UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES THE EAST INDIA VABE = MECUM. 7 7 4 5 1 THE EAST INDIA V A D E - M E C U M ; OR, Complete ^ui'tre GENTLEMEN INTENDED FOR THE CIVIL, MILITARY, OR NAVAL SERVICE HON. EAST INDIA COaiPANY, BY CAPTAIN THOMAS WILLIAMSON, Author of ' The Wild Sports of the East.' I>f TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. LONDON: PRINTED FOR BLACK, PARRY, ANDKINGSBURV, Booksellers to the Honorable East India Company, I.EADENII A LL- STREET. 1810. i*:., : f CONTENTS OF VOL. II. (jrREAT Heats, modes of refrigeration ^ general plan of biiilding, various kinds of lime and cement, tarrasjioors . . . I to 16 Pucka and Cutcha houses, ancient buildings^ ichite-ants, sleeping in the open air, floors on pots, north-ictsters, bungalows and out- offices, mats of sorts, satrinjes, cheeks, glass windoivs, talc as a substitute, Chalk- Hills, purdahs . . . . . . 17 ' 5^f Various kinds of timber, modes of floating them, prices, and uses, mango-fruit, and plantations . . . . . . 54 . 84 Bamboos, mode of fitting-out trading-boats, toddy-tree, coir rigging, cocoa-nuts, oil from them, meemii-ke-tale, xmiting on cocoa-tree leaves, hot ivinds . . . 84 . lOG State of society among Europeans, sitting- iip, meals, ivines, malt liquors. Invalid Establishment, levees, stigar-candy, bread, camp-ovens, milk, ghee-butter, meats, buf- faloes 107 . 14<^ yi CONTENTS. PAGES. Spirits, wines, Jisk, potiltry, table apparatus, furniture, china-bazar, Europe-shops, wax and caudles, insects, snakes oj' sorts, anti- dotes to their poison, musqvitves, and cii/T" tains to repel them, cock-roaches, scorpions, centipedes, ivasjjs, hornets . . . 150 fo 198 Shampoing, amusements, theatres, races, gaming, music, balls, — Churches, schools, Fort-William, militari/ establishments . IQ8 ■ . 223 False ideas of Indian prospcrilij, anecdote, depreciation of specie, the bore, brackis ivaters, preservation of rain-icater. The several great rivers, physical properties, fossile alkali, streams impregnated with minerals, inundations, Hindu corpses, plague not known in India . . . 223 . 267 Tanks and jeels, eleemosynart/ alligators, seraies, gunjes, durgaws. Hill people, bunds, (piicksands, wells on great roads, hot-wells, sol-lunar infu'ence on fevers, huckeems, state of medicine, refrigerating principle, state of learning, Koits, Ldldhs, Gooroos, good books . . . . 2G8 . 325 Posts, and conveyance of parcels, S^c, travel- ling in a palanquin, rice, mode of expelling weevils, meal from barley, wh^at, Sfc, travelling by ivater, the Soonderbund Pas- sage, water in jars, Jire-wood, New Har- bour, entrances of the Hoogly River. Opinions regarding Gour, and the great Delta of the Ganges . . . . 325 . 366 Salt manufacl7ire ..... 366 . 368 Hire of budjrows, rates and distances, pre- cautions, contraband trade, trading and baggage-boats, tracking, Decoits, or pi- rates, guards requisite. Coolies, Chokey- CONTENTS. vii PAGES. darSi and JDoivraws, expert thieves, anec- dotes, leger de main, puppet-shows, gt/m- nastic feats. Nuts, or Indian gypsies, curious comparison of tJieir language . 368 to 420 Slavery, how far tolerated, Indian Lock-Hos- pitals, summary punishment of adultery, curious ihcident, duncing-girls . . 420 . 429 Elephants, their points, qualities, prices, Sfc, camels, the appropriate soils, conveying them over rivers, bullocks, the Company s regtUa- tions, tattoos, or indigenous breed of horses, tanians, tazees, serissahs, horses imported frum Persia, the Punjab, Sfc, stabies . 430 . 467 Tanning, artijicers, great improveme its made in most professions, newspapers, Persian Akbars, paper ..... 468 . 473 The Mocurrery (or perpetual) System of Revenue. The periods for collection, sta- tions of collectors, judges, commercial resi- dents, custom masters, and diplomatic characters ...... 474 . 497 Security afforded to private property, inland traders, agency-houses, rates of commission and remitta ce, trade and situation of Calcutta. Conclusion .... 498 . 506 THE EAST INDIA ¥ A B E - M E € U M, tOR some months, generally during the latter part of the rains, the weather is so close and sultry, that universal exudation takes place, even while sitting quiet. The natives, as I re- marked in the outset of this subject, have, from experience, adopted a very different mode from that we should have expected to find in use, under such a latitude. We should, no doubt, have been prepared to see airy habita- tions, through which the wind could pass freely in every direction. But it is far otherwise ; and Europeans have, at length, become con- vinced, that the most insupportable heats are derived from the glare of light objects ; or, in other words, from the reflection of surfaces in- tensely acted upon by a vertical sun. Some conception may be formed of that in- tensity, from the fact of meat having been broiled VOL. II. B 2 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. on the cannon mounted upon the ramparts of Fort -William ! We, therefore, must coincide with the hal)its of the natives, to a certain ex- tent, if we mean to retain health, or to acquire comfort. Such, indeed, should, in every coun- try, be held in view: for, hmvever absurd many practices may at first appear, it will ordinarily result that rrecessity was their parent. 1 do not mean to say that we should imitate, much less adopt, without discrimination, all we see ; but it may be considered an axiom, that, by taking the general outline of indigenous cus- toms fojc pur, guide, if we err, it will be on the sjife side., ^otliing can be more preposterous than the significant sneers of gentlemen on their first arrival m India ; meanin.G^, thereby, to ri- dicule, or- tfo despise, what they consider effc" minacj^,, or luxury. Thus, several may be seen ^nnuajly walking about ^vithout chattahs, (i. e. umbrellas,) during the greatest heats ; they af- fect to be ashamed of requiring aid, and endea- vor to uphold, by such a display of indifference, the great reliance placed on strength of consti- tution. This unhappy infatuation rarely ex- ceeds a few days ; at the end of that time, sometimes only of a week, (nay, I have known the period to be much shorter,) we too often are called upon to attend the funeral of the self-deluded victim! The first attack is gene- rally announced by cold shiverjngs, and biliou* EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 3 vomiting ; delirium speedily ensues, when pu- trefaction advances with such hasty strides, as often to render interment necessary so soon as can possibly be effected. The glare is certainly far more distressing than exposure to the sun, at some seasons: but nothing can equal the effects of both glare and sun-shine, acting upon the human frame, dur- ing a Midsummer's day ; when, perhaps, not a breath of air is moving, when every leaf seems to repose, and every bird, saving the vulture, the adjutant, (or argeelah,) and the kite, retires to some shady spot, to avoid the solar ray. At such times, the peaceful Hindu confines himself to an apartment, from which light is generally excluded : there he sits among his family, enjoying his pipe, refreshing himself occasionally by bathing, drinking the pure be- verage afforded by some adjacent spring or well; and, in general, avoiding to eat, except of ripe fruits, especially the turbooz, or water-melon, until the cool of the evening. In the mean- while, however, he perspires copiously, even though in a state of inactivity, unless when refreshed by 3. punkah, or fan, moved either by his own hand, or by that of some menial. The instinct of the birds above named, to wit, the argeelah, the vulture, and the kite, all of which are extremely numerous throughout India, and contribute greatly to the salubrity of B 2 4 EAST INDIA YADE-MECrM. the air, by carrying off astonishing quantities of putrefactive offal, &c., is wonderful! About mid-day, when the sun's beams strike with incredible force upon the earth's surface, these feathered scavengers ascend, perhaps to the height of seven or eight hundred yards, so that the largest of them, (the argeelah) is scarcely discernible : there they soar beyond the reach of reflection from the heated soil, enjoying the freshness of a cooler atmosphere, and descend- ing only when allured by the scent of prey. Their sense of smelling must, indeed, be acute; for we see them, especially the vultures, flying for miles, and from all quarters, towards some carcase, usually that of a Hindu, floating down the stream, or stranded upon some shelving bank ; but so situated as to render it perfectly certain that the visual faculties could have no concern in the discovery. Few of the natives have tatties applied to their doors, or windows ; though by no means insen- sible to the gratification they afford ; but penury, or, to say the least, close and parsi- monious economy, prompt to the denial of such a comfort : a comfort without which any constitution, not inured to the chmate, would speedily give way. It is really curious to ob- serve what may be effected by habit! When we understand how^ fatally the sun's rays act upon our European frames, even while under EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 6 the shade of a thick painted umbrella, and al- though our diet may be nearly similar to that of the most abstemious Hindu, it certainly must appear wonderful, that children, of whatever age, whose rapid circulation, and sable color, should, according to the estimates we fonu of temperament, be highly unfavorable to such exposure, run about at all seasons, bare-headed, and perfectly nude ; seeming to set the sun, the wind, and the rain, alike at defiance. We see the same individuals making long journies, in the most torrid seasons, under nearly similar cir- cumstances ; nay, they even carry bangles, con- taining, on an average, full amaund, (S2ib. avoir- dupoise,) sixteen, eighteen, twenty miles, or even more, under such an oppressive heat as would kill an European outright ; and this, too, for a few pence. If, in considering this point, we urge the benefits of extreme temperance, we urge that which often does not exist ; since many, who practise the above, may be ranked among the most arduous votaries of Bacchus, devouring fish, flesh, and fowl, highly spiced, Avhenever their purses, or the bounty of others, may afford them so welcome a regale. When we see the several shop-keepers, in every city and town, serving their customers, or, in their absence, smoking like Vesuvius, in their little houtiqucs, exposed to the glare, and to the burning winds ; when we see these persons, 6 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. with parched skins, and their eyes violently irri- tated, and clogged, by the clouds of dust which range along the streets, and which, occasionally taking a whirl, nearly suffocate all within their reach ; we may then fairly admire the force of habit, and congratulate ourselves on the bless^ ings of a more temperate climate ! In the same situations, we see two classes of persons, both natives of the soil, acting in diametric opposition to each other ; and exhi- biting that powerful resistance capable of being made by long residence, or rather by aboriginal habitude, against that which never fails to con- sign our countrymen to the grave. The former class confine themselves, as much as their avo- cations may permit, within gloomy, but cool, chambers ; living most abstemiously, yet, at certain times, exposing themselves in the most unequivocal manner to the severest heats : the other, perfectly inattentive to the dictates of pru- dence, yet performing what we may fairly term wonders, in opposition to their destructive locality. When the English first visited India, they adopted a mode of building by no means consistent with common sense, and displaying a total ignorance of the most simple of nature's laws. We accordingly find, that all the old buildings, such as may lay claim to a duration of from forty to sixty years, were, like the celebrated Black-Hole, constructed more like EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 7 ovens, than like the habitations of enlis^htened' beings. The doors were very small, the win- dows still less, in proportion, while the roofs were carried up many feet above both. Those roofs were in themselves calculated to retain heat to an extreme, being built of solid tarras, at least a foot thick, lying horizontally upon immense timbers, chiefly of teak, or of saul wood. iVgain, when they built bungalows, [i. e. thatched houses,) of one (ground) floor only, the utmost care was taken to close up all the intervals between the thatch, and the walls, on which it rested ; so as to exclude the external air, as well as the dust : a practice religiously observed even to the present date. The obvious consequence of this latter construction is, that, whatever air is retained between the thatch, (which, in the course of the day, becomes very, very warm,) and the upper lines of the win- dows must be highly rarefied. Thus, we invariably observe, that, towards sun-set, when the inhabitants quit the inner hall, &c., either to sit out on chabootahs, [i. e. large terraces,) raised perhaps a foot or two from the level of the area, and abundantly watered for the occasion ; or when they remove to the windward veranda (or balcony) ; on either of these occasions, the interior becomes intolerably hot, on account of the rarefied air being drawn down by that current inevitably S EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. attendant upon the removal of all the tatUes; and, by the throwing open of all the doors and windows. In a preceding page, I have shewn, that the French generally acted upon more philosophical principles; they making their doors and windows remarkably high : but, there yet remains a very important improvement to be made ; namely, the introduction of tin ventilators, to be inserted near the summits of the thatches. It is a fact, that, during many months in the year, the houses built by most Europeans, and especially their bungalows^ are so extremely heated, as to render it absolutely impossible to sleep in their inte- rior, without the intervention of some artificial means for keeping the air around the bed at a proper temperature. However faulty the first European builders in India might have been, the moderns have by no means made such improvements as we should suppose experience would have led them to adopt. Whether from economy, or from more attention to exterior, than to comfort, scarce a house is now built with such spacious, lofty, and substantial verandas^ as are to be seen on the south side of almost every old mansion. Some of these antiquated edifices had verandas on several sides, and a few might be quoted hav- ing them all around ; as seen in the officers* quarters at Berhampore, and Dinapore. It can CAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 9 scarcely be doubted, that such verandas are, in every respect, admirably suited to the cli- mate ; since they prevent the sun from striking on the main wall ; which, in exposed situations, have been known to give from 8" to 10" dif- ference on the thermometer ; under circum- stances in every other respect similar. It is peculiar, that, until within the last twenty-five years, the ground floors, that is, the whole of the basements, of thos3 fine large houses to be seen in all quarters of Calcutta, and in various parts of the interior, were con- signed to the reception of palanquins, gigs, water-stores, or to be ivine-godoums, (or cellars,) butler-connahs, (or pantries,) and even, in some instances, stables ! In those days, the whole of the family resided in, and confined them- selves to, the first floor; which was then the summit of the habitation : leaving to their lug- gage, cattle, and menials, that part which has lately been discovered to be, in every respect, moist suitable to the accommodation of the European population. In houses of agency, &c., we now see the basement converted partly into offices, and but rarely any portion of it ap- propriated as above described; while, the genera- lity of new houses are built upon a scale such as favors this salutary change, by giving sufficient height to the lower apartments ; thereby adapt- ing them to every purpose, and occasioning a 10 IiA3X INDIA VADE-MECUM. coriBiderable reduction of the ground plan, in consequence of the accommodations thus gained. The practice of building houses without verandas^ certainly cannot be approved ; whereas, the old mode of building them on pil- lars, was highly ornamental, and, at some seasons, not less appropriate : but, the great art of keeping a house cool during the preva- lence of the hot-winds, rests entirely on shut- ting them out, except at some few apertures supplied with tatties; which, being kept con- stantly moist, or, indeed, dripping wet, produce such an immense evaporation, as to cool the interior completely : of course, a suitable draught must be preserved, by opening some window, &c. on the lee-side. This is commonly effected by means of Venetians ; Avhich allow the air to pass, but debar the access of glare. Without adverting to the expence, it should seem that a close-veranda is by far preferable to an open one ; and, were it not for the im- mense additional charges, we can hardly doubt that the European inhabitants of Calcutta would-, in imitation of the s^eneralitv of buns:alow-re.si' dents, have their apartments surrounded by a veranda, of full fourteen feet in width ; with apertures, of a good size, in the exterior wall, corresponding with those of the interior. This arrangement rende;s the generality of bungalqas EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 11 remarkably pleasant ; but, it must be noticed, that there is a very wide difference in the ex- pence incurred in rendering them so : their roofs being of thatch, and their walls of sun-burnt bricks, plastered with mud and chaff, offer a great contrast in the out^-iay, both as relating to the labor, and to the materials, in a house constructed of burnt bricks, and good lime, whose roof is of masonry, and in which timbers of great price are every where used. Accord- ingly, we find, that, in almost every part of India, an excellent bungalow may be built for about five thousand rupees, completely fitted with glass doors, and windows, and with all the necessary out-ofhces duly tiled, or thatched, according to their purposes ; while, a house suited to the accommodation of the same family, in Calcutta, could not be finished for less than ten times that sum. The bricks form a ver}^ very small portion of the disbursements incident to building in India: so cheap, indeed, are they, that most of the made-roads about Calcutta, and in other parts, are formed by laying broken, or even whole, bricks regularl ; giving the centre two or three layers, gradually tapered off to the sides, and then covering them with a coat of rubbish, or, which is far better, coarse sand. Such roads are extremely firm, and far more durable, than 12 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. those we make with gravel, flint, hme-stone, &c. But great allowance must be made for the heavy machines used among us, and carrying such tremendous burthens ; whereas, an Indian hackery can rarely weigh five cvvt., nor can its load be averaged at more than fifteen cwt., being altogether only a ton. We well know, that our common narrow -wheeled waggons weigh fi-om fifteen to twenty-five cwt. ; and, that, except where weigh-bridges limit their burthens, it is by no means uncommon to see them carrying from two and a half, up to four, tons. Three chaldron of coals will be found to average about seventy cvvt. ; yet, are often drawn by three horses through the streets of London. The lime used in Calcutta, is brought down from the Morungs^ and their vicinity, in large boats, being previously slaked ; though it is sometimes imported in its quick state, or as nearly so as accident may permit. It may readily be concluded, that, after a passage of from three to four hundred miles, this article is rather deteriorated ; especially as the voyage can rarely be effected under three weeks or a month. The prices of this kind of lime, made from a very firm stone, called %utty, abundant in some parts, vary much according to the season, and to the demand : it has been sold as EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 13 low as six or seven rupees per hundred maunds, but, at other times, has reached to twenty and twenty-five. At Madras, and indeed all along the coast of Coromandel, as well as on some parts of the Ma- labar border, an excellent kind of lime is made from sea shells. This nearly equals what is made in Italy, from the refuse of marble, and receives an extraordinary fine surface, competiting even with that of polished glass ; at the same time that it is incomparably firm, and durable. When laid upon a wall, which is done only by way of a finish, it is carefully freed from grit, and kept working, and rubbing, until nearly dry; thereby to prevent the surface from cracking, as it would be subject to do, when acted upon by the hot air at mid-day : when nearly dry, it is rubbed with coarse calico cloths, until it receives a beautiful lustre, which causes it to appear semi- diaphanous. A few houses at Calcutta have been finished with this kind of lime, conveyed from Madras by shipping ; but the expence, being very considerable, has occasioned the common Moritng lime to be generally employed, both for cement, and for white-washing. In the ordinary buildings constructed in the upper parts of the country, a weaker kind of lime is obtained by burning a substance called kmikur, which, at first, might be mistaken for small rugged flints, slightly coated with soil. 14 EAST INDIA VADE»MECUM. The experiments made upon these alkaline con« cretions, which abound in most parts above Bengal Proper, and, in some places, prove ex- tremely troublesome to the farmer, but especially to the horticulturist, give the following result : calcareous earth, 41, cilicious earth, 16, calx of iron, 3, and air, 40. Kimkur is not easily re- duced to a calx, it requiring a greater heat than is necessary to burn the harder kinds of gutty it is, likewise, less durable and tenacious as a cement ; of which the color, viz. commonly what we call fawn, is a strong indication. Whether from want of sufficient power in their kilns, or that t\\Q. kunkur is so peculiarly hard, we commonly find that, on slaking, a large por- tion of the interior of each lump remains unsub- dued. These insoluble masses are often pounded by means of a dmnkt/, or foot-break, and mixed with the perfect calx : nor is the lime burner very scrupulous in regard to keeping out the wood ashes, &;c., remaining at the bottom of the kiln, alter the kun/cur has been taken out ; on the contrary, he will, if not very narrowly watched, mix as much as he can with the calx ; thereby causing the lime to be very considerably detelSiorated. This kind of lime, commonly called cutclia^ [i.e. weak,) sells for about six or seven rupees per hundred maunds. In all parts of India, tl : lime-burners proceed on the most expensive plan ; their kilns being EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 15 rarely more than four feet in diameter, nor above that much in height : consequently, they have not sufficient accumulation, concentration, or reverberation of heat, to burn the stones pro- perly ; neither do they, in general, break them sufficiently small, but bundle them in, with very little attention to regularity or economy. It is the same with the brick and tile-kilns ; which are, for the most part, of a pyramidal form ; the raw bricks being laid intermediately with the fuel.^ and the exterior being plastered over, per- haps half a foot in thickness, with mud. The best bricks I ever saw in India were made by an engineer officer, who had some extensive public works to carry on. He first built the whole of tlie walls of a him^alow he required, with sun- b(u^rnt bricks, properly cemented with mud well filled in ; taking care to arch over the door and window openings in such way, that the frames could be afterwards introduced. The whole in- terior was then laid with bricks and fuel, while the exterior of the veranda walls were also closed ill with sufficient to heat them thoroughly ; and a complete coating was given, in the ordinary way. The bricks baked uncommonly well, while the walls became a solid mass, capable of resisting all the elements, should they unite for its destruction. The bungalow proved remark- ably dry, and the plaster was found to adhere in a surprizing manner, while rats, snakes, &c.. 16 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. were all set at defiance ; it being impossible for them to burrow in so hard a substance : the greater part of the cement, which happened to contain cilicious particles, was nearly vitrified. Thirty j^'ears ago, the generality of houses were coated with the same kind of tarras as is employed for laying the floors, and the roofs : this was made of chuncnn, fi. e. white-lime,) one third ; soorky^ (?", e. brick-dust,) one third ; and sand, one third ; these, being mixed duly with a large portion of cut hemp, (wool being very scarce, and short hair not to be procured 6ri any terms,) together with some jaggery, or re- fuse molasses, made a tolerably strong cement. The surface, after a house had been duly plastered, was washed, while yet moist, with a strong solution of lime in water. This would have been enough to blind every man, woman, or child, in the place, had it not been partially remedied, by the admixture of some coloring matter with the finishing wash: but, whether red, yellow, or blue, which were the prevailing colors, it was found that the alkali generally destroyed their appearance, and left a motley kind of work. The good taste of a few individuals, chiefly gentlemen in the corps of engineers, gradually overcame this vile imitation of Dutch and Por- tugueze finery, they substituting, in their pub- lic works, a plaster composed of river sand, EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. if saturated with a solution of white lime, of the consistency of cream. The addition of the usual allowance of cut hemp, gave this simple com- pound, (if I may so blend the terms,) not only much additional durability, but a remarkably neat appearance ; especially when the body of the building was of that fine grey, thus obtained, and the cornices, &c. were finished of a pure white. Houses thus exteriorly finished became yet further neat, by the contrast of their Vene- tian windows, invariably painted green : some prefer all verdigris ; others, a deep clear green for the frame-work, with verdigris for the seve- ral leaves, or valves. Almost every house has folding A-^enetians to each window, or outward door ; these are sus- tained by very strong hinges, which allow each fold, or shutter, to open outwards, and to li^ back flat upon the exterior wall : in that posi- tion the Venetians are kept from blowing about, by means of hooks ; in the same manner as we see practised in England, where this kind of shutter is in use. Sash-windows are never made upon the European construction, but move invariably in two folds, one to the right, the other to the left ; each opening inwardly, and lying within the thickness of the wall, or nearly so. In no part of the world is more attention paid to the foundation of a house than in India ; an(i VOL. II. c 18 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. that not \y.i.thput necessity, the rains being so very heavy as to sap all weak buildings exposed to tlieir action, either above, below, or laterally. When houses are built with what is termed cutcha, that is, with sun-dried bricks cemented with mud, and either plastered with the same, or with mortar, the lea^t crack in the roof, or the smallest hollow near the foundation, will teem w;ith danger. The rain which, often for a whole day, descends in streams, soon gets into the walls, where it does incalculable mischief: many of these houses, whose substance and general appearance should indicate a better fate, may annually be seen in ruins after a continued fall of heavy, or of drizzling, but oblique, rain: the latter is peculiarly unfavorable to such buildings as are insecurely coated ; it drifts in under the plaster, damps the mud cement, and brings downthp. heavy roofs with a most sono- rous crash. Feiw of these cutcha houses are now to be seen "with' tarras roofs ; such as are so built foV tfe sake of cheapness, being, almost without exception, intended for thatches, and thus becoming what we term bungalows. The natives build sometimes on that kind of half and half plan, which commonly, in the end, cheats the contriver. Thus, I have seen some, of a small description, built with cutcha fox sun- dried) bricks for the interior, while the exterior «f the wall was made of pucka (or burnt) bricks ; EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 19 from whose interstices the mortar was carefully picked out, as though about to be pointed ; for the purpose of causing the exterior plastering to get into the joints, and thus to retain its posi- tion firmly. Admitting, and even admiring, the ingenuity of such a system, when properly con- ducted, I lament, that, in almost every case which came within my knowledge, the whole system was disgraced, by the house either falling in toto, or by shedding its coat of mail. There certainly did formerly exist some mode of mixing the ingredients, or some particular recipe giving better proportions, or better mate- rials, which, after a time, formed a very capital cement : of this, many very well known edifices furnish ample proof. The old fort, situate within the town of Calcutta, may be an apt quotation. The impressions made by shots, of 2-i and 32lb. fired by Admiral Watson against its western face, when his fleet lay within three hundred yards of it, in the year 17-55, were absolutely insigni- ficant ; the brave admiral might have battered for a century, without bringing down the wall. In the year 1779, when the Company's cloth godown took fire, the third regiment of Euro- pean infantry, then in garrison at Fort -William, marched out with engines, &c. to aid towards its extinction ; yet were they utterly unable to get the iron bars loose from the masonry ; though provided with tackles, crows, axes, &c. c 2 so EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM, This godown, which occupied a large part of the northerly face of the old fort, was afterwards converted into offices ; but with incredible labor ! The masonry was as hard as rock ! When this occurrence took place, the old fort had been built about forty years ; whereas, we find that all the Company's, or any other, build- ings which now claim that age, are of a very different complexion ! The greater part of them, though not in a state of absolute ruin, are kept up at an inordinate expence ; while such of them as have given up the ghost, display a crude mass of loose, friable, and mouldering rubbish. Nor are the ancient terraces less obdurate than the old walls : many of these may be seen among the ruins of cities, and towns, of which we have scarcely any information, absolutely retaining their places, although the beams on which they formerly rested have been, God only knows how many years, removed. If these roofs had possessed any convexity, or been constructed according to the Syrian principle. we should have had less cause to admire their solidity, and toughness ; but, such has never been the case with any Ijhave seen ;. and which, though cerUinly of no considerable dimensions, appeared firm enough to sustain cannon of small calibre. I have often been one of a party to walk on such. It may, perhaps, be in place here to describe the ip^imer in which roofs are EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 21 constructed in India : I mean such as are now under consideration. The beams are rarely more than two feet apart ; and, speaking gene- rally, may have a scantling of ten or eleven inches depth, by five, or six, in width ; some- times, though but rarely, and then only when under the eye of science, cambered to the ex- tent of three or four inches ; according to the length of the timber. These joists are laid upon the bare wall, having their ends previously Avell charred ; and, in some cases, smeared with petroleum ; called by the natives, ' earth- oil/ This is done to deter the white-ants from making an attack upon the wood ; which, in time, they would certainly do, but for the above precaution. The ends of the timbers are cased in with masonry, so as to leave about four inches all the way round, and at their bases : in order that the timber may be removed, in case of decay, w'ithout damaging the wall ; the interval is, however, filled up afterwards with cutcha work ; which, not being liable to adhere firmly to the pucka wall, may be easily removed when the joist is to be changed. When plastered over, the whole appears uniform. In some parts of the countr}'', but especially in the upper provinces, the natives cover in their houses with flat roofs, made of clay, beat very firm, and about a foot in thickness. This mode of construction requires some care, but is 22 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. found to be extremely efficient. The walls ought to be substantial, as should also the joists ; and the surface of the clay should be rather convex, so as to direct the water falling on it into proper gutters, or drains, and to prevent the building from being damped. Without this precaution, the heavy falls of rain, which may be constantly expected during three months in the year, would speedily dis- solve such tenements, with nearly as much faci- lity as though they were made of lump-sugar. But when due care is taken, both to prevent, and to stop, leaks, clay roofs are rather eligible, than objectionable ; especially in the vicinity of bazars, (or markets,) and lines, in which fires are frequent. Many gentlemen have adopted the plan, some wholly, others partially, in their bungalows, and find little or no cause to regret their having done so. It is, however, expedient to send up a man now and then, to lute any cracks that may appear in consequence of excessive heats ; but, after a season or two, the clay becomes extremely firm, nearly equal to mortar-tarras, resisting the various changes of temperature, and appearing to be consolidated into a very firm mass. The gi'eatest inconvenience it produces, is the harbor afforded to that inconceivably obnoxious insect, the white-ant. This little depredator rarely fails to take EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 23 advantage of whatever opportunity is oflfered for the exhibition of its powers. Assembhng by the ten thousand, in a few hours they will eat out the bottom of k deal box, perhaps an inch in thickn(?ss, or render it a mere honey- comb. Of fir, they are remarkably fond, as also of mano;'o-w^ood. It seems rather peculiar that they should be so partial to w'oods abounding so highly, as these both do, in turpentine; while the presence of a few drops of ;t>7 liberal consideration is very generally exhibited ; and, that so long as an}^ hope of reform may remain, there will rarely be found a disposition to exile a man from that converse with his countrymen, without which he can neither pre- serve the appearance of respectability among the natives, nor, in all probability, receive the appro- bation of Government. Hence, what we com- monly call a ' black-sheep, ' is a most marked, and equally forlorn character, throughout the East; and, consequently, is very scarce. Many years ago, when it was customary for the Governor-General, and some of the leading gentlemen, such as the Members of Council, &c., to have public breakfasts weekly, persons of all characters mixed promiscuously at table; good and bad were to be seen around the same tea-pot. This occasioned a native of some con- sequence to remark, that, ' among Europeans, all who wore a hat and breeches were gentlemen.' The sarcasm was not, however, quite applicable; for, the breakfast being considered merely the preface to a levee, it was to be expected that, on such occasions, persons of every description would be seen, who, having public business to transact at the levee, naturally availed themselves of the opportunity, without reference to the opinions of others regarding their private con- duct. After the arrival of Marquis Cornwallis, these public breakfasts were discontinued, and 128 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. open levees substituted. This was certainly pleasanter for both the Governor and the govern- ed. However, there are, to this day, I believe, some remains of the former ceremony preserved, among a few of the principal gentry; who, on certain days, expect to see their friends, and such others as may wish to consult them. Some have two levees, if we may so designate them, weekly ; one for Europeans, and one for natives; but such cannot be considered official. A breakfast in India bears a strong resemblance to the same meal in Scotland, with the exception of whiskey ; the introduction of which, (if to be had,) or of any other spirits, would be considered both nauseous and vulgar. The general bill of fare, at this time, consists of tea, coffee, toast, bread, butter, e^rgs, rice, salt-fish, kitchery^ (a kind of olio,) various sweetmeats prepared in the country, especially preserved ginger, and orange marmalade, honey, &c. ; and, after hunt- ing or shooting, occasionally cold meat, with proper accompaniments. During a great portion of the year, breakfast may be considered rather a substantial meal. The generality of European gentlemen rise about day-break, and either proceed to the parade, to their field diversions, or to ride on horseback, or on elephants ; thus enjoying the cool air of the morning. From the middle of March to the middle of October, the sun is very powerful, EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 129 even when the atmosphere is overcast with clouds of great density. This induces all who ride for health, or for pleasure, to avoid violent exercise; they proceeding, generally in small parties, each gentleman being attended by his syce, who carries a whisk made of horse-hair, fastened to a short lacquered stick, for the purpose of driving away the flies, which are generally very troublesome both to the horses and to their riders. It is not uncommon to see the backs of the latter covered with these noxious parasites, which, by their buzzing, and their attempts to alight on the face, produce extreme irritation. During some part of the year, when scarce a leaf is in motion, and the clouds hang very low, exercise, even so early in the morning, is often found more injurious than refreshing: at such seasons, nothing but the abundant perspiration which then relaxes the whole frame, and absolutely oozes through the light cloathing in common use, could prevent the occurrence of diseases highly inflammatory. Many feel so uneasy, in consequence of this unpleasant exudation, as to be induced to change their linen three or four times within the day ; but, however refreshing such a change may prove, it is by no means to be commended ; experience proving that considerable prostration of strength is the inseparable consequence of so ill-judged an indulgence. The best plan is, to have night apparel, and to ride out in the linen worn during VOL. II. K 130 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. the preceding eveninir ; changing for a clean suit on returning, so as to sit down to breakfast in comfort. Those who are subject to bile cannot be too cautious in regard to their diet ; which should be rather sparing, and confined to viands dressed in a simple manner. Many gentlemen of the faculty, in England, entertain an opinion, that eggs, moderately boiled, are rather beneficial, than otherwise, in bilious cases: the idea they entertain is, that the yolk assimilates with the bile, and carries it off. But practice is better than theory ; and it is to be wished, that such as maintain the above hypothesis could view the number of patients who maybe said to owe their pains and sorrows merely to the practice of eat- ing eggs for breakfast. In this climate, to a person possessing a robust constitution, and whose stomach might vie w^th that of an ostrich, eggs may be innocent ; but, in the East, where relaxation weakens the powers of diges- tion, they are by no means a proper article of diet. If, as physicians assert, assimilation takes place, it assuredly is on the wrong side of the question ; for 1 believe all oriental practitioners will allow, that the bile is considerably aug- mented, but not carried off, by eggs. However grateful many of the other items, such as salt-fish, &c., may be, they certainly cannot tend much to the preservation of health ; EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 131 therefore, should be discarded from the breakfast table. I speak feelingly ; for, although I did not possess sufficient resolution to withstand what then appeared a very alluring temptation, I have now the candor to confess, that thirst, heat, and uneasiness were generally attendant upon my imprudence, and no doubt occasioned me to swallow many a nauseous dose, which might have been avoided by a moderate share of dis- cretion. Therefore, let me strongly recommend to those of my juvenile readers who may be about to proceed to India, not to indulge in breakfasts such as I have described. The tea used in India is generally what we call green, or hyson ; very little bohea being drank. It is very rarely that either kind can be obtained good ; indeed, the climate speedily renders tea unfit for use, if at all exposed to the air : on this account, leaden catties of various sizes, but generally containing from four to ten pounds, are employed for preserving it. These catties fit in pairs, or, if large, singly, into neat boxes provided with locks. But little tea being sold retail, it is usual for a few friends, perhaps three or four, to club, and buy a chest ; which may be had for about 150, or even so high as 200 rupees (J25). This, however, is not the price of the best teas, which occasionally sell for nearly double the latter sum, unless there may be a very large supply at market ; when, as it is k2 132 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. a very perishable commodity, the prices some- times fall even below prime cost. To say the truth, it rarely matters much whether the tea be good, or bad ; for it is always made at a side- table by some menial who knows nothing of the matter, and who never tastes it himself: hence, a cup of good tea is really a rarity; which must appear extraordinary, when it is recollected that many vessels import at Calcutta in five or six weeks only from China. The Arabs now convey immense quantities of fine coffee from Mocha to every part of India ; but they sell it at a high price, generally from forty to sixty rupees, or even more, per maund of 82lb. ; which brings it, at the latter rate, to 3s. 9d. per lb. in its raw state. Bourbon and the Mauritius raise coffee, but of an inferior quality; and, within these few years, consider- able plantations have been formed at Chittagong ; but the produce, though abundant, cannot com- pare with even the French coffee. I have often had coffee that tasted very salt, and rather bitter, the cause of which was then unknown tome ; but a gentleman, who was ' up to the trick,' assured me it was occasioned by the frazils (or baskets) being immersed in sea- water, in order to give the berries that greenish, horny appearance, which is supposed to be the indication of a superior quality. Sugar-candy is always used for making tea, EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 133 coffee, and, indeed, for all such purposes: it is to be had of various degrees of purity, and either of indigenous manufacture, or imported from China. The former kind is sold by the maund, and may be estimated at from twenty to forty rupees ; the latter in tubs made of thin deal, and other light wood, in w hich the candy is packed among dried bamboo-leaves. The price of a tub is usually about twenty rupees, (more or less, as the markets may stand,) for which about sixty pounds weight are obtained. Although the sugar-cane is, by many, sup- posed to be indigenous in India, yet it has only been within the last fifty years that it has been cultivated to any great extent : since the failure which took place some twenty years back in the West Indies, it has become a most im- portant article of commerce. Strange to say, the only sugar-candy used until that time was received from China ; latterl}^, however, many gentlemen have speculated deeply in the manu- facture, and, by serving themselves richly, have rescued the country from a very impolitic branch of imposition. We now see sugar-candy, of the first quality, manufactured in various parts of Bengal, and, I believe it is at length ad- mitted, that the taw sugars from that quarter are pre-eminently good. I have lately had occasion to purchase some of a very superior fineness, called Soonamooky^ from a place of that name in the 154 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. Burdwan district, which was as high as eleven- pence per pound. About thirty-two years ago, the common raw sugar, known by the name of glioor^ was to be had at three rupees per maund of 961b. in the upper provinces : this was about three farthings per pound ; for a Sonaut or Tersooly rupee then was exchanged at about two shillings, or even so low as one shilling and ten-pence. In conse- quence of the great demand for the article, it rose gradually, but in comparatively a very short time, to eight rupees the maund of 72lb. ; and it has been so high as twelve rupees, but not, I believe, for any length of time : partial instances could be quoted, of even fourteen rupees being given. The superior kind, which may often be had nearly white, at least of a dove color, perfectly dry, and sharp grained, under the name of cheeny^ was formerly about seven, or eight, rupees per maund (of 961b.) ; of late, it has risen to full fifteen ; and has been up to twenty. The sugar -candy made in India, where it is known by the name of miscery, bears a price suited to its quality : some maybe had at twenty, and some up as high as forty, rupees per maund (82lb). It is usually made in small conical pots, whence it concretes into masses, weighing from three to six pounds each. For further information, I must refer my EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 135 readers to Mr. Colebrooke's excellent Essay on the Husbandry of Bengal. Bread is not made of flour, but of the heart of the wheat, which is very fine, ground into what is called soojy ; a kind of meal, so far from being pulverized, as to bear a strong resemblance to rather coarse sand. Soojy is kneaded the same as is done with flour, but there being no yeast in the country, (I mean such as we know by that name,) it is leavened by means of toddy; which is the juice obtained by making incisions into the taul^ (or palm-tree,) already described. In many parts of India, taul trees are very scarce, and are carefully preserved for the sake of the toddy ^ which is sold to the non- baiefi, (or bakers,) at a high price. In Bahar these trees are peculiarly abundant : there we often see groves, of hundreds upon hundreds, let out to the kiilwurs^ or distillers, to great ad- vantage. These venders of misery have the art of rendering the toddy peculiarly potent, by causing it to work upon the kernels of the da- tura^ that grows wild in every part of India, and possesses in every part, whether the stem, roqj;, leaf, or nut, a most deleterious property. Toddy, that has been strongly impregnated with datura, (which is the name it bears in the East,) acts very rapidly on the brain; producing mania, and, not unfrequeutly, apoplexy, when drank to excess. 136 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. The bread is usually made into small loaves, weighing about a pound each ; these are called ' single-loaves, ' and may generally sell from fifteen, to twenty, for a rupee; which brings the bread to about three half-pence, to two-pence, per pound;* ' Double loaves ' include double the weight, and sell in proportion. A large portion, of both sizes, is baked in tin moulds, of a brick form ; these are generally preferred, on account of their rarely scorching, and not requiring to be rasped, as all the other bread, baked in the form of heavy cakes, generally does. Soojy, (the basis of the bread,) is frequently boiled into ' stir-about ' for breakfast ; and eaten with milk, salt, and butter ; though some of the more zealous may be seen to moisten with porter ; a curious medley, by no means to my taste ! Nor is much to be said of its quali- ties ; as few stomachs are suited to its recep- tion. The camp-oven in common use, consists merely of a very large iiaud, or pot, capable of containing from thirty to fifty gallons, and of rather a conical form. This vessel is prepared for the purpose, by having a hole punched through its bottom, large enough to admit a man's arm; it is then placed, mouth downwards, over a corresponding cavity, dug out of the soil, so as to fit close every way ; but, in order to EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 137 allow a proper draught of air, two, or more, sloping apertures are left, passing under the circumference of the naud. The vessel is next well covered with turf, &c., and thus rendered capable of retaining considerable heat, long enough to bake small bread. The interior being filled with chips of wood, charcoal, ii'titlies, (i.e. dried cow-dung,) or any other kind of fuel that may be at hand, a strong fire is kept up in it, until the naud appears to be nearly at a red heat. The hole, which served for a chimney^ is then closed; and, the embers being withdrawn, the bread is introduced upon pieces of iron plate, or of tin, or boards, or leaves, &c., &c. I should here remark, that the natives inva- riably eat unleavened bread, generally made of wheaten, or of barley-meal; which, being made into a good dough, is flattened into cakes, called chow-patties^ between the hands, with very great dexterity. Such cakes are then either put at the edges of the heated choolnh^ or fire-place, or they are baked upon a convex plate of iron, circular, and about ten inches, or a foot, in diameter. This plate, called a towah, is precisely the same as the girdle made in Scotland for baking their oaten bread, and is used in the same manner. Milk is to be had in abundance throughout India, especially among the Hindus, who vene- rate the cow, and follow all occupations relating to the dairy ; but, owing to the general custom 1,38 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. of smoking thr- insides of whatever vessels are allotted lo its reception, will not be obtainable in such a state as suits the palate of an European, unless a clean pitcher, &c., be sent to the gwal- la/i, or cow-keeper, that the cow may be milked into it. That fuliginous taste, to us so obnoxious, is perfectly palatable, and perhaps agreeable, to the natives; who assign, as the reason for smok- ing their vessels, that it prevents the milk from turning. It, however, becomes a question, whether or not the operation of scalding, al- ways performed when practicable, while the milk is warm, be not the true preventive against acidulation. Certain it is, that sour milk is very rarely found in India, although, for full half the year, the thermometer is generally up be- tween 7o°, and 9 3°, in the shade ; and, in a Ben- gallee hut, frequently rising to 1 10°, or more! The milk obtained from buffaloes is certainly much richer than that from cows; yet, the butter produced from the former is very in- ferior, generally white, and brittle: it, however, possesses qualities suiting it admirably to the climate, and occasioning the natives to give it the preference. After being warmed to a cer- tain degree, so as to become rather liquified, it is kept nearly stationary in that state for a long time ; whereby it loses its aqueous parti- cles, and is rendered fit for keeping. When EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 139 thus treated, it is called ghee. Others deviate from this tedious process, and, by exposing it to a greater heat, keeping it simmering for some time, effect the purpose more speedily, but not without danger of burning, or, at least, of giving it a certain empyreumatic flavor. Few of the natives will touch cow-butter, to which they at- tribute many bad effects, though they will drink ghee by the quart, and pride themselves not a little in being able to afford so luscious an en- joyment. The uncontrolled expenditure of this article, among those whose purses will bear them out in the indulgence, though it may tend to that obesity of which they are inordinately vain, cannot but contribute greatly to the gene- ration of those bilious diseases which so often attack the more opulent natives. Ghee and idle- ness may be said to give birth to half their ailings. As an article of commerce, ghee possesses some claim to importance; many thousands of maunds being sent every season from some of the grazing districts, such as Pnr- neah^ and Sircar-sarun, to the more cultivated parts, and especiall>^ to the western provinces. The ghee is generally conveyed in dubbaks, or bottles made of green hide, which, being freed from the hair, and worked up while in a pliant state, into the form of a carahoy, such as we use for spirits of turpentine, &c., will keep sweet for a long time, provided the mouth of the vessel b© 140 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. well closed, in this manner it is conveyed by water in dubbahs^ often measuring nearly a hogs- head ; but a smaller kind, containing, perhaps, from fifteen to twenty gallons each, are made for the purpose of being slung across the backs of bullocks, by which it is carried to places situated at a distance from navigable streams. The price of ghee varies according to the demand, and to its quality: generally, from six to eight seers of 2lb. each may be had for a rupee in favorable situations ; otherwise, it will be from thirty to fifty per cent, dearer. It may be supposed that buffaloes' milk must possess a very considerable portion of cream, when it is stated, that milk is considered very cheap at 30 seers (or quarts) for a rupee, and that five seers of g/iee^ equal to one- sixth of the mass of milk, may be had for the same sum, in almost any part of the country. According to this proportion, we find that one-sixth part of the milk turns to butter; whereas, in this country, a cow% yielding twenty gallons of milk within the week, will rarely produce ten pounds of butter; which is equal to only one-eighth part of the mass of milk: it must, indeed, be a good cow that will pro- duce that quantity. The d'/ioob grass, which grows wild in almost every/ part of the country, is peculiarly nutri- tious ; but the food of cattle, of all descriptions, throughout India, is more dry and solid than is EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 141 offered to cows in England. Hence, though the quantity of milk yielded by a buffalo, may not be equal to that of an English cow of equal weight, the produce in butter, from an equal quantity of milk, will be in favor of the former. I have already stated the difficulty of getting milk devoid of the taste of smoke ; this arises from the cause already described, and is en- creased by the very small proportion of milk yielded by the cows in India, which are, with few exceptions, white, and rarely grow larger than the generality of yearlings, or steers, bred in England. In some grazing districts they thrive well, attaining to full thirteen hands in height, and weighing, when fit for the butcher, from four to five hundred weight: but such are merely local, and not very numerous. Butter produced from cows' milk is very indifferent, unless carefully made from such as are well fed. The number of gentlemen keeping dairies is extremely confined, perhaps less than ten for all India: they certainly obtain excellent but- ter, but that sold by the muckun-waliahs, (i. e. the butter- men,) would appear, to a stranger, not to be made from the same species of animals. Considering the price of a cow, which may be averaged at from four rupees to eight, fi. e. from ten to twenty shillings,) it is re- markably dear, as is usually the case with ar- ticles of inferior quality : thus, we consider three 142 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. pounds for a rupee to be a fair rate, though sornetijnes four rnay be had; but such can only happen where cattle are very abundant; for, as I have aheady said, buffaloes, and not cows, are ahiiost invariably kept by the natives for their milk, on account of their greater produce, and because the ^-kee made from their butter is more appreciated. We may, therefore, estimate the pound of cow-butter at nine-pence ; whereas, gliee rarely sells for more than three-pence: a strange disproportion ; to be attributed, in some measure, to the demand for the former being confined to the Europeans. In speaking of the berriarah, or shepherd, I have already noticed, that, for the supply of their tea-tables, gentlemen usually keep a few goats, which afford milk of a remarkably fine quality, and are herded in company with those store sheep intended to supply vacancies among the fatting stock. The kids produced, generally twice in the year, by each milch-goat, (mostly twins, and not unfrequently trins, or even four, at a birth,) serve to keep up the number of the flock, besides yielding occasionally a most deli- cate viand for the table. I know not of any meat more sweet, or wholesome, than that of a kid allowed to suck the mother at pleasure : it is as white, and, in proportion, as fat as an)' veal. Being in general request, and admirably suited to making rich curries, as also roasting remarkably EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 143 well, kid-meat mav be had of anv butcher ; the usual price being a rupee for a whole kid, and in proportion for halves and quarters. Vv hen of a good size, and duly fatted, an entire one may weigh about six pounds ; which brings the meat to five-pence per pound. By the word butcher, we are not to under- stand the individual to be a shop-keeper, expos- ing the several joints of various animals for sale, in that pleasing mode of exhibition so common in our markets. On the contrary, a tat kussee (i. e. cut-goat,) or two, and two or three kids, daily, with, now and then, a half-fatted ox during the cold months, may be said to comprize the whole business of one of this profession in full trade; indeed, a first-rate knight of the cleaver ! The greater part of the profit arising to this class, is derived from slaughtering oxen, calves, pigs, sheep, and kids, for families ; for which labor they ordinarily receive a iew annas, (or two-pences,) according to the size of the animal: in most instances they take the skin, pluck, and, of some, the head, as a perquisite. It is impossible to produce finer mutton than is served upon table in India; nor can there be finer beef than is to be seen in most cantonments, and among fixed residents. At some of the principal military and civil stations, those gentle- men who keep a regular table, usually fatten several bullocks for winter slaughtering. Some 144 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. of these are fed fall two years, with that intent, on gram; and, exclusive of being burthened with fat on the kidneys, &c., have their flesh absolutely marbled by the admixture of fat among the fleshy parts. Sometimes, the officers of a regi- ment club to fatten four or five head, the joints of which are either divided according to mutual concurrence, or drawn for by lot: this supplies fresh beef during the winter season ; very few bullocks being killed at any other time, on ac- count of the extreme difficulty of curing the meat. To persons inexperienced as to the hasty strides of putrefaction in hot climates, this for- bearance from beef, for so large a portion of the year, might appear unnecessary; but the fact is, that, during the close weather, prevalent throughout the rains, and for a certain part of the hot season, meat, though killed only about midnight, will often become absolutely putrid long before the time at which it ought to be on the spit; and that, too, in spite of every precaution ! The markets at Calcutta are open at day- break; when very fine meat, of every kind, to- gether with various sorts of choice fish, fruits, vegetables, &c., may be had on very reasonable terms. There, indeed, beef may sometimes be seen in the hottest weather; because, being cut up into small joints, a bullock may be readily sold off among so many customers; but, in EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 145 general, the prime pieces, together with all the best fish, &c., will have been bought up by sun- rise: the refuse joints are generally taken by the Portugueze, (who are the only customers for ^a:ar-pork,) and by Europeans of the lower classes, or by persons who supply the shipping. The whole of the non-commissioned and privates, in the several regiments of Europeans, are served with meat, rice, spirits, and fire-wood, by contract; receiving their several quotas early in the morning, under the inspection of their commissioned officers, who make their reports regarding any deficiencies, either in quantity, or of quality. Those gentlemen who produce pork at their tables, are extremely particular as to the manner in which their pigs are fed. Many are so extremely fastidious, as not to allow any to be served up unless educated^ as it is called, in their own sties ; the very circumstance of being horn elsewhere, absolutely disqualifying, and rendering of no avail, all that change of bulk, and all that purification, derived from perhaps a whole year of confinement to a clean stye ; in which nothing but the best corn (gram) is given to the grunting inhabitant. This, certainly, is carrying daintiness to an extreme; but it must be confessed, that swine are so offensively greedy in the indulgence of their appetites in that part of the world, as to give occasion for VOL. II. Lr 146 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. many very reasonable scruples regarding the use of 6a;a7--pork ; Avhicli is indiscriminately killed from the fattest of those wanderers that some- times absolutely interrupt the operations of the multitude, who resort, generally at dusk, and at day-break, to lay their offerings at the shrine of a certain deity 1 This calls to mind a very laughable circum- stance which happened at Berhampore, in 1803. An officer, who had been many years at Gibraltar, where a joint of meat, of any kind, was probably snapped up without any questions being asked as to its education., produced at hi^ table a very fine corned leg of pork, of which all his guests ate with great avidity. One of them, when the repast was over, begged leave to enquire how the gentleman kept his pigs; what Jiad been then on table, being of so superior a flavor, that he presumed it \vas educated in some very particular manner. ' Oh no,' answered the host, ' I never trouble my head about sties ; my man bought a whole side of it this morning of Neeloo the butcher, for eight annas' (I5d.) This untimely disclosure operated not only hke magic, but like emetic tartar ; the whole com- pany were taken with violent sickness, and re- tired to give vent, both to the })ork, and to their feelings, on so dreadful an occasion. However, none died in consequence of having been thus poisoned; but the whole station received the EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 147 tale with horror, and resolved, to a man, never to accept another invitation from the unfortunate hero of the rock ! Whether it be owing to the foregoing Cause, or, that the time necessary for the completion of a pig's ' education, ' be too protracted to allow of persons, subject to removal, engaging in that branch of domestic economy, may be difficult to determine, but certain it is, that very few officers have piggeries ; they commonly content themselves with hams and cheeks imported to them from England. The grossness of the viand is, however, so very inappropriate to the climate, that, even after the most delicate course of management, pork is by no means considered a choice dish : sucking pigs are more generally approved. Veal is so very seldom to be obtained in the market, of a quality fit to be brought to table, that it is customary for four or five friends to subscribe for the purpose of rearing calves for their own expenditure; each taking a share of every calf that is slaughtered. The best, and most economical plan, is to agree with some butcher, through whose means alone it can in general be effected, to receive of him a cow and calf, the latter being newly born, and to return him the mother, after the calf may have been killed, to* gether with four rupees (10^.) By this mode, the calf will thrive admirably, provided the cow l2 14S EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. be well fed ; but it is usual, and I have practised it with great success, to give the little one as much scalded milk as it can drink, three times daily ; drenching it with either a horn, or a quart-bottle: from three to four quarts, in each of which the yolk of a fresh egg is beat up, will commonly produce the desired effect, rendering the meat very fine by the end of a month ; the usual age at which they are slaughtered. What with the keep of the mother, the milk and eggsN given to the calf, and the necessary attendance, agold-mohur, {£2.,) will generally be expended upon each calf, unless several be kept together as a successive supply for the table; in which case, about twelve rupees will be found the average expence. In this, I reckon the out-lay upon a calf that will now and then, perhaps one in five, prove a bad subject; and, notwithstand- ing every precaution, either scour or pine. It is a great misfortune that, on account of the extreme antipathy the horned cattle of India always exhibit towards Europeans, no possibility exists for remedying many bad practices, and neglects, to which these animals are subject^ when under the care of the native servants. An Indian ox, or cow, when at liberty, is always shunned very carefully, lest it should indulge its savage disposition. On first entering that coun- try, the cattle would be supposed to be wild, instead of domesticated ; for not one in a thou* EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 149 sand will admit the approach of an European ; nor are they always less gentle towards strangers of any description. As to what are called tame buffaloes, they are commonly more fierce than any British bull, and, when they have calves at their sides, make no scruple of attacking man and horse, with unbounded ferocity. Hence, it is extremely proper to be very cautious of approaching herds, or single cattle of either kind, even when tolerably mounted. Some- times, in riding through the countr}^, and espe- cially where jeels (lakes) are to be forded, or pools to be passed, the unwary traveller may find himself, on a sudden, within a few yards of a whole herd of buffaloes, which, to avoid the heat of mid-day, wallow in the muddy water, so deep as to have, in general, only their noses and eyes above the surface. Being) perhaps, among rushes, &c. even those parts are not discernible, or, if in an open expanse, may be easily mistaken for clods of mud; for the horns lie back towards the false ribs. On a sudden, the whole herd sometimes rise, and at the least frighten the horse, whatever the rider*s heart may be made of: such a surprize, and from animals that, according to the old say- ing, ' give but a word and a blow, and the blow comes first,' is far from pleasant. In such situations, all depends on the conduct of the leading bull ; if he snorts, shakes his horns, and tdO EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM* advances, the danger is imminent. But it frequently happens, that, whether owing to lassitude, or the absence of any object parti- cularly irritating to buffiiloes, of which a red coat may be considered the extreme, the herd content themselves with rising from their re- clined postures, and, after those who rouzed them may have passed on, again sink into the friendly pool. The British settlers in India are extremely indebted to the Dutch for many essential im- provements. The small town of Chinsurah, situate about twenty -eight miles north of Calcutta, on the banks of the Hoogly river, has, in this instance, proved serviceable to India at large. The Dutch, to whom that place appertained before the war, were the first to introduce the culture of that invaluable escu- lent, the potatoe; which was received from their settlement at the Cape of Good Hope : they likewise were the first to exhibit any disposition towards horticulture. From them the British received, annually, the seeds of every kind of vegetable useful at the table, as well as several plants of which there appeared much need, es- peciall}'^ various kinds of pot-herbs. They like- wise supplied us with vines, from which innu- merable cuttings have been dispensed to every part of Bengal and its upper dependencies. The whole of the lower provincesij at least, EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 151 those parts skirting the ranges of hills that bound them, produce immense quantities of wild vines, which, during the rains, may be seen partially to bear grapes of a red color, and about the size of a pistol-ball. These vines tower over the high said trees, or creep along the rocky masses, throughout the Ramghur district espe- cially, in all the majesty of wild luxuriance. Here is a field for speculation ! Let us sup- pose, that the wines which should be raised might not prove of the best quality, still we might derive the most important advantages from the brandy and vinegar to which they might be con- verted. As to wood for the staves, and iron for the hoops, they are both to be had on the spot ; and, in regard to distillation, abundance of men, sufficiently skilled, may be found among the natives. Fuel is every where abundant, in- deed, a perfect nuisance. The only impediment I could ever discover, is, that the neighbouring streams are not generally navigable, or, perhaps, only for a few months in the year : they might, however, be easily rendered adequate to every purpose, there being lime-stone in various adja- cent hills, while, among the convicts, who are in a state of idleness for the most part, many persons might be selected fully capable of con- structing whatever masonry, or timber-work, should be found necessary. Some years ago, I had the honor of submitting 152 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. this suggestion to the Court of Directors. The India minister of that day was forcibly struck with the facihty obviously afforded of founding an immeiise national concern : and, had he remained in office, would probably have taken means to ascertain every point contained in my memoir, with the utmost exactitude : the result must have been perfectly satisfactory. When we consider, that the Company pay two lacs of rupees (£25,000.) yearly for spirits, of a very inferipr quality, for the use of the Eu- ropean soldiery ; and, that good vinegar cannot be had under two rupees per gallon, (5s.) it should seem an object, even in that limitted view, to cultivate the vine for their own use; but, if we extend the prospect, and shew that any quantity of brandy, if not of wine, might be imported from Bengal, the benefits will be found so great, as to claim every encouragement on the part of the legislature. It appears highly probable, that full a million sterling would be annually saved to the nation, by its adoption of this speculation ; which might be began at little or no expence, and be progressively extended, by giving employment to the whole body of con- victs, who now are a heavy burthen on the revenue, without doing a thousandth part of the service of which they are physically capable. If my information be correct, there are now sold at Calcutta near four thousand pipes of Madeira, EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 155 TenerifFe, &c., annually, and about as many chests of Claret, includino- French and English ; the quantity of Brandy imported at that settle- ment is full 10,000 gallons, besides Hollands, Rum, and other Hq'iors, of which 1 shall make no account. The licences graiUed for the retail of spirits are amply abundant ; and the number of shops where Toddi/, Moicah^ Pariah Arrack^ &c,, are served out, absolutely incalculable. From the best computation I have been ena- bled to make, full 10,000,000 gallons of spirits are made and sold in Bengal and its dependant provinces, the average of which may be taken at one rupee per gallon, as it comes from the still ; the retail prices will, no doubt, double that sum ; making no less than 20,000,000 of rupees, equal to <562,. 500,000 expended annually by debauchees, and by the regular consumption among the sol- diery, &c. If the foregoing items be put toge- ther, they must make a tremendous total ; while we shall see, that a most ruinous intercourse prevails, throwing money into the pockets of our rivals, and enabling them to carry home invest- ments in exchange for their own produce. We shall further see, that, supposing a duty of only 25 per cent, were imposed on all spirits sold, exclusive of the amount of licences, which are very trivial, no less than c£62o,000. would annu- ally flow into the treasury. This may appear a 154 EAST INDIA VADE*MECUM. very large sum, but, when it is recollected that the manufacture of salt, monopolized by the Company, yields, on the average of several years, the sum of i; 1,500,000., (after deducting about .£j2o,000. for the expences of boiling, &c.,) we may fairly consider the above computation to be far within the bounds of probability. Rum is made in Bengal from refuse sugar, the same as in the West Indies ; its quality is by no means inferior, though it sells, when new, at the very cheap rate of about a rupee the gal- lon. It is to be had, of a good age, of the seve- ral great distillers and merchants, at a propor- tionate advance. I have known it, after being six years in the godoicn., (warehouse,) to be com- pared with Jamaica Rum, warranted ten years old ; when the preference was given decidedly in favor of the former. With respect to arrack, which is in a manner peculiar to the East; the native distillers produce excellent alcohol, which, after being properly rectified, and kept for some years, proves an admirable spirit, sup- posed to be far more wholesome than rum. Though, on the whole, the fish brought to the Calcutta markets, cannot be compared with such as we see at Billingsgate, &c., there are, nevertheless, some kinds, which might please the most dainty epicure. The hilsah^ (or sable fish,) which seems to be mid-way between a EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 153 mackarel and a salmon, whether for form, general appearance, or flavor, is, perhaps, the richest fish with which any cook is acquainted. It abounds so with" fat, that most persons, after being served with a portion, immerse it in boil- ing water, brought in a soup-plate ; thereby- causing a large quantity of grease to float. When baked in vinegar, or preserved in tama- rinds, the hilsah is remarkably fine. \/ Like the salmon, these run up to the very spring-heads, seeming to abound more and more in proportion as they approximate thereto; though certainly they grow to the largest size, immediatel}' within the tide's reach : getting beyond that, they dart up as far as possible during the season, returning, after spawning, to the sea. They are in perfection towards the latter end of the rains. The bicktt/, (orcockup,) very strons^ly resem- bles the jack, and grows to an enormous size. I have seen one measuring more than eight feet in length, and various others that weighed full a maund (82lb.) The average size at which they are brought to market, may be from eighteen, to thirty, inches in length ; and their weight from two to ten, or twelve, pounds. They flake like cod, to which also their flavor greatly assimilates. Soles, of a diminutive size, are sometimes to be had at Calcutta : the natives call them koo' 156 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. koor jibhys^ [i. e. clogs' tongues,) in allusion to their shape. These are sometimes caught in the brackish waters, among the bickti/s, or cockups, or in the flat sands about Diamond-Harbour, &c. Prawns of a very good size, and very small cray- fish, are to be found in most parts of the country, as also a kind of eel, called hcimn ; which, how- ever, bears more resemblance to the gar, or guard-fish, of which millions may be taken in most of the fresh-water jeeh^ (lakes,) though rarely exceeding a foot in length. The rooij^ or r^hooee, is a species of the carp, as is also the meergah. They are both abundant in the great rivers, and in all the waters con- nected with them, though the former are most numerous, and thrive greatly in ponds. The latter are of a browner color, and rarely exceed ten pounds in weight, whereas, the former are often found of fifty lb., and sometimes up to a maund. The cutlah is a species of the perch, though some consider it to be of the bream-kind : it is only found in the great rivers, is generally of a dark color, approaching to black, and commonly weighs from ten to sixty lbs. The whole of the above, viz. The r^hooee, the meergah, and the cutlah, may be taken by angling ; as may also the soly, a species of the jack, and nearly as voracious. Trouts^ about as large as smelts, are sometimes EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 157 to be seen in those small streams that have their rise among mountains, but they are not so dis- tinctly spotted as we see them in Europe : they are, indeed, very scarce, and generally bear a small red, m* gold, or black, spot on each scale : the adipous fin, by which all the salmon tribe are distinguished, is scarcely elevated above the loins. The fresh-water anchovy, called by the natives . f Ae/?far, is to be found in shoals on every flat sand throughout the great rivers: these are gene- rally scared, so as to precipitate themselves on the beach, by two men, who, wading in the water up to their knees, gradually draw a line of fifty or sixty feet in length, every where laden with small, colored rags, in such manner as to en- close the ghelicahs in a crescent, and ultimately to drive them ashore. Occasionall3^ mullets^ of a small size, are found among the booty : they are remarkably sweet and fii'm. No- thing can be more common than to see shoals of them struggling against the current, especi- ally in the cold months, with their eyes out of the water. Their motions are very nimble, but it is not uncommon to see several killed by a round of small shot, from a common fowling-piece : they are not to be taken by angling. As to the thigrah, a kind of fresh- water gurnet, it is extremely voracious, and grows to a good size ; often weighing eight or 158 EAST iKDtA VADE-MECtrM* nine lbs. ; though the average may be from twO to four. They are very strong, and afford ample amusement when hooked. The skail grows to full twelve or fourteen lbs., and is common in all the great rivers ; but, it must be handled with caution, on account of its having a dreadful spine about the centre of its tail. These two last-mentioned fishes are rarely seen at table ; nor is the buallee^ which is rather flat, and has a continued abdominal fin, the same as eels. This fish is extremely coarse, but desperately rapacious ; seizing almost any bait with avidity, but affording little sport when hooked. The puftah is of the same description, but, in lieu of weighing, as the buallee often does, from ten to fifteen lbs., seldom amounts to so many ounces. Its flesh is remarkably rich and sweet, but, when hooked, it is as little disposed as the former to resist. The most esteemed fish is, that called by the natives tupsei/, but by us ' mango-Jish, ' on account of its appearing about the time that mangoes first come into season : it comes up with the tide. In appearance, it is not unlike the smelt, though rather deeper, and with reddish fins. The flesh of this fish is fine, but its roe is deservedly esteemed to be delicious. An immense quantity are cured, by being slightly salted, and sun-dried ; after which, they are smoked for a short time over a fire made ofchafj' &c. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 159 Turtle, of about a cwt., are to be found in almost every river and creek, as also in some of the large jeels ; though they are very rarely seen in standing waters, and then, perhaps, onlv in a state of migration. The flesh of these is pecu- liarly unwholesome ; and, so far from being, like the sea-turtles, composed of parts resembling fish, flesh, and fowl, may be aptly compared with bacon of the coarsest description, with some tendency to rancidit}'. The batchwah, or ' fresh- water herring,' (though it has no scales,) is one of the best fishes the Indian rivers produce ; but a general prejudice is entertained, with much justice too, against its selection of food. The most appropriate baits for most fishes are the goorgoory^ (or gryllus monstrosus,) and the cock- roach (or hliitla). It would be endless to recount all the kinds of fishes to be found in the streams and lakes of India ; but it may justly be stated, that, in some parts, their numbers are so great as absolutely to corrupt the waters. With respect to the minor species of fish, occasionally served at table, they are very numerous, and, in most places, abundant: every creek andjW is replete with them, and every village in their vicinity contains persons provided with some kind of apparatus suited to catching an ample supply. On the larger pieces of water, there are usually either canoes or dmgies, which, together with l;heir owners, are subservient to the jemmadarst 160 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. or head-boroughs, and may also be set in motion for a very trivial present, made ostensibly to the laborer, but commonly transferred privately to that proud, imperious, and avaricious officer. Poultry next come under consideration : of this, great variety is to be found. Fowls, capons, ducks, geese, turkies, and pigeons, are for sale in every citj'', or great station, at very moderate prices. In general, taking an average of all places, fine chickens, called chitjahs, may be had at ten for a rupee (i. e. Sd. each) ; middle-sized, or meem-kabobbies, (small roasters,) at seven or eight for a rupee (about 4f/. each) ; and good- sized roasters, or kabobbies, at five for a rupee (about 6d. each). Capons are only to be had in particular parts of the country ; generally they are white, and so cheap as to give ten or twelve for a rupee ; though I have purchased no less than twenty- nine for that sum, (/. e. Id. each,) in the Tomar district, where they are produced in immense numbers by the Pahariahs, or Hill people, of that mountainous district. These people are more immediately distinguished by the designa- tion of Dangahs : they are of a small stature, very, very poor, rather squalid, but capable of undergoing great fatigue : they are wonderfully adroit in the exercise of the bow ; and, after performing the little labor needful for the culti- vation of the vallies, generally repair, at certain EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. l6l seasons, to the military and civil stations in the neighbouring districts of Ramghur, &c., where they serve as bearers ; especially on the new- road, which is much frequented by gentlemen travelling dank, (post,) in palanquins, to or from the upper stations. ; y Ducks are of various prices, but may be con- sidered at an average of four or five for a rupee (about 7id. or 6d. each) ; and geese at a rupee each. These thrive prodigiously throughout India ; but it is far otherwise with turkies, which are extremely tender, and cannot endure the great heats of summer, unless allowed to graze upon a plot well watered, and generally sheltered ^ from the sun. It is not uncommon to see them crowding to some little verdant spot under the shade of the lee-side, where a current of air, refrigerated by the tatties, passes out from the bungalow, &c. Without some such restorative, they would, to a certainty, pine away, and spee- dily disappoint the hopes of their owner. Among the grass on the plots generally preserved near the dwelling, it is common to see immense numbers of ants, of all descriptions, which resort thither both for coolness, and for the collection of the seeds that are perpetually falling. It is very strange, but true, that these little depredators are not easily deterred, by the water being laid on occasionally, from forming their nest in such plots of grass, though they generally prefer sonie VOL. II. M 162 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. dry, liard walk, or level area, along which they form little paths, by laying the gravel, &:c., aside; so that their progress is not obstructed when robl)ing some store. Many of these paths may be traced for fifty or sixty yards ; occasionally, they are double ; one being appropriated for the egressors, the other for those returning laden with the booty. When the turkies light upon such a line of march, they fall to with a famous appetite ; seeming to rival our pheasants in that- particular, and exhibiting the satisfaction they feel on receiving a supply of their favorite food. In thu , devouring the ants, they do great service; for, I know not of any more unpleasant com- panions than the little tormentors in question, whose bite is extremely keen, producing con- siderable irritation. Some of these ants grow to full three-quarters of an inch in length, and are capable of causing great pain. Many prevent their being destroyed, under the opinion that they feed upon white-ants : this I never could establish, though 1 believe they are ready enough to march off with the body of a dead white-ant, the same as they would with any other morsel of animal substance. The difficulty of rearing turkies, renders them extremely scarce; hence, it is not uncommon to pay a gold mohuF (£9.) for a well-grown, fat, turkey-cock : few, either cocks or hens, are to be had in any part of the country, for less than half EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 16S that sum ; and then chiefly from Portugueze famihes, that make a liveHhood by rearing- them. About Bandel, a Portugueze town, some thirty miles above Calcutta, great numbei's are reared ; as are also ducks, and geese, in abundance. At all the great stations, both civil and military; some pei-sons of that description generally reside, through whose industry families are supplied. Fowls are reared by the same persofls ; though less an object to them, as almost every Maho- medan family maintains a few, mostly for its own use, but sometimes for sale. As to the Hindus, nothing could be more criminal than such a speculation : the ver}'^ touch of a fowl being considered the acme of pollution. From this we may judge how necessary it is to be guarded in making changes in the dress of our native soldiers ; whose zeal and fidelity are un- questionable, but who instantly revolt at any invasion, however slight, of their reUgious tenets, or of their vulgar prejudices. Those who affect to consider such to be easily over- ruled, or, who vainly talk of coercing so many millions to adopt our faith, would do well to take a trip to Bengal, and to insist on any Hindu menials, or others, under their authority, wear- ing a feather in their turban. J As to the numerous species of wild game, such as antelopes, hog-deer, hogs, geese, ducks, teal, snipes, ortolans, quails, partridges, flo- .2 M 164! EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. rikens, (or bustards,) pigeons of sorts, wild and tame, hares, &c., they are generally to be >/ had in abundance; those of my readers who wish for a more detailed account, will find it in my ' Wild Sports of the East,' published in folio, with colored plates, as also in quarto royal, and imperial octavo, by Mr. Edward Orme, of Bond-street, and by Messrs. Black and Co. Leadenhall-street. In that superb work, the details of every branch of hunting, shoot- ing, &c., will be found. There are no wild rabbits in India, but great numbers of tame ones are to be had at Calcutta^ and at some of the subordinate stations. The prices vary according to demand, age, and con- dition ; but we may take the average at four for a rupee when half grown, and at double that rate when fit for the table. It is, however, extremely difficult to preserve them in safety from their numerous enemies the dogs, jackals, foxes, cats, rats, bats, snakes, hawks, crows, &c. Having, I believe, generally discussed what relates to the supply of the table, I shall pro- ceed to the description of other matters relating to the convenience and service of gentlemen resident in the East. The diimer table is invariably laid with two cloths ; one of the usual size, the other about lar2:e enousfh to cover the surface only : this last is removed when the meat is taken off; so that EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 165 the dessert is laid upon the lower one, which has, in the mean while, been preserved by it from stains, grease, crumbs, &c. A napkin is laid with every cover, together with a tumbler or rummer, a long glass for Claret, and an ordinary- sized one for Madeira. Each glass is provided with a cover, which may be lifted off by means of a stud in its centre. In opulent families, these covers are usually made of silver, other- wise of turned wood. It is remarkable, that some of the common indigenous woods have the peculiar property, when used for this purpose, of imparting a most offensive smell, attended with a similar flavor, to water, &c., if left for a few minutes. . The knives and forks are all of European manufacture, though, within these few years, some excellent imitations have appeared. I doubt if Blacky can, as yet, bring his work so low as our artizans, though he certainly has the advantage of them in cheapness of living, and in being generally exempt from the operation of a variety of taxes. This deficiency on the part of the natives, proceeds from their being obliged to perform all those operations by hand, which we both accelerate and perfect by means of machinery. The greater part of the plate, used throughout the country, is made by native smiths, who, in some instances, may be seen to tread very close on the heels of our jewellers, 166 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. not only in the graceful form of the articles manufactured, but in the patterns, whether carved or embossed. Such specimens of per- fection are, however, rare, and are produced chiefly under the superintendence of European masters; though I have seen some pieces, made hy soiiaars, (goldsmiths,) totally independent of such aid, or instruction, which displayed much skill and some taste. Speaking, however, of the common workmanship of this class, it must be put out of all comparison with British plate, on account of its being indifferently shaped, and rudely ornamented. Hence, such plate as is sent from this country, as well as what is made up by Europeans settled in India, very generally sells for full 25, or even for 50 per cent, more than what is manufactured by the native artizans. The whole of the glass-ware used in India, is furnished from England, and commonly sells at full two, if not three, hundred per cent, on the prime cost: this is not unreasonable, when we consider how brittle the commodity is, and that the extent of sale is not so consider- able as to render it, individually, an object f of adventure. Table cloths and napkins are manufactured in several parts of the country, especially at Patna, Tondah, and most of those cities where piece- goods are made. The beauty of some fabrics of this description is very striking; nor is their EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 167 durability less conspicuous. I have by me, , at this moment, some that have been in constant use for full twelve years, and my stock, at no time, exceeded a dozen and a half of table cloths. The prices of such may be sup- posed to vary according to quality ; but a very superior bird's eye may be generally had for about two rupees per square yard; observing, that the cost will necessarily be somewhat encreased in proportion to the greater extent of the piece. Others, of a coarser texture, and of a plain diaper, are to be had extremely cheap ; perhaps as low as eight annas {\5(i.) per square yard. Such are, however, extremely flimsy, and never appear creditable. Towels are also manufactured at various prices; some reaching so high as two rupees (5s.) each, while others may be obtained by the dozen for the same money. The best for common use may be rated at about fi\^e or six rupees per dozen. A kind, generally of mixed colored borders, wove in, is made at Chittagong : these are rough, like what we call huckaback, and are pe» culiarly well calculated for drymg and cleaning the skin after washing; but they are not so durable as the plain diapers. Great quantities of furniture are sent from Europe, being first taken to pieces, and packed within a very small space. Of this description, mahogany tables and chairs form by far the 168 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. greater portion ; few other articles being shipped, though now and then we see a few bureaus, secretaires, ecritoires. 6zc., among a cargo from Europe. All such commodties would bear even a higher price than is now charged for them, were it not that, among the natives, as well as among the European carpenters, and joiners, settled in Calcutta, the British me- chanics experience considerable, and very suc- cessful, rivalship. The excellent woods, of different kinds, pro- duced in almost every part of India, and the facility with which they may be brought to mar« ket, present the most favorable aids to the Indian artizans ; but, owing to the want of capital among the natives, the work done by them is rarely found to answer : it warps dreadfully, and sometimes rives from one, to the other, end. This is entirely owing to the deficiency of seasoning; for we find, that whenever a gentleman is at the pains, and has the opportunity, to saw up his own wood, and to season it properly, it will com- monly be found to answer his expectations fully; both in respect to durability, and to the polish it may take. Although there is, in some instances, an obvious cheapness in ernploying a native car- penter, it may safely be asserted, that, on the long run, what with delay, impositions, imper- fe(*tions, &c., it is frequently found to be a very round-about way of saving a trifle. I strongly EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. l69 recommend to all persons arriving in India, to visit the several depots of furniture to be seen at every auction-warehouse, and generally at the godowns (warehouses) of the European shop- keepers. There is, besides, a whole street, called the '^ chi?ia-bazar,' as well as various scattered boutiques, appropriated entirely to the display <'f European articles, and of china-ware, of every description ; all which are sold for ready money only, by a tribe of Hindu speculators, who, from attending at auctions, are enabled to make cheap purchases, and become perfectly acquaiij ed with the qualities of every article ; or, at least, with such points as Q;ive a preference in the eye of an European. In this bazcn\, (or market,) almost every thing an European can require, for common purposes, may be obtained: he may, indeed, purchase an ample library, either of new, or of second-hand books ; and, generally speaking, may equip himself in such a manner as may enjible him to keep house at full thirty per cent, cheaper than among the European shop-keepers. \/ Though we may find a few trades, such as coach-making, jewellery, cutlery, armour}^ &c., perfectly distinct, and unconnected with any other speculation, we are not to suppose that commodities, in general, are separately classed, and exhibited in shops solely allotted to them. On the contrary, what we call an ' Europe- 170 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. Shop,' affords a rich display of that heteroge- neous kind of cargo imported in every merchant- ship proceeding to that quarter. Consequently, each shop offers an astonishing variety of wares. Liquors of all kinds, guns, pistols, glass ware, tin and copper ware, crockery, stationary, shoes and boots, hosiery, woollens, linens, ironmon- gery, hats, cheese, grocery, and an infinity of articles of the most opposite natures, may be found in the spacious rooms, and godoums^ al- lotted to the exhibition of the miscellaneous profusion 1 Though it is not common to see European goods, especially those which are not immedi- ately perishable, selling for less than thirty or forty per cent, advance upon the mil-water in- voices, it sometimes happens, that an immense importation of some few particular articles may lower them to full fifty per cent, under prime cost, 'i'his is easily accounted for : for instance, should hats, shoes, and boots, bear a great price at the time a fleet is about to be despatched for Europe, all the commanders and officers note it down, for the purpose of making those articles bear a large proportion in their next outward-bound cargoes. Thus, each unwittingly becomes the dupe of his own avarice ; and, on the return of those ships to India, experiences the lamentable effects of having allowed himself to be guided by former pricpfj. 1 recollect hearing an officer EAST IXDIA VADE-'^IECUM. 171 on board one of the Company's ships declare, that he made it a rule always to lay in a good stock of those articles which w^ere cheap at the time he quitted India: for, that he was certain the lowness of the prices would influence the others of his class to avoid purchasing them for the India markets, which, by the time of his return, he invariably found to have regained their former level. By holding back a little Avhile, until the Europe shop-keepers found that he was the sole, or, at least, the principal, importer of those goods, he had never failed to make a very profitable bargain. / However much we, in Europe, may admire genuine china-ware, our countrymen in the East seem, for the most part, indifferent to its beau- ties ; they preferring our ornamented Stafford- shire w^are ; which, owing to its bulk, and brittieness, necessarily sells at a very high price in every quarter of* India. What is called ' a long set, ' by which we mean a service equal to a table for at least thirty persons, often sells for 600 sicca rupees, equal to £65. ; and ' short sets ' in proportion. The disadvantage attend- ant upon the use of this ware, in so remote a situation, is, that, \^ hen, owing to the nume- rous accidents to which all such articles are subject, even under especial vigilance, but par- ticularly under the auspices of native menials, the set may be much reduced, it is utterly im^ 172 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM practicable to fill up the vacancies thus occa- sioned. With china ware, it is very different; for it is not so easy to distinguish between two complex patterns, if tolerably similar; and, as there is always a very large stock on hand, among the retailers in the china -bazar, a very great chance, if not a certainty, exists, of being fur- nished with any number of plates, dishes, &c., that may be required to restore the set to its complement, or even to augment it, if necessary. Jt may be a proper precaution, however, not to buy a set of china ware of any very particular pattern ; but to select one from those numerous rich patterns every where common, and annually imported. This seems to prove, that, unless under particular orders, the Chinese deviate but little from their established fashions ; as may be further seen in their constant manufac- ture of that kind of crockery Ave generally term ' dragon-china, ' which appears to have been in use among them for centuries. A very expensive article of general consump- tion is wax-candle. The price of wax, some years back, was about sixteen rupees permaund, (equal to 6est station, so many opportunities offering of making cheap pur- chases at the several daily auctions in Calcutta, only sixteen miles from the cantonments at Bar- rackpore. In a gig, the distance may be easily EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 931 ran in two hours, the road being remarkably good ; in a palanquin, the journey may occupy about four hours, if a relay of bearers be posted at the half-way bungalow. During the rains, and especially when the tide serves, a well- manned pulwar, or a paunchwat/, or dingy, (small boats calculated for expedition,) may proceed from Barrackpore to Calcutta in little more than an hour; the return is rarely very quick, except during spring-tides in the dry- season, before the river rises. Care must be taken to start with the first of the tide, but not before the bawn, or bore, has past. Those who have seen the bore in the Medway, and in the Severn, will at once comprehend the dangers attendant upon that impetuous rush of the waters, which, in the Hoogly, begins near Fultah, about forty miles below Calcutta, and may be felt even so high as Nia-serai, full thirty- five miles above the capital. In a work entitled ' The Oriental Voyager,' by J. Johnson, Esq., Surgeon in the Royal Navy, at page 80, is the following passage. Speaking of the Ganges, he says, ' The tides in this river, particularly at full and change, are rapid beyond belief, forming wdiat are called boars, or bores, when the stream seems tumbling down a steep descent, doing great mischief among the boats, by upsetting and run- ning them over each other: ships themselves are 232 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. frequently dragged from their anchors, and dash- ed furiously against each other, at these periods. They attempt to account for these torrents, by saying they depend on the other small rivers, that open into the main one by bars ; which, at a certain time of the tide, allow the waters to rush out, all at once, into the great stream, and thereby so much encrease its velocity ! ' Where Mr. Johnson got his information about these bars, 1 know not ; nor would it be possi- ble, in my humble opinion, for any man to have disguised, or confused, the fact more com- pletely than is done in the above paragraph : a circumstance which creates surprize, when we consider, that the volume inr question contains many remarks, inducing us to expect the absence of so unphilosophical a description, and so erro- neous a conception. The matter lies in a nut- shell, as Mr. Johnson ought to have known : viz. Those rivers whose mouths are much ex- panded, and that, after a course of several miles, during which their banks are nearly parallel, suddenly contract, are subject to bores; that is, to an immense wave which heads the flood tide. This bore, which is described with justice as being very powerful, arises from the contraction of the channel; which, while it directs the great volume of water into a narrowed space, neces- sarily compels it to assume a greater height. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 233 The successive flow drives on the leading wave, which gradually subsides as it becomes more distant from the propelling power. But the bore rarely, if ever, occupies the whole breadth of the stream ; it ordinarily runs upon one side, until it comes to a bend, when it crosses over, and continues its action until another turn of the river causes it to cross again ; and thus until its force is expended. The bore does not run under Calcutta, but along the opposite bank ; it crosses at Chitpore, about four miles above the fort, and ranges with great violence past Barnagore, Duckensore, ik.c. Lesser rivers, whose mouths lie embayed ; as is the case with the Medway, which branches from the Thames, and the Wye, that falls into the Severn, are subject to borcs^ in consequence of the tide taking such a course as throws the great body of water into them. In such small streams, the bore will generally be tremendous ; because so great an expanse is suddenly thrown into so narrow a channel : hence, the bridge at Chep- stow is necessarily raised to so great a height, and by floating made to yield to the tide's force. I much fear Mr. Johnson was not very suc- cessful in his enquiries, nor over fastidious in his acceptance of vulgar errors; for, I observe, that at page 113, he has allowed himself to be egregiously duped regarding MannacoUy Point; 234? EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. SO called, from the village o( Mannacolli/, which formerly stood there. Mr. Johnson tells us a long story about a lady proceeding to India, and finding her husband a corpse at that place : whence, ^Melancholy Point. \' ! ! I am well aware, that the same fable has been retailed to many others, who gaped for information ; but that is no apology for its being upheld as matter of fact : had any respectable authority been consulted on the occasion, before the volume was com.mitted to press, so palpable a traditional error would not have been offered to that public, among whom so many are equal to its refutation. What Mr. Johnson states respecting the inju- ries done to ships by the bore^ is at times veri- fied, but they are rarely worthy of notice: if a vessel be properly secured, the bore will have little effect on her safety, though the swell may cause her to pitch rather deep for a while. During the rainy season there is no bore ; which is to be accounted for by the tide being so weakened at its entrance into the narrows near Fultah, as not to be competent to form such a wave as precedes it at other seasons ; but, in exchange for this, a violent eddy, and great agitation of the waters, takes place between Diamond- Harbour and that place. It has been several times my lot, when proceeding with the last of the tide from EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 935 Barrackpore to Calcutta, to meet the horc, gene- rally near Chitpore ; but, as its approach was indicated by the putting off of all the small craft from that shore, along which it invarial)ly pursued its course, and to remain near which would be dangerous, my boat-men always fol- lowed the example, and kept along the centre ; where, though we were tossed about famously, no danger existed. Once, indeed, in turning Sulky Point, in a sailing boat, I was obliged to dash through the bore, which I did not suppose to be so near, notwithstanding the dingies, &c., were putting out. The surf assuredly appeared awful, but we mounted over it, stem on, with- out difficulty, and speedily recovered from a certain pallid complexion which had insensibly crept ov^er our countenances, as we approached the roaring waters. From what has been said, it must be evident that the bore travels at the same rate as the incipient spring-tide, the velo- city of which is different in various parts, but may be taken at an average of full twenty miles within the hour. Notwithstanding; this rapidity, vessels, such as badjrows, and other craft, intended for pleasure, or for burthen, ordinarily ride safe at anchor ; sustaining no injury from tlie bore, though they may perhaps drag their anchors a few yards. But, to insure this securitv, care must be taken that the broadside should not 236 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. be exposed ; else there -will be great danger of over-setting: this danger is not iinfrequent, owing to the manjies and dandies (boatmen) neglecting, especially during the night, to swing the stern round, either by means of a spring, or a small hawser, or by luggies (bamboo-poles) ; so that the vessel's head may meet the bore in its direct course. Those who are anxious to make the best of their way, should not delay putting off until the tide may have fairly set in, but oudit to be out in the stream just as the bore is ranging along the bank, so that they may receive the first impulse, which is prodigiously forcible, and endeavor, by the exertions of their boatmen, to keep up, as much as may be practicable, with the leading waters. It is wonderful how great a difference this sometimes makes in the start from Calcutta ! Sometimes a budjrow may, by this precaution, reach beyond Bandel, and nearl}'^ to the ultimatum of the tide's way, after which, the current is invariably in opposition, at various rates, according to the season of the year. Dur- ing the dry season, which includes from the end of October to the middle of June, though some- times the rains are of greater duration, or set in earlier, the Hoogly river is nearly in a state of rest above Nia-serai ; but, during the rains, and especially about August and September, not EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 937 only the beds of the rivers, but the country around, present a formidable body of water. AVithin the banks, the current may average from four to eight miles an hour, according to locali- ties, but what is called ' the inundation, ' rarely exceeds half a mile ; and, I believe, never moves at a full mile within that time. In this, due allowance must be made whether the waters are rising, or falling : in the former instance, they w^ill become nearly stationary un- til they may overflow where nearest the sea, and thus obtain a vent ; in the latter case, such parts as ma}^ be near to great rivers, then subsiding within their banks, must be greatly accelerated. As the parched soil of Egypt is refreshed by the overflowing of the Nile, so do the waters of the Ganges, by their annual expansion and abun- dance, renew the fertility of many millions of acres, and restore the blessings of health to those industrious and peaceable peasantry inhabiting that flat country through which they majestically wind their course. At Calcutta, and Dacca, each of which is about seventy miles from the sea, not only is the water unpalatable, from its saline impregnation, but even the sand, taken from the beds of the rivers, is found to retain so much moisture, not- withstanding the heat of the climate, as to dis- qualify it from mixture in the cements used fbr 238 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. building, but especially for making tarrases, known to us here under the designation of grist floors. The great tank at Calcutta, which occupies a space of about ten acres, is not less than two hundred yards from the river. The soil is gene- rally a rich sandy loam near the surface, but becomes rather looser, and inclinable to a fine gravel, after digging about ten feet. The tank may be sixty feet from the top of its banks, (which are level with the streets,) to its bottom ; and the river is from four to seven fathoms deep opposite its site. We should conclude that such a distance would secure the waters of the tank from becoming brackish ; but the soil favors the communication with the river, and, during the hot season, occasions the tank to be so strongly impregnated as to be unfit for either culinary purposes, or for washing. What is more remark- able, the wells in the different out-works of Fort- William, some of which are four or five hundred yards from the river, partake equally of the mois- ture : so much, indeed, as to have caused Go- vernment to be at a great expence in forming an immense reservoir, (to be filled, if required, by rain water.) occupying the whole of one of the bastions. It should be here noticed, that, during the rainv season, the rivers are full up to their banks, EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 239 and run with such force, often six or eieht o miles in the hour, as to occasion the tide to be little felt, either at Calcutta, or at Dacca ; con- sequentl}', the whole of the water, both o\ the rivers, and of the tanks and wells, becomes fresh and pure. On the other hand, during the hot months, viz. March, April, IMay, and part of June, when, except during a north-wester, or squall incident to the season, not a drop of rain is to be expected, the waters are every where proportionabjy low ; and, as the tides come up with extreme force, we must conclude the por- tion of sea-water to be very considerable. Such is the fact ; for those who visit either Calcutta, or Dacca, at that season, and who drink even of the tank-water, are sure to feel its- cathartic effects, and, eventually, to suffer under a very troublesome kind of itch. At Dacca, where the air is more saline, all visitors undergo the penance of a copious eruption : some of the old residents have a return of it every hot season ; although they may be extremely careful never to touch river water, but, like the inhabitants of Calcutta, allot a spacious godowu to the reception of im- mense jars of earthen ware, which, being placed side by side, in close rows, are successively filled by the anb-dar, or servant whose business is on- fined to the care, and to the cooling, of water for table expenditure. The water thus preserved is 240 EAST INDIA VADE-MFCUM. caught in large vessels, placed under the several spouts that conduct it thereto, during heavy falls of rain ; the quantity varies according to the consumption, but we may ordinarily compute that of a family at Calcutta to amount to full sixty or seventy hogsheads within the year. In the course of a few weeks, each vessel will be found to contain innumerable larvae, occasioned by musquitoes, and other insects, and which would, in a certain time, taint the fluid. It is therefore customary to strain the whole so soon as the larvae are discovered, and lifterwards to plunge into each jar an immense mass of iron, made red-hot ; whereby whatever animalculaEJ may have escaped through the strainer may be destroyed. This being done, some alum is dis- solved in water, and a sufficient quantity put into each vessel to fine its contents. Some, and I think the practice should be more generally adopted, after the foregoing operations, sprinkle a quantity of very fine sand on the surface of the water in each jar ; thereby giving, to whatever gross particles it may contain, a tendency to pre- cipitation. It may, at first view, appear that, in the common course of society, gentlemen must be subject to partake of water which may not have been so scrupulously purified, and perhaps brought from some neighbouring tank, or from a river, impregnated by the influx of a brackish EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 241 tide. Such may, assuredly, be the case occasion- ally ; but it will be found, on reference to what has been s^id of the duties of the aub-dar, or water-servant, that purified water is carried by a bearer, in a bangi/, or perhaps in a soorye, or earthen jug, to the house at which his master is to dine. In camp, it is a very general custom for every guest's servant to supply his master with w^ater of his own purifying ; which is effect- ed either by means of alum, or of some other astringent producing a similar effect. The waters in the great rivers have various sources ; but, speaking generally of the Ganges, which receives almost all the other rivers in its course from those mountains among which it has its source, to the Bay of Chittagong, where it empties itself into the sea in an immense ex- panse, we may divide its properties according to the countries through which it passes. Hence the various opinions that have been entertained of its qualities ; which have been generally mentioned in a very loose, indiscriminate man- ner, without reference to the various soils w^hereby its purity must be affected, in a coun- try where, as in Egypt, annual inundations pre* vail ; or where, at least, such immense quanti- ties of rain fall as would astonish a person not habituated to the most impetuous showers. The Ganges takes its rise at the back of the VOL. II. R 249 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. Kammow Hills, bevond Hurdwar, where it issues forth as a narrow, but rapid stream, from among broken rocks, and soon spreads to some extent in the fertile plains of the Rohilcund district, which it divides from the province of Delhi. The natives of India rarely venture beyond Hurdwar. They have, however, an opinion that the true Ganga, as they term the Ganges, originates at that spot ; and, consider- ing the cow as the greatest blessing given to mankind, (for the Hindus venerate it with even more fervor than a Catholic does a supposed relic of our Saviour,) emphatically term it ' the Cow^s Mouth ;' implying thereby the purity, as well as the value, of the waters. But those mountains which give birth to the Ganges, are likewise the sources of the Baram- pooter ; a river exceeding even the Ganges in capacity I These two immense streams deviate at their origin to opposite quarters ; the Ganges proceeding westward, and the Barampooter eastward. The former, after winding at the back of the Kammow and Nagrocote Moun- tains, passes Hurdwar, and, proceeding in a devious track through the plains of Oude, Alla- habad, Benares, Bahar, Jungleterry, Mauldah, Comercally, Dacca, and other subordinate dis- tricts, receives the Luckyah, as a branch from the Barampooter, and a few miles below Dacca EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. §43 unites with that river ; whence, under the desig- nation of ' the Megna, * they pursue their course tbr about sixty miles to the eastern part ot the Bay of Bengal, forming by their junction a volume of water, encreasing, from about seven, to twenty miles in width. In the upper country, the Ganges receives various inferior streams, such as the Doojoorah, the Cally-Nuddy, the Goombeerah, the Gun- duck, the Mahanuddy, the Rooee, the Jumma, the Goomty, the Carimnassa, the Gogra, (or Dewah,) the Soane, the Coosah, and various other streams not vying in extent with the Ganges, but generally equal to the Thames at London. The Gogra, the Soane, and the Coo- sah, are, indeed, rivers of the second class ; as wide as the Thames at Gravesend. From Sooty, which is in the Jungleterry dis- trict, the Ganges throws off a considerable branch : this widening in a curious manner, under the name of the Baug-Retty, passes Moorshadababad, formerly the seat of the govern- ment of Bengal, under Sooraja Dowlah, Meer Jaffiers, and their ancestors ; at length, after a course of about loO miles, it meets at Nuddeah, with the Jellinghy, also detached from the Ganges, whence the two form a large river under the name of the Hoogly, which, flowing under Hoogly, Bandel, Chinsurah, Chandernagore, B 2 244 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. Serampore, Calcutta, and many inferior places, empties itself into the western end of the Bay of Bengal, having previously received the Roop- nariam, and the Dummoodah. In its course from Bagwangolah, which stands near to Sooty, the Ganges sends a great variety of small streams through the Jessore, and Ma- homedpore districts, which, meeting with large inlets from the sea, form an immense labyrinth of deep waters, intersecting that wild country called the Sunderbunds, in such various mazes as to require a pilot for their navigation. Having thus detailed the courses of the rivers, I shall account for their rise and fall; as thereon many physical points of the utmost importance will be found to depend : the various soils through which they pass will be described, and enable us to judge more correctly, of the causes of that variety of character attached to the waters in various parts. The Thibet INIountains, which form the north- east boundary of a long valley, stretciiing from Napaul to Sirinaghur, are covered with snow all the year. Their height must be very great ; for, on a clear day, they may be seen from the Golah at Patna, though distant little less than 300 miles. From the north-west part of this Alpine range, the Ganges and Barampooter derive their sources, as before described, back to back EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 245 from the same mountains. To the dissolution of a part of the snow which cloaths their sum- mits, we may, perhaps, safely attribute a slight encrease that takes place about the middle of May in those rivers : fluctuating, more or less, at intervals, until the periodical rains set in ; generally about the middle of June. Some have ascribed their rise to heavy rains in the countries through which the streams pass ; but such can- not be considered as the true cause, for various reasons. Firstly, those rains must be extremely heavy if they tended to swell the rivers ; the ground being parched, and requiring great mois- ture to saturate it. Secondly, the encrease is not attendant with any turbid appearance ; as would indisputably result from such heavy rains, as, after saturating the thirsty soil, could raise such large rivers, often a foot, or more. Thirdly > there are other rivers which derive their sources from the Kammow Hills, and from the Morungs, not so distant from the Thibet Hills but that they might be expected to receive their share of the rains, and to shew some encrease, which they do not ; the rise being confined to the Ganges and Barampooter, whose sources lie among the snow-clad mountains. Fourthly, the encrease happens at the hottest time of the year, and the water loses the genial warmth imparted by the solar ray, becomes harder, and, in the upper country, near Annopshier, about sixty i46 EAST INDIA v.: DE-MECUM. miles below the Cow's Mouth, is found, at that particular season, to cause acute bowel com- plaints, which is not the case at other seasons. Add to this, that, among the natives of the countries above Hurdwar, the goiliire, or wen in the throat, in some measure prevails : a strong symptom of the dissolution of snow. The following may, generally, be considered the soils peculiar to the several provinces through which the Ganges has its course, after leaving Hurdwar. The west bank is generally high all the way to Benares, and consists, with little exception, of lime, concreted into irregular masses, much like roots of ginger, or Jerusalem artichokes, of various sizes, some weighing per- haps fiv^e or six pounds, others scarcely an ounce. These are of a ginger, or ash color ; though some, being more mixed with the gravelly part of the soil, are of a yellowish red. This kind of con- cretion is known throughout India by the name of kimknr, and, when burnt, yields a very in- ferior kind of cement, friable, and not very tenacious in regard to the body whereto it is applied, nor hardening so as to resist moisture effectually. All the rivers, therefore, which issue from the western bank, are, more or less, impregnated with this kind of lime ; while, on the opposite bank, the waters partake of a strong solution of nitre, with which most of the plains of Oude, EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 247 Fyzabad, Gazypore, &c., abound. Such is the abundance, that the Company are induced to prohibit the salt-petre manufactured in the Nabob Vizier of Oude's dominions, from being imported within their own provinces ; otherwise, the cheapness of the former, which is usually sold at Furruckabad for about two shilhngs and sixpence per cwt., would destroy the manuiac- tories at Patna, where it ordinarily sells for dou- ble that price. The country lying between the Ganges and the Goomty, (on the eastern bank,) from Cur- rah to Benares, is replete with alkali in a fossile state, known by the name of sudjy. This is usually found on the surface, at the close of the rainy season especially, when it begins to shew itself very obviously, and is pared off with mat- tocks ; rising in large cellular strata from one to three inches in thickness, and much resembling thin free-stone, though far more porous. In this state it is carried to market, where it is pur- chased by the manufacturers of soap at Allaha- bad, Patna, and other places ; it is generally combined with oil, and, when ready, sells at about ten shillings the maund of 80lb. At Cal- cutta it is ordinarily sold at about 50 per cent, profit. It is made in baskets, is of a dark color, and very moist. It is curious that the inhabitants of these countries have never turned their thoughts to 248 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. the effects produced by these substances. On the western bank the people are subject to ne- phritic complaints, which they generally express under the vague term of kiminur-ka-dook (or pains in the back) ; while, on the eastern bank, they are troubled with the moormoory^ (or gripes,) with which those living inland, especially, are severely afflicted, owing to their use of tank- water. During the rainy season, these powerful agents combine, and give birth to most alarming and excruciating maladies, which, however, readily yield to a few gentle cathartics, aided by congee^ (or rice-water,) by which the intestines are sheathed. The natives generally have re- course to opiates; whereby they often fix the disease. In the dry season, that is, from the end of October to the middle of June, the river water, having deposited the noxious particles, is remarkably clear and wholesome ; except when the rise takes place, about the middle or end of May, as before related. The bed of the river being invariably a coarse sand, occasionally blended with immense sheets of kunkiu\ whereof the banks are formed for miles in some parts, easily receives the lime and alkali, leaving the running waters clear, and free from those subi- stances. Europeans never drink of water fresh drawn in any situation ; it being always left to stand EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 249 for at least one day ; during which, a copious deposit takes place : in the rainy season, per- haps full a fourth of the contents of the vessel. Some gentlemen are very particular in having their water boiled. The low plains of the Shawabad and Buxar districts, situate on the western bank of the Ganges, are chiefly cultivated with rice, while the higher parts are productive of white corn, opium, sugar, &c. The swamps near Saseram, borderino; the ranse of hills at the western boun- dary, and which come round to Chunar, are annually in a state of partial corruption, suffi- cient to occasion terribly malignant diseases, about November ; when the sun's power pro- motes an astonishing evaporation, filling the air with miasma, and spread in;2r destruction among all the living tribes. But those waters are, in themselves, highly dangerous ; both on account of the putrefaction of the vegetables they con- tain, and of the powerful coalition of various mineral streams, which, having in the rainy season exceeded their ordinary limits, stray into the low country, and mix with the already dele- terious mass. Finding a discharge for their redundancy, by means of the multitude of fis- sures, or small channels, every where existing, these blend with the purer torrents, occasioned by the impetuous rains, and cause a fever to 2oO EAST INDIA VADE-MFXUM. prevail, which, in addition to the Hme and nitre already afloat, perform wonders in the cause of desolation. This assemblage of rivulets forms that great river the Soane, Avhich, for the short course it has to run, not being more than sixty miles from its numerous sources in the hills before noticed, presents an uncommon expanse, being generally from three quarters of a mile to two miles in breadth ; but, in the dry season, contracting its stream to a verv narrow channel, winding: in the most fanciful meanders, and causing, by its waters being so dispersed in a very flat bed, more quicksands than probably are to be found in any river in the world. It is worthy of remark here, thatseveral rivers in that part of the world, which have sandy beds, appear suddenly to be lost ; owing to sand banks, that, during the stream's violence, have been thrown up, so high as to be above the waters when the rains have subsided : the current continues very perceptible, but as the bar prevents the water from going forward, it passes through the intervals of the very coarse grit which forms that bar ; and, perhaps, at the distance of half a mile lower, re-appears. The natives, who attribute every thing that can bear the perversion to some invisible agent, never fail to apply this as a curse upon any village that may be opposite to such a bar, under the opinion EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 95\ that the waters ceased to run in its vicinity on account of some impiety, either known, or con- cealed, perpetrated by the inhabitants. The Gogra, or Dewah, w^iich takes its rise in the hills north of Gorackpore, dividing- Napaul from the Company's possessions, rolls its impe- tuous course through a country nearly desolate, and bounding its banks with most extensive forests and wildernesses. The soil is not so impregnated with nitre as in other parts, nor are the streams that form its volume tainted so strongly with minerals. Perhaps owing to the length of its course, which maybe about 2oO miles, or more, the more weighty particles may be deposited ; for it is held that this river con- tains less obnoxious m.ixture than any part of the Ganges. Of lime it may certainly partake, since it runs through some tracts abounding with kunkur ; but its course is chiefly through clay, sand, and a species of black potters' marie, of .which crockery is made in some parts of north Bahar, in imitation of our Staffordshire ware ; though very inferior as to form and finish. For this, the neighbourhood of Sewan is famous. The province of Bahar abounds in nitre ; and every petty rivulet either takes its rise from some swamp strongly impregnated therewith, or passes through soils which yield it profusely. Those streams that originate in the Chittrah, Ramghur, Gyah, and Monghyr Hills, are often so very 96^ EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. highly saturated with deleterious substances, as to betray their bad qualities even to the eye. The Mahana, the Mutwallah, and various mountain rivers in that quarter, which rush into the Ganges between Patna and Boglepore, are frequently tinged with copper, of which some small veins are to be found. An instance oc- curred, while the 12th battalion of native in- fantry was marching from Patna to the Ramghur station, where the whole corps were so extremely affected by the water, as scarcely to be able to ascend from the camp, then at Dungaie, to the summit of the Kanachitty Pass ; such was the state to which it had, by its cupreous solution, reduced both men and beasts. Fortunately, it was very cold weather, and the use made of the waters had been very limitted. Some officers from the same corps being on a shooting party, during the next year, happened to encamp at Dungaie. The kettle had been put on ; the water, iiKleed, was ready for break jr fast; but the gentlemen, on alighting from their horses, as usual, had water brought them to wash ; when the contraction it occasioned in their mouths instantly reminded them of their former escape, and thereby set them on their guard : on enquiring, they found, that, either from want of memory, or through indolence, their servants had taken the water from the rivu- let running at the foot of the pass, in lieu of EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 253 drawing it from a well in the town, which was at no great distance. Many such streams pour into the Ganges, either singly, or in conjunction with others. As to chalybeate influence, that cannot be wanting ; for the whole range of hills, in the elevated parts of Ramghur, Rotas, Chittrah, Tomar, Pachete, Beerboom, Ragonautpore, Midnapore, &c., may be termed one mass of iron ; lying in huge pro- jections exposed to view, and giving the soil a strong rust color. The natives, in those parts, fuse immense quantities for sale. The country from Benares to Patna is gene- rally fertile in the extreme, abounding in rich plains, and affording far purer water than is to be found above that interval. At Gazypore and Buxar the w^aters receive no additional adulteration, except from the Caramnassa, which certainly is an impure stream. Such is the opinion held by the natives regarding this river, that, on account of its being neces- sary to cross it between Saseram and Benares, a road much frequented by pilgrims and devotees ; particularly the immense hordes who repair from the Maharrattah country, to visit the holy Hindu city of Kassi, which is the name they give to Benares; that a rich man, residing so far off as Poonah, the capital of the JNIaharrattah empire, near Bombay, bequeathed a large sum of money for building a bridge, thereby to obviate 254 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. the necessity pious travellers were under ofbeing' carried over on the backs of men ; who gained a livelihood by transporting those who, from over- nice scruples, would not wade through the stream, as they must have done through hun- dreds of others, before they got so near their holy object. Unhappily for those delicate gen- try, the bridge did not, when I last saw it, about twelve years ago, seem likely to perform its office: the soil being sandy, and the architect understanding but little of his profession, piers had repeatedly been raised to about seven or eight feet high, but always gave wa}^ ; so that I fear the poor itinerants must still pay their pence, and ride across as before ; unless the edifice may be entrusted to European architects. The Coosah comes down from the ^lorungs, a wild, mountainous country, replete with impe- netrable forests, and containing some few mine- rals : however, on that head little is known ; the extent of the wilds beino^ such as to debar the possibility of exploring the supposed riches con- tained in the bosom of the mountains. From this quarter, and the continuance of the forest before described, which stretches eastward to Assam, and westward to Peelabeet, or further, the whole of the lower countries are supplied with said and sissoo timbers, and some firs. Such is the country in which the Coosah has its rise ; quitting which, after a foaming course EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. '255 of about forty miles, it enters the extensive plains of Purneah, through which it passes in a more tranquil state, though ever rapid, until it joins the Ganges a little below Colgong, which stands on the opposite bank, and where the Termahony, a small sluggish river of about eighty or a hun- dred yards in breadth, blends its waters with the great river. The Termahony is very deep, and, in the rainy season, equally impetuous. Like the Coosah, it flows chiefly through a flat coun- try, during its short course, and as the soils in this part are sabulous, there does not appear any thina^ remarkable in the effects of fhe waters upon the inhabitants. The Ganges may be considered as far more pure between Raje-Mahal, in the Jungleterry district, and Mauldah, or Bagwangolah, than for some distance above ; during the dry season, it is remarkable for the clearness and lio^htness of its waters : after leaving this to proceed south- ward, we find them greatly changed during the rainy season, when the immense inundation which prevails throughout Bengal, properly so called, and which, moving in general at a rate not exceeding half a mile in the hour, may be considered as stagnant. We now lose the great body of sand that in all the upper country forms the bed, not only of the Ganges, but of every river whose course con- tinues uninterrupted during the dry season; 2o6 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. though its stream may become insignificant- Here it should be remarked, that sandy beds generally produce the finest bev^erage, and that the water will be found more pure in propor- tion as the sand is coarse. Hence, the waters in the deep parts of such streams are invariably the sweetest; for the coarse sand will naturally find its way to the greatest depths, precipi- tating the impurities with it. On the con- trary, the light floating sands, which with every little motion become agitated, will set the impurities also in action. Such are generally found on the borders of the stream, whence most persons derive their supplies, and where it may usually be seen in an active state; or, if at rest, blended with slime, or fibrous substances. We should ever remember the distinction be- tween the effects of fine and of coarse sand as strainers. Coarse sand allows heavy, or coarse bodies, to pass through it freely, provided the particles be not adhesive, or too gross for filtra- tion : consequently, when such sand is de- posited in the bed of a river, the lesser particles of lime, or of minerals and their ores, will sink, and remain fixed. Not so with fine sand; which has a greater tendency to compactness, and which, gradually filling up the smallest in- tervals, becomes firm, and resists all admixture with heterogeneous substances; the latter must, of necessity, remain on their surface, subject to EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 2^7 be taken up with the water. Persons accus-s tomed to filtration must know, that, owing to this tendency, fine sand is by far the best me-^ dium to filter through, while coarse sand is pre- ferable for the purposes of precipitation. ■■ The inundation which overflows Bengal, especially in the districts of Nattore, Dacca, Jessore, the southern parts of Rungpore, and a part of Mahomed-Shi, is, perhaps^ one of the most curious of nature's phenomena! The wisdom of our Creator is most conspicuously shewn in the appropriation of sustenance, both for the human and for the brute species, suited to meet this annual visitation of the waters. However copious the rains may be in the southern provinces, t ough they might become boggy, and be partially inundated where the lands were low, yet, without the influx of these immense streams, which, owing to the declivity of the surface, pour down from the upper coun- try, Bengal would, at such seasons, be but a miry plain, or a shallow morass. The great inundation does not, generally, take place till a month after the period when the rains have, according to tlie phrase in use, ' set in.^ The thirsty soils of Oude, Corch, Allahabad, Be- nares, Gazypore, Patna, Rungpore, Boglepore, Purneah, and all beyond the 25th degree of lati- tude, require much moisture to saturate them, as do also those parched plains into which they VOL. II. s 258 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. ultimately pour their streams, before airy part of the soil can be covered. Indeed, such is the state of the southern provinces after the cold season, that that rich friable soil in which they abound is seen cake-dried and cracked by fissures of many inches in breadth, as though some great convul- sion of nature had been exerted to rend the surface into innumerable divisions. Under the circumstances of a flood, which lasts for many months, fluctuating from the middle or end of July to the beginning of Oc- tober, (though the water does not drain off be- fore the middle of December in low situations,) the inhabitants might be supposed to suffer under all the miseries of a general ruin and sub- sequent scarcity. The reverse is, however, the fact; for, provided the rains do not fall in such torrents as to wash away their habitations, and to occasion so rapid a rise in the fluid plain as to overwhelm the growing rice, the more ample the bursaufi/, (i. e. the rains,) the more plentiful the crop, and generally the less sickly does the season prove. The latter point will appear self- established, when we consider that amplitude of inundation serves, not only to divide the septic matter' contained in the water, but likewise to accelerate its action, and cause its proceeding with added impetus to discharge itself into tlio bay. At this season, rivers are only known by the currents, and consequent swells, which ap- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 259 pear amidst this temporary ocean! The naviga- tion, for several months, assumes anew appear- ance. Vessels of great burthen, perhaps of two thousand maunds, (each SOlb.,) equal to nearly one hundred tons, are seen traversing the coun- try in all directions, principally with the wind, which is then within a few points on either side of south. Noted cities, exalted mosques, and populous o-ztwje^, or grain-markets, on the river's bank, are not objects of attention. The boat- man having set his enormous square sail, proceeds by guess, or, perhaps, guided by ex- perience, through the fields of rice, which every where raise their tasseled heads, seeming to invite the reaper to collect the precious grain. As to depth oPwater, there is generally from ten to thirty feet, in proportion as the country may be more or less elevated. It is curious to sail among these insulated towns, which, at this season, appear almost level with the surrounding element, and hemmed in by their numerous dingies, or boats, which, ex- clusive of the necessity for preparing against an over-abundant inundation, are requisite for the purposes of cutting the pacldi/: rice being so called while in the husk. So soon as what is considered the final se- cession of the inundation is about to com- mence, the whole of the boats are in motion, and the paddjf is cut with astonishing celerity. 260 K X ST I If D J A* 'V A E> E-M E CUM . It is fortiuiate, that, owing to the country on the borders of the sea being higher than the in- undated country, the waters cannot draw off faster than they can find vent, by means of the rivers which discharge into the i3ay of Bengal, else the growing rice would be subjected to. various fluctuations unsuited to its nature, and occasioning the straw to bend ; whereby its growth would be injured, even if it should recover from its reclined state so as again to assume a vigorous appearance on the surface. The waters of the inulidation, it will be seen, are a mixture of all the streams flowing- from every part of the extensive valley formed by the ranges of mountains stretching from Chittagong to Loll Dong, or liurdwar, on the east and north-east, and from Mid na pore .to^ Lahore on the west and north-west, a course of not less than fifteen hundred miles, and generally from two to four miles in breadth. It may be supposed, that many impurities must be involved with these contrii)utary streams, as_ particularized in the foregoing pages : to this \v^ must add th^ offensive,, ai^xd c^rtaiqly not salu- tary, effect, , induced by the t,{indu custom of consigning every corpse ito the waters of the Ga^iges,,or of any stream, flowing into i^., ., .,^ ,;J|^he Hindu religion requii:es that th,e,d,er; c^^s^d,, should be buvuttoj^rslm^.on the borders of the. Ganges, and, that those, ashes, with all EAST INDIA VADE-MEGUMi 261 the remnants of wood used in the pile, should, too'ether with the small truck bedstead on which the body was brought froitl the habi- tation to the river side, be wholly committed to the stream. The wholesomeness of such a practice, in a country where the strides of putrefaction know no bounds, infection and its effects being prodigiously extensive and rapid, cannot he disputed; such an ordi- nance may vie with the acts of any other legislature, however enlightened. But, either the poverty, the indolence, or the sordidness, of the people, has, in time, converted this wholesome precaution into a perfect nuisance. From fifty to a hundred bodies, in different stages of putrefaction, may be seen floating past nny one spot within the course of the day. These having been placed on a scanty pile, and that not suffered to do its office, cither o account of hot, cold, or wet, weather, have been pushed, by means of a bamboo pole, into the stream, to the great annoyance of water- travellers, and of all persons abiding near those eddies, where the nuisance may be kept circling for days, until forcibi}'' removed, or until the pariah do£js swim in, and drag the carcase to the shore: there it speedily becomes the prey of various carrion birds, and of the indigenous village curs known by 'the above designation. ' ' '' ' ' •'" '-"'^'"l '" " ?62 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. Under all the circumstances of such a com- bination of putrid animal and vegetable sub- stance, of mineral adulteration, and of the miasma naturally arising from the almost sud- den exposure of an immense residuum of slimcj &c. ; added to the cessation of the pure sea air, the wind changing after the rains from the southerly to the northerly points, are we to wonder at the malignancy of those fevers preva- lent throughout the province of Bengal Proper, from the end of September to the early part of January, when the swamps are generally brought into narrow limits, and the air is laden with noxious vapors? Although it appears, that the general sickness prevailing throughout Bengal at the above season, is induced by nearly the same causes that, according to our best informations, en- gender the yellow fever in America, yet no symptom of that alarming complaint has ever been known in India, nor does the bilious, or putrid fever, of Bengal at all assimilate in regard to symptoms with the American fatality. Cer- tainly it is common to see whole villages in a state of jaundice, and in some years the ravages of the disease are truly formidable ; but, though it may be classed as epidemic, we may, at the same time, annex an endemic distinction in regard to each village separately. Except in cases of putrid accession, or of obvious t//phus. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 263 there does not seem an}'^ danger of infection ; and it has been proved, that the malady might, by proper care, be wholly averted. It is a fact, that, at several civil stations, and at some of the principal military contonments, which were formerly considered the emporium of fever, the inhabitants have been preserved in an or- dinary state of health merely by cutting a few drains, or by banking up such places as formerly proved inlets to inundate plains that now re- main sufficiently free from water to allow of pasturage during the whole of the rainy season. The confinement occasioned by a long term of rain, must necessarily alter the habit, while the incumbent atmosphere, being laden with mois- ture, must, at the same moment, dispose the system to the reception, or to the generation, of disease. The poor native does not change his diet, and very probably retains the same damp deaths for many days. His temperate system of living seems to be his greatest aid in case of illness ; those medicines that in him effect a great change being found comparatively feeble when administered either to one of a debauched conduct, or to Europeans; who, being accus- tomed to a more substantial and more stimulant mode of living, are not to be acted upon but by the more potent of the materia medica. It has often been asked, as a matter of sur- prize, how it happens that Bengal has never 264 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. been visited by the plague. The question ha^ been founded on the supposed affinity between that country and Egypt, in regard to the annual inundations; and to the narrowness, as well as the fikh, of the streets in the great cities; which- wrould, if the conjecture were correct, induce pestilence, as the same causes are said to do in Turkey. vrThe case is widely different. In Egypt,' although the lands are ^inundated, rain is scarcely ever known to fall;; the floods coming from the southerly mountains.' Hence, the in- habitants are under all the disadvantages at- tendant upon a hot atmosphere, during eight months in the year, and are*, for the ^remaining four, exposed to the insalubrity arisitig from the inundation, especially when it is draining off. < Joa r-.";.) '}fiU::i 7(K"j -ji. In regard 'to* tihe H^rrdwnfesg' of the streets, and the filth they contain, something may be said in alleviation. The houses in Turkey are much higher, are built of more solid materials,' and the inhabitants being wholly of one re- ligion, viz, followers of Mahomed, but pvirtaking of some of the bad habits of the neighbouring countries, being also in a more variable climate^ more pointed attention is paid to durability and to closeness in the edifices, than is commonly shewn in India. In the latter country, the utmost jealousy subsists between the Mussul- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 265 nSans and the Hindus, but the latter are most numerous in every place, even in the cities where Mussulman princes hold their dtirhars^ or courts. This jealousy Occasions the Hindus to look upon every vestige of a Mussulman as a contamination ; and, as ablutions are enjoined even more by the Hindu law than by the Koran, which is the Mussulman's book of faith, we may consider the person of a Hindu to be as dean- and wholesome as repeated v^ashings can make it. He wears only a 'small lock of hair, growing from a spot about the size of a dollar on the crown of his head, -flis cloaths are washed as often as his body, and, on the whole, it should appear almost impossible for him to carry any disease arising from, or communicated through, a deficiency of individual cleanliness. The houses of the natives throughout India, if we except about one-third of Benares, about a twentieth of Patna, the same of ]\Ioorshada- bad,'arid a tnerc trifle of the Black Town of Cal- cutta, are built of mats, bamboos, and straw; in the latter, they have been, under late regula- tftdiis, tiled. The generality of village-huts are bWilt^Mnth iriud \Valls. On the whole, however, \Vhether owing to cracks in the walls, or in- tervals' between them and the thatches, win- dows, &:c., the air finds a free course throughout. Add to this, that the natives do not sleep on feather beds, flock, &c., but generally on mats 966 EAST INDIA VADE-MEC0M. made of reeds. This, of itself, may be con- sidered a preventive against infection. The fires kept up in the houses of the natives of Turkey are in fixed stoves, or under chimnies, which do not answer the pju'poses of fumi- gation. Whereas, the Indian, by means of a moveable stove, unintentionally fumigates the whole house ; making the eyes of all smart with the smoke. This fuel is not bituminous; but, in every situation, is either wood, or the dried dung of cattle. Besides, the floor of a Hindu's house is, perhaps daily, washed with a thick solution of cow-dung, whence a freshness is diffused, not perhaps very gratifying, in point of savour, to an European's nostrils, but assuredly anti-septic, and answering various good purposes ; especially as the walls are, to the height of, perhaps, three or four feet, smeared with the same mixture. The use of tobacco is common to both Turkey and India, and may be considered as contributary to a resistance against the damps during the rainy season, as well as against infection. With regard to the apprehensions arising from filth, fortunately, they are not better founded than those just noticed as dependant on the naf- rowness of the streets. This lucky evasion of disease is not, however, to be attributed to any attention on the part of the naUves indivi- dually, or to the fostering care of the native EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 26? governments. Few towns of any importance but are built on the borders of some navigable river, of which there are abundance throughout the country. The swarms of vultures, kites, crows, and of a large kind of butcher bird, standing at least six feet high, called the argec' lah^ added to the immense numbers of pariah dogs, generally roving at liberty, and unacknowr Jedged by any particular owner; together with the multitude of jackalls, that patrol through the cities, as well as the plains, during the night, all contribute to remove whatever carrion, or putrescent matter, may be exposed to their researches. It would not, perhaps, be so easy to keep cities in a state of tolerable cleanliness in such a hot climate, if the inhabitants subsisted on butchers' meat. The shambles alone would prove highly offensive: it is therefore fortunate that the natives make rice and vegetables their principal food. There being no privies attached to houses in general, is an additional benefit; though accompanied with some small inconve- nience, it being requisite to walk to the out- skirts of the city, or, eventually, among some ruins, on all occasions. The privies of the higher orders of natives, and of Europeans in general, are built on a plan which admits of instantly removing the filth; a practice never neglected by a servant, whose office consists only 96s EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. in that duty, and in sweepinsr the house at various times of the day. The argeeia/i, or butcher bird, before men- tioned, is to be seen partially all the year round; but, generally speaking, comes with the first showers in June, and stays until the cold season is far advanced; when it retires into the heavy covers on the borders of the large unfrequented lakes, near the mountains, to breed. This bird has been fully described in the representation of the Ganges breaking its Banks, in my work entitled the ' Wild Sports of Ixdia,' pub- lished by Mr. Orme, of New Bond-street, and by Messrs. Black, Parry, and Kingsbury, of Leaden- hall-street. It is by some called the bone-eater, from its peculiarity of digestion ; it having the power of swallowing whole joints, such as a leg of lamb, and of returning the bone after the meat has been digested: when thus rejected, it appears as clean as though it had been boiled for a whole day. I cannot give abetter idea of thefitness of this bird to eat of the most putrid substances, than by stating, that 1 have frequently rubbed an ounce, or more, of emetic tartar into a piece of meat, which an argeelah has swailoAved, without shewing symptoms of uneasiness on the occa- sion, though very closely watched for hours after. From this, it may be inferred, that ordinary sti- ihtflantsdo not disa2,Tee with the stomach of this unsig-hriy, but innocent, and useful, animal. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 269 Inland towns are usually built in the vicinity of some large jeel^ or lake, or on some ravine, which, during- the rains, forms a rapid water course. Such as are near to hills, ^re oiten, for many days together, impassable; owing to the torrents which, through their means, find a way either to some expanse, or to some navigable river. ThejW/, or, for want of one, the tank nearest to the town, usually becomes the receptacle of every Hindu corpse, and, at the same time, supplies the inhabitants with water for every purpose. One would think this intolerable practice were, of itself, sufficient to deter men, who pretend to the utmost delicacy and purity in all respects, from drinking at so contaminated and corrupt a reservoir. What then shall we say, when it is known that the borders of tanks^ in such situations, become places of ease, w^here men, women, and children, perform theii; duties to the goddess in colloquial association; and where, having got rid of their burthens, they free themselves from its remains, by washing with those very waters whence, probably, another person is baling into his pot, or leather bag, for culinary purposes, or for beverage. ..Tanks and Jee/i- are, in almost every part of India, full of rushes, and of the conferva, which, together with duck-weed, docks, &c., both cover the surface and fill gp the deeps. They 270 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. are, generally, replete with small fishes of various descriptions, and if of any extent, or deep, either harbour, or serve as visiting places for alligators, which infest both the running and the stagnant waters in every part of the country. These voracious animals travel at night from one jeel^ or tank, to another; often announcing their presence by snapping up some poor unsuspect- ing Hindu, who wades up to his middle for the purpose of performing his ablutions, and of offering up the customary prayers on such occasions. In many tanks, alligators are known to exist in numbers ; na}'^, in some places, they are sub- sisted by the eleemosynary donations of tra- vellers, who disburse a trifle in money, or pre- sent some provision to 2i faqueer^ (or mendicant l|!>riest,) to provide food for the alligators, which come forth from tiie waters, on hearing the well- known voice of their holy purveyor; from whom they seldom fail to receive each a small cake of meal, or some other provision. This liberality does not, however, occasion any qualmish scruples of gratitude; it being found, that alliga- tors thus handsomely treated are not a whit more reserved in the application of their teeth to bathers, &c., than those which have never been honored by such liberal consideration. The respiration and effluvia proceeding from an animal, perhaps twenty, or twenty-five, feet EAST HfDIA VADE-MECUM. 971 ill length, and from six to twelve in circum- ference, must have an effect upon even a large body of water. Allowing that such a monster should consume as much air as ten men, which, surely, is not an unfair calculation, and that twenty gallons of water contain one of air; as a man, on an average, consumes one gallon of air in a minute, the alligator must consume twelve hundred gallons, equal to near twenty hogsheads, in an hour: in twenty-four hours, the quantity of water contaminated by one alligator would amount to four hundred and eighty hogsheads! From this, we may conceive the effect pro- duced by the presence of, perhaps, seven or eic-ht alliofators in a tank not exceedins: two acres in measurement, and no where above twelve or fourteen feet in depth: we must likewise take into the account abundance of fishes ; for, if that abundance did not exist, the alligators would speedily decamp. Add to these two sufficient drawbacks, all that has been said of the im- purities added by the inhabitants, and we shall form such a nauseating and unwholesome com- bination as must cause us to wonder how ever one should be left to tell the fate of his lost friends. Amidst the mountains, where, of course, the inundations cannot be of any duration, and where the waters of every description are li.naitted as to extent; th.e streams being very 2Xt EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. small, and, excepting a few hollows between two hills, or, eventually, a valley, in which a pool may exist, alligators are to be seen. They are generally small, but of a very savage species, making up, by their rapacity and ac- tivity, for the vyant of that bulk w;hich renders the alligator of the great rivers more apparently dangerous. By the term ' small, ^ we must not conclude them tO'be diminutive, but, that they rarely exceed twelve or fourteeu feet: in* length. Such will, however, seize a bullqck, W/h^ wading in a tank, ovjeel; stealing upon him witjh the utmost caution, so as not to. disturb the fluid, and even keeping the dorsal spines de- pressed until the very moment of seizure ; when, fastening upon the unwary animal's leg, and throwing his Avhole weight backwards; at the:same time swinging round, so forcibly as to raise the greater part of his disgusting frame above the surface, the alligator, by one violent effort, which appears almost instantaneous, or- dinary succeeds in dragging the poor animal into a sufficient depth. Pain, surprize, and the unrelaxijiig bite of his devourer, combine to disable him from making any adequate resist- ance; being, besides, kept completely immersed by ithe subtle and experienced assailant, no more is seen^ ^x^ept th^t tlip waters appear lor aboiAl *a .mijBUife^ iV,iofent|y .agitajted, by,. ,the.,.^"oct^.iQ/ both parties :,thi? alligator is, howe\cr, com- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 273 pelled to raise his head above the surface when in the act of c{ec>lutition. This is seen daily, even when a fish becomes the victim. On these occasions, the stupendous animal rears in the waters, exposing sometimes so far as his shoulders, and ordinarily biting the fish in two, when, with the utmost ease, he swallows m hat would make a hearty meal for thirty or forty men of keen appetite. 1 have frequently seen an alligator thuschuck down a rooee^ or river carp, weighing from fifty to sixty pounds: a size by no means uncommon in the great rivers of Bengal ! The great use made of water by the natives in every part of India, occasions an immense num- ber of tanks and wells to be dug, chiefly by persons of property, under the pretence of aid- ing the poorer classes, but, in fact, with the view to becortic popular, or of transmitting their names to posterity by affixing them as designa- tions to the tank or well in question. This takes place equally in regard to plantations, generally of mango trees; and in the building of seraies, for the accommodation of travellers, such as Europeans generally understand to be caravan aeraics; but that term can only apply to those parts of Arabia, &c., that fr/mish caravans; which are not known in the great peninsula of India; where, on account of the extent of VOL. II. T Q7i^ ' EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. sea-coast, navigation absorbs the chief part of the trade. Seraies are usually known by the name, or tjtle, of the founder. Thus, Maraud ka Seray implies that the public accommodation for the reception of travellers was founded by Maraud ; respecting whom the people in at- tendance either have some traditional account, or supply a famous history, invented for the occasion . Seraies are now going fast to decay ; the power of the native princes has been so much abridged, and their influence is so little felt, that, generally speaking, were a rich or exalted character to found a serai/, even on the most liberal footing, it is probable his expectation of immortal fame would not be realized. The rage is now more bent towards gimges, or grain markets ; hauts, or villages, holding periodical markets ; maylahsy or annual fairs ; and, in fact, to such establishments as afford a profit, or which, from becoming noto- rious in the way of trade, are more likely to per- petuate the celebrity of the institution. Durgaws, (commonly called mosques,) apper- tain exclusively to those of the Mahomedan faith, and mhuts, which are, properly, places of Hindu vvorship, also madressahs, or colleges, with endowments for faqneers, or Hindu priests, seem to hold their ground. These, like the abbeys of Monkish times, are ever to be found EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 27-5 in the most beautiful and most eligible situations: above all things having a command of excellent water. The tanks in the hills, that is to say, such as have resulted from artificial means, are generally small, full of weeds, and rarely lined with ma- sonry ; their banks are soft, and the waters, being accessible to cattle on every side, foul and turbid. Sometimes these become nearly dry during the hot months, affording, if any, a most offensive and insalubrious beverage. Neverthe- less, the indolent native will often drink thereof, rather than send half a mile to a purer spring. The generality of these tanks have originally a regular supply from numberless springs, fed either by a natural syphonic process from higher lands, or by percolation of the profuse dews that, throughout the immense jungles on the higher soils, fall during the hottest months ; but the Want of proper attention to preserve the tanks from the incursions of cattle, which, being very wild in their nature, oflen swim or wade over to the opposite sides, quickly choak the springs, which, in such open soils, easily find other vents, and expose the inhabitants to great suffering from drought. In many instances we see wells dug in the tanks; thereby causing a great saving of labor; as, when once a spring dis- charges into the tank, in such a situation, it is not necessary to dig the whole area to an equal t2 276 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. depth. This is a cheap expedient, adopted by such as have vanity enough to attract pubUc notice, but not money enough to do the thing completely, or to a great extent. From these causes, we are led to the conside- ration of those effects produced in hilly coun- tries, by the waters in common use. Nor are we deceived in our expectation as to the results naturally arising from so forcible an agent. We find throughout the hilly countr^^ that, exclu- sive of the diminutive features attached, all over the world, to the various classes of moun- taineers, there is an additional tendency to^ departure from the ordinary bulk of the natives in the adjacent low lands, obviously induced by the diet, and most especially by the waters in use. It is remarkable that in Tomar, the back part of Chittrah, and Ramghur, where the immense extent of low woods almost debars population, and where the Hill people, known by the name of Dhangahs, subsist principally on rice, wild fruits, and, occasionally, a little game, and where they drink of water such as has just been described, collected either in small pools, or in artificial tanks, the inhabitants are extremely stinted in their growth, are squalid, troubled with wens, half devoured with a kind of scurvy, herpetic eruption, and appear even at a very early age to lose their vigor. They have, besides, a peculiar kind of opthalmia, EAST INDIA A^ADE-MECUM. 277 partly induced by an excessive passion for liquor, there distilled in large quantities, and by their exposure to a damp, impregnated atmosphere • while in their huts, their whole happiness seems to consist of an intense fumi- gation, chiefly from green-wood, such as would wholl}'^ suffocate one not habituated from his birth to so admirable an imitation of the fumes of Tartarus. The difference between these haggard objects, and the inhabitants of the plains from which the mountains take their rise, requires no com- ment. It most forcibly arrests the traveller's attention, causing him to doubt whether, with- in the short interval of perhaps six or seven miles, he may believe his senses, which pour- tray to him a change from vigorous and person- able manhood, to a decrepid, hideous, and dwarfish, state : more resemblant of the Weird Sisters than our imaginations can conceive, or, than our best comedians can represent. Some tanks, dug by the more charitable per- sons of propcrt}^, are on a very extensive scale, covering perhaps ten or twelve acres. Many of these are of great antiquity, and have been very deep, perhaps thirty feet, but, by the growth of vegetable matter, added to the heavy bodies of sand and dust that nearly darken the air in the dry season, of which much falls into the waters, their depth is considerably reduced : 978 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. in some, various shoals appear, indicating the accumulation of rubbish, and in a manner re- proaching those who use the element with indo- lence and ingratitude. In such places fish abound, and grow to an astonishing size, some- times affording excellent angling, but their flavor does not correspond with their looks ; for the most part they are intolerably muddy. The quantity of weeds, the shoals, and various posts being generally sunk in different parts of the tank, armed with tenter-hooks, for the purpose of preventing poachers from robbing the stock, are insuperable bars to the use of nets. Boats are not in use in such places, and there seems to be no attention in any respect to any thing relating to such waters, except that the shecarriesy or native' sportsmen, exercise much ingenuity and skill in their depredations among the wild geese, wdd ducks, teal, w'idgeons, &c., with which all the waters of India are profusely stocked during the winter months ; when every unfrequented puddle is covered with wild fowl, which often alight during the dark nights on waters situated in the very hearts of cities, in which sometimes tanks are seen of such size, as to secure the birds, when collected near the centre, from the reach of small shot. This, though not to be classed with daily occurrences, is by no means singular. By far the greater number of tanks, especially EAST INDIA VADE-MKCUM. 279 those by the road-side, or contiguous to cities, and populous towns, are walled in with masonry. In such case, they have at one, or more sides, either a long slope, or a flight of steps of excel- lent masonry ; some, indeed, have both, the for- mer being intended for the use of cattle, which are either suffered to drink there, or are employed; to carry larg^e leather bajj;s of water for the use of the inhabitants. Owing to the great force of the peritxlical rains, and to the swelling of the soil during the season of excessive moisture, the ma- sonry is generally burst in various places, and for the most part either sinks, or is prostrated into the tank. As no credit would follow the repairs of such breaches, they are left to their fate. A due attention to the proper proportion of base, so as to give a substantial talus both within and without the walls, added to the precaution of leaving vents for the free discharge of, the springs, or the super-abundant fluid, into the tank, would most assuredly counteract so de- structive a weakness as now generally exists. I cannot call to mind, at this time, any very old masonry that has not succombed thereto, ex- cepting the great bund, or dyke, at .fuanpore ; which, according to tradition, was built about fifteen hundred years ago, and having been made of a very obdurate kind of kiiH.knr, found in those parts, blended with excellent lime, probably burnt from the same stones, appears now a com- 280 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. plete mass of rock, capable of resisting the ra- vages of all time to come. This hund^ which bears all the venerable marks of antiquity, was originally thrown up to limit the Goomty ; a fine river that rises in the Peelabeet country, and, washing Lucknow, the capital of Oude, passes through the city of Juanpore under a very lofty bridge, built on strong piers, terminating in go- thic arches. The want of due breadth in the arches occasions the waters to rise during the rain}^ season to an immense height, creating a fall of which that at London Bridge, at its worst, is indeed but a poor epitome 1 The distance between the top of the bridge and the water below it, in the dry season, is something less than sixty feet ; yet it is on record, and in the memory of many inhabitants of Juanpore, that the river has been so full as to run over the bridge, which is flat from one end to the other, lying level between two high banks, distant about three hundred and twenty yards. Formerly, when the waters were high, they used, according to the tradition alluded to, to over-run the country on the left bank ; forming an immense inundation throughout the country lying east of Juanpore, and extending down to- wards the fertile plains of Gazypore. The hol- low, or low land, by' which they penetrated, was about two miles in width ; therefore the bmid was built to a suitable extent: it is now about EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 281 two miles and a half long; in most parts, about thirty feet broad at the top, and double that width at the base. Its height varies from ten to twenty feet. The record states it to have proved effectual in resisting the inundation, which, how- ever, on account of the hund being at right angles with the river, so as to occupy a favorable posi- tion, and cut off' the torrent, continued to flow annually as far as its base. In time, the sedi- ment deposited by the water thus rendered stag- nant, filled up the hollow, raising its surface as high as the other parts of the river's boundary, and creating a soil peculiarly valuable, now chiefly occupied by indigo planters. The insa- lubrity occasioned by the many swamps left by the inundation, was at the same time averted, and the dread entertained that the Goomty would, in time, force a new channel for the entire body of its stream, removed. Large tracts, before of little value, acquired a deep staple of soil, which, at this date, yields sugar, indigo, wheat, barley, &c., in abundance and perfection. The rage for digging tanks, has, I apprehend, in a certain measure, subsided ; for we find little of that very absurd ostentation now prevalent, which must have actuated to such immense works, rendered useless by their too great num- ber, or carried to an excess in regard to their measurement. It would be, perhaps, difficult 289 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. to ascribe to any other motive than that of un- paralleled vanity, why a man should have dug near seventy tanks, all nearly contiguous, on a plain not many miles distant from the military station of Burragong, in the district of Sircar Sarung, situate between the G undue and the Gogra. The population did not require more than one tank ; especially as a stream of tole- rably good water passes within a few hundred yards of the site of these offsprings of ostenta- tion. The inhabitants tell various stories as to the person who lavished his money in this empty manner ; and, (which would, no doubt, vex the real prodigal to his very heart,) the modern nar- rators differ widely even as to the name and rank of the individual ! With respect to seraies, we may, at least, praise the convenience they afford, without be- stowing much admiration on the charity of their founders. Some of these are very exten- sive, covering, perhaps, six or eight acres. They generally consist of a quadrangle, built across the road, which passes under two lofty arched gateways, having battlements, or turrets, over them. The gates open to an extent sufficient to allow any laden elephant, however stupendous, to pass freely. They are made of strong wood, well bound with iron, and studded with iron spikes, of which the points are on the outside ; for the purpose of preventing elephants from EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 583 forcing them by pressure. The surrounding' walls of the quadrangle are generally about fourteen feet in height, and from two to four in thickness, according either to the antiquity of the building, or to the parsimony of the builder. They are lined ail around with a shed, built on pillars, and divided by mats, &c., into various apart- ments, all sheltered from the sun and rain by means of doors, &c., of bamboos, mats, grass, &c., as the country may afford ; or, eventtialiy, a part is built up with thin brick, or with mud. , In the central parts of the seratj there are ge- nerally some shops, ranged on eaf h side of the road, and one building appropriated to the cut- wal, or superintendant of the place ; whose office is, properly, to regulate all matters, and to see that travellers are duly accommodated ; that the bt/tearahs^ or cooks, dress their victuals, and that the chokey-dars take due charge of the goods consigned to their care. All this, how- ever, is done in a slovenly way ; the greatest impositions are often practised ; and the itine- rant journies on from one scene of thievish com^ bination to another. Although a seray may be built near to a rive^-, or to some sufficient stream, yet there is invaria- bly a well, ordinarily lined with circular tiles, or masonry, in the area. The water is drawn from such wells, for the most part, by means of 284 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. a truck-pulley, suspended between the limbs of a forked bough cut for the purpose, and having a wooden pin through it as an axle. Each per- son draws his own water, and for that purpose carries a line, generally about twenty feet long. Few indeed travel, even on foot, without a loota/i, or brass water-vessel ; of which there are various sizes, from a pint, to half a gallon; a ftilli/, or flat l)rnss plate, with a border about an inch high, nearly perpendicular ; and a c/y the extension of her commerce, and by the possession of a terri- tory whiose value would be thereby proportionally raised. This is said with the view to encourage the researches of our medical men ; who, from their general knowledge of chemistry, and per- haps of botany, are certainly best qualified to pursue them with national effect. Under the present very limitted establishment of physicians and surgeons, as well as from the prceter niliil benefits derived from the Jiotanical Garden, when seen in this point of view, we are not authorized to be very sanguine in our hopes that any impor- tant advantages will result in that direction. While the Company can barely afford a surgeon and two assistants to a regiment of 2000 men, it is not to be supposed they could form such establishments of the above description, as might EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 315 give us a thorough command over the mineral and vegetable productions of their territory, or tend to create a spirit of enquiry among the natives. The want of printed books is, in every coun* try, a great evil ; but, in India, is a drawback of great moment. There, all books, all proclama- tions, (except such as we print at Calcutta, &c.,) all newspapers, &c., &c., are manu- scripts. It is not to be imagined how few volumes are to be seen even of this kind. We should suppose that, where provisions, lodging, cloathing, fuel, &c., are so remark- ably cheap, learning would become general : the reverse is, however, the case ; not one in five hundred can read, or write, even indiffer- ently. There are abundance of little day-schools to which children may be sent at a very trifling ex pence ; but there they learn very little. Ge- nerally, a bed of sand serves for paper, and a finger, or a piece of stick, for pen and ink ; con- gequently, no traces of any instruction remain for the future consideration of the pupil. The more affluent, and the more zealous, ordinarily provide their children with aboard, about a foot long, and nine or ten inches wide, which, being painted black, and varnished, becomes an ad- mirable tablet, whereon the young folks are enabled to write tlieir lessons with a reed pen ; the ink being generally chalk and water. To rj\6 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. these, thous^h certainly more perfect than the former mode, the same objection exists; namely, that they want stability, and that the lesson is no sooner repeated by rote, and written much in the same manner, than it is forgotten, at least it never again obtrudes on the eye ; since, in order to make way for further instruction, it is necessarily expunged. The koits, or scribes, and the Icildhs, or ac- countants, (though the latter often confine their occupations to merely reading or transcribing,) are nearly the same among the lower classes, especially where the Naugry character is in ques- tion, that the moonsJnes are among the superior orders, who, almost invariably, use the Persian language and character, in all public, as well as in private, matters. So far, indeed, is this car- ried, that Persian is held to be both the lansfuaoe of the Court, and of the Law. As those who study the Persian are aided by 7noons/iies, so are such persons as would acquire the Naugry character necessitated to employ koits, or lulnhs^ for that purpose. The wages of these may be from two to five rupees per month ; but, in some families', the servants contribute to the extent of a few annas, or, eventually, as far as a rupee, in the agsrregate ; in consideration of which douceur^ the Idldh com- monly writes letters for them to their friends, and explains the answers, &c. Such servants as EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 317 have the charge of mone}^ to be disbursed on master's account, commonly take care to be on good terms with this cidlam-burdar (?". e. quill- driver) ; who, as has been said of compadores^ generally taxes all items he knows to be over- charged, by a small deduction in his own favor. Persons of this class often keep little schools, such as have been described, and then are desig- nated gooroos; a term implying that kind of respect we entertain for pastors in general. If we contemplate the extreme inattention prevalent throughout Hindostan, respecting literary attainments, and the great cunning- practised by the priesthood, in their sedulous endeavors to prevent the natives from receiving the least information regarding philosophy in general, it must appear surprizing that so much has been done by the artizans of Bengal towards the adaptation of their labors to the convenience of the British residents. Our admiration of these people cannot but be heightened, from the circumstance of particular trades being confined to particular casts, or sects ; for though we may, possibly, at first view, consider that to be an advantage, inasmuch as it should seem to per- petuate knowledge in an hereditary line, those who have resided in the East fully know that no such heir-loom ability is to be found : on the other hand, we immediately recognize the bar raised against genius; which, when to be found 318 EAST IN'DIA VADE-MECUM. within the caat^ may vStrngglc for ev^er under some base, forbidding, and loathsome degradation ; or, if it should start in another sect, cannot adopt its native intention, but must resign in favor of some other pursuit, perhaps requiring no genius; or, eventually, one of a very different bent. Once a carpenter, always a carpenter ; once a swine-herd, always a swine-herd ! The evil effects attendant upon the useful arts in general, from such a system, are certainly great, but by no means to be compared with the degradations, and consequent imbecility, insepa- rable from the total suppression of every thing tending to excite emulation. When we see an hereditary priesthood, and that, too, by no means remarkable for the paucity of its members, we cannot but picture to ourselves the arrogance thus privileged in the whole of that tribe, and the humiliation which marks the actions, as well as the sentiments, of all who do not stand within the hallowed pale. Such a contrast can exist only while one party can deceive, and while the other deems accusation to be nothing less than blasphemy ; therefore we cannot be mistaken regarding the only means of correc- tion : to wit, a knowledge of the world, and of its inhabitants ; or what we, in other terms, call learning. Pour but a little of this into the minds of a certain number ; satisfy them that morality in Europe, and morality in Asia, are the same EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 319 thing ; that ' whether we do our duties in a black skin, or in a white one,' matters not ; that men were born to aid each other, and not to be made the slaves of party, sect, or color ; and, that he who knows most regarding the works of the Creator, is most likely to have a proper sense of his bounty. Convince the natives of India, or of any other nation, that such is the truth, and that you practise, while you teach, the doctrines of Christianity, and nothing will, in the end, be able to stand against so formidable an attack. But if we proceed, as has been too rashly done, to attempt a schism among them by mere declamation, or by means of creeds and parables in which they have no belief, (merely because they know^ no better,) our object will be either mistaken, or designedly misrepresented; and we shall experience in Asia all those penal- ties that formerly awaited the avowal of Luthe- ranism in Europe ! In brief; convince the natives that their priests are fools and knaves, and that poverty, disgrace, and even disease, are the consequences of a mistaken bigotry, and the whole country will prostrate itself at your feet 1 Waving every other objection, and resting solely on the very inadequate means of instruc- tion afforded by parents to their children, through the medium of kok.t, luldhs, and gooroos, it seems probable that, unless some effectual reform 320 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. may take place, the natives of India are likely to remain in darkness, ad in/iaitum. This is the more to be regretted, when we consider how willing they are to follow such means as may be offered them, provided those means may not oppose established principles, nor be contrary to their ideas of sanctity and benevolence. Nor can we but repine at such infatuations among a race whose intellectual qualities, whatever may be said by ignorant or designing men, are at least on a par with those of Europeans. That they are perverted, will not be denied; but, that they are naturally imperfect, needs little proof indeed ! Set some dozens, or scores, of our youths to bellow in' unison, (with all the ennui attendant upon monotonous rote,) any particular passages from the Scripture, day after day, and year after year; and, after some sea- sons, search among them for Newtons, Lockes, B^ackstones, and Solons ! The result need not be told ! In recommending to those of my readers who may be intent upon acquiring a knowledge of the language, (by which I mean not only the Bengallee, and the Hindui, both of which may be considered vernacular, but the Persian also,) to purchase such translations as may be extant of the works of Indian authors, 1 am far from being partial to their contents, and disclaim the idea of affording any thing more than exercise in trans- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 321 lation when I do so ; for there appears to me a great disposition to trifle, or to the hyperbole, in all I have ever seen. By means of such transla- tions, the originals may be more readily under- stood, whereby the study may be rendered both brief and pleasing ; provided proper attention be paid to all material points, and that, in reading the translation, the student does not indulge in the erroneous opinion that he is making him- self master of the original. Almost every book written in the East is the production of some court sycophant : a few have resulted from the labors of men who, being disposed to meditation, have committed their reveries to paper; and, a very small portion have displayed such scin- tillations of ability, as leave us to regret they were either not better educated, so as to en- lighten their countrymen, or that they were not born in those parts of the world where their talents might have been fostered, and duly appre- ciated. With reoard to ethics, numbers have amused themselves, to all appearance, more from ostentation than from ' being virtuous over-much. ' The facility with which scraps from the Koran, (L e. the Bible of the Alahome- dans,) may be set forth in glowing terms, in a language rich in expression, has, no doubt, induced many a ver^^ tolerable lay-man to annoy his neighbours, by the repetition of page after page of the most tiresome tautologies, VOL. II. Y 322 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. whereon his fame has been built: of this de- scription abundance exist, all alike unworthy of review. I have always thought the poets of India to be particularly happy in those little tales which convey a moral, though a very worldly one, under some alluring allegory. From this, how- ever, I exempt the celebrated Heetopades, translated by Mr. Wilkins. This, by general consent, is allowed to be the store from whence Tilpmfs Fables have been taken; but the original can never appear in competition with their offspring ; for, while the latter are inte- resting, and afford a very rich treat, by their apt application to the affairs of life, the former are heavy, dull, tedious, and of a most motley character ; the subject is generally forced, and spun out into all the varieties garrulity could invent ! The Asiatic student may find, in the several works of Gilchrist, Baillie, F. Gladwin, Sir. W. Jones, Sir AVilliam Ousely, Richardson, and Wilkins, abundance of instruction in the several languages most current in llindostan; the Asiatic Researches will give him a consider- able insight into a number of interesting and important matters relating to the natural history of the East, the manners, and the climate under consideration ; while, by means of Colebrooke^s Digest of the Hindu Laws, and Rousseau's EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 325 Dictionary of Mahomedan Law, he may become very generally acquainted with that important branch of knowledge. With res{3ect to the politics of the country, they have been so much canvassed, that various treatises on that topic are to be had: unfortunately, all are either de- voted to partial considerations, or written to serve a party ! In almost every country, whereof the inhabi- tants are either considered by their neighbours, or deem themselves to be, civilized, the records of the state, the several libraries, whether scho- lastic, traditionary, scientific, or amusing only, are open to the inspection of persons of all nations; and, above all, the sacred institutions are subject to visitation, and even to research. In India, no such recreation or benefit is ever afforded to the inquisitive traveller, who may remain, for years, within a stone's-throw of what, to him, would appear an invaluable trea- sure, without his being able to obtain the smallest indulgence in aid of his pursuits. Whatever may be the complaints against our continental neighbours on the score of persecu- tion, we must give them credit for 'the most ample toleration of the million of visitors who intrude on their several cabinets, libraries, &c. ; some, from the most laudable motives, others^ actuated by the mere desire of seeing all that is to be seen, without, in the least, regarding those Y 2 324. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. points by which the philosophic eye is naturally attracted. Though so heavy a charge lies against the Hindus, on account of their, strict rejection of our countrymen, in general, when application has been made for information on particular points, it must be allowed, that they doubtless have, in a few instances, been more explicit, and furnished information on particular topics, which, to us, has proved extremely interesting-. In truth, we have no exclusive right of com- plaint ; for all nations, and all sects, except their own, have been equally subject to denial ; or, when indulged, have been compelled to perform some ceremonies obnoxious to their faith, or to their persons. Whether this be absolutely necessary, or has been devised solely with the intention of deterring the curious, may not be difficult to determine ; thus much we know, that, in order to obtain admission to a know- ledge of certain forms, or to the perusal of cer- tain records, various operations, ainounting nearly to apostacy, though no recantation be made, must be performed. There is room to doubt whether any true accounts of the antiquity of the Seek College at Benares, and of the migrations of the Hindus from the countries bordering on Palestine, actually exists: many persons, of considerable talents, and of great erudition, are disposed to EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 325 treat the whole of what has been dehvered to us, with so much solemnity, by the Pandits, or learned Brahmans, as a deception, intended to ridicule our curiosity, and to repress, or at least to divert, it from the true course. Circumstances may be adduced in support of this hypothesis ; and we cannot but regard the manner in which the Fundits arrogate to them- selves the whole knowledge of their history, which is carefully concealed from a large portion even of the Brahmans, as a circumstantial proof of our having been designedly led astray, both by a fictitious record, and by a well concerted fable, invented for the occasion : this may be aptly compared to the whale and the tub. For- tunately, no material point appears to rest on the antiquity, or otherwise, of the Hindu my- thology, or the records of the Seeks, regarding 'the origin of that people; though it would perhaps be found, that their true exposition might tend to afford many proofs in favor of the mission of our Saviour. When the immense extent of territory we hold in India is considered, and, that perhaps no country in the world offers greater facilities, not only for literary correspondence, but for the re- searches of naturalists, the conveyance of gross articles, and the manufacture of raw materials, which every where abound, we cannot but lament the want of such institutions as might 326 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. enable us to turn such important advantages to ' the immediate benefit of Great Britain, on the most unbounded scale. We are absolutely ignorant of a million of facts now included, either directly, or by affinity, in our endless catalogue of desiderata, which need not remain in that disgraceful list, provided due means were taken to correct our errors, and to extend our resources. During the dry season, or at least for four months in the year, scarce a part of the country opposes the progress of a traveller ; unless through those immense wildernesses already described. It may, on the whole, be said, that one half the country is passable at all seasons by land ; though the progress will doubtless be slow, and difficult, during the heavy falls of rain. Intercourse is never at a stand. The dawk, or post, proceeds at all seasons ; and is rarely more than tvi^o days longer on its way from Calcutta to the upper provinces, than at the favorable time of the year. Bridges and ferries are found on all the great roads; whereby regiments have occasionally marched on emergency with such despatch, as could scarcely have been exceeded even during the hot season. The communication with Europe, overland, has been established, during peaceable times, for full twenty years ; but it was not until about twelve years ago, that the public have been per- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 327 mitted to avail themselves of so essential a means of correspondence at fixed rates, and under particular regulations. Prior to that period, the Company used to receive, and to despatch, packets overland, in which occasional indulgences were granted to favored individuals. I abstract this from the very old custom of sending intelligence, on sudden occasions, by the despatch of some confidential person to or from India. The utility of some permanent and certain conveyance for letters from a quarter daily becoming more opulent, and more im- portant, cannot be doubted ; were it only for the purpose of transmitting bills of exchange pay- able after sight, the notices of bankruptcies, the information of intended consignments, the state of the markets, &c., such a systematic commu- nication must be invaluable to the several mer- chants. To the Government it is of the highest importance! Many complain of the heavy rates of postage overland, and others of the severe restrictions; but such complaints are ill founded : the expence of the posts is very heavy, and it is indispensably necessary for Government to hold a severe check over what- ever intercourse might lead to mischief. The tables of postage, and of bangy carriage, contained in the Directory, will enable the reader to judge how far the charges are from being exorbitant: he will not fail to recollect, 328 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. that the sums paid in Britain are very trifling* owing to the immense intercourse subsisting between the several parts of the kingdom, far beyond what exists in any part of India. Bath is the same distance from London that the canton- ments of Berhampore are from Calcutta, viz. 106 miles: the former pays Sd. posta^-e, the latter 4 annas, which is about the same sum: the other charges are considerably cheaper; viz. Allaha- bad, which is full five hundred miles from Cal- cutta, pays only 7 annas (about 13 yd.) ; but this is on the great road, while the other is scarcely to be considered a thoroughfare, compared with what it was before the new road was cut through the Ramghur district to Chunar. With the exception of such parts as may be infested by tigers, the post seldom or never fails of arriving within an hour of its appointed time; except, as has been observed, when the waters are out; in which case, many circuitous roads must be followed, whereby the way is consider- ably lengthened in the aggregate. Taking the average, a hundred miles per day may be run over by the dauk, or post, in fair weather. Each mail-bag is conveyed by an hirkarah, (or runner,) who is attended by one or two doog- doogi/'Wallahs^ or drummers, who keep up a kind of ' long-roll,^ as they pass any suspicious place. Ordinarily, two mosaulchees, or link- bearers, accompany each dawk; and, where EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 329 tigers are known to commit depredations, one or tvvo feerin-daiizes, or archers, are supplied, under the intention of protecting the party. But such pnny aid is of no avail ; for the onset of the tiger is toosuddv^n, and too discomfiting, to allow any effort of consequence to be timoLisl}^ adopted: the very act of seizure is a death-blow, from which 1 never heard of any recovery; provided the unhappy victim were not so particularly situated as to prevent it from decidedly taking effect. Here it may be needful to explain, that a tiger invariably strikes his prey with the fore paw, in so forcible a manner as often to fracture the skull ; which, generally, is the object aimed at : many oxen have had their cheek bones shivered by the contusion. It sometimes happens, that the marks of one or two claws are to be seen, but they are generally en jjassanl, and by no means the result of primary intention. The wrist of a tiger being often nearly two feet in circumference, may give some idea of the violence with which the coup de grace falls on the head of a human beins:! The mosauls, or Jiambeaux\ are intended to intimidate the tigers, as are also the doog-doogies, but experience has shewn that, when hungry, tigers are not to be restrained by any such device : indeed, instances have occurred of the mosaulchees themselves 330 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. being carried off. It would, nevertheless, be presumptuous to judge from such partial data, that many tigers are not deterred by the noise and fire accompanying the letter-carriers; on the contrary, there should rather seem a probability, that many young tigers, or such grown ones as may not be hungry, nor be attended by cubs, are frequently intimidated from those attacks they would make but for these precautions. A resi- dence of two years at Hazary-Bang, the station for a battalion in the Ramghur district, enabled me to form a fair estimate of the dangers to which the dawh\ and travellers in general, were subject. During some seasons, the roads were scarcely to be considered passable; day after day, forncarl}'' a fortnight in succession, some of the duK'k people were carried off, either at Goomeah, Kannachitt}^ Katcumsandy, or Dun- gaie; four passes in that country, all famous for the exploits of these enemies to the human race ! So few valuables are ever sent by the post, that thieves never attempt any depredations on the letter-bags. HoomUes (L e. banker's drafts) would be of no use whatever to them ; and as bank notes are not in general currency, no object is held out for enterprize of that description. Nor do the dawk-bangies, or parcel-dawks, offer any substantial inducement; for, even if any plate, or watches, or trinkets, were to be sent by EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 331 such a conveyance, the want of a market, and the impossibihty of confiding- in any village jeweller, would render the act both hazardous and unavailing. Hence, the dawk generally proceeds in perfect safety, throughout every part of the country; while the hangies maybe con- sidered equally secure; except, indeed, in some parts of the dominions of the Nabob A'izier of Oude, where a lawless lincontrolled banditti subject every passenger to contribution: this evil is fortunately on the decline, in conse- quence of our having assumed the reins of government. It has frequently been asked why, in a coun- try so completely under our control, we did not establish mails, similar to those in use through- out England. Before this can be effected, an immense revolution must take place, not only in the minds of the natives, but in the features of the country. At present, there appears no desire on the part of the inhabitants to communicate by land, farther than may be necessary for the purpose of attending hauls, (markets,) mai/lnhs, (fairs,) or for the resort to certain places of wor- ship, &c. For such purposes, a pedestrian trip suffices; or, at the utmost, a poney, worth only a few shillings, is either borrowed or hired. The contact of various casts, or sects, being con- sidered a pollution, it is not to be supposed that a Hindu would like to be pent up, for hours 332 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. together, with a Mahomedan, who makes no scruple of killing and eating a cow: or that the Mussulman would, in his turn, feel comfortable under similar circumstances, with a British k(Lufui\ (unbeliever,) v.ho, besideshis condemna- tion of the prophet, makes no scruple of de- vouring ham and bacon wholesale! Admitting that all parties should be agreed to associate within the body of a stage-coach, still there would not exist intercourse sufficient to support the expences, in a quarter where horses are so dear, and wherfe the necessary repairs could not, in case of accident, be promptly effected. Then, again, the roads must be suitably made, at an enormous expence, and be afterwards supported by heavy disbursements, or by a contribution of labor on the part of the land-holders, by no means agreeable to their feelings. All this may, in time, pass under a complete metamorphosis: the produce of the country will be more generally estimable ; the people will relax greatly from the vigorous attention now paid to religious tenets ; and, as their prejudices may give way to their true interests, will extend their specula- tions without fear or restriction. Those who may then inhabit India, will see roads, mails, and inns ; whereas, at present, there are only path- ways and runners, but no inns. There are, to be sure, seraies and chonllries, for the accommoda- tion of travellers, but these are mostly going EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 333 fast to decay; and, at the best, can be viewed only as shelter for men and cattle ; goods being iisuaUy left exposed to the weather. The ht/- tearens, or female cooks, who ply, in more than one capacity, ';at such places, and who, on receiving money before-hand, buy and cook such victuals as may be ordered, or the place may afford, cannot be considered otherwise than as menials, and not to be classed with our inn-keepers ; no, nor even with the poorest village retailer, ' Lymnst to del in T, Koffi/^ and Tibaky ! ' There is, however, a wide field for practical improvement; as may be fully understood from the following statement. The dawk rarely travels at a less expence that twenty-five rupees per month, for each stage of eight miles (four cosses) on the average. This sum is absorbed by a moonshy at each chokey, or relief at the end of a,stage, who pretends to be very scrupulous in regard to ascertaining that all the parcels are right, but who, as I have repeatedly witnessed, is more intent on receiving little presents of ottah, (meal,) spices, &c., sent to him from the neighbouring villages, in return for letters con- veyed by the dawk-Jiirkarahs^ who are some- times laden pretty heavily with such contribu- tions. I speak from what I have. been an eye- witness to repeatedly ; as to hear-say, much more might be asserted. It appears to me that the 33^ EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. above sum would carry on the system with dou- ble the speed, and double the efficiency. In lieu of sending off four, five, and six, men with the dawks, let a horseman convey the bags for about twelve miles, on an allowance of fifteen rupees per month for man and horse ; and, during the rainy season, when the roads are deep, let a fresh horse be allowed for the several returns, instead of causing the same man and horse to return with the comifer-clau/is. On the above allowance a very good steed might be kept, the celerity of the dawk would be greatly encreased, and there would be no occasion for moonshies^ except at such chokies as might be upon diverg- ing roads, where it would be necessary to have the proper parcels sorted out, and delivered to the various branch-dawks. Travelling in a palanquin by dawk, {i. e. post,) is effected much in the same manner as the despatch of the daicks. Bearers are stationed at the several stages, for the purpose of relief; each station, in general, supplyi-ng eight bearers, and a havgi/, in all nine men, together with one or two mosaidchies for nidit stao^es. The ex- pence of travelling in this manner will depend greatly on the distance : if only a short journey is to be made, such as may' be compassed within eight or ten hours, nothing more is needful than to send on a set, or two, of bearers, who then receive their daily hire of four annas (8d.) each, EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 335 wliile out from home ; or, if there should exist the means of so doing, a hirkarah, (or messen- ger,) may be despatched to collect bearers at the several stages. In this manner, the relays may be properly supplied, and the cost will not amount to more than a rupee for three miles ; equal to ten-pence a mile ; whereas, in the ordi- nary mode of having bearers laid by the post- master, each mile will cost full one rupee, {i e. 2s. 6d.,) besides various little disburse- ments by way of biwees, or presents, to every set of bearers in the journey : these may be fairly estimated at two rupees for every set, or relief, which, if the distances run by each should ave- rage ten miles, will be about twenty rupees (£2. \0s.) for every hundred miles. The ordi- nary rate of this kind of conveyance may be rated at four miles per hour during the cold season, three and a half during the hot season, and from two to three during the rains, pro- vided the waters are not much out : otherwise, no estimate can be formed. The above includes stops. The establishment of dawk-hangks for the conveyance of parcels, at rates in proportion to their weights respectively, has produced consi- derable convenience to those who reside at a distance from the Presidency. Until this plan was adopted, few could send small articles, such as trinkets, &c., to the Presidency, but 53G EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. under favor of some individual who might per- chance be travelling thither, and who might possibly be some montlis on the way : the same inconvenience attended the return ; so that it was not uncommon for a gentleman whose watch required inspection, to be four or five months deprived of its use. This is now done away, and a watch, &c. may be sent from Cawnpore to Calcutta, there undergo repair, and be returned with ease, in the course of a month, or less. The same kind of convenience is, of course, afforded regarding books, and all other articles too bulky, or too heavy, to proceed by the dawk, but not of sufficient importance to induce the employment of a boat, or of a hatigif, to convey them : nor, indeed, could a single bearer travel with a bangy more than twenty miles within the twenty-four hours ; so that he would be full a month in going from Calcutta to Cawnpore ; whereas, the dawk-bangies travel by relays of bearers, therefore can almost keep up with the dawk-hirkaralis, who carry the mail -bags sus- pended at the end of a stick over their shoul- ders. The communication by water between Cal- cutta and the several subordinate stations, whe- ther civil or military, is much resorted to ; dur- ing the rainy season in particular. At that time, few are inaccessible to craft of some description, though but lor a- while : those immense falls of EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 33? rain which cause the ravines to fill, and every little creek to become navigable for boats of ten or fifteen tons, swell the Ganges, and the other great rivers, to an astonishing height; causing them to run with awful velocity. The rivers generally rise in May, but a few inches only, in June, they often approach the summits of their banks, between which they fluctuate, rising and falling until the great swell, which takes place in August. Sometimes the river rises twice, sometimes thrice, or, even four times, during the season ; but, in general, one ample inundation serves all the purposes of agri- culture, provided the rains do not afterwards abate too suddenly in September, before the rice is cut. When such an untimely cessation takes place, it is attended with great mortality : the immense expanse of slime, suddenly exposed to the influence of the sun, then on the equinoctial, throws forth the most destructive miasma, whereby epidemics, of the most dangerous de- scription, are propagated. The swelling of the great rivers is a matter of great uncertainty ; sometimes they rise very early, before the quantity of rain that falls in the lower provinces could lead to the expecta- tion of their doing so : when this is the case, it is not uncommon to see the Cossimbazar river, commonly called the Baugrutty, nearly dry at night, and full twenty feet, or more, deep the VOL. II. a 3^8 EAST INDIA vade-mp:cum. next morning. In other seasons the waters are very tardy ; a matter of serious moment to the husbandman, who is naturally anxious to plant his crop of rice in due time, so that it may be securely attached to the soil before the great inundation comes on. The growth of the rice stalk is certainly one of the most curious proofs of nature's adaptation of that plant to the situa- tion in which it is cultivated ; namely, in the water: it will not thrive unless the stem be immersed for several inches ; and, owing to the formation of its stalk, which draws out like the concentric tubes of a pocket telescope, it can put forth many feet in the course of a few hours, so as, apparently, to grow as fast as the water may rise, and to keep its pannicle from being overflowed. It is by no means rare for the rice stalks to shoot forth from five to six feet during the twenty-four hours : I have seen it do much more ! In parts subject to the regular annual inunda- tion, all the villages are built on rising grounds : many stand on artificial mounds, formed by excavations around their bases, so that they are surrounded nearly by moats, in which their dm* gies^ or small boats, are immersed during the dry season, and aftording admirable refreshment •to their buffaloes durins: the summer heats. But it sometimes happens, that the waters rise to so great a height as to endanger even these elevated EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 359 villages ; some of which are then completely inundated. To avoid this, most of the houses are built upon piles, or stakes, thereby to raise their floors from four to six feet above the ground, and open enough to permit the waters to pass through with freedom. In the dry time of the year, the cattle are occasionally kept within the areas thus enclosed under the floors ; but, wdiile the inundation is at its height, so as to insulate a village completely, all the live stock are kept in boats moored around it, where they are fed by a species of the doob^ or doop-grass. dragged np from the bottom of the waters by means of 'split bamboos, made to serve as forks : but for so providential a supply, the cattle must be led scores of miles to some part of the country, whose elevation exempts it from inundation. The mention of a country being so completely under water, cannot but cause considerable sur- prize. The fact is, however, too well known to be disputed. Even at Berhampore, which is not considered within the ordinary verge of inun- dation, it is common to see boats of great bur- then, perhaps fifty tons, sailing over the plains, as through a boundless sea. As to the country lying between the mouth of the Jellinghy and the debouchures of the Ganges, that is always overflowed for full three months, perhaps to the average depth of ten or twelve feet. 1 have sailed over it full a hundred miles by the com- z 2 340 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM, pass ; aided, indeed, by sojiie remarkable vfl- lages, mosques, banks, &c., well known to the boatmen, who, probably from their earliest days, had traversed the same expanse during every rainy season. Were it not for the water being strongly color- ed, and the strength of the current, it would not be easy in many places to distinguish the great rivers which are crossed in steering through this fresh-water ocean : the water of the inun- dation is generally of a bluish tinge, derived from the quantity of vegetable matter at the bottom, of which a certain quantity decays, and partially taints the fluid. A large portion is concealed by the d'/uuin, (or rice.) which rises above its surface. This, in the first instance, bears the appearance of a long grass, of a rich green, rising above the surface, so as to be mis- taken at a little distance for terra Jirma: gradually, the pannicles shoot forth, of a pale-dun color, turning, as they ripen, to a deep dun, or light clay. The grains of rice, which are called by Euro- peans '■ jx(d(li/^^ retain the name of cfhauu so long as in their coats ; as we often see a few grains among the rice imported to us : these coats are peculiarly harsh to the feel, and are fluted longitudinally, so that no water can lodge upon them. Each grain is fastened to a short stalk, joining to a mail] stem, and fur- nishing a very pleasing bunch of grain, not very EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 34lr dissimilar to an ear of oats, but far richer, both in color, and in quantity. Rice has no husk or chaff; therefore is easily separated from the straw, which is eaten by cattle when no other provender can be had, and makes excellent Jitter, it being very long and soft. Where the inundation prevails, the straw is of little use : the grain being cut in boats, and the straw set- tling at the bottom as the waters subside ; there- by adding to the natural fertility of the soil. In the more elevated parts, the straw is cut the same as in the rubbce, or corn crops, and bundled for domestic purposes : there, its length rarely exceeds two feet, whereas, among the inunda- tions, it is often seen from fifteen to eighteen feet in length. The head, or pannicle, generally bears from a hundred and fifty, to three hundred, strains of rice. Two modes of clearing rice from the shell are in use ; the one performed by the very simple process of scalding, which occasions the rice to swell, and to burst the shell, so that the latter is removed with very little trouble ; the other is, by putting the cftiaun into an immense wooden mortar, called an ookli/y and beating it by the application of two or more beetles, called moo^ stils, of about four feet in length, by three inches in diameter, shod at the bottom with iron ferules, and thinned towards their centres, so as to be grasped by the women ; each alter- 542 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. nately impelling one, in nearly a perpendicular direction, among the d'haun in the ookly. After the shells have been didy separated, the rice, now called choul^ is separated, by winnowing either in a strong draught of air, or by means of a kind of scoop, m.ide of fine wicker-work, called a soop^ wherewith the native women can most dexterously separate different kinds of corn, and effectually remove all rubbish. The coat of rice is peculiarly harsh, and not much relished by cattle : 1 have seen it mixed with dung for fuel with excellent effect. The natives, in general, make little distinc- tion between the rice separated by scalding, which is called oosnah, and that dressed by the ookli/, which is called urwah ; but some of the more fastidious prefer one or the other, accord- ing to particular prejudices handed down in their families, or supposed to appertain to their re- spective sects. 1 think the scalded rice gene- rally deficient in flavor; the grains are larger, and less compact ; the beaten rice certainly boils with rather more difficult}^ but appears whiter, and drier. The scalded rice does not immedi- ately separate from the coat, but is usually sub- mitted to the operation of a machine composed of a stout beam, nearly equipoised by means of a thorough-pin, on a fork, of wood also, fixed in the ground. It is inconceivable what quantities of rice, of EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 343 a coarse reddish cast, but peculiarly sweet, and large grained, are prepared, about Backergunge, near the debouchure of the Megna, for export- ation. In that quarter fuel is cheap, and water conveyance every where at hand ; so that the immense crops raised in the inundated districts find a ready sale. The average return from a bigah oi' 1600 square yards, of three bigahs to our statute acre, sown with about twenty-five seers of cPhaitn, may be taken at nine maunds. The price of the grain, when cleared of its coat, may be from thirty to forty seers of fine rice, and from sixty even to a hundred and twenty seers (i. e. three maunds) of coarse, commonly called ' cargo-rice.' But the demand always regulates the value ; especially when great consignments are forwarded to the coast of Coromandel. Large quantities of rice are usually cleared by contract, the operator receiving the grain at thQ door of the gWa/i, or warehouse, where he sets up his cauldron and machines, and returning twenty-five seers of clean rice for every maund (forty seers) delivered to him ; he finding the fuel, and reserving the husks. In a country where labor is so very cheap, it is not so very necessary to have recourse to mechanical devices for the purpose of diminishing the expence of such operations ; yet it occurs to me, that, were tide wheels to be used at Backergunge and elsewhere, or a floating mill, like that moored 344 JJAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. between Blackfriars' and London Bridge, to be made out of some condemned hulk, an immense advantage would be gained in regard to time. By the proper adaptation of machinery, whereby the rice might be hoisted in, or lowered down, either by the force of water, or of steam, and the beetles be properly worked, the gram might certainly be prepared for market in less time, and infinitely less charge for cooly hire, in land- ing, loading, &c.: should this hint be well re- ceived by any speculating European, it might tend to lower the prices of rice at those times, when, either from want of laborers, or from the expediency of shipping off with as little delay as possible, the saving of a few days might prove an object of importance. At all events, the work might be done more regularly, more frugally, and more independently, than by manual pro- cess. The rice grown in the low countries by no means equals that produced in the uplands, where it is cultivated with great care, and sub- jected to many vicissitudes in regard to the state of moisture in which its roots are retained. In many parts of the most hilly districts d^liaim is to be seen in every little narrow valley, winding among the bases of those stupendous eminences from vvhicii the torrents of rain supply a super- abundant flow of moisture at one time, while, at others, only the little rills proceeding from boggy EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 34:5 springs seem to feed the artificial pools in which the growing plants are kept in a state of semi- immersion, by means of small embankments made of mud. In every instance the d'haun is to be kept duly watered ; else it withers, and becomes unproductive. In order to preserve the water as much as possible, the bed, or level, nearest to the springs, is raised as high as can be afforded, and its exterior border banked up, to about a foot and a half, with soil : the next level may be from a foot to a yard lower, and receives the overflow ; which is again passed on to the next lower bed ; and thus, in succession, for perhaps a mile or more ; the ends of the beds requiring no embankment, on account of the land rising on either side. Such situations afford a certain crop in ordinary seasons ; and, if the rains should fail, the dews falling on the adja- cent hills, generally covered with jungle of some kind, ordinarily afford moisture enough to keep up the springs, thus causing sufficient dampness to prevent the rice from perishing, before some ample showers may again flout the whole of the irrigated cultivation. Rice thus produced is commonly small in grain, rather long and wiry, but remarkably white, and admirably suited to the table. The natives, though they admire its appearance, are not partial to it ; they generally preferring the larger-bodied grain, with a reddish inner rindj which does not readily separate, when 346 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. new, from the rice : this kind, as I have before expressed, is assuredly the sweetest, and is, on that account, preferred by those who distil arrack. Remoteness from the sea air is said to be the reason why the up-country rice possesses less saccharine matter than that grown near the sea- coast, and among the inundation ; but this ap- pears an erroneous judgment. There is, no doubt, a great encrease of saccharine matter in plants (of the same genus) cultivated on spots well manured : now, few, if any, of the places devoted to the cultivation of rice in the upper country, receive much aid from manure ; nor are they, in general, subject to the reception of nu- tritious particles, such as are either floated down, or are engendered and deposited by, the inunda- tion, which may be viewed as the grand depot of whatever can enrich the soil. When we look to the large tracts of plain, not subject to such an immense flow of feculous moisture, but seem- ing merely as reservoirs for the retention of local rains, we shall then see, that the superior sweet- ness of the rice produced about Backergunge, Dacca, ilajygunge, Luricool, Mahomedpore, Co- mercolly, Jessore, &c., is to be attributed solely to the superior fatness of the soil, on which the most luxuriant crops of cotton, and of esculents, are raised during the dry season. When the soil is fresh turned up for the second crop, it is gene- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 3^7 rally very offensive, and, doubtless, by no means favorable to the health of the cultivators, who, at that season, (commonly in November, De- cember, and January,) are subjected to very obstinate agues. Rice is very subject to the weevil, which often multiplies among it so fast, as to threaten destruction to the whole depot. The natives have recourse to a very simple preven- tive ; viz. by placing one or two live cray-fish within the heap : their effluvia quickly expel the predatory tribe. Here we have a question for naturalists and philosophers; a question pregnant vrith interest to the agricultural world, namely, ' Whether there is any particular, and what, property in a live cray-fish, that produces this effect upon insects under such circum- stances ? ' Whatever may be the cause, the effect is well known ; therefore the enquiry is so far forwarded as to furnish data, or at least hints, respecting those results which might be expected both from marine productions, and from other living bodies. The inhabitants of the lower provinces are chiefly Hindus ; therefore, owing to religious tenets, by which they are led to consider almost every animal as unclean, few- experiments could be expected to take place among them ; otherwise, we might probably have found that any living animal, such as a rat, a frog, &:c., if confined in a small box, and 1^\S EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. placed within a heap of rice infested by weevils, would produce a similar effect. Rice is by no means subject to this species of depredation when in the coat, that is, in the state called cThaun^ but the natives are averse to retaining it in that form, because the grains shrink consider- ably, and, when beat out for sale, do not occupy so much space as when exposed to the air. Hence, it is an object with the rice-merchants to dispose of their crops before the month of March, unless the markets may be so glutted as to cause that grain to sell, as it has in some years done, at such low prices as could not fail to ruin the farmer. Jt has been known so cheap as seven and eight maunds (equal to seven cwt.) for a rupee ! When this happens, such mer- chants as have the command of money rarely fail to make immense fortunes. Many have been known to possess four or five lacs of maunds ! Rice is the most common article of food among the natives, whether Hindus or Mussulmans, throughout the lov/er provinces, where it is to be found in far greater abundance than corn of any description. The inhabitants of the upper provinces, where wheat and barley are cultivated to such an extent as to be sold in the retail for about a rupee and a quarter, and a rupee, respec- tively, subsist chiefly on the meals of those gi'ains ; which, being well kneaded with water, are made into chow -patties, ov bannoch, are baked EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 349 at the common choolahs^ and are both palatable and nourishing. The natives hold an opinion that rice is very injurious to the sight ; but, 1 believe, whatever injury may arise from its use proceeds entirely from eating it too hot, and in such quantities at one meal, generally about sun-set, as can scarcely fail to injure the sto- mach. Barley-meal is considered, and with great justice, to be very nourishing, but heat- ing ; therefore most of those who prefer ottah (meal) to rice, use that made from wheat. Large quantities of rice are carried upwards, towards the Nabob Vizier's dominions, where it sells to great advantage ; while, on the other hand, immense consignments of corn, chiefly wheat, barley, and rfiiu\ are made from those parts towards the lower districts ; where they are con- sumed by all classes of persons. While the Saugrutti/, (i. e. the Cossimbazar river,) and the Jellmghi/, both of which branch from the Gan- ges, and, uniting atNuddeah, form the Iloogly, which passes Calcutta, are open, boats of all kinds proceed that way ; but chiefly through the former channel, on which Moorshadabad, Berhampore, Cossimbazar, and Jungypore, are situate. This is the shortest line of communi- cation by water between the Presidency and the upper provinces ; but, unfortunately, it is open only for about six months in the year; it rarely having water before the middle of June, and 550 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. being commonly reduced to a very low ebb by the middle of i3i cemher ; though, in some years, it remains navigable for small boats for a month or six weeks longer. It may, indeed, be passed in such all the year through, provided they be dragged over the shallows, which, often for a mile or more, oppose the progress of whatever may draw more than a few inches of water : in such case, the bottom of a boat should be good, otherwise she may be strained by the immense exertions of perhaps fifty men, who, ranging along either side, and dragging by means of ropes, as well as by pushing and lifting behind, force her along the shallows, and thus pass her over all the more prominent obstacles. I have, more than once, had a very small pulwar-budjroia navigated, if I may so call it, down the Baug- rutty, from Mohanahpore, at the mouth of that river, as far as Berhampore ; which, by land, is full forty miles, and, by water, cannot be less than seventy. But there are so many bars, or shoals, between Berhampore and Augah-Deep, about thirty-five miles by land, lower down, as to render that part absolutely impassable, except when the river has an average depth of two feet, or two feet and a half. During the dry months, the whole of the com- modities transmitted from the upper provinces to the Presidency, with the exception of some few articles of small compass, which may be EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. S51 landed at Bagwangolah, and proceed to Augah- Deep overland, are sent down the Ganges for the purpose of proceeding through the Soonderhunds. This highly interesting, but difficult navigation, reaches from the Megna to Calcutta, near to which a canal ofiers to adventurers a safe and easy communication between the Hoogly and the Salt- Water Lake, which lies at the back of Calcutta. The generality of trading and passage vessels proceed by this cut, paying a moderate toll, ei^er on the tonnage of the former, or the number of oars of the latter. But the salt ves- sels despatched from Joynaghur, &c., with the produce of the different pans in that quarter, commonly take the lower passages near Chingree- Cauly^ and Cidpee, which are by far the most dangerous, though rather more direct. The Soondcrhufids, or Simderbunds^ consist of an immense wilderness, full fifty miles in depth, and in length about a hundred and eighty miles. This wilderness, which borders the coast to the water's edge, forming a strong natural barrier in that quarter, occupies the whole of what is called the Delta of the Ganges ; every where inter- sected by great rivers, and innumerable creeks, in which the tides are so intermixed, that a pilot is absolutely necessar}% both to thread the intri- cacies of the passage, and to point out at w^hat particular parts the currents will, at certain times, be favorable in proceeding either to the eastward 355 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM< or to the westward. In many places there is scarcely breadth for the passing of a single boat, and even then the boughs of the immense trees, and of the subordinate jungle, frequently are found so to hang over, as nearly to debar the progress of ordinary trading vessels. Fortu- nately, these narrow creeks are short, or, at least, have in various parts such little bays as enable boats to pass : one or two are, however, so limitted throughout in point of width, as to render it expedient that musquets should be discharged before a boat proceeds, in order that others may not enter at the opposite end of the narrow : but for such a precaution, one of them would be compelled to put back. The water being brackish, or rather absolutely salt, through- out the Smiderhunds, it is necessary for all who navigate this passage, to take a good stock ; calculating for at least a fortnisiht's service. Even the villages, which here and there are to be found on the banks of the great rivers, are some- times supplied from a great distance ; especially during the dry season, when the tides are very powerful. The regular trading vessels, which pass through the Sunderbunds, perhaps every month, or two, are usually provided with very large nauds, or gounlah, made in the form of a rather fiat turnep, of a black earth which bakes very hard. Casks are never used in India for water ; all the ships EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 3iS in the country trade have one or more tanks made of teak wood, rendered perfectly water tight, and containing from twenty to fifty butts. The water is thus carried in a small compass, and remains sweet much longer than when in casks. Even if no other reason could be as- signed, it must be obvious, that, in a tank, the surface of wood necessary to contain fifty butts of water, w ill not exceed six hundred and fifty square feet; whereas, each of the fifty butts would present a surface of more than forty feet, whence the whole must amount to two thou- sand square feet. Where a ship is navigated by lascars, m?iny rules and ceremonies are adopted for the preser- vation of the water from impure contact. When native troops are on board, only particular persons are allowed to lay it in, or to serve it out, and even under such precaution, many of the more fastidious shew great aversion to using the tank water; often undergoing great suffer- ings, both from hunger and from thirst, rather than drink of it, or even taste of viands pre- pared therewith. But this prejudice has, of late years, subsided considerably, in conse- quence of the frequent occasions the British government have had to send native troops on distant expeditions by sea. Casks would certainly prove obnoxious to servants, and others, proceeding through the VOL. II. 2 A 354 EAST IKDIA VADE-MECUM. Soonderbuiids, owing to a general opinion anrjong them, that we convey spirits, meat, &c., in such vessels ; which, having been once used for such a purpose, could never be viewed by them as receptacles for beverage, without disgust and execration. The town of Calcutta is supplied with fire- wood by persons who resort to the woods, about twenty-five miles from Calcutta, where they cut the smaller kinds of serress, jarrool, soondry^ g'hoby &c., into junks about four feet in length, which are rived into two or four pieces, accord- ing to their diameter, and carried to market, where such billets are usually retailed at from twelve to fourteen rupees per hundred maunds, delivered at the door. This is the only kind of fuel used in the kitchens of Europeans, and forms the supply of nine-tenths of the native population also: the remainder use the gutties made of dung. It is to be lamented that Government have never adopted a plan I long ago oflfered, of em- ploying the convicts in clearing away a sufficient tract around Diamond Harbour, which is now peculiarly unhealthy, and is the gras'^e of full one-fourth of the crews of the India Company's, and other ships, that generally are moored there for months. I am aware that objections have been stated in regard to clearing away the forests in the EAST IXDTA VADE-MECUM. 355 Soonderbunds, on account of their being con- sidered a natural defence in that quarter; but, without entering upon the policy, or otherwise, of such a retention of that ' wilderness of all wildernesses,' there does not appear to me any sound reason for suffering the principal naval station to be backed and flanked by woods and swamps, from which disease is poured forth amidst our unfortunate countrymen. I have been assured, that, taking one year with another, full three hundred European sailors die of diseases incident to the laying up of ships for a while in the river, of whom, the larger portion are taken ill at, or below, Diamond Harbour. Those who have occasion to pass through the Sunderbunds, which can be done by water only, ought to be extremely careful not to venture ashore, unless at some of the little towns, whose vicinity may afford some security against the attacks of tigers, by the jungle having been partiall}^ cleared away. The romantic scenery, every where inviting the eye, should not be per- mitted to allure the traveller from his state of safety; nor should the abundance of game, especially of deer, lead him among those coverts in which danger equalh'^ abounds. Nor are the waters less devoid of mischief: sharks, of an uncommon size, are every where numerous and greedy; while their competitors, 2 A 2 366 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. the alligators, not only infest the streams, but often lie among the grass and low jungle, waiting for a prey, with which, so soon as seized, they plunge into the water. Instances have been know, both of tigers swimming off to board boats, and of alligators striking the dandies (boatmen) out of the boats, with their tails, and snapping their victims up with a nimbleness fully proving the falsehood of that doctrine, which teaches to escape from the crocodile by running out of the right line, ' becaufte the animal cannot turn to follow!^ If those who either gave, or believed in, such advice, were to see with what facility an alligator can turn about, or with what agility he can pur- sue, and catchy the large fishes that abound in the great rivers of India, the folly would be so self evident, as to cause an immediate derelic- tion of so preposterous an opinion. Besides, the koomeei\, or bull-headed alligator, which, generally speaking, is the only kind to be seen in brackish waters, is peculiarly fierce and ac- tive; far more so than could be supposed, at first sight,ofanamphibiousanimal of the lacerta tribe, (for it is nothing more than an immense lizard, or guana,) whose length has been thirty feet, and whose girth has equalled twelve feet. Such is the ravenous disposition of the kooincer, that it will not hesitate to seize cattle that proceed to drink of the river water where EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 357 it is fresh; but this does not often happen; the places where cattle proceed to slake their thirst, being-, for the most part, rather shallow, so that an alligator, sufficiently formidable for such an attack, could not lie concealed. It has fallen within my way to see some oxen that had been seized by the head, or by the fore leg, but which had either been rescued by their drovers, or had succeeded in escaping from their merciless enemy: they were all so lacerated as to be com- pletely disfigured! The size of a boat may make much difference regarding the time required to make the Soonder- bund-passage; generally from ten to twelve days will elapse in making the shortest cut in a hudj- row of from twelve to sixteen oars; while a light pulwar, that can pass through the lesser creeks, and make way against the tides, Avhich are extremely intricate, on account of the numerous channels that wind in every direction, may perhaps get through in seven or eight days. Much will depend on the route: if Dacca, or any part of the Megna, be the destination, full ten days will be requisite, but if the Comercolly track, which opens into the Ganges nearly op- posite to Nattore, be followed, the great body of the wilderness will be avoided, and the fertile districts of Jessore, Mahomedpore, and Comer- colly, will be passed through with facility and gratification. 3o8 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. It does not appear that any accurate survey has been taken of the Soonderbunds, further than to ascertain the several channels, and to lay down the bearings of particular slioals, which run for many miles off the coast, presenting, on the whole, a most intricate and dano'erous ^approach to vessels even of small burthen; though, with proper care, ships of great size may be carried into the Rogmungul, the Hooringat- tah, and the Mutwallah rivers, where they may ride in perfect safety. Mr. Benjamin Lucarn, many years back, ex- plored the passage at the back of Saugur Island, and presented to the Government in India very accurate dn ights of the soundings and bear- ings; from which he enabled the Board to judge pf the practicability of resorting to that passage, with more safety and convenience than now exists, in respect to those channels that lie to the wesward of Saugur. The spot selected for the reception of vessels was called New Harbour, and the stream leading to it from Culpee was designated L'hannel Creek. It is to be presumed, that, notwith- standing the plan has not been carried into effect, although occasionally resorted to, the merits of the suggestion must have been considerable, as the Company have thought it but just to remunerate that gentle- man's abilities and research, by an annuity EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 359 of of 600., which has been lately raised to .iMOOO. Several objections have been urged against the adoption of New Harbour, of which some may be cogent ; but, from all I have ever heard on the subject, it appears to me, that the reasons given for rejection exist at least as formidably in the w^estern channels, where some of the ad- vantages offered by New Harbour are totally wanting. The time will probably arrive, when Saugur Island, instead of being a desolate waste, in- habited by various wild animals, may present a rich expanse of agriculture, destined for the sup- port of an industrious population, inhabiting those shores so favorably situated for extensive commerce, and so highly protected by nature against foreign incursion. The channels leading past it, on either side, are narrow, and certainly might be defended by a very small force against a powerful fleet. JNIany opinions, and some bold assertions, have been offered regarding the Soonderbunds. Some consider the immense wilderness that borders the coast, to be of no great antiquity, and pre- tend, that probably one hundred years would be too much to allow for the duration of that soil, whereon such stupendous forests of noble trees are now to be seen. That the whole of the country south of the 360 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. Ganges, from Bogwangolah to Saugur, and in the other direction to Luckypore, &€., was formerly covered by the ocean, may be readily believed, both from the nature of the soil in general, and from the various marine productions to be found occasionally, when wells are dug to any consi- derable depth. The ancient city of Gour, of which only an immense assemblage of ruins, covering full thirty square miles, are to be seen, stood not very far from Mauidah. That able geographer, ]\Iajor llennell, states it to have been the capital of Bengal 730 years before Christ, and that it was deserted m consequence of a pestilence ; that it formerly stood on the banks of the Ganges, from which it is now distant nearlv five miles ; the river bavins:, as is very common in that quarter, changed its course: the Mahanuddy, which- passes within two miles of it, is navigable throughout the year. Many parts of Gour are now full twelve miles from the Ganges. The following extract from Major Rennell's Memoirs, pages 55 — 6, may serve to illustrate the position I have to assume regarding the Soonderbunds: he says, 'Taking the extent of the ruins of Gour at the most reasonable cal- culation, it is not less than fifteen miles in length, (extending along the old bank of the Ganges,) and from two to three in breadth. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 361 Several villasres stand on part of its site: the re- mainder is either covered with thick forests, the habitations of tig-ers, and other beasts of prey, of is become arable land, whose soil is chiefly com- posed of brick-dust. " *■ The principal ruins are a mosque, lined with black marble, elaborately wrought, and two gates of the citadel, which are strikingly grand and lofty. These fabrics, and some few others, appear to owe their duration to the nature of their materials, which are less marketable, and more ditticult to separate, than those of the ordinary brick buildings ; and are transported to Moorshadabad, Mauldah, and other places, for the purpose of building. These bricks are of the most solid texture of any I ever saw ; and have preserved the sharpness of their edges, and the smoothness of their surfaces, through a series of ages. ' The situation of Gour was highly convenient for the capital of Bengal and Bahar, as united under one government; being nearly centrical with respect to the populous parts of those pro- vinces, and near the junction of the principal rivers that compose that extraordinary inland navigation for which those provinces are formed; and, moreover, secured by the Ganges, and other rivers, on the only quarter from which Bengal has any cause for apprehension.' Here I feel at a loss; for the author has 362 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. evidently been deficient in that perspicuity which characterizes his work ; it does not appear to me what quarter is meant in this in- stance ; the greater part of Bengal being divided from GouR by that same river, the Ganges, which is here described as a protection to GouR against incursions from Bahar. W this be not the Major's meaning, I can find no other; at ail events, the passage is incongruous. Setting, however, that matter at rest, as being irrelevant on this occasion, I shall proceed to ob- serve, that throughout the Delta of the Ganges, which forms an area of full twenty thousand square miles, (it being nearly a right-angled triangle, whose sides average about two hun- dred miles,) we have not one vestige of remote date! It has, no doubt, been asserted by some tra- vellers, and I have heard several of the natives declare, that, in some parts of the Soonderbunds, ruins of great extent are to be seen. These are said to be the remains of cities which formerly flourished on the borders of the ocean, but were abandoned in consequence of the depredations of the Burmajis, or Maggs, who inhabited the country lying south of Chittagong, and who have, within the last fifteen ^"^ars, called to our memory that such a nation was stil' in ex- istence. Admitting the existence of such reputed EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. S65 ruins, we have no right to place them to the ^ccourit of the earlier ages; we have no record^ of their existence; the whole of the details that have hitherto been offered to the world, either by native traditionists, or European surveyors, give no account of any such fragments; while, on the other hand, every presumption is in favor of the whole Delta being comparatively mo- dern. Major Rennell, at page 347 of his Memoirs, observes in a note, that ' a glass of water taken out of the Ganges, when at its height, yields about one part in four of mud. No wonder then that the subsiding waters should quickly form a stratum of earth ; or that the Delta should encroach upon the sea.' If we estimate the course of the Ga,nges, (setting apart the Barampooter,) at fifteen hundred miles, and take Its mean width at half a mile; which is, indeed, reducing that magnificent flow of water to a mere stream, we have then a surface of seven hundred and fifty square miles, of which, one fourth is said to be mud, or matter light enough to be kept suspended by the violence of the current. This should give nearly two hun- dred square miles of soil. The foregoing computation proves the Delta to contain twenty thousand square miles; therefore, if Major Rennell's hypothesis be correct, the whole of the Delta might have 564 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. been formed in one hundred years ; taking the depth of the river, when at its highest, to be equal to the depth of the soil. But, if we recollect that probably many fathoms of sea were nHed up by the encroachment that thus took place, we may be correct in allowing ten times that period, i. e. a thousand years, for the completion, or, rather, for the gradual ac- cumulation, of so extensive an addition to the terra firma of Asia. At page 348, Major Rennell argues very strongly, though unintentionally, perhaps, in support of my hypothesis, that Gour formerly stood on the borders of the ocean, and was, probably the Tyre of Hindostan. He says, ' As a strong presumptive proof of the icandering of the Ganges^ from the one side of the Delta to the other, I must observe, that there is no appearance of virgin earth, between the Tippe- rah Hills on the east, and the province of Burd- wan on the west ; nor on the north till we arrive at Dacca and Bauleah.^ Uniting all these points, and agreeing with Major Rennell that the Ganges discharges, on a medium, 180,000 cubic feet of water in a second, we may easily imagine that the present Delta has been formed by the sedimentary portion propelled forward in constant succession, until it gained the highest level to which the annual inundation could raise it; after which. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. S65 the black mould on the surfoce must have been produced by the constant accumulation ot" vegetable matter that rotted thereon. It is a curious, but well known, fact, that from Sooty to that part of the Cossimbazar Island which lies nearest to the tide's way, the whole is obliged to be preserved from inundation by an embankment, called the i}oolhundij^ maintained at a very great and regular expence ; an obvious demonstration that the present course of the Hooghly has not been settled many centuries ; for almost all rivers, long sub- ject to such overflows as those we witness in Bengal, ultimately raise their banks, by an annual deposit of matter, to such a height as afterwards prevents their streams from passing over into the adjacent country. ' There can be little doubt, that the city of Gour stood on a spot which, in very ancient times, was washed by the sea; and we may, without being accused of credulity in the ex- treme, admit the great probability of the Ganges having" then debouched into the sinus, or bav, at that same spot. Nor should we doubt, that those sands,, which are, at this day, so dangerous to naviga- tion, from Balasore to Chittagong, will, at some remote period, be encreased and raised, so as to become, in the first instance, islands; and, ulti- mately, parts of the continent : the present 366 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. channels serving for the courses of future rivers, which, in so loose a soil, may, like the Ganges in our times, be subject to changes of locality, whenever the floods may prove so impetuous as to open new beds, and cause the streams to be diverted into them. The Sunderbunds, whatever may be their date or origin, present, at this day, a most inhospita- ble aspect, and give, exteriorly, a feature to the country which by no means corresponds with the interior : they are, in truth, a hideous belt of the most unpromising description, such as could not fail to cause any stranger who might be wrecked on that coast, and who should not proceed beyond the reach of the tide, to pro- nounce it ' a countrij Jit for the residence of nei^ titer man nor beast.' When Major Rennell remarked, ' that they furnish an inexhaustible supply of wood for boat building;' he might have added, ' of timber for -ship building.' Many very large vessels have been launched from this quarter, but, no pains having been taken to season the timber, it was not to be expected they should prove so durable as they might have been rendered by due pre- cautions in that particular. Nor is the wood itself of the best quality for naval architecture ; for, though it is very strong, and to be bent with facility to any necessary form, it, being extremely subject to be worm-eaten, proves a great draw- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. S67 back on its being brought into more general use, unless for such vessels as are intended to be coppered : for such, the jarrool may answer, as may also the soondry ; both which abound in every part of the Sunderbunds. The whole coast, from Balasore to Chittagong, has at times been occupied by a class of natives called Molimgies, who manufacture salt from the sea-water. The produce of the several chokies^ or manufactqries, is immensely valuable, as has already been shewn, and suffices for the con- sumption of the w^hole population of all the Company's dominions, besides what is exported into those of the Nabob Vizier, &c. About thirty-five years ago, salt used to be sold at a rupee, or a rupee and a half, per factory maund of 72lb. ; which might average about one half- penny per lb. ; but, since the Company mono- polized the manufacture, and imposed a heavy duty, the price of salt has gradually risen to about four rupees per maund. The importation of salt, by sea, is prohibited, except under partial or temporary licences ; but it is brought from the mines to the northw^ard of o Delhi in large quantities, though not of so good a quality, it being generally very bitter, espe- cially the Saliiwbah^ or more opaque rock-salt, which is far less serviceable for curing meat than the Sambcr ; both these kinds are brouaht in 363 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. small prismatic masses, and, though in common use among- the natives of the upper provinces, are never, except from necessity, allowed to appear at the tables of Europeans, though employed in their culinary preparations. Salt is also obtained, but not of a prime qua- lity, by piling up large quantities of the sand forming the beds of rivers, after the waters have subsided into very narrow channels. On these heaps water is poured in abundanc(^, and, being afterwards drained into reservoirs, the salt either chrystalizes by solar heat, or by being boiled in large iron pans, similar to those used for chrysta- lizing sugar from the expressed juice of the cane. In travelling by water, many points, totally unheeded by European tourists, are necessarily to be attended to previous to departure. I have already warned my readers, that no furnished house, no lodgings, no public vehicles, no inns, and, in short, no preparation for the lodgment or convenience of temporary sojourners, are to be expected in^any part of India ; with the excep- tion of the taverns and punch-houses already described. Therefore, when an excursion is to be made by water, a hudjroio must be hired, which may commonly be effected either by what is call- ed ' teckah,^ or so much for the trip, according to the distance, with some allowance for demurrage; or the vessel may be hired at a certain monthly EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 3^9 Slim ; generally taken at ten rupees per oar. Sometimes Teturn-budjroiis are to be had at a cheaper rate : whichever way the bargain may be made, the person hiring has nothing to do with the pay, or provision, of the several men employed in navigating the vessel. The following Table of Allowances granted by the Company to officers, and others, proceed- ing, according to orders, from one station to another, will be both useful to those who may be proceeding to the East, and serve to give a gen-eral idea of the periods required, in ordinary seasons, taking the year round, for a boat's reaching her destination, and returning to the place she quitted. The allowance likewise in- cludes whatever may be intended for not only the budjrow, but for an attendant baggage-boat, and a cook-boat. TABLE OF ALLOWANCE FOR BUDJROWS AND BOATS. ' per Mouui. To a Colonel 930 To a Lieutenant-Colonel, Physician, General, or Chief Surgeon 630 To a Major and Head Surgeon 360 To a Captain, Pay-Master, Deputy Pay-Master, and Regimental Surgeon 180 To a Subaltern, Hospital, or Regimental Mate . 100 To a Cadet . 80 To a Conductor 50 VOL. II. 2 B 370 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUxM. Officers are entitled to the allowance for hudj- roics and boats only in the following instances : viz. When posted to corps on their first joining the army. When ordered to proceed, by water, upon any duty. When removed, without their own application^ to supply vacancies in the corps to which they are removed. When water conveyance is not practicable, the difierence of batta is to be drawn, calculat- ing from the day of appointment, and allowing ten miles for daily progress. Where no ascertained rate is given, officers are to draw at the rate of ten miles against, and fourteen with, the current, for each day's pro- gress. The following may be considered the general standard ; by which extraordinary cases are likewise governed. Month (. From Calcutta to Berhampore is allowed for as . 1 Ditto to Monghyr 1| Ditto to Patna, or Dinapore .... 2 Ditto to Buxar 2i Ditto to Chunar or Benares . . . . 2i Ditto to Allahabad 3 Ditto to Cawnpore 35 Ditto to Futty-Ghur 4 Ditto to Dacca 1 Ditto to Chittagon^ 2 Ditto to Midnapore i EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 371 It is proper to remark in this place, that a boat may, at most seasons of the year, proceed to Berhampore, (provided the river be open,) in about seven or eight da^-s. The distance by water is nearly double that by land, owing to the winding course of the river, which formerly could competite with that passing under Lucknow ; which, owing to the mazes of its course, received the name of ' Goomti/,* or winding. Within the last twelve or fifteen years, many of the narrow isthmuses have been cut through, whereby the distance from Moorshadabad to Calcutta has been reduced full twenty miles ; some yet require the aid of art, to perfect what the hand of time seems preparing for the still fur- ther abbreviating the passage by water : pro- bably, in the course of twenty years, the river may be brought into a tolerable line ; but, how long it will remain so, is another consideration ; as the soil is every where, except about Ranga- matty, fi. e. the red soil,) a few miles below Berhampore, so loose as to be totally unqualified to restrain the violent current which prevails in every part during four months in the year. The passage to Chittagong can rarely be per- formed in a common hudjro%\ a great part of it being across the mouth of the Megna, indeed, in an open sea, subject, at least, to very heavy swells, if not to squalls, such as give much trou- 2 B 2 372 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. ble even to those who are on board substantial sloops, and other vessels coming under the description of sea-boats. However, during the cold months, an adventurous maiiji/ will some- times make the trip with his budjrow, provided a handsome gratuity be offered on such a hazardous occasion. The best mode is to embark at Calcutta on board one of the Chittagong traders, of which some are commonly on the point of sailing, and to make a sea trip at once, in a secure, and tolerably pleasant manner. It is true, this mode does not offer all the conveniences of a good large hudjrow ; but that is balanced by the safety and celerity with which the voyage is made. A hudjrow will rarely complete the trip to Chitta- gong under three weeks ; whereas, a coasting sloop will commonly perform it in as many days, after quitting the pilot, either in the northerly or southerly monsoon ; the coast being east, with a very little southing. After a hudjrow has been offered for hire, it will be but common prudence to send a carpen- ter on board to search her bottom, and to place a servant on board for a day and a night, to as- certain how much water she may take in during that time. Some of the best, in appearance, are extremely rotten, and can only be kept afloat bv constant baling, in consequence either of the depredations of worms, or of the number of EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 373 years they may have been built. Some are neat and clean, others are filthy in the extreme ; some are snpphed with good Venetians, lockers, curtains outside the windows, &c., &c. ; while not a few, though not totally destitute of such conveniences, offer them in a most miserable istate of wretchedness and of inutility. The roofs of nine in ten do not keep out water. It will, on every occasion, be indispensably necessary to make memoranda of the terms on which the hucljrow^ &c., may be taken ; and to xibtain from the manjif a written agreement ; the want of which may prove unpleasant, either in consequence of any misunderstanding, or from any attempt that may be made to impose upon such Europeans as may not be supposed to have sufficient knowledge of the ordinary rou- tine of such affairs, to secure them from de- predation. The masts, sails, rigging, &c., of the vessel should be carefully over-hauled ; and, in parti- cular, great care should be taken that one or two good g/ioom, or track ropes, of sufficient length, be on board ; since a defect in this branch of equipment will inevitably produce great delay, and, in strong currents, subject the boat to im- minent danger. Let it be remembered, that, whatever the num- ber of oars paid for may be, so many actual boat- men there ought to be, exclusive of the manji/i 374 EAST INDIA VADE-MECL'M. or steersman, and the golenh, or bowman : it is a very common deception to count tlie latter in among the rowers, because he sometimes sits to an oar fitted out for him on the very prow of the vessel, when there is no occasion tor his stand- ing to throw the luggi/, or bamboo-pole, where- by the boat is kept clear of banks, shoals, stumps, &c. When an engagement is made of the teehah, or job-kind, the manjy will, for his own sake, endeavor to get away as speedily as possible, and will ordinarily make sure of a good crew, in order that his money may be the sooner earned ; but, when paid by the month, there will be no end to excuses, delays, and evasions : the dan- dies will generally be wanting in number, and their quality be very indifferent. The best mode, on such occasions, is to apply to the police, which, under proper circumstances of established criminality, will put a peon (or messenger) on board, at the expence of the de- linquent, and make such a change in the posture of affairs as cannot fail to please the employer. This is a safe and efficacious mode of proceed- ing ; whereas, when justice is taken into the hands of the person hiring the boat, and that abuse and blows are dealt out, under the hope of gaining the point, the grounds of complaint are laid, and the dandier, so far from doing their duty, will either abscond w^holly, or secrete EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 575 themselves in such manner as effectually to impose an embargo. I do not mean to say, that sometimes a re- course to the manual may not be advisable, or even peremptorily necessary ; but such must be adopted with extreme caution, and with such a mixture of resolution and conciliation, as may produce the desired eftect, without establishing a character for brutality, or unnecessary harsh- ness. If, during the trip, occasion for com- plaint should arise, it is best to refer the matter to any persons in office, whether native or Euro- pean, who may be within a suitable distance. The manjies have an insuperable antipathy to this mode of proceeding, because it deprives them of all grounds for justification, or repre- sentation ; the want of which, in the hearing of an European magistrate, speedily induces to their corporal punishment ; while, in the esti- mation of a cutwal^ or chief of a village, it is sure to subject them to some pecuniary loss, whether by fme, by deduction from the sum to be paid as hire, or by having to maintain one or more peons^ according to the nature of the offence. Most budjrotcs have two apartments, exclu- sive of an open veranda in front ; the latter is on a level with the dining apartment, but the cham- ber, which is more towards the stern, rises one or two steps above their level, in consequence of the form of the vessel's stern : beyond all 376 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. there is usually a small privy, which, being still more elevated, is ascended by other steps. As the chamber contracts considerably towards the after-part of its floor, it will be necessary to ascertain whether a small cot {i. e. a bedstead) can stand in that part of the budjrow^ without inconvenience ; as also whether the height, be- tween the floor and the roof, may admit of the bed-posts being erected. If the space should not allow them to be elevated, they must be unshipped, either by taking off their hinges, or by drawing them forth from their sockets, and the curtains must be suspended from hooks, nails, &c., driven for that purpose into the beams that support the roof. Though floating on a large river, whose wa- ters are celebrated for their virtues and purity by the whole population of Ilindostan, it will, nevertheless, be indispensably necessary to take on board a good large g^oulah^ or jar, which may be lashed to the mast, and be used as a depot for such water as may be intended for culinary purposes, or for beverage. In a few hours it will have settled thoroughl}^ and should then be drawn off as required into smaller vessels, called kedjeree-pots by Europeans, but by the natives gurrahs. Whence the former designation originated I never could learn, but conclude it resulted either from the supplies of crockery furnished EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 377 to our shipping at Kedjeree, or from the very common circumstance of that preparation of rice, spHt peas, &c., called kitchurry, which may often be seen boiling, wholesale, in vessels of this description, for the supply of a dozen, or more, oi dandies, &c. The forepart of every hudjrow is decked, and furnished wdth two hatchw^ays, with appropriate coverings : the whole of the part under the deck, which reaches from the veranda to the stern, is generally considered by the rnanji/ as a pri- vilege, of w hich he rarely fails to avail himself, when it is possible to render the trip a trading voyage. Against this too much precaution cannot be adopted ; for not only will the hudj- row be so heavily laden a§ to draw more water, (an object of considerable importance,) but to track with far greater difficulty, and to leak very abundantly. If any contraband trade can be carried on with tolerable safety, it is usually in this man- ner; because, owing to the general deference paid by the custom-house officers, and chokey- peo?is, in every part of the country, to European gentlemen, and to their equipages, few, or none, will attempt to search a biidjroio under hire : the facility with which goods can be landed, is such as to obviate, almost totally, any danger to be apprehended in the performance of that part of the adventure. ^ 373 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. Government has, it is true, placed a number of checks on this kind of fraud ; but, unhappily, it is out of its power to go so far into the remedy as would put a total stop to illicit commerce, without subjecting their own servants, of what- ever rank, to the intrusive, and ultimately inso- lent, researches of those natives by whom they should, on every occasion, be treated with the utmost respect and consideration. It is incon- ceivable with what secresy, and caution, the manjies act on such occasions. An instance is within my knowledge, of a gentleman hiring a budjrow at Patna, to proceed to the Presidenc}', but it was in vain that he importuned the nurnjy^ day after day, and hour after hour, to complete his crew, and to have all in readiness for embark- ation: at length, all was adjusted, and the vessel proceeded in high style. The gentleman was unaccountably drowsy, and often wondered ot the rapidity with which he seemed to be making his passage, but was not displeased to find himself so speedily floated towards the place of destination : it was in vain that he endeavored to prevent the tmwjy from stopping at Chandernagore, a French set- tlement, about twenty-two miles from Calcutta; when, to his great surprize, he saw several boxes of opium, which had been concealed in various parts of the budjrow^ and particularly under the floors, handed out to some sircars who EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 379 were at the g^haiit^ or landing-place, anxiously awaiting her arrival. However unpleasant the above-mentioned car- go might have proved, it cannot be compared with the truly ofFensiv-e practice common among all the boat-men of Hindostan, of cutting such fish as they may purchase, catch, or steal, into slices, and hanging them over the quarters to become sun-dried. This custom should never be tolerated on any account ; not only because the effluvia are cruelly distressing, but, that, wherever it is allowed to obtain, all the rats are sure to be attracted from whatever boats, or banks, may come in contact with the hudjroiv : once in. Old Nick cannot get them out ; except by emptying the vessel completely, and fumigating her with sulphur ; or by sinking her for a while, so as to drown the vermin, of all descriptions, that harbour in the numberless recesses, chinks, &c., to be found in every quarter of an old budjrow. When a single gentleman is intent on pro- ceeding on the most economical and expeditious plan, he will find it best not to hav^e even a cook- boat in his suite ; but should confine himself entirely to whatever convenience his hudjrow may afford. If this plan is acted upon, the several boxes, &c., may be arranged within the cabins, or, at the utmost, under the deck ; tak- ing care, however, to debar the dandies from 580 EAST IXDIA VADE-MECUM. visiting that part of the vessel, by placing stout battens, or bamboo-laths, across, by way of con- fining them to the fore hatchAvay, down which they ordinarily keep their cloaths, fire-wood, &c., &c., and, occasionally, make a choolah, or hearth and fire-place, of mud, whereon to cook the victuals of the crew ; an operation performed by one of the dandies, who, on that account, is exempted from all ordinary duties, and who is generally capable of serving up an admirably well-savored curry. The after-part of the hold is commonly spa- cious enough to hold a tent of ordinary dimen- sions ; but it may become a question how far it would be prudent to put camp equipage in the way of the rats, which would, probably, for the sake of shelter in the vicinity of the culinary operations, soon burrow into the hearts of the ])ackages, and do inconceivable damage. If, however, no other place can be allotted for the reception of a tent, and the weather be such as not to w arrant its being stowed upon the poop, no alternative is left, and the risk of destruction, or, at least, of very serious injury, must be met with resignation. Though not indispensably necessary, a tent of some kind will be found extremely conveni- ent, when proceeding by water to any distant station, especially during the hot season. As the boat-men usually come to about sun-set, or, £AST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 381 perhaps, a little earlier, if any favorable situa- tion, or the proximity of some large town, should invite, a small tent may easily be taken ashore, and pitched on the elevated bank, where the freshness of the air, and the wide range of pro- spect, prove a most comfortable relief to a person who, during the day, may have been obliged to remain under the heated roof of a cabin, whereof the windows were closed to keep out the sun, hot winds, and flying sand. Many gentlemen have one small boat employ- ed chiefly in going forward with such a conve- nience, and which, after the bed, &c. may be shipped at da^^-break on board the bu(fjrow, that no delay may arise in departing, waits to receive the baggage left on the spot, with which it pro- ceeds at such a rate as soon makes up for the detention : a boat of this kind is extremely use- ful in many instances, but especially in procur- ing supplies from an opposite bank, for going to or from shore in shoal water, for towing a budj- row in strong waters, for carrying out an anchor, or rope, to warp by, &c., &c. Where only a hudjrow and such a small boat are employed, the latter generally has a choolah, or hearth, &c., prepared within it under a small thatch. She commonly has to carry the proper supply of dry fire-wood ; that obtained on the way being, w^ith few exceptions, green, and pausing the viands to acquire a very smoky, un-. 3S3 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUxM* pleasant flavor. The poultry are also usually conveyed on the thatch of the cook-boat, in small tuppahs^ or cages, made of split bamboos : this part of the stock may consist of a dozen of fowls, with a few ducks, and a goose or two ; and, occasionally, is accompanied by one or two milch goats, which, being supplied with foliage cut for that purpose, during the day, and being sent to some verdant spot when the boat comes to in the evening, rarely fail to furnish milk enough, of a very superior quality, for the morn- ing and evening tea. The traveller must not expect to be supplied with beef, mutton, or veal, as he may proceed, in any part of the country, except at military or civil stations : there he may, perhaps, be enabled to purchase a sufficient supply of meat to make some variety in his diet as he passes from one station to another ; but, unless in some very particular situations, he must content himself with poultry of various kinds, but chiefly chick- ens, and with kids, of which the meat is excellent. He may, at some of the principal towns where Mussulmans reside, here and there fall in with a butcher, who can furnish a joint of kmsij ft. e. cut-goat) ; or he may perchance pick up a tole- rable sheep, which may, at all events, serve for gravy, and supply his pointers and spaniels with two or three days' substantial provision. The mention of cutting up a sheep for such EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 383 purposes, may appear extraordinary to the Eu- ropean reader, but it must be recollected, that such sheep are rarely worth more than two shil- lings, that in some parts the countr}^ swarms with them, and that their wool is not valua])le, owing to its being lank, coarse, harsh, and not of a strong fibre : it is, indeed, more like that hair which grows upon many horses that are turned out during the winter, and comes off by handfuls as the spring advances. The boats employed for carrying baggage are of two kinds ; icoolachs and palellies : the former are built in the lower provinces, with round bot- toms, and often draw much water; the latter are chiefly of up-country build, have flat bot- toms, and are clinkered ; this construction suits them admirably to the shallows, which, after the rainy season, abound in all the rivers beyond the tide's way, and especially at a distance from the sea. Some of the woolaclis used by the more opu- lent native merchants are capable of bearing from fifteen hundred to three thousand maunds, (/. e. from eighty to a hundred and twenty tons,) but their medium may be taken at from four to eight hundred maunds, which is also the general measurement of patellies in the common employ of grain-merchants, &c.: many are to be seen of full two thousand maunds, but such are calcu- lated for the great rivers only; not but that in 5S4 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUMi the channels abundant depth of water maybe found, so deep, indeed, that several ships, of five hundred tons burthen, have been built at Patna, which is, by water, six hundred miles from the sea ; but those channels are so crooked, and the currents so strong, as to render it very diffi- cult for the ordinary number of dandies^ pro-, portioned to the tonnage, to navigate such unwieldy boats with safety and expertness. The best size for a baggage-boat to attend upon a hudjrow, especially in proceeding against the stream, may be from three hundred to five hundred maunds: observing, that the jmtelly is by far better calculated for shallow water, and for the conveyance of horses, than a woolach ,• but, being so low in the water, the former is rather subject to be swamped in rough water, and, owing to its construction, is very apt to become hog-backed, and, ultimate^, to give way in the middle ; an accident which seldom or never happens to the latter. When horses are to be carried in boats, as is very commonly done, it becomes necessary to make a platform, at about a foot from the bottom of the boat, consisting of brush-wood, mats, and soil : the thwarts being rarely a yard asun- der, one must be taken out to make a stall of sufficient width; therefore, if three or four horses are put on board the same boat, a corre- sponding number of thwarts must be withdrawn. tAST INDIA VADE-MECUAK 385 When the animals are about to be embarked, the thatch opposite the stall must be raised high enough to allow a horse to leap in without danger, from the bank. This operation is often attended with con- siderable difficulty; for some horses are ex- tremely averse to enter upon the solid platform of a large substantial ferry-boat, such as that at Ghyretty, even when placed on a level there- with, by means of a fixed, or moveable pier. When, therefore, it is considered how many obstacles seem to oppose the admission of a horse into a covered boat, when, probably, he is standing above his knees in water, and has to rise, under every disadvantage, over the boat's gunwhale, it will not appear surprizing that many hold out for hours, notwithstandig every effort on the part of the syces^ (or grooms,) and that a large portion are severely lamed in the attempt. It is curious to observe how very quiet and temperate horses become after embarkation ! In such a situation, they seem to forget that wonderful propensity they invariably display when on shore, to attack each other, even when at a considerable distance ; but, though parted by only a few feet, they become so tractable while in a boat, that their natures seem to undergo a complete change. Notwithstanding this periodical, or, rather, local, timidity, at will be proper to secure that VOL. II. 2 c 386 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. part of the boat's side against which a horse may be able to kiin many prejudices in this particular, are not considered. The principal defects, in the eye of a native merchant, are, 1. A broken tail; or a deficiency of the forked hair at its termination. The former arises from the habit the elephants are in, of laying hold of their opponent's tails with their EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM, 433 ti'unks, and of twisting them so, that, occasion- ally, they are absolutely snapped, or, perhaps, tumefy, and, in the end, sphacelate. 2d. An uneven number of claws to the feet : there should be five on each fore, and four on each hind foot. 3d. Bad tusks ; that is, such as are decayed, or, having been broken in contests, cannot be rendered ornamental : an elephant born with only one tooth, or tusk, is highly prized, as being sure to overwhelm its owner with good fortune. 4th. Having a black, or spotted palate; either of which is supposed to be an indication of bad health, as well as of misfortune. 5th. Bad eyes ; though sometimes we see very serviceable elephants totally deprived of sight, which travel admirably with burthens, but are unfit for the howdah; these are ex- tremely careful to put their trunks forward as they proceed, whereby they are warned of any hollows, &c. Blind elephants are peculiarly attentive to the words of command given by their drivers. 6th. The want of hair on the forehead, lean jaws, small jagged ears, narrow feet, thin legs, short bodies, and a contracted barrel, or carcase, are all objectionable, and become serious objects of attention in the purchase of this animal. An VOL. II. 2 F 434- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. European, not accustomed to view elephants critically, would conclude that little variety, in the above respects, would be found ; but there are certainly as many estimable, or agreeable, points in a fine elephant, as in a fine horse; though we rarely look so narrowly into the per- fections of the former, on account of being less in the habits of cherishing, or of driving, them in person. According to the regulations, an elephant ought to be able to carry twenty-five maunds, which is within a twenty-sixth part of being a ton ; but, although the several contractors stipulate, without hesitation, that their elephants should be able to carry that weight at all times, not one in a hundred of those in the service, or in the possession of individuals, could bear it even for one day's ordinary march, which should not exceed eight coss, (sixteen miles,) all beyond that being considered a forced march. The elephant is furnished with two pads, of which the under one, called a guddaylah^ is commonly made of red karuah^ stuffed to the thickness of an inch and a half with cotton, and well quilted. The upper pad, called a guddy^ is made of tavot^ which is a narrow kind of very coarse canvas, and is stuffed very hard with straw to about the thickness of six inches. These are put on, the one over the other, and firmly so EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 43* Cured to the body by means of stout ropes pass- ing round the whole, as well as under the tail, by way of crupper. Such a thickness may appear too great ; but it is to be considered that an elephant ought, by the contract, to carry either four common marquees, each weighing, when dry, 425lb., and, when wet, 597lb. ; or six private tents, each weighing, when dry, 275lb., and, when wet, 4261b, Therefore, when I take the medium at twenty-five maunds, it is but striking a fair balance. An ordinary elephant requires two servants ; namely, a niohouf, or driver, who sits upon his back, and guides, by means of a crooked instru- ment of iron, called a haimkus, aided by words of command, and the application of his toes behind the animal's ears. The other servant, called a cooli/, or grass-cutter, performs all the more menial offices, such as taking the elephant out for charrah., i. e. fodder, of which it Can carry as much as will suffice for two, or, if well laden, for three days. The feet of an elephant require considerable care ; they being extremely apt to chafe, and wear away, at the soles, so as to render him completely unserviceable for a time. This gene- rally happens where the soil is dry and harsh, as throughout the upper (jountry, but may be, in a great measure, prevented by paying them 2 F 2 436 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM* with astringent applications, so that the skin may be rendered harder, and the foot, in general, somewhat callous. When an elephant is chafed on the back, the part is usually rubbed with ghee and turmeric, and the pad cushioned so as to raise the spot under which the excoriation maybe: if suffered to continue in a state of irritation, the smallest sore will speedily assume a most formidable ap- pearance, owing to the peculiarly cellular forma- tion of an elephant's flesh. The mode of catching elephants for the pub- lic service is very simple, requiring more perse- verance than skill, yet attended with a heavy expence. In those wildernesses near Chitta- gong, Tipperah, &c., along the eastern boundary, some hundreds, or perhaps thousands, of vil- lagers are assembled, who form a circle around those herds they may find, and gradually frighten them into a kind of trap, called a keddah^ of which the entrance is of a crescent form, lead- ing to a large area, properly enclosed by an im- mense trench, and by large piles well bound together. After a while, the animals are driven, or induced, into a smaller area, from which they are taken into a narrow passage, for the purpose of being secured, and led away to the stands, at which they remain until completely tamed. It was formerly the practice to break their EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 4.37 spirit by privations and severity ; but, of late years, it has been found preferable to sooth as much as possible ; a change which has been at- tended with the most happy results. So far has this plan succeeded, that many elephants are now better reconciled in one month than they formerly were in four or five ; while, at the same time, many inconveniences, especially those severe ligatures, which invariably made desperate sores about the ankles, &C.5 are almost wholly avoided. The practice of decoying the large single males, which separate from the herds, and are called sauns, or goondahs^ is extremely curious : two or three females are generally sent out for the purpose of inveigling the ferocious males thus ranging about. Such female elephants^ which are called k'^hoomkies, are highly valuable, especially if they be large, and attached to their jnohouts, whom they will protect to the last moment, if accidentally discovered by their in- tended prize while passing the ropes around his legs. For a particular account of this, which can scarcely be rendered distinct but by the aid of plates, I refer my readers to ' The Wild Sports of the East,' pubhshed from my designs and memoirs by Mr. Edward Orme, of Bond Street, and Messrs. Black, Parry, and Kingsbury, of Leadenhall Street. Contrary to the opinion formerly current, if 458 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. has been ascertained that elephants copulate in the same manner as other quadrupeds. This has been certified by Mr. John Corse, the resi- dent Surgeon at Tipperah, who established a breed of elephants at that place ; whereby much insight has been obtained regarding the natural history of this noble animal. When Mr. Corse transmitted that account which may be seen in the third volume of the Asiatic Researches, he had not the opportunity of ascertaining the period of gestation, which has since been found to give an average of about twenty-two months. That less time could not be required, was evident from the incipient portion of that gen- tleman's researches ; as a female elephant, taken in January, 1788, did not produce her calf, which was thirty-five inches high at his birth, and grew four inches in as many months, until the 16th of October, 1789- Elephants are invariably measured at the shoulder, and not on the arch of the back, the •Want of which is to be considered as indicative of age. Elephants are to be found along the whole extent of frontier, ranging from the Chittagong district, to the very borders of Thibet. They become more scarce, and are, besides, less robust, and of smaller stature, in proportion as they recede from the sea coasts. Those sent yearly^ EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. .439 by way of compliment, or of tribute, from the Rajah of Napaul, are by no means to be com- pared with the coomaeeahs, and mooknahs of Tipperah, and Chittagong, whose form and bulk certainly entitle them to superior estimation. Some of these are, occasionally, sold for immense sums to the native princes in the upper parts of Hindostan. Two thousand rupees are held to be but a low price for a male of nine feet in height, provided his teeth are large, even, and of regular curves : sometimes elephants, of ex- traordinary bulk, and of remarkably fine points, have reached to eight or ten thousand rupees. The expence of keeping an elephant will vary according to the situation, and to the gene- ral services wherein it is employed : in the Dacca district but little expence is incurred, unless hard labour is to be performed, there being abundance of d\hul, (grass,) and of foliage, of which the animal can always obtain an ample supply gratis. There, a mohout rarely receives more than three rupees monthly, and a grass- cutter more than two. I have shewn, in de- scribing the servants necessary to be retained in a gentleman's suite, that the wages of these menials are generally much higher; which, when added to the average charges for food, chiefly hadjra, or millet stems, which must be paid for, and rice, or barley, perhaps to the extent of 30lb. daily, will cause the expence of 440 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. maintaining an elephant in the upper provinces, to amount to full thirty, or thirty-five, rupees per mensem; and that, too, exclusive of the wear and tear of gear of all kinds. On the whole, we may compute that an elephant, well kept, will cost full Ibrty rupees [£5.) monthly. When we consider that, in England, few gen- tlemen keep their horses for much less, and that an elephant performs so much essential drudgery, indeed, equal to a team of three stout cart horses, also that the value of money in India is not half so great as with us, we may deem the above aggregate to be very moderate : the misfortune is, that an elephant is not, like a horse, promptly or generally useful ; and that, owing to the nature of the climate, as well as of the soil, months often elapse before the proprietor of the former may be able to avail himself of the valu- able powers of his sable property. Camels are very generally kept by the officers of the army throughout the upper provinces, that is to say, above the Delta of the Ganges, where the soil is more appropriate to their form, than those muddy, slippery, tracts, in which these animals are extremely subject to fall. When such an accident happens, it is a great chance but the animal is rendered useless ; as, ovvin? to the great length of the hind legs, and to the want of any membranes, or muscles, calculated to prevent their easy divergence in diametrically EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 441 opposite directions, the pelvis is extremely apt to«plit, and the power of extrication, or even of support itself, is entirely lost to this very valuable quadruped. Though we generally attach the term ' cameV to that species of the camelus found in India, where great numbers are bred by persons who make a very large profit from their labors, the animal under consideration, having but one hump, or bunch, on its back, should, properly, be called a ' dromedary.^ Whatever may be the true designation, the utility of the animal in a climate, and on a soil, to which it is so admirably suited by nature, is indisputable ; but, with regard to its powers, as described by natu- ralists, or by travellers, I must beg leave to enter a partial dissent. I have now before me a very respectable publication, wherein it is said, that ' a camel will carry a weight of l,200lb., and will per- /orm a journey of three hundred leagues in eight days.* Now, my own experience convinces me very fully that few camels will carry more than eight maunds, when making, on an average, stages of from fourteen, to sixteen, or, at the very utmost, twenty miles within the day, for two months ; allowing a weekly halt. So sensible are the Government of India of the inability of a camel to perform any thing like the service above described, that, in all their con- 442 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. tracts, in which it must have been seen they take care so to proportion the burthens, that none but the choicest of cattle could move under them, it is especially detailed that such camels as may be admitted upon the Company's establishment of carriage-cattle, should be rated in the proportion of three camels to one elephant; which, in other words, assigns to each a bur- then composed of two private tents, the weight of each, when dry, being 27«^lb., and, when wet, 4261b. ; including poles, pins, mallets, bags, &c. Taking the medium as a standard, i. e. one wet, and one dry tent, the average burthen would be only 70 lib., which will be found a gi'eater load than any camels, setting apart per- haps one or two of extraordinary powers, which have come within my observation, could carry in a proper manner, so as to answer general purposes, when marching with a regiment. The value of a camel varies according to size, form, age, condition, and disposition: supposing all those points to be mediocrity, from eighty, to a hundred and twenty, rupees may be taken as a standard ; observing, that, where no military movement is in question, the prices are often lower, and that, in case^ of emergency, they have been known to rise even so high as to four, five, and six, hundred rupees: but such, fortunately, is very rarely the case. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM* 443 Most gentlemen keep two or three camels, for the purpose of carrying their tent, liquors, and cot. If on a moderate scale, two will gene- rally prove competent to the work, but if the tent be large, the liquors and linen abundant, and the cot extensive, or on a heavy construc- tion, a third camel will be necessary. In fact, I know not of worse policy, than that we too often see adopted, of burthening an animal with as much as it can stand under. When the mo- ment of diificulty comes, as it rarely fails to do, infinite vexation, and an enormous encrease of expence, invariably follow. Hence, it will be found advisable, though the primary expence may be encreased, and the subsequent monthly charges be a trifle greater, always to retain three, in preference to two camels ; unless the intended burthens be very compact, and not subject to accumulate a great addition of weight in wet weather. The difference shewn to exist between tents, when wet, and when dry, according to the Com- pany's standard, ascertained by actual experi- ments, should prove a guide to all persons about to proceed on a march, so to proportion the loads imposed on their cattle as not to endanger their total failure. It should never be forgotten, that excoriations, however trivial in the first instance, speedily rankle into wounds, not simply painful, but generally trenching deeply on the immediate 44'4 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. powers, as well as on the condition, of those useful dumb animals, which submit to the last moment to the will of their heedless employers. Camels, as well as elephants, lie down, so as to bring their stomachs to the ground, while receiving or discharging their burthens. At such moments, the former are extremely irrita* ble ; snarhng, and watching the opportunity for biting. To say the best of these animals, they are never to be trusted, their dispositions being, for the most part, sanguinary and treacherous, although they are not carnivorous, being fed chiefly on gram, and chaff of various kinds : a camel, like the bull-dog, rarely lets go his hold. The expence of maintaining a camel may be averaged at about four or five rupees monthly, exclusive of its portion of the sur)ca7i\s (i. e. the driver's) wages: the large crook saddle, with its jolah, or canvas trappings, and its saleetah, or canvas sheet made of tawt, for the purpose of lading tents, and especially for bringing in chaff, may be averaged, for wear and tear, at about a rupee monthly. From this it will be seen, that if a surwan, attending three camels, should receive six rupees for pay, and that each of the camels should cost six more, the whole expence, amounts ing to twenty-four rupees per mensem, would fall far short of that incurred by one elephant. The advantages attendant upon an elephant, are, that the load is all carried compact and EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM, 445 entire ; that he can travel in swampy districts, where no other animal could proceed at all ; and that he is serviceable to ride upon, and to join in the line to beat hogs, and other game, out of heavy covers. On the other hand, a camel will travel on those dry soils which destroy an ele- phant's feet, without sustaining the smallest injury ; he is more patient under heat, and the absence both of fodder and of water ; his prime cost is considerably less ; his maintenance cheaper ; and, where a division of carriage be- comes necessary, one camel may be sent off, while the others are retained. But camels rarely thrive if exposed during the rains ; hence, it is customary to build sheds for their reception during that season : this, however, is done at a very trifling expence, and might, doubtless, be dispensed with altogether, at least in the upper provinces, if young animals were to be pur- chased that had never been so domesticated. Few gentlemen retain their camels while serv- ing near the Presidency, where fodder is at a^ most enormous price, and where the mange commonly attacks within a few weeks after arrival. The heavy, awkward, and apparently slow, gait of the camel, generally induces to a belief that its rate of travelling is disadvantageous, in- asmuch as it may denote inability to keeping up with the generality of elephants. This, how- 446 EAST tNDiA VADE-MECUM. ever, is a great mistake, for it is very common to see the latter, when in the least over-burthen- ed, or when the weather is hot, or the road sandy, very late in arriving at their destination ; whereas, the camel, under an appropriate loadj will move on at a regular pace, generally making a distance of seven feet, as 1 have repeatedly as- certained, from the centre of that spot whence it lifts a foot, to where it again sets it down : few elephants do so much ; they walk quicker, but their strides are rarely so extensive. The propensity of a camel to stale, so soon as eased of his burthen, renders it indispensably necessary to drive him to a distance so soon as the tent is off his back ; otherwise, the urinous stench attached to the spot would render it very unpleasant, or, rather, insupportable. The na- tive chemists extract large quantities of ammo- nia from those stands where camels have been kept for many weeks. The greatest inconvenience attached to a camel IS his utter inability to swim across a river, such as any other animal would consider no impedi- ment. It is true, that, occasionally, camels may have been seen to swim for a few yards, but, in general, they turn upon the side, and, unless instantly rescued, would infallibly be drowned. Perhaps this arises from the general roundness of their bodies, which are very easily acted upon by the super-incumbent weight of the neck and EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 447 head, that become levers, not sufficiently op- posed by their almost fleshless limbs. Some camels enter with readiness into ferry-boats, even of the rudest construction, while others require to be urged by the display of fire in their rear, or even by the actual cautery I When once on board, they are generally quiet, but do not seem to entertain such a dread of their insu- lated situation as horses do. In this particular, the elephant has a most de- cided superiority: he enters the water with alacrity, and, guided by the niohout, who pre- serves his seat on the animal's neck, until the latter may, by way of frolic, descend to walk on the bottom, keeping, at the same time, the end of his proboscis above water, makes his way to the opposite bank, though perhaps a mile distant. If there be occasional shallows, whereon he can refresh himself, two or three miles are passed with equal facility. In their wild state, elephants cross very large rivers in herds ; the young ones swimming by the sides of their mothers, which, occasionally, support their gigantic calves by means of their trunks, either passed under the body, or slightly hooked in with the young one's proboscis. When domesticated, elephants lose much of their natural /energy in every instance ; and, in lieu of viewing a tiger without fear, gradually become so timid, as to be dreadfully agitated at 44S EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM^ the sight, or smell, even of a dead one : hence^ in tiger-hunting-, those elephants which are more recently taken from the keddahs, provided they be sufficiently trained to be safe in other respects, are usually best suited to the sport, and afford their riders a better chance of suc- cess. Those who cannot afford, or who consider it unnecessary, to retain either an elephant, or camels, usually purchase, or hire, bullocks, when about to march to any station not very remote. Some, indeed, prefer them altogether ; but, after having given them more than one trial, both from necessity, and from the per- suasions of others, my mind is made up to the full conviction, that, although rarely costing more than sixteen or twenty rupees each, (that is, from forty to fifty shillings,) they are the most tardy, the most troublesome, and the most expensive, of all the beasts of burthen in question ! Knowing, from dear-bought experience, that a bullock which can carry five maunds is a rara avis of its kind, I was much surprized to find, in Mr. Colebrooke's little treatise on the Hus- bandry of Bengal, an assertion, that the enor- mous ' load of 500lb. of cotton is generally car- ried from Nagpore to Mirzapore, a distance which, by the shortest route, exceeds four hun- dred miles, in journies of eight or ten miles EAST IXDIA VADE-MECUM. 449 daily. * That some remarkably fine cattle are bred in the Nagpore district is well known; but I should have greatly doubted, under any other than the highly respectable authority alluded to, whether it would be possible to select, in all Bengal, a sufficient number of bullocks, bred in the country, to carry on the extensive trade between Nagpore and Mirza- pore, under the circumstance of carrying 500lb. as an ordinary load. I have possessed very fine bullocks, such as could not, generally, be obtained for less than a hundred rupees the pair, and I have had oc- casion to rely on their services; but found, that, whenever they v/ere laden beyond four maunds, (320lb.,) they became restive, and required many extra hours to perform a march of twelve or fourteen miles, even on excellent roads, and when in far better plight than tnahajuny (trading) bullocks are commonly seen. But let us refer to the regulations of the Company respecting cattle to be admitted upon their establishment ; we shall there find, that one Mirzapore bullock nearly equals three of them. ' The standard of cattle to be retained for, or received into, the service, is not to be less than fifty inches for the draft-bullocks, and forty-eight inches for the carriage-bullocks. Each carriage-bullock shall be competent to VOL. ir. ^ G 4v50 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. carry a burthen of one himdred and eight if pounds weight, exclusive of his pad.' Now, it is well known the Company employ excellent cattle, and take care to have justice done them ; as, indeed, they are fully entitled to expect, when they allow no less than thirty sicca rupees for each bullock purchased on their account; especially, as any distance beyond sixteen miles, or when laden for more than nine hours within the twenty-four, or when carryiniL^ more than ISOlb., come under the denomination of a forced march, and subject the Company to all risks. I should rather apprehend that an error has crept into Mr. Colebrooke's otherwise most accurate calculations, owing to a ciitcha-maund of five paseeries, (of lOlb. each,) being in general use in that part of the country. Five of these maunds, of 50lb. each, make a tungy^ which is the common load for cattle carrying iron, and other dead weights. Therefore, if we estimate the general burthen to be in cutcha [i. e. small) maunds, we shall find the result to be nearer the ordinary result, than when we take 500lb. for the amount of a load. It is a well-known truth, that a private tent, with its poles, pins, mallets, and bags, is an ample load for any bullock, even in its dry state, and that, when wet, it must be a choice animal that is compe- tent to bear it for even a very few miles. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 451 In some of the very stony parts, it is usual to shoe the bullocks, the same as is practised in many parts of England; but, in general, that is not found necessary. The saddles and pads must be properly attended to, and the loads should be well strapped on; otherwise, owing to the skittishness of the cattle in India, and their disposition to lie down, very frequently, in a day's journey, considerable injury must be sustained, by such articles of lading as may be subject to breakage, from such a practice. However great a drawback such a propensity may appear, it is found, that liquors may be safely trusted to be conveyed by bullocks; but, in order to ensure the bottles from breaking, it is found necessary to pack every one of them separate, wrapping round it a small loose band, of that soft kind of hemp known by the name of paut^ and stitching the several rounds to- gether in the same manner as Florence oil flasks, &c., are enveloped by small bands of fine straw. Thepaut^ above mentioned, is grown in every part of the country, but chiefly in Bengal, where it attains to a considerable diameter, perhaps an inch and a half in diameter, and often grows eleven or twelve feet high. About three years ago, I presented a specimen of pant to the Bath Society, measuring more than ten feet in length : it was the remainder of a quantity in 2 G 2 452 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. which I had packed some bottles when quitting Bengal, and had never been so muth as put to the hackle. Nothing is so effectual as this material to- wards preserving bottles from fracture; when properly wolded, they may either be packed in boxes, &c., without any addition of straw, &c., or they may be advantageously put into strong- bags of tawt^ and thus, with seeming negligence, be carried on either side the bullock. I have several times adopted this mode, and found it by far the safest, as well as the least expensive, and best suited to the animal. By it, the ne- cessity for boxes was obviated, and a good bullock could easily carry five dozens of wine for any length of time, and for any number of miles, a regiment would commonly march. When tents are carried on oxen, it is neces- sary to divide the load as equally as may be practicable; observing, that those which have to carry the two flies ^ ought not to be encum- bered with mallets, pins, &c., as it is a great desideratum to make sure, as much as practica- ble, that the flies, the pole, and a certain portion of pins, together with a mallet or two, should arrive early; it being of less consequence if the bullocks bearing the walls, sairhtjes, &c., be somewhat later; since the main part of the ope- ration of pitching the tent, consisting of rais- ing the Jiies, may be performed, and shel- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 453 ter afforded, without the walls, &c., being present. Although a very large stout bullock may, here and there, be found capable of carrying a pair of cloaths-trunks, with a small cot above them, such must not be generally expected. The trunks will, if properly constructed, sit close, as they do on a camel ; but the cot will assuredly swag, so as to cause great unsteadiness of gait, and subject the animal to chafe under the pad : besides, the disposition of most bul- locks is such, as by no means to warrant the lading them with any article subject to great injury from a fall. I have already said the bullock is the worst kind of carriage used in the army, but for draught it is essentially serviceable; in fact, without this animal, 1 know not how the service could proceed in India. A great deal, however, depends on breed ; and no less on due feeding and proper exercise. Only certain parts of the country, such as the Purneah and Sircar- Sarim districts, are found to produce oxen of a standard and frame suited to the ordnance department; in which, on the Bengal Establish- ment alone, full five thousand head of cattle are employed, exclusive of a large establishment of elephants and camels, allotted to the convey- ance of camp equipage. The proportion of bullocks allowed for the 454 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. draught of field-pieces of various calibres, with which they are expected to keep pace with the ordinary rate at which troops march, are as follow : — To a 24 Pounder 24 Bullocks, 18 Ditto .18 Ditto. 12 Ditto 12 Ditto. 6 Ditto G Ditto. 3 Ditto 4 Ditto. 8 Inch Howitzer ..... 14 Ditto. 51 Ditto 10 Ditto. 4^ Ditto 6 Ditto. • Artificer's Cart 10 Ditto. Tumbrel , . . 6 Ditto. It may surprize those who are personally un- acquainted with India, to learn that horses are very little employed in carriages. I have already shewn, that, with the exception of the r hunts let out for hire about Calcutta, of which some are drawn by one, or by two tattoos, all the vehicles in use among the natives, and all the laborious part of whatever may relate to building, trade, and agriculture, are consigned to oxen ; of which the prices are, in some places, so low, that a small pair, fit to be worked at a well in a gentleman's garden, may usually be had for about ten rupees [i. e. ^5s.) ; while the gene- rality of husbandmen rarely pay more than six rupees (lo.v.) for a pair, such as are adequate to the very insignificant tillage bestowed on the soil. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 455 The indigenous breed of horses, if Bengal can boast of any such, is remarkably small, hardy, and vicious : to me, however, it has ever been a doubt, whether this breed, called tattoos, be not a degenerate race from some supply ob- tained, at a very remote date, from Durbungah, and the districts ranging under the northerly frontier. That breed, generally distinguished by the appellation of serissahs, is again question- able, and may, in all probability, be traced to the tazees, bred in the Maharrattah country, and in every part of the Punjab. Considering the great strength and persever- ance of tattoos in general, it is rather surprizing that they are not put to more purposes, than merely serving to carry a load on a march, or to convey some infirm, or rather affluent, traveller, when moving from one part to another. As few castrations take place among the males, and the sexes are allowed to intermix without re- straint, the species would multiply rapidly, were it not that little care is taken of the preg- nant mares, and less of the progeny; which usually has to shift for itself, and to cut its own grass wherever a scanty meal may be obtainable. If a selection were made of the tattoos, male and female, fitted for breeding from, there might be established a supply of cattle, far more use- ful to the peasant, than those miserably de- fective oxen which, in spite of the professed 466 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. veneration of all Hindus towards those sacred animals, are often kept toiling- at the plough until nature interposes inbehalf of the worn-out deity, and compels the reluctant peasant to allow the hour of dissolution to pass on in peace. The Company, with a view to obtain a cer- tain, regular, and efficient, supply of horses for their cavalry regiments, have, for about seventeen years past, maintained an establishment for breeding from select mares in North Bahar : the liberality with which this has been supported, and the admirable selection made of persons for the management of every branch, should give the most favorable result; especially as the spot chosen for its site is peculiarly eligible in point of grazing. But it does not appear that the expected benefits have been produced. I recollect see- ing a splendid calculation, made about the year 1794-, which went so far as to demonstrate, that, by the end of the twelfth year, full fifteen hun- dred horses would annually be supplied from the stud. Seeing that an agency still exists for the purchase of cavalry horses, and knowing that the whole strength of the light regiments of cavalry do not exceed six thousand horses, even including the body-guard, we may reasonably conclude, that the stud is by no means compe- tent to furnish one-fourth of that number within the year ! EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 4o7 The tattoos of Bengal rarely grow to the height of twelve hands; they are slight limbed, and cat-hammed ; but carry immense burthens durino^ a day's march, and are no sooner turned off. having their fore-feet tethered, than a gene- ral war seems to be proclaimed among all of the tribe that may be within sight or hearing. Kicking, biting, and gallantry, are the order of the day ; and woe betide the incautious wight who should, at such a time, approach within reach of their heels ! Few tattoos ever have the bitrsautty ; a peculiar breaking out about the legs, (by no means re- sembling the grease,) to which horses, in general, are extremely subject throughout the low countries; especially if their standing be not remarkably dry, and exercise given in proportion to their allowance of gram ; which is a species of pulse, growing on a low plant of the tare kind, and commonly sold at about a rupee per maund. Of this gram^ a horse will eat from three to six seers, (of 2lb. each,) according to his size or appetite; half in the morning, and half at night. When high fed, and but little rode, the most valuable horses, in particular, become victims to the bursautty; which, though it disappears in the spring and summer, invariably returns, gene- rally, too, with encreased force, during every rainy season. As yet, no cure has been dis- 453 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. covered for this ruinous disease, though numbers of gentlemen, of eminent abihties, have de- voted their attention towards its eradication: its abatement has, in some instances, been effected; but, notwithstanding the utmost skill and perseverance, the blotches have returned, in sufficient force to satisfy all medical men, that no decided mode of treatment, and no general specific, has, hitherto, been established. Ihe exemption of tattoos, for the most part, from so formidable a distemper, seems to indi- cate their peculiar fitness for the climate : it matters not whether nature first planted them on the soil, or whether, by long continuance, they have become habituated to it, so com- pletely as to defy that virulence with which the climate attacks strange animals. Wan- dering among all the puddles and jungles at every season ; and subsisting on the remains of temporary verdure; ultimately, indeed, browsing, or devouring, the withered remains of long grass ; these useful animals contract no disease, save what may be engendered by such absolute scarcity as would go nigh to starve a donkey ! The next breed of horses, in point of strength and hardiness, is the tan'ian, a small kind, ob- viously distinct from all the other breeds of India, and peculiar to the Thibet and Bootan countries, that lie at the back of our eastern and northern frontier, all the wav from Assam to EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. A69 Sirinagur: allowing for the intervention of the Nepaul Rajah's dominions. These horses are, with few exceptions, piebald; though a few are seen entirely of one color. The breed may be characterized in a few words, viz, that they are remarkably stout, hog-maned, have short bushy tails, very short necks, and large heads. The Bootan merchants, who come down yearly with various articles of manufacture, such as mats, cloths, &c., of a very peculiar kind, by no means displeasing in their patterns, commonly lade their goods upon tanians^ which they dispose of ultimately for a small sum, perhaps from twenty-hve to sixty rupees each ; reserving, however, a few, whereon to transport the British woollens, and other articles they obtain from the produce of their sales. Great numbers of the natives of Bengal, who are in good circumstances, or are obliged to attend daily at particular offices, &c., ride on tanians; which, though not to be termed quiet, are far more so than tattoos in general. These good folks abominate a trot^ as being uneasy and heatins:; and not one of them would so far de- mean himself as to be seen gallopping ! This has given rise to the general adoption of that unnatural, but very easy, pace called the * amble, ^ in which a horse moves the fore and hinder feet of the same side at one time. It is singular, that this mode of going should be so 460 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. pleasant in a horse, when, in the elephant, whose natural mode of gait it is, there should result from it the only inconvenience with which the motion of that animal is attended. T«w7'rtw.v rarely exceed thirteen hands in height, but their powers are wonderfully great ; they are capable ofenduring great fatigue, and, though by no means sightly in a chariot, will perform journies equal to what might be expected from larger animals. In general, they are rather fiery, but, by gentle usage, shew sufficient coolness and temper for most purposes. Like most mountain-bred horses, they are sure-footed, and, when left to themselves, pick the best road with great circumspection; proceeding at an easy pace, which they will keep up for many hours. I know not of any breed better qualified for drawing a light small chaise, where great speed is not wanted ; but figure must be out of the question. The Serissali, or Durhungah-tazee, derives its name from the places where great numbers are bred. These horses are generally of a light make, and, when young, promise to turn out well ; but, as they approach their full standard, lose many good points, and, for the most part, become rather vicious. They are, however, extremely serviceable as hacks, and generally make good hog-hunters : occasionally, valuable horses are found among them ; and it is to be EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 461 hoped, that, as the Company's staUons are let out at low rates, to cover such good mares as may be tendered at their stud, there will soon be effected an imnit?iise improvement in the general stock of North Bahar. This, in fact, seems to be one of the promi- nent features in the establishment of the stud, and promises to become very conspicuously successful ; though it is to be lamented, that the native breeders, owing to a want of liberal ideas, and of expanded views, are too apt to adopt that narrow policy, which prompts to the doing that badly for sixpence, which may be well done for a penny more ! Time will probably overcome such an absurd system, and convince them that the payment of a few rupees, or the subscribing to certain regulations, adopted for the general improvement of property, so far from being detrimental, are the surest means of obtaining a substantial profit, in the most speedy manner. There are annual fairs, called maijlahs, in various parts of the country, where the horses of thi^s breed [i. e. serissahs,) are exhibited in immense numbers. The greater part of them are exposed annually at Buxar, and are pur- chased by the natives, either for their own use, or for re-sale in various parts. It is curious, but true, that, some years ago, a great number of horses that had been taken from Durbuneah 462 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. into the Maharrattah country, were purchased there for the supply of the Company's regiments. Formerly, the immense body of cavalry paid by the Nabob Vizier of Oude, used to be mounted by horses from North Bahar, but, since that worthless gang have been sent ' to the right about,' the demand created by that establish- ment has been almost wholly done away. Still, however, the prices have not, so far as I can learn, fallen : they probably are upheld by our encreased strength of cavalry regi- ments. The price of a serissah is not to be easily defined ; a very large portion of them sell for less than one hundred, while some reach as high as six hundred, rupees : at a medium, we may affix a hundred and fifty rupees at a fair standard, if the purchase be made at a fair, but, if second-hand, from a horse-dealer, from fifty to a hundred per cent, may be added. I have known very handsome sets, of four and six, purchased at Buxar, averaging fifteen hands and a half, that were purchased for about two hun- dred rupees each, and re-sold, io friends, for five and six hundred, a few weeks after ! The horses in highest estimation are chiefly imported from the Punjab, and from Persia, by resular dealers, who come down to our north- west frontier annually, after the rains, accom- panied by many camels, generally of an excel- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 463 lent breed, which, besides conveying the tents, &c., of the party, bear heavy burthens of shawls, dried fruits, and, occasionally, cats of the most beautiful description. Such gentlemen as wish for horses of great strength, ordinarily purchase ^oorA;iVs ; which, being extremely stout, and phlegmatic, answer well for persons of great weight, and of timid disposition. The Persian horses have generally a finer shoulder, and attain a better standard, than the toorJx-y, which rarely measures fifteen hands, and, in general, may be about fourteen : both kinds are remarkable for heavy, lob-ears, and are always well advanced in years before they are brought for sale. Even under that great drawback, they commonly sell for eight hun- dred, or a thousand, rupees, and, when of a handsome color, well formed, and of a good size, will produce from fifteen hundred, to three thousand, rupees. The jimgle-tazee^ which is bred in the Pun- jab, or Seik country, is, in general, handsome, and spirited. These come at an earlier age, as does the majennis^ which is bred in the same quarter, and is usually the offspring of 2i jungle-^ tazee horse, with a Persian or toorky mare ; or vice versa. Both these kinds may be rated as rising to full fifteen hands ; and their prices are usually on a par with the toorky. It is highly necessary, when purchasing of a 464- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. native dealer, to look very accurately into every matter relating to soundness, and quietness. Those gentry are admirable jockies, and com- monly administer such doses of opium to their vicious cattle, as cause them for a while to appear pre-eminently passive ; a circumstance easily detected, by insisting on the animal being left under charge of the purchaser's own syce^ (i. e, groom,) for a day or two, betbre the money is paid. When making bargains with European gen- tlemen, the whole of the transactions are gene- rally overt, and free from disguise, but, when native is opposed to native, the affair is con- ducted with much assumed mystery. A cloth is laid over the knees of the seller and purchaser, as they squat vis a vis on the ground close toge- ther ; the hookah is introduced, and resorted to, whenever any little difference takes place : at other times, the parties have each one hand, generally the right, under the cloth, when, by means of pressures on the palms, which denote hundreds, and of the fingers, which denote, in their due order, 20, 40, 60, and 80, speedily understand each other very fully. This affectation is carried to such an extent, that I have seen nearly a whole day passed in keeping up the farce, though afterwards it was divulged to me, as a great secret, that the bargain had been made during the first five minutes ; but EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 46.5 the seller was desirous to uphold a character for being very tenacious of the sum originally demanded! Almost every light-colored horse, such as a grey, or a dun, has its tail stained for many inches near the tip with mindy, (^. e. himia,) as used by the ladies of Hindostan : gene- rally, a ring of the same is added about two inches above, and of about two inches in depth. On account of the inconvenience and heat attendant upon the retention of full manes, which are considered indispensable towards the beauty of a horse, it is usual to braid them with silk, or thread ties, of various colors, chiefly red, or yellow : the practice certainly has the intended effect, but causes a large portion of the mane to fall off. The hair of the tail is never cut by a native, and but rarely by an Eu- ropean ; on account of the millions of gad-flies, which, but for such a defence, would irritate the animal greatly, and occasion him to fall off, both from his condition, and his food. The stables for horses should be amply spa- cious, and covered with thatch, in preference to tiles, which throw too great heat into the interior. The head-ropes, which commonly branch out from the head-stall in different direc- tions angularly forward, ought to be substan- tial, and rather long than limitted. The heel- ropes ought to be full twenty feet in length, VOL. II. 2 H 4:66 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. and kept a little off the ground, by a small bar, or prop, to prevent their being rotted by the wet. One end of each heel-rope is furnished with a loop of rather thinner and softer rope, plaited flat, so as not to injure the pastern, round which it loops on. But for such preventives, the syces dare not rub down their cattle ; which would, besides, fight desperately, unless thus restrained. Stalls of plank are by no means suited to the climate, nor would they offer any defence against the horses of India, very few of which are castrated. The best, but, at the same time, very insufficient, device, is the placing of swing- ing- bars between the horses severally ; even these are no restraint, further than limitting a horse in case he should get loose; a circum- stance instantly announced by the tremendous uproar occasioned by such an accident, which but rarely occurs. On account of the extreme danger to which horses are subjected by the frequency of fires, it is advisable that every stable, especially if thatched, should have a range of water-pots placed along the ridge. These should always be kept full of water, to be at the disposal of men sent up to sprinkle the thatch, and to ex- tinguish whatever flakes may fall upon it ; but, in case the thatch itself should accidentally take fire, before any person can mount to distribute EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 467 the water, then the pots should be broken, by means of clods, poles, or whatever means may offer under such emergency. The horse-dealers from the Punjab, and from Persia, may be said to lay the Company's pro* vinces under annual contribution ; since it i3 ascertained, that, one year with another, they take back bills, cash, or goods, (generally the former,) to the full amount of four lacs of rupees (^50,000). For this they deliver from five to six hundred horses, of which nine in ten are aged, some dried fruits, Persian cats, and shawls, the whole intrinsic value of which, or at least the prime cost and duties payable on the way, cannot exceed one-fourth of that sum. In truth, the duties, which are rigorously exacted by various petty princes, &c., through whose territories they must pass, form the greater portion even of that share of the booty. Yet do the venerable dealers in horse-flesh always plead poverty, and that they have made so very bad a trip, that, on their return home, their affairs must go to ruin : however, they make a shift to come down, year after year, though buying and selling to so much loss ! In selling horses, it is customary to describe their several casts, the same as those of the people of India ; thus, an auctioneer advertises a tourky, or a majennis ' of high cast, ' to be sold on such a day. The term may, however, be considered 9 H 2 468 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. as rather technical, and at least as arbitrary in its meaning, as when our British knights of the hammer pufF off some hovel, crammed into a corner, where no one would have dreamt of seeing an edifice, as 'a capital mansion, unde- niably situated ! ' It must, at the same time, be acknowledged, that Asiatic advertisements do not require to be so cautiously accepted, cum grano salis, as those catch-penny notices, which not only attract the eye directly, but are literally supported by insidious puffs interspersed among the news of the day. The extravagant price to which all articles of horse furniture have at times risen in India, ope- rated as a considerable injury to the European manufacturer, who rarely makes much profit on goods intended for exportation. Within the last thirty years, numbers of persons, both Eu- ropean and native, have established themselves as sadlers and harness-makers. At first they were not much encouraged, owing to a behef very generall}^ prevalent, that leather tanned in India was inferior to that exported from this country. That objection did not stand its ground ; for it was soon ascertained that the bark of the ban- hool [niimoza) was at least equal to that of the oak ; anil that the leather prepared thercvvith by several Europeans, who iiad constructed tan- pits, on a large scale, was both equal to, and EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 469 > full fifty per cent, cheaper than, what the ships conveyed to India. Thenceforward, all the leather-work of the carriages built in India, some of which might vie with any to be seen in Eu- rope, was done with country hides. Shoe- makers, both European and native, resorted to the same means of supply, and offered both boots and shoes of the best prepared leather, the want of which had, for a long time, caused the very neat shoes made for about a shilling the pair, by the latter class, to be held in little estimation. Saddlers and harness-makers have appeared, whose labors have proved eminently valuable ; their materials, and their work, being alike excellent. I must here be understood to con- fine my approbation to the articles manufac- tured from leather tanned in a regular manner, and not that paltry brown-paper-like rubbish manufactured in pots and pans by indigent natives, who often work up a skin within the third or fourth day after its being stripped from some starved sheep, or goat ; but which leather may always be distinguished by a narrow streak of white, that is, of raw hide, remaining in the middle of its thickness. Saddles made of such crude materials, but in every other respect by no means to be con- demned, may be had at Monghyr, where also bits and bridles are made with singular neatness, 470 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. for about ten rupees (25 shillings) ; but those of superior materials, and made under the inspec- tion of an European, will cost full as much, or perhaps more, then the sums ordinarily paid in London far saddles, &c., of prime quality, and high finish. The climate is extremely adverse to the tanner, inasmuch as there is great difficulty in obtaining an ample stock of raw hides ; owing to the con- sumption of beef and mutton being confined to the European, and to the Ivlahomedan parts of the population ; and to the great difficulty of con- veying the skins to the pits before incipient fermentation may become obvious, and disqualify them for the purpose. That leather might, with great advantage to both countries, be sent from India to Europe, cannot be doubted: the great difficulty would be to furnish such a quantity as might render the ti'ade an object. According to the present high prices, it would almost be worth while to buy cattle in India, for the purpose of sending their hides and tallow to market in England. As to the benefits to arise to the state, they are too obvious to require pointing out. A person who might have quitted India about thirty years ago, when the generahty of articles of almost every €lescription in use among Eu- ropeans, were sent from England ; and when only one or two European tailors were to be seen EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 471 in all Bengal ; when, also, a news-paper was scarcely in existence, would now, on landing in that country, be astonished at the inniprovements made in various branches of manufacture : he would contemplate the advance made in the mechanical arts as the certain fore-runner of independence ; and he would view the columns of the several news-papers published at Calcutta, in ail fourteen, (besides magazines, &c.,) whose columns teem with advertisements on a large scale : these he would view as the paramount results of great enterprize, founded upon ex- tensive capitals, and backed by an almost un- limitted credit. The news-papers are gienerally published once or twice weekly, at about a rupee each ; most days of the week bring forth two papers, in which the price of advertising is generally eight annas, (/". e. half a rupee, or 15^.,) for each line: as the type is rather large, the expence of adver- tisements must, in some great houses, prove a conspicuous item among the disbursements. v In this particular, the Hindostanee, or rather the Persian, news-papers are miserably deficient ; as, indeed, they are in whatever should be the contents of a publication devoted to the impor- tant purposes of mercantile, or of political, intelligence. Far from containing a single advertisement, or from communicating any matter relative to the arts, these bulletins, for I 479 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. can call them nothing better, are penned by persons about the several native courts, accord- ing to the whim of a sy,cophant, or to the mere tattle in the suburbs of a city; nay, they are often manufactured hundreds of miles from the places whence they are supposed to emanate, and contain accounts of battles and sieges, capi- tulations and defeats, halts and marches, known to the fabricators only; who, in whatever relates to invention, contradiction, -and re-contradiction, absolutely surpass those industrious wights that supply our British news-monoers with paragraphs of the highest importance, accidents, murders, &c., &c., at the cheap rate of ten shillings per dozen ! There being no presses in use among the natives, every communication, whether private or public, must be manuscript ; hence, the pro- fession of scribe is, in some places, no bad livelihood ; especially at Delhi, which, being the ancient seat of government, and the immediate residence of a nominal king, commonly called * The Great Mogul, ' supplies every quarter of India with Akbars, [i. e. news-papers,) written in the Persian language and character, on long narrow slips of a paper manufactured in India, either from bamboos, reeds, or cotton- wool. These slips are rolled up to about an inch in width, and, being enclosed in a small cover pasted together, are despatched, with the shew EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 475 ,of great importance, to the several quarters of Hindostan, under the pompous idea of their being every where in high estimation. The only paper pubhshed by authority in Bengal, is the Calcutta Gazette, which is usually replete with advertisements for the sale of lands, printed in English, Persian, and Bengalese : as to news, or useful essays, &c., it is uncom- monly sterile. Private advertisements in this paper are extravagantly dear, in consequence of the obhgation imposed on all collectors, &c., to take it in ; whereby one copy at least is received at every civil station, however small. ^ The advertisements for the sale of lands, above alluded to, have sprung from the adop- tion of what is called the Mocurrery system, which originated with ]\Ir. Thomas Law, for- merly collector of Bahar, and now settled in America. That plan certainly wore a very spe- cious appearance ; because it purported to be a perpetual adjustment of the rents, which were before subject to augmentation, and held out to the land-holders the comforting assurance of being considered on a footing with proprietors in fee-simple, so long as they should pay the rents as settled by the Mocurrery agreement. While the plan was in agitation, and under the consideration of INIarquis Cornwallis, by whom it was adopted, the Board of Revenue, to which it was, pro forma, submitted, made 47'^ EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. several very sensible and cogent remarks, which, however, had not the effect of causing it to be abandoned. Time has fully justified the objec- tions stated by that Board, at which the present Lord Teig-n mouth, then Mr. Shore, presided ; and we find, after many years of experiment, that, without reaping the smallest advantage themselves, the Company appear bound to perpetuate a resignation of their rights as pro- prietors of the soil, and of their interests as a body rationally entitled to derive an augmentation of rent, in proportion as the produce of the soil may become more valuable, and more abundant. This discussion has led me to the consideration of a most important topic ; viz. the Revenue of Bengal, of which, and its manner of collection, I shall endeavor to give a summary ; first pre- senting my readers with a copy of the Mocur' renj. or permanent system. BY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL. proclamation. To the Zemindars, Independent Talookdars, and other actual Proprietors of Land, paying Revenue to Govern- ment, in the Provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa. ARTICLE I. In the original regulations for the decennial settlement of the Public Revenues of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, passed for these provinces respectively, on the 18th day of Septem- ber, 178P, the 25th day of November, 1789, and the 10th EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 475 day of February, 1790, it was notified to the proprietors of land with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement might be concluded, that the jumma assessed upon their lands under tliose regulations, would be continued after the expi- ration of the ten years, and remain unalterable for ever, pro- vided such continuance should meet with the approbation of the Honorable Court of Directors for the affairs of the East India Company, and not otherwise. ARTICLE II. The Marquis Cornwallis, Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, Governor-General in Council, now notifies to all Zemindars, Talookdars, and other actual pro- prietors of land, paying revenue to Government, in the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, that he has been empowered by the Honorable Court of Directors, for the affairs of the East India Company, to declare the jumma which has been, or may be, assessed upon their lands, under the regrulations above mentioned, fixed for ever. ARTICLE IIL The Governor-General in Council accordingly declares to the Zemindars, &;c., with, or on behalf of, whom a settle- ment has been concluded under the regulations above men- tioned, that, at the expiration of the term of the settlement, no alteration will be made in the assessment which they have respectively engaged to pay ; but that they, and their heirs, and lawful successors, will be allowed to hold their estates at such an assessment, for ever. ARTICLE IV. The lands of some Zemindars, &c., having been held k'has,* or letia farm, in consequence of their refusing to pay the assessment required of them, under the regulations- In band, or in trust. 476 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. above mentioned, the Governor-General in Council now notifies to the Zemindars, &cc., whose lands are held IchaSy that Ihey shall be restored to the management of their lands, upon their agreeing to the paymerit of the assessment, ■which has been, or may be, required of them, in confor- mity to the regulations above mentioned, and that no alte- ration shall hereafter be made in that assessment, but that they, and their heirs, and lawful successors, shall be per- mitted to hold their respective estates at such an assessment FOR EVKR : and he declares to the Zemindars, &c., whose lands have been let in farm, that they shall not regain pos- session of their lands before the expiration of the period for which they have been farmed, { unless the farmers shall voluntarily consent to make over to them the remaining term of their lease, and the Governor-General in Council shall approve of the transfer,) but, that, at the expiration of that period, upon their agreeing to the payment of the assessment which may be re(juired of them, they shall be re-instated, and that no alteration shall afterwards be made in the assessment; but that they, and their heirs, and law- ful successors, shall be allowed to hold their respective estates at such an assessment for ever. ARTICLE V. In the event of the proprietary right in lands that are, or rnav, become the property of Government, being trans- ferred to individuals, such individuals, and their heirs, and lawful successors, shall be permitted to hold the lands, at the assessment at which they maybe transferred, for ever. ARTICLE VI. It is well known to the Zemindars, &c., as well as to the inhabitants of jBeHg"rt/, Bahar, and On'^.va, in general, that, i'rom tlie earliest times to the present period, the public assessment upon the lands has never been tixed ; but, that, according to established rule and custom, the rulers of these provinces have, from time to time, demanded an encrease of EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 477 assessment from tlie proprietors of land ; and, that, for the purpose of obtaining this encrease, not only frequent inves- tigations have been made, to ascertain the actual produce of their estates, but that it has been the practice to deprive them of the management of their lands, and either to let them in farm, or to appoint officers on the part of Govern- ment, to collect the assessments immediately from the Ryots. The Honorable Court of Directors, considering these usao-es and measures to be detrimental to the prosperity of the country, have, with a view to promote the future ease and happiness of the people, authorized the foregoing declaration ; and the Zemindars, independent Talookdars, and other actual proprietors of land, with, or on behalf of, whom a settle- ment has been made, or may be concluded, are to consider these orders, fixing the amount of the assessments, as irre- vocable, and not liable to alteration by any persons wliom the Court of Directors may hereafter appoint to the admi- nistration of their aifairs in this country. The Governor-General in Council trusts that the pro- prietors of lands, sensible of the benefits conferred upon them, by the public assessments being fixed for ever, will exert themselves in the cultivation of their lands, under the certainty that they will enjoy exclusively the fruits of their own good management and industry, and that no demand, will ever be made upon them, their heirs, or successors, by the present, or any future. Government, for an augmen- tation of the public assessment, in consequence of the im- provement of their respective estates. To discharge the revenues at the stipulated periods, without delay or evasion, and to conduct themselves with good faith and moderation towards their dependant Talook- dars, and Ryots, are duties at all times iudispensa])ly re- quired from the proprietors of land; and a strict observance of those duties is now, more than ever, incumbent upon, them, in return for the benefits which they themselves will derive from the orders now issued. 47S EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. The Governor-General in Council therefore Expects that the proprietors of land will not only act in this manner them* selves, towards their dependant Taltrokdars, but also en- join the strictest adherence to the same principles, in the persons whom they may appoint to collect the rents for them* He further expects they will regularly discharge the revenue in all seasons, and he accordingly notifies to them, that, in future, no claims, or applications, for suspensions, or remissions, on account of drought, inundation, or other calamity of season, will be attended to ; but, that, in the event of any Zemindar, &c., with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement has been made, or may be concluded, on his or her heirs, or successors, failing in the punctual discharge of the public revenue, which has been, or may be, assessed upon their lands, under the above-mentioned regulations, a sale of the whole of the lands of the defaulter, or such por- tion of them as may be sufficient to make good the meanst will positively and invariably take place. ARTICLE Vll. To prevent any misconstruction of the foregoing Articles, the Governor-General in Council thinks it necessary to make the following declarations to the Zemindars, &c. First. It being the duty of the ruling power to protect all classes of people, and more particularly those who, from situation, are most helpless, the Governor-General in Coun- cil will, whenever he may deem it proper, enact such regula- tions as he may think necessary for the protection and wel- fare of the dependant Talookdars, Ryots, and other cultiva- tors of the soil ; and no Zemindar, &c. shall be entitled, on this account, to make any objection to the discharge of the fixed assessment which they liave respectively agreed to pay. Second. The Governor-General in Council having, on the 28th dny of July, 1/90, directed the Sayer Collections to be abolished, a full compensation was granted to the pro- EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 479 prletors of land, for the loss of rcAenue sustained by them in consequence of that abolition ; and he now declares, that, if he should hereafter think it proper to re-establish the Sayer Collections, or any other internal duties, and to ap- point officers on th^ part of Government to collect them, no proprietor of land will be admitted to any participation tliereof, or be entitled to make any claim for remissions on that account. Third. The Governor-General in Council will impose such assessments as he may deem ecjuitable, on all lands at present alienated, and paying no public revenue, which have been, or may be, proved to be held under illegal, or invalid titles. The assessment so imposed will belong to Government, and no proprietor of land will be entitled to anj^ part of it. Fourth. The jumma of those Zemindars, &c., which is declared fixed, in the foregoing articles, is to be considered unconnected with, and exclusive of, any allowances which have been made to them in the adjustment of their jumma for keeping up tamiahs, or police-establishments, and also of the produce of any lauds which they may have been per- mitted to appropriate for the aame purpose : and the Gover- nor-General in Council reserves to himself the option of re- suming the whole, or part, of such allowances, or produce of such lands, according as he may think proper, in conse- quence of his having exonerated the proprietors of land from the charge of keeping the peace, and appointed officers, on the part of Government, to superintend the police of the countrj'. The Governor-General in Council, however, declarea that the allowances, or the produce of lands, which may be so resumed, will be appropriated to no other purpose but that of defrapng the expence of the police, and that in- structions will be sent to the collectors not to add such al- lowance, nor the produce of such lands, to the jumma of the proprietors of land, but to collect the amount from them separately. 480 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. Fifth. Nothing contained in tliis Proclamation shall be construed to render the lands of the several descriptions of disqualified proprietors, specified in the first article of the regulations, regarding disqualified land-holders, passed on the 15th day of July, 179l» liable to sale for any arrears which may accrue on the fixed jumma that has been, or may be, assessed Upon their lands under the above mentioned regulations for the decennial settlement, provided that such arrears have accrued, or may accrue, during the time that they have been, or may be, dispossessed of the manage- ment of their lands under the said regulations of July the 15th, 1791. It is to be understood, however, that, whenever all, or any, oi the descriptions of disqualified land-holders speci- fied in the first article of the last mentioned regulations, shall be permitted to assume, or to retain, the management of their lands, in consequence of the ground of their dis- qualification no longer existing, or of the Governor-General in Council dispensing with, altering, or abolishing, those regulations, the lands of such proprietors will be held re- sponsible for the payment of the fixed jumma that has been, or may be, assessed thereon, from the time that the management may devolve upon them, in the same manner as the lands of all actual proprietors of land who are de- clared qualified for the management of their estates ; and also of all actual proprietors who are unqualified for such management, by natural, or other, disabilities, bu: do not come within tiie description of unqualified land-holders spe- cified in the first article of the regulations of July the 15th, 1791 J are? s*»d will be, held answerable for any arrears that are, or may become, due from them on the fixed jumma, which they, or any persons on their behalf, have engaged, or may engage, to pay under the above mentioned regula- tions, for the decennial settlement. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 481 ARTICLE VIII. That no doiibt may be entertained whether proprietors t)f land are entitled, under the existinj^- Regulations, to dis- pose of theilr estates, without the previous sanction of Government, the Governor-General in Council notifies to the Zemindars, &'c., that they are privileged to transfer to whomsoever they may think proper, by sale, gift> or other'- wise, their proprietary rights in the whole, or any portion, of their respective estates^ without applying to Government for its sanction to the transfer ; and, that all such transfers will be held valid, provided they be conformable to the Mahomedan, or to the Hindu, Laws, [according as the feligious persuasions of the parties to each transaction may tender the validity of it determinable by the former, or the latter, code,] and that they be not repugnant to any regula- tions now in force, which may have been passed by the British administration, or to any regulations that they may enact hereaftert* ARTICLE IX» From the limitation of the public demand upon the lands, the net income, and, consequently, the value (inde- pendent of encrease obtainable by improvements) of any landed property, for the assessments on which a distinct engagement has been, or may be^ entered into between Government and the proprietor, or that may be separately assessed, although included in one engagement with other estates belonging to the same proprietor, and which may be oifered for public or private sale entire, will always be ascertainable hy a comparison of the amount of the fixed jumma assessed upon it, (which, agreeably to the foregoing • Here appears a wide field foi innovation ! VOL. II. 2 I 482 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. declarations, is to remain unalterable for evkr, to whom- soever the property "may be transferred,) with the whole of its produce, allowing for the charges of management. But it is also essential, that a notilication should be made of the principles upon wliich the fixed assessment charged -iipon any such estate will be apportioned on the several divisions of it, in tjie event of the whole of it being trans- ferred, by puljllc or private sale, or otherwise, in two or more lots, or of a portion of it being translerred, in one, or two, or more lots, or of its being joint property, and a ilivision of it being made amongst the proprietors ; other- wise, from the want of a declared rule for estimating the prpportion of the fixed jumma,. with which the several shares would be chargeable in such cases, the real value of each share would be uncertain,, and, consequently, the benefits expected to result, from fixing the public assess- ment upon the lands, would be but partially obtained. The Governor-General in Council has, accordingly, pre- scribed tVie following rules for api)ortioning the fixed assess- ment in the several cases above mentioned ; but, as Govern- ment might sustain a considerable loss of revenue by dis- proportionate lots of the assessment, were the apportioning of it, in any of the cases above specified, left to the proprie- tors, he requires, that all such transfers, or divisions, as may be maile by the private act of the parties themselves, be notified to the collector of the revenue of that zillah in Tihich the lands may be situated, or to such otlier officer a? Government may, in future, prescribe, in order that the fix- ed jumma assessed upon the whole estate maybe apportioned on the several shares, in the manner hereafter directed ; and that the names of the proprietors of each share, and the jumma charged thereon, may be entered upon the public registers ; and that separate engagements, for the payment of the jumma assessed upon each share, may be executed by the proprietors, who will thcnceiovward be considered as actual proprietors of land. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 483 And the Governor-General in Council declares, that, if the parties to such transfers or divisions shall omit to notify them to the collector of the revenue of the zillah, or such other officer as may be hereafter prescribed, for the pur- poses before mentioned, the whole of such estate will be held responsible to Government for the discharge of the fixed jumma assessed upon it, in the same manner as if no such transferor division had taken place. The Governor-General in Council thinks it necessary further to notify, in elucidation of the declarations con- tained in this article, (which are conformable to the princi- ples of the existing regulations,) that if any Zemindar, &c., shall dispose of a portion of his, or her, lands, as a depen- dent Talook, the jumma which may be stipulated to be paid by the dependent Talook, will not be entered upon the re- cords of Government, nor will the transfer exempt such lands from being- answerable, in common with the re- mainder of the estate, for the payment of the public reve- nue assessed upon the whole of it, in the event of the pro- prietor, or his, or her, successors, falling in arrear from any cause whatever ; nor will it be allowed, in any case, to affect the rights, or claims, of Government, any more than if it had never taken place. First. In the event of the whole of the lands of a Zemindar, &c., with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement has been, or may be, concluded under the regulations above mentioned, being exposed to public sale, by the order of the Governor-General in Council, for the discharge of arrears of assessment, or in consequence of the decision of « court of justice, in two or more lots, the assessment upon each lot shall be fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce, as the fixed assessment upon the whole of the lands sold may bear to their actual produce. This produce shall be ascertained in the mqdc tiiat is, or may be, prescribed by the existing regulations, or suuh other regulations as the Governor-General in Council 2 I 9 4S4 EAST INDIA VADI>MKCL'M- may, hereaftei-j adopt ; and tliepuicliaser, or purcliasers^ of such lands, and his, or their, heirs, and la« tnl successors, shall hold them at tiie junima at which they may be so pur- chased, FOR EVER. Second. When a portion oi' the hinds of a Zemindar, &c., with, or on behalf of, whom a settlement has been, or may be, concluded under the above rei>ulations, shall be exposed to public sale, by order of the (jiovernor-General in Coun- cil, for the liquidation of arrears of assessment, or pursu- ant to the desicion of a court of justice^ the assessment iipon such lands, if disposed of in one lot, shall be tixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to their actual produce, as the tixed assessment upon the whole of the lands of such proprietors, including those disposed of, may bear to the whole of their actual produce. If the lands sold shall be disposed of in two, or mon^ lots, the assessment upon each lot shall be lixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce, as the fixed assessment upon the vshole of the lands of such proprietor, including those sold, may bear to the amount of their actual produce. The actual produce of the whole of the lands of such proprietor, whether the portion of them which mwy be sold be disposed of in one, or in two, or in more, lots, shall be ascertained in the mode that is, or may be, prescribed by the existing regulations, or such othi-r regulations as the Governor-General iu Council nuiy here- after euac-t, and the purchaser, or purchasers, of sucii lands, and his, or her, or their, heirs, and successors, will be allowed to hold them at the juninia at which th(;y may be so purchased, forevkr; anil the remainder of the public jumma, which will conse(jUently be payable l)y the former proprietor of the whole estate, on account of the portion of it tliat may be left in his, or her, possession, will contiinie tmulterable for ever. Third. "When a Zemindar, &c., with, or on behalf of, wliom a settlement luis, or may be, made, shall transfer the EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 48J whole of his, or her, estate, in two, or more, distinct por- tions, to two, or more, persons, or a portion thereof to one person, or to two, or more, persons in joint property, by private sale, gift, or otherwise, the assessment upon eaeh flistinct portion of such estate, so trajisf furred, shall be fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce, as the assessment on tlie wliole estate of the transferring proprietor, of which the whole, or a portion, may be so transferred, may bear to the whole of its actual produce. This [iroduce shall be ascertained in the mode that is, or may be, prescribed by the existing regulations,, or such other regulations as Government may hereafter adopt ; tmd the person, or persons, to whom such lands may be transferred, and his, or her, or their, heirs, and lawful suc- cessors, shall hold them at the jumma at which they were so transferred, for ever ; and (where only a portion of such estate shall be transferred) the remainder of the public jumma, which will consequently be payable by the former proprietor of the w hole estate, on account of the lands that may remain in his, or her, possession, shall be continued unalterable for ever. Fourth. Whenever a division shall be made of lands, the settlement of which has been, or may be, concluded Avith, or on behalf of, the proprietor, or proprietors, and that are, or may become, the joint property of two, or more, persons, the assessment iipon each share shall be fixed at an amount \yhich shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce, as the fixed jumma, assessed upon the whole of the estate divided, may bear to the whole of its actual produce. This produce shall be ascertained in the mode that is, or may be, prescribed by the existing regula- tions, or such other regulations as the Governor-General in Council may hereafter adopt ; and the sharers, and their heirs, and lawful successors, shall hold their respective shares, at the jumraa at which they may be assessed, for JiVER. 486 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUW. ARTICLE X. The following rules are prescribed respecting the adjust- ment of the assessment on the lauds of Zemindars, ike, whose farms are, or may be, held k has, or let in farm, in the event of their being disposed of by public sale, or trans- ferred by any private act of the proprietor, or of their being joint property, and a division of them taking place among the proprietors. First. If the whole, or a portion, of the lands of a Zemindar, &:c., who may not have agreed to the assessment proposed to him, or her, under the regulations above men- tioned, and whose lands are, or may be, held k'has, or let in farm, shall be exposed to public sale, in one, or two, or more, lots, pursuant to the decree of a court of justice, such lands, if k'has, shall be disposed of at whatever assess- ment the Governor-General in Council may deem equitable, and the purchaser, or purchasers, of such lands, and his, or her, or their, lawful successors, or heirs, shall hold the land at the assessment at which they may be so purchased, for ever. If the lands, at the time of their being exposed for sale, shall be held in farm, and shall be put up in one, or two, or more, lots, they shall be disposed of under the following conditions. The p\irchaser, or purchasers, shall receive during the xinexpircd part of the tenn of the lease of the farmer, whatever such proprietor shall have been entitled to receive in virtue of his, or her, proprietary rights, on ac- count of the lands so purchased, and such purchaser, or purchasers, shall engage to pay, at the expiration of the lease of the farmers, such assessment on account of the lands as Government may deem equitable. The sum to be received by the purchaser, or purchasers, during tlie unex- pired part of the term of the lease of the fanner, and the jnmma to be paid by such purchaser, or purchasers, after the expiration of the lease, shall be specified at the time of sale, and such purchaser, or purchasers, and his, or her, or their, heirs, and lawful successors, shall be allowed to hold EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 487 the lands, at the assessment at which they may be so pur- cliased, for ever. Second. If a Zemindar, &c., wliose lands are, or may be, held fc'has, or let in farm, shall transfer by private sale, gift, or otherwise, the whole, or a portion, of his, or her, lands, in one, or two, or more, lots, the person, or persons, to whom the lands may be so transferred, shall be entitled to receive from Government, (if the lands are held k'lias,) or from the farmer, (if the lands are let in farm,) the mali-con- nah to which the former proj.rietor was entitled, on account of the lands so transferred. The purchaser, or purchasers, of such lands will stand in the same predicament as the Zemindars, &c., mentioned in the fourth article, whose Icifids are held Jchas, or have been let in farm, in conse- quence of their refusing to pay the assessment required of them under the before mentioned regulations for the decen- nial settlement, and the declarations contained in that arti- cle are to be held applicable to them. Third. In the event of a division being made in lands that are, or may become, the joint property of two, or more, persons, and which are, or may be, held k'has, or be let in farm, the proprietors of the several shares will stand in the same predicament, with regard to their respective shares, as the Zemindars, &c., specified in the fourth article, whose lands have been let in farm, or are held k'has, in con- sequence of their having refused to pay the assessment re- quired of them under the before mentioned regulations of the decennial settlement, and the declarations contained in that article are to be considered applicable to them. ARTICLE XI. The Governor-General in Council avails liimself of this opportunity to notify to the Zemindars, &c., as well as to all other description of persons, that it is his intention forth- with to establish Courts of Justice throughout the conntrj', upon such principles as will put it out of the power of indi- 488 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. viduals to injure each other with impunity, and prevent th« officers of Government from infrinj^ing the rights and pro- perty of any of the inhabitants of these provinces, by en- suring a speedy and impartial administration of justice in all cases whatever. Dated at Fort-William, the 2271(1 day of March, 1793, corresponding with the I2th dai/ of Cheyte, 1199, of the Bengal Mroy and the 9th day of Shabaun, 1207, Higeree. In order to comjDrehend the foregoing more fully, it is proper to state, that when the mocur- rery (or perpetual) system of revenue was ori- ginally proposed, the Governor-General in Council (Marquis Cornwallis) notified, that it would be tried, in the first instance, for ten years only; whence the term ' decennial settlement.' But, whether from an early conviction of its excellence, or that the Marquis felt anxious to ensure to the natives, and, as he apprehended, to the Company also, those immense benefits at- tendant upon a final adjustment of so moment- ous, and so extensive a concern, we see that, previous to his return to Europe, he rendered the settlement as permanent as human ability could effect. If report be true, the satisfaction he experienced, on concluding the settlement, was afterwards greatly diminished, when, on his re-appointment to India, he found that a thou- sand deceptions had been practised by the natives, notwithstanding every endeavor to frus- trate such litigious or deceptive intentions ; EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 489 that the Company's finances had been fettered very imprudently by that restriction which pre^ eluded Government from avaihng itself of grow- ing resources ; and that the ' Zemindars, inde- pendent Talookdars, and other actual proprietors of land,' so far from considering themselves to be under any obligation to the Company, raised their heads with no little insolence, and, in many instances, even complained that enough had not been conceded to them. The most mortifying fact was, that full one- third of the landed property within the Com- pany's provinces had actually been under the hammer. This was an evil which spoke for itself, and which no gloss, no colors, could con- ceal. That, under such a government, propert}', to the amount of millions upon millions, should become thus exposed to transfer, was a reflection that could not fail to rankle in the mind of him, who had expected to see content, prosperity, and loyalty, teeming in every quarter! Never was the vanity of man more conspicuously dis- played, or the mortification of disappointed zeal more grievously felt. The abrogation of that incertitude, which not only subjected the land-holder to imposition, but the revenue to much defalcation, was as- suredly a most serious consideration ; but, in adopting those measures which might seem to have the most desirable tendencv, it was neces- 490 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. sary to have a full idea of the views and dispo- sitions of the persons on whom the most essen- tial benefits were to be conferred. A deficiency of experience, or of insight into their true character, could alone have led the Marquis into an error, from which the mode of extrication is, 1 believe, among the most pressing desiderata of the British government. Much pains have been taken to prove, that the zemindars, &c., were the legitimate proprie- tors of the soil; but a very slight inspection of the forms of ancient grants, made by the Emperors of Hindostan, must satisfy the most scrupulous, that no person whatever occupied the soil, ex- cept by tolerance of that power under which it Avas protected. Until our acquisition of the Dcurmi/, fi. e. of the government of the pro- vinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa,) no fixed tenure, beyond the will of the ruling despot, was known, or even claimed ; to have asserted such a right, would have been to provoke imme- diate castigation, and removal from the lands. Even in the times of our own governors, no hesitation was made respecting the banishment (for it virtually was one) of those who either assumed a decided claim to the property, or who, from whatever cause, whether rebellion, mis-management, or unwillingness to pay their rents, fell in arrears. Such men were always displaced, and others were appointed in their EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 491 Stead, as a mere matter of course. * Saheh he koossy^'' (its master's pleasure,) was the patient response of the offender ; who, whatever might be his feelings, or his opinions, felt the expediency of being perfectly passive on such an occasion. I believe the records will prove, that INIr. Hastings, during the ten years he was in the chair, made a very free use of this well-under- stood authority; yet, so far were the natives from thinking him unjust, or over severe, that, when the inteUigence of his being acquitted by parliament, was received in India, such was the pleasure felt by all classes, that addresses of congratulation were poured in from every part of the country! This was a compliment that never had been paid by the natives to any of our 2:overnors, even when about to return to Europe; a period, at which it might be ex- pected some adulatory addresses might, by great influence, be obtained : no, it was the spontane- ous flow of gratitude, pity, and admiration ; such as never would have been forth-coming, if the ejectment of a zeniindar from his soil had been considered as the expulsion from an hereditary or established right, rather than afe the removal of tenants-at-will. ' It certainly must appear curious, that we re- ceive eleven-sixteenths of the produce of the soil from its proprietors! Such is, indeed, the <:ase, taking all upon an average. The pcfsa- 492 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. santrv, in a number of instances, pay more ; especially where middle-men (a class of people 1)V no means scarce in India) are concerned. These are the same harpies all over the world ; never failing to reduce the industrious to dis- tress, and to seize upon the all of those most unfortunate beings, whom want of experience, or of interest, may place at their mercy ! The old system of farming out the country to particular persons, many of whom rented of the Company to the nmount of fifty lacs, (upwards of i,' 600,000.,) was productive of the greatest evils with which an industrious, but indigent, population could have to contend ! Under tJiat mode, it was impossible for Government to make certain of its rents, which were generally remitted in part to the great farmers, lest they should, in bad seasons, oppress the llyots, and drive them either to despair, or out of the country. Thjs was intended as an act of ge- nerosity on the part of Government, which had not the means of enforcing arrears, otherwise than by the sale of a farmer-general's property, "whence but a small portion could be expected to result; but, unhappily, no alleviation of con- 'sequence w^as extended to the real agriculturist; who, being subject to a very summary process, was often compelled to embrace ruin, rather than to suffer all the penalties inflicted by an avaricious and obdurate creditor. LAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 493 Tliiit such should havebeeil the case under the immediate eye of Government, may excite much surprize ; but it must be considered, that, under the farming system, the least interference would have instantly been the signal for universal clamor, and that it would have proved beyond the power of all the civil servants, throughout the Compan3''s territories, to have even registered, much less to have heardj and settled, all the references which would have been made. This difficulty could not fail to be greatly augmented, by the extreme deficiency then existing of Company's servants in every part of India ; for, in each of the zillahs, or districts,* only a collector, with an assistant, perhaps, was stationed. In one instance, 1 recollect passing by a civil station, when marching from one pro- vince to another, when the resident-surgeon was under the necessity of requesting an officer of our corps to aid him in examining the accounts of the factory, which he had been obliged to make out ; the president and his assistant being both absent on public business. This occurrence afforded not only much amusement, but a wide scope for observation regarding the paucity of Europeans employed at the out-stations. In those days, the collector had abundance of duty to perform ; for lie was not simply to settle all accounts respecting the revenue, and, in some instances, of manufactures provided for the Com- 49-^ EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. pany's homeward cargoes, but the whole of the criminal, as well as of the civil, code of justice, were under his control : whatever petty offences were committed, or whatever disputes arose among the inhabitants, became equally his pro- vince to enquire into. Fortunately, the banian^ or deican, employed, used to take a very consi- derable portion of such toil off master's hands, and to prevent, by a kind of petty adau- luf, or tribunal, held in some corner of the office, or perhaps at his own house, thousands of references to his principal. The chief renter of the zillah being often employed as banian to the collector, it is easy to imagine to which side justice, as it was called, used to incline. AVithin the last twenty years, the number of servants employed by the Company has been greatly augmented ; not only on account of their extension of territory, but, in consequence of th^ separation, very judiciously made, of two offices, incompatible to be held by the same in- div'idual. The collector is now, except in a very few zi/lahs of less note, confined to the collection of the revenues, having under him one or more assistants, according to the extent of his district. . The whole of the judicial proceedings are under cognizance of a judge, who, aided by his register, decides civil causes between parties residing within his jurisdiction ; while the criminal catalogue; is handed over to a court EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 495 composed of natives versed in the Mahomedan and Hindu laws, thouch the former are, gene- rally, the guide. These native judges are su- perintended in their proceedings by three of the Company's servants of long standing, having- likewise under them a secretary, or register. Such tribunals are established in various parts of the country, particularly at Calcutta, Moor- shadabad, Dacca, Patna, Benares, and in the Ceded Provinces, under the designation of Pro- vincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit. There are, besides, judges, each having a register and an as- sistant, stationed at Benares, Moorshadabad, Patna, and Dacca, for the especial purpose of administering justice, and for the correction (A' abuses within those cities respectively. The stations of the zillah courts, and of the collectors, are as follow : — Agra, Allahabad, Ally-Ghur, Backergunge, Jjareilly, Bahar, Benares, Beerboom, Boglepore, Burdwan, Cawnpore, Chittaofonjj, C'uttack, Dacca, Dinapore, Etayah, Fuiruckabad, Gorackpore, Hoogly, Jessore, Juanpore, Meerat, Mirzapore, Momensing, Moorshadabad, jMoradaba.d, Nuddeah, Purneah, Rajeshaye, Ranighur, Rvingpore, Sahacunpore, Sarun, Shahabad, Sylhet, Tipperah, Tirhoot, Twenty-four Per- o'lmnaiLs. 496 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. The stations of the commercial rrsidelits^ whose duty is entirely confined to the providing of inv€stments for the Company's shipping, are, BarelUy, Bauleah, Cominercollv: Cossimbazar, Dacca, Etayah, Gola<;ore, Goruckpore, Hurial, Hunipaul, Junf^ipore, Keerpoy, Luckypore and Chittajiong, Mauldah, Midnapore, Patna, Raduagore, Rungpore, Santipore, Soouamookv. Collectors of government customs, most of whom are also collectors of town duties, are stationed at Beuares, Calcutta, Cawnpore, D acca, Furruckabad, Hoogly, Moorshadabad, and Patna. The diplomatic residents are as follow : — at Delhi. The Court of the Emperor. llydrahad. The Court of the Nizam. Luckfiow. The Court of the Nabob Vizier of Oude. Ml/sore. The Court of the Rajah, (late Tippoo's country. ) Nagporc. The Court of the Berar Maharrattahs. Poouah. The Court of the Peishwa, and with Dowlut Row Scindeah, one of the Chiefs of the Maharrattah League. The difference that has been made by the conduct of the British government, in the sup- pression of an immense number of larmers on KAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 49f the large scale, and of middle-men that again stood between those farmers and the peasants, has been immense. In many places, the lands are now in the possession of an industrious population, holding them from the renters, or, if I may use the term, from the proprietors of vil- lages and small talooks, consisting of, perhaps, three or four thousand higahs: the revenues are thus rendered far more easy of collection, and, consequently, more certain ; because it is now the interest of every honest renter to be forth-com- ing with his rents at the office of the collector, at the several periods when they should be paid. Those periods are not equi -distant, as in England; but are generally settled in such man- ner as may be convenient to the tenants, accord- ing as their several crops may be reasonably expected to become marketable. The division is by a certain number of annas, or sixteenths, in each rupee, being payable at particular seasons ; allowance being made for the different species of grain, &c., cultivated. Therebeingno harvest of grain from the beginning of November to the beginning of March, the collections generally fall light in the intermediate months, but, about April and May, a large portion usually becomes payable, and again, in Bengal, after the rice is harvested: but, on the whole, the rent may be commonly taken at four instalments, two of VOL. II. 2 K j» 498 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. which are considerable, and two of smaller por- tions of the rupee. The heavy kisis^ or collections, of Bengal, are from August to January, in the proportion of two-thirds of the whole rent ; the great crops in that quarter being cut after the rains. The "gruff kists^ which include the rubbee, or small harvest of white-corn, sugar, &c., come in be- tween January and the beginning of May. The fruits, fish, &c., from April to July. In Bengal, the year begins in April; in Bahar, it begins in September. All the collections are made in money. Mr. Grant, formerly collector of Bhau- glepore, has published a small tract on the sub- ject of the revenues, which I strongly recom- mend to ray readers: the work is, I believe, rarely to be obtained; therefore, a new edition seems to be loudly demanded. It is to be feared, that, however beneficial the existing system may be, and, however equitable the arrangements made under the Mocurrerif settlement have proved themselves, still the Compan}' are not likely to be benefitted in proportion to the assiduity they have dis- played, or to the tenderness with which the rights of their subjects have been regarded. This, however, is to be said; that, according as the enterprize of individuals may, by de- grees, give additional value to the soil, by an immense encrease of exportation, from various EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 499 parts of the country, of a million of commodi- ties, which, until latterly, were either unknown, or unheeded, so will the duties collected at the several chokies^ (custom-house stations,) and at the several ports, together with the demand for British manufactures, be proportionally aug- mented. It should be very generally made known, that the Company receive into their treasury all the realized property of persons demising in India, under letters of administration, or undfti' the acts of executors, duly acknowledged and certified by the supreme courts of justice at the several presidencies. This eifectually secures the in- terest persons in Europe may have in the estates of friends, &c., dying in India: so rigidly is this observed, that the relatives of any private soldier may fully ascertain how his property, if any, has been disposed of, and receive whatever sums may be forth-coming from the sale of his effects, &c. Such a measure fully guards the principal of any sum left in the Company's treasury; while, at the same time, the most pleasing facility is given to individuals, to enable them, or their attornies, to receive the interest, either at the presidency, or in the moofussui, (that is, from the collectors,) according as may be convenient: but such can only be done under a specific power of attorney. 2k 2 iOO EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. The generality of traders, who resort to dis- tant inland markets, near which to reside, or who, in favorable situations, become conspicu- ous aa manufacturers, w hether of indigo, cloth, sugar, &c*, have invariably some connection with one or more agency-houses at the presidency; on these they draw their bills, generally for hy- pothecated cargoes, sent from the manufactory, either to be sold by them, or to be shipped for Europe. This, under a pure agency, is unexcep- tionable, provided the firm rests on the broad basis of absolute property, and does not play with the cash belonging to its less speculative constituents : such may be said to be merely the bankers of those whose consignments they receive, and pass on to this country without participating in the adventure ; and confining themselves to a stipulated per centage on the amounts of invoices, according to the scale in common use. Agency-houses are not confined to British subjects ; the Portugueze, the Armenians, the Greeks, and others, form a portion of several firms of great respectability; or, at least, of those companies which, under diflferent designa- tions, insure the greater part of those vessels, which either sail from India to Europe direct, or that traverse the Indian seas, according to the state of the monsoons ; carrying on a lucra- tive trade among the several Asiatic ports. EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 501 It must not be supposed, that persons de- voting their whole attention to the concern of others, in such a climate, where the expences are very great, and from which it is an object with most adventurers, and speculators, to retire with such a competency as should afford some enjoyments during the decline of life, are to be remunerated in the same manner as though they had merely to attend their counting-houses in London for a very few hours daily. The Indian agent must keep a large establishment of sircars, podars, &c., and must maintain exten- sive connections in various parts of the country: nay, he is often expected to have an apartment, or two, in his dwellino^, devoted to the accom- modation of such of his country correspondents as may occasionally visit the presidency. Combining all these circumstances, it will be evident, that his charges for commission must be such as, among us, would appear extravagantly high. The same causes operate towards raising the expences of a suit in the supreme court of judicature equally above those of the British courts; though the latter are certainly full high enough ! The terms of receiving, or paying, money, in exchange with Europe, China, or other parts, are completely arbitrary ; being governed solely by the value of money to any particular firm at 502 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. the time of negociatins:: I have known in- stances of some firms declining to offer more than two shillings and sixpence for a sicca rupee, bills being given pa^'able at six months after sight in Europe, while others, whose stability appeared equally solid, offered two shillings and nine-pence for the same accommodation. In point of commerce, Calcutta may, perhaps, be properly classed with Bristol ; making this allowance, that what the former wants in the number of vessels employed, is made up by their average tonnage being considerable, and the value of their cargoes far superior. The length of the voyage must likewise be taken into consideration : a vessel may, during times of profound peace, make three voyages within twelve months, from Bristol to America, or the West Indies, and back again, and the same either to the Baltic, or to the Levant ; whereas, few Indiamen make more than one return to their moorings in the Thames under fifteen months ; the majority are out from fifteen to twenty months. Hence, all our British ports appear more crowded, taking the year round, than Calcutta, which, from July to November, or even to Ja- nuary, often presents a forest of masts ; while, on the other hand, during the rest of the year, only such vessels as may be under repair, or EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 50S that have lost their season, or that beat up the bay against the monsoon^ are to be seen in the river. 1 have already explained, that, during half the year, that is, from about the middle of March to the middle of September, the wind is south- erly, but then gradually changes to the north- ward, from which quarter it blows regularly for about five months, when it again gradually veers about to the southward. This gives name to the ' northerly and southerly monsoons ,• ' which all navigators study to take advantage of: the difference in going with, or against the monsoon, from Calcutta to Madras, or vice versa, oftei) makes the difference of full five or six weeks, sometimes more : the trip being very commonly made in a week with the monsoon; but, against it, sometimes occupying no less than three months 1 Few ships make more than one trip between Malabar and China, within the year, on account of the monsoon; but, between the intermediate ports from Bombay to Calcutta, two trips may be considered the averasje. D urine: the wars ivith Hyder, and his son Tippoo, vessels have made four trips within the year, from Bengal to Madras ; but such must not be considered a fair standard, three being considered a great ex- ertion. The town of Calcutta, which is estimated at ^04 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. a population of a hundred thousand souls, whereof not more than one thousand are British, is situated very advantaijeously for commerce. The Hoogly, which is navigable for ships of a thousand tons, at least thirty-five miles above Calcutta, communicates with the Ganges, by means of the Cossimbazar river, and has com- munications with the whole of the Sunder- bund Passages, either through Tolley's Canal, the creek called Chingrah Nullah, or the south- ern passage, through Channel Creek, which is adopted by the greater part of the vessels con- veying rice and salt from the Soonderbunds: these are of a very stout construction, suited to those wide expanses of water they have to cross in that very hazardous line of navigation. The average depth of water, within a stone's throw of the eastern bank, on which Calcutta ranges for several miles, (including the suburbs up to the Maharrattah Ditch,) may be from six to eight fathoms when the tide is out. At par- ticular places, the water deepens very suddenl}^, but, in most parts, a shelf, abounding with mud, runs out for sixty or seventy yards, down to low water mark, where the bank falls off, so that ships of any burthen may moor within a very few yards. The great front thus given to the town, affords innumerable facilities to those concerned in the shipping ; especially as the custom-house, which is on the quay belonging to the old fort, EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. 605 Stands nearly centrical, in respect to the Euro- pean population. The douies, which are small craft intended for the coasting trade carried on principally by native merchants, commonly lie higher up, opposite the Chitpore ni'hut, or temple ; there, in tiers, much the same as the shipping in the Thames, these pariah vessels present a contrast with the superb edifices under British manage- ment, and at once characterize not only the ignorance, but the narrow minds of their owners. Few doilies measure more than a hundred and fifty tons, or have more than two masts ; sloops are by tar most common, and the generality are equipped with coir cordage, as well as with country-made canvas. The greater portion of these vessels return either in ballast, after delivering their cargoes of rice, at various ports in the Northern Sircars, or perhaps in the Carnatic ; or they import with light cargoes, composed chiefly of coir and cowries^ from the Sechelles and Maid ivies ; to which they likewise, now and then, make a bold voyage, at favorable seasons, with small invoices of coarse cottons, fit for the use of those islanders. Here, and there, we see a doney with some European on board to navigate her ; but, in in general, only natives are employed ; and the .506 EAST INDIA VADE-MECUM. Europe-ships, which arrive with crews from their respective country, are often compelled to take a portion of lascars on board, for the purpose of aiding those who survive the pestilential miasma, to which they are so inconsiderately, or, more properly, inhumanly, subjected, while lying at Diamond-Harbour, &c. Those who escape with their lives, are usually much weak- ened by severe attacks of the ague, of which they rarely get quit, until relieved by an altera- tive course of mercury, in conjunction with the change of air experienced by getting out to sea. X shall, for the present, take leave of my readers ; observing, that I am now preparing for the press a work intended to give a full, but com- pact, ' Description of India in General.' In that work, it will be my study so to combine and arrange the several important matters coming under consideration, as to render the whole of whatever may relate to that interesting quarter, fully intelligible, and equally familiar. FINIS. 1810. A LIST OF BOOKS ON (J^rieutal 2.ttetatuve> That will be found useful to Writers, Cadets, and Gentlemen going to the East Indies^ SOLD BY BLACK, PARRY, AND KINGSBURY, Booksellers to the Honorable East India Company, Stationers, Map, and Chart Sellers, 7, LEADENHALL-STREET. Oriental Language, Sfc. The following valuahle Wcrkn are by J. BORTHWICK GILCHRIST, Esq. LL. D. late Professor of Hindoostanee, at the College, Fort-William, Calcutta. £. s. d. Bagho Buhar, or the Entertaiuing Story of the Four Friars, in Hindoostanee prose - 1 British ludiau JViouitor, or the Auti-jargonist Strangers' Guide, and Oriental Linguist, 2 voh - - - - - - -440 Dialogues, English and Hindoostanee, on Domes- tic, Military, and Medical Subjects, &c. 10 Gooli Buchawalee, a celel)rated Eastern Romance l6 Hidayet ool Islam, in Hindoostanee and Arabic, or the Moosulman's Common Prayer Book, vol. 1. - - - - - -0 15 Hindee Arabic Mirror, or Improved Tabular View ot" Arabic Words in the Hindoosta- nee Language - - - - -050 Hindee Moral Preceptor, or Persian Scholar's Shortest Road to the Hindoostanee Lan- guage, et vice versa - _ - - Hindee Roman Alphabetical Prospectus - Orthoepigraphical Ultimatum - New Theory of Persian Verbs, with their Hin- doostanee Synonymes - - - -0120 Nuzri Benuseer, an Enchanting Fairy Tale, in Hindoostanee Prose, from the Original - l6 Oriental Fabulist, or Polyglot Fables, in Eng- lish, Hindoostanee, Persian, Arabic, &c. 10 Rose Garden of Hindoostan, a Translation of Sady's celebrated Goolistan, 2 vol. - 1 10 Strangers' 'East India' Guide to the Hindoo- stanee, bound, 8vo. - • - -O90 1 2 6 4 Oriental Literature, S^c. £. t. L Tota Kuhanee, or Tales of a Parrot, in Hln- doostanee - - - - - -0 10 Uklaqiii Hindee, or Indian Ethics, a Hindoo- stanee Translation of Hitoopudes - - l6 3 10 1 1 1 1 10 6 8 8 Id 15 Ancient Indian Literature, being- a Summary of the ' Sheeve Pouran,' the ' Brahme Vivertte Pooran, ' and the ' Arthe Pi ckash Shastre ; ' with Extracts and Epitomes, 4to. L»ds. - - - - - -150 Anvari Soheily of Hussein Vaen Kashefy, Cal- cutta printed, 1805, half bound Baillie's AraV>ic Grammar, 2 vol. 4to. . . Sixty Tables on ditto, folio Balfour's Forms of Herkern, Arabic and English Barretto's Persian and Arabic Dictionary, 2 vol. 8vo. '- -660 , . . Shums-ool-Loghat, or a Dictionary of the Persian and Arabic, the interpretation being in Arabic, 2 vol. 4to. - - -1212 Carey's Sungskrit Grammar, with Examples for the Exercise of the Student, and complete l>ist of the Dhatoos, or Roots, boards - Catlyle's Specimens of Arabian Poetry, 2 vol. - . .' . Maured Allatafet, 4to. bds. Dudley's, Xiev. John, ISerbudda, or The Meta- morphosis of Sona _ _ _ _ Forster's Bongalee and English, and English and Bongalee Vocabulary, 2 vol. 4to. bds. - 4 4 Gladwin's Gulistan of Sady, with an English Translation, 2 vol. 4to. , ^ - - . . . . Gulistan of Sady, Pers. 1vol. 8vo. bds. . . . . Gulistan of Sady, translated, 8vo. . . . . Persian Moonshee, Persian and Eng- lish, 4to. half bound, russia - - - 3 3 . , . . Tootinameh, or Tales of a Parrot, Persian and English - - - -0180 . . . . Dissertation on the Rhetoric of the Persians, 4to. bds, , _ - - Hadley's Moors' Grammar, with a Vocabulary Hager's Elements of the Chinese Language, folio Howison's Malay Grammar and Dictionary Jones's (Sir Wm.) Persian Grammar, 4to. bound L'Herbelot's Bibliotheque Orientale, 4 vol. 4to. Moise's Persian Interpreter, with a Vocabulary Ouseley's ( Sir \Vm. ) Persian Miscellanies, an Essay to facibtate the reading of Persian Manuscripts, 4to, bds. - - - -111^ 5 5 16 10 6 18 10 6 2 2 1 1 4 4 18 cf. J. d. 14 4 4 10 6 15 Ohental Literature^ 8fc> Ouseley's Bahktyar Nameh, Persian and English . . . Oriental Collections, 2 vol. 4to. bds. • . . Oriental Collections, vol. 3, part I. bds. Persian Lyrics of Hatiz, 4to. bds. - - - Pendeh-i-Attar. — The Morals of Attar, a cele- brated Persian Poem, Pers. 12nio. bds. 7 6 Richardson's Persian, Arabic, and English Dic- tionary, by C. Wilkins, Eb(|. LL. D. 2 vol. 4to. bds. 12 12 Vol. II. tvill be delivered gratis ichen published ; A few Copies are printed on Imperial Quarto. Richardson's Arabic Grammar, 4to. bonnd - 1 1 Ramayuna of ^ almeeki, in the original Sung- skrit, with a Prose Translation, and Ex- planatory Notes, by W. Carey and J. Mar- sham, vol. 1, bds. - - - - 5 5 Ramayuna of \ almeeki, translated from the ori- ginal Sungsi Vindication of the Hindoos, Parts I. and II,, in Reply to the Observations of the Christian Observer of Mr. Fuller and his anonymous Friend ; with some Remarks on a Sermon preached at Oxford, by the Rev. Dr. Barrow, by a Bengal Officer, sewed, each Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, 4to. bds. Ditto, 8vo. bound ------ Wellesley's (Marquis) Hist, of theMahratta"War,, notes, &c. 3 parts, 4to. bds. ■ - 1 l6 A targe Collection of scarce and valuable Books In the Oriental languages, ah9 oil the History, Aiitiquities, VoyageSt Travels, Katural History, and Trade of the East Indies, are constantly kept on Sale. 5 I 11 t) 13 At lasses and Maps. Arrowsmith's New Map of India, cloth and rollers Ditto, varnished ------ Ditto, on cloth, in a portable case - - - Ditto Map of Asia, cloth and rollers Ditto, varnished ------ Reniiel's (Major) Map of India, cloth and rollers Ditto, varnished ------ Ditio, on cloth, in a portable case - - - Rennel's Bengal Atlas, folio, half bound - Siriall Map of India, in a portable case - Ulilitart/. Act for Punishing Mutiny and Desertion, and Articles of War - - - - - Adye on Military Courts Martial, 12mo. bds. - Baker's Practice of the Rifle Gun, 8vo. bds. 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Officer's Manual in the Field, or a Series of Mi- btary Plans, bds, - - - - -0150 Regulations for Riflemen and Light Infantry-, 8vo. bds, - - -'- - -036 . . . . and instructions for Cavalry, &c. 8vo. bds. - ■ - Elucidation of ditto - . _ - - Reid on the Duties of Infantry Officers - Rifle Manual, with plates, 4to, bds. Rules and Regulations for the Formation of His Majesty's Infantry, 8vo. bds. - Ditto for the Sword Exercise, 8vo, bds, Russell's Instruction for Drill, 18 Manoeuvres, &c. 8vo. bds. _ - - - - . . . Movements, &c, of Infantry, 8vo. bds. Smirke's Review of a Battalion of Infantry, 8vo. Struensee's Fortitication, 8vo. bds. - - - 7 6 7 5 1 1 6 7 7 C 7 (i 7 7 G BIBLES — PRAYER BOOKS — STATIONARY, &c. Where may he had, the most Esteemed Works and Modern Publications, alio the latest and most accurate Atlusses, Maps, Charts, ^c. 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