 
 the passive tension or active contraction of the abdominal muscles. 
 Besides these modified general conditions of breathing, many of 
 the more difficult exercises in this group require (or strongly 
 tempt to) a temporary cessation of respiration altogether. This 
 is always apt to occur when extreme muscular efforts are made, 
 especially in movements of the arms or trunk. The chest is then 
 made rigid by the contraction of the abdominal muscles, forcing 
 the diaphragm to ascend and compress the air inside the chest, the 
 glottis having been previously closed. This gives the muscles 
 attached to the chest a fixed point from which to act on the arms. 
 Such tendency to hold the breath shoulcl, of course, be resisted 
 and full breathing insisted on in all but the most severe and diffi- 
 cult movements. In the latter the performer may often be 
 obliged to time his breathing to correspond with a given phase 
 of the exercise in which a partial relaxation of the muscular effort 
 is feasible. Thus, by proper management of the respiration under 
 difficulties, valuable training and increased efficiency of the breath- 
 ing mechanism may result. 
 
 Many of the exercises of this class represent fairly violent 
 muscular work of an intermittent character comparatively brief 
 and powerful efforts alternating with relatively long intervals of 
 rest. This is due to the fact that the necessary apparatus can often 
 only be used by one, or at most a few individuals at a time. By 
 the use of multiple apparatus, or by selecting such exercises as 
 can be done on ladders, suspended parallel bars and the boom 
 (allowing the simultaneous performance of several pupils) this 
 difficulty may be obviated to some extent and the continuity of the 
 work increased. In the "pure" types of suspension exercises, such 
 as the simple hanging position and arm bending or hand traveling 
 in this position, the work is of a somewhat local character. The 
 resistance (the body weight) to be overcome by the working 
 muscles is comparatively great, hence repetitions are not apt to be 
 numerous. 
 
 Besides these typical or "pure" suspension exercises, there are 
 many which are of a more general character, embodying some 
 of the features of abdominal, lateral trunk, "back and even leg 
 exercises. Such are, for example, knee upward bending, leg
 
 CLASS IF 1C A TION 1 13 
 
 raising and leg circumduction from the hanging position ; climb- 
 ing on ropes, poles or window ladders ; complex movements on 
 rings and horizontal bar ; the fall-hanging position and its modifi- 
 cations; combined arm stretching and bending with knee bend- 
 ing and stretching while standing on one or both feet and 
 grasping a bar, ropes, rings, etc. These mixed types may be 
 easier or more severe than the pure types in their local effects. 
 Thus, the fall-hanging position (body inclined and part of the 
 weight supported on the heels) is easier as regards the work of 
 the muscles of the shoulder girdle and as regards breathing, but 
 the additional action of the lower back and posterior hip muscles 
 makes it an exercise of more general character. The same is 
 true of the pull-up with help of the legs. For this reason such 
 types may be used as preparation for the more typical suspension 
 exercises when the necessary strength in the arm and shoulder 
 muscles is lacking. On the other hand, such exercises as starting 
 swings, circles, upstarts, etc., represent more violent local as well 
 as more widely distributed muscular work, owing to the simulta- 
 neous or alternating powerful contraction of the abdominal or 
 back muscles. 
 
 In general, it is not wise to practice exercises of this class (at 
 least the more violent types) without some preliminary "warm- 
 ing up" in the shape of free-standing movements or chest weight 
 exercises. Otherwise muscular strains and distress of the circu- 
 latory and respiratory organs are apt to occur, followed by unsat- 
 isfactory general feeling. 
 
 Among free-standing exercises the arm bendings and stretchings 
 and some of the arm Ringings may be considered related to sus- 
 pension exercises. They produce some of the same effects in a 
 mild way and are somewhat similar in their muscular mechanism. 
 But they can scarcely be considered the equivalent of suspension 
 exercises in any true sense. 
 
 Summary. The suspension exercises are, then, characterized 
 by their developmental effects on the upper trunk muscles and 
 especially on those of the shoulder girdle and upper extremity; 
 by their tendency to strengthen the abdominal wall, to increase 
 the mobility of the chest and the efficiency of the whole breathing 
 mechanism ; by their corrective postural effects on the spine 
 lateral as well as antero-posterior ; by their relative high intensity 
 and considerable total quantity of muscular work. They are also 
 conducive to a kind of skill or agility which may be urgently 
 needed in some emergency. When carefully defined and correctly 
 executed they are most valuable exercises and should, if possible, 
 be represented in every gymnastic lesson.
 
 114 i;y.\r.VASTic TEACHING 
 
 (11) Arm Support Exercises. 
 
 These comprise the front rest, back rest and cross rest positions 
 and their derivations. While employing the same muscles as 
 those principally active in the suspension exercises (with the 
 exception that the triceps takes the place of the biceps and the 
 deltoid is inactive), they do so in an entirely different way. The 
 pectorals and rhomboids are especially active, and unless the latter 
 are reenforced by adequate and well-controlled action of the 
 trapezius and latissimus, the pectorals tend to contract excessively 
 with resultant malposition of the shoulder girdle, chest and upper 
 back. The arm support exercises should not, therefore, be classed 
 with suspension exercises, but rather be put in a group by them- 
 selves, even though it is true that they often form a component 
 part of many complex suspension exercises especially on the 
 horizontal bar and rings. Because of their relative difficulty and 
 their vicious tendencies they should be used with caution, and 
 not until the proper strength and control of all the upper trunk 
 muscles, especially the scapular, have been acquired. This 
 applies particularly to such types as circles, feints and the more 
 difficult feats on the horse ; traveling, repeated swings, "dips," 
 etc., from the cross rest position on the parallel bars; and also 
 many similar positions and movements on the horizontal bar and 
 rings. The majority of such exercises are conducive to an 
 undesirable kind of muscular development as well as faulty 
 posture, and their practice should be discouraged. 
 
 On the other hand, arm support exercises find their most useful 
 and unobjectionable application in vaults on the different appara- 
 tus. For in these the support on the arms is only brief, and the 
 work of the shoulder blade muscles is materially aided by the 
 momentum gained in the spring from the floor. This makes the 
 maintenance of correct position of shoulder and chest less diffi- 
 cult. 
 
 (12) Jumping and Vaulting (precipitant exercises'). 
 
 The common characteristics of exercises of this class are : Great 
 intensity and wide distribution of muscular work, which, while 
 usually somewhat intermittent, may and should be made continu- 
 ous enough to produce marked organic stimulation. The various 
 types also represent many or all of the special features of leg, 
 back, abdominal, lateral trunk and arm support exercises, while 
 some types are even related to suspension exercises. They all 
 demand and cultivate a high degree of coordination well-timed 
 and properly gauged muscular efforts, involving accurate judg- 
 ment of height, distance and bodily momentum, as well as a keen
 
 CLASS IF 1C A T1ON 1 15 
 
 sense of equilibrium. In this last respect they may be considered 
 advanced balance movements. 
 
 The training of coordination which is such a pronounced fea- 
 ture of this class of exercises relates not only to the proper posi- 
 tion of the parts of the body with reference to each other, but of 
 the body as a whole with reference to space or to external objects. 
 It is subjective motor training, but differs from that furnished by 
 free-standing gymnastic exercises in that the body as a whole is 
 moving. This involves many factors which are either absent or 
 only present to a slight extent in most free-standing exercises. 
 Such are, for example, judgment of height and distance to be 
 traversed by the body; of speed and bodily momentum to be 
 developed and managed to best advantage; of the best weight 
 distribution over the point of support and the proper sequence of 
 widely different muscular efforts in order to gain the most advan- 
 tageous leverage, to increase or deflect momentum, to control the 
 poise of the body, etc. Of course, the eye is a large factor in the 
 complex nervous processes which enter into these coordinations. 
 But the kinesthetic sense (a term used to designate the perception 
 of sensations conveyed by the numerous and varied afferent 
 nervous impulses from the muscles and joints) is even of more 
 importance than the sense of sight. The training of this kines- 
 thetic sense is a feature of all gymnastic exercises, but more so in- 
 this than any other class. 
 
 The result of abundant practice of this class of exercises should 
 be an increase of agility. With this is meant ability to manage 
 the body when in motion, on the feet, or propelled by the feet 
 from the ground, with or without the aid of the arms. When the 
 legs alone are used to give the body the necessary momentum to 
 traverse a given space we call it jumping. When the arms are 
 used to assist in propelling or in guiding the movement we call it : 
 (1) Vaulting, if the arms are used to support the body; (2) 
 Swing-jump (under swing, hang- jump or some such term) when 
 the body is momentarily suspended on the arms. 
 
 The different types of exercises belonging to this group are: 
 (1) Running and standing high and broad jumps; hop, step and 
 jump; sideways and backward jumps; all to be executed in speci- 
 fied form while in the air and on landing, as well as for height or 
 distance. (2) Vertical vaults such as (front and rear) squat and 
 straddle vaults and their combinations (wolf vault) ; knee vault ; 
 front (sheep) vault; jump (thief) vault; the horizontal vaults 
 face, side and back (and oblique) vaults (or front, flank and 
 rear vaults as they are usually called). These may be executed 
 on the side or long horse, buck, vaulting box, parallel bars, sad- 
 dle boom, low horizontal bar or boom ; with or without a pre- 
 liminary run (preferably with). In all there is only a momentary-
 
 116 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 or relatively brief period of support on the arms. In the vertical 
 vaults (and the mounts of the same name) the briefer the period 
 of support the more does the action of the arms resemble the 
 spring of the legs, the more animated and vigorous does the 
 exercise become and the greater are the chances for an erect 
 position of the whole body, with good posture of head, chest and 
 shoulders during its performance. (3) Standing or (preferably) 
 running swing- jumps with the use of flying rings, ropes (one or 
 two), horizontal bar, boom, double boom, suspended parallel bars 
 and horizontal ladder. Here the body is momentarily suspended 
 on the arms, following the spring from the feet. (4) Mixed types 
 of vaults and suspension exercises, such as side, back and oblique 
 vaults on the double boom, with suspension on one arm and sup- 
 port on the other very valuable and interesting exercises of a 
 truly all-round character. (5) Elementary and more advanced 
 tumbling, such as forward and backward rolls, dives, headspring, 
 handsprings, cartwheels and somersaults. 
 
 In general, the muscular efforts in all these exercises are widely 
 distributed, relatively violent and of short duration, with compara- 
 tively long intervals of rest. If the efforts succeed each other too 
 rapidly and are continued for any length of time, the limit at 
 which circulation and respiration can keep pace with the muscular 
 work is soon reached. It is not wise to carry the exertion to the 
 point of extreme breathlessness. Too large doses of this type of 
 work are also liable to produce excessive fatigue. In class teach- 
 ing, however, the danger of overdoing is not very great, as it is 
 usually found difficult to subdivide the class into sufficiently small 
 squads to allow too frequent repetitions of the exercises. The 
 trouble is more often the other way too large squads, inade- 
 quate leadership and, therefore, too long time between turns and 
 not sufficient continuity of the work. But when teaching small 
 groups, or in individual practice outside of class, the danger of 
 overdoing should be borne in mind. Of course, pupils with weak 
 hearts or abdominal walls should not be allowed to practice exer- 
 cises of this class without careful supervision and guidance as 
 regards kind and amount. 
 
 (13) Running and Running Games. 
 
 These may be classed with the preceding (as precipitant exer- 
 cises) or by themselves. The latter is preferable. A short run 
 may be used to begin the lesson, especially on a cold day, serving 
 then the purpose of general stimulation or literally of warming 
 up. Or it may be put in at (or just before) the end, and thus by 
 emphasizing and "clinching" the organic effects serve as a fitting 
 culmination of the lesson. This is highly desirable at all times
 
 CLASSIFICATION 117 
 
 and especially when the jumping and vaulting exercises have been 
 inadequate as means of organic stimulation, owing to lack of time, 
 space, apparatus or proper leadership. 
 
 Systematic practice of running is undoubtedly one of the best 
 means if not the best to improve "the wind," i.e., to strengthen 
 the heart and respiratory organs, to increase the power of prompt 
 and perfect adjustment of the whole circulatory system to vary- 
 ing degrees of activity in short, to bring this most important of 
 all bodily mechanisms to a high state of efficiency and to keep it 
 so. Such efficiency is so intimately connected with, and basal to, 
 the health and proper functioning of all other organs, that in a 
 very real sense it is the conditioning factor and index of endur- 
 ance, vitality and general bodily condition. 
 
 In view of the ease with which pronounced organic stimula- 
 tion may be produced by running, and the comparative facility 
 with which the amount and intensity of these effects may be 
 gauged and regulated, as well as the almost universal availability 
 of this form of exercise, no gymnastic lesson should be considered 
 complete without it. 
 
 (14) Respiratory Exercises. 
 
 It may not always be desirable, or even safe, to dismiss a class 
 while in a state of high organic activity heart and lungs working 
 hard, skin flushed and perspiring. If the jumping, vaulting and 
 running have been vigorous and prolonged enough to produce 
 such a marked general reaction, it is usually best to keep the 
 class a few minutes more, until the circulation and respiration 
 have begun to return to normal. This reduces the chances for 
 accidents in the way of possible injury to weak hearts when tak- 
 ing a bath. (Where there are no facilities for bathing it is per- 
 haps best not to carry the organic stimulation to a point involving 
 too great activity of the skin.) To facilitate the return to a more 
 quiet and normal bodily condition the lesson may be concluded 
 with a few exercises of progressively diminishing intensity, and 
 which at the same time call into use all the auxiliary forces of 
 the circulation. 
 
 The kinds of exercises most suitable for this purpose are 
 rhythmic leg movements such as ordinary marching, toe march- 
 ing, and "balance" marching; simple heel raising and knee bend- 
 ing; the different arm raisings, rotations and stretchings in slow 
 breathing rhythm, or combination of these with heel raising and 
 knee bending. Simple deep and slow breathing, without any arm 
 or leg movements, but preferably with a slight backward bending 
 of head, is perhaps as effective a respiratory exercise as any. It 
 may very well be the last, as well as the first, exercise of the 
 lesson.
 
 118 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 By the alternating contractions and relaxations of large muscu- 
 lar masses and the alternating flexion and extension in the joints 
 involved in rhythmic leg and arm movements, the valvular mech- 
 anism in the veins of the extremities is made to do full duty, 
 thereby reducing the peripheral resistance to be overcome by the 
 heart. Similarly, the deep, measured breathing causes a more 
 powerful thoracic aspiration literally a suction exerted on the 
 great veins entering the chest than shallow, rapid breathing. All 
 these factors aid the venous and lymphatic flow, supply the means 
 for a greater output at each systole, and so materially ease or 
 at least steady the heart's action. Blood pressure falls more 
 gradually and evenly, and without the preliminary rise which 
 probably always occurs when violent exercise suddenly ceases. 
 
 While breathing exercises do not cause more oxygen to be 
 taken up by the blood passing through the lungs, as is popularly 
 supposed (the arterial blood at all times being practically satu- 
 rated with oxygen), they are valuable for many other reasons. 
 Besides aiding the circulation they cultivate mobility of the chest; 
 cause a free flow of blood and lymph in the more remote and less 
 completely used portions of the lungs and so favor the nutrition 
 of these parts ; they lead to a straightening of the thoracic spine, 
 and a strengthening of the muscles of inspiration ; by the more 
 complete descent of the diaphragm and the greater variations in 
 intra-abdominal pressure they influence favorably the functions 
 of the liver and other abdominal organs. They also give oppor- 
 tunity for training the whole breathing mechanism to efficient and 
 economical action. 
 
 The arm movements, while not increasing the total capacity of 
 the chest, undoubtedly lead to maximum expansion of the upper 
 chest and encourage lateral costal breathing. In all these respects 
 breathing exercises are most effective at a time when the body, as 
 a result of vigorous exercise, demands plenty of air and the 
 respiratory centers are extremely active. 
 
 4. THE CONTENT AND CHARACTER OF THE GYMNASTIC LESSON. 
 
 A gymnastic lesson should not be merely a certain number of 
 exercises chosen at random or on the spur of the moment, and 
 arranged in a haphazard manner as the fancy or impulse of the 
 teacher dictates. When that is the case loss of interest and dis- 
 satisfaction are sure to occur sooner or later. Nor is it advisable 
 to use habitually and under different conditions standard collec- 
 tions of exercises or "drills," however well chosen and arranged 
 they may be for a given set of conditions. The only occasion 
 for continued practice of set and memorized "drills" is in cases 
 where merely muscular exercise for the sake of organic reaction
 
 CONTENT AND CHARACTER 119 
 
 is wanted, and .when the class membership is fairly homogeneous 
 and constant. But even under such conditions it will usually be 
 found wise, for the sake of conserving interest, if for no other 
 reason, to make the lessons varied and progressive. 
 
 When equal emphasis is to be placed on all phases of the work, 
 the construction and progression of gymnastic lessons become 
 one of the most important as well as most interesting parts of the 
 teacher's work. Each lesson should then be the concrete expres- 
 sion of a definite hygienic and educational thought. It should 
 embody the teacher's ideals, standards and special knowledge ; it 
 should represent his understanding of the conditions to be met 
 and his best judgment of how the pupils' time and efforts are 
 to be utilized to the fullest advantage. 
 
 While every class represents a special set of conditions to be 
 met in the arrangement of each lesson, a few general principles 
 are applicable to most conditions. 
 
 1. Proper distribution of tvork. Do not work the class so 
 hard in the beginning of the lesson that a considerable number of 
 pupils will be unable to do justice to the last part. Begin with 
 work of moderate intensity and increase gradually. This applies 
 to both general and local exercises. 
 
 If, for example, general organic work is begun too suddenly, 
 or in too large doses, it might be necessary to slacken the pace 
 after a while. Any such reduction in the rate of the muscular 
 activity (except for very brief periods) means more or less of 
 a loss of accumulated organic effects. The resulting cooling off 
 and partial drying give rise to unsatisfactory general feelings, a 
 sense of lassitude and disagreeable fatigue. From the standpoint 
 of organic stimulation it is always most satisfactory to increase 
 the quantity and intensity of the muscular work by gradual steps, 
 and to finish the lesson with the class in a state of bodily exhilara- 
 tion, with all the main functions circulation, respiration and 
 elimination fairly active or just beginning to subside to normal. 
 Then the bath is most enjoyable and refreshing, fatigue is less 
 marked, or is so mingled with a sense of general well-being as 
 to be pleasant rather than otherwise, and the danger of taking 
 cold is lessened. 
 
 2. Warming up. Again, we might begin with exercises 
 demanding short, violent, maximal efforts with comparatively 
 long intervals of rest, as, for example, jumping, vaulting or 
 climbing ; or very powerful local exercises, such as strong abdomi- 
 nal or suspension exercises. Such a course would be inadvisable 
 for several reasons. 
 
 In the first place, it is always more or less of a strain on the 
 heart and arteries to have sudden, great demands made upon 
 them. It takes a little time for the circulatory mechanism to
 
 120 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 adjust itself to the varying needs of the organism. Sudden, 
 violent exertion while the arterial tension is low and the heart 
 is beating at a moderate rate and not very powerfully, may cause 
 disagreeable subjective symptoms and is not beneficial to the 
 heart and arteries. An illustration of this is the painful throb- 
 bing in the side and front of the neck so common after a violent 
 exercise (for example, on the horizontal bar) has been performed 
 without any preparation. 
 
 In the second place, the muscles do not work to good advan- 
 tage under such conditions. To do their best work the blood 
 supply of the muscles must be commensurate with the amount 
 of work they are called upon to do. Such is not the case when 
 the work consists of violent efforts at comparatively long inter- 
 vals and without preparation. Under such circumstances dis- 
 agreeable soreness and actual strain are very apt to occur. It 
 has been suggested that the liability to strain may be due to a 
 failure of all the fibers of the muscles to contract simultaneously, 
 a small number or small portions of the muscles being a little 
 ahead or behind and therefore pulling too hard and sustaining 
 injury. However that may be, it is a fact that the peculiar kind 
 of soreness which is felt immediately and often lasts a long time 
 usually occurs when a violent local effort is made without any 
 previous "limbering up." 
 
 The inadvisability of beginning work too suddenly, be it local 
 or general, is universally recognized. Trainers of men and 
 horses are well aware of the necessity for "warming up" before 
 putting their charges into action. It is economical to expend a 
 little energy in this way, because such preparatory work starts 
 up the vital machinery and gets it running smoothly before being 
 subjected to the real stress. Emotion may serve the same pur- 
 pose, e.g., anger, fear or other excitement. 
 
 The element of coordination should also be considered. We 
 cannot, fpr example, do delicate work immediately after violent 
 exertion. On the other hand, it is more difficult to control 
 momentum, make the right kind and amount of effort and coor- 
 dinate properly in a difficult exercise without preparation than 
 when preliminary work has been done. Gradual warming up 
 and judicious distribution of the work are therefore of advantage 
 from the standpoint of economy, less liability to strain, better 
 effect on muscles and organs, better coordination, better work. 
 
 3. Progressive organic activity as a guide and index of the 
 rate of work. In a quiet condition, such as obtains when sitting 
 down, reading, etc., the bulk of the blood is in the cavities of the 
 body abdomen, chest, head. The venous and lymphatic circu- 
 lations are sluggish. In order to do vigorous muscular work the 
 bulk of the blood must be flowing through the muscles at a fast
 
 CONTENT AND CHARACTER 121 
 
 rate and high pressure. This change of relative accumulation 
 and increase in rate of flow and pressure begin to take place soon 
 after active work has started; the muscular arterioles dilate and 
 the local pressure (in the muscular arteries) rises (this is also 
 true of the cutaneous vascular area), while the arteries of the 
 great cavities, notably those of the abdominal cavity (the so- 
 called splanchnic area), become more constricted. 
 
 In order to make this circulatory adjustment in the most 
 satisfactory way, and always sufficient to correspond to the 
 amount of work demanded from the muscles, the lesson is begun 
 with exercises involving only a moderate expenditure of energy 
 at any given moment, but of a continuous character (such as 
 marching). These are followed by exercises of gradually in- 
 creasing intensity, until the circulatory and respiratory organs 
 have reached the rate of activity which corresponds to the great- 
 est demands we intend to make on the muscles. This state of 
 activity is then kept up for as long a time as seems wise or prac- 
 ticable. The lesson may then be concluded with a few exercises 
 of less intensity, calculated to aid circulation and respiration and 
 to help bring the body back to an approximately normal condi- 
 tion, without, however, losing the accumulated reactions such 
 as warmth, flushing, perspiration to any considerable extent, 
 unless special conditions so demand. Often the final tapering-off 
 exercises may be omitted, the walking back to the dressing room, 
 changing of clothes or undressing and taking a bath serving the 
 same purpose. 
 
 Occasionally it may be advisable to begin more abruptly e.g., 
 with a short run by way of stimulation, especially in cold 
 weather. But do not make it too long. 
 
 The expenditure of nervous energy, represented by the amount 
 of attention, coordination and "pure" mental work involved in 
 the exercises also varies, but does not necessarily follow the curve 
 of organic activity. For reasons which have already been dis- 
 cussed (see Order Exercises) it is generally advisable to begin 
 fairly suddenly in this respect, giving work which demands con- 
 siderable mental concentration, especially as regards attention. 
 It is necessary thus to focus and stimulate the attention in order 
 to produce the proper mental attitude and cooperation for the 
 work that is to follow. Later it may be well to ease up a little 
 in this respect, directing the mental efforts more to the actual 
 doing of vigorous work than to alertness and readiness for rapid 
 changes. The element of difficulty of coordination also varies, 
 often being in inverse proportion to the intensity of organic action 
 or localized muscular work, but in a general way there should 
 be a progressive increase in this respect, the more complex and 
 difficult exercises being placed near the end.
 
 122 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 4. Totality or all-round character of the gymnastic lesson. 
 It is generally better to have each lesson represent all-round 
 exercise, rather than have a preponderance of one kind of work 
 in one lesson and another kind in the next, and so on. Even if 
 the time allotted is scant and the lesson in consequence must be 
 short, it is always possible by careful planning and selection to 
 have all the main features embodied in the different classes of 
 exercises (described in. a previous chapter) represented more or 
 less adequately in each lesson. Rounding out a lesson in this 
 manner not only gives greater immediate satisfaction to the 
 pupils in the way of bodily sensations and reactions, and avoids 
 excessive local fatigue, but also insures variety and so helps sus- 
 tain attention and conserve interest. 
 
 When time allows, it is wise to have each one of the main 
 groups of exercises represented, some of them especially the 
 various trunk movements more than once. When repetition 
 of any given class of exercises is deemed advisable, the types 
 chosen should preferably be as different as possible. They may 
 be given successively or alternate with representatives of other 
 groups. The latter is usually preferable, as it facilitates proper 
 distribution of the muscular work and the progressive increase 
 in its intensity. Occasionally it may be advisable to give two or 
 more exercises belonging to the same group successively in order 
 to get sufficiently pronounced local effects without too much 
 repetition of the same exercise. Or it may be done as a matter 
 of convenience, e.g., in apparatus work. Here there are usually 
 sufficient intervals of rest between the exercises to avoid .excessive 
 local or general fatigue. 
 
 The groups of exercises which it is most desirable to have 
 abundantly represented usually include a number of widely differ- 
 ing types, or types of an all-round character. Such is the case, 
 for example, in the groups called Compensatory exercises, Back 
 movements and Charges. It is also true of so-called "mixed" 
 Suspension exercises, such as climbing on ropes and ladders, and 
 of Jumping and Vaulting. Aside from emphasizing some very 
 desirable features more or less neglected in ordinary activities, 
 repeated occurrence of such exercises may be made to contribute 
 to the all-round character of the lesson. 
 
 5. General lesson plan. When the amount of time and the 
 equipment are such as to allow a complete and elaborate lesson, 
 including apparatus work, some such general plan as that used 
 in German gymnastics and also more or less in Y. M. C. A. 
 work seems on the whole most satisfactory and best suited to 
 the conditions in this country. Such a plan would comprise at 
 least two, sometimes three or four, main divisions of the lesson,
 
 CONTENT AND CHARACTER 123 
 
 viz., marching, free-standing exercises, apparatus work, a run 
 or running game or a dance. 
 
 The amount of time allotted to each division will, of course, 
 vary with the age, sex, interests, etc., of the class, and with the 
 total amount of time given to the lesson. In schools and colleges 
 where from thirty-five to forty-five minutes of actual working 
 time is available, from five to ten minutes might profitably be 
 spent on marching, twelve to eighteen minutes on free-standing 
 exercises, twelve to eighteen minutes on apparatus work, and 
 five to eight minutes on the final run, marching and breathing 
 exercises. A game or a dance would usually take more time 
 than a run. This might be gained by correspondingly shortening 
 one or all of the other divisions. When there is no apparatus, 
 the time given to the other parts might be increased. Or a game 
 of vigorous character or some form of athletic competition could 
 be substituted. 
 
 6. Arrangement. For reasons already stated some lively 
 marching, when feasible, seems to be the most suitable intro- 
 ductory exercise. This is followed by a series of from seven 
 to sixteen free-standing exercises, individually of as varied char- 
 acter but collectively as comprehensive as possible. Indeed, this 
 series should in itself be a complete though more or less 
 abbreviated lesson. 
 
 While serving partly the purpose of preparation warming 
 up for the more powerful apparatus exercises, this preliminary 
 series of free-standing exercises should be so selected, planned 
 and taught as to emphasize and give large returns in posture and 
 general subjective motor training. It is through these free- 
 standing, definite, more or less localized movements, that kines- 
 thetic sense training (especially as applied to posture), that 
 localized muscular control and harmonious muscular develop- 
 ment, are chiefly to be attained. In these ensemble movements, 
 too, the spirit of cooperation and united group action is fostered, 
 the attention and will are trained and pupils are encouraged to 
 habits of discipline, order and alacrity. In striving to make the 
 exercises effective in all these respects, the teacher finds scope 
 for all his technical knowledge and teaching skill, all his enthu- 
 siasm and vitality, in short, for the fullest expression of his 
 whole personality. 
 
 7. The outline of the series of free-standing exercises has 
 been indicated in the discussion of the different classes of move- 
 ments. Their order and sequence are approximately the same as 
 that in which they were enumerated. A Leg movement or two, 
 preferably combined with arm movements, seems the most suit- 
 able way to begin the series, because exercises of this class are
 
 124 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 especially effective in equalizing the circulation, and also because 
 they can be presented and executed in a brisk and lively manner 
 and so get the pupils into the work most readily. After these 
 an Arching and then a Compensatory movement fit in very well, 
 the former by way of suggesting good posture, compelling a 
 general straightening or stretching and good chest expansion ; 
 the latter similarly inducing a limbering up and straightening of 
 the lower back, as well as contributing to the gradual increase 
 of general muscular work, especially when repeated rhythmically. 
 After this the order is immaterial ; however, a Lateral Trunk 
 exercise seems most satisfying at this point. Next may follow 
 a Shoulder Blade exercise (e.g., arm bending and stretching), 
 then a Balance exercise, an Abdominal, a second Lateral Trunk 
 and a General Back exercise or a Charge or other all-round 
 movement; finally a toe jump, a run in place or a free-standing 
 jump and then a Breathing exercise to conclude the series. 
 
 8. Modifications. It will not always be feasible or even 
 desirable to use as many free-standing exercises in one lesson 
 as indicated in the preceding paragraph. If the majority of the 
 movements are well executed and repeated rhythmically a con- 
 siderable number of times, the quantity of muscular work repre- 
 sented by such an elaborate series might easily exceed the strength 
 or endurance of the class. In any case such a series would take 
 at least twenty minutes to teach adequately. It would be suitable 
 for a lesson in which there is to be no apparatus work, or pos- 
 sibly as preliminary work in a lesson with apparatus for strong, 
 well-trained classes (of young men, for example), in which there 
 would be no question of ability to stand hard and fast work. 
 But ordinarily a series of from nine to twelve movements is 
 sufficient. Occasionally it may be necessary to give even a smaller 
 number. One introductory Leg and Arm movement, instead of 
 two, would then be sufficient. The special Shoulder Blade, the 
 Balance or the General Back movement, one or all, or the Jump 
 and Breathing exercise may then be omitted. The all-round 
 character of the series may still be preserved by choosing types 
 and combinations which embody the features of several classes 
 of movements. This is not difficult when the principles of 
 combination and alternation of definite rhythmical exercises are 
 properly applied. 
 
 9. Variety in selection, combination and sequence. While it 
 is of advantage to have some such, general plan or outline in 
 mind as a guide in the selection and arrangement of the free- 
 standing exercises, the exact order and sequence in which the 
 representatives of the different groups are arranged (at least 
 after the Compensatory movement), need not be constant. In 
 fact, it will necessarily be varied if good progression and proper
 
 CONTENT AND CHARACTER 125 
 
 distribution are given due consideration. Then the order will 
 be determined by two main factors. The first of these is the 
 relative intensity of the exercise, its suitability with reference 
 to progressive organic stimulation. The other may be summed 
 up in the one word variety. Make the selection and arrange- 
 ment such that each exercise shall be strikingly different from 
 the preceding and following. Vary the style, the type, the mus- 
 cular localization, the rhythm and even the appearance of suc- 
 cessive exercises. If for any reason it is necessary to have two 
 or more which closely resemble each other, place them as far 
 apart as possible. This applies particularly to exercises in which 
 posture training is emphasized. These are always sharply 
 localized movements, often done slowly, generally on command 
 (at least in the beginning), and positions are or should be well 
 sustained for longer periods of time than in any other exercises. 
 They are difficult of execution, require earnest and discrimi- 
 nating effort on the part of the pupils, careful guidance, firm 
 insistence and strong stimulation on the part of the teacher. 
 To have several such types in succession would be both tedious 
 and locally fatiguing to the pupils, as the muscular localization 
 is very similar in most of them. It is therefore of advantage 
 to distribute exercises of this type judiciously through the lesson, 
 to precede and follow them by lively and more general exercises. 
 
 The above applies also to any new or difficult exercise requir- 
 ing careful, deliberate presentation and repeated on command a 
 number of times. Do not have several such in succession, but 
 alternate them with simple or familiar exercises which can be 
 started without much or any explanation and executed rhythmi- 
 cally from the outset or after being done to command only once 
 or twice. 
 
 Compound and even simple movements may often appear simi- 
 lar to the pupils, though essentially different, by being of similar 
 type and by being combined or alternated with the same or 
 similar elements. This is to be carefully avoided in successive 
 exercises. For example, a leg flinging forward should not be 
 placed immediately before or after a leg flinging sideways. 
 Again, if a trunk bending sideways is to be followed by a for- 
 ward bending, it would not be wise to alternate each with an 
 arm bending or stretching, even though the alternating move- 
 ment takes place in a different direction in each case. For 
 although the muscular work is different in some essential respects, 
 the similarity of type or style would be most apparent to the 
 pupils. 
 
 Vary the starting positions. While the majority of the move- 
 ments will perhaps be done from the fundamental position, it is 
 often convenient and sometimes necessary in careful progression
 
 126 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 to do movements from derived starting positions. Either the 
 arms or the legs or both, or even the trunk, may be in a position 
 different from the fundamental position ; but the essential move- 
 ment begins from and returns to this derived position repeatedly. 
 In any such case avoid using similar starting positions for suc- 
 cessive exercises. The principal exception to this is the frequent 
 use of the stride standing position (feet apart) in the beginning 
 of any series of lessons, especially with untrained classes and 
 always with classes of young children. 
 
 Avoid giving too numerous and too powerful shoulder blade 
 exercises. At any rate do not have them too near together. 
 While valuable for the increase of tone and control of the muscles 
 of the shoulder girdle and therefore important exercises in pos- 
 ture training, if given to the point of excessive local fatigue the 
 pupils cannot or will not do them correctly. This not only 
 minimizes the effects of such movements (if it does not defeat 
 their special purpose altogether), but also leads to loss of interest. 
 The same applies to carrying the arms high in derived starting 
 positions. As arm movements and positions of all kinds belong 
 in the category of shoulder blade exercises, and as they are par- 
 ticularly suitable for combination or alternation with other move- 
 ments, it is always a great temptation to use them too much. 
 Indeed, when planning lessons in advanced stages of progression 
 it becomes a most difficult problem how to avoid excessive use 
 of such movements. At any time care should be taken not to 
 have similar types recur too often. Thus use arm bending and 
 stretching in one case, arm raising or flinging in the next, etc., 
 varying the direction of the movement each time. 
 
 10. The apparatus work should include representatives of 
 the two principal classes : Suspension exercises, and Vaulting or 
 Jumping. Arm support exercises, other than the transitory 
 positions occurring in vaults or as parts of complex suspension 
 exercises on the horizontal bar, are of questionable value and 
 should not be given much prominence, if used at all. Powerful 
 trunk exercises, or combined trunk and suspension exercises at 
 the bar stalls may be included in the apparatus work and given 
 in addition to or in place of one of the others. The number and 
 kind of exercises at each apparatus will vary with the ability of 
 the pupils, the stage in the progression, the amount of time avail- 
 able, and the character of the other work in the lesson. When 
 several exercises are given, they should be as different in type 
 as possible. They should be chosen with a view to supplement 
 each other and the work in the rest of the lesson, as regards 
 muscular localization, etc., so as to contribute to the all-round 
 character of the lesson. Exercises on the horse, buck, parallel 
 bars and low horizontal bar should preferably be of a type which
 
 CONTENT AND CHARACTER 127 
 
 can be executed quickly (chiefly vaults), so that pupils will not 
 have to spend too much time awaiting their turn. It is also best 
 to start them with a run, except in the case of low horizontal 
 bar exercises. Here the same types may be done with a stand- 
 ing start, partly because it is safer, and partly because practice 
 in this is desirable. On suspension apparatus sufficient rapidity 
 of the work may be attained by letting several pupils do the 
 exercises at the same time whenever possible as on horizontal 
 ladders, suspended parallel bars, booms and window ladders. 
 On ropes, poles, rope ladders and the high horizontal bar rapid 
 and continuous work is possible only with multiple apparatus. 
 In any case small squads (preferably not more than eight in 
 each), efficient leadership, good organization, management, 
 grading and rational progression are essential for rapidity and 
 continuity of apparatus work. 
 
 When there are many squads the work of the leaders will be 
 facilitated by having the exercises at each apparatus* systema- 
 tized and arranged in progressive series on typewritten or printed 
 cards. Or the apparatus work for each squad may be written out 
 and handed to the leaders at or before each lesson. This is 
 probably the -most satisfactory method from the standpoint of 
 careful progression and well-balanced lessons ; but it requires 
 much time and thought and intelligent cooperation by a well- 
 trained leaders' corps. It would be, perhaps, too difficult to 
 manage when the classes are very large, with many squads, or 
 when the teacher has to handle daily many widely differing 
 classes with insufficient assistance. Under such conditions 
 multiple apparatus, and all the squads doing the same exercise 
 under the teacher's direct supervision, are probably the best 
 solution. 
 
 11. Running, marching and breathing exercises. Owing to 
 its intermittent character, it is always difficult to get apparatus 
 work done in a satisfactory manner and at the same time with 
 sufficient continuity to preserve, much less increase, the cumu- 
 lative organic reactions produced by the free-standing exercises. 
 It is therefore particularly desirable to give a run or a lively 
 running game immediately after the apparatus work. When 
 time allows, this is followed by a little marching balance and 
 toe marching rather than rapid changes of direction. Breathing 
 exercises may be done while marching, or separately. 
 
 Summary. The gymnastic lesson should then be planned and 
 arranged in a way to give the pupils the utmost value for their 
 time and effort. The values should consist in vigorous, all- 
 round exercise, leading to immediate and marked organic stimu-' 
 lation with a pleasant sense of fatigue and bodily well-being; 
 adequate training in general subjective motor control with espe-
 
 128 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 cial emphasis on good posture ; an equalizing influence on growth 
 and a harmonious muscular development. To produce these 
 effects it should be varied and comprehensive in character; it 
 should call for sufficient quantity and gradually increasing inten- 
 sity of muscular work. The exercises should be selected and 
 arranged with reference to their special and general features in 
 such a way as to fit into and supplement each other, each enhanc- 
 ing the effects of the preceding and preparing the way for the 
 following. Finally the lesson should be taught and managed in 
 a way to accomplish the special purpose of each exercise, and 
 with sufficient speed and continuity to make the general effects 
 of all cumulative. Such a well-balanced and carefully rounded 
 lesson will be most likely to interest the pupils, to enlist their 
 enthusiastic and intelligent cooperation and to elicit the whole- 
 hearted, vigorous response necessary to make it effective. 
 
 
 
 5. PROGRESSION. 
 
 From the standpoint of interest as well as all-round effective- 
 ness, rational progression is essential in gymnastic work. It is 
 particularly important when subjective motor training is one of 
 the phases of the work to be emphasized. Lacking the element 
 of progression, no work can be of much educational value. Nor 
 can pupils be expected to remain interested for any length of 
 time in work in which they find nothing further to learn, or in 
 which their growing strength and ability are not constantly given 
 full scope, are not put to new and increasingly difficult tests. 
 Their instinct for progression must be satisfied, to some extent 
 at least, even when the main object of the work is muscular 
 exercise for the sake of organic stimulation. Otherwise they 
 will not long continue to do it with regularity and persevering 
 effort, but will either lapse into habits of bodily inactivity, or 
 will rely solely upon the occasional indulgence in some game or 
 sport which will give them a certain amount of muscular exer- 
 cise, even though it be inadequate and not always adapted to 
 their special needs. 
 
 Progression is one of the important factors in adapting the 
 work to conditions. It is closely bound up with selection, defini- 
 tion, classification, combination and arrangement of exercises; 
 with the planning of lessons ; with the style and character of the 
 work ; with the methods and technique of teaching it ; with main- 
 taining attention and discipline, and thus with control and class 
 management. 
 
 Progress may consist in learning to do somewhat familiar 
 exercises better with more exactness, vigor and completeness
 
 PROGRESSION 129 
 
 and therefore more effectively. Or it may consist in learning to 
 do new, more complex, difficult and powerful exercises. Both 
 are elements in progression. The former implies repetition ; the 
 latter change, additional features, variety. 
 
 Progression as applied to Gymnastic Lessons. 
 
 What might be called progression zvithin the lesson was indi- 
 cated in the preceding chapter. It was shown to consist of fairly 
 regular and steady increase of intensity and rate of muscular 
 work in successive exercises, with corresponding progressive 
 increase of organic activity. Then, too, progression is from 
 general to local and again to more general, all-round exercises. 
 There is also progression, though less regular, as regards co- 
 ordination. The more complex and difficult movements, whether 
 . free-standing or apparatus work, are generally placed in the latter 
 half of the lesson. Such a progressive arrangement of exercises 
 within the lesson represents the most economical use of the 
 pupil's time and efforts, and is conducive to the best work as 
 well as the most pronounced and lasting effects of the lesson as 
 a whole. 
 
 Progression from lesson to lesson consists of an increase in 
 the number, complexity, difficulty, speed, precision and power 
 of the exercises of which successive lessons are composed. 
 
 In the free-standing exercises it may mean gradual change in 
 the style and character of the work : from less definite, relatively 
 complex exercises executed rhythmically without holding posi- 
 tions and with little attention to posture or other details, to more 
 definite, relatively simpler movements, done, partly at least, in 
 response to command, and in any case emphasizing details of 
 execution such as completeness and accuracy, separation of the 
 component elements by holding of positions, maintenance of good 
 posture throughout. Further progression would then mean 
 increased complexity without loss of definiteness, greater speed 
 and more continuity of movement. It would involve, besides, 
 the inclusion of increasingly difficult types, the use of more 
 numerous and difficult elements in the combination and alterna- 
 tion of movements, less repetition on command, more frequent 
 rhythmic repetition, more varied rhythms. 
 
 Again, progression from the outset may be from the simplest 
 types of definite exercises done chiefly on command to the more 
 complex and difficult types and combinations, with increasing 
 application of the principle of rhythmic continuity, but always 
 retaining, and if possible increasing, the quality of definiteness. 
 
 As regards the apparatus work, progression in successive les- 
 sons will mean the inclusion of a greater number and variety of
 
 130 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 exercises, as well as more difficult and powerful types, so as to 
 take into full account the pupil's gain in strength and agility. 
 
 Many types of apparatus exercises can be done, with more or 
 less modification, on more than one apparatus. In careful pro- 
 gression, account must be taken of the varying degrees of diffi- 
 culty represented by doing similar types on different apparatus. 
 For example, a squat vault is done more easily on a horse with 
 pommels or on the saddle boom, than on the buck or low hori- 
 zontal bar. It should therefore be practiced on the former 
 before being tried on the latter. For the same reason, a straddle 
 vault should first be done on the buck, next on the horse with 
 pommels or the saddle boom, then on a horse without pommels 
 and lastly on the low horizontal bar. Again, a back (rear) vault 
 might be tried first on the parallel bars, next on the buck and 
 side horse, then on the long horse and finally on the double boom 
 and low horizontal bar. Similar considerations will determine 
 the choice of type and apparatus in many other vaults as well as 
 in suspension exercises. 
 
 Repetition. As was stated in a previous paragraph, progression 
 by no means precludes repetition. When for any reason it is not 
 feasible or desirable to progress by very fine and gradual steps, 
 more or less repetition will be necessary. Then progression 
 consists in doing the same work better. This may be applied 
 to the whole lesson, or to any part of it. Thus it may be wise 
 to repeat the whole lesson from two to five times. Or the free- 
 standing exercises may be repeated several times, while the 
 apparatus work is repeated only once or not at all. Or the 
 reverse may be the best procedure, as, for example, when very 
 little apparatus is available, or with classes of women or young 
 children. Again, certain types of exercises, free-standing as 
 well as apparatus, may have to be repeated many times before 
 the majority of the class can execute them in a satisfactory 
 manner. This is particularly true of types which are not capable 
 of much or any subdivision or simplification, and which cannot 
 be led up to by gradual steps through other types. Such is the 
 case, for example, with charges and some balance movements 
 among free-standing exercises, and with many vaults and sus- 
 pension exercises. 
 
 How many times a lesson should be repeated, as a whole or in 
 part, is a matter depending on the teacher's judgment. It will 
 vary with conditions. Ideally, perhaps, each lesson should be 
 totally different from, as well as represent a distinct advance on, 
 the preceding. But this is rarely feasible in all respects. The 
 steps in the progression of any group of exercises or of the 
 lesson as a whole will be great or small, and repetitions corre- 
 spondingly more or less numerous, according to (1) the fre- 
 quency and amount of instruction whether once or three times
 
 PROGRESSION 131 
 
 a week or daily, whether fifteen minutes or an hour; (2) the 
 total length of the course of instruction whether six weeks or 
 six years; (3) the kind of class age, sex, previous training, 
 mental attitude toward the work, etc. ; (4) the availability or 
 lack of apparatus; (5) the abundance or scarcity of types of 
 exercises in any given group or line of progression. 
 
 In general, it is wise to have successive lessons as different as 
 possible even though some types of exercises may have to be 
 "carried over" without much or any modification. In many 
 groups of exercises, however, there are a sufficient number of 
 types to make possible the recurrence of a given type or com- 
 bination, with or without modification, only at intervals of 
 several lessons. 
 
 The more frequent the periods of instruction and the greater 
 the total length of the course, the finer and more gradual can 
 the progression be made. There may then be correspondingly 
 less repetition of whole lessons or of individual exercises, unless 
 other conditions are such as to require numerous repetitions. 
 When the frequency and total amount of instruction are limited 
 the steps are longer and repetitions as a rule more numerous. In 
 any case, it will generally be advisable to repeat each lesson in 
 toto at least twice. This much will perhaps be necessary in order 
 to have the class notice the change and become aware of the 
 progression. It is also of advantage to review all but the very 
 simplest types and combinations from time to time, either by 
 way of "clinching" them, or to fill in and round out a well-bal- 
 anced lesson. The occasional use of relatively easy, familiar 
 exercises is often necessary in advanced stages of progression 
 in order to relieve the class from too great strain muscular and 
 nervous which would be involved in doing several severe and 
 difficult exercises in succession. 
 
 Principles of Progression of Free-Standing Exercises. 
 
 General considerations. Before taking up the detailed discus- 
 sion of principles of progression of free-standing exercises and 
 their application in the various classes of movements, it will 
 perhaps be helpful at this point to summarize and to some extent 
 to restate certain general principles and conceptions closely re- 
 lated to and in many respects serving as a basis for such pro- 
 gression. Most of them have been referred to repeatedly and 
 were among the factors enumerated in the preceding section as 
 elements in the progression of gymnastic lessons. 
 
 Types and their relative difficulty. Within the respective 
 groups or classes of exercises there may be many types which 
 represent little or no difference in the matter of difficulty or 
 severity, while between others there may be considerable differ-
 
 132 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 ence in these respects. In the former case, the order in which they 
 are used is immaterial, while in the latter case, the progression 
 should, of course, be from the easier to the more difficult. A 
 correct estimate of such relative differences will be greatly helped 
 by an understanding of the anatomical mechanism of the move- 
 ments ; but in any case, the teacher's judgment in this matter will 
 need to be backed up by a practical knowledge of the work and be 
 guided largely by his teaching experience. Often an exercise 
 which appears simple and easy enough, theoretically, or to a well- 
 trained individual, is found in practice to offer considerable diffi- 
 culty to the majority of pupils, if given too early in the progres- 
 sion. Such is the case, for example, with (slow) deep knee 
 bending with the trunk carried vertical and erect, or with a type 
 of downward bending of trunk in which the "going" movement 
 is combined with double foot placing and preceded by a simple 
 arm movement, while the return (the trunk raising) is combined 
 with the arm movement and followed by the foot placing. 
 
 As far as possible the different types should be taken up in such 
 an order that the easier pave the way for and lead up to the more 
 difficult types and combinations. Often in a long series of les- 
 sons the most interesting and representative types, whether 
 actually or only relatively difficult, may thus have to be held 
 back until toward the end of the series, even though they might 
 be done acceptably at an earlier period. But it would not be 
 logical nor wise, either from the standpoint of insuring good 
 execution or sustaining interest, to use such types first, and 
 simpler, less interesting types afterward. 
 
 When there are "gaps" in any line of progression owing to a 
 scarcity of types suitable for preparatory steps leading up to 
 more difficult and representative exercises, or when the fre- 
 quency and total number of lessons do not warrant a finely 
 graded progression, recourse must be had to repetition. In this 
 way the most desirable types, even if somewhat advanced for 
 the class, can be presented, and at least a fair degree of correct 
 execution obtained. 
 
 Complexity. This term has often been used in the foregoing 
 pages to signify that a movement is made up of several ele- 
 ments, in contradistinction to a simple movement, consisting of 
 only one elementary movement and the return to the starting 
 position. The degree of complexity is determined by the num- 
 ber of elements of which the movement is composed. Several 
 kinds of complexity may be distinguished. 
 
 1. A complex movement may consist of two or more ele- 
 mentary movements of one part or region of the body (head, 
 trunk or extremities), executed either simultaneously or consecu- 
 tively. (1) When done simultaneously the term composite move- 
 ment might perhaps be used. Simultaneous twisting and bending
 
 PROGRESSION 133 
 
 of the trunk would be an example of such a composite move- 
 ment. (2) When the different elements are executed consecu- 
 tively in such a way that the second movement and its return are 
 interposed between the two phases of the first, the whole move- 
 ment might be called compound if the elements are distinct from 
 each other each completed before the next begins. When they 
 "overlap," i.e., are partly simultaneous, partly consecutive, and 
 flow into each other smoothly, the whole might be described as 
 a blended, compound movement. Twisting followed by side 
 bending of trunk, and heel raising followed by knee bending 
 may serve as examples. The return movements are always in 
 reverse order. 
 
 2. Again, a complex movement may consist of one or more 
 elementary movements of two or more parts or regions of the 
 body, either done simultaneously or consecutively. (1) When 
 done simultaneously the whole exercise might be called a com- 
 bined movement, as, for example, "arm bending with heel rais- 
 ing." (2) When done consecutively, and one element (including 
 the return movement) is interposed between the two phases of 
 the other element, the term compound movement would again 
 be suitable. Alternate foot placing sideways (with hands on 
 neck) followed by trunk twisting is an example of such a com- 
 pound movement. (3) If, on the other hand, the different ele- 
 ments, with their respective return movements, are executed 
 alternately, the whole cycle might be designated by the term alter- 
 nating movement. Bend stride standing forward bending of 
 trunk, alternating with arm stretching upward is a typical exam- 
 ple. In both the compound and alternating movements the com- 
 ponent parts may be combined movements. The whole cycle 
 would then be a combined compound or alternating movement. 
 
 Most natural movements, performed in the ordinary 7 activities 
 of daily life, are of the composite, blended, flowing, more or less 
 complex type. So are many gymnastic exercises of the kind 
 which has been termed "indefinite." Definite gymnastic move- 
 ments, on the other hand, are either simple or composite, or 
 else they are combined, compound or alternating. All the ele- 
 ments are distinct and separated by clearly defined positions. 
 
 It will readily be seen, then, that from a gymnastic stand- 
 point progression in regard to complexity should always take 
 into account the relative degree of definiteness of the exercises. 
 It will represent progression, for example, when a complex exer- 
 cise of the composite, blended and compound, so-called indefinite 
 type such as an oblique charge or lunge, combined with an arm 
 movement and a trunk twisting and followed by a forward 
 bending of trunk is redefined so as to make possible resolving 
 it, as nearly as may be, into its component elements. It may 
 then be practiced piecemeal, as it were, in the form of various
 
 134 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 definite combined, compound or alternating movements, and 
 finally reconstructed into an exercise as complex as the original, 
 but more definite. The preparatory practice of each part sepa- 
 rately might, in a sense, be considered retrogression, being a 
 decrease in complexity; but in reality it is only a step in the 
 progression toward greater definiteness with all that this means 
 in the way of better localization, inhibition, fixation and finer 
 muscular control. The reconstruction or reassembling of the 
 elements into exercises more or less similar to the original type 
 would imply a real increase in complexity of the definite kind. 
 Theoretically, progression would mean in the end a return toward 
 the blended, smoothly flowing type of movement, with greater 
 accuracy, grace and power of execution than previously. 
 
 A similar line of progression is followed when the point of 
 departure is different, when the exercises from the outset are 
 of a relatively simple, definite character. Thus, a simple or 
 composite gymnastic movement involving one part of the body 
 is first combined with a similar movement of another part, e.g., 
 arm bending with side lunge; or it is followed by an equally 
 simple movement of the same part, making a compound move- 
 ment, e.g., arm bending and stretching sideways and upward, 
 or side lunge and alternate knee bending. Then it may be put 
 together with a movement of another part, e.g., hip grasp stand- 
 ing side lunge followed by arm flinging sideways, or by side 
 bending of trunk. Next, one combined movement might be 
 followed by a simple movement as arm bending with side 
 lunge, then side bending of trunk; or these might be alternated, 
 thus: arm bending with side lunge, side bending and raising of 
 trunk, arm stretching sideways and arm bending, return to 
 fundamental position. Finally a combined compound movement 
 may be made of these elements, as, for example, arm bending 
 with side lunge followed by arm stretching sideways with side 
 bending of trunk. Complexity might be still further increased by 
 adding other elements, such as trunk twisting or arm movements 
 of different kinds, or alternate knee bending, and combining or 
 alternating them in any way compatible with definiteness. Thus 
 an elaborate series or cycle of movements may be constructed. 
 In advanced stages of this kind of progression, as in the other, 
 there would ultimately be an approach to the more composite, 
 blended, complex type of exercises, but with retention of all the 
 vigor, precision, completeness and speed which characterize the 
 definite type of gymnastic movements. However, in ordinary 
 class teaching this point is seldom reached. When it is, the work 
 is really in the nature of dancing. Indeed, there is no sharp 
 line of demarcation between such complex, rhythmic gymnastics 
 and dancing.
 
 PROGRESSION 135 
 
 Combination and alternation. Progression of definite gymnas- 
 tic exercises as regards complexity which, coupled with the 
 inherent nature of the different types, is the measure of diffi- 
 culty is then a matter of combination and alternation of simple, 
 well-defined elementary movements. The execution of these 
 elementary movements from the various derived starting posi- 
 tions is a closely related factor, and may, indeed, be considered 
 one phase of combination. The judicious choice of starting posi- 
 tions and the proper matching of elements or types in combined, 
 compound and alternating movements are not only essential in 
 rational, consistent progression, but facilitate rhythmic execution 
 of definite exercises, thus making for greater variety, quantity 
 and continuity of the work. These are factors of prime impor- 
 tance in the planning and arrangement of well-balanced, all- 
 round lessons, in the choice of method or procedure in teaching, 
 in making the work effective and interesting. 
 
 While combination of all kinds of movements is theoretically 
 possible, in practice only certain combinations are suitable. Only 
 such elements should be chosen and put together as will harmon- 
 ize and will represent, in their combination, a real increase in 
 effectiveness. The main considerations here are the number, 
 general character and speed of the elements to be combined. 
 
 The number will vary with the stage in the progression, and 
 that in turn will depend on the ability of the class. Except in 
 the most advanced work, where very complex combinations 
 such as charges and lunges combined with dissimilar arm, head 
 and trunk movements can be used, the number of elements 
 rarely exceeds three involving the arms, the legs and the trunk 
 respectively. In the great majority of useful combinations 
 there are only two elements. 
 
 As regards the general character of the elements to be com- 
 bined, they should all be simple, definite movements, capable of 
 being executed simultaneously in an equally definite, clear-cut 
 manner. Combination of composite, vague, or ill-defined move- 
 ments, or of one such, with a simple, definite movement, would 
 make for indefiniteness in the execution of the combination, with 
 corresponding loss of effectiveness. 
 
 Finally, only such elements should be combined as can be done 
 with full effectiveness at similar speed. For if two movements 
 whose "natural" speed is different are executed simultaneously 
 as, for example, an arm movement and a slow trunk bending 
 the combination will necessarily represent a compromise in re- 
 spect to speed and power. That will detract from the definiteness 
 and hence from the effectiveness of both elements. Because most 
 trunk movements are relatively slow and require careful, dis- 
 criminating muscular action to be properly localized, they are 
 not well suited for combination with any other kind of move-
 
 136 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 merits, except leg movements of the slow type. In advanced 
 stages of progression, however, relatively quick forward-down- 
 ward bending may be combined with arm movements and wide 
 foot placing sideways. Trunk twisting may also be done quickly 
 in combination with arm movements, foot placings and charges 
 when the class has reached a sufficiently advanced stage of 
 training. 
 
 Whenever combination of two movements is unsuitable, such 
 movements can nearly always be alternated or put together into 
 compound movements. Here there is practically no limitation, 
 except that alternating and compound movements which do not 
 represent any particular value, or which would make successive 
 exercises in a lesson too much alike, should be avoided. The 
 number of parts may be anywhere from two to four. Counting 
 the return phase of each, this will mean double that number of 
 movements (on each side, if unilateral) to complete the cycle. 
 Here, as in combination, movements consisting of only two 
 parts (four count cycles) make up the great majority of useful 
 exercises. Any one or all of the parts may be combined move- 
 ments. Thus the number of elements the complexity may be 
 made as great or as small as the teacher desires and the ability 
 of the class justifies. 
 
 Speed. As has already been stated, most movements are done 
 in the most effective manner at a certain speed their "natural" 
 speed. Thus trunk bendings are best done slowly, arm bendings 
 and stretchings quickly. On the other hand, many movements 
 may be done at different speeds and their character or special 
 effectiveness made to vary accordingly. Thus, for example, in 
 slow arm bendings and stretchings, there is more resistance on 
 the part of the antagonistic muscles. This makes them more 
 effective as shoulder blade exercises. Similarly, heel raising and 
 knee bending, when done slowly, becomes more of a balance 
 movement than otherwise, and the muscular work is more fati- 
 guing. Trunk twisting, after some practice, may be done equally 
 effectively slowly or quickly. In general, progression in this 
 respect is away from the "natural" speed of the movements, 
 providing the muscular action is thus made more powerful and 
 difficult. Increased speed would then generally mean more 
 sudden and vigorous contraction of all muscles concerned, and 
 especially of motor muscles ; while retardation would mean 
 bringing into action a greater number of antagonistic, steadying 
 and fixator muscles, or more vigorous contraction of those which 
 are used more or less even when the movement is done with 
 greater speed. 
 
 Rhythm. Uniform, moderately fast rhythm is easiest, espe- 
 cially when associated with very brief pauses between the move- 
 ments that is, when positions are not retained an appreciable
 
 PROGRESSION 137 
 
 length of time. The speed of the movements and the effort re- 
 quired are then correspondingly moderate ; the exercises are more 
 or less indefinite. When for any reason this type of work is 
 desired, progression would be toward faster rhythm, which would 
 then be equivalent to greater speed of movement. But if it is 
 desired to make the work more definite in character, progression 
 would at first be toward slower rhythm by making the pauses 
 during which positions are held longer. Such slowing of the 
 rhythm would not preclude, but rather favor, increasing the 
 speed of the movements. 
 
 In rhythmic work of the definite type, progression is generally 
 from the slower toward the faster rhythms, partly by shortening 
 the pauses somewhat, but even more by increasing the speed of 
 the movements. Progression is also from even, uniform rhythm 
 to the various kinds of broken, undulating rhythms. In these 
 it is also generally a variation of the speed of the movements 
 rather than of the length of the pause, although the latter may 
 occur to a limited extent. Alternation of quick and slow move- 
 ments with lengthening of the pause after the former and short- 
 ening it after the latter gives a certain accentuation to a compound 
 movement which simulates broken rhythm. But in reality such 
 rhythm is often very nearly, if not quite, even. 
 
 Derived starting positions. Most simple and combined move- 
 ments may be made progressively more difficult or powerful by 
 being started from positions in which the arms, the legs or the 
 trunk one or all are in a different relation to each other from 
 that obtaining in the fundamental position. The use of these 
 derived starting positions adds to the total quantity, the com- 
 plexity and difficulty of the muscular work of the exercise, not 
 only by the efforts necessary to sustain them, but by the possi- 
 bilities they offer in the way of increasing the weight leverage, 
 of varying the base, and thus of modifying conditions of equi- 
 librium and weight distribution. The changed relation of the 
 parts also means different conditions of fixation for muscular 
 work, compels dissociation of familiar or habitual group action 
 of muscles and induces new, more varied and difficult associa- 
 tions. The starting position may make more difficult or facili- 
 tate localization of movement and even of muscular contraction, 
 may increase or diminish range of movement, and thus be a 
 determining factor in the general or specific effectiveness of the 
 exercise. 
 
 The movement by which any given (named) starting position 
 is reached should not be considered a part of the named move- 
 ment which begins from and returns to this starting position 
 repeatedly. The former occurs only once and is taken in 
 response to a descriptive command in which the imperative verb 
 serves as the final command. The return to the fundamental
 
 138 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 position occurs only after the real movement has been repeated 
 the desired number of times. When the movements by which 
 derived starting positions are reached are practiced repeatedly, 
 either as simple or combined movements, or as parts of compound 
 movements, they are named as movements and not as positions. 
 For the convenience of readers who are not familiar with the 
 terminology used in the following pages, a list of the various 
 derived positions and the movements by which they are reached, 
 with brief explanations, follows.* 
 
 Starting positions derived from the fundamental position. 
 
 1. By change in the position of the arms. 
 
 Hip grasp (or wing) standing position hands placed on hips. 
 
 Movement : Placing hands on hips. 
 
 Bend standing position elbows completely flexed and close to the waist, 
 fingers flexed as much as possible and close to the outer part of the 
 shoulders. 
 
 Movement : arm bending. 
 
 Neck grasp (or rest) standing position hands placed behind neck (or 
 head). 
 
 Movement: Placing hands on neck (or head). 
 
 Cross (a) standing position arms raised sideways, elbows flexed and 
 well back, hands and elbows at shoulder level, palms down. 
 
 Movement : Forward bending of arms. 
 
 Cross (b) as cross (a), but with elbows flexed only 90, palms facing 
 each other. 
 
 Movement : J4 forward bending of arms. 
 
 Cross (c) arms raised sideways to shoulder level, elbows extended, palms 
 down. 
 
 Movements: Arm raising or flinging, or stretching (from bend 
 st. pos.) sideways, or arm parting (flinging sideways) from 
 reach st. pos. 
 
 Cross (d) as cross (c), but with palms up. 
 
 Movements : Arm raising, flinging or stretching sideways, with 
 
 palms up. 
 Cross (e) as cross (d),.but with elbows flexed 90. 
 
 Movement : % sideways bending of arms. 
 
 Reach st. pos. arms raised horizontally forward, shoulder distance apart, 
 palms facing each other. 
 
 Movements : Arm raising, flinging or stretching forward. 
 Diagonal or oblique stretch st. position arms raised sideways-upward 
 to a position of 45 from the vertical, palms up. 
 
 Movements : Arm flinging or stretching diagonally (sideways-) 
 
 upwards. 
 
 Stretch st. pos. arms vertically overhead, elbows straight, palms facing 
 each other. 
 
 Movements : Arm raising or flinging sideways-upward or forward- 
 upward; arm stretching upward'; placing hands overhead. 
 
 *With a few exceptions, the terms are those used by C. J Enebuske in his "Pro- 
 gressive Gymnastic Day's Orders," and translated by him from the Swedish.
 
 PROGRESSION 139 
 
 2. By change in the position of the legs. 
 
 Stride standing position feet placed directly sideways, two foot-lengths 
 apart, body weight equally on both feet. 
 
 Movement : Foot placing sideways, alternate foot placing sideways. 
 Walk (a) st. pos. one foot placed obliquely forward-outward two foot- 
 lengths. Weight equally on both feet. 
 
 Movement : Alternate foot placing obliquely outward. 
 Walk (b) st. pos. one foot placed directly forward, weight equally on 
 both feet. 
 
 Movement : Alternate foot placing forward. 
 Walk (c) st. pos. as walk (b), but with toes pointing straight ahead. 
 
 Movement: Alternate foot placing forward (from the close st. 
 
 pos.). 
 Close st. pos. heels and toes together. 
 
 Movement: Closing of feet. 
 
 Toe st. pos. heels raised. 
 
 Movement : Heel raising. 
 
 Knee-bend st. pos. trunk erect, heels on floor, knees bent and well apart. 
 Movement: Knee bending. 
 
 Toe-knee-bend st. pos. as preceding, but with heels raised, knees flexed 
 
 90. 
 
 Movement: Knee bending with heel raising (combined), or heel 
 raising and knee bending (compound). 
 
 Toe-deep-knee-bend st. pos. as preceding, but knees flexed as much as 
 possible. 
 
 Movement: Deep knee bending (with simultaneous heel raising), 
 or heel raising and deep knee bending. 
 
 Side lunge position foot placed directly sideways about three foot-lengths, 
 knee well out and flexed upwards of 90, trunk erect (vertical). 
 
 Movement: Side lunge. 
 
 Oblique charge position or charge (a) foot placed obliquely forward- 
 outward three foot-lengths, knee flexed about 90, trunk in line with 
 the straight rear leg, sole of rear foot firmly pressing on the floor, 
 shoulders inclined, but facing forward. 
 
 Movement : Oblique charge. 
 
 Forward charge position or charge (b) three foot-lengths straight ahead, 
 toe of advanced foot pointing forward, rear foot firm on the floor, 
 at right angles to advanced foot, trunk in line with rear leg, shoulders 
 level and square to the front. 
 Movement: Forward charge. 
 
 Toe-support charge position like preceding, but with only the toe of rear 
 foot touching the floor. 
 
 Movement: No name. 
 
 J/2 standing position on one foot, with the free leg raised forward or 
 sideways. 
 
 Movement: Leg raising forward or sideways. 
 Kneeling position knees flexed 90, ankles extended. 
 Movement: Kneeling. 
 
 l /2 kneeling position on one knee, the other foot placed directly forward 
 far enough to flex the knee 90. 
 
 Movement : Kneeling on one knee.
 
 140 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Stooping position knees bent as much as possible, heels off, trunk 
 inclined forward, back straight, hands touching floor. 
 Movement : Stooping. 
 
 l /t hook standing position one knee raised forward, about 90 flexion at 
 hip and knee. 
 
 Movement : Knee upward bending. 
 
 3. By change in the position of the trunk. 
 
 Arch standing position chest forcibly expanded, head moved as far 
 backward as possible without tilting (chin in). 
 
 Movement: Backward arching or bending of trunk. 
 
 Prone standing position trunk inclined forward about 45 from hips, 
 back straight. 
 
 Movement: Forward bending of trunk. (Movement beyond 45 
 would be called forward-downward bending of trunk.) 
 
 Twist standing position trunk turned about 45 to one side, without 
 moving hips. Head is not moved independently. 
 Movement : Trunk twisting. 
 
 Prone falling position (front leaning rest) body straight, face down- 
 ward, supported on hands and toes. 
 
 Movement : No name. 
 
 Side falling position (side leaning rest) body straight, supported on hand 
 and foot of one side. 
 
 Movement : No name. 
 
 Derived starting positions in which more than one part of the 
 body varies from the fundamental position are named by put- 
 ting the respective designations together, with or without hyphen, 
 e.g., bend stride standing position; cross (a) toe st. position; 
 stretch toe-knee bend st. position; neck grasp walk (a) st. 
 position; cross (d) close twist st. position; cross (e) stride 
 prone st. position ; hip grasp oblique charge position. When , 
 a movement is to be done from a derived starting position the 
 logical way would be to put a colon after the word "position," 
 thus : Bend standing position : arm stretching sideways. But 
 this may be contracted by omitting the word "position" and the 
 colon. The example given would then be: Bend standing arm 
 stretching sideways. 
 
 When naming combined movements the word "with" con- 
 nects the two terms, e.g., arm bending with heel raising; cross 
 (a) stride standing arm flinging sideways with knee bending. In 
 compound movements the word "and" is used, preceded by a 
 comma, e.g., hip grasp standing alternate foot placing sideways, 
 and knee bending. 
 
 In combined compound movements the words "and" and 
 "with" may be used in two ways, as shown in the following exam- 
 ple : Arm bending and stretching upward with alternate foot plac-
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 141 
 
 ing forward and heel raising ; or, arm bending with alternate foot 
 placing forward, and arm stretching upward with heel raising. 
 If it is desired to be very explicit, the phrase "followed by" or 
 the word "then" may be substituted for the word "and." 
 
 6. APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF PROGRESSION IN THE 
 VARIOUS CLASSES AND TYPES OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES. 
 
 The general principles discussed in the preceding chapter are 
 more or less applicable to all classes and types of movements. 
 The extent and mode of their application will vary somewhat 
 with the particular groups or types of exercises and will be deter- 
 mined by various factors, such as the character and purpose of 
 any given movement, the emphasis placed on any one phase of 
 the work, the suitability or practicability of any possible modifi- 
 cation of an exercise, etc. 
 
 The manner of application of some of the main principles 
 which are involved in determining or changing the character and 
 mode of execution of an exercise from the less to the more 
 definite style, from doing each movement on command to rhyth- 
 mic repetition and vice versa, variations of speed and rhythm 
 has already been indicated and will not be discussed further. It 
 is largely a matter of technique of teaching on one hand, and of 
 the teacher's ideals, standards of quality and judgment of con- 
 ditions on the other. A thorough understanding and working 
 knowledge of such application can really only be gained through 
 experience. The present chapter will be devoted mainly to the 
 illustration of the use of derived starting positions, of combina- 
 tion and alternation of movements for the purpose of progres- 
 sively increasing the complexity, difficulty or severity of the 
 principal types which make up the different classes of exercises. 
 
 Leg {and Arm) Movements. 
 
 The principles used in the progression of this class of exercises 
 are: 
 
 1. Variation of base by changing the starting position of the 
 legs. The increase in difficulty of keeping the balance, which is 
 one of the features resulting from such variation of starting 
 positions, should not at any time be carried" so far as to interfere 
 with brisk and vigorous execution. Types and combinations 
 which represent considerable difficulty in this respect should first 
 be practiced as balance exercises. 
 
 2. Executing leg movements while holding the arms in in- 
 creasingly difficult starting positions chiefly hip grasp (wing), 
 bend, and neck grasp (rest) positions.
 
 142 
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 3. Combining leg movements with arm movements. 
 
 4. Holding difficult or tiring leg positions while doing arm or 
 head movements. Exercises of this type should be used only 
 sparingly, if at all, as leg movements. They are more suitable for 
 balance exercises. This line of progression will be illustrated 
 under balance exercises. 
 
 5. Making compound movements by having one leg movement 
 follow another as heel raising and knee bending; alternate foot 
 placing and heel raising, or knee bending, or both. 
 
 6. Making combined compound movements with both arms 
 and legs, thus increasing the number of elements. 
 
 7. Increasing the range of movement (in deep knee bending). 
 
 Types. 
 
 Alternate foot placings sideways, forward, obliquely forward-outward, 
 
 backward, obliquely backward-outward. 
 Alternate toe touching forward or sideways with bending of knee of 
 
 stationary leg. 
 Alternate toe raising. 
 
 Heel raising; alternate heel raising. Alternate heel-and-toe raising. 
 Knee bending; deep knee bending; alternate knee bending. 
 Side lunge. 
 Stooping. 
 
 Progression. 
 
 Alternate foot placings: 
 
 Hip grasp standing 
 Bend standing 
 Neck grasp standing 
 
 Alternate foot placings 
 in the different direc- 
 tions 
 
 alternate 
 foot placing 
 
 combined 
 with 
 
 sideways, forward, 
 forward-outward, 
 backward, 
 backward-outward. 
 
 placing of hands on hips; on 
 neck; arm bending; forward 
 bending of arms; arm flinging 
 sideways, forward, sideways- 
 upward, forward-upward; 
 placing hands on neck; arm 
 circumduction ^forward-up- 
 ward, sideways-downward); 
 %. sideways bending of arms. 
 
 Alternate toe touching with bending of opposite knee: 
 Progression similar to that of alternate foot placing. 
 
 Heel raising: 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Bend 
 Neck grasp 
 
 stride standing 
 
 standing 
 
 walk (a) standing 
 
 close standing 
 
 walk (b) and (.c) standing 
 
 heel raiSing.
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 
 
 143 
 
 Heel raising with arm movements : 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forward bending of arms 
 
 Arm raising or flinging sideways 
 
 Arm raising or flinging forward 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching downward 
 
 Cross (a) st. arm flinging sideways with heel 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching sideways f raising. 
 
 Reach st. arm flinging sideways 
 
 Cross (c) st. arm rotation 
 
 Cross (b) st. arm rotation 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching upward 
 
 Cross (d) st. arm raising, or flinging upward 
 
 Reach st. arm raising or flinging upward 
 
 Cross (e) st. arm stretching upward J 
 
 Simple arm movements with alternate foot placings, and heel raising : 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 Arm bending 
 Forward bending of arms 
 Placing hands on neck, etc. 
 
 with alternate foot plac- 
 ing sideways, forward, 
 obliquely outward, etc., 
 
 and heel 
 raising. 
 
 Compound (2 count) arm movements with alternate foot placings and 
 heel raising: 
 
 Arm bending and stretching sideways 
 
 Forward bending and side flinging of arms 
 
 Arm flinging forward and sideways 
 
 Arm bending and stretching forward 
 
 Arm flinging sideways and arm rotation 
 
 Arm bending and stretching upward with alter- 
 
 Arm flinging sideways and upward nate foot 
 
 Arm circumduction (4 counts: forward and placings 
 
 upward, sideways and downward) 
 Yz sideways bending of arms and arm 
 
 stretching sideways, or upward 
 Arm flinging forward-upward and arm 
 
 parting 
 
 and heel 
 raising. 
 
 Closing and opening of feet may be substituted for alternate foot placings 
 in most of the above combined and compound movements. 
 
 Alternate heel raising may be done as a 1 or 2 count movement (on 
 each side) from the stride standing position with the arms in hip 
 grasp or neck grasp positions. 
 
 Alternate toe raising from the hip or neck grasp st. pos. 
 
 Alternate heel-and-toe raising from the hip or neck grasp standing, the 
 bend or cross (c) standing positions. 
 
 Knee bendings : 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Neck grasp 
 
 standing 
 stride standing 
 
 knee bending.
 
 144 
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Knee bendings with arm movements : 
 
 Arm raising or flinging sideways 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Stride standing Forward bending of arms with knee 
 
 Toe standing % sideways bending of arms [ bending. 
 
 Arm flinging sideways-upward 
 
 Arm circumduction, 2 counts 
 
 Bend stride st. arm stretching sideways 
 
 Cross (a) stride st. arm flinging sideways 
 
 Reach stride st. arm parting (or flinging) sideways 
 
 Bend stride st. arm stretching forward 
 
 Bend stride st. arm stretching upward with knee 
 
 Cross (d) stride st. arm raising bending. 
 
 Reach stride st. arm raising or flinging upward 
 
 Cross (e) stride st. arm stretching sideways or upward 
 
 Cross (c) stride st. arm rotation 
 
 Cross (b) stride st. arm rotation 
 
 Similar combination of arm movements with knee bending and 
 deep knee bending from the toe standing position; also knee 
 bending with simultaneous heel raising, starting from the funda- 
 mental standing position. 
 
 Hip grasp ' 
 Neck grasp 
 
 Standing 
 
 standing 
 
 knee bending with simultaneous 
 heel raising (designated more 
 briefly by "heels off"). 
 
 Arm raising (or flinging) sideways 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forward bending of arms 
 
 YZ sideways bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging sideways-upward 
 
 Arm circumduction, 2 counts 
 
 with knee 
 bending, 
 heels off. 
 
 Close standing arm flinging forward with knee bending (knees 
 together), heels off. 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Bend 
 Neck grasp 
 
 Hip grasp 1 
 Neck grasp J 
 
 stride standing 
 standing 
 walk (a) st. 
 walk (b) st. 
 
 heel raising and 
 knee bending. 
 
 standing heel raising and deep knee bending. 
 
 Simple arm movements with alternate foot placings, and knee bending: 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forward bending of arms 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 
 Arm flinging sideways 
 
 l /i sideways bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging forward 
 
 Arm flinging sideways-upward 
 
 Arm flinging forward-upward 
 
 Arm circumduction, 2 counts 
 
 with alternate 
 
 foot placing 
 
 sideways, forward 
 
 obliquely forw.-outw. 
 
 backward 
 
 obliquely backw.-outw. 
 
 and knee 
 bending 
 (without or 
 with simul- 
 t an e ou s 
 heelrais'g).
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 
 
 145 
 
 The above arm movements may also be done with heel raising 
 (as a separate movement), followed by knee bending. The heel 
 raising here takes the place of the foot placing. Example : Plac- 
 ing hands on neck with heel raising, and knee bending. 
 
 Compound (2 count) arm movement with alternate foot placings, or heel 
 raising, followed by knee bending : 
 
 Arm bending and stretching sideways, 
 forward or upward 
 
 Forward bending and side-flinging of 
 arms 
 
 Arm flinging sideways and arm rotation 
 
 Arm flinging forward and sideways (arm 
 parting) 
 
 % sideways bending of arms and arm 
 stretching sideways or upward 
 
 Arm flinging sideways and upward 
 (separate movements) . 
 
 Arm circumduction (4 movements) 
 
 Arm flinging forward-upward or side- 
 ways-upward and arm parting 
 
 with heel raising 
 or with alternate 
 foot placings in 
 the different di- 
 rections 
 
 and knee 
 bending. 
 
 Hip grasp standing 
 Neck grasp standing 
 
 alternate foot placings, heel 
 raising and knee bending. 
 
 The last are 6 count compound movements on each side, the 
 heel raising being a separate movement. The arms remain in the 
 derived positions throughout the repetitions. 
 
 Arm bending and stretching side- 
 ways, forward or upward 
 
 Forward bending and side-flinging 
 of arms 
 
 And all the other 2 count (com- 
 pound) arm movements (see 
 above) 
 
 with alternate [ heel raising and 
 foot placings, ) knee bending. 
 
 These are also 6 count cycles (on each side), the heel raising 
 being a separate movement. The arms are held during the knee 
 bending in the position reached on the second count (which 
 accompanies the heel raising). 
 
 Finally, combined 6 count movements may be composed of 
 three arm and three leg elements, as, for example : 
 
 Arm bending and stretching forward, or upward, then arm parting, 
 combined with alternate foot placings, heel raising and knee bend- 
 ing; or 
 
 Arm bending and stretching sideways 1 
 Forward bending and side-flinging of I then arm 
 
 arms [ raising. 
 
 Arm flinging forward and sideways 
 
 with alternate foot 
 placings, heel rais- 
 ing (separate) and 
 knee bending. 
 
 Such complex movements represent a good deal of "head" 
 work and would hardly be suited for ordinary class work. They 
 may, however, be used occasionally in well-trained classes by 
 way of stimulating interest.
 
 146 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Alternate knee bending. 
 
 From (wide) stride standing position with the arms in hip grasp 
 
 or neck grasp position. 
 May be done as a simple 2 count movement on each side, or as 
 
 a continuous movement from one side to the other (1 count each 
 
 way), both knees being straight at the moment of passing the 
 
 central position, but without stopping there. 
 May also be started from the side lunge position. (See below.) 
 
 Side lunge. 
 
 Banding side lunge. 
 
 Combined with simple arm movements : 
 
 Placing hands on hips \ 
 
 Arm bending ... ., , 
 
 Forward bending of arms wlth slde lun * e ' 
 
 Placing hands on neck, etc., etc. ) 
 
 Simple arm movements with (alternate) side lunge, followed by 
 
 alternate knee bending once to each side. 
 
 The arms remain in the position reached on the first count during 
 , the two counts' of the alternate knee bending and are brought to 
 
 the fundamental position on the fourth count, as the foot is brought 
 
 back from the side lunge position. 
 
 It is possible to combine side lunge, followed by alternate knee 
 bending, with 2 count arm movements, but the latter should 
 preferably be asymmetrical, i.e., occur in different directions. For 
 example: Left side lunge with right arm flinging sideways, left 
 sideways-upward, then alternate knee bending with change of 
 arm positions (2 counts), return to fundamental position (4 
 count movement on each side). 
 
 Another example often used in bar bell drills: 
 
 Side lunge left with forward bending of left arm, side flinging of right 
 then alternate knee bending with reversing of arm positions (2 
 counts). Return to fundamental position. Same on other side. 
 
 Stooping. 
 
 Hip grasp st. 1 
 
 Bend standing 
 
 Cross (a) st. \ Stooping (and return to 
 
 Cross (c) st. starting position). 
 
 Neck grasp st. } 
 
 Bend st. stooping, alternating with arm stretching sidew. or upw. 
 Cross (a) st. stooping, alternating with arm flinging sidew. 
 Reach st. stooping, alternating with arm flinging sidew. 
 Cross (d) st. stooping, alternating with arm raising. 
 
 The alternating arm movement in the above may also be combined 
 with heel raising.
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 147 
 
 Arching Movements. 
 Principles: 
 
 Doing the movement from increasingly difficult leg positions, making 
 
 the base narrower or more elongated. 
 Doing the movement with the arms held in higher and more difficult 
 
 positions. 
 
 Doing the movement from the twist standing position. 
 Combining arching movements with arm movements. 
 Combining arching movements with trunk twisting. 
 Doing an arching movement as a part of a rhythmic compound or 
 alternating movement, the other element being an arm or leg move- 
 ment, or even a compensatory movement. 
 
 Doing an arm movement while holding the arch standing position. 
 Taking the grasp arch standing position at the bar stalls. 
 Doing heel raising, alternate knee upward bending or leg raising 
 
 while holding the grasp arch standing position at the bar stalls. 
 While the bar stall exercises are the most powerful types of arching 
 movements, the excessive lumbar hyperextension, which is apt to be such 
 a marked feature in these exercises, make them of questionable value in 
 ordinary class work. They may, however, be used with advantage as 
 special corrective exercises, individually supervised. 
 
 Types. 
 
 Some of the derived arm positions may be used in the beginning, 
 
 especially with an untrained class, as preliminary arching exercises. 
 
 These positions are then held for a relatively long time and only 
 
 repeated (on command) once or twice. 
 Backward bending of head. 
 Backward arching or (bending) of trunk. 
 Grasp arch standing position. 
 
 Progression. 
 
 Bend, cross (a), neck grasp, cross (e) and stretch standing positions 
 are the principal derived arm positions that may be used as pre- 
 liminary arching exercises. 
 
 Standing 
 Hip grasp st. 
 Bend St. 
 Cross (a) st. 
 Neck grasp st. 
 
 backward bending (or moving) of head. 
 
 Simple arm movements combined with backward bending of head : 
 
 Arm rotation (slow) 
 
 Arm raising sideways (slow) 
 
 Arm raising forward-sideways (slow) 
 
 Arm raising sideways, palms up (slow) 
 
 Arm raising forward-sideways, palms up, and 
 
 sinking sideways-downward (slow) 
 
 Reach st. arm parting (slow) 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching sideways (slow) 
 
 Cross (d) st. arm raising (slow) 
 
 Arm raising sideways-upward 'slow) 
 
 Arm circumduction 2 counts, slowi 
 
 Arm circumduction (3 counts, quick) 
 
 with backward 
 bending of head. 
 
 (Some of these may 
 also be done quickly and 
 repeated rhythmically. 
 They are then more like 
 shoulder blade exercises 
 than arching move'nts.)
 
 148 
 
 C.y.MNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Bend 
 Cross (a) 
 Cross (c) 
 Cross (d) 
 Cross (e) 
 Neck grasp 
 Oblique stretch 
 Stretch 
 
 stride standing 
 standing 
 close standing 
 walk (b) standing 
 walk (a) twist standing 
 stride twist standing 
 twist standing 
 close twist standing 
 
 backward arching 
 of trunk. 
 
 Simple quick arm movements combined with alternate foot placings and 
 followed by backward arching of trunk: 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forward bending of arms 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 
 Arm flinging sideways 
 
 YI sideways bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging forward-upward 
 
 Arm flinging sideways-upward 
 
 Arm circumduction, 2 counts 
 
 with alternate foot 
 placing sideways 
 or forward, 
 
 and backward 
 arching of 
 trunk. 
 
 Simple slow arm movements from derived arm and leg positions combined 
 with backward arching of trunk : 
 
 Bend 
 
 
 
 stride st. 
 
 Reach 
 
 standing 
 
 
 close st. 
 
 Cross (c) 
 
 walk (b) st. 
 
 Cross (b) 
 
 walk (a) twist st. 
 
 Cross (e) 
 
 stride twist st. 
 
 
 twist St. 
 
 Cross (d) 
 
 close twist st. 
 
 Stretch . 
 
 
 slow arm stretch, sideways or 
 
 upward 
 slow arm parting or arm 
 
 raising 
 
 slow arm rotation 
 slow arm rotation 
 slow arm stretch, sideways 
 
 or upward 
 slow arm raising 
 slow arm parting 
 
 with 
 
 backward 
 
 arching 
 
 of trunk. 
 
 Simple arm movements alternating with the arching movements, done 
 from derived arm and leg position as well as the twist st. pos. : 
 
 Bend 
 
 
 
 Cross (a) 
 
 
 
 Cross (e) 
 
 stride st. 
 
 
 Neck grasp 
 Bend 
 Cross (d) 
 
 standing 
 close st. 
 walk (b) st. 
 walk (a) 
 twist st. 
 stride twist st. 
 
 backward 
 arching of 
 trunk, al- 
 ternating 
 with 
 
 Neck grasp 
 
 close twist st. 
 
 
 Cross (e) 
 
 
 
 Stretch 
 
 
 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 arm flinging sideways, 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 
 palms up or down, 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 
 palms up or down, 
 arm stretching obliquely 
 
 upward, 
 arm raising, 
 arm stretching upward, 
 arm bending and stretching 
 
 upward or arm parting.
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 
 
 149 
 
 Compound (2 count) arm movements the first part of which is quick 
 and combined with alternate foot placing sidew. or forw., the second 
 part slow and combined with backward arching of trunk : 
 
 Arm bending and stretching sideways 
 Arm flinging forward and arm parting 
 % sideways bending of arms and arm 
 
 stretching sideways 
 Arm bending and stretching upward 
 Arm flinging sideways and arm raising 
 Arm flinging forward and arm raising 
 Y* sideways bending of arms and arm 
 
 stretching upward 
 Arm flinging forward-upward and arm 
 
 parting 
 
 Arm movements with trunk twisting and simultaneous backw. arching of 
 trunk : 
 
 with alternate 
 
 foot placing 
 
 sideways or 
 
 forward 
 
 >and backward 
 arching of 
 trunk. 
 
 Standing 
 Stride st. 
 Walk (a) st. 
 
 Bend st. 
 Cross (e) st. 
 
 Arm circumduction with trunk twisting and simul- 
 taneous arching of trunk. 
 
 slow arm stretching 
 sideways or upward 
 
 with trunk twisting and 
 arching of trunk. 
 
 Simple quick arm movements combined with alternate foot placing 
 obliquely forw.-outw., and followed by trunk twisting to same side, 
 then by backw. arching of trunk (6 counts) : 
 
 (Placing hands on hips) 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forward bending of arms 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 
 Arm flinging sideways 
 
 YL sideways bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging forward-upward 
 
 Arm flinging sideways-upward 
 
 Arm circumduction 
 
 with alter- 
 
 
 
 nate fo<5t 
 placing 
 obliquely 
 forward- 
 
 then trunk 
 twisting, 
 
 and back- 
 t- ward arch- 
 ingoftrunk. 
 
 outward, 
 
 
 
 Simple, quick arm movements combined with alternate foot placing 
 obliquely forward-outward and simultaneous trunk twisting to same 
 side, followed by backw. arching of trunk. These are 4 count cycles, 
 the increased difficulty consisting in the triple combination of arm 
 and leg movement with trunk twisting. The movements are the same 
 as those enumerated in the preceding column. 
 
 Compound (2 count) auick arm movements, the first part of which is 
 combined with alternate foot placing sidew. or obliquely forw.-outw., 
 the second with trunk twisting. The position thus reached is held 
 during the slow arching movement. These are 6 count cycles : 
 
 Arm bending and stretching sideways 
 Forward bending and side-flinging of 
 
 arms 
 y^ sideways bending of arms and arms 
 
 stretching sideways 
 Arm bending and stretching upward 
 > sideways bending of arms and arm 
 
 stretching upward 
 
 with alternate foot I followed 
 placing sideways by back- 
 or obliquely for- > ward 
 ward-outward and arching 
 trunk' twisting, J of trunk.
 
 150 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Compound (2 count) arm movements, the first part of which is quick and 
 combined with alternate foot placing sidew., or obliquely outw., the 
 second part slow and combined with trunk twisting and simultaneous 
 backw. arching of trunk. These are 4 count cycles, extremely difficult 
 to do well. 
 
 Arm bending with alternate foot placing sideways 
 
 or outward, arm stretching sideways 
 % sideways bending of arms with alternate foot 
 
 placing, arm stretching sideways 
 Arm bending with alternate foot placing, arm 
 
 stretching upward 
 }4 sideways bending of arms with alternate foot 
 
 placing, arm stretching upward 
 Arm flinging forward-upward with alternate foot 
 
 placing, arm parting 
 
 with twisting and 
 backward arching 
 of trunk. 
 
 Compensatory Exercises. 
 Types. 
 
 Forward bending of trunk. 
 
 Forward-downward bending of trunk, with straight upper back and 
 
 arms held in the various derived starting positions. 
 Forward-downward bending of trunk, with straight upper back, 
 
 combined with arm movements forward, making efforts to touch 
 
 the floor with the hands. 
 
 These are all general back exercises and their progression will 
 be illustrated under that head. 
 
 Stooping. Progression of this type has been given under leg exercises. 
 
 Knee upward bending. 
 
 Leg flinging forward-upward. 
 
 The progression of these types will be illustrated under 
 abdominal exercises, to which group they belong. 
 
 Lateral Trunk Exercises. 
 Principles. 
 
 Increasing weight leverage by carrying the arms higher. 
 Varying the base : 
 
 (1) Making the starting position more secure in order to facilitate 
 greater range or more perfect localization of the movement. 
 
 (2) Reducing the base, thereby introducing the balance element and 
 thus increasing the difficulty of the movement. 
 
 Alternating and combining with arm or leg movements, or both. 
 
 Doing arm movements from twist standing position. 
 
 Doing side bending of trunk from the twist standing position. 
 
 Doing leg or arm movements, or both, from side falling position. 
 
 Combining arm movements with leg flinging sideways. 
 
 [In exercises at the bar stalls the arms or legs are fixed, thereby 
 
 giving opportunity for greater range and weight leverage and 
 
 better localization.]
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 
 
 151 
 
 Types. 
 
 Trunk twisting. Side bending of trunk. Leg raising or flinging 
 sideways. Side falling position. Charges. 
 
 [Bar stall exercises : Foot grasp standing side bending of trunk. 
 Foot grasp sitting backward leaning and twisting of trunk. Side 
 lying side bending of trunk. Grasp side arch standing leg fling- 
 ing sideways. Side holding.] 
 
 Progression. 
 
 Trunk twisting. 
 
 Bend 
 Cross (a) 
 Neck grasp 
 Cross (c) 
 Cross (e) 
 (Stretch) 
 
 stride st. 
 walk (a) st. 
 walk (b) st. 
 standing 
 close st. 
 
 trunk twisting. 
 
 Alternating with arm movements : 
 Bend I stride st. 1 trunk 
 
 farm stretching sideways. 
 
 Cross (a) Ictamiine \ twistir) S J arm flinging sideways. 
 Neck grasp ( , . g f alternat- | arm stretching sideways or upward. 
 T>~*~I I ciose st. i _ '..i, .4.^1,1 
 
 Bend 
 
 ing with I arm stretching upward. 
 
 All the way from one side to the other in one continuous quick movement : 
 
 Bend 1 
 
 Cross (a) (stride st. alternate trunk twisting from one 
 
 Neck grasp [ side to the other. 
 
 Cross (c) J 
 
 All the way from one side to the other, alternating with arm movements: 
 
 / N stride st. 
 
 Cross (a) 
 
 Simple arm movements combined with leg movements, and followed by 
 trunk twisting: 
 
 Arm bending 
 Forward bending of arms 
 Placing hands on neck 
 Arm flinging sideways 
 Bend st. arm stretching 
 sideways 
 
 with alternate foot placing 
 sideways, obliquely outward or 
 
 forward, 
 
 or with closing of feet, 
 or with oblique charge, 
 
 and 
 
 trunk 
 
 twisting. 
 
 Arm movements from twist standing position : 
 
 Bend 
 Cross (a) 
 Cross (c) 
 Cross (e) 
 Cross (d) 
 Stretch 
 
 stride 
 walk (a) 
 > walk (b) 
 close 
 twist st. 
 
 twist 
 stand- 
 ing 
 
 arm stretching sideways or upward. 
 
 arm flinging sideways. 
 
 arm rotation. 
 
 arm rotation or stretch, sidew. or upw. 
 
 arm raising. 
 
 arm parting.
 
 152 
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Simple arm movements combined with alternate foot placings or oblique 
 charge and simultaneous trunk twisting: 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forward bending of arms 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 
 Arm flinging sideways 
 
 Arm flinging forward 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching sideways 
 
 }4 sideways bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging sideways-upward 
 
 Arm circumduction 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching upward 
 
 with alternate foot 
 placing 
 
 sideways, oblique- 
 ly outward or 
 forward, 
 
 or with oblique 
 charge 
 
 and 
 simultaneous 
 
 trunk 
 twisting. 
 
 Compound arm movements, the first part of which is combined with an 
 alternate foot placing, or oblique charge, and simultaneous trunk 
 twisting, the second is done while retaining the twist standing position : 
 
 Arm bending 
 Forward b'd'g of arms 
 Arm flinging forward 
 Placing hands on neck 
 % sidew. b'd'g of arms 
 Arm bending 
 Arm flinging sideways, 
 
 palms up, 
 
 Arm flinging sideways- 
 upward 
 
 Arm flinging forward- 
 upward 
 
 with alternate 
 foot placing 
 
 sideways or ob- 
 liquely outw. 
 
 or with oblique 
 c'harge and 
 with simulta- 
 neous trunk 
 twisting; fol- 
 lowed by 
 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 arm flinging sideways, 
 arm parting, 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 arm stretch, sidew. or upw. 
 arm stretching upward, 
 arm raising. 
 
 arm parting, 
 arm parting. 
 
 The above compound arm movements, the first part of which is com- 
 bined with an alternate foot placing, or oblique charge, the second 
 with trunk twisting. Examples : 
 Forw. b'd'g of arms with alt. foot placing obliquely outw., then arm 
 
 flinging with trun 1 ' (twisting. 
 Arm b'd'g with oblique charge, then arm stretching upw. with trunk 
 
 twisting. 
 
 Side bending of trunk: 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Bend 
 Cross (a) 
 Neck grasp 
 Cross (c) 
 Cross (e) 
 Diagonal stretch 
 Stretch 
 
 stride standing 
 
 standing 
 
 walk (b) standing 
 
 close standing 
 
 walk (c) st. 
 
 walk (a) twist st. 
 
 stride twist st. 
 
 side bending of trunk. 
 
 Alternating with arm movements : 
 
 Bend 
 
 
 
 Cross (a) 
 Neck grasp 
 Cross (e) 
 Cross (d) 
 Bend 
 
 stride st. 
 standing 
 close st. 
 walk (b) st. 
 
 (side bend- 
 ing of 
 trunk, 
 alternat- 
 ing with 
 
 Neck grasp 
 
 
 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 arm flinging sideways, 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 arm raising or flinging upward, 
 arm stretching upward, 
 arm stretching upward.
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 
 
 153 
 
 All the way from one side to the other without stopping in the upright 
 position : 
 
 Hip grasp ] 
 
 Cross (c) I stride standing alternate side bending from one side to 
 Neck grasp I the other in one continuous movement 
 
 Stretch J 
 
 Simple arm movements combined with leg movements, and followed by 
 side b'd'g of trunk: 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forward bending of arms 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 
 Arm flinging sideways 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching sideways 
 
 l /2 sideways bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging diagonally upward 
 
 Arm flinging sideways-upward 
 
 Arm circumduction 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching upward 
 
 with alternate foot plac- 
 ings sideways or for- 
 ward; or with closing of 
 feet, 
 
 or with side lunge, 
 
 and side 
 bending 
 
 of 
 trunk. 
 
 The above simple arm movements with alternate foot placing diagonally 
 (forward-) outward, or sideways, followed by trunk twisting, then 
 side bending of trunk. 6 count cycles. 
 
 The same with oblique charge instead of foot placing. The trunk twisting 
 is to the opposite side of the charge. 
 
 The above arm movements with oblique foot placing, or oblique charge, 
 and simultaneous trunk twisting, followed by side bending of trunk. 
 4 count cycles. 
 
 Compound arm movements, the first part of which is combined with an 
 oblique foot placing or charge, the second with trunk twisting, fol- 
 lowed by side bending of trunk. Examples : 
 
 Arm bending and stretch- 
 ing sideways or upward 
 
 Forward bending and side 
 flinging of arms 
 
 with alternate] 
 
 foot placing I and 1 then side bend- 
 outward or I trunk \ ing of trunk 
 with oblique | twisting J 6 count cycles, 
 charge 
 
 Wide stride standing side bending with simultaneous knee b'd'g. The 
 same with simultaneous arm movements : 
 
 Hip grasp 
 
 Bend 
 
 Cross ( 3,^ 
 
 Neck grasp stride st - side-and-knee bending. 
 
 Cross (c) 
 Stretch 
 
 Bend stride st. arm stretch sidew. with side-and-knee bending. 
 Neck grasp stride st. arm stretch sidew. with side-and-knee bending. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot plac. sidew., then side-and-knee 
 bending. 
 
 Arm bendine 1 with alternate foot placing sideways, then 
 
 Placing hands on neck side-and-knee bending with arm stretching 
 J sideways. 
 
 Side bending of trunk, standing on one foot. See balance exercises. 
 Leg flinging sideways.
 
 154 
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 These are quick movements repeated rhythmically several times on each 
 side (then designated L. and R.), or alternately. The position is not 
 held at the end of the up-stroke, the recoil from which marks the 
 beginning of the return movement. At the end of the down-stroke, how- 
 ever, the position is held a brief moment, with the weight equally on 
 both feet. 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Neck grasp 
 
 UtanHincrI le 2 flin g in g sideways, one side at a time 
 g [alternate leg flinging sideways. 
 
 Combined with arm movements : 
 
 %. hip grasp st. leg flinging L. and R. with oppo- 1 sideways, 
 site arm flinging {sideways-upward. 
 
 Standing 1 alternate leg flinging sideways with opposite arm fling- 
 Hip grasp st. J ing sideways, or sideways-upward 
 
 {sideways, 
 obliquely upward, 
 upward, 
 upward on same, sideways 
 on opposite side. 
 
 Hip grasp standing jumping on toes with alternate leg flinging sidew. 
 Side falling position (side leaning rest). 
 
 Reached by (1) stooping, (2) taking the prone falling position (front 
 leaning rest), (3) turning 90. Taking the position and returning to the 
 fundamental standing position thus makes a compound six count move- 
 ment when repeated rhythmically. The side falling and the fundamental 
 positions are held longer than the stooping and prone falling positions. 
 The rhythm is therefore quite uneven. The free arm may be held in 
 different positions, thus: 
 
 YL hip grasp 
 # bend 
 Yz neck grasp 
 YT. stretch 
 Y^ cross (c) 
 
 side falling position and return. 
 
 Arm movements or leg raising, or both simultaneously, may be done 
 from the side falling position. Such movements, however, are quite 
 difficult balance exercises, and might be classified as such. 
 
 Yz hip grasp 
 Yz bend 
 l /2. neck grasp 
 Yt stretch 
 
 % cross (c) 
 
 side falling leg rais- 
 ing, or 
 
 side falling leg rais- 
 ing with 
 
 arm raising sidew. or sidew. -upw. 
 arm stretching sidew. or upw. 
 arm stretching sidew. or upw. 
 
 arm raising. 
 
 Charges will be described later, under that head. 
 [Types of lateral trunk exercises done at the bar stalls : 
 
 Grasp side falling position. Leg raising from this position. 
 
 Grasp side arch # standing (one leg raised) | 2 leg flj ng in g sideways. 
 Side holding (retaining the position reached by leg flinging sidew.)]
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 155 
 
 Back Exercises, 
 
 A. Shoulder blade movements. 
 Principles. 
 
 Increasing the range of the movement. Increasing the speed. 
 Increasing difficulty of coordination, in "finding" and retaining the 
 
 final position; by doing movement from difficult starting position. 
 Increasing antagonistic muscular resistance by making the movement 
 
 slower. 
 Increasing weight leverage and difficulty of coordination by doing 
 
 movement from starting positions in which the 'trunk is inclined 
 
 forward, e.g., prone st. pos., charge pos. 
 (Increasing resistance by mechanical contrivances, e.g., chest weights.) 
 
 Types. 
 
 Arm bending; forw. b'd'g of arms; arm flinging sidew. with palms 
 down or up; placing hands on neck; arm rotation from standing, 
 cross (c) and cross (e) pos.; arm flinging forw.; l /2 sidew. b'd'g 
 of arms ; arm flinging forw.-upw., and sidew.-upw. ; arm circum- 
 duction; arm b'd'g and stretching sidew., forw., upw.; arm fling- 
 ing forw.-sidew. and downw. ; reach st. arm parting (or flinging 
 sidew.), palms down or up; reach st. arm flinging upw.; swimming 
 movement; stretch st. arm parting; asymmetrical arm movements, 
 such as arm stretching in diverse directions, starting from the bend 
 st. pos.; lowering one arm and raising the other, etc. 
 
 Progression. 
 
 As indicated under principles. The various types embody the applica- 
 tion of these principles in varying degrees. 
 
 Many of these types are used chiefly in combination or alternation 
 with movements of other groups. In the beginning of any series 
 of lessons, however, they may with advantage be practiced sepa- 
 rately, at first on command and later as continuous, rhythmic 
 movements. 
 
 B. General back movements. 
 Principles. 
 
 Varying the starting position of the legs so as to increase or diminish 
 
 stability, facilitate localization of movement, or increase resistance 
 
 and difficulty of coordination. 
 Varying the starting position of the arms, thereby increasing weight 
 
 leverage and difficulty of coordination. 
 Increasing the range of the movement from only a slight forward 
 
 inclination to 45, then to the horizontal and beyond (with straight 
 
 upper back). 
 Doing head or arm movements while holding the prone St., prone 
 
 lying, or charge position. 
 Alternating back movement with arm movements, or with combined 
 
 arm and leg movements. 
 Combining back movement with arm movements or leg movements, 
 
 or both. 
 
 Types. 
 
 Forward bending of trunk (45 inclination from hips). 
 Forward-downward bending of trunk (to horizontal and beyond) 
 
 with upper back straight, arms held rigid in one of the derived 
 
 positions.
 
 156 
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Stooping. Prone falling position. Foot placings, arm and leg rais- 
 ing from this position. 
 
 Forw.-downw. bending of trunk from the (wide) stride st. pos. with 
 simultaneous movement of the arms forw. in an effort to touch 
 the floor. Upper back is kept straight, however. 
 
 Forward bending of trunk, standing on one foot, other leg in line 
 with the trunk. 
 
 Forward charge. Forw. bending of trunk from this position. 
 
 Reverse (backward) charge. Toe-support charge. Horizontal l /2 st. 
 pos. 
 
 Oblique charge with, or followed by, trunk twisting to same side. 
 Forw. bending of trunk from this position. 
 
 [At bar stalls : Foot grasp charge. Forw. b'd'g from this pos. 
 
 Prone lying pos. (on bench). Forw. b'd'g from this pos.] 
 
 Progression. 
 
 Forward and forw.-downw. b'd'g of trunk : 
 
 Hip grasp 
 
 Bend 
 
 Cross (a) 
 
 Neck grasp 
 
 Cross (c), (d) and(e) 
 
 Oblique stretch 
 
 Stretch 
 
 stride st. 
 
 standing 
 
 close st. 
 
 walk (b) st. 
 
 walk (c) st. 
 
 walk (a) twist st. 
 
 charge (b) 
 
 charge (a) twist st.J 
 
 forward bending of trunk. 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Bend 
 
 Neck grasp 
 Stretch 
 
 stride st. 1 
 
 standing [ forward-downward bending of trunk. 
 
 close st. J 
 
 Simple arm movements with alternate foot placing sidew., or forw., fol- 
 lowed by forw. b'd'g, or forw.-downw. b d'g of trunk : 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forward bending of arms 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 
 Arm flinging sideways 
 
 Yi sideways bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging forward-upward 
 
 Arm flinging sideways-upward 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching upward. 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 
 Placing hands over head (or arm 
 flinging forward-upward, or 
 arm flinging sideways-upward) 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching upward 
 
 with alternate foot | and forward 
 placing sideways > bending of 
 or forward, trunk. 
 
 with alternate 1 and forward-down- 
 foot placing [ ward bending of 
 sideways, J trunk. 
 
 The above arm movements, combined with alternate foot placing obliquely 
 outward and simultaneous trunk twisting, followed by forw. b'd'g of 
 trunk.
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 
 
 157 
 
 Forw. b'd'g and forw.-downw. b'd'g of trunk, alternating with arm 
 
 movements : 
 
 Bend 
 
 
 Cross (a) 
 Cross (c) 
 Neck grasp 
 Cross (e) 
 Bend 
 Neck grasp 
 Cross (e) 
 
 stride st. 
 standing 
 close st. 
 'walk (b) 
 walk (a) 
 twist st. j 
 
 Stretch 
 
 
 forward bending of 
 trunk, alternat- 
 ing with 
 
 5 e , s 
 r0! 
 
 stride st. forward-downward 
 standing } bendingof trunk, 
 J Alternating with 
 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 arm flinging sideways, 
 arm rotation, 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 arm stretching sideways, 
 arm stretching upward, 
 arm stretching upward, 
 arm stretching upward, 
 arm parting, or bending 
 and stretching upward. 
 
 arm stretching sideways 
 
 or upward. 
 
 arm flinging sideways, 
 arm stretching sideways 
 
 or upward, 
 arm parting or bending 
 
 and stretching upward. 
 
 Stooping (deep knee b'd'g with forw. inclination from hips, back straight, 
 hands on floor) : 
 
 Hip grasp st. 
 Bend st. 
 Cross (a) st. 
 Neck grasp st. 
 Cross (c) st. 
 
 stooping and return to starting position. 
 
 Alternating with arm movements : 
 
 Bend st. 
 Cross (a) st. 
 Neck grasp st. 
 Cross (c) st. 
 Reach st. 
 
 [arm stretching sideways, forward, -upward, 
 stooping, arm flinging sideways, 
 alternat-'j arm stretching sideways or upward, 
 ing with arm bending andstretching or arm rotation. 
 
 [arm flinging sideways. 
 
 Alternate foot placing forw.-backw. from stooping pos., or from prone 
 falling pos. 
 
 From a wide stride st. pos. with the arms in a derived starting pos. 
 bending downw. with straight upper back (keeping knees straight), 
 and making an effort to touch the floor, then returning to starting pos. 
 
 Bend ] 
 
 Cross (a) I (wide) stride st. downward bending, 
 Neck grasp I touching floor, and return. 
 Cross (c) J 
 
 The same, alternating with arm movements : 
 
 Bend stride st. 
 Cross (a) stride st. 
 Neck grasp stride st. 
 Cross (c) stride st. 
 Cross (d) stride st. 
 Stretch stride st. 
 
 downward 
 
 bending 
 
 touching floor 
 
 alternating 
 
 with 
 
 arm stretching sidew. or upw. 
 arm flinging sideways, 
 arm stretching sidew. or upw. 
 arm bending and stretch, sidew. 
 arm raising (or flinging upward), 
 arm parting, or bending and st. 
 upward.
 
 158 
 
 Compound (2 count) arm movements (from fundamental pos.), the first 
 part of which is combined with a wide alternate foot placing sidew., 
 the second (a forw. movement of the arms) with a forw.-downw. 
 b'd'g (touching the floor). Upper back straight: 
 
 Arm bending 
 Forward bending of arms 
 Arm flinging forward 
 Arm flinging sideways 
 Placing hands On neck 
 Placing hands over head 
 
 with alternate foot placing sideways (wide 
 step), then forward-downward bending, 
 touching floor. Return in reverse order. 
 
 Similar compound, alternating movements, starting from and returning 
 to derived arm positions : 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching sideways or 
 upward 
 
 Cross (a) st. arm flinging sideways 
 
 Cross (c) st. arm bending, or forward 
 bending of arms 
 
 Neck grasp st. arm stretching side- 
 ways or upward 
 
 Stretch st. arm bending 
 
 with alternate foot placing side- 
 ways (wide step), then 
 
 downward bending, touching 
 floor, and return in reverse 
 order. 
 
 Compound, combined 4 count movements, in which the "going" and 
 "return" phases are dissimilar. The first part is a simple arm move- 
 ment bending or flinging; the second is a quick forw.-downw. bend- 
 ing of trunk combined with a double (wide) foot placing sidew. 
 (jump) and a simultaneous forw.-downw. movement of the arms in 
 an effort to touch the floor; the third is a (quick) trunk raising 
 combined with an arm movement similar to the first; the fourth is 
 a bringing of the feet together with a jump combined with a move- 
 ment of the arms, either to the fundamental position, or to some 
 derived position. In the forward-downward bending of trunk the 
 upper back and the knees should be kept straight. Examples: 
 
 (1) Arm b'd'g; (2) foot placing sidew. with downw. b'd'g, touching 
 floor; (3) trunk raising with arm b'd'g; (4) jump to funda- 
 mental st. pos. 
 
 (1) Arm b'd'g (or forw. b'd'g of arms) ; (2) foot placing sidew. 
 with downw. b'd'g, touching floor; (3) trunk raising with arm 
 b'd'g (or forw. b'd'g of arms) ; (4) jump to position with arm 
 stretching sidew., or upw. (or flinging sidew.). (The repeti- 
 tions start from this derived arm position.) 
 
 (1) Arm flinging sidew.; (2) foot placing sidew. with downw. b'd'g, 
 touching floor; (3) trunk raising with arm flinging sidew.; (4) 
 jump to fund. st. pos. 
 
 (1) Arm b'd'g; (2) foot placing sidew. with downw. b'd'g, touching 
 floor; (3) trunk raising with arm flinging sidew., or forw.- 
 upw. (bringing the arms straight over head) ; (4) jump to 
 fund. st. pos. (bringing the arms, if over head, down through 
 the side plane). 
 
 Forward bending of trunk, while standing on one leg. See balance 
 
 exercises. 
 Forward and reverse charge, toe-support charge, etc. See charges.
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 
 
 159 
 
 [Types of back exercises done at the bar stalls: 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Bend 
 Cross (a) 
 Neck grasp 
 etc. 
 
 Sfoot grasp charge st. position 
 foot grasp prone lying position 
 
 Forward bend, of trunk, 
 or arm movements 
 from these positions]. 
 
 Abdominal Exercises. 
 Principles. 
 
 Varying the starting position of the arms, so as to increase weight 
 
 leverage and make the movement more difficult. 
 
 Varying the range of the movement, so as to increase weight leverage. 
 Doing arm movements from positions sustained by static action of 
 
 abdominal muscles. 
 Increasing the severity of the movement by doing it with straight, 
 
 instead of bent knee ; with both legs, instead of one at a time. 
 Increasing the speed of the movement, so as to require more sudden 
 
 effort. 
 
 Types. 
 
 Standing knee upward bending, leg flinging forw., and leg circumduc- 
 
 tion. 
 
 Lying knee upward bending, leg raising, and sinking sideways. 
 Kneeling (on one knee or both) backw. leaning of trunk. 
 Prone falling position (front leaning rest) and foot placing forw. 
 
 and backw. from this position. 
 Trunk twistings. 
 
 [At bar stalls: 
 
 Foot grasp J^ standing backw. leaning of trunk. 
 Foot grasp sitting backw. leaning of trunk. 
 
 At chest weights: 
 
 Arm movements, standing with back to weights, abdomen retracted. 
 On quarter circle: 
 
 Arm swinging forw.-upw. and forw.-downw. 
 
 On suspension apparatus : 
 
 Hanging knee upw. bending, leg raising, etc.] 
 
 Progression. 
 
 Knee upw. b'd'g, leg flinging forw., and leg circumduction : 
 
 'L. and R. (movement repeated 
 on one side at a time; weight 
 settles on both feet at end of 
 
 Hip grasp st. [knee upward bending each movement). At first, 
 Bend st. \ leg flinging forward 
 
 Neck grasp st. [leg circumduction 
 
 stop at the change. Later 
 make repeated changes with- 
 out interrupting the move- 
 ment. 
 Alternate. 
 
 ,-.. n . , ("Knee upward bending L. and R., both, alternate. 
 
 (Diagonal) stretch Rnee u ward bendinj , and stretching (45). 
 
 XT y !" . . 1 Leg raising- L. and R., both, alternate. 
 
 j\eck grasp lying [ L raising . and sinking sideways.
 
 160 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Kneeling backw. leaning of trunk (movement takes place at knee). 
 Hip grasp 
 
 Bend 
 Cross (a) 
 Cross (c) 
 
 kneeling (on one knee or both) 
 backward leaning of trunk 
 
 Also the various arm 
 movements from the 
 backward leaning posi- 
 
 Cross (e) 
 Neck grasp 
 Stretch 
 
 Prone falling position (reached by (1) stooping, (2) extending legs back- 
 ward) : 
 
 Prone falling position and return (4 count compound movement). 
 
 Prone falling foot placing forw. and backw. May be done repeatedly, 
 or only once, followed by return to standing pos. In the latter 
 case it is a 6 count movement. 
 
 Prone falling arm bending repeatedly or only once, followed by re- 
 turn to standing pos., making a 6 count compound movement. 
 
 Prone falling foot placing forw. and backw. (once), then arm bending 
 and stretching (once), followed by return to standing position, 
 making an 8 count compound alternating movement. 
 
 Trunk twistings, arm movements and side bending from the twist st. pos. 
 See Lateral Trunk Exercises. 
 
 [Bar stall exercises: 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Bend 
 Cross (a) 
 Neck grasp 
 etc. 
 
 Bend I foot grasp sitting , 1 followed by trunk twisting. 
 
 Neck grasp J backward leaning of trunk | 
 
 Chest weight exercises (back to the weights, one foot forw., abdomen in) : 
 Bend st. arm stretching forw. 
 Reach st. arm parting. 
 
 Standing (hands at side) arm swinging forw.-upw., and forw.-downw. 
 Alternate arm swinging forw.-upw., forw.-downw. 
 Alternate arm circles ("wind mills") with trunk twisting. 
 (Stretch stride st. forw. b'd'g of trunk.) 
 
 On quarter circle : 
 
 Arm swinging and alternate arm swinging forw.-upw. and forw.- 
 downw. 
 Arm circles and alternate arm circles (both ways). 
 
 On suspension apparatus: 
 
 Hanging knee upward bending "i Left and right. 
 
 Hanging knee upward bending and I Alternate (one up, the other 
 
 stretching forward | down). 
 
 Hanging leg raising J Both legs. 
 
 Hanging leg raising and leg parting. 
 
 Hanging knee upw. b'd'g with simultaneous trunk twisting. 
 Hanging leg raising followed by trunk twisting. 
 Swing jumps, starting swing, circles, upstarts, climbing, etc.]
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 161 
 Balance Exercises. 
 
 Principles. 
 
 Reducing the base by varying the starting position of the legs. 
 Raising the center of gravity by varying the starting pos. of the arms. 
 Doing arm movements while holding a pos. of difficult balance. 
 Doing leg movements while holding a pos. of difficult balance. 
 Doing head twisting while holding a pos. of difficult balance. 
 Combining arm movements with leg movements from a position with 
 
 reduced base. 
 Varying the intervals between commands for repetitions of simple 
 
 movements, or for the parts of compound movements. 
 Quick and unexpected changes from one side to the other when 
 
 holding positions on one foot. 
 Doing a trunk movement while standing on one foot, and holding 
 
 the position reached a varying length of time. 
 
 Types. 
 
 Toe standing position. Toe-knee-bend st. pos. 
 Toe standing march steps forw., backw. and sidew. on command. 
 Yt st. pos. (on one foot), the free leg raised forw. or sidew. 
 Balance march steps, without and with knee upw. b'd'g or leg flinging 
 
 forw. (touch step). 
 Heel raising, heel raising and knee b'd'g, especially from a pos. with 
 
 narrow and elongated base. 
 
 l /2 hook standing quick change (one movement). 
 
 l /2 standing (one leg raised forw. or sidew.) quick change (one move- 
 ment). 
 
 Knee b'd'g while standing on one foot (*/> st. knee b'd'g). 
 Heel raising while standing on one foot (J^ st. heel rais.) with and 
 
 without mutual support. 
 Toe-support charge position. 
 Horizontal y z standing position, reached from the toe-support charge 
 
 pos. by raising the rear leg, or by the following movement: 
 y 2 standing forw. b'd'g or trunk with b'd'g of knee of supporting leg, 
 
 while the other leg is raised backw. with straight knee. 
 Yz st. forw. b'd'g of trunk with both knees straight, free leg in line 
 
 with trunk. 
 Y 2 st. side b'd'g of trunk, both knees straight, free leg in line with 
 
 trunk. 
 
 Prone falling pos. ; arm and leg raising. 
 Side falling pos. ; arm and leg raising. 
 [Walking on balance beams in various ways. 
 Holding the toe-knee-bend st. pos. in landings of jumps, vaults and 
 
 dismounts.] 
 
 Progression. 
 
 Toe st. and toe-knee-bend st. pos. :
 
 162 
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Heel raising, heel raising and knee b'd'g, knee b'd'g with (simultaneous) 
 heel raising, without and with arm movements : 
 
 Bend I standing I arm stretching sideways or upward 
 
 Cross (a) I close st. I arm flinging sideways 
 
 Cross (d) f walk (b) st. f arm raising 
 
 Cross (e) I walk (c) st. I arm stretching sideways or upward 
 
 TT. [toe standing 1 
 
 Neck grasp wa ] k j a j f 06 **' knee 
 
 1 walk (D) toe st.J 
 
 Bend 
 Cross (a) 
 Cross (d) 
 Cross (e) 
 Stretch 
 
 standing, close st. 
 stride toe st. 
 toe standing 
 close toe st. 
 walk (a) toe st. 
 walk (b) toe st. 
 
 arm 
 up 
 arm 
 arm 
 arm 
 up 
 arm 
 
 arm stretching sideways or 
 
 upward 
 
 arm flinging sideways 
 arm raising 
 arm stretching sideways or 
 
 with heel 
 raising. 
 
 with knee 
 bending. 
 
 When these movements are done from the standing and close stand- 
 ing positions the knee bending is done with simultaneous heel 
 raising. 
 
 Balance march steps : 
 
 grasp ^ toe st marc | 1 s t e p S forward, backward and sideways, on 
 Neck grasp 
 
 command 
 
 Hip grasp st. 
 Cross (c) st. 
 
 balance march 
 
 balance march with follow step 
 
 balance march with knee upward 
 
 bending 
 balance march leg flinging forward 
 
 each part on com- 
 mand, or con- 
 tinuous move- 
 ment. 
 
 Positions and movements while standing on one foot: 
 
 st. position, the free leg raised forward or sideways 
 
 hook st ' position 
 
 < 
 
 Quick changes from one foot to the other (one movement) in any 
 of these positions. 
 
 Bend farm stretching sideways or upward j 
 
 Cross (a) arm flinging sideways with knee 
 
 Cross (d)>) hook st.'jarm raising > stretching 
 
 Cross (e) arm stretching sideways or upward (forward). 
 
 (Stretch) I I arm parting J 
 
 This group may also be done as 4 count combined, compound move- 
 ments (usually quick), started from the fund. pos. They may be 
 done on command, or repeated in slow rhythm. In the latter case 
 the class should be prepared to stop in any position without warning. 
 
 Reach 
 Cross (c) 
 Neck grasp 
 
 st. (free leg raised forward) knee bending (supporting 
 leg).
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 
 
 163 
 
 or sideways) I heel raising (with 1 mutual 
 
 Hip grasp Yz st. (free leg raised for- 1 heel raising [without (support 
 ward or sideways) 
 
 Bend 1 ,/ f /f rpe i es , ra i se d forward f arm stretching sideways or 
 l / 2 st. itrei upward with heel raising. 
 
 Cross (d) j I arm raising with heel raising. 
 
 y 2 st. (leg forw. or sidew.) arm circumduction with heel raising. 
 Toe-support charge and horizontal l /z st. pos. : 
 
 Hip grasp 
 Bend 
 Cross (a) 
 
 toe-support charge position 
 
 Cross (c) 
 Cross (e) 
 Neck grasp 
 Stretch 
 
 Raising of rear leg to hori- 
 zontal l /i st. position. 
 (May also be taken, with- 
 out or with arm move- 
 ments, from standing po- 
 sition.) 
 
 Forw. b'd'g and side b'd'g of trunk while standing on one foot : 
 
 Hip grasp st. 
 Bend st. 
 Cross (a) st. 
 Cross (c) st. 
 Neck grasp st. 
 Cross (e) st. 
 Stretch st. 
 
 forward bending of trunk, free leg moving backward, 
 
 in line with trunk, 
 same with bending of knee of supporting leg (to 
 
 horizontal ^ st. position), 
 side bending of trunk, free leg moving sideways in 
 
 line with trunk. 
 
 The above may be done with simultaneous arm movements. 
 
 Prone falling and side falling positions and arm and leg movements : 
 
 f alternate leg raising. 
 Prone falling position :< alternate arm raising. 
 
 [alternate opposite arm-and-leg raising. 
 
 Side falling pos. Arm and leg movements. See Lateral Trunk 
 Exercises. 
 
 Principles. 
 
 Charges. 
 
 Varying the position of the arms to increase weight leverage and diffi- 
 culty of coordination. 
 
 Returning by follow step. Facing 90 at the change. 
 
 Combining charge with arm movements. 
 
 Doing arm movements while holding charge position. 
 
 Doing charges and arm movements as combined, compound move- 
 ments. 
 
 Doing trunk movements while holding charge position. 
 
 Combining charges with trunk twisting (and with head twisting). 
 
 Doing arm movements while holding twist charge position. 
 
 Doing charges, trunk twisting and arm movements as combined, com- 
 pound movements. 
 
 Doing charges, arm movements, trunk twisting and trunk bendings as 
 combined, compound movements.
 
 164 
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Types. 
 
 Oblique charge. Forward charge. Toe-support (reverse) charge. 
 Reverse (backw.) charge. Reverse oblique charge. 
 
 Progression. 
 
 Hip grasp st. 
 Bend st. 
 
 Clique 
 
 [charge. 
 
 Neck grasp st. J Reverse oblique J 
 
 or, preferably, 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 Arm bending 
 Placing hands on neck 
 Bend st. arm stretching upward 
 Arm flinging forward-upward, or side- 
 ways-upward 
 
 with I obl ' c l ue charge. 
 
 } reverse oblique charge. 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forward bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging sideways 
 
 Cross (a) st. arm flinging sideways 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching sideways, or 
 upward 
 
 X sideways bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging forward-upward, or side- 
 ways-upward 
 
 f forward charge, 
 with < toe-support charge. 
 
 [ reverse(backw.)charge. 
 
 Arm movements may be done repeatedly from some of the above charge 
 positions, or only once. In the latter case the whole is done as a 
 combined, compound movement : 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forw. bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging sidew. 
 
 Arm flinging sidew., 
 palms up 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 
 % sidew. bending of 
 arms 
 
 Placing hands over 
 head, or 
 
 Arm flinging forward- 
 upward 
 
 (oblique 
 forward 
 toe support 
 reverse 
 reverse obi. 
 
 charge, 
 then 
 
 arm str. sidew. 
 
 or upw. 
 arm flinging 
 
 sidew. 
 
 arm rotation, 
 arm raising. 
 
 arm str. upw. 
 arm str. sidew. 
 
 or upw. 
 arm parting. 
 
 arm parting. 
 
 Charges followed by, or combined with, trunk and arm movements : 
 
 Arm bending with 
 Forward bending of 
 
 arms with 
 Placing hands on 
 
 neck with 
 
 oblique charge 
 
 reverse oblique 
 charge 
 
 and trunk twisting 
 
 or 
 with trunk twisting 
 
 (to same 
 side, 
 to oppo- 
 siteside.
 
 PROGRESSION OF FREE-STANDING EXERCISES 
 
 165 
 
 Arm movements may follow the trunk twisting, or they may be done 
 simultaneously, thus: 
 
 Arm bending with 1 obi. charge 1 [ arm str. sidew 
 
 Forward bending [ reverse obi. > then < arm flinging 
 of arms with charge sidew. 
 
 (with ' 
 twistii 
 same 
 
 trunk 
 
 twisting to 
 same side 
 I (asch'rge). 
 
 with trunk 
 twisting 
 to either 
 side. 
 
 (obi. charge! f arm str. upw., or 
 
 reverse obi. \ then < one upw., the 
 charge J [ other downw. 
 
 (When the trunk twisting is done to the opposite side and the single 
 arm stretching upw. is on the same side as the charge, a head 
 twisting to the same side may be added.) 
 
 Placing hands on hips 
 
 Arm bending 
 
 Forw. bending of arms 
 
 Arm flinging sidew. 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. 
 
 or upw. 
 
 Placing hands on neck 
 l /z sidew. bending of arms 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw., or 
 
 sidew. -upw. 
 
 fforw. I charge, then forw. 
 
 with toe-support ^ 
 [reverse J 
 
 (Arm stretching forw. (touching the floor) 
 may be done with forw. bending of trunk. 
 Usually done as an indefinite movement) 
 
 Placing hands on hips ] f obi. charge, 
 
 Arm bending [ .., I reverse obi. 
 
 Placing hands on neck | j charge, 
 
 Arm flinging upward J Uhenorwith 
 
 trunk twisting to same 
 side, followed by forw. 
 bending of trunk; or 
 trunk twisting to oppo- 
 site side followed by 
 side bending of trunk. 
 
 These are 6 count compound movements when the trunk twisting 
 follows the charge, 4 count combined, compound movements when 
 the trunk twisting and the charge occur simultaneously. The dis- 
 tinction is indicated by the words "then" and "with." 
 
 In this last group arm stretchings may also follow or be combined 
 with the trunk twisting, or be combined with the forw. b'd'g and 
 side b'd'g of trunk. Examples : 
 
 I obi. charge,! arm str. sidew., orl ("forward 
 
 reverse obi. > upw., with trunk >then< bending 
 charge, J twisting, [of trunk. 
 
 TJ j [obi. charge [with trunk twisting and sim-! followed by 
 
 / \ . \ reverse obi. \ ultaneous arm stretching (or [forw. bend- 
 
 c 'l charge [ flinging) sidew. or upw., J ingof trunk. 
 
 [with simultaneous [then forw. bending 
 
 < trunk twisting to \ of trunk with arm 
 
 { charge [ same side, [ stretching forw. 
 
 [with simultaneous [then side bending 
 < trunk twisting to I of trunk with arm 
 [opposite side, [stretching sidew. 
 
 Most complex movements of this kind would be extremely difficult 
 to do in an acceptable manner as definite exercises. Some of them, 
 however, are often used, without too much attention to detail, as 
 composite, indefinite movements, for the all-round muscular exer- 
 cise they represent. 
 
 Armbendingj^-f,' 
 
 with
 
 166 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 7. PROGRESSION OF APPARATUS EXERCISES. 
 
 General Considerations. As previously suggested gymnastic 
 apparatus work may for convenience be grouped under three 
 main heads : Suspension Exercises ; Arm Support Exercises ; 
 Jumping and Vaulting. The progression of these is, as in the 
 case of free-standing exercises, partly a matter of definiteness or 
 "good form" precision, good posture, balance and proper weight 
 distribution, vigor, speed and animation. In apparatus exercises, 
 also, complexity and severity are, perhaps even more than in 
 free-standing work, determining factors in progression. In 
 apparatus work complexity and hence progression cannot so 
 readily or to so great an extent be made synthetic, i.e., be ex- 
 pressed in terms of combination and alternation of simple, definite 
 movements, as in the case of free-standing exercises. It is rather 
 a matter of careful selection and definition of types,, with the right 
 estimation and proper grading of these types, according to their 
 inherent character, in the order of their difficulty or severity or 
 both. Most of these types are relatively complex movements 
 composite, blended and not capable of much subdivision. Hence 
 they cannot always be arranged in a way to satisfy all demands 
 of a logical progression. There are often "gaps" which cannot 
 be satisfactorily filled. Types or combinations which might serve 
 as intermediate or preparatory steps are sometimes wanting ; or, if 
 devised and defined on theoretical grounds, based on attempted 
 analysis or subdivision, may be more difficult in some respects 
 than the exercises for which they are intended as a preparation. 
 Thus it happens in some cases that, while there is a great abun- 
 dance and variety of material suitable for more or less advanced 
 classes, there may be a scarcity of simple, easy and yet interest- 
 ing exercises which may be used as preparatory work in classes 
 of less ability or training. The reverse may be true in other 
 cases. The different pieces of apparatus, as well as the different 
 types of exercises, vary in this respect. Again, many exercises 
 may be performed, with more or less modification, on more than 
 one apparatus. As has already been pointed out, a given type may 
 thus represent varying degrees of difficulty when done on different 
 pieces of apparatus. This should always be borne in mind and 
 taken advantage of as far as possible. With a fairly complete 
 equipment a more finely graded and comprehensive progression 
 is thus possible in many lines, when it would otherwise have to 
 be uneven or inadequate. 
 
 Among the factors which should be considered in progression 
 of apparatus work are: range of movement, momentum of the 
 body, variations in the weight distribution on arms and legs, in
 
 PROGRESSION OF APPARATUS EXERCISES 167 
 
 the leverage of the weight to be moved, in the stability of the 
 equilibrium. Additions to or modifications of exercises with a 
 view to introduce variations of these conditions are therefore 
 important elements of progression. Thus, for example, certain 
 types of suspension exercises may be made easier or more difficult 
 according to whether they are done with or without swing from 
 waist or shoulders, whether started from a stationary hanging 
 position, or by a standing or running jump from the floor, whether 
 behind or directly under the apparatus. Many arm support exer- 
 cises and vaults may be modified in similar manner with a view 
 to facilitate their execution or make it more difficult. Almost 
 any exercise may be made more difficult by modifying its final 
 phase, the dismount or landing, as by introducing turns, or by 
 adding arm or leg movements. 
 
 As the field is wide and the possibilities for variations, combina- 
 tions, and modifications are practically unlimited, no attempt will 
 be made to illustrate the progression of gymnastic apparatus exer- 
 cises in an exhaustive manner. Only comparatively simple and 
 easy types, suitable for ordinary class purposes, will be enumer- 
 ated and their progression indicated, at least through the ele- 
 mentary stages. For a more elaborate treatment of this topic 
 and progression of advanced types of exercises the reader is 
 referred to manuals and compendia devoted primarily to this 
 phase of the subject.* 
 
 Suspension Exercises. 
 Principles. 
 
 Increasing the amount of body weight carried by the arms. This 
 applies chiefly to preparatory types, such as the fall hanging and 
 prone hanging positions. Also to various forms of climbing. 
 
 Varying the work on arms and upper trunk muscles by doing certain 
 exercises, such as hand traveling, without or with swing; with bent 
 instead of straight arms. 
 
 Increasing difficulty and amount of muscular work by variations of 
 grasp, start, range and sequence of movement, and landing. 
 
 Combinations and sequences of increasingly difficult movements. 
 
 Types. 
 
 [Arm bending with overhead pulley weights.] 
 
 Grasp bend toe standing arm stretching with knee bending. 
 
 Fall hanging position. Arm b'd'g, leg raising, and hand traveling 
 
 from this position. 
 Prone hanging position. Circumduction, change to fall hanging, and 
 
 arm bending from this position. 
 Hanging position. Ordinary, reverse and combined grasp. 
 
 *For example, "Gymnastic Nomenclature of the Y. M. C. A."; "Code Book of Gym- 
 nastic Exercises," by Ludwig Puritz.
 
 168 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Arm bending, alternate arm b'd'g, change of grasp, knee upw. b'd'g, 
 
 leg raising, lateral swing and trunk twisting, all starting from the 
 
 hanging position. 
 Hand traveling of various kinds. 
 Climbing of various kinds. 
 Swing jumps (short underswing) ; starting swing; exercises of 
 
 various kinds while continuing swing, such as hand clapping, change 
 
 of grasp, turns, and dismounts. 
 
 Inverted hanging position and movements from this position. 
 Circles, mounts, upstarts, and uprise. 
 
 Progression. 
 
 Grasp bend toe standing arm stretching with knee bending. 
 
 The apparatus is grasped at height of chin. Progression consists 
 in doing the movement more and more with the arms and less with 
 the legs. May be done with the aid of rings, vertical ropes, poles and 
 ladders, horizontal and parallel bars, boom and high bar stalls. When 
 the last named apparatus is used, the movement is best done while 
 standing on one foot. 
 
 ,-, ,, , ... fLow horizontal bar and boom; parallel bars; 
 
 Fall.hangmg pos ion vertical ropes and poles; ^ ope ladders . 
 
 The body, face up, is partly suspended on the arms, partly supported 
 on the heels. The lower the apparatus, the greater is the proportion 
 of the weight suspended on the arms. 
 
 I Arm bending. Alternate leg raising. 
 Touching floor with L. and R. hand. 
 Hand traveling sideways. 
 
 Bent arm fall hanging hand traveling sidew. or backw. Low boom. 
 
 Prone hanging position. Apparatus the same as for fall hanging pos. 
 The body, face down, is partly suspended on the arms, partly sup- 
 ported on the toes. The lower the apparatus, the more powerful is 
 the exercise; also the greater is the lumbar hyperextension. 
 
 Prone hanging position and return by moving one 
 foot at a time, by moving both feet simulta- 
 neously 
 
 Prone hanging change to fall hanging position by 
 moving both feet forward or to one side or by 
 
 Any of the above 
 mentioned ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 moving each foot to its respective side. 
 
 Prone hanging arm bending on rings, vertical ropes, or rope ladders. 
 
 Fall hanging [Circumduction L. and R. 1 
 
 or (The feet are kept on the [rings. 
 
 Prone hanging ( floor, as a pivot)
 
 PROGRESSION OF APPARATUS EXERCISES 
 
 169 
 
 Hanging position. Any suspension apparatus sufficiently high above floor. 
 Mount to the hanging position ; dismount without and with turns. 
 
 Knee upward bending, L. and R., alternate, both. 
 
 Knee upward bending, and stretching forward, alternate, 
 
 both. 
 
 Leg raising forward, L. and R., alternate, both. 
 Hanging-^ Leg raising sideways, L. and R., simultaneously, both to 
 
 one side. 
 
 Side swing from waist. 
 
 Side swing from shoulder (with alternate arm bending). 
 Knee upward bending with alternate twisting (and swing). 
 
 Jump, mount to bent arm hanging position, slow arm stretching, 
 dismount. 
 
 Hand traveling. 
 
 Sideways with straight arms;] High boom, suspended parallel bars, 
 with and without swing; with I horizontal ladder (hands on out- 
 swing and alternate arm | side or on rungs), horizontal bar, 
 bending; with bent arms J bar stalls. 
 
 Forward and backward with straight 
 arms; with and without swing; with 
 one or both knets drawn up; with 
 alternate knee upward bending; 
 with bent arms 
 
 Horizontal ladder (hands out- 
 side). 
 Suspended parallel bars. 
 
 Forward and backward on rungs, one! 
 rung at a time, or skipping one rung Horizontal i ad der 
 or more at each step; with straight H 
 arms, or bent arms. * 
 
 Rotary traveling, turning L. and R.,1 
 
 forward and backward, with straight > Boom or suspended parallels, 
 arms, or bent arms. - 
 
 Rotary traveling, turning L. and R.) Horizontal ladder (rungs), 
 with swing and alternate arm "bend- \ Traveling rings, 
 ing. J Vertical poles and ropes. 
 
 Rotary traveling, turning one way, hands on I Boom; 
 same side; with straight arms, or bent arms, /suspended parallels. 
 
 Short jumps forward, backward and sideways. I Horizontal ladder. 
 Long, swinging jumps forward and backward. J Suspended parallels. 
 
 Jumps forward and backward on rungs; from' 
 sides of ladder to rungs. 
 
 Horizontal ladder. 
 
 Rotary traveling forward and backward jump-] 
 ing from one bar to the other between each > Suspended parallels, 
 step.
 
 170 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Climbing. 
 
 Using arms and legs; I Bar stalls; rope ladders; vertical ropes (one or 
 Using arms only. I two or across several); poles; inclined ropes. 
 
 [Oblique, vertical, horizon-] Vertical and hori- 
 
 Serpentine climbing. < tal, turning alternately >zontal window lad- 
 [ L. and R., spiral. J der; double boom. 
 
 Swing jump (short underswing). 
 
 Standing start, from one foot or 1 High and low horizontal bar. 
 both feet, without and with turns. J Horiz. ladder; suspended parallels. 
 
 Start from the hanging position. 
 
 Start from the front rest position, l 11 '^ 1 " 1 low horizontal bar and 
 
 Start from the back rest, or sitting position, by turning! 
 L. and R. or by dropping backward, bending at hips I High and low 
 and passing feet between hands under bar; same [ horiz. bar. 
 from riding rest. J 
 
 Swing jump, catch and dismount; [Horizontal ladder; 
 Long swinging jumps. J Suspended parallels. 
 
 Starting swing, dismounting on first backw., next forward or any succeed- 
 ing swing, without or with turns on landing. 
 
 [ High horizontal bar; 
 Running start from (one or) both feet, j ropes; rings; 
 
 [rope ladders; giant stride. 
 
 Standing start, from bMh fee,, {>< boH 
 
 Start from the hanging position J High horizontal bar and boom. 
 by arm bending, raising feet, etc. | Suspended paral.; horiz. ladder. 
 
 Start from front rest position by long] 
 
 or short underswing, or by forward >High horizontal bar and boom. 
 circle. * 
 
 Start from back rest and riding rest. 
 (As described above, under swing } High horizontal bar. 
 jump.) 
 
 Swinging exercises. 
 
 Hand clapping, change of grasp, turns; at the] 
 
 end of backward or forward swing. lu- v, u * i u~ 
 
 aise feet at end of * ct,-oi>,to at r,H I Hl h 
 of backward swing. 
 
 Raise feet at end of forward, straighten at end I 
 
 Jump forward and backward at end of respective swings. I 
 Mount to upper arm hanging pos. at end of b'kw. swing. | K ars 
 
 Turns, cut-offs, swinging in the inverted position, I j>: ne . s 
 circles, up-starts, etc. J
 
 PROGRESSION OF APPARATUS EXERCISES 171 
 
 Miscellaneous exercises, without and with swing. 
 
 {High horizontal bar and boom; 
 horizontal ladder and sus- 
 pended parallels (ends), 
 rings, ropes (one or two); 
 poles, rope ladders. 
 
 Backward circle to front rest, starting with al 
 
 jump from behind or under the bar, or from I High horizontal bar and 
 the hanging position. Return by forward f boom, 
 circle, short underswing, side vault, etc. J 
 
 Free backward circle, starting from and return- 1 
 ing to the standing position, or the front rest [High horizontal bar. 
 position. 
 
 Quick backward circle, from standing position: to floor (pass- 1 
 
 ing legs between or outside arms); to arm support position. [Rings. 
 Cut-offs. Upstart to arm support position. Combinations. J 
 
 Quick backward circle, starting from and returning tol r> i 
 
 standing position. jKopes, pol 
 
 Mounts to front, back and riding rest positions by hooking one' 
 knee or both, inside or outside of hands; by circles; by front 
 and back upstarts, uprise, swings: by pull-and-push up; from 
 standing, hanging or swinging start; with ordinary, reverse 
 or combined grasp; without and with turns; 
 
 High 
 
 hor. 
 
 bar. 
 
 Followed by forward and backward body, knee and seat circles; 
 vaults, turns and swings. 
 
 Various combinations and sequences of any of these, finished 
 by direct forward or backward dismounts; by vaults, short 
 underswing, knee and hock circles; without and witii turns; 
 by snap-off and somersaults, or long underswing and somer- 
 saults. 
 
 Arm Support Exercises* 
 Types. 
 
 Prone falling position (front leaning rest). 
 Side falling position (side leaning rest). 
 Front rest. Oblique front rest. 
 "Free" front rest. Hand stand. . Hand spring. 
 Back rest. Oblique back rest. 
 Cross rest. Riding rest. 
 
 Leg circles through "free" front rest and "free" riding rest. 
 Swings and leg circles through cross rest. 
 
 Mounts, upstarts and miscellaneous exercises, starting from or passing 
 through any of these positions. 
 
 Prone falling position (front leaning rest). 
 
 From running or standing start, as a preparatory ex- 1 Horse; 
 ercise for face vault. {vaulting box. 
 
 Preceded by a forward and backward swing. Parallel bars. 
 
 *As the author is opposed to the extensive practice of this class of exercises, only a 
 few types will be enumerated, chiefly those which occur as parts of vaults and suspen- 
 sion exercises.
 
 172 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Side falling position (side leaning rest). 
 
 From running or standing start, as a pr 
 
 Front rest (balance weighing) position. 
 
 From running or standing start;] Horse (with and without pommels); 
 preceded by swing (parallel I buck. Low and high horizontal 
 bars). Dismount without and I bar and boom. Parallel bars, 
 with turns. J hands on either bar. 
 
 Oblique front rest position. 
 
 Sustained or momentary. One hand on each bar. 1 
 Preceded by forward and backward swing, or by di- 1 T> n i K 
 
 rect mount. 
 Dismount to either side, without and with turns. 
 
 "Free" front rest (momentary horiz. pos., supported on arms). 
 From running or standing start, from front 
 
 rest; or from swing (parallel bars). With leg 
 flinging L. and R. or with leg parting. Fin- 
 ishing without and with turns; or by face 
 vault dismount. Continuing to hand stand, 
 high face vault, or hand spring. 
 
 Back rest position. 
 
 From standing start, facing or side to ap- 
 
 Saddle boom; horse, 
 buck, box; low (or 
 high)horizontal bar 
 or boom; parallel 
 bars. 
 
 paratus; or preceded by swing, leg 
 circles, inverted hanging position, or by 
 back upstart. Dismount forward with- 
 out or with turns; backward by circle or 
 roll, or by dropping back, passing feet 
 between hands and finishing with short 
 underswing. 
 
 Horse (buck, box); hori- 
 zontal bar and boom; 
 parallel bars. 
 
 Oblique back rest position. Parallel bars ; long horse. 
 
 Reached from forw. swing between bars, then passing legs outside 
 
 one bar until stopped by hand on that side; or by direct mount. 
 
 Used as an intermediate sustained or transitory position. May be 
 
 followed by back vault dismount to either side, by turn to front rest, 
 
 by additional swings, etc. 
 Cross rest position. Parallel bars. 
 
 Reached by direct mount, from end of or between bars; from ends 
 
 of bars or mid-bars by underswing and upstart, or by cut-offs; 
 
 from upper arm hang or swing, by upstart or uprise, etc. 
 Is a starting or transitory intermediate position in the majority of 
 
 swings, turns, circles, scissors, vaults, rolls, drops, upstarts, etc. 
 
 on the parallel bars. 
 
 Riding rest position. 
 
 (a) Cross riding rest-facing end of apparatus] Para1lel hars . horse 
 (b)Side riding rest-facing at right angles to [bJS- horiz bar 
 apparatus. 
 
 Weight supported partly by arms, hands in front or behind in cross 
 
 riding rest, at sides in side riding rest. 
 Used as a starting or transitory intermediate position in swings, knee 
 
 circles, leg circles, vaults, etc., on the above mentioned apparatus.
 
 PROGRESSION OF APPARATUS EXERCISES 173 
 
 Jumping and Vaulting. 
 
 A. Jumping. 
 
 Under this head would come : 1. Such free-standing ensemble exercises 
 as jumps on toes (spring jumps) of various kinds with foot placings, 
 knee upw. bending, leg flingings, crossing of feet, knee b'd'g, cross-step, 
 cut step, etc., leading up to dancing steps. 
 
 2. Free-standing (ensemble) jump in place, jump forw. and sidew. 
 without and with turns, arm and leg flinging, rebound, one or more start 
 steps. 
 
 3. Jumping down from benches, bar stalls, vaulting apparatus. 
 
 4. Hop, step and jump (individual), each element practiced separately, 
 or two of each, or any combination and sequence of any two or all three 
 elements. For this no other apparatus than a mat or two is needed. 
 
 5. Standing broad jump single, or two or more. 
 
 6. Running hop, step and jump, and running broad jump not very 
 suitable for indoor practice unless thick and springy mattresses are avail- 
 able. 
 
 7. Running high jump. 
 
 (a) Gymnastic for form and landing; from either foot or both 
 feet; with turns either way; without and with spring board. 
 
 (b) The various styles of competitive jump for height. 
 
 8. Hurdling the elements of approach and form. 
 
 9. Standing high jump front and side jump. 
 
 10. Tumbling at least elementary types such as forw. and backw. rolls, 
 hand-and-head spring, hand spring, cartwheel, dive, etc. 
 
 The progression is partly from the easier to the more difficult types; 
 partly in improvement of form; partly in increasing distance or height. 
 
 B. Vaulting. 
 Principles. 
 
 Progression from the easier to the more difficult types; also by doing 
 
 the same type on different apparatus. 
 Adding turns, arm movements and leg movements. 
 Combinations and alternations with suspension and arm support 
 
 exercises. 
 
 Types. I. Horizontal Vaults. II. Vertical Vaults. 
 
 I. Mounts : to kneeling pos. on one knee or both ; to standing pos. 
 on one foot or both; to (cross) riding position; squat mount, 
 straddle mount ; rear squat, straddle and riding mounts. 
 
 Dismounts: directly forward, backward or sideways; face, side, or 
 
 back (vault) dismounts. 
 Complete vaults : knee vault ; squat vault ; straddle vault ; l /2 knee 
 
 l /2 straddle vault; l /2 squat l /t straddle (wolf) vault; jump (thief) 
 
 vault; front (sheep) vault; side straddle vault; rear squat and 
 
 rear straddle vault; cross legged vault. 
 
 II. Preparatory exercises : free front rest with leg flinging L. and R. ; 
 mount to prone falling position (front leaning rest), to side falling 
 position (side leaning rest), to oblique front and back rest. 
 
 Dismounts as above. 
 
 Complete vaults: face (front) vault; side (flank) vault; back vault, 
 oblique back vault.
 
 174 
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Progression. 
 
 I.* Mount to kneeling position, on one knee or both. 
 
 Running or standing start. When on one knee the 
 
 free leg is behind and kept straight. 
 Dismount backward, using the hands, or forward 
 
 without using the hands. 
 Or the mount may be followed by stepping (one foot 
 
 at a time) or springing (both feet simultaneously) 
 
 to standing position, then dismount, as below. 
 
 Horse, buck, 
 vaultingbox. 
 
 Dismount forw., backw., or sidew., ordinary or rising, springing from 
 one foot or both, without and with turns 90 to 360 arm and 
 leg flinging sidew., hand clapping, touching toes, etc. 
 
 Squat mount. 
 
 Running or standing start. 1 Saddle boom; side horse with 
 
 Knees between arms. Straighten to I and without pommels; box; 
 fund. st. position. buck; low horizontal bar 
 
 Dismount as previously described. J and boom. 
 
 Straddle mount. 
 
 Legs outside of arms, knees straight. 
 Dismount as previously described. 
 
 ot; 
 
 horizontal bar and boom. 
 
 , f . 
 
 u" 
 
 -t knee l /t straddle mount. 
 
 One knee between arms, to kneeling position;] 
 the free leg raised sideways, free or foot on [ 
 apparatus. 
 
 i squat y-t straddle mount. 
 
 As preceding, but the knee is drawn up^ R .. dd , boom . side 
 higher and the foot on that side, instead ] c *' sad( llebo 
 
 Mount to cross riding position. 
 
 On inside of thighs. All joints extended. 
 
 Hands preferably behind thighs touching ap- 
 paratus lightly or not at all. 
 
 Dismount forward, backward, or sideways 
 (by l /t circle of one leg); or by face vault 
 or back vault dismount. 
 
 Long horse and buck; 
 parallel bars. 
 
 Rear squat, straddle and riding mounts. 
 Like corresponding front mounts, but pre- 
 ceded by 180 turn L. or R. This occurs 
 after the spring. 
 
 Apparatus as in corre- 
 sponding front mounts. 
 
 Knee vault. 
 
 Momentary support on lower leg, followed by spring. | Horse; buck; 
 Knee should project in front of apparatus. Land- > vaulting 
 ing without and with 90 turn. J box. 
 
 In vertical mounts and vaults the hands should remain on the apparatus only a 
 brief instant. The arm movement should be, like the leg movement, a quick spring. 
 Except in the case of the low horizontal bar and boom a running start is preferable to a 
 standing start.
 
 'PROGRESSION OF APPARATUS EXERCISES 
 
 175 
 
 Squat vault. 
 
 Knees pass between arms and are extended as soon 
 
 as apparatus is cleared. Trunk erect. 
 Spring from hands. Try for height. Land facing 
 
 forward, or with R. and L. turns (90 to 360). 
 
 Saddle boom; side 
 horse; box; buck; 
 low bar and boom ; 
 long horse. 
 
 Straddle vault. 
 
 Legs pass outside of arms, knees straight, 1 Buck; saddle boom; side 
 body erect. Spring from hands. Try I horse; low bar and 
 for height and distance. Landing with- 1 boom; long horse 
 out and with turns (90 to 360). ) (hands on near end). 
 
 One hand straddle vault. 
 As straddle vault, but using only one hand. 
 
 % knee ]4 straddle vault. 
 
 Momentary support on and spring from one lower] Buck; ends of 
 leg. Knee should project well beyond apparatus. V horse and 
 Free leg raised sideways. J box. 
 
 2 squat Yz straddle vault (wolf vault). 
 One leg, with knee drawn up in front, passes 
 between arms, the other leg is raised side- 
 ways. Trunk erect. Spring from both 
 hands simultaneously. Try for height and 
 distance. Turns. 
 
 Saddle boom; horse, 
 buck; box; low 
 horizontal bar and 
 boom. 
 
 Jump vault (thief vault). 
 
 The spring is from one foot, as in a jump. "j 
 
 Feet pass over apparatus first. Hands give I Saddle boom; horse; 
 support on the descent. Without and with [ buck; vaulting box. 
 turns. 
 
 Front vault (sheep vault). 
 
 The apparatus is cleared with the body as] 
 
 -, ~* ,. "',"", t 1 j- I saddle boom; horse; 
 
 tion, but slightly arched, chest leading. > buck- vaultfaur box 
 The knees may have to be flexed more or | 
 less. 
 
 Side straddle vault. 
 
 The apparatus is cleared in what might be called a "free"l 
 side riding position one side leading. The 90 turn is I Long 
 made after the spring. Used as a preparation for the rear [buck, 
 straddle and cross legged vaults. 
 
 Rear (or backward) squat vault. Rear (backward) straddle vault. 
 As corresponding front (or forward) vaults, but 
 with a 180 turn after the spring, so that the 
 apparatus is passed while the body is moving 
 backward. 
 
 Saddle boom; horse; 
 buck; box; low 
 bar and boom. 
 
 Cross legged vault. 
 
 Like straddle vault, but with legs crossed. The] 
 hips are also turned considerably, but the shoul-lBuck; possibly 
 ders remain square to the front. Considerable | long horse, 
 height is necessary.
 
 176 
 
 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 II. Free front rest. 
 
 Without and with leg flinging sideways, landing without and with 
 turns. 
 
 Mounts to prone falling and side falling positions. 
 Like face and side vaults. Position momentary] 
 
 or sustained. ( Box; horse; par- 
 
 Dismounts face and side vault dismounts, with- 1 allel bars. 
 
 out and with 90 to 180 turns. 
 
 Face (front) vault. 
 
 Body facing the apparatus at the moment of 
 passing it. Feet are carried at least as 
 high as the head. Weight of body should 
 be well forward, arms straight. Landing 
 without and with turns either way. 
 
 Horse; vaulting box; 
 buck; saddle boom; 
 low horizontal bar; 
 parallel bars. 
 
 NOTE. When the feet are carried lower than the head, the vault is 
 called low face vault; when considerably higher, approaching a 
 handstand, it might be called high face vault. The former is done 
 over the buck and ends of the horse, as a preparatory exercise. 
 The latter as an advanced form. 
 
 Side (flank) vault. 
 
 The side of the body is turned toward the ap- 
 paratus. Feet are carried at least as high 
 as the head. Supporting arm straight and 
 inclined, so that the hand is opposite the 
 waist. Landing without and with turns 
 either way. 
 
 Variations: Low side vault. One hand side vault. 
 
 Saddle boom; horse; 
 box; buck; low bar 
 and boom; double 
 boom; parallel bars. 
 
 Back vault. 
 
 The back of the body, flexed more or less at 
 the hips, is turned toward the apparatus. 
 After the spring one hand is lifted to let 
 the body pass. It is then replaced and 
 receives the whole weight. Landing with- 
 out and with 90 to 180 turn toward ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 Oblique vault. 
 
 This is essentially a back vault, resembling in some respects the 
 jump vault. 
 
 Parallel bars; side and 
 long horse; box; buck; 
 low horizontal bar and 
 boom; saddle boom; 
 double boom. 
 
 The approach is diagonal; the spring is from the out- 
 side foot; only the near hand is placed on the ap- 
 paratus at the take-off, but its place is taken by the 
 other hand when the body is passing the apparatus. 
 Landing without and with % or }4 turn toward ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 Long horse; 
 long box; 
 long buck; 
 low bar; 
 double boom. 
 
 Variations. One hand oblique vault, with outside turn (away from 
 apparatus). The back vault with outside turn on the parallel bars 
 is of similar character. 
 
 On the double boom the oblique vault may he done by a spring from 
 both feet, or from the outside foot only. The outside hand grasps 
 the upper boom. Only the outside turn is here feasible.
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 177 
 
 Screw vault. 
 
 This is a term used to designate either face vault with l /2 (180) 
 turn away from the apparatus, or a back (or oblique) vault with 
 l /2 turn toward the apparatus. In the latter case the body must 
 be straightened from the previously flexed position at the hips. 
 
 High face vault on the double boom. 
 
 This consists of a direct mount to a momentary front rest on the 
 upper boom, flexion at the hips with release of one hand, which 
 reaches down and grasps the lower boom, the body in the mean- 
 while turning toward the side of the upper hand. Then follow 
 extension at the hips with arching of the back and what might be 
 called a high face vault dismount, the hand on the lower boom 
 being released with a push and the hand on the upper boom being 
 shifted, at the last moment, to the lower boom. 
 
 Hand stand : face, squat and straddle vault dismounts. 
 The position may be held a varying length of time, or the movement 
 may progress evenly throughout. In the latter case it is a vault 
 in the true sense and might be named hand stand (or balance) 
 face, squat or straddle vault. 
 
 Hand spring. 
 
 Position may be held, or the movement, quick or slow, progress 
 evenly. 
 
 C. Swing Jumps. 
 
 Already described under Suspension Exercises. When used to repre- 
 sent the Jumping and Vaulting class of exercises, the swing jumps should 
 be started with a run. The spring may be from one foot or both, the 
 approach perpendicular or diagonal. When clearing a height, e.g., the 
 lower boom, or the rope or bar on the jumping standards placed directly 
 below, or below and in front of, the high bar or boom, the approach may 
 also be diagonal or at right angles to the apparatus. In the latter case, 
 the legs may be raised either directly sidew., or forw., or sidew.-forw., with 
 a twist of the hips and turn of the body. The swing jumps may thus be 
 made to resemble a side vault, a back vault, a jump vault or an oblique 
 vault. 
 
 When the swing jump is done with one vertical rope (or one rope 
 ladder), the legs may be raised and the body then suddenly straightened 
 with a 180 turn toward the side of the lower hand. The movement thus 
 closely resembles the pole vault. 
 
 8. PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS. 
 
 The following gymnastic lessons may serve to illustrate the 
 general application of principles of selection and progression of 
 gymnastic exercises free-standing and apparatus in the adapta- 
 tion of the work to high school and college conditions. 
 
 A reasonably well-equipped gymnasium and from thirty-five 
 to forty minutes actual working time will be assumed. Also, in 
 the case of high school students, previous training in the "definite" 
 style of work. In the case of college students such previous train-
 
 178 C.YMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 ing cannot, as a rule, be counted on and hence will not be assumed. 
 If, however, sufficient opportunity be afforded to "prepare the 
 students' mind" for the character and purpose of the work, so 
 that their intelligent interest and cooperation can be obtained 
 from the outset, the first lessons may be made of a fairly definite 
 character even here. If such "preparation" is not feasible, the 
 first few lessons for college students should preferably contain 
 a number of exercises of a more or less indefinite character, repre- 
 senting lively action and abundant general muscular exercise. 
 Then, by degrees, exercises of a more definite character may be 
 substituted, or the types given at first may be redefined, as far 
 as possible, so as to call for more exactness of detail, holding of 
 positions, etc. In either case the class should cover approximately 
 the same ground during the year's work. 
 
 As the purpose is merely to indicate, by fairly wide steps, the 
 progression of the most useful and representative types and 
 combinations, only the first, fourth, eighth and twelfth lessons of 
 each series of twelve will be given. Each lesson is to be given 
 three or four times, except the first, which need not be repeated 
 more than once. This much will probably be necessary in order 
 to cover all preliminaries in a thorough manner. The change 
 from one lesson to the next may be complete, or more or less 
 gradual (by substitution of some exercises). The former is 
 preferable. In that case it may not be possible to give all the 
 exercises the first time. Each time a lesson is repeated the 
 exercises are done less on command and with more rhythmic 
 repetition. 
 
 Series i. High School Girls. First Year. 
 Lesson i. 
 
 I. Alignment on two ranks. Numbering. Open order by forward and 
 
 backward steps. Review facings on two counts. 
 
 II. 1. Alternate foot, placing sideways with placing of hands on hips 
 
 (on command once or twice, then repeated rhythmically).* 
 
 2. Hip grasp standing heel raising. 
 
 3. Neck grasp standing backward moving of head (and elbows with 
 
 chest expansion. On command three or four times. Slow, 
 powerful movement; position well sustained.) 
 
 4. Bend standing stooping (touching the floor, bent knees, back 
 
 straight) and return. 
 
 5. Hip grasp stride standing side bending of trunk. 
 
 * Generally speaking, each exercise should be given at least once on command, 
 then repeated rhythmically six or ten times. In some cases rhythmic repetition is 
 not suitable. Such exercises should be repeated only two or three times on com- 
 mand. Others should be started at once as rhythmic movements. The former 
 procedure will be indicated by "(C)," the latter by "(Rh)."
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 179 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching sideways (C). 
 
 7. Hip grasp standing knee upward bending L. and R. (Rh). 
 
 8. Bend stride standing trunk twisting (C). (Try to move only 
 
 above hips.) 
 
 9. Hip grasp standing jumping on toes with foot placing sideways 
 
 (Rh). ("Stride jump.") 
 10. Arm raising sideways with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Flank marching. Short run; march around once; then arm rota- 
 tion with backward bending of head and deep breathing. 
 
 Lesson 4. 
 
 I. Front and rear marching, changing direction during march. Open 
 
 order by forward and backward steps, on one command. Facings 
 on one count. Backward bending of head. 
 
 II. 1. Bend standing arm stretching sideways with heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp stride standing alternate knee bending (two counts 
 
 each side). 
 
 3. Arm circumduction on three counts (arm flinging forward-up- 
 
 ward, then sideways with palms up, then downward), with 
 backward bending of head. 
 
 4. Alternate foot placing sideways with (placing of) hands on hips, 
 
 and forward-downward bending of trunk (to horizontal or 
 beyond, upper back straight). 
 
 5. Neck grasp walk (a) st. trunk twisting (C). 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching sideways and downward. (Uneven 
 
 rhythm.) 
 
 7. Hip grasp st. leg flinging sidew. L. & R. (Unexpected changes, 
 
 without stopping. Started rhythmically.) 
 
 8. Cfoss (a) prone st. arm flinging sideways (C). 
 
 9. Neck grasp stride st. side bending of trunk. (Try rhythmic 
 
 repetition.) 
 
 10. Jump forward with two (running) start steps, L. & R. 
 
 11. Bend st. slow arm stretching upward with backward bending of 
 
 head. 
 
 III. Horizontal ladder: Hand traveling forward and backward without 
 
 swing. 
 
 or 
 
 High boom : Hand traveling sideways, L. & R., without swing. 
 
 IV. Standing hop, step; step, jump; two standing broad jumps. 
 
 or 
 
 Vaulting box : Face vault mount to prone falling position. Mount 
 to kneeling position, dismount forward. 
 
 V. Run, march ; or dance. Breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 8. 
 
 I. Front, rear and flank marching with (not too rapid) changes of direc- 
 tion during march. Open order by forward and backward steps,, 
 followed by facing, all on one command.
 
 180 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 II. 1. Hip grasp standing alternate heel-and-toe raising. 
 
 2. Arm bending and stretching sideways with alternate foot placing 
 
 sidew. and knee bending. 
 
 3. Neck grasp walk (b) st. backw. arching of trunk (C). 
 
 4. Hip grasp standing alternate leg flinging forward (Rh). 
 
 5. Forward bending of arms with alternate foot placing forward, 
 
 and trunk twisting. 
 
 6. Bend close st. forward bending of trunk, alternating with arm 
 
 stretching diagonally upward. 
 
 7. Hip grasp l /2 st. (leg forward) knee bending (C). 
 
 8. Alternate foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and side 
 
 bending of trunk. 
 
 9. Oblique charge with hands on hips. (If rhythmic repetition is 
 
 tried, the position should be held a relatively long time.) 
 
 10. Jump on toes with foot placing sidew. and arm flinging sidew.- 
 
 upw. (Rh). 
 
 11. Reach st. slow arm parting, palms up, with backw. bending of 
 
 head (C). 
 
 III. Window ladder: Oblique (zigzag) climbing. 
 
 or 
 
 Rope ladders: Climbing with hands and feet, each step on count. 
 First one pupil, then two, on each ladder. 
 
 IV. Running high jump from L. & R. foot, with 90 turn. 
 Running high jump from both feet. 
 
 or 
 Buck: Low side vault L. & R.; Straddle vault. 
 
 V. Run, or dance, or game. 
 Breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 12. 
 
 I. Front, flank, and rear marching. Fairly rapid changes of direction 
 
 during march. Starting march and halting with facings. 
 
 II. 1. Forward bending and side-flinging of arms with alternate foot 
 
 placing forward and heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp standing heel raising and deep knee bending. 
 
 3. Alternate foot placing sideways with hands on neck, and back- 
 
 ward arching of trunk. 
 
 4. Bend stride standing downward bending, touching floor (straight 
 
 upper back), alternating with arm stretching upward. 
 
 5. Hip grasp standing alternate leg flinging sideways (Rh). 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching, one sideways the other downward. 
 
 7. Forward charge with hands on neck (C). 
 
 8. Hip grasp walk (b) st. side bending of trunk (C). 
 
 9. Prone falling position and return. 
 
 10. Hip grasp Yz st. rocking (cut) step forward-backward, with foot 
 
 placing sideways on seventh count and change of feet on 
 eighth count (Rh). 
 
 11. Arm circumduction (forw.-upw., sidew.-downw.) with backward 
 
 bending of head (C, first count quick, second slow). 
 
 III. Vertical ropes: Climbing (using arms and legs). 
 
 or 
 Boom : Rotary hand traveling forward. Standing swing jump.
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 181 
 
 IV. Vaulting box: Face vault. Knee vault. 
 
 or 
 Horse: Side vault. Oblique (back) vault. 
 
 V. Run, dance, or game. 
 Breathing exercise. 
 
 Series 2. High School Girls. Second Year. 
 
 Lesson I. 
 
 I. Alignment on two ranks. Front and rear marching. Open order by 
 
 forward and backward steps. Facings on two counts. Try on 
 one count. Backward bending of head. 
 
 II. 1. Hip grasp standing alternate toe raising (Rh). 
 
 2. Arm flinging sideways with knee bending, heels off (Rh). 
 
 3. Bend stride standing backward arching (C). 
 
 4. Hip grasp stride St. forward-downward bending of trunk (C). 
 
 5. Arm bending and stretching sideways and downward (C and 
 
 even Rh). 
 
 6. Hip grasp standing leg flinging sideways L. & R. (Rh). 
 
 7. Cross (a) st. forw. bending of trunk (C)/ 
 
 8. Hip grasp walk (b) st. heel raising (C and Rh). 
 
 9. Neck grasp stride st. trunk twisting (C). 
 
 10. Jump in place with side flinging of arms (C). 
 
 III. Bar stalls: 
 
 Climbing up and down (each step on command). 
 Grasp high l /2 st. arm stretching and bending with knee bending 
 and stretching. 
 
 IV. Run, march; toe march. 
 
 Arm rotation with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 Lesson 4. 
 
 I. Front, rear and flank marching with changes of direction during 
 
 march. Halts with facings. Begin opening order by side steps. 
 Head movements. 
 
 II. 1. Alternate foot placing outward with hands on hips, and heel 
 
 raising. 
 
 2. Cross (a) stride st. arm flinging sideways with knee bending. 
 
 3. Bend walk (b) st. slow arm stretching diagonally upw. with 
 
 backward bending of head (C). 
 
 4. Hip grasp st. alternate knee upward bending (Rh). 
 
 5. Neck grasp stride st. trunk twisting all the way from one side 
 
 .to the other in one quick movement. 
 
 6. Bend prone st. arm stretching sideways (C). 
 
 7. Hip grasp l /2 st. (leg sidew.) change feet in one quick movement 
 
 (C). 
 
 8. Arm bending with oblique charge. (Rhythmic repetition, with 
 
 positions well sustained.) 
 
 9. Alternate foot placing sideways with hands on neck, and side 
 
 bending of trunk. 
 
 10. Hip grasp st. jump on toes with foot placing sideways and cross- 
 
 ing of feet (Rh). 
 
 11. Arm circumduction with backward bending of head (C).
 
 182 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 III. Window ladder: Horizontal or vertical climbing. Jump through in 
 
 two movements. 
 
 or 
 
 Rope ladders: Climbing (one or two on each ladder) for speed. 
 Run, start swing, dismount first on backward, then on forward 
 swing (each pupil using two ladders). 
 
 IV. Running leap from L. & R. foot (preparation for hurdle). Hurdle. 
 Running high jump from each foot, and from both, with turns on 
 
 landing. 
 
 or 
 
 Saddle boom (or horse with pummels) : Running free front rest. 
 l /2 squat mount (free leg behind), rising dismount. Squat vault. 
 
 V. Run, march, balance march ; or dance, or game. 
 Breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 8. 
 
 I. Front, flank and rear and oblique marching with rapid changes of 
 
 direction. R. & L. by file and by twos. 
 
 II. 1. Bend walk (b) st. arm stretching upward with heel raising. 
 
 2. Side lunge with (placing of) hands on hips. 
 
 3. Neck grasp st. backw. arching of trunk, alternating *with quick 
 
 arm stretching sidew., palms up. 
 
 4. (1) Arm bending; (2) foot placing sidew. with downward bend- 
 
 ing (touching floor) ; (3) trunk raising with arm bending; 
 (4) jump to fundamental position. 
 
 5. J /2 hip grasp st. leg flinging sidew. L. & R. with opposite arm 
 
 flinging sidew.-upw. (Rh). 
 
 6. Neck grasp toe st. balance march forw. (each step on command). 
 
 7. Arm bending with forward charge, then arm stretching sidew. 
 
 8. Hip grasp st. jump on toes with alternate knee upw. bending. 
 
 III. High boom: Rotary traveling forw. Running swing jump. 
 Low boom : Front rest position. 
 
 or 
 
 Horizontal ladder : Rotary traveling forward on rungs. St. swing 
 jump. Short jumps forward, hands on outside. 
 
 IV. Bar stalls: Hip grasp prone lying forw. bending of trunk (benches) 
 
 (C). 
 
 Hip grasp opposite sitting backw. leaning of trunk (benches) (C). 
 Grasp side arch st. pos. (outside leg raised). (C). 
 
 V. Obstacle relay race. 
 
 Lesson 12. 
 
 I. Marching, as before. Also Fours R. & L. 
 
 II. 1. Arm raising sideways-upward with heel raising and knee bend- 
 
 ing. 
 
 2. Bend walk (a) twist st. backward arching of trunk (C). 
 
 3. Alternate foot placing sideways with hands overhead, and forw.- 
 
 downw. bending of trunk (arms in line with trunk, upper 
 back straight). 
 
 4. Bend charge (a) st. trunk twisting to opposite side (C). 
 
 5. Neck grasp st. alternate leg flinging forw. (Rh).
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 183 
 
 6. Hip grasp stride st. side-and-knee bending (~C). (Or, side lunge 
 
 st. side b'd'g of trunk.) 
 
 7. Arm bending and stretching, one sidew. the other backw. (on 
 
 command, and repeated in uneven rhythm). 
 
 8. Hip grasp toe-support charge position (try rhythmic repetition, 
 
 with the position well sustained). 
 
 9. Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing forw., and trunk 
 
 twisting. 
 
 10. Neck grasp ^ kneeling backw. leaning of trunk. 
 
 11. Hip grasp l /t standing (foot behind) hop and "kick" sidew. with 
 
 turn, then change feet. 
 
 12. Reach st. arm slow parting with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Ropes : Climbing on two ropes. Inverted hanging position on two 
 
 ropes. 
 
 or 
 
 Boom : Rotary traveling forw. and backw. 
 
 Low boom : Forward circle from front rest position. 
 
 IV. Saddle boom (or horse with pummels) : l /2 squat l /i straddle mount, 
 
 rising dismount. Squat vault. Side vault. 
 
 or 
 
 Ropes : Swing jump for height. 
 Also: hop, step and jump, and three standing broad jumps. 
 
 V. Run or dance. 
 Breathing exercise. 
 
 Series 3. High School Boys. First Year. 
 Lesson I. 
 
 I. Alignment on two ranks. Numbering. Open order by forward and 
 
 backward steps. Facings on two counts. 
 
 II. 1. Arm bending with heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp stride st. knee bending. 
 
 3. Arm flinging sideways, palms up, with backw. bending of head. 
 
 4. Hip grasp stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk (C). 
 
 5. Bend stride st. trunk twisting, alternating with arm stretching 
 
 sidew. 
 
 6. Hip grasp st. leg flinging forward L. & R. (Rh). 
 
 7. Arm bending and stretching upw. and downw. (on command 
 
 and then repeated in even rhythm, at first; later in uneven 
 rhythm). 
 
 8. Neck grasp stride st. side bending of trunk (C). 
 
 9. Hip grasp st. jumping on toes (Rh). Also running in place. 
 
 10. Arm raising sidew. with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Horizontal ladder.* Two or more of the following exercises: 
 
 Hand traveling forw. and backw., without swing, straight arms, 
 
 hands on outside. 
 Hand traveling sidew. L. & R., without swing, straight arms, hands 
 
 on outside. 
 
 * At the first meeting of the class there will probably not be opportunity for 
 much or any apparatus work, as organization, agreements, etc., take up much time. 
 The apparatus work given below, however, is a fair sample of elementary series of 
 exercises.
 
 184 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Hanging alt. knee upw. bending (six to ten pupils at once). 
 Hanging arm bending, repeated once or twice. 
 
 or 
 
 High horizontal bar. Three or more of the following: 
 Swing jump (short underswing), from standing pos. behind bar. 
 Hanging position : arm bending repeated two or three times. 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on first backward swing. 
 Jump to bent arm hanging position, throw head back, straighten 
 
 arms and draw knees up between arms, insteps touching bar. 
 Hanging position : change from narrow to wide grasp three times. 
 
 IV. Side horse (with pummels). Three or more of the following: 
 
 Squat mount, dismount forward. 
 
 Straddle mount, dismount forward. 
 
 Low side vault L. & R. over ends, one hand on pummel, the other 
 
 on horse. 
 
 Mount to kneeling pos., step up to st. pos., jump down. 
 Free front rest. 
 
 (All the above with running start.) 
 
 or 
 
 Running high jump from L. & R. foot, without and with 90 turn 
 
 L. & R. 
 Running high jump from both feet. 
 
 V. Run, march ; breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 4. 
 
 I. Front and rear marching. Alignment and open order as before. 
 
 Facings on one count. 
 
 II. 1. Alternate foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and heel 
 
 raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp st. heel raising and knee bending. 
 
 3. Bend walk (b) st. slow arm stretching upward with backw. 
 
 bending of head (C). 
 
 4. Alternate foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and forw.- 
 
 downw. bending of trunk. 
 
 5. Arm bending and stretching upw., sidew., and downw. (C, and 
 
 repeated in uneven rhythm). 
 
 6. Hip grasp st. leg flinging sidew. L. & R. (Rh; unexpected 
 
 changes). 
 
 7. Neck grasp walk (b) st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 8. Cross (a) stride st. trunk twisting, alternating with arm flinging 
 
 sidew. 
 
 9. Oblique charge with hands on hips (or a mimetic exercise, such 
 
 as catching a low throw to first base). 
 
 10. Hip grasp st. jump on toes with foot placing forw.-backw. (Rh). 
 
 11. Cross (d) st. arm raising with backw. bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Suspended parallel bars. Two or more of the following : 
 
 Hand traveling forw. and backw. without swing, straight arms. 
 Hand traveling sidew. L. & R. without swing, straight arms.
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 185 
 
 Hanging alternate knee upw. bending. (Several pupils at once.) 
 Hanging arm bending two or three times. (Several pupils at once.) 
 
 or 
 
 Ropes : 
 
 Climbing pos. (grasp with hands, knees and fe'et). 
 Fall hanging pos.: alternate leg raising; arm bending. 
 Run, jump to bent arm hanging pos., or raise legs; dismount on first 
 backw. swing. 
 
 IV. Buck. Two or more of the following : 
 
 Straddle vault. 
 
 l /2 squat l /t straddle mount L. & R., rising dismount. 
 
 Free front rest. 
 
 Low face vault L. & R. 
 
 Knee vault. 
 
 or 
 
 Standing hop, step; step, hop; hop, jump; step, jump; two standing 
 broad jumps. 
 
 V. Run, march; breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 8. 
 
 I. Front, flank and rear marching, with changes of direction during 
 
 march. Alignment and open order as before. 
 
 II. 1. Reach st. arm flinging sidew. with heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp stride st. alternate knee bending (continuous move- 
 
 ment from one side to the other). 
 
 3. Neck grasp st. backward bending of head (slow, backw. arching), 
 
 alternating with (quick) arm flinging sidew., palms up. 
 
 4. Arm bending with alternate foot placing sidew. (wide step), and 
 
 downw. bending, touching floor (upper back straight). 
 
 5. Arm circumduction (quick) with alternate toe touch sidew. 
 
 6. Hip grasp st. alternate knee-upw. bending (Rh). 
 
 7. Bend stride st. trunk twisting from one side to the other in one 
 
 continuous movement, alternating with arm stretching upw. 
 
 8. Prone falling position and return (C). 
 
 9. Cross (c) stride st. side bending of trunk. 
 
 10. Crouching start and run in place. 
 
 11. Arm raising sidew.-upw. with backw. bending of head. 
 
 III. Horizontal ladder. Two or more of the following : 
 
 Hand traveling sidew. without swing, straight arms, hands on out- 
 side. 
 
 Rotary traveling forw. on rungs with swing and l /t turn at each step. 
 
 Short jumps forw., hands on outside, straight arms. 
 
 Hand traveling forw. on rungs, one at a time, without swing or turn. 
 
 Hanging pos.: 2 knee upw. bending; or alt. leg raising forw. 
 
 Hanging pos. : arm bending three or four times. 
 
 or 
 High horizontal bar. Three or more of the following: 
 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on next forw. swing. 
 
 Hanging position : arm bending three or four times. 
 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on first backw. swing with 90 turn 
 L. & R.
 
 186 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Jump to bent arm hanging pos., throw head back, straighten arms, 
 
 raise feet to bar outside hands (knees straight). 
 Swing jump for distance, running start, from both feet. 
 
 IV. Side horse (with pummels) : 
 
 l /i squat l /2 straddle mount L. & R., rising dismount. 
 
 Squat vault. 
 
 Straddle mount, dismount with 90 turn L. & R. 
 
 Knee vault. 
 
 Low face vault L. & R. 
 
 or 
 
 Running high jump from L. foot with 90 turn to R. 
 Running high jump from R. foot with 90 turn to L. 
 Running hurdle jump from L. & R. foot. 
 
 V. Run, march, breathing exercises. 
 
 Lesson 12. 
 
 I. Marching, etc., as before. More rapid changes. 
 
 II. 1. Arm flinging forw. with knee bending, heels off. 
 
 2. Cross (c) walk (b) st. slow arm rotation with backw. arching 
 
 (C). 
 
 3. Hip grasp st. alt. leg flinging forw. (Rh). 
 
 4. Alternate foot placing forw. with hands on neck, and trunk 
 
 twisting. 
 
 5. Arm bending and stretching upw. and sidew. with heel raising 
 
 (each time the arms are stretched), uneven rhythm. 
 
 6. Forward charge with hands on hips. 
 
 7. Neck grasp stride st. side bending of trunk from one side to the 
 
 other in one continuous movement. 
 
 8. Bend ^2 hook st. arm stretching sidew. with knee stretching forw. 
 
 (C). 
 
 9. "Foul throw" (basket ball mimetic exercise). 
 
 10. Jump on toes with foot placing sidew. and arm flinging sidew.- 
 
 upw. and crossing of hands and feet on the return. 
 
 11. Reach st. slow arm parting, palms up, with backward bending of 
 
 head. 
 
 III. Suspended parallel bars: 
 
 Hand traveling sidew. without swing. 
 
 Short jumps forw. and backw. 
 
 Hand traveling sidew. with swing from shoulder and alternate arm 
 
 bending. 
 
 Hanging position; alternate knee upw. bending and stretching forw. 
 Hanging position ; arm bending four or five times. 
 Swing jump, standing start. 
 
 or 
 
 Ropes : 
 
 Climbing on one or two ropes, using hands, knees and feet. 
 Inverted hanging position on two ropes. 
 
 Run, start swing and raise legs, dismount on first backw. swing. 
 Run, start swing and raise legs, dismount on next forw. swing. 
 Running swing jump without and with 90 turns on landing.
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 187 
 
 IV. Buck : 
 
 Straddle vault with 90 turn L. & R. 
 
 y 2 squat l /2 straddle vault L. & R. 
 
 Squat mount, rising dismount. 
 
 Low side vault L. & R. 
 
 Straddle vault for distance on far side. 
 
 or 
 
 Standing side jump L. & R. ; st. backw. jump. 
 
 Standing hop, step and jump. Three standing broad jumps. 
 
 V. Run, march; breathing exercise. 
 
 Series 4. High School Boys. Second Year. 
 Lesson i. 
 
 \. Alignment on two ranks. Front and rear marching. Open order by 
 forw. and backw. steps. Facings on two counts. (Try one count.) 
 
 II. 1. Head movements. Bending and stretching of fingers and wrists 
 
 in fund., cross (c) and stretch positions, ten counts in each 
 pos. 
 
 2. Hip grasp st. alt. heel-and-toe raising (Rh). 
 
 3. Arm circumduction on three counts (quick movements) with 
 
 backw. bending of head. 
 
 4. Bend st. stooping, alternating with arm stretching sidew. 
 
 5. Neck grasp stride st. trunk twisting. 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching sidew. and backw. 
 
 7. Hip grasp st. knee upw. bending L. & R. (Rh). 
 
 8. Cross (a) prone st. arm flinging (C). 
 
 9. Neck grasp stride st. side bending of trunk. 
 
 10. St. forward jump (C). 
 
 11. Arm raising sidew. with backw. bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Horizontal ladder. Two or more of the following: 
 
 Hand traveling forw. and backw., hands outside, straight arms. 
 
 Hand traveling sidew., without swing, hands outside, straight arms. 
 
 Rotary traveling forw. on rungs with swing and l /2 turn. 
 
 Short jumps forw., hands outside, straight arms. 
 
 Hand traveling forw. on rungs, one at a time, without swing or turn. 
 
 Hanging position : alternate side swing from shoulder (with alt. arm 
 
 bending). 
 Hanging pos. : arm bending two to four times. 
 
 or 
 
 High horizontal bar. Three or more of the following: 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on first backward swing. 
 Jump to bent arm hanging pos., raise feet to bar between hands, 
 
 knees bent; or outside hands, knees straight. 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on next forw. swing. 
 Hanging position : arm bending two to four times. 
 Standing swing jump (short underswing) with 90 turn L. & R.
 
 188 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 IV. Side horse (with pummels) : 
 
 Free front rest without or with 90 turn L. & R. 
 
 Squat mount, rising dismount. 
 
 Knee vault. 
 
 Low side vault L. & R. over ends. 
 
 Straddle mount, dismount with 90 turn L. & R. 
 
 Low face vault L. & R. over ends. 
 
 Squat vault. 
 
 or 
 
 Running high jump with 90 turns L. & R. from each foot. 
 Running high jump with 90 turns L. & R. from both feet. 
 Hurdle from L. & R foot. 
 
 V. Run, march; breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 4. 
 
 I. Marching. Perfecting of front, rear and flank marching with rapid 
 
 and unexpected changes of direction. Changing from double to 
 single file and vice versa. Open order by side steps. 
 
 II. 1. Forward bending and side flinging of arms with alternate foot 
 
 placing sidew. and heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp walk (b) st. heel raising and knee bending. 
 
 3. Neck grasp stride st. backw. arching, alternating with quick arm 
 
 stretching upw. 
 
 4. Arm bending with closing feet, and forw.-downw. bending of 
 
 trunk. 
 
 5. YI. hip grasp st. leg flinging L. & R. with opposite arm flinging 
 
 sidew. (Rh). 
 
 6. Bend walk (a) twist st. arm stretching upw. 
 
 7. Prone falling position and return. 
 
 8. Mimetic exercise : catching a high throw to first base. 
 
 9. Oblique charge with hands on neck. 
 
 10. Hip grasp st. jump on toes with alt. knee upw. bending. 
 
 11. Arm circumduction (2 counts) with backw. bending of head. 
 
 III. Suspended parallel bars : 
 
 Hand traveling sidew., on one bar, with swing from shoulder and 
 
 alt. arm bending. 
 Hand travejing forw. and backw. (one hand on each bar) with bent 
 
 arms. 
 
 Rotary traveling forw. (combined grasp) on one bar, straight arms. 
 Hand traveling sidew. (ordinary grasp) on one bar, with bent arms. 
 Standing swing jump, hands outside or inside. 
 Standing swing jump, catch and dismount. 
 
 or 
 
 Ropes : 
 
 Climbing on one or two ropes, using hands and feet. 
 Bent arm hanging pos. : alternate knee upw. bending. 
 Inverted hanging pos. on two ropes : quick backw. ]/2 circle to floor. 
 Run, start swing, pull up to bent arm hanging pos. at end of forw. 
 
 swing. 
 Running swing jump with 90 turn on landing.
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 189 
 
 IV. Buck : 
 
 Y 2 squat l /2 straddle mount L. & R., rising dismount. 
 
 Low face vault L. & R. 
 
 Squat mount, dismount forw. with side flinging of arms and legs. 
 
 Low side vault L. & R. 
 
 l /2 squat l /2 straddle vault L. & R. 
 
 Straddle vault for distance on far side. 
 
 Jump from L. (R.) foot to st. pos. on R. (L.) foot, dismount forw. 
 
 or 
 
 Standing two hops and jump; two steps and jump; hop, step and 
 
 jump; three standing broad jumps. 
 One forw. roll, hands on mat; same with hands on instep. 
 
 Low Horizontal Bar: (All exercises are done from a standing start.) 
 
 Free front rest. Preparation for side vault : swing legs to L. & R. 
 
 Preparation for squat vault and straddle vault : insteps to bar inside 
 and outside of hands. 
 
 Reverse grasp : circle forw. to sitting pos. on floor, or to fall hang- 
 ing pos. ; swing up to st. pos. 
 
 Low side vault L. & R. touching bar with foot and landing with 90 
 turn. 
 
 Short underswing from L. & R. foot. 
 
 Lesson 8. 
 
 I. Marching, as before, possibly including oblique marching. 
 
 II. 1. Arm flinging forw. and sidew. with heel raising and knee bending. 
 
 2. Stretch stride st. backw. arching (C). 
 
 3. (1) Arm bending; (2) foot placing sidew. with downw. bending, 
 
 touching floor (straight upper back) ; (3) trunk raising with 
 arm flinging sidew.: (4) jump to fund. pos. 
 
 4. Bend oblique charge st. trunk twisting to same side (C). 
 
 5. Arm circumduction with alternate leg raising sidew. (slow move- 
 
 ment, on command; or quick movement repeated rhythmic- 
 ally). 
 
 6. Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on neck, and forw. bending 
 
 of trunk. 
 
 7. Hip grasp toe st. alt. knee upw. bending (Rh). 
 
 8. Mimetic exercise : shot put. 
 
 9. Hip grasp side lunge st. side bending of trunk (C). 
 
 10. Jump in place with side flinging of arms and 180 turn (C). 
 
 11. Bend st. slow arm stretching upw. with backw. bending of head 
 
 (C). 
 
 III. Horizontal ladder: 
 
 Short jumps backw., hands outside, straight arms. 
 
 Hand traveling backw. on rungs, one at a time, without swing. 
 
 Hand traveling forw. on rungs, skipping one, without swing. 
 
 Hand traveling sidew., hands outside, with swing from shoulder 
 
 and alt. arm brnding. 
 
 Rotary traveling backw. on rungs, with swing and turn. 
 Hand traveling forw. with bent arms, hands outside.
 
 190 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Hand traveling sidew. on rungs, straight arms. 
 
 Standing swing jump. 
 
 Standing swing jump, catch and dismount. 
 
 or 
 
 High horizontal bar : 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on first backw. swing with 90 turn 
 
 L. & R. 
 
 Hanging pos. with reverse grasp, change to ordinary grasp, twice. 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on next forw. swing with 90 turn 
 
 L. & R. 
 Jump, pass feet between hands to inverted hanging pos., return in 
 
 reverse order. 
 Hanging pos. with reverse grasp, start swing, dismount on first 
 
 backw. swing. 
 Jump to bent arm pos., raise legs quickly, hook one knee over bar 
 
 and swing other leg backw. ; dismount on next backw. swing. Or 
 
 mount. 
 
 Jump from behind or directly under bar, backw. circle to front rest. 
 Swing jump for height and distance, running start. 
 
 IV. Side horse : 
 
 Straddle mount, dismount with 180 turn L. & R. 
 
 1/2 squat l /2 straddle vault L. & R. over ends of horse. 
 
 Squat vault with 90 turn. 
 
 Low side vault L. & R. with 90 turn R. & L. respectively. 
 
 Mount to kneeling pos. spring up to st. pos., dismount forw. 
 
 Back vault L. & R. over ends. 
 
 Face vault L. & R. 
 
 Straddle vault. 
 
 or 
 
 Running high jump from L. & R. foot with 180 turn to side of 
 springing foot (leading up to regular competitive style of run- 
 ning high jump). 
 
 Running oblique jump (springing from one foot, landing on the 
 other). 
 
 Standing high jump forw. and sidew. 
 
 Hurdle. Pike drive (without and with spring board). 
 
 V. Run, march ; breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 12. 
 
 I. Marching, as before. 
 
 II. 1. Arm bending and stretching upw. with alt. foot placing sidew. 
 
 and heel raising. 
 
 2. Side lunge with hands on hips, and alternate knee bending. 
 
 3. Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on neck, and backw. arching 
 
 of trunk. 
 
 4. Bend stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk, alternating with 
 
 arm stretching upw. with (quick) knee bending. 
 
 5. Forw. bending of, arms with alt. foot placing obliquely outw., 
 
 and trunk twisting. 
 
 6. Hip grasp toe-support charge pos. 
 
 7. Alt. leg flinging sidew. with opposite arm flinging sidew.-upw. 
 
 (Rh).
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 191 
 
 8. Prone falling foot placing forw. and backw. once, and return 
 
 (six counts). 
 
 9. Mimetic exercise: discus throw; or catching wide throw to first 
 
 base. 
 
 10. Hip grasp st. hop twice on L. foot and swing R. foot backw. and 
 
 forw., then change (Rh). 
 
 11. Bend st. slow arm stretching sidew., palms up, with backw. 
 
 bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Suspended parallel bars : 
 
 Hand traveling backw. (one hand on each bar) with bent arms. 
 Short jumps forw. (one hand on each bar) with bent arms. 
 Rotary traveling backw. (combined grasp) on one bar, straight arms. 
 Hand traveling sidew. (on one bar), bent arms. 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on next backw. swing; hands outside 
 
 or inside bars. (Try mounting to upper arm hang.) 
 Swing jump, catch and dismount with 90 turns. 
 At ends of bars : jump, pull up, raise legs to inverted hanging pos. 
 
 Return in reverse order, or by quick backw. l /z circle (body 
 
 straight). 
 
 or 
 
 Ropes : 
 
 Horizontal climbing from rope to rope. 
 
 Prone hanging pos.: arm bending; change to fall hanging pos. 
 Inverted climbing pos. on one rope. 
 Quick backw. circle between two ropes. 
 Running swing jump on one rope. 
 
 IV. Buck: 
 
 Straddle vault with 90 or 180 turns. 
 Knee vault. Squat vault. 
 
 Low side vault L. & R. with 90 turn R. & L. respectively. 
 Y-2 squat l /2 straddle vault L. & R., each with 90 turn each way. 
 Jump from L. & R. foot to standing pos. on both feet. Rising dis- 
 mount, touching toes with hands before landing. 
 Back vault L. & R., without and with 90 inside turn. 
 Straddle vault for height. 
 
 or 
 
 Running hop, step; step, hop; hop, jump; step, jump; hop, step and 
 
 jump. 
 Elementary tumbling : forw. and backw. roll ; head stand and forw. 
 
 roll; hand stand (with assistance); cartwheel; hand-and-head 
 
 spring; dive; handspring. 
 
 or 
 
 Low horizontal bar : 
 
 Free front rest with 90 turns on landing. 
 Low side vault L. & R. 
 
 Front rest, dismount backw. (without and with 90 turns). 
 Squat mount, dismount forw. 
 Low face vault L. & R. (combined grasp). 
 Front rest: slow forward circle (bending at hips) to fall hanging 
 
 nos., swing up to st. pos. 
 Back vault L. & R.
 
 192 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Mount to back rest, turning L. & R., dismount forw., or roll over 
 
 backw. (backw. circle) to standing pos. on near side. 
 Backw. circle to front rest, dismount backw. 
 Short underswing, from both feet, without and with a jump. 
 
 V. Run, march, breathing exercise. 
 
 Series 5. College Women. First Year. 
 Lesson i. 
 
 I. Alignment on two ranks. Fundamental standing position. Relaxed 
 
 position. Numbering. Open ranks by two forward and back- 
 ward steps, each step separately on command ; then numbers One 
 one step forward, numbers Two one step backward. Facing L. 
 and R. in two movements, each on separate command. 
 
 II. 1. Arm flinging sidewards with heel raising (Rh). 
 
 2. Hip grasp stride st. knee bending (C). 
 
 3. Backward bending at head (C). 
 
 4. Arm bending and stretching downward. (On command a few 
 
 times, then repeated in even rhythm.) 
 
 5. Stride st. stooping with trunk twisting, touching floor with one 
 
 hand and raising other arm. (Rhythmic; more or less 
 indefinite.) 
 
 6. Cross (a) st. arm flinging sideways (C). 
 
 7. Hip grasp st. knee upward bending L. and R. (Rh). 
 
 8. Hip grasp stride st. side bending of trunk (C). 
 
 9. March and run in place. 
 
 10. Arm raising sideways with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Flank march. Run. Repeat breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 4. 
 
 I. Front and rear marching; to the rear march and halt on 3 counts, 
 
 stopping on first. Open order by forward and backward steps, 
 on one command. Facings on 2 counts, complete on one command. 
 
 II. 1. Arm bending with alternate foot placing forward. 
 
 2. Hip grasp stride st. alternate knee bending (2 counts on each 
 
 side). 
 
 3. Cross (a) st. backward bending of head (C). 
 
 4. Bend st. stooping "and return. 
 
 5. Hip grasp st. leg flinging sideways L. and R. (change from one 
 
 side to the other without stopping). 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching sideways and downward (uneven 
 
 rhythm). 
 
 7. Neck grasp stride st. trunk twisting (C) . 
 
 8. Cross (c) l /2 st. position (leg forward) (C). 
 
 9. Bend stride st. side bending of trunk. (C; try repeating in slow 
 
 rhythm, holding each position an instant.) 
 
 10. Hip grasp st. jump on toes with foot placing forward-backw. 
 
 (Rh). 
 
 11. Arm rotation with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Climbing on bar stalls or window ladders (using hands and feet). 
 
 Grasp (high) J^ st. arm stretching with knee bending.
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 193 
 
 IV. Running high jump from both feet. 
 
 Standing hop; st. step (leap) ; st. broad jump. 
 
 V. Run, march; breathing exercise. Or folk dance. 
 
 Lesson 8. 
 
 I. Front, rear and flank marching with moderately rapid changes of 
 
 direction. Halts with facings. Open order by forward and back- 
 ward steps, followed by facings, on one command. 
 
 II. 1. Cross (a) st. arm flinging sideways with heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp st. heel raising and knee bending. 
 
 3. Bend walk (b) st. slow arm stretching upward with backward 
 
 bending of head (C). 
 
 4. Alternate foot placing sideways with hands on neck, and for- 
 
 ward-downward bending of trunk. 
 
 5. Bend stride st. alternate trunk twisting from one side to the 
 
 other in one movement, alternating with arm stretching 
 sideways. 
 
 6. Hip grasp l /2. hook st. change feet in one movement, with a jump 
 
 (C). 
 
 7. Forward charge with hands on neck. 
 
 8. Cross (c) stride st. side bending of trunk (C). 
 
 9. Bend st. stooping, alternating with arm stretching upward. 
 
 10. Hip grasp st. cut step (rocking step) (Rh). 
 
 11. Reach st. arm parting, palms up, with backward bending of 
 
 head (C). 
 
 III. Suspension exercises on boom, horizontal ladder, window ladders, 
 
 rope ladders, traveling rings, vertical and inclined ropes, etc.* 
 
 IV. Running and standing high jump, standing broad jumps, running 
 
 swing jumps with ropes or rings; vaulting on box, buck, horse, 
 saddle boom, double boom. 
 
 V. Run, march ; breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 12. 
 
 I. Marching, as before. More rapid changes. Change from double to 
 
 single file. 
 
 II. 1. Arm bending with alternate foot placing obliquely outward, and 
 
 heel raising. 
 
 2. Cross (a) st. arm flinging sideways with knee bending (heels 
 
 off). 
 
 3. Neck grasp walk (b) st. backward arching of trunk (C). 
 
 4. Bend stride st. forward-downward bending of trunk, alternating 
 
 with arm stretching diagonally upward. 
 
 5. Hip grasp st. alternate leg flinging sideways (Rh). 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching, one forward, the other sideways. 
 
 7. Hip grasp ^ st. (leg forward) knee bending (C). 
 
 8. Neck grasp oblique charge st. trunk twisting to same side (C). 
 
 9. Prone falling position and return. 
 
 10. Jump forward with 3 (running) start steps. 
 
 11. Arm circumduction with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 * The apparatus work is similar to that piven to high school pirls. The progression 
 is, if anything, slower, unless careful grading in squads of varying ability is feasible.
 
 194 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 III. and IV. Apparatus work. 
 
 V. Run, toe march, breathing exercise; or simple dance. 
 
 Series 6. College Women. Second Year. 
 
 Lesson I. 
 
 I. Front and rear marching. Open order by forward and backward steps. 
 
 II. 1. Arm flinging sideways with alternate foot placing forward. 
 
 2. Stride st. arm bending with knee bending. 
 
 3. Neck grasp stride st. backward bending of head with chest 
 
 expansion (C). 
 
 4. Hip grasp st. leg flinging forward L. and R. (Rh). 
 
 5. Bend stride st. trunk twisting (C). 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching sideways and downward. 
 
 7. Hip grasp walk (b) toe st. head twisting (C). 
 
 8. Bend st. stooping, alternating with arm stretching downward 
 
 (Rh). 
 
 9. Hip grasp stride st. side bending of trunk (C). 
 
 10. Jump on toes with arm flinging and foot placing sideways (Rh). 
 
 11. Arm rotation with backward bending of head. 
 
 III. High boom : mount to hanging position and dismount. Hanging 
 
 alternate knee upward bending, or 
 
 Low boom : fall hanging position and return. Fall hanging alter- 
 nate leg raising, or 
 
 Window ladder : oblique climbing. 
 
 IV. Running high jump from L. and R. foot and from both feet, or 
 
 Standing hop; st. step (leap) ; standing broad jump. 
 
 V. Short run, march and breathing exercise. 
 
 Lesson 4. 
 
 I. Front, flank and rear marching; L. by file, R. by twos march. 
 
 II. 1. Arm bending with heel raising. 
 
 2. Alternate side lunge with hands on hips. 
 
 3. Arm circumduction with backward bending of head (slow move- 
 
 ment on command, or quick rhythmic repetition). 
 
 4. Alternate foot placing sideways with hands on hips, and for- 
 
 ward-downward bending of trunk. 
 
 5. Neck grasp st. side bending of trunk (C). 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching, one sideways, the other downward. 
 
 7. Cross (d) y 2 st. (leg forward) arm raising (C). 
 
 8. Arm bending with alternate foot placing forward, and trunk 
 
 twisting. 
 
 9. Oblique charge with hands on neck. 
 
 10. Jump in place with sideways flinging of arms and 90 turn (C). 
 
 11. Reach st. arm parting, palms up, with backward bending of 
 
 head (C). 
 
 III. and IV. Suspension apparatus exercises. Jumping and vaulting similar 
 
 to the apparatus work given for second year high school girls. 
 
 V. Run, march, breathing exercise; or dance.
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 195 
 
 Lesson 8. 
 
 I. Marching with doubling, starting from one rank. Open order by side 
 
 steps. 
 
 II. 1. Reach st. arm flinging sideways (palms down) with heel raising. 
 
 2. Alternate foot placing obliquely outward with hands on hips, 
 
 and knee bending. 
 
 3. Cross (e) st. backward arching of trunk (C). 
 
 4. Pend stride st. downward bending, touching floor (straight upper 
 
 back), alternating with arm stretching sideways. 
 
 5. Oblique charge with hands on neck, and trunk twisting to oppo- 
 
 site side (C). 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching backward, forward and upward. 
 
 7. Hip grasp y 2 st. (leg forward) change feet on one count, with 
 
 a jump (C). 
 
 8. Forward bending of arms with alternate foot placing sideways, 
 
 and side bending of trunk. 
 
 9. Hip grasp toe-support charge position. 
 
 10. Jump on toes with arm flinging and foot placing sideways and 
 
 with crossing of hands and feet on return. 
 
 11. Cross (d) st. arm raising with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 III. and IV. Suspension exercises. Jumping and vaulting. 
 V. Run, etc. 
 
 Lesson 12. 
 
 I. Marching: fours R. and L., starting from one rank. 
 
 II. 1. Forward bending and side flinging of arms with alternate foot 
 
 placing forward and heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp st. heel raising and deep knee bending. 
 
 3. Arm circumduction with trunk twisting and backward bending 
 
 of head (C). 
 
 4. (1) Arm bending; (2) foot placing sideways with downward 
 
 bending, touching floor (straight upper back) ; (3) trunk 
 raising with arm bending; (4) jump to position with arm 
 stretching sideways. Repetitions start from the cross (c) 
 st. position. 
 
 5. Neck grasp stride st. trunk twisting all the way from one side to 
 
 the other in one (quick) movement, alternating with arm 
 stretching upward. 
 
 6. Bend st. oblique charge with stretching of one arm upward, the 
 
 other downward. Return by follow step ; zigzag advance. 
 
 7. Hip grasp ^ hook st. knee stretching forward (C). Or the 
 
 exercise may be done as a rhythmic movement, thus : hip 
 grasp st. alternate knee upward bending and stretching for- 
 ward. Movements quick, rhythm slow ; stop the class in the 
 Yz hook position unexpectedly. 
 
 8. Cross (e) close st. forward bending of trunk. 
 
 9. Side lunge with hands on hips, and side bending of trunk. 
 
 10. Jump on toes with alternate knee upward bending and arm 
 
 flinging sideways (Rh). 
 
 11. Bend st. arm stretching upward with backward bending of head 
 
 (C). 
 
 III. and IV. Apparatus work. 
 V. Run, etc.
 
 196 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Series 7, College Men. First Year. 
 
 The following is a sample series of exercises of a more or less indefinite 
 character which may be used for the first few lessons, if the conditions 
 are such as to make it inadvisable to begin at once with the more definite 
 style of work. The change to the latter may then be gradual, by substi- 
 tuting each time a few of the exercises from the first and second lessons 
 of the definite style. All the exercises in this preliminary series (except 
 the breathing exercise) are started and repeated rhythmically. 
 
 1. Flexion and extension of fingers and wrists, in the various arm 
 
 positions, ten counts in each position. 
 
 2. Hip grasp st. alternate heel and toe raising. 
 
 3. Hand clapping overhead with knee bending (heels off). 
 
 4. Arm flinging forward, sideways and downward with backward 
 
 bending of head. 
 
 5. Bend stride st. stooping with trunk twisting, touching floor with 
 
 one hand while the other arm is stretched vertically upward. 
 
 6. Knee-upward bending L. and R., grasping knee and pulling it 
 
 toward chest (keeping head high and trunk erect). 
 
 7. Stride st. alternate side bending of trunk with swinging of the 
 
 arm on the opposite side up overhead. 
 
 8. Arm bending and stretching upward, sideways and downward in 
 
 fairly quick, even rhythm. 
 
 9. Bend stride st. "chopping" movement. 
 
 10. Arm circumduction with alternate toe-touch sideways with bend- 
 
 ing of knee of supporting leg. 
 
 11. Bend stride st. downward bending touching floor, alternating 
 
 with arm stretching sideways. 
 
 12. Hip grasp st. leg flinging sideways L. and R. 
 
 13. Prone falling position and return. 
 
 14. Hip grasp st. jump on toes in various ways. Run in place. 
 
 15. Arm raising sideways with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 Lesson I. 
 
 I. Formation and alignment on two ranks. Numbering. Open order by 
 
 forward and backward steps. Facing on two counts, stopping on 
 first. 
 
 II. 1. Arm flinging sideways with heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp stride st. knee bending. 
 
 3. Arm circumduction with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 4. Hip grasp st. knee-upward bending L. and R. 
 
 5. Arm bending and stretching downward (first on command and 
 
 then repeated in even, slow rhythm; quick movements). 
 
 6. Hip grasp stride st. side bending of trunk (C). 
 
 7. Arm flinging sideways with alternate toe-touch forward and 
 
 bending of knee of supporting leg (Rh). 
 
 8. Hip grasp st. forward bending of trunk (C). 
 
 9. Bend st. arm stretching sideways with alternate foot placing 
 
 sideways, or forward. 
 
 10. Bend stride st. trunk twisting (C). 
 
 11. Jump in place with side-flinging of arms (C). 
 
 12. Hip grasp st. jump on toes (Rh). 
 
 13. Arm rotation with backward bending of head (C).
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 197 
 
 III. Elementary exercises on horizontal ladder, suspended parallel bars, 
 
 high and low horizontal bar and vertical ropes.* 
 
 IV. Elementary exercises on buck, horse and parallel bars ; running and 
 
 standing high jumps; hop, step and jump, standing broad jumps 
 and elementary tumbling. 
 
 V. Short run. 
 
 Lesson 4. 
 
 I. Alignment. Open order by forward and backward steps. Facings on 
 
 one count. 
 
 II. 1. Head bending sideways; backward bending of head (C). 
 
 2. Alternate foot placing forward with hands on hips, and heel 
 
 raising. 
 
 3. Cross (a) stride st. arm flinging sideways with knee bending. 
 
 4. Alternate foot placing sideways with hands on neck, and back- 
 
 ward arching of trunk. 
 
 5. Bend st. (slow) forward bending of trunk, alternating with 
 
 (quick) arm stretching upward. 
 
 6. Hip grasp st. alternate leg flinging sideways. 
 
 7. Arm bending and stretching backward and sideways. 
 
 8. Hip grasp walk (a) st. heel raising and knee bending. 
 
 9. Alternate foot placing forward with hands on neck, and trunk 
 
 twisting. 
 
 10. Reach st. arm flinging sideways with alternate toe-touching 
 
 forward. 
 
 11. Bend stride st. side bending of trunk, alternating with arm 
 
 stretching diagonally upward (with heel raising). 
 
 12. Arm flinging sideways with alternate foot placing sideways 
 
 (wide step), then downward bending of trunk, touching floor 
 (upper back straight). 
 
 13. Oblique charge with hands on hips. 
 
 14. Prone falling position. 
 
 15. Hip grasp st. jump on toes with foot placing forward and back- 
 
 ward, passing through toe st. position each time (Rh). 
 
 16. Bend st. arm stretching upward with backward bending of head 
 
 (Q. 
 
 III. Suspension apparatus exercises. 
 
 IV. Jumping or vaulting. 
 
 V. Run. 
 
 Lesson 8. 
 
 I. Alignment and open order by side steps. Marching forward and 
 backward. 
 
 * As a considerable proportion of college students have not had previous training, 
 the apparatus work will be similar to that given to high school boys. With proper 
 grading of squads and well-trained leaders, however, the progression will be more 
 rapid. During the freshman year the squads of average ability might progress as 
 far as second year high school boys, the squads of greater ability somewhat beyond 
 this point. In the sophomore year the apparatus work covered in the second half 
 of the freshman year should be reviewed, at least the more representative exercises. 
 The progression is then carried as far as possible. 
 
 For progressive lists of apparatus exercises see appendix.
 
 198 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 II. 1. Reach st. arm flinging sideways with heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp stride st. alternate knee bending (one count on each 
 
 side). 
 
 3. Bend st. backward arching of trunk, alternating with arm stretch- 
 
 ing upward. 
 
 4. Hip grasp toe st. alternate knee upward bending (Rh). 
 
 5. Cross (a) stride st. trunk twisting from one side to the other in 
 
 one movement, alternating with arm flinging sideways. 
 
 6. Neck grasp toe-support charge position. 
 
 7. Arm bending and stretching, one upward and the other forward. 
 
 8. Hip grasp stride st. side-and-knee bending. 
 
 9. (1) Arm bending; (2) foot placing sideways with downward 
 
 bending, touching floor; (3) trunk raising with arm flinging 
 forward-sideways; (4) jumo to fund, position. 
 
 10. Oblique charge with hands on neck, and trunk twisting to 
 
 opposite side. 
 
 11. Arm circumduction (quick) with alternate toe-touch sideways. 
 
 12. Hip grasp st. alternate leg flinging forward-sideways (leg cir- 
 
 cumduction) (Rh). 
 
 13. Prone falling position, arm bending once, and return to st. 
 
 position (six counts). 
 
 14. Hip grasp st. hop twice on one foot and swing the other back- 
 
 ward and forward, then change. 
 
 15. Bend st. slow arm stretching sideways, palms up, with backward 
 
 bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Suspension apparatus work. 
 
 IV. Jumping, vaulting or tumbling. 
 
 V. Run. 
 
 Lesson 12. 
 
 I. Front and rear marching. Open order as before. 
 
 II. 1. Arm bending and stretching upward with alternate foot placing 
 
 sideways and heel raising. 
 
 2. Hip grasp st. heel raising and deep knee bending. 
 
 3. Alternate foot placing forward with hands on neck, and back- 
 
 ward arching of trunk. 
 
 4. Stretch stride st. forward-downward bending of trunk, alter- 
 
 nating with arm parting witfi knee bending. 
 
 5. Arm bending with alternate foot placing outward, then arm 
 
 stretching sideways with trunk twisting (to the same side 
 as foot placing). 
 
 6. Hip grasp st. alternate knee-upward bending and stretching 
 
 forward (slow rhythm, quick movements. Stop unexpectedly 
 in any position). 
 
 7. Alternate leg flinging sideways with opposite arm flinging side- 
 
 ways-upwards. 
 
 8. Arm bending with alternate foot placing sideways, (slow) 
 
 forward bending of trunk, then (quick) arm stretching 
 diagonally upward. Return in reverse order (six counts). 
 
 9. Arm flinging sideways with side lunge, then side bending of 
 
 trunk, touching floor with one hand, the other arm vertical. 
 
 10. (1) Arm bending; (2) foot placing sideways with downward 
 
 bending, touching floor; (3) trunk raising with arm flinging 
 forward-upward ; (4) jump to fund, position with arm 
 flinging sideways-downward.
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 199 
 
 11. y 2 hip grasp side falling position. Try leg raising. 
 
 12. Arm flinging sideways-upward with" alternate leg flinging forward 
 
 (Rh). 
 
 13. Forward charge with hands on neck, and forward bending of 
 
 trunk. 
 
 14. Hip grasp Y* st. (foot behind) hop and "kick" sideways with 
 
 turn, then change feet and repeat (Rh). 
 
 15. Bend st. slow arm stretching upward with backward bending of 
 
 head (C). 
 
 III. Suspension apparatus work. 
 
 IV. Jumping, vaulting or tumbling. 
 
 V. Run. 
 
 Series 8. College Men. Second Year. 
 Lesson i. 
 
 I. Formation on two ranks; open order by forward and backward steps. 
 
 Marching forward. 
 
 II. 1. Arm bending with heel raising. 
 
 2. Alternate foot placing sideways with hands on hips, and knee 
 
 bending. 
 
 3. Arm circumduction (quick), on three counts, with backward 
 
 bending of head. 
 
 4. Bend stride st. forward-downward bending of trunk, alternating 
 
 with arm stretching sideways. 
 
 5. Neck grasp stride st. alternate trunk twisting. 
 
 6. Arm bending and stretching sideways and downward. 
 
 7. Hip grasp st. knee-upward bending L. and R. 
 
 8. Arm flinging forward-upward with alternate toe-touch sideways. 
 
 9. Hip grasp stride st. side bending of trunk. 
 
 10. Bend st. stooping, alternating with arm stretching upward. 
 
 11. Hip grasp st. leg flinging diagonally forward L. and R. 
 
 12. Prone falling position and return. 
 
 13. Hip grasp st. jump on toes quick and slow rhythm (Rh). 
 
 14. Arm raising sideways with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 III. Suspension apparatus exercises. 
 
 IV. Jumping or vaulting. 
 
 V. Run. 
 
 Lesson 4. 
 
 I. Front, flank and rear marching. Open order by side steps. 
 
 II. 1. Flexion and extension of fingers and wrists in all positions, ten 
 
 counts in each. 
 
 2. Hip grasp st. alternate heel-and-toe raising. 
 
 3. Arm flinging forward and sideways with alternate foot placing 
 
 sideways and knee bending. 
 
 4. Alternate foot placing forward with hands on neck, and back- 
 
 ward arching of trunk. 
 
 5. Bending stride st. forward-downward bending of trunk, alter- 
 
 nating with arm stretching upward.
 
 200 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 6. Close st. arm flinging forward with knee bending (knees together, 
 
 heels off). 
 
 7. y* hip grasp st. leg flinging sideways L. and R. with oppo- 
 
 side arm flinging sideways-upward. 
 
 8. l /2 sideways bending of arms with alternate foot placing 
 
 sideways, and forward bending of trunk. 
 
 9. Arm bending with oblique charge, and trunk twisting to opposite 
 
 side. 
 
 10. Forward bending and side flinging of arms with alternate knee 
 
 upward bending and stretching forward. 
 
 11. Alternate foot placing forward with hands on neck, and side 
 
 bending of trunk. 
 
 12. Hip grasp toe-support charge position. 
 
 13. Arm bending and stretching, one backward, the other sideways; 
 
 both upward, sideways and downward, with heel raising on 
 even count. 
 
 14. l /t hip grasp side falling position, about facing, and return 
 
 to fund. st. position (eight count movement). 
 
 15. Jump on toes with arm flinging and alternate leg flinging side- 
 
 ways, crossing hands and feet at each jump (Rh). 
 
 16. Cross (d) st. arm raising with backward bending of head (C). 
 
 III. and IV. Apparatus work. 
 V. Run. 
 
 Lesson 8. 
 (Dumb-bells.) 
 
 I. Marching: fours R. and L. from single rank formation. Finish by 
 
 marching around room, single file, taking dumb-bells, then, when 
 marching around one end of room, forming open column of 
 fours, halting in formation properly spaced for the exercises. 
 
 II. 1. Bend st. arm stretching upward with heel raising. 
 
 2. Arm flinging sideways with alternate foot placing forward, then 
 
 slow arm rotation with backward bending of head. 
 
 3. Bend st. stooping (strike floor), alternating with arm stretching 
 
 sideways. 
 
 4. Alternate leg flinging sideways with opposite arm flinging side- 
 
 ways-upward. 
 
 5. Arm bending with alternate foot placing obliquely outward, then 
 
 arm stretching forward with trunk twisting (to same side as 
 foot placing). 
 
 6. (1) Arm bending; (2) foot placing sideways with downward 
 
 bending, striking floor; (3) trunk raising with arm bending; 
 (4) jump to position with arm stretching upward. Repeti- 
 tions start from stretch st. position. 
 
 7. Arm flinging sideways with side lunge, then side bending of 
 
 trunk, striking floor (other arm vertically overhead). 
 
 8. Bend st. alternate leg flinging forward (or alternate knee 
 
 upward bending) with striking of bells behind knee of 
 moving leg. Uneven rhythm. 
 
 9. Bend st. oblique charge with twisting of trunk to opposite side 
 
 and of head to same side (as charge), and with stretching 
 of arm on same side upward, the other downward.
 
 PROGRESSION OF GYMNASTIC LESSONS 201 
 
 10. Prone falling position : foot placing forward and backward once, 
 
 then arm bending once and return to fund. st. position 
 (eight counts). 
 
 11. Jump on toes with foot placing sideways and arm flinging side- 
 
 ways-upward, striking overhead and behind back. 
 
 12. Arm circumduction with backward bending of head. 
 
 III. and IV. Apparatus work. 
 V. Run. 
 
 Lesson 12. 
 
 (Bar bells.) 
 
 I. Marching and open order as before. 
 
 II. 1. Arm bending and stretching upward with heel raising and knee 
 
 bending. 
 
 2. Arm circumduction (to position with bar behind back) with back- 
 
 ward bending of head and simultaneous alternate foot 
 placing forward. 
 
 3. Bend stride st. (bar behind neck) forward-downward bending of 
 
 trunk, alternating with arm stretching upward. 
 
 4. Arm flinging sideways-upward (one arm overhead, the other 
 
 with forearm across chest and hand in arm-pit) with 
 opposite leg flinging sideways. 
 
 5. Arm flinging upward-sideways (to position with bar behind 
 
 shoulders) with alternate foot placing obliquely outward, 
 then trunk twisting (to same side as foot placing). 
 
 6. Arm flinging sideways (one arm in cross (c), the other in 
 
 cross (a) position, bar bell resting on elbow and forearm of 
 bent arm) with alternate toe-touch sideways on opposite 
 side, knee bending on same side (trunk erect and vertical). 
 
 7. Cross (c) st. (bar behind shoulders) alternate leg flinging for- 
 
 ward (or arm flinging forward-upward with alternate leg 
 flinging forward). 
 
 8. Arm flinging sideways with opposite foot placing sideways, then 
 
 side bending of trunk (to same side as foot placing). 
 
 9. Arm circumduction with toe-support charge. 
 
 10. Arm bending and stretching upward with alternate knee upward 
 
 bending and stretching forward. 
 
 11. Side lunge with opposite arm flinging sideways-upward, then 
 
 side bending of trunk (to same side as lunge). 
 
 12. (1) Arm bending; (2) foot placing sideways with downward 
 
 bending striking floor; (3) trunk raising with arms over- 
 head ; (4) jump to fund, position. 
 
 13. Oblique charge with arm on same side overhead, bar in front 
 
 or behind. 
 
 14. Jump on toes with alternate leg flinging sideways and opposite 
 
 arm flinging sideways (or sideways-upward). 
 
 15. Arm raising forward-upward with backward bending of head. 
 
 III. and IV. Apparatus work. 
 V. Run.
 
 V. APPENDIX. 
 
 The following lists of free-standing and apparatus exercises 
 are arranged in approximately progressive order. They include 
 the more common and representative types and combinations, but 
 are not in any sense exhaustive. 
 
 1. FREE-STANDING EXERCISES. 
 Foot Platings; Heel Raising ; Toe Raising; Closing of Feet. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with (placing of) hands on hips. 
 
 Hip grasp stride st. heel raising. 
 
 Hip grasp st. alt. toe raising. 
 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on hips. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on hips. 
 
 Hip grasp st. heel raising. 
 
 Hip grasp st. close and open feet. 
 
 Hip grasp stride st. alt. heel raising (2 or 1 count each side). 
 
 Arm raising sidew. with heel raising. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on neck. 
 
 Arm bending with heel raising. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on hips, and heel raising. 
 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw. 
 
 Hip grasp close st. heel raising. 
 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew. 
 
 Neck grasp st. alt. toe raising. 
 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on hips, and heel raising. 
 
 Neck grasp stride st. alt. heel raising (1 count each side). 
 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing forw. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and heel raising. 
 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing outw. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on hips, and heel raising. 
 
 Arm raising forw. with heel raising. 
 
 Hip grasp st. alt. heel-and-toe raising. 
 
 Alt. foot placing backw.-outw. with hands on hips. 
 
 Forw. bending of arms with heel raising. 
 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing forw. 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching downw. with heel raising. 
 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck, and heel raising. 
 
 Arm flinging forw. with alt. foot placing sidew. 
 
 Closing of feet with hands on hips, and heel raising. 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. with heel raising. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on neck, and heel raising. 
 
 Reach stride st. arm flinging sidew. with heel raising. 
 
 Walk (b) st. arm raising sidew. with heel raising. 
 
 Cross (a) st. arm flinging sidew. with heel raising. 
 
 y 2 sidew. bending of arms with heel raising. 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching upw. with heel raising. 
 
 Neck grasp st. alt. heel-and-toe raising. 
 
 Arm bending and stretching sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 y 2 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel raising.
 
 204 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Cross (d) st. ami raising (or flinging upw.) with heel raising. 
 
 Closing of feet with hands on neck, and heel raising. 
 
 Forw. bending of arms and arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing 
 
 sidew. and heel raising. 
 
 Reach st. arm flinging upw. with heel raising. 
 Arm flinging sidew. and arm rot. with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 
 Cross (e) st. arm stretching sidew. with heel raising. 
 Arm flinging forw. and sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 
 Cross (a) walk (b) st. arm flinging sidew. with heel raising. 
 Arm bending and stretching forw. with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 
 Cross (e) st. arm stretching upw. with heel raising. 
 
 Arm raising sidew. and upw. with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel raising. 
 Bend walk (b) st. arm stretching sidew. with heel raising. 
 Forw. bending and side flinging of arms with alt. foot placing forw. and 
 
 heel raising. 
 % sidew. bending of arms and arm stretching sidew. with alt. foot 
 
 placing sidew. and heel raising. 
 
 Arm bending and stretching sidew. with closing of feet and heel raising. 
 Arm circumduction (4 counts) with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 
 Cross (d) walk (b) st. arm flinging upw. with heel raising. 
 Arm bending and stretching sidew. with alt. foot placing forw. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 ]/2 sidew. bending of arms and arm stretching upw. with alt. foot placing 
 
 sidew. and heel raising. 
 
 Arm flinging forw. and sidew. with alt. foot placing forw. and heel raising. 
 Bend st. arm stretching forw. and arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot 
 
 placing sidew. and heel raising. 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. with alt. foot placing forw. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 Forw. bending and side flinging of arms, with closing of feet and heel 
 
 raising. 
 Yi sidew. bending of arms and arm stretching sidew. with alt. foot placing 
 
 forw. and heel raising. 
 Reach st. arm flinging sidew. and upw. with alt. foot placing sidew. and 
 
 heel raising. 
 Bend st. arm stretching upw. and arm parting with alt. foot placing sidew. 
 
 and heel raising. 
 
 Arm flinging sidew. and upw. with alt. foot placing forw. and heel raising. 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. with closing of feet and heel raising. 
 Cross (a) st. arm flinging sidew. and upw. with alt. foot placing sidew. 
 
 and heel raising. 
 
 Arm raising sidew. and upw. with closing of feet and heel raising. 
 l /2 sidew. bending of arms and arm stretching upw. with alt. foot placing 
 
 forw. and heel raising. 
 Arm flinging sidew. and arm rotation with alt. foot placing forw. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 Arm circumduction (4 counts) with alt. foot placing forw. and heel 
 
 raising. 
 l /2 sidew. bending of arms and arm rotation with alt. foot placing sidew. 
 
 and heel raising. .
 
 APPENDIX 205 
 
 Arm flinging forw. with alt. foot placing sidew. (and return), alternating 
 
 with arm flinging sidew. with heel raising. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing forw. (sidew., or outw.), alternating 
 
 with arm flinging sidew. (or forw.) with heel raising. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing forw., alternating with arm 
 
 flinging forw. (or arm b'd'g) with heel raising. 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew. (or forw.), alternating 
 
 with arm flinging forw. (or sidew.) with heel raising. 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. (upw., or forw.) with alt. foot placing 
 
 forw. (outw. or sidew.), alternating with arm stretching upw. (sidew. 
 
 or forw.) with heel raising. 
 
 Knee Bending and Alternate Knee Bending ; Foot Placings; Side 
 Lunge; Arm Movements and Combinations. 
 
 Hip grasp stride st. knee bending. 
 
 Stride st. arm raising sidew. with knee bending (slow or quick). 
 
 Neck grasp stride st. knee bending. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on hips, and knee bending. 
 
 Hip grasp st. knee bending with simultaneous heel raising (2 count 
 
 movement). 
 
 Stride st. arm bending with (quick) knee bending. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew., and knee bending. 
 Hip grasp stride st. alt. knee bending (2 counts each side). 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., and knee bending. 
 Arm flinging forw. (or sidew.) with (quick) knee' bending, heels off (2 
 
 count movement). 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and knee bending. 
 Hip grasp stride st. alt. knee bending from one side to the other in one 
 
 movement. 
 
 Bend stride st. arm stretching sidew. with (quick) knee bending. 
 Hip grasp st. heel raising and knee bending (4 count movement). 
 Cross (a) stride st. arm flinging sidew. with (quick) knee bending. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on hips, and knee bending. 
 Reach stride st. arm parting with knee bending (slow or quick). 
 Arm bending and stretching sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew. and knee 
 
 bending. 
 
 Bend stride st. arm stretching forw. with (quick) knee bending. 
 Neck grasp stride st. alt. knee bending (from one side to the other in 
 
 one movement). 
 
 Cross (d) stride st. arm raising with knee bending (slow or quick). 
 Alt. side lunge with hands on hips. 
 
 Hip grasp stride st. heel raising and knee bending (4 count movement). 
 Forw. bending and side-flinging of arms with alt. foot placing sidew. and 
 
 knee bending. 
 
 Toe st. arm raising sidew. with knee bending. 
 Reach stride st. arm raising with knee bending (slow or quick). 
 Arm bending with alt. side lunge. 
 
 Close st. arm flinging forw. with knee bending, heels off (knees together). 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck, and knee bending. 
 Alt. side lunge with hands on neck. 
 
 Bend stride st. arm stretching upw. with (quick) knee bending. 
 Neck grasp st. heel raising and knee bending (4 count movement). 
 l /2 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., and knee bending.
 
 206 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Stretch stride st. arm parting with knee bending (slow). 
 
 Hip grasp st. heel raising and deep knee bending (4 count movement). 
 
 Arm bending and stretching forw. with closing of feet and knee bending 
 
 (heels off, knees together). 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. side lunge. 
 
 Cross (e) stride st. arm stretching sidew. (or upw.) with knee bending. 
 Arm flinging sidew.-upw. with knee bending, heels off. 
 Bend toe st. arm stretching sidew. with (quick) knee bending. 
 Arm flinging forw. and sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew. and knee 
 
 bending. 
 
 Hip grasp walk (a) st. heel raising and knee bending (4 count movement). 
 Alt. side lunge with hands on hips, and alt. knee bending. 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. with alt. foot placing sidew. and knee 
 
 bending. 
 
 Hip grasp st. deep knee bending, heels off (2 count movement). 
 Arm raising sidew. and upw. with alt. foot placing sidew. and knee 
 
 bending. 
 
 Neck grasp st. heel raising and deep knee bending (4 count movement). 
 Hip grasp walk (b) st. heel raising and knee bending (4 count movement). 
 Alt. side lunge with hands on neck, and alt. knee bending. 
 Arm circumduction (4 counts) with alt. foot placing sidew. and (quick) 
 
 knee bending. 
 
 Cross (a) toe st. arm flinging sidew. with (quick) knee bending. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on hips, heel raising and knee bending 
 
 (6 count movement). 
 J /2 sidew. bending of arms and arm stretching sidew. (or upw.) with alt. 
 
 foot placing sidew. and knee bending. 
 
 Reach (stride) toe st. arm flinging sidew. with knee bending. 
 Close st. arm flinging sidew. with knee bending, heels off (knees together). 
 Bend toe st. arm stretching upw. with knee bending. 
 Stretch st. arm parting with knee bending, heels off. 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on hips, heel raising and knee bending 
 
 (6 count movement). 
 
 Cross (d) toe st. arm raising (slow or quick) with knee bending. 
 Arm flinging sidew., palms up, with alt. side lunge, and arm raising. 
 Bend st. arm stretching forw. and arm parting with alt. foot placing sidew. 
 
 and knee bending. 
 Arm flinging sidew.-upw. with deep knee bending, heels off (2 count 
 
 movement). 
 
 Arm bending and stretching sidew. with heel raising and knee bending. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck, heel raising and knee bending 
 
 (6 counts). 
 
 Arm flinging forw. and sidew. with heel raising and knee bending. 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. (palms up) with alt. foot placing sidew., 
 
 then arm raising with knee bending. 
 Arm bending and stretching sidew. with closing of feet and knee bending 
 
 (heels off, knees together). 
 Forw. bending and side flinging of arms with heel raising and knee 
 
 bending. 
 Arm flinging forw. with alt. side lunge, then arm parting with alt. knee 
 
 bending. 
 Bend .st. arm stretching upw. with alt. foot placing sidew., then arm parting 
 
 with knee bending. 
 
 Arm raising sidew.-upw. with heel raising and knee bending. 
 Bend stride st. arm stretching sidew., palms up, with heel raising, then arm 
 
 raising with knee bending.
 
 APPENDIX 207 
 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. with heel raising and knee bending. 
 
 Reach toe st. arm parting with deep knee bending. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on neck, heel raising and knee bending 
 
 (6 counts). 
 
 Arm circumductibn (4 counts) with heel raising and knee bending. 
 Cross (d) toe st. arm raising with deep knee bending. 
 Arm bending and stretching forw. with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel 
 raising, then arm parting (quick or slow) with knee bending (6 count 
 
 movement). 
 Bend st. arm stretching upw. and arm parting with heel raising and knee 
 
 bending. 
 Arm flinging forw. -upw. with alt. side lunge, then f arm parting with alt. 
 
 knee bending. 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. with closing of feet and knee bending 
 
 (heels off). 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. with alt. foot placing sidew. and heel 
 
 raising, then arm parting with knee bending (6 count movement). 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw. and arm parting with heel raising and knee 
 
 bending. 
 Arm bending and stretching sidew. (palms up) with alt. foot placing forw. 
 
 and heel raising, then arm raising with knee bending (6 count 
 
 movement). 
 Alt. side lunge with arm flinging upw. on same side, sidew. (palm up) on 
 
 opposite side, then alt. knee bending with change of arms. 
 
 Backward Moving of Head and Arching of Trunk; Foot Plac- 
 ings; Toe Touches and Arm Movements. 
 
 Backward bending of head with chest expansion. 
 
 Arm raising sidew. with backw. bending of head. 
 
 Bend st. (slow) arm stretching sidew. with backw. bending of head. 
 
 Hip grasp stride st. backw. bending of head with chest expansion (== 
 
 backward arching). 
 Arm raising sidew., palms up, with backw. bending of head (slow, on 
 
 command; or quick, rhythmic movement). 
 Bend stride st. backw. bending of head with chest expansion (= backw. 
 
 arching). 
 Reach st. (slow) arm parting, palms up, with backw. bending of head 
 
 (on command; or quick, rhythmic movement). 
 
 Neck grasp stride st. backw. bending of head with chest expansion. 
 Cross (d) st. arm raising with backw. bending of head. 
 Arm flinging forw., sidew., and downw. with backw. bending of head 
 
 (quick 3 count movement). 
 
 Bend st. (slow) arm stretching upw. with backw. bending of head. 
 Arm circumduction (2 counts, second slow) with backward bending of 
 
 head. 
 
 Bend st. backward arching, alternating with quick arm stretching sidew. 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on hips, and backw. arching. 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw., sidew. and downw. (=3 count quick arm circum- 
 duction) with backw. bending of head (on first count, held through 
 
 second). 
 Bend st. (quick) arm stretching sidew. with alt. toe touching sidew. and 
 
 backw. bending of head. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew., and backw. arching.
 
 208 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Neck grasp stride st. backw. arching, alternating with arm stretching 
 
 sidew. 
 Arm circumduction (quick, 2 count movement) with alt. toe touch sidew. 
 
 and backw. bending of head. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and backw. arching. 
 Cross (a) stride st. backw. arching, alternating with arm flinging sidew. 
 Hip grasp walk (b) st. backw. arching. 
 Cross (c) stride st. backw. arching, alternating with arm bending and 
 
 stretching sidew. 
 Bend st. (quick) arm stretching upw. with alt. toe touch sidew. and 
 
 backw. bending of head. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew., and slow arm stretching upw. 
 
 with backw. bending of head. 
 Neck grasp stride st. backw. arching alternating with forw.-downw. 
 
 bending of trunk. 
 Reach st. arm flinging sidew. with alt. toe touch sidew. and backw. 
 
 bending of head. 
 
 Neck grasp walk (b) st. backw. arching. 
 Stretch stride st. backw. arching. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on hips, and backw. arching. 
 Cross (e) stride st. backw. arching. 
 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing forw., and backw. arching. 
 Twist st. arm circumduction (2 counts) with backw. bending of head. 
 Neck grasp stride st. backw. arching, alternating with arm stretching upw. 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing forw. and backw. arching. 
 Arm circumduction (4 counts) with alt. foot placing sidew. and backw. 
 
 bending of head (second and third counts slow, first and fourth quick). 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. toe touch forw. and backw. bending of head. 
 Bend walk (a) twist st. backw. arching. 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew., and backw. 
 
 arching. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on neck, and backward arching. 
 Cross (e) walk (b) st. backw. arching. 
 Arm circumduction (2 counts) with trunk twisting and backw. bending 
 
 of head. 
 Bend st. arm stretching upw. with alt. foot placing sidew., and backw. 
 
 arching. 
 Reach st. arm flinging sidew. with alt. toe touch forw. and backw. bending 
 
 of head. 
 
 Neck grasp walk (a) twist st. backw. arching. 
 
 */2 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., and backw. arching. 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. with alt. foot placing forw., and backw. 
 
 arching. 
 Stretch stride st. backw. arching, alternating with arm bending and 
 
 stretching upw. 
 Arm circumduction (2 counts) with alt. toe touching forw. and backw. 
 
 bending of head. 
 
 Vz sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing forw. and backw. arching. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw., trunk twisting, and backw. 
 
 arching (6 counts). 
 
 Cross (e) stride st. backw. arching, alternating with arm stretching upw. 
 Stretch walk (b) st. backw. arching. 
 Bend st. arm stretching upw. with alt. toe touching forw. and backw. 
 
 bending of head. 
 Cross (e) walk (a) twist st. backw. arching.
 
 APPENDIX 209 
 
 Stretch stride st. backw. arching, alternating with arm parting with knee 
 
 bending. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck, trunk twisting, and backw. 
 
 arching (6 counts). 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing forw., then arm stretching sidew., 
 
 palms up, with backw. bending of head. 
 Cross (d) st. arm raising with backw. arching. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on hips and with simultaneous trunk 
 
 twisting, then backw. arching (4 count movement). 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing fo*rw., arm stretching upw. with 
 
 backw. bending of head. 
 Stretch stride arch st. arm parting. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw. and simultaneous trunk twisting, 
 
 then backw. arching. 
 l /2 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., then arm stretching 
 
 upw. with backward arching. 
 Cross (d) walk (b) arch st. arm raising. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk 
 
 twisting, then backw. arching. 
 Bend st. arm stretching upw. with alt. foot placing forw., and backw. 
 
 arching. 
 Arm flinging sidew. (palms up) with alt. foot placing forw., arm raising 
 
 with backward arching. 
 Stretch walk (a) twist st. backw. arching. 
 y 2 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing outw. and simultaneous 
 
 trunk twisting, then backw. arching. 
 Arm circumduction (4 counts) with alt. foot placing forw. and backw. 
 
 arching. 
 
 Cross (d) walk (a) twist st. arm raising with backw. arching. 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing outw., arm flinging sidew. 
 
 with trunk twisting, then backw. arching. 
 l /2 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing forw., and (slow) arm 
 
 stretching upw. with backw. arching. 
 
 Cross (a) st. arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing outw. and simul- 
 taneous trunk twisting, then backw. arching without or with arm 
 
 rotation. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw., arm stretching upw. with trunk 
 
 twisting, then backw. arching (6 qounts). 
 Arm bending (or l / 2 sidew. bending of arms) with alt. foot placing outw. 
 
 and simultaneous trunk twisting, then slow arm stretching upw. with 
 
 backw. arching. 
 
 Compensatory Forward and Forward-Downward Bendings of 
 
 Trunk; Downward Bendings, Touching Floor; Stooping; 
 
 Combinations and Alternations with Arm Movements 
 
 and Foot Placings. 
 
 Hip grasp stride st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Bend st. forward bending of trunk. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on hips and forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Hip grasp st. stooping (and return to starting pos.). 
 
 Cross (a) (stride) st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew. and forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Bend st. stooping.
 
 210 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Neck grasp (stride) st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Bend st. forw. bending of trunk, alternating with arm stretching sidew. 
 
 Hip grasp stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Cross (a) st. stooping. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Bend stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Hip grasp walk (b) $t. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Bend st. stooping, alternating with arm stretching sidew. 
 
 Neck grasp stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Bend stride st. forw.-down. bending of trunk, alternating with arm 
 
 stretching sidew. 
 Neck grasp st. stooping. 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and forw.-downw. bending 
 
 of trunk. 
 Bend (wide) stride st. (quick) downw. bending, touching floor (knees and 
 
 upper back straight), alternating with arm stretching downw. 
 Hip grasp st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk. 
 Bend st. stooping, alternating with arm stretching diagonally upw. 
 Neck grasp walk (b) st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 Bend (wide) stride st. (quick) downw. bending, touching floor, alternating 
 
 with arm stretching sidew. 
 
 Hip grasp close st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk. 
 Arm bending (or forw. bending of arms) with alt. foot placing sidew. 
 
 (wide step), and (quick) downw. bending, touching floor. Return 
 
 in reverse order. 
 Neck grasp stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk, alternating with 
 
 arm stretching sidew. 
 (1) Arm bending (or forw. bending of arms) ; (2) (double) foot placing 
 
 sidew. with (quick) downw. bending, touching floor; (3) trunk 
 
 raising with arm bending (or forw. bending of arms) ; (4) jump to 
 
 fund. st. pos. 
 
 Bend st. stooping, alternating with arm stretching upw. 
 Neck grasp close st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk. 
 Bend stride st. downw. bending, touching floor, alternating with arm 
 
 stretching upw. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alternate foot placing sidew. (wide step), and 
 
 (quick) downw. bending, touching floor. Return in reverse order. 
 Neck grasp stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk, alternating with arm 
 
 stretching upw. 
 Cross (a) stride st. (quick) downward bending, touching floor, alternat-. 
 
 ing with arm flinging sidew. 
 
 Stretch stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk. 
 (1) Arm flinging sidew.; (2) foot placing sidew. with (quick) downward 
 
 bending, touching floor; (3) trunk raising with arm flinging (forw.-) 
 
 sidew.; (4) jump to fund. st. pos. 
 Bend stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk, alternating with arm 
 
 stretching sidew. with quick knee bending (or heel raising). 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and quick downw. bending, 
 
 touching floor (return in reverse ordei^. 
 Stretch stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk, alternating with arm 
 
 bending and stretching upw. 
 (1) Placing hands on neck; (2) foot placing sidew. with downw. bending, 
 
 touching floor; (3) trunk raising with hands on neck; (4) jump to 
 
 fund. pos.
 
 APPENDIX 211 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew., then downw. 
 
 bending, touching floor (swinging arms forw. -downw. Return in 
 
 reverse order). 
 Stretch stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk, alternating with arm 
 
 parting. 
 Bend stride st. downw. bending, touching floor, alternating with arm 
 
 stretching upw. 
 (1) Arm bending (or forw. bending of arms) ; (2) foot placing sidew. 
 
 with downw. bending, touching floor; (3) trunk raising with arm 
 
 flinging (forw.-) sidew.; (4) jump to fund. st. pos. 
 
 Bend st. arm stretching upw. with alt. foot placing sidew., and forw.- 
 downw. bending of trunk. 
 Cross (c) st. arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew., then downw. 
 
 bending, touching floor (return in reverse order). 
 (1) Arm bending; (2) foot placing sidew. with downw. bending, touching 
 
 floor; (3) trunk raising with arm bending; (4) jump to pos. with arm 
 
 stretching sidew. (or upw.). [Repetitions start from cross (c) (or 
 
 stretch) st. pos.] 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw. (or placing hands overhead) with alt. foot 
 
 placing sidew., then forw.-downw. bending (or downw. bending, 
 
 touching floor). 
 Cross (d) stride st. downw. bending, touching floor, alternating with arm 
 
 raising with knee bending. 
 
 Stretch close st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk. 
 (1) Arm bending (or forw. bending of arms, or arm flinging sidew., or 
 
 placing hands on neck or overhead); (2) foot placing sidew. with 
 
 downw. bending, touching floor; (3) trunk raising with arm raising 
 
 forw.-upw.; (4) jump to fund. st. pos. with arm flinging sidew.- 
 
 downw. 
 Stretch stride st. forw.-downw. bending of trunk, alternating with arm 
 
 parting with knee bending. 
 [Neck grasp stride st. forw.-downw. bending, alternating with trunk 
 
 twisting. Cross (c) stride st. downw. bending, touching floor, 
 
 alternating with trunk twisting.] 
 
 Lateral Trunk Exercises. 
 (1) Trunk Tivistings. 
 
 Bend stride st. trunk twisting (to L. and forw., then to R. and forw.). 
 
 Neck grasp stride st. trunk twisting. 
 
 Arm bending with alternate foot placing sidew., and trunk twisting. 
 
 Neck grasp close st. trunk twisting. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and trunk twisting. ^ 
 
 Cross (a) stride st. trunk twisting. 
 
 Bend stride st. trunk twisting (to L. .and forward), alternating with arm 
 
 stretching sidew. (then to R. and forw., etc.). 
 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., and trunk twisting. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing (obliquely) outw., and trunk twisting. 
 Cross (c) stride st. trunk twisting. 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing (obliquely) outw., and 
 
 trunk twisting. 
 Alt. foot placing (obliquely) outw. with hands on neck, and trunk twisting.
 
 212 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Bend close st. trunk twisting (and return), alternating with arm stretching 
 
 sidew. 
 Neck grasp stride st. alt. trunk twisting all the way from L. to R. in one 
 
 (quick) movement. 
 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing forw., and trunk twisting. 
 Cross (a) stride twist st. arm flinging sidew. 
 
 Bend stride st. trunk twisting (and return), alternating with arm stretch- 
 ing upw. 
 Cross (a) stride st. trunk twisting (and return), alternating with arm 
 
 flinging sidew. 
 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew., and trunk twisting. 
 Close twist st. arm circumduction. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on neck, and trunk twisting. 
 Bend stride st alt. trunk twisting all the way from L. to R. in one move- 
 ment, alternating with arm stretching sidew. 
 Bend stride kneeling trunk twisting. 
 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing forw., and trunk twisting. 
 Bend charge (a) st. (^oblique charge) trunk twisting to same side. 
 Cross (a) stride st. alt. trunk twisting all the way in one movement, 
 
 alternating with arm flinging sidew. 
 Cross (e) stride st. trunk twisting. 
 Neck grasp charge (a) st. trunk twisting to same side. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing forw. and trunk twisting. 
 Arm bending with oblique charge, and trunk twisting to same side. 
 Neck grasp stride kneeling trunk twisting. 
 Stretch stride twist st. arm parting. 
 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck, and trunk twisting to same sidei 
 Neck grasp stride st. alt. trunk twisting all the way in one movement, 
 
 alternating with arm stretching sidew. (palms down or up). 
 Bend charge (a) st. trunk twisting to opposite side. 
 Cross (a) close st. alt. trunk twisting all the way in one movement. 
 
 alternating with arm flinging sidew. 
 
 l / 2 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., and trunk twisting. 
 Neck grasp charge (a) st. trunk twisting to opposite side. 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing outw., then arm flinging 
 
 sidew. with trunk twisting. 
 Neck grasp stride st. alt. trunk twisting all the way in one movement, 
 
 alternating with arm stretching upw. 
 
 Arm bending with oblique charge, and trunk twisting to opposite side. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing obliquely outw., then arm stretching 
 
 sidew. with trunk twisting. 
 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck, and trunk twisting to opposite side. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw. and simultaneous trunk twisting. 
 Cross (c) stride st. alt. trunk twisting all the way in one movement, 
 
 alternating with arm bending and stretching sidew. 
 Arm bending with oblique charge and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 same side. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing (obliquely) outw., then arm stretching 
 
 upw. with trunk twisting. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk 
 
 twisting. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw., trunk twisting, then arm 
 
 stretching sidew. (or upw.) and return in reverse order (6 count 
 
 movement). 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing outw., trunk twisting, then 
 
 arm flinging sidew. (6 counts).
 
 APPENDIX . 213 
 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 same side. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw. and simultaneous trunk twisting, 
 
 then arm stretching sidew. (or upw.). 
 Arm bending with oblique charge and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 opposite side. 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing outw. and simultaneous 
 
 trunk twisting, then arm flinging sidew. 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 opposite side. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk 
 
 twisting, then arm stretching sidew. (or upw.). 
 Arm bending with oblique charge and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 same side, then arm stretching sidew. (or upw.). 
 
 Arm flinging sidew., palms up, with alt. foot placing outw. and simul- 
 taneous trunk twisting, then arm raising. 
 Forw. bending of arms with oblique charge and simultaneous trunk 
 
 twisting to same side, then arm flinging sidew. 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw. with alt. foot placing outw. and simultaneous 
 
 trunk twisting, then arm parting. 
 Arm bending with oblique charge and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 opposite side, then arm stretching upw. 
 Bend st. oblique charge with trunk twisting to opposite side (head 
 
 twisting to same side) and simultaneous arm stretching, one upw. 
 
 the other downw. 
 
 The forward charge, with the advancing foot turned straight ahead, the 
 rear foot at right angles, may take the place of a trunk twisting. It 
 corresponds very nearly to the oblique charge with, or followed by, a 
 trunk twisting to the same side, but is less "definite" and therefore less 
 powerful as a twisting movement. 
 
 Lateral Trunk Exercises (Continued). 
 (2) Side Bendings, Leg Flinging Sidew. and Side Falling Position. 
 
 Hip grasp stride st. side bending of trunk (to L. and return, then to R. 
 
 and return). 
 
 Bend stride st. side bending of trunk. 
 Hip grasp st. leg flinging sidew. L. and R. (at first stop at the change. 
 
 Later change without stopping). 
 Neck grasp stride st. side bending of trunk. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on hips, and side bending of trunk. 
 Bend stride st. side bending of trunk, alternating with arm stretching 
 
 sidew. 
 
 Cross (a) stride st. side bending of trunk. 
 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew., and side bending of trunk. 
 Hip grasp st. alt. leg flinging sidew. 
 
 Alt. -foot placing sidew. with hands on neck, and side bending of trunk. 
 Hip grasp close st. side bending of trunk. 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., and side bending of 
 
 trunk. 
 
 Neck grasp st. side bending of trunk. 
 
 Arm bending with closing of feet, and side bending of trunk. 
 Neck grasp st. leg flinging sidew. L. and R. 
 Hip grasp walk (b) st. side bending of trunk.
 
 214 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Neck grasp stride st. alt. side bending of trunk all the way from one 
 
 side to the other in one continuous movement. (This movement may 
 
 also be given early in the progression as a more or less "indefinite" 
 
 movement.) 
 
 Bend walk (b) st. side bending of trunk. 
 
 Closing of feet with hands on neck, and side bending of trunk. 
 Cross (c) stride st. side bending of trunk. 
 Neck grasp stride st. side bending of trunk alternating with arm 
 
 stretching sidew. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on hips, and side bending of trunk. 
 Neck grasp st. alt. leg flinging sidew. 
 Cross (e) stride st. side bending of trunk. 
 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing forw., and side bending of trunk. 
 Neck grasp stride st. side bending of trunk, alt. with arm stretching upw. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew., and side bending of 
 
 trunk. 
 l /2. hip grasp l /t stretch stride st. side bending of trunk (one side at a 
 
 time). 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew., and side 
 
 bending of trunk. 
 
 St. leg flinging sidew. L. and R., with opposite arm flinging sidew. 
 Neck grasp walk (b) st. side bending of trunk. 
 l /2 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., and side bending 
 
 of trunk. 
 Bend stride st. one arm stretching upw. with placing of the other hand 
 
 on hip, and side bending of trunk (4 count movement, alternating 
 
 to L. and R.). 
 
 St. alt. leg flinging sidew. with opposite arm flinging sidew. 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on neck, and side bending of trunk. 
 Side lunge with hands on hips, and side bending of trunk. 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing forw. and side bending of 
 
 trunk. 
 
 Stretch stride st. side bending of trunk. 
 Bend st. leg flinging sidew. L. and R. with opposite arm stretching sidew. 
 
 and placing of hand on same side on hip. 
 Cross (c) walk (b) st. side bending of trunk. 
 l / 2 hip grasp side falling pos. (side leaning rest) and return (6 count 
 
 movement). 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with one arm overhead, the other hand on hip, 
 
 and side bending of trunk. 
 Hip grasp stride st. side-and-knee bending. 
 Bend walk (a) twist st. side bending of trunk. 
 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing forw. and side bending of trunk. 
 Arm flinging forw. with alt. leg flinging sidew. 
 Side lunge with hands on neck, and side bending of trunk. 
 St. leg flinging sidew. L. and R. with opposite arm flinging sidew.-upw. 
 Neck grasp walk (a) twist st. side bending of trunk. 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw. (and sidew. -downw.) with alt. foot placing 
 
 sidew. and side bending of trunk. 
 Neck grasp stride st. side-and-knee bending. 
 Y 2 hip grasp side falling pos., about facing and return to st. pos. (8 
 
 counts). 
 l /2 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing forw., and side bending 
 
 of trunk. 
 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. side lunge, and side bending of trunk. 
 St. alt. leg flinging sidew. with arm circumduction (1 count on each side).
 
 APPENDIX 215 
 
 Cross (c) stride st. side-and-knee bending. 
 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck, trunk twisting, then side 
 
 bending of trunk. 
 Arm bending with side lunge, then arm stretching sidew. with side bending 
 
 of trunk (one hand touching floor, the other arm vertically overhead). 
 l /z hip grasp side falling pos., leg raising, then return to st. pos. (8 counts). 
 Cross (c) stride st. side-and-knee bending, alternating with arm bending 
 
 and stretching sidew. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk 
 
 twisting, then side bending of trunk. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew., then side-and-knee 
 
 bending. 
 Alt. side lunge with one arm overhead, the other hand on hip, and side 
 
 bending of trunk. 
 
 Hip grasp st. side bending of trunk with raising of leg on other side. 
 Oblique charge with hands on hips and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 opposite side, then side bending of trunk (to same side as charge). 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew., then arm stretching sidew. 
 
 with side-and-knee bending (one arm vertical, the other hand touch- 
 ing floor). 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing outw. and simultaneous trunk 
 
 twisting, then side bending of trunk. 
 
 Cross (c) st. side bending of trunk with raising of leg on other side. 
 Bend st. arm stretching upw. with alt. foot placing forw., and side 
 
 bending of trunk. 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 opposite side, then side bending of trunk (to same side as charge). 
 Side lunge with arm flinging sidew. on same side, upw. on opposite side, 
 
 then side bending of trunk (one hand touching floor, the other arm 
 
 horizontally overhead, in line with trunk). 
 
 Bend stride st. arm stretching sidew. with side-and-knee bending, alter- 
 nating with arm stretching upw. 
 
 Neck grasp st. side bending of trunk with raising of leg on other side. 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing outw., arm flinging sidew. 
 
 with trunk twisting, then side bending of trunk (6 count movement). 
 Arm flinging forw. -upw. (and sidew.-downw.) with side lunge, then 
 
 side bending of trunk. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw., arm stretching upw. with trunk 
 
 twisting, theij side bending of trunk (6 count movement). 
 l /2 bend side falling pos., arm stretching upw. with leg raising (8 counts). 
 Stretch st. side bending of trunk with raising of leg on other side. 
 
 Back and Shoulder Blade Movements. 
 
 Hip grasp stride st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Bend st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Neck grasp stride st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidew. with hands on hips, and forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Bend stride st. forw. bending of trunk, alternating with arm stretching 
 
 sidew. 
 
 Cross (a) close st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew., and forw. bending of trunk. 
 Cross (a) stride st. forw. bending of trunk, alternating with arm flinging 
 
 sidew.
 
 216 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Alt. foot placing sidevv. with hands on neck, and forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Hip grasp walk (b) st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., and forw. bending of 
 
 trunk. 
 
 Cross (c) stride st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on hips, and forw. bending of trunk. 
 Bend (stride) prone st. arm stretching sidew. (palms down). 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing sidew., and forw. bending of 
 
 trunk. 
 Bend stride st. forw. bending of trunk, alternating with arm stretching 
 
 upw. 
 
 Cross (a) stride prone st. arm flinging sidew. 
 Neck grasp walk (b) st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Forw. bending of arms with closing of feet, and forw. bending of trunk. 
 Bend close prone st. arm stretching sidew., palms up. 
 Arm bending with forw. charge. 
 Cross (c) prone st. arm rotation. 
 
 Alt. foot placing forw. with hands on neck, and forw. bending of trunk. 
 Hip grasp toe-support charge. 
 Prone st. arm circumduction. 
 Forw. charge with hands on neck. 
 J4 sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing sidew., and forward 
 
 bending of trunk. 
 
 Arm flinging sidew. with forw. charge. 
 Stretch stride st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 Neck grasp toe-support charge. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with alt. foot placing forw., and forw. bending of 
 
 trunk. 
 
 Bend st. forw. charge with arm stretching sidew. 
 Bend walk (a) twist st. forw. bending of trunk. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with toe-support charge. 
 Cross (a) prone st. swimming movements. 
 Arm bending with forw. charge, then arm stretching sidew. 
 Yz sidew. bending of arms with alt. foot placing forw., and forw. bending 
 
 of trunk. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw., trunk twisting, then forw. 
 
 bending of trunk (6 counts). 
 
 Arm bending with toe-support charge, then arm stretching sidew. 
 Bend stride prone st. arm stretching upw. 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw. (or arm circumduction) with alt. foot placing 
 
 sidew., and forw. bending of trunk. 
 
 Forw. bending of arms with toe-support charge, then arm flinging sidew. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck, trunk twisting, then forw. 
 
 bending of trunk (6 counts). 
 Cross (e) stride prone st. arm rotation. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew., forw. bending of trunk, then 
 
 arm stretching sidew. (6 counts). 
 Arm flingirlg forw.-upw. with forw. charge. 
 Stretch stride prone st. arm parting. 
 
 Forw. charge with hands on hips, and forw. bending of trunk. 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw. with toe-support charge. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing forw., forw. bending of trunk, then 
 
 arm stretching sidew. (6 counts). 
 
 Forw. charge with hands on neck, and forw. bending of trunk. 
 Alt. foot placing outw. with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk 
 
 twisting, then forw. bending of trunk.
 
 APPENDIX 217 
 
 Arm bending with toe-support charge (or forw. charge), then arm 
 
 stretching upw. 
 Arm bending with oblique charge, trunk twisting to same side, then 
 
 forw. bending of trunk (6 counts). 
 
 Arm flinging upw. with toe-support (or forw.) charge, then arm parting. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing sidew., forw. bending of trunk, then 
 
 arm stretching upw. (6 counts). 
 Hip grasp horizontal l /2 st. pos. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing forw., forw. bending of trunk, then 
 
 arm stretching sidew. (or upw.) (6 counts). 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck, trunk twisting to same side, then 
 
 forw. bending of trunk (6 counts). 
 Forw. bending of arms with alt. foot placing outw., arm flinging sidew. 
 
 with trunk twisting, then forw. bending of trunk (6 counts). 
 Arm bending with oblique charge and simultaneous trunk twisting, then 
 
 forw. bending of trunk. 
 Neck grasp horizontal Yz st. pos. 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw. with alt. foot placing sidew., forw. bending of 
 
 trunk, then arm parting (6 counts). 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk twisting, then 
 
 forw. bending of trunk. 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw., arm stretching upw. with trunk 
 
 twisting, then forw. bending of trunk (6 counts). 
 Stretch horizontal ^ st. pos. 
 Arm bending (or placing hands on neck) with alt. foot placing outw. 
 
 and simultaneous trunk twisting, forw. bending of trunk, then arm 
 
 stretching sidew. (or upw.) (6 counts). 
 Arm bending with alt. foot placing outw., arm stretching upw. with trunk 
 
 twisting, then forw. bending of trunk, followed by arm parting (8 
 
 counts). 
 
 Abdominal Exercises. 
 
 Knee Upward Bending and Leg Flinging Forward. Prone Falling Posi- 
 tion. Foot Placings from Prone Falling Position. Kneeling 
 Position: Backward Leaning of Trunk. Horizontal Lying 
 Position: Knee Upward Bending and Leg Raising. 
 
 Knee upw. bending L. and R., grasping knee and pressing it toward chest. 
 
 Hip grasp st. knee upw. bending L. and R. (as high as possible without 
 bending head and upper trunk forw.). Position at the end of the 
 up-stroke not held. On the return the weight should settle equally on 
 both feet and the position be held for an instant. At first, stop the 
 movement when changing from one side to the other. Later, changes 
 are made without stopping, and without warning. This compels the 
 settling of the weight equally on both feet. The above applies also 
 to standing leg flinging forw. and sidew. 
 
 Hip grasp st. leg flinging forw. L. and R. 
 
 Hip grasp st. alt. knee upw. bending (with and without holding the fund, 
 pos. a moment at the change). 
 
 Hip grasp st. alt. leg flinging forw. (pos. held at the change). 
 
 Neck grasp st. alt. knee upw. bending. 
 
 Neck grasp st. alt. leg flinging forw. 
 
 Hip grasp toe st. alt. knee upw. bending (pos. not held at the change).
 
 218 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Neck grasp toe st. alt. knee upw. bending (pos. not held at the change). 
 
 Hip grasp toe st. knee upw. bending R. and L. 
 
 St. alt. leg flinging forw. with opposite arm flinging sidew.-upw. (1 
 
 count each side). 
 
 Hip grasp st. leg circumduction L. and R., and alternate. 
 Arm circumduction with alt. leg flinging forw. (1 count each side). 
 
 Prone falling pos. (front leaning rest) and return (4 counts). 
 
 Prone falling pos. with one foot forw., the other leg extended : alt. foot 
 
 placing forw.-backw. 
 Prone falling foot placing (both feet) forw. and backw. once and return 
 
 (6 counts). 
 
 Prone falling foot placing forw. and backw. repeatedly. 
 Prone falling foot placing sidew. (both feet simultaneously) once and 
 
 return (6 counts). 
 
 Prone falling foot placing sidew. repeatedly. 
 Prone falling arm bending once and return (6 counts). 
 Prone falling foot placing forw. and backw. once, then arm bending once, 
 
 and return (8 counts). 
 Prone falling arm bending repeatedly. 
 
 Hip grasp stride kneeling backw. leaning of trunk (the movement takes 
 
 place at the knee. Head, chest, upper and lower back should be kept 
 
 in the fundamental pos. On command only). 
 Hip grasp l /i. kneeling backw. leaning of trunk (on one knee; the other 
 
 foot advanced far enough to flex the knee on that side 90). 
 Kneeling and y* kneeling backw. leaning of trunk with arms in the bend, 
 
 cross (a), neck grasp, cross (e) and stretch positions. 
 
 Neck grasp (or diagonal stretch) lying knee upw. bending L. and R. 
 Neck grasp lying alt. knee upw. bending (each movement completed before 
 
 the next one begins, or both beginning at the same time, one from the 
 
 bent, the other from the extended, pos.). 
 
 Neck grasp lying knee upw. bending (both at the same time). 
 Neck grasp lying alt. knee upw. bending and stretching obliquely upw. 
 
 (45). 
 Neck grasp lying alt. leg raising (each movement completed before the 
 
 next begins). 
 Neck grasp lying knee upw. bending and stretching obliquely upw. to 45 
 
 angle (both moving together). 
 
 Neck grasp lying leg raising (both at the same time). 
 Neck grasp lying alternating leg raising (both moving at the same time, 
 
 but in opposite directions). 
 
 Neck grasp lying leg raising and sinking sidew. (both moving together). 
 Neck grasp lying leg circumduction (both moving together). 
 
 Balance Exercises. 
 
 Hip grasp close toe st. pos. 
 
 Hip grasp l /2 st. pos., leg forw. 
 
 Neck grasp close toe st. pos. 
 
 Hip grasp l /2 hook st. pos. (one knee raised, 90 angle at hip and knee). 
 
 Hip grasp ^ st. pos., leg sidew.
 
 APPENDIX 219 
 
 Hip grasp toe st. head twisting. 
 
 Hip grasp walk (b) toe st. pos. 
 
 Hip grasp st. alt. knee upw. bending (2 counts each side), on command or 
 in slow rhythm (quick movements) stopping unexpectedly. 
 
 Preparation for balance march, advancing one foot and raising the heel 
 of the other foot in separate movements (on command). 
 
 Neck grasp l /t st. pos., leg forw. 
 
 Hip grasp toe st. knee bending. 
 
 Balance march, each step complete, on command. 
 
 Hip grasp walk (b) toe st. head twisting. 
 
 Neck grasp toe st. alt. knee upw. bending (rhythmic). 
 
 Neck grasp walk (b) toe st. arm stretching sidew. (or upw.). 
 
 Hip grasp toe st. march steps forw. (each on command). 
 
 Balance march, continuous movement, slow rhythm. 
 
 Hip grasp walk (a) st. heel raising and knee bending (on command). 
 
 Hip grasp ^ hook st. knee stretching forw. 
 
 Hip grasp toe st. march steps backw. (each on command). 
 
 Hip grasp Yz hook st. change feet in one quick movement (with a jump). 
 
 Arm circumduction with alt. leg raising sidew. 
 
 Hip grasp toe-knee bend st. head twisting. 
 
 Cross (c) Yz st. pos., leg forw. 
 
 Balance march with knee upw. bending. 
 
 Reach J4 st. pos., leg sidew., arm parting (or flinging sidew.). 
 
 Stretch walk (c) toe st. arm parting. 
 
 Hip grasp Y* st. pos., leg forw. : bending of knee of supporting leg. 
 
 Hip grasp toe-support charge pos. 
 
 Hip grasp Y*. st. pos., leg forw. : change feet in one quick movement (with 
 a jump). 
 
 Hip grasp walk (b) st. heel raising and knee bending. 
 
 Reach Yz st. pos., leg forw. : bending of knee of supporting leg. 
 
 Bend Y* hook st. (slow or quick) arm stretching sidew. with knee stretch- 
 ing forw. 
 
 Hip grasp YL st. pos., leg sidew. : change feet in one quick movement. 
 
 Neck grasp toe-support charge pos. 
 
 Cross (a) Yz hook st. arm flinging sidew. with knee stretching forw. 
 
 Neck grasp Yt st. pos. leg forw.: knee bending (supporting leg). 
 
 Cross (c) toe-support charge pos. 
 
 Bend Y? hook st. arm stretching upw. with knee stretching forw. 
 
 Cross (c) YZ st. pos., leg forw. : heel raising (pupils support each other 
 by joining hands). 
 
 Stretch toe-support charge pos. 
 
 Cross (a) walk (b) toe-knee bend st. arm flinging sidew. 
 
 Hip grasp st. side bending of trunk with raising of opposite leg. 
 
 Cross (c) Yi st. pos., leg sidew.: heel raising (pupils support each other). 
 
 Reach Y* st. (leg forw.) arm parting with knee bending (supporting leg). 
 
 Cross (d) walk (b) toe st. arm raising with knee bending. 
 
 Hip grasp horizontal ^ st. pos. (= leg raising from toe-support charge 
 pos.). 
 
 Cross (c) Yi st. pos., leg forw.: heel raising (without support). 
 
 Neck grasp st. side bending of trunk with raising of opposite leg. 
 
 Cross (c) horizontal Yi st. pos. 
 
 Neck grasp horizontal J4 st. pos. 
 
 Cross (c) 3^2 st. pos., leg sidew.: heel raising (without support). 
 
 Cross (c) st. side bending of trunk with raising of opposite leg. 
 
 Stretch horizontal Y* st. pos. 
 
 Cross (d) ^ st. pos., leg forw. : arm raising with heel raising.
 
 220 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Arm Movements. 
 
 [In the beginning of any series of lessons many of the following arm 
 movements may be practiced separately as shoulder blade exercises or 
 preparatory arching movements. Many of them may be used at any time 
 as breathing exercises. As fast as their correct execution is mastered, 
 they may be used in combination or alternation with leg and trunk 
 movements, serving to increase the complexity and power of the latter. 
 Care must be taken, however, to distribute this class of movements judi- 
 ciously throughout a lesson, to vary the types and to avoid excessive 
 recurrence.] 
 
 Arm bending and stretching downw. (on command, and repeated in even 
 
 rhythm). 
 
 Arm raising or flinging sidew. 
 Arm rotation (turning of hands). 
 Forw. bending of arms (not well suited for rhythmic repetition, though 
 
 may be so used if positions at each end of the movement are well 
 
 sustained). 
 
 Placing hands on neck (command only). 
 Arm bending and stretching sidew. (on command, and repeated in even 
 
 rhythm). 
 
 Change from hip grasp to neck grasp st. pos. (command only). 
 Cross (a) st. arm flinging sidew. (if repeated in rhythm, positions should 
 
 be well sustained). 
 
 Arm raising or flinging sidew. with palms up. 
 Arm bending and stretching sidew. and downw. (command, and at first 
 
 even, later uneven, rhythm, holding the extended longer than the 
 
 flexed pos.). 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. with palms up (slow or quick, command or 
 
 rhythm). 
 
 Cross (c) st. arm rotation (slow or quick, on command). 
 Arm raising forw. (command only). 
 Arm bending and stretching obliquely upw. (command, even and broken 
 
 rhythm). 
 
 Arm raising or flinging forw.-sidew. (return through side plane). 
 Arm circumduction, 2 counts (=arm raising or flinging forw.-upw. and 
 
 returning through side plane, turning palms down as arms pass the 
 
 horizontal, without stopping). 
 
 Arm raising or flinging forw.-sidew., palms up (2 counts). 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. (command and even rhythm). 
 Reach st. arm parting, palms down or up (slow or quick). (In the latter 
 
 case arm flinging sidew. is a better designation. The return move- 
 ment is best done slowly in any case.) 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. and downw. (repetitions in even and 
 
 broken rhythm). 
 Arm flinging forw., sidew. (palms down or up) and downw. (3 count 
 
 movement, each part quick, positions held momentarily). 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. and sidew. (repetitions in uneven 
 
 rhythm). 
 
 l /2 sidew. bending of arms (command only). 
 Cross (d) st. arm raising. 
 Arm circumduction, 3 counts (= arm flinging forw.-upw., then sidew. with 
 
 palms up, and then downw.; all are quick movements). 
 Neck grasp st. arm stretching sidew. or upw. 
 Arm raising or flinging sidew.-upw. (continuous movement each way).
 
 APPENDIX 221 
 
 Arm flinging forvv., sidew. (palms down or up), forw. and downw. 
 Stretch st. arm parting (slow, on command). 
 
 Arm bending and stretching backw. and sidew. (uneven rhythm). 
 Cross (e) st. arm stretching sidew., palms down or up (command). 
 Arm bending and stretching one sidew., the other downw. (command and 
 
 even or broken rhythm). 
 Reach st. arm flinging upw. (command). 
 
 Arm bending and stretching forw. and sidew. (uneven rhythm). 
 Cross (e) st. arm stretching upw. (slow or quick, on command). 
 Arm bending and stretching upw. and sidew. (uneven rhythm). 
 Arm flinging sidew. and upw. (returning sidew. and downw.; hands are 
 
 turned on the second and fourth counts). 
 
 Arm bending and stretching upw., sidew., and downw. (uneven rhythm). 
 Cross (e) st. arm rotation (on command). 
 Arm bending and stretching one upw., the other downw. 
 Arm bending and stretching forw., upw., and sidew. 
 Arm bending and stretching one upw., the other sidew. 
 Arm bending and stretching forw., upw., sidew., and downw. 
 Arm bending and stretching one forw., the other sidew. 
 
 Charges. 
 
 Hip grasp st. oblique charge or, preferably, oblique charge with (placing 
 
 of) hands on hips. 
 Arm bending with oblique charge. 
 Forw. charge with hands on hips. 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck. 
 Arm bending with forw. charge. 
 Forw. bending of arms with oblique charge. 
 Forw. bending of arms with forw. charge. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with forw. charge. 
 Hip grasp toe-support charge pos. 
 
 Arm bending with oblique charge, then trunk twisting to same side. 
 Bend st. arm stretching sidew. with forw. charge. 
 Bend toe-support charge pos. 
 Bend st. oblique charge with arm stretching upw. on the same side (as 
 
 charge) downw. on opposite side. Return in the usual way, or by 
 
 afterstep (rear foot to the advanced foot). 
 Cross (a) toe-support charge pos. 
 
 Forw. bending of arms with forw. charge, then arm flinging sidew. 
 Reverse (backw.) charge with hands on hips. 
 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck, then trunk twisting to same side. 
 Cross (c) toe-support charge pos. 
 Reverse oblique charge with hands on hips. 
 Arm flinging forw.-upw. with forw. charge. 
 
 Arm bending with oblique charge, then trunk twisting to opposite side. 
 Reverse (backw.) charge with hands on neck. 
 Bend st. arm stretching upw. with forw. charge. Return in the usual 
 
 way, or by afterstep. 
 
 Reverse oblique charge with hands on neck. 
 Neck grasp toe-support charge. 
 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck, then trunk twisting to opposite side. 
 Arm flinging sidew. with reverse (backw.) charge. 
 Arm bending with forw. charge, then arm stretching sidew. 
 Arm bending with reverse oblique charge, then trunk twisting to side of 
 
 advanced foot.
 
 222 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Stretch toe-support charge pos. 
 
 Arm bending with oblique charge and simultaneous trunk twisting to same 
 
 side. 
 
 Arm bending with forw. charge, then arm stretching upw. 
 Reverse oblique charge with hands on neck, then trunk twisting to side 
 
 of rear foot. 
 
 Cross (e) toe-support charge pos. 
 Arm bending with oblique charge and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 opposite side. 
 Arm bending with forw. charge, then arm stretching downw. on same 
 
 side (as charge), upw. on opposite side. Afterstep. 
 Arm bending with reverse oblique charge and simultaneous trunk twisting 
 
 to side of advanced foot. 
 Oblique charge with hands on neck and simultaneous trunk twisting to 
 
 same side. Same with twisting to opposite. 
 Bend st. oblique charge with arm stretching upw. on same side, downw. on 
 
 opposite side and with simultaneous trunk twisting to opposite side, 
 
 head twisting to same side. Return in the usual way, or with afterstep. 
 Same with reverse oblique charge. 
 
 Note. In all oblique charges in which the return is made by replacing 
 the advanced foot, the change may be accompanied by a 90 facing, so 
 that each foot strikes the floor in the same place. 
 
 Free-Standing Jumps, Toe Jumps, etc. 
 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes. 
 
 Jump in place with side-flinging of arms. 
 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes with foot placing sidew. (stride jump). 
 
 St. jump forw. 
 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes with alt. foot placing forw.-backw. (weight 
 
 equally on both feet. Feet pass each other at each step). 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes in quick and slow rhythm. 
 Jump forw., with one or two start steps. 
 
 Hip grasp st. hop on one foot 8-10 times. Stop at the change. 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes with foot placing forw.-backw. and together 
 
 (passing through toe st. pos. each time). 
 Jump in place with side flinging of arms and 90 turn. 
 Jump on toes with arm flinging sidew. 
 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes alternatingly forw. and backw. (feet together). 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes with foot placing sidew. and crossing of feet. 
 St. jump sidew. 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes with both feet moving together from one side 
 
 to the other. 
 
 Jump on toes with foot placing sidew. and arm flinging sidew.-upw. 
 Jump in place with side flinging of arms and 180 turn. 
 Hip grasp l /t st. (leg sidew.) jump on toes with alt. leg flinging sidew. 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes with foot placing sidew., alternating with foot 
 
 placing forw.-backw. 
 Hip grasp l /2 st. (one foot raised behind) hop on one foot and swing other 
 
 foot forw. and backw. (by stretching and bending knee). 
 Hip grasp l /2 st. (leg forw. Crocking (cut) step forw. Stop at change. 
 Jump on toes with foot placing forw.-backw. and alt. arm flinging forw. 
 Hip grasp l /2 st. (one foot raised backw.) rocking (cut) step backw. 
 Jump on toes with arm flinging sidew. (-upw.) and foot placing sidew., 
 
 and with crossing of hands and feet on return. 
 Hip grasp st. jump on toes with alt. knee upw. bending.
 
 APPENDIX 223 
 
 Hip grasp l /t st. rocking (cut) step forw., change at seventh count by foot 
 
 placing sidew. 
 
 Hip grasp y* st. (leg sidew.) change feet and hop once on each foot. 
 Jump on toes with L. and R. leg flinging sidew. and arm flinging sidew., 
 
 and with crossing of hands and feet on the return. 
 Hip. grasp l /2 st. (one foot raised backw.) hop on one foot and swing 
 
 other forw., change and swing other foot backw. 
 Hip grasp l /2 st. (leg sidew.) change feet and hop once on each foot with 
 
 bending and stretching of other knee ("kick"), turning toward side 
 
 of swinging leg. 
 
 Hip grasp st. hop twice on each foot with toe-and-heel touch and turns. 
 (1) Hop twice on R. foot with arm flinging and L. leg flinging sidew.; 
 
 (2) landing with hands and feet crossed and knees slightly bent; (3) 
 
 jump with arm flinging and foot placing sidew. (landing in cross (c) 
 
 stride toe st. pos.) ; (4) jump to fund. pos. Repeat with R. leg flinging 
 
 sidew. on first count. 
 (1) Leap obliquely forw. on L. foot with L. arm diagonally overhead and 
 
 R. arm and R. leg behind ; (2) hop once on L. foot, while retaining pos. 
 
 of L. arm and R. leg. Repeat on other side and continue with zigzag 
 
 advance. 
 (1) Leap and (2) hop on L. foot (as in preceding) ; (3) jump to the pos. 
 
 with knees slightly bent and hands and feet crossed; (4) jump to the 
 
 cross stride toe st. pos.; (5) jump to fund, pos.; (6) hold fund. pos. 
 
 (this is the Hungarian break, modified). Repeat on other side. 
 (1) Leap and (2) hop on L. foot; (3) jump to R. foot with arm flinging 
 
 sidew. and raising of L. knee *forw. ; (4) hop once on R. foot, arms 
 
 and L. leg retaining previous pos.; (5), (6), (.7) and (8), modified 
 
 Hungarian break, as above. 
 
 2. APPARATUS EXERCISES. 
 TERMINOLOGY.* 
 
 Positions: 
 
 Standing pos. On one foot or both feet. 
 
 Sitting pos. Body vertical, hip flexed 90 (one or both) ; knee 
 
 straight or flexed 90 (one or both). 
 Hanging pos. Hands at least shoulder distance apart. 
 Upper arm hanging pos. Body supported on (forearms and) upper 
 
 arms. 
 
 Inverted hanging pos. Head down; body approximately straight. 
 Fall hanging pos. Body straight, partly supported on heels; face up; 
 
 hands at least shoulder distance apart ; grasp usually at shoulder 
 
 height, but may be lower. 
 Prone hanging pos. Body as straight as possible (though inevitably 
 
 more or less arched), partly supported on toes; face down; hands 
 
 and grasp as for fall hanging pos. 
 Knee hanging pos. (inverted). 
 Riding pos. Support on thighs only. 
 
 *In the main, the terminology adopted by the Y. M. C. A. has been followed.
 
 224 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Rests (body partly supported on arms, partly on legs) : 
 
 Front rest. On hands and thighs, facing at right angles to the sup- 
 port; body straight or slightly arched, inclined about 45. 
 
 Free front rest (momentary). No support on thighs; body straight, 
 approaching horizontal. 
 
 Oblique front rest (occurs on parallel bars only). Body straight, 
 supported on hands (one on each bar) and on one thigh, facing 
 downw., 30-40 to the support; inclined about 30 to the 
 horizontal. 
 
 Back rest. Support on hands and buttocks. Body straight, facing 
 up, and at right angles to the support. Inclinations about 45. 
 
 Oblique back rest (on parallel bars and horse chiefly). On hands and 
 one hip. Face up and turned about 45 away from support. 
 Inclination 45-60 to horizontal. 
 
 Cross rest (on parallel bars). Body straight and vertical, supported 
 entirely on hands. 
 
 Riding rests, body erect, supported partly on hands, partly on thighs. 
 
 (a) Cross riding rest : facing in the direction of the long axis of 
 the apparatus (parallel bars, horse), support on inside of thighs. 
 
 (b) Side riding rest; facing at right angles to long axis of apparatus, 
 support on front of one thigh, back of the other. 
 
 Grasps: 
 
 Ordinary or overgrasp. Palms facing forw. 
 Reverse grasp. Palms facing backw. 
 Combined grasp. One hand each way. 
 
 Wide and narrow grasp. More and less than shoulder distance 
 between hands. 
 
 Movements: 
 
 Mounts. A spring from both feet (usually), preceded or not by a 
 short run, to stated position on apparatus. When mounting to 
 middle of parallel bars from ends, swing arms straight, inside 
 bars. 
 
 Principal mounts : squat, straddle, */> squat */2 straddle mounts ; face 
 vault and side vault mounts. Like corresponding vaults. Jump 
 mount (usually from one foot) to standing pos. on one foot or 
 both feet. 
 Dismounts. From position on apparatus to floor. 
 
 Forward : In the direction faced when in the last pos. on 
 
 apparatus. 
 
 Backward : In the opposite direction. 
 Sideways : In a direction at right angles to last pos. 
 Face (vault) dismount L. and R. : Front of the body toward 
 
 apparatus at moment of leaving it. 
 Back (vault) dismount L. and R. : Back of the body toward 
 
 apparatus when leaving it. 
 Side (vault) dismount : Side of the body toward apparatus when 
 
 leaving it. 
 
 Jumps. From one foot or both feet without help of hands to or over 
 apparatus. 
 
 Hop : Spring from one foot, land on same foot. 
 Step : Spring from one foot, land on the other. 
 Jump : Spring from one foot or both feet, land on both feet, or 
 
 in any given pos. on apparatus.
 
 APPENDIX 225 
 
 Vaults. From one foot or both feet, over an apparatus with support 
 on one or both hands. 
 
 I. Vertical vaults: Body erect when passing apparatus, only 
 
 momentary support on hands. 
 Squat vault : Feet pass between hands. 
 Straddle vault: Feet pass outside of hands. 
 J4 squat Yz straddle vault: One foot between, other foot outside 
 
 hands. L. and R. refer to outside foot. 
 Knee vault : Between hands, witR momentary support on and 
 
 quick spring from lower leg. 
 Yz knee Y* straddle vault : As preceding with one knee, other 
 
 leg straight, outside hand. 
 Front vault: Between hands; body approximately in fund, pos., 
 
 somewhat arched. Chest leading, feet last. 
 Rear (or backw.) squat vault: As squat vault, but body turned 
 
 180 before passing apparatus. 
 Rear (or backw.) straddle vault: As straddle vault, but body 
 
 turned 180 before passing apparatus. 
 Cross-legged straddle vault : Feet outside hands, legs crossed, 
 
 hips turned, shoulders square to the front. 
 
 II. Horizontal vaults: Body approximately in horizontal pos. 
 
 when passing apparatus; support on hands somewhat longer 
 than in vertical vaults. 
 Face vault : Front of body toward apparatus at the moment of 
 
 passing it. 
 
 Side vault: Side of the body toward apparatus. 
 Back vault: Back of the body toward apparatus. (There is more 
 
 or less of a bend at the hips.) 
 
 Oblique (back) vault : From one foot with support of opposite 
 hand. Back of body toward apparatus. Direction of 
 approach and passing apparatus about 45. 
 Turns. On apparatus or on landing in vaults and dismounts: 
 
 y 4 90, Y 2 = ISO , 3/ 4 = 270, full turn = 360. 
 Circles. 1. Body. Forward: head moves in the direction faced. 
 
 Backw. : in opposite direction. 
 2. Leg. y 2 circle = 180 ; full circle = 360. 
 
 Left : in direction opposite hands of clock. Right : with 
 hands of clock. 
 
 (1) APPARATUS EXERCISES FOR WOMEN. 
 
 Horizontal Ladder. 
 
 Hanging pos. (one hand on each side, several pupils at once). Dismount. 
 
 Hanging pos.: alt. knee upw. bending (2 counts each side). 
 
 Hanging pos. : alt. side swing from waist. 
 
 Travel forw., hands outside, with side swing from waist. 
 
 Travel backw., hands outside, with side swing from waist. 
 
 Hanging pos. : alt. knee upw. bending (both move simultaneously, ins 
 
 opposite directions). 
 
 Travel forw., hands outside, without swing. 
 Travel backw., hands outside, without swing. 
 Hanging pos. : alt. knee upw. bending and stretching forw.
 
 226 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Travel sidew., hands on outside, with swing from waist, L. hand leading, 
 
 then R. hand leading. 
 Hanging pos. : knee upw. bending (both). 
 
 Hanging pos. : side swing from waist and shoulders, with alt. arm bending. 
 Travel sidew. without swing. L. and R. hand leading. 
 Hanging pos.: knee upw. bending (both) with simultaneous alt. trunk 
 
 twisting and slight swinging to same side. 
 Rotary traveling forw. on rungs, skipping one, turning forw. 180 
 
 alternately L. and R. with swing. Grasp each time with palm facing 
 
 forw. 
 
 Swing jump (start from bench placed close to wall). 
 Travel forw. on rungs, one at a time, first L. hand leading, then R. hand. 
 Start swing, dismount on first backw. swing. 
 Rotary traveling backw. on jungs, skipping one, turning (backw.) 180 L. 
 
 and R. Grasp with back of hand facing in the direction of the 
 
 movement. 
 
 Travel backw. on rungs, one at a time, first L. hand leading, then R. hand. 
 Short jumps forw., hands on sides of ladder. 
 Start swing, dismount on next forw. swing. 
 Travel forw. and backw. on rungs, skipping one at each step, without 
 
 swing. 
 Travel sidew. on rungs. 
 
 High Boom. 
 
 Hanging pos. Dismount. 
 
 Hanging pos.: alt. knee upw. bending (2 counts each side). 
 
 Hanging pos. : alt. side swing from waist. 
 
 Hanging pos. : alt. knee upw. bending (both move simultaneously, in 
 
 opposite directions. 
 
 Hand traveling sidew., L. and R. leading, with side swing from waist. 
 Hanging pos. : alt. knee upw. bending and stretching forw. 
 Hand traveling sidew., L. and R. leading, without swing. 
 Hanging pos.: knee upw. bending (both). 
 Hanging pos. : side swing from waist and shoulders, with alt. arm 
 
 bending. 
 Rotary hand traveling forw. (combined grasp), turning (forw.) 180 L. 
 
 and R. alternately. 
 Jump to bent arm hanging pos. with combined grasp, slow arm stretching. 
 
 (Use assistance, if necessary, on the mount.) 
 Hanging pos.: knee upw. bending (both) with alt. trunk twisting and swing 
 
 to same side. 
 Jump from behind boom, swing forw. and dismount (= swing jump, 
 
 standing start, from both feet). 
 Rotary hand traveling backw. (combined grasp), turning (backw.) 180 
 
 L. and R. alternately. 
 
 Jump from behind boom, start swing, dismount on first backw. swing. 
 Jump from behind boom, start swing, dismount on next forw. swing. 
 Rotary hand traveling, starting with reverse grasp, turning 180 L. to 
 
 ordinary grasp, etc. Repeat turning to R. each time. 
 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on first backw. swing with 90 turn L. and R. 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on next forw. swing with 90 turn L. and R. 
 Swing jump, running start from both feet, without and with turns on 
 
 landing.
 
 APPENDIX 227 
 
 Low Boom. 
 
 1. Suspension exercises. 
 
 Grasp bend toe st. arm stretching with knee bending (boom at height of 
 
 chin). 
 Fall hanging pos. (boom at height of shoulders or lower) and return by 
 
 moving one foot at a time. 
 
 Fall hanging pos. : arm bending and return through deep knee-bend st. pos. 
 Fall hanging pos. : hand traveling sidew. 
 Fall hanging pos. : touch floor with L. hand, then R. hand. 
 Fall hanging pos. : arm bending 4-6 times ; swing up to standing pos. 
 Fall hanging pos. : hand traveling sidew. with bent arms. 
 
 2. Arm support exercises and vaults. 
 
 (All exercises to be done from standing start. Boom height of hips 
 
 or waist.) 
 Free front rest. 
 
 Front rest, dismount straight backw. 
 Preparation for side vault : swing legs L. and R. 
 Front rest, dismount backw. with 90 turn L. and R. 
 Low side vault L. and R. 
 Free front rest with 90 turn on landing. 
 Front rest: reverse grasp, forw. circle to fall hanging pos., swing up to 
 
 standing pos. 
 
 Low face vault L. and R. (combined grasp). 
 Reverse grasp: backw. circle to front rest; dismount backw.; or return by 
 
 forw. circle to fall hang. pos. (boom at height of shoulders). 
 Back vault L. and R. 
 
 Double Boom. 
 
 Serpentine traveling (from grasp sitting pos. Pupils move around each 
 
 other). 
 Standing oblique vault from outside foot, outside hand on upper boom, 
 
 inside hand on lower boom. 
 
 Running oblique vault from one foot, one hand on each boom. 
 Running oblique swing jump from one foot, both hands on upper boom. 
 Running side vault L. (from both feet, L. hand on upper, R. hand on 
 
 lower boom). 
 Running side vault R. (from both feet, R. hand on upper, L. hand on 
 
 lower boom). 
 
 Running oblique swing jump from both feet, both hands on upper boom. 
 Running back vault L., L. hand on upper, R. hand on lower boom. 
 Running back vault R., R. hand on upper, L. hand on lower boom. 
 Running side vault L. with 90 R. turn. 
 Running side vault R. with 90 L. turn. 
 Running back vault L. with 90 L. turn. 
 Running back vault R. with 90 R. turn. 
 
 Running swing jump (perpendicular approach) from both feet. 
 With upper boom at height of shoulders or head : mount to momentary 
 
 front rest, then high face vault L., L. hand on lower, R. hand on 
 
 upper boom. 
 High face vault R., R. hand on lower, L. hand on upper boom.
 
 228 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 
 
 Saddle Boom. 
 
 (All exercises to be done with running start.) 
 Free front rest. 
 
 Preparation for side vault : swing legs to L: and R. 
 Squat mount, dismount forw. (ordinary or rising dismount). 
 J4 squat mount (other leg behind) ; rising dismount forw. 
 Squat vault. 
 
 M squat J4 straddle mount; rising dismount. 
 Side vault L. and R. 
 V* squat l /2 straddle vault L. and R. 
 
 Side vault L. and R. with 90 turn R. and L., respectively. 
 Straddle vault. 
 
 Vertical Ropes. 
 
 Grasp bend toe st. arm stretching with knee bending. 
 
 Fall hanging pos.: arm bending; return through knee bend st. pos. 
 
 Jump to hanging pos.; dismount. 
 
 Fall hanging alt. leg raising. 
 
 Jump to bent arm hanging pos.: slow arm stretching. 
 
 Fall hanging pos. : touch floor with L. and R. hand. 
 
 Climbing pos. (arms straight, hips and knees flexed, feet well forw.). 
 
 Run, swing forw., then backw. and dismount. 
 
 Climbing pos. : arm bending and stretching. 
 
 Prone hanging pos. by placing one foot at a time backw. 
 
 Run, start swing, dismount on forw. swing. 
 
 Climbing, using arms and legs, in three distinct movements: (1) Jump 
 
 to climbing pos. with straight arms, etc.; (2) bend arms with 
 
 straightening of legs; (3) shift hands as high as possible (straight 
 
 arms). Then (1) draw knees up with feet well forw., keeping arms 
 
 straight; (2) bend arms, etc. (as before). 
 Prone hanging pos. : change to fall hanging pos. 
 Run, jump (before ropes pass the vertical) to bent arm hanging pos. 
 
 Dismount on next backw. or forw. swing. 
 Run, jump, grasp as high as possible and at the same time raise legs; 
 
 dismount immediately. 
 Run, jump, take high grasp, bend arms and raise legs, then dismount 
 
 (= swing jump). 
 Climbing on two ropes. Movements the same as when climbing on one 
 
 rope, but the hands should be shifted simultaneously, and very quickly, 
 
 as soon as arms are bent and legs straight. 
 Inverted hanging pos. on 2 ropes. Return forw. by bending at hips, and 
 
 with arm bending. , 
 
 Horizontal or oblique climbing from rope to rope. Climb up a little on one 
 
 rope, grasp the next rope with one hand, then with the legs, then 
 
 release grasp of other hand and repeat immediately. 
 Quick backw. circle between two ropes. 
 Inverted hanging pos. on one rope. 
 
 Window Ladder. 
 
 Climb up one or two spaces and return (opposite hand and foot moving 
 
 together) . 
 
 Climb to second rung: high st. arm stretching with knee bending. 
 Jump to sitting pos. in lowest space : pass through.
 
 APPENDIX 229 
 
 High Yz st. (on one foot) arm stretching with knee bending. 
 
 Oblique zigzag climbing, turning L. and R. alternately. Return in similar 
 manner, feet first. . 
 
 (On the tall and narrow ladder two pupils, on the low and wide ladder 
 4 or 5 pupils may do the exercise at the same time, sitting in con- 
 tiguous spaces.) 
 
 Vertical climbing, turning L. and R. (on tall ladder). 
 
 Horizontal climbing, turning L. and R. (on wide ladder). 
 
 Oblique zigzag climbing, turning L. and R. Return head first. 
 
 Rope Ladders. 
 
 (At first, ladders are fastened to the floor, or held by two pupils, later they 
 
 should swing free while pupils are climbing.) 
 Climbing with hands and feet, one rung at a time, first L. hand and R. 
 
 foot leading, then R. hand and L. foot. 
 Climbing with hands and feet, each hand and foot skipping one rung. 
 
 (Opposite hand and foot move together. Body close to ladders, knees 
 
 and elbows well sideways.) 
 Grasping one ladder with each hand as high as possible, start swing, 
 
 dismount on backw., then on forw. swing. 
 Start swing, spring to bent arm hanging pos., dismount on backw. and 
 
 forw. swing. 
 
 Climbing : 2 pupils on each ladder, turning toes in.. 
 Start swing, spring to bent arm hanging pos., raise legs and dismount 
 
 immediately (swing jump). 
 
 Inverted hanging pos. without and with swing, using 2 ladders. 
 Backw. circle between 2 ladders. 
 
 Vaulting Box. 
 
 Free front rest. 
 
 Mount to kneeling pos., step up to standing pos., dismount forw. 
 
 Mount to prone falling pos., face dismount L. and R. 
 
 Mount to kneeling pos., step on box with L. foot and vault L. with 90 
 
 R. turn. Same on otfrer side. 
 Mount to side falling pos., dismount forw. 
 Low face vault L. and R., touching with one foot. 
 
 Low side vault L. and R., stepping on box with R. and L. foot respectively. 
 Vault to kneeling pos., dismount forw. 
 Squat mount to standing pos., dismount forw. 
 
 Yz squat l /2 straddle mount L. and R. (over ends of box), rising dismount. 
 Face vault L. and R. (clear). 
 Knee vault. 
 
 Side vault L. and R. (clear). 
 
 Squat mount (to momentary pos. with bent knees), rising dismount. 
 Yi. squat Yi straddle vault L. and R. (over ends of box). 
 Back vault L. and R. 
 Squat vault. 
 
 Oblique vault from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Side vault L. and R. with 90 turn R. and L. respectively. 
 Vault to kneeling pos., spring up to standing pos., ordinary or rising 
 
 dismount. 
 
 Face vault L. and R. with 90-180 R. and L. turn respectively. 
 Back vault L. and R. with 90 -180 L. and R. turn respectively.
 
 230 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Side Horse (with Pommels). 
 
 Front rest, dismount backw. 
 
 Free front rest. 
 
 Mount to kneeling pos., step with L. foot and vault L. with 90 turn to R. 
 
 Same on other side. 
 Preparation for side vault: spring (from both feet) and swing legs to 
 
 L. and R. 
 
 Mount to kneeling pos., step up to standing pos., dismount forw. 
 Side vault L., stepping with L. foot on end of horse. Same on other side. 
 Vault to kneeling pos., dismount forw. 
 
 l /2 squat l /2 straddle mount, rising dismount (over ends of horse). 
 Low side vault L. and R. over ends. 
 l /2 knee l /t straddle vault L. and R. over ends. 
 Squat mount, dismount forw. 
 l /t squat Y* straddle vault L. and R. over ends. 
 Knee vault. 
 Side vault L. and R. 
 Low face vault L. and R. over ends. 
 Squat vault. 
 Face vault L. and R. (hands either on pommels or preferably on ends of 
 
 horse, body clearing the pommels in the vault). 
 Back vault L. and R. 
 
 Side vault L. and R. with 90-180 turn R. and L. respectively. 
 Face vault L. and R. with 90 -180" turn R. and L. respectively. 
 Back vault L. and R. with 90 -180 turn L. and R. respectively. 
 Squat vault with 90 turn L. and R. 
 
 Long Horse. 
 
 Mount to riding pos., face (vault) dismount L. and R. 
 
 Mount to riding pos., back (vault) dismount L. and R. 
 
 Mount to oblique back rest, dismount sidew. 
 
 Oblique vault from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Back vault mount L. and R. to riding pos., back (vault) dismount. 
 
 Oblique vault from L. and R. foot, with 90 inside turn( facing horse, with 
 
 both hands on it, in the landing). 
 Back vault L. and R. 
 Oblique vault from L. and R. foot with 180 inside turn (facing near end 
 
 of horse and keeping one hand on horse in the landing). 
 Back vault L. and R. with 90-180 inside turn. 
 
 Buck. 
 
 Free front rest. Same with leg flinging sidew. 
 
 Preparation for side vault : spring, swing legs L. and R. 
 
 l /2 knee l /2 straddle vault L. and R. (with assistance at first). 
 
 Straddle vault. 
 
 Mount to kneeling pos., step up to standing pos.', dismount forw. 
 
 Low side vault L. and R. 
 
 l /t squat l /2 straddle mount L. and R., dismount immediately with a 
 
 moderate spring from supporting foot. 
 Vault to kneeling pos., dismount forw. 
 Low face vault L. and R. 
 Straddle vault for distance on far side.
 
 APPENDIX' 231 
 
 Knee vault. 
 
 l / 2 squat l /2 straddle vault L. and R. 
 
 Back vault L. and R. 
 
 Squat mount, dismount forw. (try rising dismount). 
 
 Straddle vault with 90-180 turn L. and R. 
 
 Squat vault. 
 
 Side straddle vault L. and R. 
 
 Rear straddle vault, turning L. and R. 
 
 Parallel Bars. 
 Suspension exercises, mounts, vaults, etc. 
 
 Fall hanging pos. : arm bending. 
 
 Fall hanging pos.: hand traveling backw. between bars (feet on floor). 
 
 Fall hanging pos.: bent arm hand traveling forw. between bars (feet 
 
 on floor). 
 
 From side of bars : run, mount to side sitting pos. L. and R., side dismount. 
 From end of bars : run, spring, grasping ends of bars, swing forw., then 
 
 backw. and dismount. 
 Run, mount to riding rest (hips and knees flexed at first, later extended), 
 
 swing backw. between bars and dismount. 
 Run, mount to riding rest, raise R. leg forw. and dismount over L. bar 
 
 with 180 L. turn (keeping L. hand on bar). Same on other side. 
 From side of bars : run, mount to L. side sitting pos., turn 90 R. to 
 
 momentary back rest and dismount forw. Same on other side. 
 Run, mount to L. side sitting pos., turn 90 L. to front rest, hands on other 
 
 bar, dismount backw. Same on other side. 
 Run, mount to L. side sitting pos., turn 90 L. to front rest, hands on 
 
 other bar, swing R. leg between bars; on return swing dismount 
 
 backw. with 90 R. turn. Same on other side. 
 From en'd of bars: run, spring and swing (straight) arms inside ends 
 
 of bars (grasping some distance in on bars) swing forw. to cross 
 
 riding (rest) pos., swing one leg forw. with 90 turn to opposite side 
 
 to momentary back rest on one bar (both hands on this bar) and 
 
 dismount forw. Same on other side. 
 Run, spring, etc., swing forw. and mount at once to back rest on one bar; 
 
 dismount forw. Same on other side. 
 Run, etc., back vault L. and R. 
 Run, mount to oblique back rest on one bar (one hand on each bar) ; 
 
 dismount sidew. Same on other side. 
 Run, mount to oblique back rest on L. bar, 135 R. turn to front rest, 
 
 dismount backw. Same on other side. 
 
 Run, mount to riding pos., face (vault) dismount L. and R. 
 Run, back vault L. and R. with 90-180 outside turn. 
 Run, mount to riding pos., back (vault) dismount L. and R. 
 Run, back vault L. and R. with 90-180 inside turn. 
 Run, mount to back rest on one bar, drop back, raise legs and roll over 
 
 backw. to standing pos. at side of bars (with assistance). 
 
 High Jumps. 
 
 Running jump from L. and R. foot, land facing forw. 
 Running jump from both feet, land facing forw. 
 Running jump from L. foot, land with 90 L. turn.
 
 232 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Running jump from R. foot, land with 90 R. turn. 
 
 Running jump from both feet, land with 90 L. and R. turn. 
 
 Running jump from L. foot, land with 90 R. turn. 
 
 Running jump from R. foot, land with 90 L. turn. 
 
 Running jump from both feet with side-flinging of arms. 
 
 Running jump from L. foot, land with 180 L. turn. 
 
 Running jump from R. foot, land with 180 R. turn. 
 
 Running jump from both feet, land with 180 L. and R. turn. 
 
 Running jump from L. foot, land on R. foot and keep on running 
 
 (hurdle). Same on other side. 
 
 Similar jumps using springboard or inclined plane placed on low boom. 
 Standing high jump forw. 
 Standing high jump L. and R. (side to the bar or rope). 
 
 Broad Jumps. 
 
 Standing hop from L. and R. foot. 
 Standing step from L. and R. foot. 
 Standing jump from L. and R. foot. 
 Standing broad jump. 
 Standing 2 hops from L. and R. foot. 
 Standing 2 steps from L. and R. foot. 
 Standing hop, step from L. and R. foot. 
 Standing step, hop from L. and R. foot. 
 Standing hop, jump from L. and R. foot. 
 Standing step, jump from L. and R. foot. 
 
 2 standing broad jumps. 
 Standing hop, step and jump. 
 
 3 standing broad jumps. 
 
 (2) APPARATUS WORK FOR MEN. 
 
 Horizontal Ladder. 
 
 (All exercises on this apparatus are done with straight arms when not 
 otherwise specified.) 
 
 Travel forw., hands on outside of ladder. 
 
 Travel backw., hands on outside of ladder. 
 
 Travel forw., on rungs, one at a time, first L. hand leading, then R. hand. 
 
 Travel backw., on rungs, one at a time, first L. hand leading, then R. hand. 
 
 Travel sidew. on outside, L. hand leading, then R. hand. 
 
 Hanging pos. : alt. knee upw. bending. 
 
 Hanging pos. : arm bending 2-3 times. 
 
 Short jumps forw., hands on outside. 
 
 Short jumps backw., hands on outside. 
 
 Rotary traveling forw., on rungs, skipping one (swing and V? turn each 
 
 step). 
 
 Travel forw., on rungs, skipping one (without swing or turn). 
 Travel sidew., on outside, with swing and alt. arm bending, L. leading, 
 
 then R. 
 
 Hanging pos. : knee upw. bending. 
 Hanging pos. : arm bending 3-4 times. 
 Travel forw., with bent arms, hands on outside. 
 Travel backw., with bent arms, hands on outside.
 
 APPENDIX 233 
 
 Rotary traveling backw. on rungs, skipping one (with swing and l /2 turn 
 
 each step). 
 
 Travel backw. on rungs, skipping one (without swing or turn). 
 Travel sidew. on rungs, L. leading (without swing or turn). 
 Travel sidew. on rungs, R. leading (without swing or turn). 
 Travel forw. on rungs, one at a time, bent arms. 
 
 Jump forw. from end of ladder, shoot forw. and dismount (swing jump). 
 Hanging pos. : alt. knee upw. bending and stretching forw. 
 Short jumps forw., bent arms, hands on outside. 
 Short jumps backw., bent arms, hands on outside. 
 Travel forw., L. knee up, hands on outside. 
 Travel backw., R. knee up, hands on outside. 
 Travel backw. on rungs, one at a time, bent arms. 
 Rotary traveling forw. on rungs, skipping two (with swing and l /2 turn 
 
 each step). 
 
 Travel sidew., on outside, bent arms, L. leading, then R. 
 Hanging pos. : knee upw. bending with alt. twisting. 
 Jump forw. from end of ladder, shoot forw., catch and dismount. 
 Jump forw. on rungs, one at a time. 
 Jump backw. on rungs, one at a time. 
 Travel forw., hands on outside, arms bent, R. leg raised. 
 Travel backw., hands on outside, arms bent, L. leg raised. 
 Short jumps sidew., hands on outside, L. leading, then R. 
 Travel sidew. on rungs, bent arms, L. leading, then R. 
 Jump forw., shoot forw., catch and dismount with J4 L- and R. turn. 
 Jump forw., hands alternatingly on rungs and on outside. 
 Jump backw., hands alternatingly on rungs and on outside. 
 Travel forw., bent arms, hands on outside, with alt. knee upw. bending. 
 Travel backw., bent arms, hands on outside, with knees drawn up. 
 Short jumps sidew., bent arms, hands on outside, L. leading, then R. 
 Travel sidew. on rungs, hands double distance apart, L. leading, then R. 
 Start swing, jump backw., catch and dismount. 
 
 Suspended Parallels. 
 
 (All exercises on this apparatus are done with straight arms when not 
 otherwise specified.) 
 
 Travel forw., one hand on each bar. 
 
 Travel backw., one hand on each bar. 
 
 Travel sidew., on one bar, with swing from waist, L. leading, then R. 
 
 Hanging pos :. alt. knee upw. bending. 
 
 Hanging pos. : arm bending 2-3 times. 
 
 Travel sidew., on one bar, without swing, L. leading, then R. 
 
 Short jumps forw., one hand on each bar. 
 
 Short jumps backw., one hand on each bar. 
 
 Travel sidew., on one bar, with alt. arm bending, L. leading, then R. 
 
 Jump forw., between bars, hands outside, pull up, shoot forw. and dismount 
 
 (swing jump). 
 
 Hanging pos. : knee upw. bending. 
 Hanging pos. : arm bending 3-4 times. 
 Travel forw., bent arms, one hand on each bar. 
 Travel backw., bent arms, one hand on each bar. 
 Rotary traveling forw., on one bar (one hand inside, the other outside, 
 
 with swing and K turn each step).
 
 234 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Rotary traveling backw., on one bar (one hand inside, the other outside, 
 
 with swing and l /2 turn each step). 
 
 Travel sidew., on one bar bent arms, L. leading, then R. 
 Jump forw., between bars, shoot forw., catch and dismount. 
 Hanging pos. : alt. knee upw. bending and stretching. 
 Hanging pos. : arm bending 4-5 times. 
 Short jumps forw., bent arms, one hand on each bar. 
 Short jumps backw., bent arms, one hand on each bar. 
 Travel forw., L. knee up, one hand on each bar. 
 Travel backw., R. knee up, one hand on each bar. 
 Rotary traveling on one bar, turning L. 180 (both hands same grasp). 
 Rotary traveling on one bar, turning R. 180 (both hands same grasp). 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on next backw. swing, hands outside or inside. 
 Hanging pos. : knee upw. bending with alt. twisting. 
 At ends of bars : pull up, with knees bent, to inverted hanging pos. 
 Travel forw. on one bar, bent arms, head on L. side, then on R. side. 
 Short jumps sidew. on one bar (straight arms), L. leading, then R. 
 Travel forw., one hand on each bar, bent arms, R. leg raised. 
 Travel backw., one hand on each bar, bent arms, L. leg raised. 
 Rotary traveling forw. on L. and R. bars alternatingly, combined grasp. 
 Jump forw. between bars, shoot forw., catch and dismount with % L. and 
 
 R. turn. 
 
 At ends of bars: pull up, with straight knees, to inverted hanging pos. 
 Travel backw. on one bar, bent arms, head on L. side, then on R. side. 
 Travel forw. on both bars, bent arms with alt. knee upw. bending. 
 Travel backw. on both bars, bent arms, with knees drawn up. 
 Short jumps sidew., on one bar, bent arms, L. leading, then R. 
 Rotary traveling backw. on L. and R. bars alternatingly, combined grasp. 
 Jump, start swing, jump backw., catch and dismount with Y* L- and R. 
 
 turn. 
 At ends of bars: pull up to inverted hanging pos.; l / 2 circle backw. to 
 
 floor (body straight). 
 
 Travel forw., bent arms, with alt. leg raising. 
 Travel backw., bent arms, with legs raised. 
 Long underswing, on return swing mount to upper arm hanging pos. 
 
 (hands inside). 
 
 Rotary traveling on one bar bent arms, turning L. 180 at each step. 
 Rotary traveling on one bar bent arms, turning R. 180 at each step. 
 Long swinging jumps forw. 
 
 At ends of bars : pull up, raise legs, cut L. hand, then R. 
 At ends of bars: pull up, raise legs, cut both hands (assistance). 
 Reverse grasp on one bar, jump across forward to other bar, with over- 
 grasp, Yz L. turn, reverse grasp. Repeat. 
 As preceding, but starting with overgrasp and jumping backw. to reverse 
 
 grasp on other bar. 
 
 Vertical Ropes. 
 
 Standing position between ropes, grasp at height of chin : arm stretching 
 and bending with knee bending and stretching, 6-8 times. Repeat, 
 leaving the floor each time (combined jump and pull-up). 
 
 Jump, grasp rope with hands and feet, L. leg in front. Repeat with R. 
 leg in front. (Climbing pos.: arms straight, hips and knees bent.) 
 
 Fall hanging pos. : arm bending 6-8 times. 
 
 1/2 backw. circle of body between two ropes, to inverted hanging pos. 
 
 Climbing pos. : arm bending and stretching.
 
 APPENDIX 235 
 
 Starting 6-8 feet behind the vertical: run, spring from one foot (just 
 before ropes pass the vertical), grasp as high as possible with bent 
 arms. Dismount immediately, or on next backw. or forw. swing. 
 
 Climbing on one rope, with hands and feet. 
 
 Hanging pos. on two ropes : arm bending 3 times. 
 
 Hanging pos. on two ropes, arms bent : alt. knee upw. bending. 
 
 Backw. circle of body between two ropes, to floor (quick movement, body 
 straight). 
 
 Start 5-8 feet behind the vertical : swing jump. 
 
 Climbing on two ropes, with hands and feet. 
 
 Hanging pos. on two ropes, arms straight : alt. knee upw. bending and 
 stretching forw. 
 
 Prone hanging pos., arm bending. 
 
 Horizontal (or oblique) climbing from rope to rope, with hands and feet. 
 
 Hanging pos. on two ropes, bent arms : alt. arm stretching sidew. 
 
 Hanging pos. on. two ropes, straight arms : knee upw. bending and 
 stretching forward. 
 
 Vertical climbing on one rope, with hands only. 
 
 Inverted hanging pos. on one rope (grasps with hands and legs as in 
 climbing position). 
 
 Climb up, retain position on rope without use of hands. 
 
 Vertical climbing on two ropes with hands only. 
 
 Swing backw., then forw., with backw. circle to floor. 
 
 High Horizontal Bar. 
 
 Jump from behind bar: short underswing (swing jump). 
 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on first backw. swing. 
 
 Hanging pos. : arm bending 2-3 times. 
 
 Hanging pos. : alt. knee upw. bending 10-12 times. 
 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on next forw. swing. 
 
 Hanging pos., pull up, throw head back, raise insteps to bar between hands, 
 
 knees bent. 
 
 Hanging pos. : change from wide to narrow grasp 3 times. 
 Jump, short underswing for distance. 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on first backw. swing with J4 L. and R. 
 
 turn. 
 
 Hanging pos. : knee upw. bending, stretching and slow sinking. 
 Hanging pos. : pull up, raise insteps to bar outside hands ; knees straight. 
 Jump, start swing, dismount on next forw. swing with l /4 L. and R. turn. 
 Hanging pos. : pass feet between hands to inverted hanging pos. 
 Hang with reverse grasp, start swing, dismount on first backw. swing. 
 Short underswing with J4 L. and R. turn. 
 
 Hang, start swing, dismount on first backw. swing with Yz L. and R. turn. 
 Hang with reverse grasp ; change to overgrasp. Repeat twice. 
 Hang hook L. knee over bar, then R. knee. 
 
 Hang start swing, dismount on next forw. swing with J4 L. and R. turn. 
 Jump from behind or directly under bar, backw. circle to front rest. 
 
 Return by forw. circle. 
 
 Hang with reverse grasp, start swing, dismount on next forw. swing. 
 Running start: short underswing for height and distance. 
 Hang, pull up, shoot forw. and dismount. 
 Hanging pos. : leg raising and parting. 
 Hang with L. overgrasp, R. reverse grasp; start swing, dismount on first 
 
 backw. swing.
 
 236 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Hang with R. overgrasp, L. reverse grasp; start swing, dismount on first 
 
 backw. swing. 
 Hang, hook L. knee over bar, swing R. leg backw., dismount forw. on 
 
 return swing. Same on other side. 
 
 Hang, backw. circle to front rest, straight knees. Dismount backw. 
 Running start: short underswing with % L. and R. turn. 
 Hang, start swing; on first backw. swing reverse grasp with L. hand, 
 
 dismount on next forw. swing. Repeat, reversing grasp with R. hand. 
 Hang, pull up, pass feet between hands to inverted hanging pos. ; Ya backw. 
 
 circle to floor (keeping body straight). 
 Hang, start swing, clap hands on first backw. swing, dismount on next 
 
 forw. swing. 
 Hang, hook L. knee over bar outside hand, swing up to riding rest, l /z L. 
 
 circle L. leg to front rest; forw. circle to floor. Same on other side. 
 Hang with combined grasp ; change grasp 3 times. 
 Hang, pass feet outside hands to knee hanging pos., swing and dismount 
 
 by J4 backw. circle to floor (with assistance). 
 Running start : short underswing with l /2 L. and R. turn. 
 Hang with reverse grasp, start swing; on first backw. swing change to 
 
 overgrasp, dismount on next forw. swing. 
 Hang, hook L. knee over bar outside hand, swing up to riding rest, drop 
 
 back, on next backw. swing hook R. knee and dismount by l /t backw. 
 
 circle to floor. Same on other side. 
 Hang, pass feet between hands to inverted hanging pos., pull up to back 
 
 rest, dismount forw. 
 Hang, hook L. knee between hands, swing up to riding rest. Drop back 
 
 and dismount with short underswing. Same on other side. 
 Hang, circle bar to front rest; dismount by short underswing. 
 Hang, start swing, on next forw. swing arch back, dismount on next 
 
 backw. swing. 
 Hang, pass feet between hands, quick backw. l /2 circle to floor (shoot for 
 
 distance). 
 Hang, raise toes to bar; then quickly straighten out and press down with 
 
 (straight) arms. Repeat with swing (the "kip"). 
 Start swing; on next forw. swing reverse grasp of L. hand; dismount on 
 
 next backward swing with l / 2 R. turn. Same on other side. 
 Start swing; L. knee upstart (outside hand) to riding rest: Yz L. circle 
 
 R. leg to back rest; backw. circle to floor. Same on other side. 
 Hang, hook L. knee between hands, swing up to riding rest ; drop back 
 
 with L. heel to bar, knee straight; pass R. foot between hands, on 
 
 return swing shoot over bar to floor. Same on other side. 
 Backw. circle to front rest; long underswing with back arched, raise legs 
 
 and "kip" to front rest; forw. circle to floor. 
 Easy swing, pass feet between hands to momentary inverted pos., quick 
 
 pull-up to back rest; ^2 L. turn and dismount with short underswing. 
 
 Repeat, turning R. from back rest. 
 With L. overgrasp, R. reverse grasp start swing, on next forw. swing ^2 
 
 L. turn, dismount on next forw. swing. Same on other side. 
 Swing, L. knee upstart (between hands) to riding rest; backw. L. knee 
 
 circle; drop back and dismount with short underswing. Same on 
 
 other side. 
 
 Backw. circle to front rest; side vault L. and R. to floor. 
 Start swing; on next forw. swing hook both knees outside hands, on 
 
 return swing straighten body with arms overhead and Vz backward 
 
 circle to floor. 
 Jump from behind bar, backw. circle over bar to floor.
 
 APPENDIX 237 
 
 Start swing; on next forw. swing l /2 L. turn; dismount on next forw. 
 
 swing. Same with ^-2 R. turn at end of forw. swing. 
 Swing, L. knee upstart (between hands) to riding rest; reverse grasp, 
 
 forw. knee circle; H L- circle of R. leg to back rest; dismount forw. 
 
 Same on other side. 
 Backw. circle to front rest; l /2 R. circle of L. leg, l /2 L. circle of R. leg 
 
 to back rest; l / 2 L. turn and dismount with short underswing. Same 
 
 on other side. 
 L. knee upstart (outside hand) to front rest; backw. circle to front rest; 
 
 dismount backw. Same on other side. 
 With L. reverse grasp, R. overgrasp, start swing, on next backw. swing 
 
 l /2 R. turn, dismount on next backw. swing. Same with L. and R. 
 
 reversed. 
 Swing, L. knee upstart, between hands, l /t L. circle of R. leg with l /z L. 
 
 turn and short underswing dismount. Same on other side. 
 Start swing, on next swing hook both knees outside hands, upstart to 
 
 back rest; backw. circle to floor. 
 Backw. circle to front re^t; l /t L. or R. circle of both legs to back rest, 
 
 drop back with heels to bar; on return swing shoot over bar to floor. 
 Swing, pass feet between hands to back rest ; dismount forw. 
 Backw. circle to front rest; free backw. circle to floor. 
 Jump from behind bar, arch strongly, upstart to front rest, with bent 
 
 arms ("breast up"). . 
 Reverse grasp, start swing, on next backw. swing Y 2 L. turn, dismount on 
 
 next backw. swing. Same with l /2 R. turn at end of backw. swing. 
 L. knee upstart, outside hand, Y 2 L. circle of R. leg; backw. knee circle 
 
 (hock swing) to floor. Same on other side. 
 From behind bar, free backw. circle to floor. 
 L. knee upstart, between hands, l /2 L. circle R. leg to back rest, reverse 
 
 grasp, heels to bar, forward circle to sitting position, l /t L. turn, short 
 
 underswing dismount. Same on other side. 
 Backw. circle to front rest; drop back with toes to bar, "kip" to front 
 
 rest, dismount backw. 
 "Kip," and free backw. circle to floor. 
 Start swing, on next forw. swing l / 2 L. turn; on next forw. swing ^ R. 
 
 turn; dismount on next forw. swing. 
 Reverse grasp, start swing, on next backw. swing ]/ 2 R. turn, on next 
 
 backw. swing l /t L. turn ; dismount on next backw. swing. 
 Start swing, hook both knees outside hands, swing up to sitting pos., hands 
 
 between legs, reverse grasp and forw. circle to floor. 
 Swing, uprise to free front rest, short underswing. 
 L. overgrasp, R. reverse grasp, "kip" to front rest, L. face vault dismount. 
 
 Same on other side. 
 Swing, pass feet between hands, shoot over bar to back rest ; backw. knee 
 
 circle to back rest, drop back, pass feet between hands and dismount 
 
 with short underswing. 
 
 "Kip" ; forward circle to front rest, side vault L. or R. to floor. 
 Swing, L. knee upstart between hands ; reverse grasp of L. hand ; knee and 
 
 instep circle ; dismount with short underswing. Same on other side. 
 Swing, uprise to free front rest, free backw. circle, long underswing. pass 
 
 feet between hands, hook knees, H backw. circle to floor. 
 Swing, L. knee upstart between hands to momentary riding rest, quick 
 
 Yz R. turn, backw. R. knee circle, drop back, pass R. foot between 
 
 hands and dismount. Same on other side! 
 Start swing, on next forw. swing pass feet between hands, l /2 backw. 
 
 circle to back rest (back upstart).
 
 238 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Low Horizontal Bar. 
 
 Free front rest. 
 
 Preparation for side (flank) vault: swing legs L. and R. twice. 
 
 Preparation for squat vault and straddle vault (toes to bar inside and 
 
 outside of hands). 
 Reverse grasp: circle forw. to sitting pos. on floor; swing up to standing 
 
 pos. on far side of bar. 
 Short underswing, from L. and R. foot. 
 Front rest; dismount backw. (with J4 L. and R. turn). 
 Low side (flank) vault L., touching bar with left foot, and landing with 
 
 J4 R. turn. Same on other side. 
 Squat mount; dismount forw. 
 Front rest; slow circle forw. to fall hanging pos.; swing up to standing 
 
 pos. 
 
 Short underswing (from both feet): 
 Mount to back rest, turning L., then R. Dismount forw. without and with 
 
 turns. 
 
 Low side vault L. and R. 
 
 With L. overgrasp, R. reverse grasp, (low) face vault L. 
 With R. overgrasp, L. reverse grasp, (low) face vault R. 
 From L. foot: backw. circle over bar to front rest; dismount backw. 
 From R. foot : backw. circle over bar to front rest ; dismount backw. 
 Back rest by L. and R. turn; roll over backw. to standing pos. on near 
 
 side of bar. 
 
 Short underswing from full reach behind bar. 
 Side (flank) vault L. with YA, R. turn. 
 Side (flank) vault R. with J4 L- turn. 
 Back vault L. and R. 
 
 Backw. circle to front rest ; return by forw. circle. 
 Jump, catch bar, short underswing. 
 Front rest : short underswing. 
 
 With L. side to the bar : oblique vault from R. foot. 
 With R. side to the bar : oblique vault from L. foot. 
 Fence vault, L. or R. 
 Squat vault. 
 
 Yz squat YZ straddle mount L. and R. 
 
 Yi L. and R. circle of both legs to back rest; dismount forw. 
 Jump, hook L. knee outside hand, drop back, swing up, Y* L. circle L. leg 
 
 to floor. Same on other side. 
 
 Jump, catch bar, short underswing with Y* L. and R. turn. 
 Side vault L. with J-4 L. turn. 
 Side vault R. with YA R- turn. 
 Straddle vault. 
 Yt R. circle L. leg, Yz L. circle R. leg to back rest; (with hands on bar) 
 
 backw. knee circle to floor. 
 
 Front rest : backw. circle to front rest ; dismount with short underswing. 
 Hang with heels on bar, between hands; swing and shoot up over bar to 
 
 floor. 
 Yi R- circle L. leg, Y* L. circle R. leg to back rest ; drop back with heels to 
 
 bar, on return swing shoot up to back rest; dismount forw. 
 Fence vault, L. or R., for height. 
 Squat vault with Y* L. and R. turn. 
 Combined grasp ; face vault L. with J4 R- turn. 
 Combined grasp; face vault R. with Y* L. turn.
 
 APPENDIX 239 
 
 Jump, hook L. knee between hands, drop back, swing up, l /2 L. circle of R. 
 
 leg with J4 L- turn of body to floor. Same on other side. 
 Yz L. circle L. leg to riding rest; backw. L. knee circle; drop back, dis- 
 mount with short underswing. Same on other side. 
 Back vault L. with J4 L. turn. 
 Back vault R. with J4 R- turn. 
 Side vault L. with Y* R. turn. 
 Side vault R. with ^ L. turn. 
 Jump to back rest; backw. knee circle, drop back, on return swing shoot 
 
 over bar to floor. 
 
 Free backw. circle to floor (bar at height of chest). 
 Squat vault with Y* L. and R. turn. 
 Straddle vault with Y\, L- and R. turn. 
 Standing pos. with one foot raised to bar (between hands) ; drop back, 
 
 raise other leg, "kip" (or begin by swinging L. leg up, then R.). 
 Back vault L. with Yz L. turn. Same R. with Yz R. turn. 
 Straddle vault with Y* L. and R. turn. 
 Jump with insteps to bar between hands, drop back, "kip." 
 Backw. circle to front rest; Yz R. circle L. leg, reverse grasp, forw. L. 
 
 knee circle. Same on other side. 
 Combined grasp, side vault L. with Y* R- turn, quick change of grasp with 
 
 L. hand and short underswing. Same on other side. 
 Jump with feet to bar, outside hands, drop back, short underswing. 
 Run under bar, "kip." 
 Free backw. circle and short underswing. 
 Jump, hook both knees outside L. hand; backw. knee circle; dismount 
 
 forw. Same on other side. 
 Jump to sitting pos., knees straight; reverse grasp, forw. knee circle to 
 
 floor. 
 
 Front rest : forw. circle to front rest ; dismount backw. 
 Yz L. circle of both legs to sitting pos. with L. hand between legs ; backw. 
 knee circle; L. hand outside, drop back, short underswing. Same on 
 
 other side. 
 Jump with feet to bar outside hands, short underswing with Y* L- and R. 
 
 turn. 
 Yi R. circle L. leg to riding rest, drop back, pass R. foot between hands 
 
 and shoot up over bar to floor. Same on other side. 
 From full reach : short underswing and "kip." 
 Grasp bar, drop back, L. knee upstart between hands, reverse grasp with 
 
 L. hand; knee-and-instep circle forward; dismount forw. with YA, L- 
 
 turn. Same on other side. 
 
 Front rest, drop back, "kip," side vault L. and R. 
 Three double knee circles backw., with hands first outside L. leg, then 
 
 outside R. leg, then legs between hands; drop back, shoot up (clearing 
 
 bar) to floor. 
 Combined grasp, L. circle R. leg with */2 L. turn of body to sitting pos., 
 
 hands between legs ; backw. knee circle, then backw. body circle to 
 
 floor. Same with R. circle of L. leg and Y*. R- turn. 
 
 L. overgrasp R. reverse grasp, "kip," change grasp R. hand, short under- 
 swing. Repeat with R. and L. reversed. 
 Backw. circle to front rest, drop back, "kip," to front rest, YL turn to 
 
 back rest, drop back, pass feet between hands and short underswing. 
 With narrow grasp : short underswing, raise legs, pass feet outside hands 
 
 and mount to sitting pos., hands between legs, drop back, pass feet in 
 
 front of bar and "kip."
 
 240 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Jump to riding rest, L. leg in front (and between hands) : L. backw. knee 
 circle, drop back, pass R. foot between hands and mount to sitting 
 pos., Yt L. turn to front rest, forw. circle to front rest; dismount 
 backw. Repeat with R. and L. reversed, and finishing with free 
 backw. circle and short underswing. 
 
 Jump with feet to bar (wide apart), grasp and short underswing. 
 
 Side Horse (with Pommels}. 
 
 Squat mount; dismount forw. 
 
 Straddle mount; dismount forw. 
 
 Free front rest. 
 
 l /2 squat l /2 straddle mount L. and R. 
 
 Low side (flank) vault L. over L. end of horse (R. hand on pommel, L. 
 
 hand on horse). Same on other side. 
 Mount to kneeling pos., dismount forw. 
 Knee vault. 
 Squat vault. 
 
 Straddle mount; dismount forw. with Yz L. and R. turn. 
 Squat vault with J4 L. and R. turn. 
 Yi squat Yz straddle vault L. and R. over ends. 
 Low face vault L. and R. over ends (one hand on pommel, other on 
 
 horse). 
 
 Straddle vault. 
 
 1/2 squat Yt straddle vault L. and R. over saddle. 
 Low side vault (flank) L. with % R. turn, over L. end. Repeat with R. 
 
 and L. reversed. 
 Back vault L. and R. 
 Knee vault with % L. and R. turn. 
 
 Face vault L. and R. over saddle (preferably with hands on horse). 
 Jump vault from L. and R. foot. 
 l /t squat Y* straddle vault L. with J4 R- turn, over saddle. Repeat with 
 
 R. and L. reversed. 
 
 Side (flank) vault L. and R. over saddle (hands on pommels). 
 Face vault L. to riding pos. on L. end. Face (vault) dismount L. 
 
 (hands on pommel). 
 Face vault R. to riding position on R. end. Face (vault) dismount R. 
 
 (hands on pommel). 
 
 Oblique vault from L. foot (R. hand on R. end). Same on other side. 
 Y* squat Yz straddle vault L. with Y* L. turn, over saddle. Same on other 
 
 side. 
 Jump vault from L. foot, with J4 R- (and L.) turn. Repeat with R. and 
 
 L. reversed. 
 
 Back vault L., with 54 L. (inside) turn. Same on other side. 
 Side vault L. with 54 R- turn. 
 Side vault R. with 54 L. turn. 
 Face vault L. with 54 R- turn. 
 Face vault R. with 54 L. turn. 
 
 Yi squat J4 straddle vault L. with Y* R- turn, over neck. 
 Yi squat Y* straddle vault R. with ^ L. turn, over croup. 
 Oblique vault from L. foot (R. hand on horse) with % L. (inside) turn. 
 Oblique vault from R. foot (L. hand on horse) with 54 R- (inside) turn. 
 Back vault L. to riding pos. on L. end of horse. Back (vault) dismount R. 
 Back vault R. to riding pos. on R. end of horse. Back (vault) dismount L. 
 Face vault L. with Yt R. turn."
 
 APPENDIX 241 
 
 Face vault R. with l /t L. turn. 
 
 l /2 squat l /2 straddle vault L. with l / 2 R. turn, over saddle. 
 
 Yi squat l /2 straddle vault R. with l /2 L. turn, over saddle. 
 
 Jump vault from L. foot, with l /2 R. (and Yt L.) turn. 
 
 Jump vault from R. foot, with l / 2 L. (and l /2 R.) turn. 
 
 Straddle vault with Yz L. and R. turn. 
 
 Side vault L. with J4 L- turn. Same on other side. 
 
 L. hand squat mount; dismount with 24 L- turn. Same on other side. 
 
 Back vault L. with Yi L. (inside) turn. Same on other side. 
 
 Front vault. ("Sheep vault". Chest leading, feet last over horse.) 
 
 Pike dive. 
 
 Oblique vault from L. foot with Yi L. (inside) turn. Same on other side. 
 
 Y2 squat Yi straddle vault L. with Yt L. turn over end. Same on other side. 
 
 Oblique vault from L. foot with ^> R. (outside) turn (support with R. 
 
 hand only). 
 Oblique vault from R. foot with l /2 L. (outside) turn (support with L. 
 
 hand only). 
 
 L. hand straddle mount; dismount with ^ L. turn. Same on other side. 
 Front vault with Yi L- and R. turn. 
 Yz squat YL straddle vault L. with Y* L. turn, over saddle. Same on other 
 
 side. 
 
 One hand side vault L. and R. 
 Rear straddle mount, turning L. and R. 
 L. and R. hand squat vault. 
 
 High face vault L. and R. (through handstand). 
 Rear straddle vault, turning L. and R. 
 L. and R. hand straddle vault. 
 High squat vault (through handstand). 
 One hand side vault L. with J4 'R. turn. 
 One hand side vault R. with Y$ L. turn. 
 High straddle vault (through handstand). 
 Hand spring, slow and quick. 
 
 Buck. 
 
 Free front rest. 
 
 Straddle vault. 
 
 Yi squat Yt, straddle mount L. and R. 
 
 Knee vault. 
 
 Low side (flank) vault L. and R. 
 
 Squat mount, dismount forw. Repeat with rising dismount. 
 
 Straddle vault for distance. 
 
 Jump from L. foot to standing pos. on R. foot; dismount forw. 
 
 Jump from R. foot to standing pos. on L. foot ; dismount forw. 
 
 Yi knee Yi straddle vault L. and R. 
 
 Straddle vault with Y* L. and R. turn. , 
 
 Yz squat Yz straddle vault L. and R. 
 
 Squat mount; rising dismount forw. with side-flinging of arms and legs. 
 
 Low face vault L. and R. 
 
 Jump from L. and R. foot to standing pos. (on both feet) ; dismount, 
 
 touching toes in air. 
 Back vault L. and R. 
 
 Straddle vault with Yz L- and R. turn. 
 Squat vault. 
 
 Yi squat Yi straddle vault L., with J4 R- turn. 
 Y2 squat J^ straddle vault R., with Y* L. turn.
 
 242 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Side (flank) vault L. with J4 R- turn. 
 Side (flank) vault R. with % L. turn. 
 Jump (clear) over buck, from L. and R. foot. 
 Straddle vault for height. 
 Back vault L. with J4 L- turn. 
 Back vault R. with % R. turn. 
 Squat vault with J4 L. and R. turn. 
 l /2 squat l /t straddle vault L. with J4 L- turn. 
 l /2 squat ]/2 straddle vault R. with % R. turn. 
 Oblique vault from L. and R. foot. 
 Face vault L. with J4 R- turn. 
 Face vault R. with J4 L. turn. 
 L. hand straddle vault. 
 R. hand straddle vault. 
 
 l /2 squat l /t straddle vault L. with Yz R. turn. 
 */2 squat l /2 straddle vault R. with y 3 L. turn. 9 
 
 Side vault L. with J4 L. turn. 
 Side vault R. with J4 R. turn. 
 Back vault L., with l /2 L. turn. 
 Back vault R., with ^ R. turn. 
 Oblique vault from L. foot with J4 L. turn. 
 Oblique vault from R. foot with J4 R- turn. 
 
 Vault to kneeling pos., spring to standing pos., dismount forward. 
 Side straddle vault L. and R. (buck lengthwise). 
 Squat vault with l /2 L. and R. turn. 
 L. hand straddle vault with J4 L- turn. 
 R. hand straddle vault with % R- turn. 
 Jump vault from L. and R. foot. 
 Face vault L. with H R- turn. 
 Face vault R. with Y* L. turn. 
 
 Oblique vault from L. foot with ^ R- turn (support on R. hand only). 
 Oblique vault from R. foot with }4 L. turn (support on L. hand only). 
 Rear straddle mount, L. or R. (buck lengthwise). 
 Jump vault from L. foot with J4 L. turn. 
 Jump vault from R. foot with % R. turn. 
 Straddle vault with ^ L. and R. turn. 
 Oblique vault from L. foot with l /2 L. turn. 
 Oblique vault from R. foot with l /2 R. turn. 
 L. hand straddle vault with Y* R. turn. 
 R. hand straddle vault with J4 L- turn. 
 l /2 squat l / 2 straddle vault L. with l /t L. turn. 
 l / 2 squat l /2 straddle vault R. with Y 2 R. turn. 
 Jump vault from L. foot with Ya, R. turn. 
 Jump vault from R. foot with *A L. turn. 
 Back vault L. with l / 2 L. turn. 
 Back vault R. with l / 2 R. turn. 
 Pike dive. 
 
 Rear straddle vault, turning L. and R. 
 
 Oblique vault from L. foot with l /2 R. turn (support on R. hand only). 
 Oblique vault from R. foot with l / 2 L. turn (support on L. hand only). 
 R. hand low side vault L. 
 L. hand low side vault R. 
 
 Jump vault from L. foot with l /t L. turn. 
 Jump vault from R. foot with ^ R. turn. 
 
 Front vault ("Sheep" vault. Body arched; chest leading, feet last over 
 buck).
 
 APPENDIX 243 
 
 L. hand straddle vault with l /2 L. (and R.) turn. 
 
 R. hand straddle vault with l / 2 R. (and L.) turn. 
 
 Side vault L. with J4 L. turn. 
 
 Side vault R. with J4 R- turn. 
 
 Squat vault with 34 L. and R. turn. 
 
 Rear straddle vault L. with J4 L- turn. 
 
 Rear straddle vault R. with J4 R- turn. 
 
 Front vault with J4 L- turn. 
 
 Front vault with J4 R- turn. 
 
 R. hand side vault L. with J4 R- turn. 
 
 L. hand side vault R. with J4 L. turn. 
 
 Rear squat vault, turning L. and R. 
 
 Cross-legged straddle vault, L. leg in front (hips turned, but shoulders 
 
 square to the front). 
 Cross-legged straddle vault, R. leg in front (hips turned, but shoulders 
 
 square to the front). 
 Rear squat vault L. with ^ L- turn. 
 Rear squat vault R. with % R- turn. 
 Rear straddle vault L. with l /2 L. turn. 
 Rear straddle vault R. with Yz R. turn. 
 High face vault L. and R. (through handstand). 
 Straddle vault with full L. and R. turn. 
 High squat vault (through handstand). 
 High straddle vault (through handstand). 
 Hand spring, slow or quick. 
 
 Parallel Bars. 
 
 (Unless otherwise specified the exercises are done with a running start, 
 from end of bars, mounting well in toward middle.) 
 
 Back rest on L. bar; dismount forw. Same on R. bar. 
 
 Riding pos. ; face (vault) dismount L. and R. 
 
 Oblique back rest on L. bar; back (vault) dismount L. Same on R. bar. 
 
 Riding pos.; swing forw. between bars to back (vault) dismount L. and R. 
 
 Back vault L. and R. 
 
 Back rest on L. bar; dismount forw. with l / 2 L. turn. Same on other side. 
 
 Riding pos.; swing backw. between bars to face (vault) dismount L. and R. 
 
 Oblique back rest on L. bar; back (vault) dismount L. with J4 R- turn. 
 
 Oblique back rest on R. bar; back (vault) dismount R. with ]/$ L. turn. 
 
 Oblique back rest on L. bar; turn R. to cross riding pos. Face (vault) 
 
 dismount L. 
 Oblique back rest on R. bar; turn L. to cross riding pos. Face (vault) 
 
 dismount R. 
 
 Travel forw. through riding pos. on both bars. 
 
 At ends of bars : L. circle L. leg to floor, then R. circle R. leg to floor. 
 Back vault L. with % R. turn. 
 Back vault R. with 54 L. turn. 
 
 Oblique back rest on L. bar; back (vault) dismount R. over both bars. 
 Oblique back rest on R. bar; back (vault) dismount L. over both bars. 
 Oblique back rest on L. bar; turn R. to front rest, hands on R. bar; 
 
 dismount backw. Same on othep side. 
 
 Swing forw., then backw., to face (vault) dismount L. and R. 
 Travel backw. through riding pos. on both bars. 
 At ends of bars : R. circle L. leg over L. bar to floor, then L. circle R. leg 
 
 over R. bar to floor.
 
 244 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Back vault L. with l / 3 R. turn. 
 
 Back vault R. with l / 2 L. turn. 
 
 Y* L. circle R. leg over L. bar, Y 3 R. circle L. leg over L. bar, with % 
 
 R. turn of body to front rest. Dismount backw. Same on other side. 
 H L. circle R. leg over L. bar (cut L. hand) with y* R. circle L. leg to 
 
 oblique front rest on L. bar, face dismount L. Same on other side. 
 Travel forw. through oblique back rest on L. and R. bars successively, 
 
 swinging forw. between bars each time. 
 At ends of bars : L. circle of both legs over L. bar to floor, then R. circle 
 
 of both legs over R. bar to floor. 
 
 Back vault L. with y^ L. turn (pivoting on L. hand). 
 Back vault R. with J4 R. turn (pivoting on R. hand). 
 Back rest on L. bar, roll over backw. to floor. Same on other bar. 
 Travel forw. through cross-legged riding pos. on both bars ("grapevine"). 
 At ends of bars : L. circle R. leg over L. bar to floor, then R. circle L. leg 
 
 over R. bar to floor. 
 Oblique front rest on L. bar; swing forw. between bars to back (vault) 
 
 dismount R. 
 Oblique front rest on R. bar; swing forw. between bars to back (vault) 
 
 dismount L. 
 
 Upper arm rest, raise legs, swing backw. and dismount between bars. 
 Upper arm rest, raise legs and mount to oblique back rest on L. bar, back 
 
 (vault) dismount L. with J4 R- turn. Same on other side. 
 y 2 L. circle R. leg (with y* R. circle L. leg) over L. bar to face (vault) 
 
 dismount L. (cut L. hand). 
 y. R. circle L. leg (with }4 R. circle L. leg) over R. bar to face (vault) 
 
 dismount R. (cut R. hand). 
 Upper arm rest, raise legs, mount to riding pos. Face vault dismount 
 
 R. and L. 
 
 Face vault L. and R. (without preliminary forw. swing). 
 Swing forw.; L. circle R. leg over L. bar (cut L. hand), swing forw. 
 
 between bars to back (vault) dismount R. with y* L. turn. Same 
 
 on other side. 
 Riding pos., shoulder stand: roll over forw. to upper arm rest, swing 
 
 backw. and dismount between bars. 
 Upper arm rest, raise legs, upstart ("kip"), swing backw. and face (vault) 
 
 dismount R. or L. 
 At ends of bars : R. circle L. leg over both bars with simultaneous R. 
 
 circle R. leg over R. bar to floor. Same on other side. 
 Swing forw. and backw. (increasing momentum), on next forw. swing 
 
 side vault L. over R. bar (body straight). Same on other side. 
 Swing forw., L. circle R. leg over L. bar (cut L. hand) and face (vault) 
 
 dismount R. over R. bar. 
 Swing forw., R. circle L. leg over R. bar (cut L. hand) and face (vault) 
 
 dismount L. over L. bar. 
 Swing forw., then backw. to shoulder stand, l /2 circle straight sidew. to 
 
 floor. Same on other side. 
 l /2 L. circle R. leg over L. bar, R. circle L. leg over L. bar, with 54 
 
 R. turn to back rest. Roll over backw. to floor. Same on other side. 
 Upper arm rest, raise legs, on backw. swing uprise to cross rest and 
 
 immediate back (vault) dismount L. or R. 
 At ends: R. circle R. leg over both bars .with simultaneous R. circle L. 
 
 leg over L. bar to floor. Same on other side. 
 Side vault L. and R. (on first forw. swing).
 
 APPENDIX 245 
 
 Swing forw., L. circle L. leg over L. bar (cut L. hand), swing forw., R. 
 
 circle R. leg over R. bar (cut R. hand), swing forw., back vault 
 
 dismount L. or R. 
 Upper arm hang; start swing, on second forw. swing l /2 backw. circle to 
 
 shoulder stand; l /2 backw. circle to back (vault) dismount R. or L. 
 Swing forw., then backw., then drop to upper arm rest and "kip," 
 
 immediate face (vault) dismount L. or R. 
 At ends : L. circle L. leg over L. bar with simultaneous R. circle R. leg 
 
 over R. bar to floor (cut both hands simultaneously). 
 At ends : R. circle L. leg over L. bar with simultaneous L. circle R. leg 
 
 over R. bar to floor (cut both hands simultaneously). 
 From side of bars : side vault L. with Y$ R. turn and L. hand on other bar, 
 
 swing forw. between bars and back vault dismount L. with Yt L. 
 
 turn. Same on other side. 
 From side of bars : combined grasp on near bar, drop back and shoot up 
 
 between bars with Y* R. turn of body to cross riding rest, hands in 
 
 front; swing forw. between bars and backw. shoulder roll. Dismount 
 
 between bars. 
 From side of bars : overgrasp on far bar with arms under near bar : 
 
 backw. circle to front rest, hands on far bar; dismount backw. 
 Swing forw., then backw., to handstand; swing forw. to back vault 
 
 dismount R. or L. 
 From far end of bars: upper arm rest (facing mid-bars); backw. 
 
 shoulder roll to floor. 
 From far end of bars : riding pos. facing ends : forw. shoulder spring to 
 
 floor. 
 
 From far end of bars: grasp ends, drop back with legs raised, "kip"; dis- 
 mount backw. 
 
 From near end of bars : back vault L. over both bars. 
 From near end of bars : back vault R. over both bars. 
 L. circle R. leg over L. bar (cut L. hand), L. circle R. leg over R. bar 
 
 (cut R. hand) and back (vault) dismount L. over L. bar. Same on 
 
 other side. 
 Mount to riding rest, facing near end of bars : drop to upper arm rest 
 
 with long underswing between bars, two backw. shoulder rolls to 
 
 shoulder stand, "kip," face (vault) dismount with turn. 
 Swing forw., then backw., to handstand ; drop to shoulder stand ; forw. 
 
 roll to riding rest on one bar, back (vault) dismount over other bar. 
 Upper arm rest, "kip," to oblique back rest on L. bar; J4 R- turn to front 
 
 rest; side vault L. over both bars to floor. Same on other side. 
 From far end of bars (facing in): underswing, "kip," shoulder stand; 
 
 backw. shoulder roll to floor. 
 Upper arm rest: start swing, on backw. swing ^2 (forw.) circle to shoulder 
 
 stand, forw. roll, on backw. swing uprise and back (vault) dismount 
 
 L. (or R.). 
 Swing forw. and backw., on next forw. swing drop back with legs raised, 
 
 "kip," on next forw. swing cut both hands and back vault dismount 
 
 L. (or R.). 
 At ends of bars: R. circle both legs over both bars to floor; L. circle both 
 
 legs over both bars to floor. 
 
 Swing forw., L. circle R. leg over L. bar (cut L. hand), followed imme- 
 diately by R. circle L. leg over L. and R. bars (cut first L., then R. 
 
 hand), then L. circle R. leg over R. bar to back (vault) dismount L. 
 
 Repeat with R. and L. reversed.
 
 246 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 At near end: R. circle L. leg over L. bar with simultaneous L. circle R. 
 leg over R. bar, swing backw. to shoulder stand and forw. shoulder 
 roll to riding pos. ; forw. circle between bars (resting on thighs) back 
 to riding pos.; forw. shoulder roll (arms straight sideways) over far 
 end to floor. 
 
 Handstand, walk forw., drop down to shoulder stand, forw. shoulder 
 roll, on backw. swing uprise to riding pos. ; back vault dismount. 
 
 Swing forw., then backw., R. circle both legs over both bars with l /+ R- 
 turn to floor. Same on other side. 
 
 Upper arm rest, start swing, on backw. swing uprise and shoulder stand, 
 "kip" and shoulder stand, backw. shoulder roll, "kip" and face dis- 
 mount R. or L. 
 
 High Jumps. 
 
 (Height of bar about 3 feet.) 
 Run, jump from L. foot, land facing forw. 
 Run, jump from R. foot, land facing forw. 
 Run, jump from L. foot, land with ^4 L- turn. 
 Run, jump from R. foot, land with J4 R- turn. 
 Run, jump from L. foot, land with % R. turn. 
 Run, jump from R. foot, land with J4 L. turn. 
 Run, jump from both feet, land facing forw. 
 Run, jump from both feet, land with % L. turn. 
 Run, jump from both feet, land with J4 R- turn. 
 Run, jump from both feet, with side-flinging of arms and legs. 
 Run, jump from L. foot, land on R. foot. 
 Run, jump from R. foot, land on L. foot. 
 Run, jump from L. foot, land on L. foot. 
 Run, jump from R. foot, land on R. foot. 
 Run, jump from L. foot, land on both feet with y 2 L. turn. 
 Run, jump from R. foot, land on both feet with y 2 R. turn. 
 Run, jump from L. foot, land on both feet with y 2 R. turn. 
 Run, jump from R. foot, land on both feet with y 2 L. turn. 
 Run, jump from both feet, land on both feet with y 2 L. turn. 
 Run, jump from both feet, land on both feet with y 2 R. turn. 
 Standing high jump to L. (L. side to the bar). 
 Standing high jump to R. (R. side to the bar). 
 Oblique running high jump, from L. foot. 
 Oblique running high jump, from R. foot. 
 Run, jump from L. foot, land on L. foot with y 2 L. turn. 
 Run, jump from R. foot, land on R. foot with y 2 R. turn. 
 Run, jump from L. foot, land on both feet \vith y 2 L. turn and backw. roll. 
 Run, jump from R. foot, land on both feet with y 2 R. turn and backw. roll. 
 Run, jump from both feet with side-flinging of arms and legs and l / 2 L. 
 
 turn. 
 Run, jump from both feet with side-flinging of arms and legs and y 2 R. 
 
 turn. 
 
 Standing high jump forw. 
 
 Standing high jump forw. with side-flinging of arms and legs. 
 Run, hurdle from L. foot. 
 Run, hurdle from R. foot. 
 Pike dive. 
 
 Competitive running high jump, any style. 
 Most of the above jumps may also be done from a springboard.
 
 APPENDIX 247 
 
 Broad Jumps. 
 
 One standing hop forw. from L. and R. foot. 
 
 One standing step forw. from L. and R. foot. 
 
 One standing jump forw. from L. and R. foot. 
 
 One standing broad jump. 
 
 One standing side jump, L. and R. 
 
 One standing jump backw. 
 
 Two standing hops forw. from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Two standing steps forw. from L. and R. foot. 
 
 One standing hop and step, starting from L. and R. foot. 
 
 One standing step and hop, starting from L. and R. foot. 
 
 One standing hop and jump, starting from L. and R. foot. 
 
 One standing step and jump, starting from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Two standing broad jumps. 
 
 Two standing side jumps L. and R. 
 
 Two standing hops backw., from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Standing hop, step and jump, starting from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Three standing hops forw., from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Three standing broad jumps. 
 
 Two standing jumps backward. 
 
 One running hop, from L. and R. foot. 
 
 One running step, from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Three standing jumps to L. and R. 
 
 Two running hops, from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Two running steps, from L. and R. foot. 
 
 Running broad jump from L. and R. foot. (Do not try for great distance, 
 
 unless landing on spring mattress.) 
 Running hop and step, from L. and R. foot. 
 Running step and jump, from L. and R foot. 
 Running hop, step and jump from L. and R. foot. 
 Running broad jump with full L. turn, from L. foot. 
 Running broad jump with full R. turn, from R. foot. 
 
 Tumbling. 
 
 Forw. roll, hands on mat. 
 
 Forw, roll, hands on insteps. 
 
 Forw. roll, forearms and elbows on mat. 
 
 Backw. roll. 
 
 Forw. roll with one hand on hip. 
 
 Forw. roll with both hands on hips. 
 
 Head stand, roll over forw. 
 
 Forw. roll, followed by backw. roll. 
 
 Handstand (with assistance at first). 
 
 Cartwheel L. and R. 
 
 Running dive from one foot. 
 
 Backw. roll to head stand. 
 
 Handstand, walk forw. 
 
 Running dive from both feet. 
 
 Two cartwheels L. and R. 
 
 From lying position : raise legs and "snap" up to standing pos., using 
 
 hands behind head. 
 
 Same as preceding, with hands on knees. 
 Handspring over rolled up mat.
 
 248 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Hand-and-head spring from rolled up mat. 
 
 Combined forw. and backw. roll by two pupils, grasping each other's 
 
 ankles. 
 
 Running dive from one foot, or both feet, for distance. 
 From lying pos. : "snap" up to standing pos., arms folded. 
 Handspring from knees of pupil lying on his back. 
 
 Handstand, drop to head stand, roll over and "snap" up to standing pos. 
 Running dive, fall back and snap up to standing pos. 
 Cartwheel and handspring. 
 Forw. somersault (with belt). 
 Backw. handspring (with belt). 
 Backw. somersault (with belt).
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Arnold, E. H. Tactics. New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Bancroft, J. H. Posture of School Children. Macmillan Co., New York, 
 1913. 
 
 Bancroft, J. H. The Place of Automatism in Gymnastic Exercise. Ameri- 
 can Physical Education Review, December, 1903. 
 
 Bancroft, J. H. Some Educational Aspects of Physical Education. 
 American Physical Education Review, April, 1910. 
 
 Beevor, Chas. E. Representation of Movement in the Central Nervous 
 System. Croomian Lectures. Adlard & Son, London, 1904. 
 
 Blake, C. J. The Spirit of a Profession. Boston Normal School of Gym- 
 nastics, 1905. 
 
 Bolin, J. What is Gymnastics? New York, 1902. Why Do We Teach 
 Gymnastics? New York, 1903. Mental Growth through Physical 
 Education. 
 
 Bowen, W. P. Teacher's Course in Physical Training. G. Wahr, Ann 
 Arbor, 1909. 
 
 Brumbaugh, M. G. Educational Annals, 1911 and 1912. Macmillan Co.,. 
 New York. 
 
 Burnham, W. H. Hygiene of Physical Education. American Physical 
 Education Association, Springfield, Mass. 
 
 Cornell, G., and Berry, E. Marching Tactics Applied to Gymnastic 
 Work. Seminar Publishing Co., Springfield, Mass. 
 
 Dearborn, G. V. N. Attention; Some of Its Aspects and Application to 
 Physical Education. American Physical Education Review, Novem- 
 ber, 1910-March, 1911. 
 
 Dearborn, G. V. N. Nerve Mechanism of Voluntary Movements. Ameri- 
 can Physical Education Review, May, 1912. 
 
 Demenij, G. Precision in Physical Training. Popular Science Monthly, 
 February, 1891. 
 
 Demenij, G. Les bases scientifique de 1'education physique. 
 
 Demenij, G. Education et harmonie des mouvements. Felix Alcan, 
 Paris, 1904. 
 
 Fitch, J. G. Lectures on Teaching. Macmillan Co., New York, 1900. 
 
 Goldthwaite, J. E. The Relation of Posture to Human Efficiency. Bos- 
 ton, 1908. 
 
 Gulick, L. H. Physical Education through Muscular Exercise. Blakis- 
 ton's Sons & Co., Philadelphia, 1904. 
 
 Gymnastic Nomenclature. Association Press, New York, 1912. 
 
 Hall, S. Adolescence. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1904. 
 
 Hall, S. Youth and Education, Regimen and Hygiene. D. Appleton & 
 Co., New York, 1907. 
 
 Hanus. Educational Aims and Values. Macmillan, New York, 1902. 
 
 Hartwell, E. M. Physical Education Report of U. S. Commissioner of 
 Education, 1897-1898 and 1903. 
 
 Hartwell, E. M. Nature of Physical Training and Best Means of Securing 
 Its Aim. Report of Physical Training Conference, 1889. 
 
 Hetherington, C. W. Fundamental Education. American Physical 
 Education Review, December, 1910. 
 
 James, W. Talks to Teachers and Students. H. Holt & Co., New York, 
 1900. 
 
 Johnson, G. E. Play in Education. Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. 
 
 Kindervater, A. E. Physical Education. American Physical Education 
 Review, January, 1912.
 
 250 GYMNASTIC TEACHING 
 
 Larned, C. W. Athletics from an Historical and Educational Standpoint. 
 Aim-ik-an Physical Education Review, January, 1909. 
 
 Posse, N. Special Kinesiology. Lee & Shepard, Boston, Mass. 
 
 Rowe, E. C. Voluntary Movements. American Journal of Psychology, 
 October, 1910. 
 
 Schrader, C. L. The Teaching of Tactics. American Physical Educa- 
 tion Review, Vol. I., December, 1911; Vols. II. and III., January 
 and February, 1912. 
 
 Skarstrom, W. Gymnastic Kinesiology; Introduction and Summary. 
 American Physical Education Association, Springfield, 1913. 
 
 Stecher, W. A. German Gymnastics. Freidenker Publishing Co., Mil- 
 waukee, Wis. 
 
 Tyler, J. M. Growth and Education. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
 
 Wood, T. D. Health and Education. Ninth Year Book of the Society 
 for the Study of Teaching.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abdominal exercises, character of 106 
 
 progressive lists of 217 
 
 progression of types 159 
 
 Active gymnastic position 54 
 
 Adaptation of work to conditions 88 
 
 Admonitions 63 
 
 Aims and values of gymnastics 82 
 
 hygienic 83 
 
 educational, including general motor and posture training, 
 
 useful forms of agility, etc 83-87 
 
 Alignment and open order, methods of 32 
 
 All-round character of gymnastic lesson 122 
 
 Anticipation of command, due to faulty delivery, insufficient pause, 
 
 too even intervals, etc 47 
 
 induced by teacher doing the movement 
 
 while delivering final command 48 
 
 Apparatus exercises, general principles of progression . .' 166 
 
 progression by classes and types 167 
 
 progressive lists, for men 232 
 
 progressive lists, for women 225 
 
 terminology of 223 
 
 Apparatus work in the gymnastic lesson 126 
 
 Arch flexions or span bendings 101 
 
 Arching movements, character of 96 
 
 progressive list of 207 
 
 progression of types 147 
 
 teaching of 101 
 
 Arm movements, progressive list of 220 
 
 Arm support exercises, character of 114 
 
 progressive list of 220 
 
 progression of types 171 
 
 Arrangement of gymnastic lesson, general 122 
 
 free-standing exercises in lesson 123 
 
 Attention 19 
 
 Attention and interest 23 
 
 dependent on correct technique 23 
 
 focused by pause in command 46 
 
 how to hold through proper guidance of class 
 
 work 24 
 
 how to secure at the beginning of the lesson . 20 
 
 lack of, loss of 22, 24 
 
 special ways of stimulating 24 
 
 when speaking to the class 22 
 
 "Attention!" command for fundamental position 21, 55, 56 
 
 Back and shoulder blade exercises, character of 107 
 
 progressive list of 215 
 
 Back movements, general, character of 109 
 
 progression of types 155 
 
 Balance exercises, character of 1 10 
 
 progressive list of 218 
 
 progression of types 161
 
 252 INDEX 
 
 Bar bell drill, sample series of exercises 201 
 
 Beginning of the lesson : getting the attention 20 
 
 Boom, see progressive lists of exercises on high, low, double and 
 
 saddle boom 226-228 
 
 Box, see vaulting box 229 
 
 Breathing exercises, class of, character of 117 
 
 value of 118 
 
 Broad jumps, progressive list of exercises for men 247 
 
 progressive list of exercises for women 232 
 
 Buck, progressive list of exercises for men 241 
 
 progressive list of exercises for women 230 
 
 Causes of faulty execution of exercise 68 
 
 Character of definite gymnastic exercises 5 
 
 Charges, character of 109 
 
 progressive list of 221 
 
 progression of types 163 
 
 Circles, terminology of 225 
 
 Classification of gymnastic exercises 91 
 
 Commands, general topic 38 
 
 as expressing personality 41, 42 
 
 consistent use of 42 
 
 different kinds, and methods of making 39-41 
 
 essential features of 38 
 
 executionary or final part of command 49, 54 
 
 following each other too rapidly 43 
 
 for combined movements 41 
 
 for compound movements 41 
 
 for rhythmic exercises 39 
 
 for single movement 40 
 
 for simple and compound movements 40 
 
 for stopping rhythmic exercises 52 
 
 insufficient pause in 47 
 
 intonation and inflexion of 49, 54 
 
 numerals used as 40 
 
 pause in 46 
 
 preparatory 45, 54 
 
 recalls 43 
 
 stimulating attention making pupils not only hear, but 
 
 listen 42 
 
 summary 54 
 
 superfluous 44 
 
 technique of 45 
 
 voice and enunciation in delivering 42, 54 
 
 Commendation and praise 30 
 
 Combination and alternation of movements in relation to progression 135 
 
 Compound, combined and composite movements 133 
 
 Compensatory movements, character of 102 
 
 progressive list of 209 
 
 progression of types 150 
 
 See also general back and abdominal 
 
 exercises 155, 159 
 
 Complexity and progression 132, 133 
 
 Content and character of gymnastic lesson 118 
 
 Control and class management 
 
 how to secure and maintain control 13
 
 INDEX 253 
 
 Cooperation, spirit of 8 
 
 Correction of faulty execution of exercises 66 
 
 general, addressed to class as a whole 69 
 
 individual 70 
 
 manual 71 
 
 Counting, as used for commands 40, 47, 49 
 
 as used for marking time 48, 50, 51, 52 
 
 Cues _ 62 
 
 Definite exercises, character, aims and values 5, 77 
 
 methods of teaching 78 
 
 repeated rhythmically 79 
 
 sample lessons 178 
 
 Definiteness in gymnastics 4 
 
 Demonstration method of presentation 60 
 
 Descriptive method of presentation 61 
 
 Discipline 16 
 
 Dismounts, terminology of 224 
 
 Distribution of class on the floor 32 
 
 Distribution of work in gymnastic lesson 119 
 
 Divisions of gymnastic lesson, proportion of time in each 123 
 
 Doing the exercises with the class 26 
 
 leading to anticipation of command 48 
 
 Double boom, progressive list of exercises for women 227 
 
 Dumb bell drill, sample series of exercises 200 
 
 Educational aims and values of gymnastics 83 
 
 Equalization of circulation in beginning of gymnastic lesson 121 
 
 Essentials for successful teaching 9 
 
 Executionary command imperative verb ; numerals 49, 50 
 
 Experience, learning by 9 
 
 Facings during lesson to facilitate execution of exercise 37 
 
 Faulty execution of exercise, causes of 68 
 
 correction of 66 
 
 Faulty posture 97 
 
 Final or executionary part of command 49, 54 
 
 Fixation of the shoulder girdle 108 
 
 Foot placings, heel raisings, etc., progressive lists 203 
 
 Formations and distribution of class on the floor 32 
 
 Formation, variation of, by facings during lesson 36, 37 
 
 Free-standing exercises, progressive lists of 203 
 
 progression of types in the various classes. 141 
 
 the series of, in the gymnastic lesson 123 
 
 Free-standing jumps, toe jumps, etc., progressive list of 222 
 
 Friendly relations between teacher and class 28 
 
 Fundamental gymnastic position 55 
 
 General correction 69 
 
 General principles of teaching 9 
 
 Getting in touch with the class 15 
 
 Guiding class work so as to hold active attention 24 
 
 Gymnastics, place of, in physical education 2 
 
 aims and values of 82 
 
 object of 4 
 
 Gymnastic lesson, content and character of 118 
 
 summary 127 
 
 progression within 129 
 
 progression from lesson to lesson 129, 177
 
 254 INDEX 
 
 Gymnastic lessons, progression as applied to 177 
 
 sample progression of 178 
 
 series of, for first year high school girls 178 
 
 second year high school girls 181 
 
 first year high school boys 183 
 
 second year high school boys 187 
 
 first year college women 192 
 
 second year college women 194 
 
 first year college men 196 
 
 second year college men 199 
 
 Gymnastic systems 3 
 
 Heel raising, etc., progressive list of exercises 203 
 
 High boom, progressive list of exercises for women 226 
 
 High horizontal bar, progressive list of exercises for men 235 
 
 High jumps, progressive list of exercises for men 246 
 
 progressive list of exercises for women 231 
 
 Hollow back, as a fault in execution of arching movements 99, 103 
 
 how to correct 73, 100 
 
 Horizontal bar, see high and low horizontal bar 235, 238 
 
 Horizontal ladder, progressive list of exercises for men 232 
 
 progressive list of exercises for women 225 
 
 Horizontal vaults, see vaults, terminology of 225 
 
 Horse, see side horse and long horse 230, 240 
 
 Hygienic aims and values of gymnastics 83 
 
 as represented in the gymnastic lesson 120 
 
 as represented in the indefinite, rhythmic exercises... 75 
 
 Imitation contrasted with demonstration 62 
 
 method of presentation 61 
 
 resulting from teacher doing the exercises with the class 
 
 and anticipating the command 27, 48 
 
 Imperative verb as final command 40 
 
 "In place rest!" the command for the relaxed position 58 
 
 Incentives '. 13 
 
 Indefinite gymnastic exercises, character of 6, 74 
 
 values represented by 75 
 
 methods of teaching 76 
 
 sample series for gymnastic lesson . . 196 
 
 Individual correction 70 
 
 Instruction 59 
 
 Interest 15 
 
 and attention 23 
 
 of teacher in pupils 30 
 
 "Introduction" of work to the class 15 
 
 Jumping and vaulting, character of 1 14 
 
 progression of types and apparatus 173 
 
 Jumps, high and broad, progressive lists of, for men 246, 247 
 
 progressive lists of, for women 231, 232 
 
 Jumps, terminology of 2?4 
 
 Jumps, toe jumps, etc., progressive list of 222 
 
 Knee bending, foot placines. etc., progressive list of 205 
 
 Ladder, see horizontal ladder, window ladder and rope ladders. 
 
 Lateral trunk exercises, character of 104 
 
 progressive lists of 211, 213 
 
 progression of types 150 
 
 Leadership and friendly relations 26
 
 INDEX 255 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Leg and arm movements, character of 94 
 
 progressive lists of 203, 205 
 
 progression of types 141 
 
 Lesson, gymnastic, content and character of 118 
 
 Lesson plan, general arrangement and modifications 122 
 
 Lessons, progression of 177 
 
 sample progressive 178 
 
 "Limbering up," preparatory work in gymnastic lesson 120 
 
 Long horse, progressive list of exercises for women 230 
 
 Low boom, progressive list of exercises for women 227 
 
 Low horizontal bar, progressive list of exercises for men 238 
 
 Lumbar hyperextension in arching movements, etc 99, 103 
 
 Manual correction 71 
 
 Marching, see formations and order movements 32, 93 
 
 Marking time, guiding rhythm, by counting 48, 50 
 
 Men's apparatus exercises 232 
 
 Methods and technique 32 
 
 of correcting 69 
 
 formation and distribution of class on the floor 32 
 
 making commands 39 
 
 opening order 32 
 
 presentation of exercises 60 
 
 teaching different kinds of work 74 
 
 using commands 41 
 
 Mistakes, acknowledgment of 30 
 
 Modifications of outline of free-standing series in lesson 124 
 
 Motor training, subjective and objective 84, 85 
 
 Mounts, terminology of 224 
 
 Movements for the arms and legs, class of 94 
 
 progressive lists of 203 
 
 progression of types 141 
 
 Nomenclature, see terminology 138, 223 
 
 Numerals, used as commands 40 
 
 for marking time, guiding rhythm 48, 51 
 
 incorrectly as command 47 
 
 Obedience 14 
 
 Object of gymnastics 4 
 
 Objective motor training 84 
 
 Observation of class work by teacher, systematic 67 
 
 Open order, methods 32 
 
 Order exercises, character of 82 
 
 Organic stimulation, progressive, in gymnastic lesson 120 
 
 represented in rhythmic indefinite exercises 75 
 
 Outline, general, of gymnastic lesson as a whole 122 
 
 of series of free-standing exercises 123 
 
 Parallel bars, progressive list of exercises for men 243 
 
 progressive list of exercises for women 231 
 
 suspended, progressive list of exercises for men 233 
 
 Participation in class work by the teacher 26, 27, 48 
 
 Pause in the command 46 
 
 Personality of the teacher 8, 10, 12 
 
 as expressed in "power of command" ... 41 
 
 Personal relations between teacher and class 28 
 
 Place of gymnastics in physical education 2 
 
 Popularity of the teacher 28
 
 256 INDEX 
 
 Posture, factors which determine 96 
 
 incorrect or faulty 91 
 
 of shoulder girdle 108 
 
 Posture training as a part of subjective motor training 86 
 
 in arching movements 98 
 
 represented by shoulder blade exercises 108 
 
 Praise and commendation 30 
 
 Precipitant exercises, see jumping and vaulting 114 
 
 Preparation, of teacher before giving the lesson 59 
 
 Preparatory command 45, 54 
 
 Preparing the pupils' minds for the work 16 
 
 Presentation of the exercise : explanation, demonstration, etc 60 
 
 demonstration method 61 
 
 descriptive method 60 
 
 combination of the above 62 
 
 imitation method 61, 62 
 
 Principles, general 9 
 
 and methods, need for knowledge of 10 
 
 of progression of apparatus exercises 166 
 
 of progression of free-standing exercises 131, 141 
 
 of selection of exercises 90 
 
 Progression 128 
 
 as applied to gymnastic lessons 129, 177 
 
 from lesson to lesson 129 
 
 from indefinite to definite style of work 129 
 
 of apparatus exercises 130, 166, 225 
 
 of free-standing exercises 129, 131, 141, 203 
 
 and repetition 130 
 
 Progression, principles of, as applied in education 1 
 
 as applied in the various classes and types 
 
 of free-standing exercises 141 
 
 as applied to different classes and types of 
 
 apparatus exercises 167 
 
 Progressive gymnastic lessons 178 
 
 lists of apparatus exercises 225, 232 
 
 lists of free-standing exercises 203 
 
 Progressive organic activity in the gymnastic lesson 120 
 
 Recreational aspect of gymnastics 88 
 
 Redistribution of the blood by the exercises in the gymnastic lesson. 121 
 
 Relations between teacher and class 28 
 
 Relaxed gymnastic position 
 
 command for 58 
 
 use of 58 
 
 when not to use 59 
 
 Repetition in relation to progression 130 
 
 Respiratory exercises, character of 117 
 
 Rests, terminology of 224 
 
 Rhythm and definiteness in gymnastic exercises 79 
 
 of movements in relation to progression 136 
 
 Rhythmic gymnastic exercises, how to start and guide 51 
 
 how to stop 52 
 
 Rope ladders, progressive lists of exercises for women 229 
 
 Ropes, see vertical ropes 228, 234 
 
 Running and running games, class of exercises 1 16 
 
 value of 117
 
 INDEX 257 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Running in the gymnastic lesson 127 
 
 Sample progression of gymnastic lessons 178 
 
 Saddle boom, progressive list of exercises for women 228 
 
 Selection of gymnastic exercises 90 
 
 principles of, as applied in education 1 
 
 Shoulder blade exercises, use in posture training 108 
 
 use and excessive use in the gymnastic 
 
 lesson 126 
 
 Shoulder blade movements, character of 107 
 
 progressive list of (arm exercises) 220 
 
 Side bending, etc., progressive list of 213 
 
 Side horse, progressive list of exercises for men 240 
 
 progressive list of exercises for women 230 
 
 "Sliding" from command repetition to rhythmic repetition 47 
 
 Span bendings or true arch flexions 101 
 
 Special technical training of teachers, need for 11 
 
 Special ways of stimulating a class 24 
 
 Speed of movement in relation to progression 136 
 
 Spirit of cooperation 8 
 
 of teaching 8 
 
 Starting an exercise incorrectly, through faulty command, leading to 
 
 false start, etc 47 
 
 Starting of rhythmic exercises 51 
 
 Starting positions, in relation to progression 137 
 
 terminology and definition of 138 
 
 variation of, in the gymnastic lesson 126 
 
 Stimulating attention of class in special ways 24 
 
 Stimulation 64 
 
 Stopping an exercise, commands for 52 
 
 Style of work 74 
 
 Subj ective motor training 85 
 
 Suggestion and example 26 
 
 Supplementary instruction 63 
 
 Suspended parallel bars, progressive list of exercises 233 
 
 Suspension exercises, character of Ill 
 
 progression of types and apparatus 167 
 
 Systems, gymnastic 3 
 
 Systematic observation of class work by teacher 67 
 
 Swing jumps . 177 
 
 a type of suspension exercises, progressive list 170 
 
 Tactics, see formations, and order exercises 32, 93 
 
 Teacher, personality of 8, 10, 12 
 
 "power of command" of 41 
 
 popularity of 28 
 
 interest of teacher in pupils 30 
 
 Teaching, spirit of 8 
 
 essentials for successful 9 
 
 Technique of commands 45 
 
 of teaching in relation to attention of class 23 
 
 Terminology of apparatus exercises 223 
 
 derived starting position 138 
 
 simple free-standing movements 138 
 
 Totality in the gymnastic lesson 122 
 
 Trunk twistings, progressive list of 211 
 
 Tumbling, progressive list of exercises 247
 
 258 INDEX 
 
 Turns, terminology of 225 
 
 Twisting, see trunk twisting 211 
 
 Types of exercises, their relative difficulty in relation to progression . 131 
 
 Unison, failure of, because of faulty command 47 
 
 Variety of selection, combination and arrangement of exercises of 
 
 free-standing series in gymnastic lesson 125 
 
 of starting positions in gymnastic lesson 126 
 
 Vaulting box, progressive list of exercises 'for women 229 
 
 Vaults, horizontal and vertical, terminology of 225 
 
 Vertical ropes, progressive list of exercises for men 234 
 
 progressive list of exercises for women 228 
 
 "Warming up," introductory exercises in gymnastic lesson 119 
 
 Will power and obedience 14 
 
 Window ladder, progressive list of exercises for women 228 
 
 Women's apparatus exercises 225 
 
 Working with the class, to stimulate attention 25 
 
 leading to anticipation of command and 
 
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