THE CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE SERIES. Edited by HAVELOCK ELLIS. THE JEWS: A STUDY OF RACE AND ENVIRONMENT. Ot the saive Puhlishcrs, mid Uniform 'ivith this Volume. THE CRIMINAL. New and Enlarged 3rd Edition. P.y Havelock Ellis. 6/-. HYPNOTISM. New and Enlarged 6th Edition. P.y Albert Moll. 6/-. MODERN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. Ey C. \. Keane.D.Sc. 6/-. And 47 others. THE JEWS: A STUDY OF RACE AND ENVIRONMENT BY MAURICE FISHBERG, FELLOW OK THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, ETC THE WALTER SCOTT PUBLISHING CO., LTD. PATERNOSTER SQUARE, LONDON, E.C. CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 597 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK PREFACE. ^pp. This volume is an attempt to present the results of anthropo- logical, demographic, pathological, and sociological investiga- tions of the Jews. Considering that one-fifth of all the Jews in the world live at present in English-speaking countries, and that the migrations of Eastern European Jews tend toward the United States and England with its colonies, I believe I need not apologize for claiming attention to this subject. The facts presented are not available in any book, and it may safely be declared that the whole world is interested in the subject of the Jews as a race, and the getting into closer touch with the ethnic relations of the Jews. Moreover, the perennial problem, whether it is possible to assimilate the vast number of Southern and Eastern immigrants to the United States and British colonies has been applied more to the Jews than to any other white people. It has even been questioned whether there is ever a probability of incorporating the Jews into the body politic of Anglo-Saxon communities. That anthropology only is competent to answer this question is agreed. Yet there is no book in English treating of the race traits of the Jews. The literature on the subject in English consists mostly of investigations by special parliamentary commissions, containing opinions of statesmen, social workers, educators, etc. It appears that the prevailing opinion is that the Jews, alleged to have maintained themselves in absolute racial purity for three or four thousand years, may prove hard to assimilate. On the one hand we have those Jews who take great pride in the purity of their breed, and, on the other, the people among whom they live who see a peculiar peril in the prospect of indefinitely harbouring an alien race which is not VI PREFACE, likely to mix with the general population. This apprehension is confirmed by the Jewish nationalists, who look for repatria- tion in Palestine, or some other territory, thus corroborating the opinion that they are aliens in Europe, encamped for the time being, and waiting for an opportunity to retreat to their natural home in Asia. Indeed, the problem has of late been given official recognition in Anglo-Saxon countries. When bills were introduced in Parliaments aiming at the exclusion of Asiatic immigration, it was questioned whether Jews might not be considered Asiatics under the law; and in the United States a bill was recently introduced in Congress specifically declaring that the law prohibiting immigration and naturalization of Asiatics does not refer to Jews, Armenians, and Syrians. This inquiry into the race traits of the Jews could not be carried out by a study of these people in any one country, because we find at the outset that they present significant differences depending greatly on their birth-place, social and political conditions, and, in general, the environment in which they find themselves. Their anthropological characteristics could best be studied in New York City, where exist a million Jews from Europe, Asia, and Africa; and we have taken advantage of the material thus offered by obtaining anthro- pometric measurements of about three thousand Jews in this city. The conclusions as to the anthropological types of the Jews are based on these measurements, as well as on a collation of the scattered literature on the subject. The demography of the Jews could best be studied from oflEicial government publications in those countries where the censuses classify the population by religious confession. The changes in the physical, social, and economic conditions of the Jews under emancipation could best be studied in Western Europe and America, and this study involved a careful search into the literature on the Jews to bring out certain points which might have practical social bearings, especially on the problem of assimilation. While speaking of the changes which the contemporary Jews PREFACE. Vll have been undergoing within the last fifty years, we have avoided taking the position of partisan or advocate, and have treated the subject objectively. Books aiming at sympathetic apologies, defending, often excusing, Israel's existence among the nations, are on the same plane as those containing venomous' diatribes full of scurrilous invectives against the Semites. It should also be understood that while pointing at the process of assimilation of the Jews, we by no means advocate their absorption by the surrounding people of different faiths. We do not find it important for the welfare of the remnants of Israel, or of those around them, that Jewry should commit race suicide. What is aimed at, however, is to point out what appears to be the tendencies, the Zeitgeist, of the Jews at the threshold of the Twentieth Century. Showing that while discarding the greater part of their separative ritualism the modern Jews commit suicide as Jews, because they cease to be peculiar, it is difficult to avoid describing in detail the metamorphosis this change works on the children of Israel. The large number of mixed marriages, which keeps on growing, could only take place among Jews who have discarded the separative tenets of their religion. People obeying the dietary laws religiously could not come in close and intimate contact with those whose table they could not share. The fact that the differences between Jews and Christians are not everywhere racial, due to anatomical or physiological peculiarities, but are solely the result of the social and political environment, explains our optimism as regards the ultimate obliteration of all distinctions between Jews and Christians in Europe and America. This optimism is confirmed by conditions in Italy, Scandinavia, and Australia, where anti-Semitism is practically unknown. When intermarriage between Jews and Christians will reach the same proportions in other countries, and the facts presented in Chapter IX. clearly show that the time is not distant, anti-Semitism will everywhere meet with the same fate as in Italy, Scandinavia and Australia. Both Jews and Christians have been contributing to this end, the former by discarding VHl PREFACE. their separative ritualism, and thus dis[)laying willingness to bridge the gulf which separated then) from others, and the latter by legalizing civil marriage. Whether this means that ceasing to be peculiar may prove deadly to Judaism can only be conjectured. All I could do was to present the facts. I am indebted to Dr. Joseph Jacobs for reading the greater part of the manuscript and proofs and making some helpful suggestions. Drs. S. VVeissenberg and A. D. Elkind of Russia have generously loaned me some photographs of types of Jews which could not readily be obtained in New York. Dr. Joseph Fraenkel, physician to the Montefiore Home in New York, deserves my gratitude for reading the proofs of the chapter on nervous diseases. I am also indebted to Mr. M. Mandelkern for the patience and interest he manifested when I sent to him persons to be photographed for this work. MAURICE FISHBERG. New York, U.S.A., 1911. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Number and Distribution of the Jews in the World— Acclimatization . - - - Number of Jews in ancient times— During medieval ages — Ubiquity during the nineteenth century — Distribution of the Jews in Europe — Number and distribution in North and South America— In Asia, Africa, and Aus- tralasia — Total number of Jews — Recent changes in distribution — Jews in English-spealving countries — Jews as town-dwellers — Causes of preference for city life — Acclimatization— Causes of the superior power of acclimatization of the Jews. CHAPTER H. Physical Characters - - - - - 21 The alleged purity of the Jewish race— Stability and per- sistence of racial traits — Race and environment — Stature of the Jews — Height of the ancient Hebrews — Height of modern Jewish conscripts — Growth of the body — Height of Jewesses — Influence of the environment on the stature of the Jews — Influence of occupation — Social selection— Selection by immigration — Ethnic Factors. CHAPTER HI. Physical Characters {Cotitiiined) - - - 47 The head-form — Skulls of ancient Hebrews — Of niedi;eval Jews — Of modern Jews — The three types of head-form among Jews— Uniformity of cranial type of Eastern European Jews — (Jrigin of the types of skulls of the Jews — Size of the head— Weight of the brain — Brain weight and intellectual capacity. X CONTENTS. PACE CHAPTER IV. Physical Characters [Concluded) - - - 60 Complexion — Types of pigmentation of the ancient Helircws — The ideal Jewish type — Types of pigmentation among modern Jews — Complexion of Jewish children in various parts of the wurld — Erythrism— The blonde Jews — Origin of tlie blonde elements among the Jews — Artificial selection — The nose — Fallacy of considering the aquiline and hook noses as typically Jewish — Forms of the nose among modern Jews — The Jewish chest — Vital capacity — P'itness for military service. CHAPTER V. Types of Jews ...... ^o The "indelibility" of the Jewish type — The type of the ancient Hebrews — The characteristics of the Jewish face — The artist's conception of the Jewish face — The novelist's conception of the Jewish face — The anthro- pologist's conception of the Jewish type — The alleged prepotency of the Jewish physiognomy — The two Jewish types — The ^■(//iirtrf// type of Jew — The Ashkoiazi \.\\)QS of Jews — The Slavonic type — The Teutimic type — The Turanian type — The Mongoloid and the Negroid types of fews — Other types. CHAPTER VI. Types of Jews in Various Countries - - 121 Jewish types in Palestine — The Samaritans— Jew's of Bokhara — The Persian Jews — Jews in the Caucasus — The Dag- hestan Mountain Jews— The white and black Jews in India — Chinese Jews — The various types of Jews in North Africa — Berber Jews — Jewish cave-dwellers in Tripolis — Falashas in Abyssinia— Other Negro Jews — In Jamaica and Surinam — The Karaites — Crypto-Jews — The Dbnmeh in Salonica — The Chuetas — The Annussim— The distinction between Jews by race and Jews by religion. CHAPTER VII. Origin of the Various Types of Jews - - 162 Dress and deportment as contributory causes of the dis- tinctive type of Jews — The attitude of the body — The psychic type of the Jew— The Ghetto face — The Jewish CONTENTS. XI I'AtiE eye — The ubiquitous Ten Lost Tribes of Israel — Jewish type met with among many jjeoples and races in various parts of the world — Isolation and selection as factors in the production of the Jewish type. CHAPTER VIII. Proselytism and Intermarriage among Jews - 179 The Jewish race — Mixtures during the period of consolidation of the Hebrews — Intermarriages of the patriarchs and kings of Israel with other races — Intermarriages during the Babylonian captivity — Ezra's admonition about the purity of race — Intermarriage during the Greco-Roman period of Jewish history — Extent of Jewish proselytism — Graetz's and Reinach's estimates of the extent of inter- marriage and proselytism of the Jews during that period — Intermarriages prohibited by Church edicts — Inter- marriages in Gaul and Spain — In Slavonic countries — ■ The Chozars — Origin of the Eastern European Jews. CHAPTER IX. Intermarriages hetween Jews and Christians IN Modern Times ----- 195 The legal status of intermarriages between Jews and Christians — What is a "mixed" marriage? — Number of mixed marriages in Scandinavia, Germany, France, Italy, England, Australia, and the United States — The opposition of the Church and the Synagogue to inter- marriages between Jews and Christians — Intermarriages between followers of various Christian denominations — The Ghetto is the best preventive of intermarriage — Fertility of mixed marriages — Distinguished persons of half-Jewish origin— The loss sustained by Judaism through intermarriages — Frequency of divorce among mixed couples — Decrease of Jewish population as a result of intermarriage — Intermarriage and missionary work among Jews — Ethnic effects of mixed marriages — Jewish Theological attitude toward inter-marriage. CHAPTER X. Demographic Characteristics - - - - 225 The alleged superior fecundity of the Tews— Birth-rates of the Jews in various countries — Differences between Eastern and Western Jews — The decline in the fecundity of the Jews — The marriage fecundity of the Jews — Causes of the low birth-rates of the Jews— Sex at birth — The enormous excess of male births only ajiparent — I'roportion of still-births — Illegitimacy among the Jews. Xll CONTENTS. PACE CHAPTER XI. Demographic Characteristics {Continued) - - 245 Marriage rates among the Jews in various countries — Differences between Eastern and Western Jews — Age at marriage — Proportion of celibates — Causes of low marriage rates of the Jews— Consanguineous marriages — Dissolution of marriage. CHAPTER XH. Demographic Characteristics {Concluded) - - 255 Mortality of the Jews in various countries — Tenacity of life of the Jews — Jewish infant mortality — Expectation of life- Causes of the low death-rates of the Jews — Effects of the demographic phenomena on the Jews — Excess of births over deaths — Differences between Eastern and Western Jews — The recent decline in the natural increase of the Jews. CHAPTER Xni. Pathological Characteristics- - - - 270 Race and disease— Effects of social conditions on the incidence of pathological processes — Alcoholism — Con- tagious diseases among Jews — The Black Death — Typhoid fever, cholera, endemic diseases among Jews — Causes of differences in frequency of certain diseases among Jews and others— Tuberculosis — Causes of in- frequency of tuberculosis among Jews. CHAPTER XIV. Pathological Characteristics {Continued) - - 296 General diseases — The diatheses — Diabetes as a "Jewish disease"' — Diseases of the respiratory, circulatory, and digestive organs — Goitre — Cancer — Factor Judatctis — Skin diseases among Jews — Syphilis, leprosy, eye diseases among Jews — Blindness, colour-blindness, and myopia. CHAPTER XV. Pathological Characteristics {Concluded) - - 324 Nervous and mental diseases among Jews — Hysteria and neurasthenia — Paralysis agaitans — Intermittent claudi- cation — Causes of the nervousness of the Jews — Frequency of idiocy and imbecility among Jews — Deaf- CONTENTS. Xlll PAGE mutism — Insanity among the ancient Hebrews — Insanity among the modern Jews — Forms of insanity among Jews — Psychosis Jiidaica — Causes of the excessive incidence of insanity among Jews — Suicide among Jews — Recent increase in the tendency to self-destruction. CHAPTER XVI. Social and Economic Conditions of the Jews IN Various Countries . . - . 356 Factors influencing social and economic conditions — Dis- tribution of the population by ages — Differences between Eastern and Western Jews — Poverty — Absence of the pauper element — The economic conditions depend mostly on their political status — Poverty of the Jews in Russia, Poland, and Roumania — Prosperity of the Western Jews — Differences in the economic conditions of the native and immigrant Jews in the United States — Capacity for regeneration of the Jewish immigrant. CHAPTER XVH. Education of the Jews in Various Countries - 370 Facilities for education an important factor — Illiteracy among Jewish immigrants — Illiteracy in Russia— Superiority in countries in which the schools are open to them — Higher education — Jews in high schools and universities — Dis- abilities in Russia — Preference for the study of medicine and law — Jewish students of philosophy and applied sciences — Languages sj^oken by Jews — There is no Jewish vernacular — Chaldaic displaced Hebrew at an early age— Greek, Arabic, and the Romance languages used by Jews during the Middle Ages — Effects of isolation — Characteristics of Jewish jargons — Spaqiiiioli — Yiddish — Its centre of diffusion — English displacing Yiddish— Language as a test of social contact — The alleged inability of Jews to pronounce European languages. CHAPTER XVHI. Occupations - - .... 3^3 Effects of political disabilities on the occupations pursued by the Jews — Influence of the Jewish religion on the choice of occupation — Preference for the garment industry — Jews in various trades — Commercial i)ursuits — Changes observed in the occupations of American Jews — Jews as agriculturists. XIV CONTENTS. PAGR CHAPTER XIX. Criminality .---... 407 Differences between Jews and Christians as to the numl^er of arrests and convictions— Effects of occupation on criminalty — Criminality of the Jews in Germany, Hungary, Holland, and Russia — Differences in the nature of the crimes committed by Jews and Christians — Infrequency of crimes of violence committed by Jews — Recent changes among the Jews in England and the United States. CHAPTER XX. Political Conditions of Modern Jews - - 419 Proportion of emancipated Jews — Effects of the union of Church and State on the political conditions of the Jews at various periods of their history — Political status in ancient Greece and Rome — Effects of the spread of Christianity — Effects of the separative ritualism of Judaism — Aims of medireval legislation against the Jews — Political conditions of the Jews in Roumania — Conditions in Russia — Summary of restrictions imposed on the Jews of Russia — Causes of Russian persecutions — Political status of the Jews in Western Europe — First admission to citizenship in France — Emancipation in England — In Holland, Austria, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, etc. — Analogy between conditions of the modern Jews in Russia and Roumania and those in medieval ages — General effects of the recent political disabilities — Migrations of modern Jews — The United States the point of destination of the vast majority of Jewish immigrants. CHAPTER XXI. Social Disabilities and their Effects - - 438 The entry of the emancipated Jew into modern society — Dis- crimination in the armies and navies in Europe — Social ostracism in the United States — Discrimination in German academic circles— Number of Jewish pro- fessors in German universities — Baptism the usual prerequisite for academic appointments — Fear of the "Semite" by "Aryan" jingoes — Baptismal waters the specific means of clearing the "Semite" of his objectionable racial traits — Singular position of the emancipated Jews — Causes of baptism — Baptism and apostasy in ancient and medieval times — Prominent modern Jewish converts to Christianity — Number of CONTENTS. XV PAGE baptisms during the nineteenth century in Russia, Austria, and Hungary — Social conditions of the Jews baptized in Vienna and IJerlin — The "Freethinkers" from the Jewisli fold — Marriage and advancement the two main causes of baptisms — Effects of baptism on the social conditions of the Jews who remain true to their faith — Excessive proportion of Jewish pmi'cmis ■ — Eastern European Jews replacing those lost through baptism in Western countries. CHAPTER XXII. Assimilation versus Zionism .... 466 Tendencies among the modern Jews — George Brandes' view on his relation to Judaism — Causes of the revival of the Jewish Nationalists' movement — The Zionist's pro- gramme — Zionism and assimilation — The Zionist's assumption of a distinct Jewish nationality — Attempts to avert disintegration of Judaism — Are the Jews a nation? — The Jews were a nation before their eman- cipation in Europe — Judaism and the laws of Christian states kept them apart from their neighbours — Assimi- lation of the Western Jews — Causes of denationalization of modern Jews — Religion and nationality— Language and nationality — There is no national Jewish vernacular — Adoption of culture and civilization of the countries in which they live — The failure of the Nationalists in their efforts to revive the Jewish national spirit — What is Jewish art? — Is there a Jewish literature? — Absence of a specific Jewish spirit in painting, sculpture, music, and architecture— There is no Jewish folk-lore, folk- tales, folk-medicine, etc. — Professor Lazarus on Jewish nationalism — Why Palestine is inadequate to shelter all the Jews — Christendom would not cherish re- nationalization of the Jews in the Holy Land — The fertility of Palestine — The difficulties in the way of developing Palestine industrially and commercially — Repatriation offers no solution of the Jewish problem — Zionism has not attracted the cultured Jews — Objections to an autonomous territory — The two tendencies among the modern Jews. CHAPTER XXIII. Recapitulation and Conclusions - - - 504 Race pride of the Jews — The Semite and the Aryan — Influence of the environment on racial characters — The difference between the social and the anthropological type of the Jew — Anthropologically the Jews are not a race — There is no Jewish type ; there are Jewish types — Mixed XVI CONTENTS. PAr.B marriages and their sip;nificancc — Failure of hostile legislation against the Jews — Decline in the fertility of the Jews — Demography as an index of the social, religious, and political status of the Jews— Decadence of the Western Jews — Alleged racial immunities — Isolation often spared them during epidemics — Mortality rates of Ihe Jews depend more on their economic condition than on "inherent tenacity of life" — Psychic trauma as causes of nervousness of the Jews — Isolation and its significance — Media;val legislationalwaysaimed at isolation of the Jew ■ — ^Judaism the most separative of religions — Effects of the Sabbath and the dietary laws — Judaism the best ally of the Church in keeping the Jews isolated from the Christians — Economic and social effects of isolation — Alleged superiority of the Jew as a trader — Char- acteristics of the Jewish artisan— The "inherent thirst for knowledge" of the Jew — Causes of the peculiar criminality of the Jews — Assimilation of the Jews — Large number of baptisms prove capacity of assimi- lation — Disabilities in Eastern Europe the greatest barrier in the way of assimilation of the Jews. Bibliography 557 Index of Authors 567 Index of Subjects 572 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fir.. ha<;k 1. Algerian Jewess ...... 5 2. Tunisian Jew ...... g 3. Daghestan Mountain Jews - . - - . 12 4. Bokhara Jews - . - - . .15 5-6. Caucasian Jewess - - - . - . iS 7. \'oung Jewess in Sfax, Tunis - - - .22 8-1 1. Types of Eastern European Jews • - - - 30 12. Curve of stature of Jews and non-Jews in Eastern Europe - 43 13-16. Types of Jews in Austrian Cialicia - - - - 45 17. Group of Jews in Bokhara - - - - - 61 18. Face of Old Jew. (From a painting by Rembrandt) - 62 19. Jewish Faces. (F'rom a painting by Kaufniann) - - 63 20. Jewess in Tangier, Morocco. (From a painting by I'ortaeb) 67 21-22. Lithuanian Jews ...... 69 23. Algerian Jewess . - . . - - 71 24. Algerian Jew ------ 73 25. Jewish Rabbi, Constantine - - - - 75 26-27. Galician Jews ...... 78 28-29. Polish Jew, While Russian Type - • - - 80 30 31. Polish Jew, Great Russian T)pe - - . - 82 32. Diagram of Jewish Nose - . . . . 85 33. Ancient Races portrayed on the Egyptian Monuments - 91 34. Jewish Doctor (Rembrandt) - - - - 93 35. Jewish Face. (Drawing by l.ilien) - - "95 36-40. Artists' conception of Jewish Face. (From painiiags by Hirszenberg, Pasternack, Sichel, Gottlieb, Lilien) - 96-97 41. Composite portraiture of Jewish Type. (Gallon) - 100. loi 42. Jewess, Jerusalem; Sephardi Type - - • 103 43-46. Sephardi Types of Jews ..... 105 47. Jewish Rabbi, Oran ..... 109 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 48-51. Ashkenazi Types of Jews ... - I 52-55- Jewesses, Ashkenazi Type I 56. Polish Jew ..... 57- Galician Jew ..... 58-59. Russian Jewess, Mongoloid Type 60-61. Polish Jew, Slavonic-Mongoloid Type 62-63. Galician Jew, Ruthenian Type 64-65. Polish Jew, Mongoloid Type 66-67. Galician Jesvs, Negroid Types 6869. South Russian Jew, Slavonic Type 70-71. Jew, Native of Warsaw, Polish Type I 72-73- Teutonic Types of Jews - . . - 74- Polish Jew in Jerusalem - - . . 75- Samaritan ..... 76. Group of Samaritans .... 77. Syrian Jewess ..... 78.79. Yemenite Jews . . - . . 80. Bokhara Jewess - . - . . 81. Syrian Jewess ..... 82. Group of Persian Jewish Immigrants in New York 83-84. Jews in Georgia, Caucasus 85-86. Jews in Kutais, Caucasus .... 87-88. Daghestan Mountain Jews 89-90. Circassian Jews, Caucasus 91-92. Black Jews of India .... 93- White Jew in Cochin, India 94. Black Jew, Cochin, Malabar, India 95. Jew, Samarkand ----- 96. Jewess, Turkestan .... 97-98. Chinese Jews ..... 99- Family of Chinese Jews ... - 100. Tunisian Jew ..... lOI. Fat Jewess in Tunis .... 102. Tunisian Jewess . - - . . 103. Fat Jewess in Sfax, Tunisia - - . - 104. Jewess in Constantine .... 105. Jewess in Biskra, .Algeria KIG. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX io6. Sahara Jewesses .----- 144 107-109. Falashas ------- 147-8 no- II I. Karaite - - - - - - ■ 'S' 112. The Ghetto Bend - - - - - 164 I13-114. Jew, Native of Teluan, Morocco - - - 167 115-116. Muscovite Jew, Great Russian Type - - - 168 I17-118. Imer, Caucasus, with Jewish Facial Expression - - 169 119. Tartar, from Tiflis, with Jewish Physiognomy - - 169 120. Circassian, Caucasus, with Jewish Physiognomy - - 169 121-122. Bakairi Indian, with Jewish Cast of Countenance - 172 123. Japanese Girls with Jewish Expression - - - '73 124. Hova of Tananarive, with Jewish Cast of Countenance - 175 125. Yoro Combo, with Jewish Expression • - - 177- 126. Young Woman of Aries, with Jewish Physiognomy - 180 127-128. The Jewish Lads' Brigade, London - - - 185 129. Jewess in Asia Minor . . . - - 187 130. Jew of Jerusalem, Mongoloid Type - - - 190 131. Hungarian Jewess ..... 190 132. Jew of Bukowina .... - 193 133. Jewess, Oran, Algiers .... - 193 134-135. American Jew and Jewess .... 19S 136. Russian Jewish Rabbi - - - - - 201 137. Caucasian Jew ....-- 201 138. Group of Daghestan Mountain Jews - - - 204 139. Group of Yemenite Jews .... 20S 140. South Arabian Jew - - - - - 212 141. Samaritan Grand Rabbi - - - - - 212 142. The Three Types of Head-form among Jews - - 510 THE JEWS: A STUDY OF RACE AND ENVIRONMENT. CHAPTER I. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE JEWS IN THE WORLD. Number of Jews in ancient times —During mediaeval ages — Ubiquity during the nineteenth century — Distribution of the Jews in Europe — Number and distribution in North and South America — In Asia, Africa, and Australasia — Total number of Jews — Recent changes in distribution — Jews in English-speaking countries — Jews as town-dwellers — Causes of preference for city life — Acclimatization of the Jews — Causes of superior power of acclimatization of the Jews. The facts of history, begfinning- with remote antiquity, show that there were never as many Jews, nor were they ever as ubiquitous, as they are at the present. BibHcal tradition has it that Jacob migrated to Egypt with a retinue of seventy souls. After reinaining" there 430 years, his progeny returned to Palestine, and a census taken at Mount Sinai showed that there were 611,730 adult males capable of bearing arms. Haushoffer and Nossig calculate by a plausible method that the total population amounted to 3,154,000 souls. ^ Leaving the question of the possibility of taking a proper census, as well as the method employed, out of consideration, it must be borne in mind that it is questionable whether such a large number of men, women, and children could be supported with absolulely necessary food and shelter in a ' Haushoffer, Handhnch der Statiitik, p. 95; A. Nossig, Juedische Statistik, pp. 430-432, Berlin, 1903. These Bil)lical figures are certainly fanciful. It is problematical where 3,000,000 people could find room and subsistence in the land of Goshen, even if many lived in the district of Rameses. The exodus must have been a movement of a much smaller body of men [Jewish Eiicyclopuedia, vol. v., p. 294; see also Flinders I'etrie, Researclics in Sinai, pp. 194-222, London, 1906). I 2 THI': JKWS. desert. In any case, it appears that during" the following' period of their history they increased at a fair rate. The census of King David gave a net result of 1,300,000 males over twenty years of age, which would imply a total population around 5,000,000. This would also imply that Palestine was quite densely populated, to the extent of about the density of population of Belgium of to-day. That it is possible for such a population to live on such a small area which has few high roads, navigable rivers, etc., is shown by the congested state of India and some parts of China. But even this apparently high estimate of the Jewish population in antiquity shows only five millions. Since then there have never been as many Jews before the nineteenth century. There is only scanty information available- about the number of Jews during their dispersion at the beginning of the present era. Syria, according to Joseph us, was, next to Palestine and Babylonia, most densely inhabited by the Chosen People. In Damascus there are said to have been massacred, at the time of the great insurrection, 10, coo Jews, or even 18,000 according' to another version. Philo gives the number of Jewish inhabitants in Egypt as 1,000,000, one-eighth of the total population. But this is only an estimate.^ " If the sum confiscated by the pro- pretor Flaccus in 62 represented actually the tax of a dedrachma per head for a single year," says Reinach, "the inference may be safely drawn that in Asia Minor the Jewish population numbered 45,000 persons." Josephus evidently exaggerates when he says that during the sieg"e of Jerusalem 1,100,000 people were segregated in that city. 2 He also says that in Nero's time 2,565,000, or even 3,000,000 Hebrews offered Passover sacrifice in Jerusalem, while the Talmud states that as many as 12,000,000 con- gregated at one time in the holy city, which, according to the most extravagant estimate, measured thirty-three stadia, or about six square kilometres. Tacitus^ states that shortly before its destruction, Jerusalem harboured 600,000 Jews. Beloch* estimates that among the 7,000,000 inhabitants of Syria in Nero's time there were a million Jews. Ruppin's estimate that in 500 B.C. the total number ^ y« Flacctitn, § 6. ^Jewish IVa/s, vi., 9, 3. •' Hisfon'iC, v., 13. •* Die Bevolkejung dcr g)-iechisch-rdinischen IVe/t, p. 248. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION. 3 of Jews did not much exceed 100,000 appears to be correct, while his estimate o( 4,500,000 at the beginning' of the Christian era is seemingly excessive.^ In the absence of any definite data about the number of Jews during the Middle Ages, we must resort to estimates which are often fallacious. The best estimates, based on various historical data, and especially on records of the travels of Benjamin of Tudela, are those made by Joseph Jacobs in his article "Statistics" in \.\-\q JeivishEncyclopccdia. According to this author the number of Jews during the twelfth century was about 750,000, and during the six- teenth century about 1,000,000. They had not increased during these dark days, owing to the severe persecutions to which they were subjected. Jacobs estimates that during the five centuries from 1000 to 1500 A.D., 380,000 Jews were killed during massacres. All historical evidence goes to show that even as late as the middle of the eighteenth century the total number of Jews in the world hardly exceeded one million, less than one-half of whom lived in Europe. That there w-ere no more can easily be believed when it is considered that they were mostly city-dwellers, and there were very few cities in Europe in which the Jewish population exceeded 10,000. After the beginning of the nineteenth century the increase of the number of Jews in Europe was enormous. In addition to this increase they have also scattered all over the habitable globe, so that to-day they are met with in almost every country. In round numbers there are twelve millions of Jews in the world at present. Of these only about 500,000 live in Asia, and only about 250,000 in their original homes, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia. Three-fourths of the total number of the Jews of to-day, or about nine millions, live in Europe, and 7,500,000 live in three countries, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Roumania. The rest are scattered all over the continent, north, south and west. Russia has the largest number of Jews. At the census of 1897, which was the first complete enumeration of the population in that country, the returns showed 5,110,548 Jews, of whom 3,578,229 lived in the so-called " Pale of ^ Die Jiidcn dcr Gegenwart, pp. 30-32. 4 THK JEWS. Settlement," consisting of fifteen provinces in the west of l*)uropean Russia, where the Jews are permitted to live ; 1,321,100 in Poland, and 202,000 in the rest of European Russia. It can be safely assumed that their number has not increased since 1897, because of the heavy emigration which has taken place during recent years. As will be shown later, the annual excess of births over deaths among the Jews in Russia is about 75,000. During the period 1897-1909 there emigrated nearly 615,000 Russian Jews to the United States alone. In addition there was a heavy emigration to South America, Canada, South Africa, England, and many Western European countries. On the whole the excess of births over deaths among the Jews in Russia has probably been wiped out by emigration during the last ten years. Before this large exodus, the Jewish population in Russia multiplied very rapidly owing to the high birth-rate combined with a low mortality rate. From the scanty evidence available, it appears that during the second half of the sixteenth century there were about twelve thousand Jews in Lithuania, according to Bershadsky.^ In 1897 there were in that region nearly 1,500,000 Jews. At the first division of Poland in 1772-95, a census showed that there were in that country 308,519 male Jews.^ Considering the number of Jewesses about the same, it appears that there were at that time over 600,000 Jews in Poland. It is from these Jews that most of the Russian Jews of to-day are descended. But, after all, they constitute only 4.03 per cent, of the total population of European Russia. Inasmuch as they are segregated in the so-called " Pale of Settlement," they are more densely settled in Western and Southern Russia. In this " Pale" they constitute 10.8 per cent., and in Poland even 14.01 per cent, of the total population. The ''problem" of the Jews in Russia is thus seen to be entirely artificial, mainly due to their segregation in one part of the empire, and in that region, in cities, as will soon be shown. ^ Litoivshie evrei, St. Petersburg, 18S3, p. 331, quoted from La situation econorniijue des Israelites de Kiissie, vol. i. p. 17 ; Paris, 1906. - T. Czacki [Kozprawa Zyach, p. 216; Wilno, 1S07) believes that this figure is rather low, and estimates 450,000 male Jews and as many Jewesses, a total of 900,000, at the end of the eighteentli century. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION. 5 Austria comes after Russia with 1,224,896 Jews, accord- ing to the census of 1900. Two-thirds live in Galicia, the Fig. I.— Jewess ok Ai.c.ieks. part of Poland taken by Austria during the division of that unfortunate country. Thus both countries which have the largest number of Jews have them as a heritage from 6 riiK ji-:ws. Poland. Hung"ary also has a larye number of the children of Israel. At the census of 1900, 851,378 Jews were enumerated. In Roumania, where the Jewish question is most acute, it has repeatedly been asserted that there were about 400,000 Jews, but the census of 1899 showed that this statement was very much exaggerated. Only 266,652 Jews were returned by the census officials, constituting 4.5 per cent, of the total population. It can safely be stated that they have not increased in number since that census owing to the enormous emigration since 1900. There are Jews in every country in South-Eastern Europe. In some, where censuses have been taken during 1900, the exact number is known. In Bulgaria, 33,663 were enumerated; in Greece, 8,350; in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, 8,200 (census of 1895); in Servia, 5,700; and in European Turkey the Alliance Israelite Universelle estimates their number at 189,000. There are fewer of the followers of Judaism in Western Europe. In Germany the census of 1905 showed 607,862 Jews, 409,501 of whom lived in the kingdom of Prussia — i.e., they are also in a great measure a heritage from ancient Poland. Bavaria is the next province with a large number of Jews, 55,341 ; while the other provinces have a much smaller number. They constitute only 1.04 per cent, of the total population of Germany, and even in Prussia, where the greater number of Jews in Germany live, they make up only 1.14 per cent, of the total population. The census of Great Britain takes no cognizance of the religious denomination of the inhabitants, and it is therefore impossible to give the exact number of Jews in that country. According to a recent estimate made by Rosenbaum, there are about 240,000 Jews in the United Kingdom. Of these 225,700 live in England and Wales, 27,250 in Scotland, and 6,100 in Ireland.^ The majority of these Jews are recent immigrants from Eastern Europe and their descendants, who have come to England within the last thirty years. Just as in England, there are no denominational ^ S. Rosenbaum, "A contribution to the Study of the Vital and other Statistics of the Jews in the United Kingdom,"' y^«;;/a/ Royal Statist. Society, vol. Ixviii. pp. 526-562. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION. 7 statistics for the population of France and Belg-ium, and we must rely on estimates of the number of Jews in those countries. The most recent estimate made for France shows that there are over 100,000 Jews in that country, 55,000 of whom live in the city of Paris ;^ in Belgium the number is estimated at about 15,000. Most of the Jews in these two last mentioned countries also consist of recent refugees from Russia and Roumania, who have immig-rated within the last twenty-five years. At the census of 1901 there were enumerated 35,617 Jews in Italy, and inasmuch as there is no material immig-ration from Eastern Europe, and intermarriages with Christians are very frequent, their number has, in all probability, not increased in recent years. In Switzerland the census of 1900 showed 12,264 J^^s, but there is probably now about double that number, owing to the large number of Jews from Russia who fled thither during the last ten years. There are comparatively few Jews in Scandinavia. Only 3,476 were enumerated at the census of 1901 in Denmark, 3,912 in Sweden, and 642 in Norway (census of 1900). Among the native Jews there has hardly been any increase since these censuses, because of mixed marriages which are there very prevalent. But here again their number has probably augmented by immigration from Russia, which has been quite heavy within recent years. After their final expulsion in 1492 there were no Jews in Spain, at least officially. According to some writers there are at present between three and four thousand of them in that country, although they are not yet permitted to have their own places of worship. But since Gibraltar passed under English rule, many Spanish Jews have returned, and about 2,000 are to be found there. It is also stated that there are about 1,200 Jews in Portugal. The official censuses of the governments of the various countries in North and South America take no religous statistics. It is therefore impossible to state the exact number of Jews in America. It can, however, be stated that the United States has the majority of the Jews on the western continent. Indeed, there are more Jews in the United States than in any other single country in the world, ^ Je-ivish Chronicle f Dec. 6, 1907. 8 THK ji':ws. excepting- Russia. In 1818 Mordecai M. Noah estimated their number at about 3,000; in 1840 the Avierican Abnanac put down their number at about 15,000. Since then many Jews have come. First the flood started from Germany, and in 1848 it was stated that 50,000 Jews were domiciled under the Stars and Stripes. Very few Eastern European Jews came to the United States before 1880, although many of the immigrants before that period were practically Polish Jews, coming- as they did from the part of Poland which Germany has sliced off for itself. In fact the majority of the " German " Jews in the United States are descended from Polish parents. In 1881, after the anti-Jewish disorders in Russia, the flood of immigrants from Eastern Europe assumed quite larg^e proportions, so that the number of Jews in the United States, which was estimated in 1880 at 230,000, has since then increased to about nine times that number. Between 1880 and 19 10 over 1,100,000 Jews came from Russia alone. In addition there also came larg-e numbers from Austria- Hung-ary, Roumania, etc. Their number aug-mented within the mentioned period by natural increase, and in 1910 the American Jewish Year Book estimates their number at 1,777,185, more then one-half of whom are living- in the State of New York; Pennsylvania is stated to have 150,000 Jewish residents; Illinois, 110,000: Massachusetts, 90,000; Ohio, 85,000; New Jersey, 70,000; and Missouri, 52,000. The states having- the smallest number of Jewish residents are Idaho, Nevada, South Dakota and Wyoming-, each of them beingf credited with 300 Jews by the above-mentioned authorit}'. There are very few Jews in the extracontinental colonies of the United States. None are credited to Alaska, while the Philippines, Hawaii, and Porto Rico are g-iven 100 Jews each. All these fig-ures are quite below the real number of Jews in the various States of the Union. It is fairly established that New York City alone has about one million Jews. In Canada and British Columbia the number of Jews has been estimated at 60,000; in Jamaica, 2,400; Mexico, 8,972; Brazil, 3,000; Arg-entine, 40,000; Cuba, 4,000; Cura^oa and Surinam, 2,158; Peru, 500, Venezuela, 450. Altogether the estimate of 2, 1 10,000 for North and South NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION, 9 America is rather conservative. Most of tliem have come from Europe within the hist one hundred years, and Fig. 2.— Jew in Tunis. probably seventy-five per cent, within the last thirty years. The number of Jews in Asia is not exactly known, 10 THK JEWS. because no censuses are taken by the various Govern- ments on that Continent. One exception is Russia, where a complete enumeration was made durinj^ 1897, showing that there were 105,257 Jews in Asiatic Russia, In India, also, the census of 1901 shows that there were 18,226 inhabitants of Jewish faith. The Alliance Israd'lite Univer- selle estimates the number of Jews in Syria and Palestine at 100,000; Asia Minor, 77,500; Mesopotamia, 60,000; Persia, 49,000; Arabia, 35,000. Ruppin gives the total number of Jews in Asia as 472,000. In Africa, there are besides the 7,000 Falashas in Abyssinia, about 150,000 in Morocco, 65,000 in Algeria, 62,500 in Tunis, 50,000 in South Africa, 38,635 in Egypt (census of 1907), and about 19,000 in Tripolis. An estimate of 380,000 Jews in Africa is as near the actual number as is possible under the circumstances. In Australia the census of 1901 showed that there were 17, 106 Jews. Recapitulating, we find the following distribution of the Jews on the five continents: — Europe - . . . . 9,000,000 or 74. 87 per cent. America ..... 2,110,000 or 17.66 ,, Asia ..... 500,000 or 4.16 ,, Africa 380,000 or 3. 17 ,, Australasia ----- 17,000 or 0.14 ,, Thus seventy -five per cent, of all Jews live in Europe, and over seventeen per cent, in .Ainerica. While the number of Jews in America was practically insignificant only seventy-five years ago, the recent changes in distribution of the children of Israel have brought it about that at the present one out of every six Jews in the world lives in either North or South America. In Asia and Africa, their original home, there are found only eight per cent, of all contemporary Jews; and very few have found their way to Australasia. It is interesting in this connection that while only about fifty years ago, hardly 50,000 Jews lived in English-speaking countries, the recent change in their distribution has wrought a radical change in the languages spoken by the followers of Judaism. Up till recently the bulk of the Jews in Europe, as well as their descendants on other continents, spoke either German or more often a corrupted dialect of German, known popularly as Yiddish. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION. II To-day nearly one-fifth of all the Jews in the world live in English-speaking- countries. While the older g-eneration as yet larg^ely uses Yiddish among- themselves, their children consider the Eng-lish lang-uage as their mother- tongue. If the mig^ration of Jews from Eastern Europe keeps on for some time to come, there is no doubt that luiglish will soon become the mother-tong^ue of the majority of Jews. The distribution of the Jews is interesting for study when they are considered according to the percentage they constitute of the entire population of a country. In Russia, where nearly one-half of all the Jews live, they constitute only four per cent, of the total population of the empire. But here they are limited by law as to the choice of residence. They are permitted to live undisturbed, except during " pogroms," which are of rather frequent occurrence, so far as the Russian police can leave citizens undisturbed, in fifteen provinces at the western and southern limits of the empire, and also in Poland. This is known as the " Pale of Settlement," and extends south of the Baltic provinces and west of the Don Arm\' Terri- tory. The result is that while constituting only 4 per cent, of the total population of the empire, they live here in a congested state, and make up 10.8 per cent, of the inhabitants of this Pale, and even 14 per cent, of the population of Poland. In addition to the segregation in the Pale, they are further limited by law as to choice of residence by excluding them from all rural settlements. They are only permitted to live in cities and incorporated towns. They thus constitute over 18 per cent, of the province of Warsaw; 15 per cent, of the population ot Lomza, Pietrokoff, and Siedlec, etc. In these provinces there are many cities and towns where the Jews constitute the majority of the population. There are in Russia 932 incorporated towns in which 13.4 per cent, of the entire population resides, while 50.5 per cent, of all the Jews live in these places. Another way of showing the congestion of Jews in cities of Russia is by recalling that while they constitute only 4 per cent, of the total population, they form 15.6 per cent, of the total urban population. In four cities of the Pale — Berditchef, Pinsk, Slonim, and Slutzk — they constitute over 70 per cent, of the population; in 12 THE JEWS. twenty-four cities they make up between 40 and 70 per cent, of the popuhition; and in fifteen cities between 30 and 40 per cent.' While this cono^estion in cities can be attributed to the special anti-Jewish leg-islation in Russia, still it must be ig. 3. — Daghestan Mountain Jews. [P/io/o, Kurdoff.\ mentioned that it is not entirely due to this cause. The Jews in other countries, where they are not interfered with ^ For details, see B. Goldberg, "Die Juden unter der stiidtischen Bevolkerung Russlands," Zeitschrift fiir Demographic und Stalistik der jfudeit, 1905, No. 10. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION. I3 in this respect, are also pre-eminently town-dwellers. In Austria-Hung"ary they constitute 4.5 per cent, of the entire population. But in the provinces of Galicia and Bukowina they make up 11 and 13 per cent, of the population respec- tiv^ely. Several cities in these parts of Austria have a majority of their population of Jewish faith. Nine cities have over 50 per cent, of Jews; twelve, between 33 and 50 per cent. ; and eleven cities, between 25 and 33 per cent.^ Similarly in Germany, where, according to the census of 1905, the Jews constituted 1.04 per cent, of the total population, two-thirds of their number lived in Prussia. Here also they live mostly in cities. In Berlin 4.88 per cent, of the inhabitants are of Jewish faith. Over 50 per cent, of all the Christians of Prussia and only one- seventh of the Jews live in rural communities. In the city of Berlin alone 22.92 per cent, of all the Jews in the German Empire were found during- the enumeration of 1905. With its suburbs Berlin harboured 139,320 Jews, or 34 per cent, of all who lived in the Kingdom of Prussia. Conditions are the same in the West and South of Europe. About 60 per cent, of all the Jews of France live in Paris, and the majority of the rest live in the other cities of that country. According to the census of 1899, 86.4 per cent, of all the Italian Jews live in the sixty-nine capitals of the provinces of that country. In England, Rosenbaum estimates that 144,000 of the 240,000 Jews who live in Great Britain and Ireland live in London." The same is reported from many other parts of the world — Egypt, Palestine, Persia, North Africa, etc. The best illustration is, perhaps, furnished by the Jews in the United States. According to the figures on the distribution of the Jews in this country given by i\\Q /civish Encyclopccdia, it appears that here also they prefer to live in large towns. Oi the 1,558,710 Jews in the United States in 1905, 672,000 — i.e., 43 per cent, of all — lived in New York City, where they constituted nearly 20 per cent, of the total population. The same authority estimates the number of Jews in Chicago at 80,000; Philadelphia, 75,000; St. Louis, 40,000; etc. From the figures given there, I calculate that in tlie nineteen cities in the Laiited ^ J. Thon, Die Juden in Ocsterreich, pp. 17-19, Berlin, 1907. "^ Rosenbaum, loc. cit. 14 THE J i:\vs. States with more tliriii 200,000 inhabitants at the census of 1900, in which 15.61 per cent, of the population of thij country Hved at that time, there lived 1,081,100 Jews, or 69.35 P^'' t^ent. of all the followers of Judaism in the United States.^ These fifjures give a correct statement of conditions, even considering that they are only based on estimates. Indeed, taking another country — Australia — where the Jewish population consists mostly of immi- grants, we find exactly the same condition of affairs. In Australasia the census gives details as to the religious confession of the inhabitants, so that the data are as authentic as can be expected. It was found in 1901 that 79.7 per cent, of all the Jews in New South Wales lived in the city of Sydney; 60 per cent, of all the Jews in South Australia lived in Adelaide; 57.5 per cent, of the Jews in Queensland lived in Brisbane, etc. The causes of this peculiar distribution of the Jews are not far to seek. Throughout the centuries of their dis- persion legislation has always been directed to segregate them in cities, and even in certain parts of cities. While in Western Europe these laws have already been abolished, more than one-half of all the Jews in the world are not yet free to choose their abode in the country of their allegiance. In Russia and Roumania they must not, even if they choose, live in villages ; in Morocco, Persia, Bokhara, etc., they are even to-day compelled to live in special parts of the cities known as A/el/a/is, or Jewish quarters. During the Middle Ages the Jews in every country laboured under these disabilities. Everywhere they^ were compelled to live \n Jiidoigasseji, Gheitoes, or Jewries in English-speaking countries. The process of urbanization of the rural population, which is at the present going on in all civilized countries, is well known. The reverse has not been known to occur to any consider- able extent. In other words, city dwellers do not move ' Since 1905 the number of Jews in the United States has increased by immif:;ration and natural increase, so that at present there are about I, coo, 000 of them in New York City. But the proportion of city dwellers has not undergone any change. The effort of philanthropists to disperse them all over the States, especially the activities of the Industrial Removal Office, is successful in removing Jews from New York City and trans- planting them into western and southern cities, where they are again town- dwellers. Considering their occupations, the reason for this is evident. NUMBER AXU DISTRIBUTION'. I5 in larg-e numbers to the country for permanent residence. The Jews who for centuries have not been permitted to acquire land, to work the soil, or even to live in the open l''ig. 4. -iJOKiiAKA Jews. country, have acquired all the characteristics of the city dweller, have been urbanized par excellence., and cannot be expected to change all at once after they have been relieved from these disabilities. 1 6 THE JliWS. Quite the contrary has been observed in Western ICuropc. The Jews during' recent years leave small towns and move into large cities. Ruppin points out that the reason for this phenomenon is to be found in their occupa- tions. Formerly they lived in small towns which were the centres of commerce for the rural population. This is even to-day the case with the Jews in countries which are backward in their economic development, as, for instance, in Russia, Galicia, Roumania, etc. Here the Jewish small trader finds a good field to act as the merchant and middleman for the peasants. But in countries where the industrial development has reached a high plane and the facilities for transportation have been more or less per- fected, it is the great city where all the commercial and industrial activities are concentrated, and the small town has been losing its significance in this respect. The Jews, owing to their peculiar occupations, have thus only followed the stream of commerce and industry. It can be stated that the higher the industrial and commercial development of a country the larger the number of Jews in large cities. The distribution of the Jews in towns and cities goes hand-in-hand with the distribution of the commercial and industrial population in the country of their residence. Germany offers an excellent illustration in this respect. It was found in 1900 that 42.72 per cent, of all the Jews lived in cities with over 200,000 population, while only 15.9 per cent, of the Christian population lived in this class of cities. This striking difference is explained when it is borne in mind that the part of the general population which is engaged in mercantile pursuits was represented in this class of cities to the extent of 35.5 per cent, according to the census of occupations taken in Germany in 1895. The differences between Jews and Christians engaged in similar occupations are not so great when viewed from this standpoint. Occupation has a great influence in determining the place of residence.^ The rural population is essentially agricultural, and there are very few agriculturists of Jewish faith. This will be brought out in a later chapter when speaking of the occupations of the Jews. Acclimatisation. — The distribution of the Jews is inter- ^ A. Ruppin, Die Judoi der Gegenwar!, pp. 42-43. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION. I7 estini^ from the standpoint of acclimatization which has recently received so much attention. That most urgent problem which confronts modern statesmen, anthropolo- gists, and sociolog^ists is whether the Hojho Europwus may emii^rate to climates other than those he is accustomed to in Europe, especially the tropics, live a healthful life, and perpetuate his kind and ethnic type. Many claim that the European is not fit for this chang-e, and that those who survive the difference in the physical environment, even if the new climate differs but little from that of the mother country, have to undergo a kind of transformation which effects their entire organism. ^ Virchow has shown that not only is the individual affected by a prolonged sojourn away from his native country, but his posterity is as well affected. Some authors have maintained that the Jews appear to be an exception in this respect. They live, thrive, perpetuate their kind, and preserve their identity under all varieties of climatic conditions. They are said to be a cosmopolitan race." Andree thus expresses him- self on this peculiarity: — "The Jew is able to acclimatize himself with equal facility in hot and in cold latitudes and to exist without the assistance of the native races. He lasts from generation to generation in Surinam (Dutch Guiana) or in Malabar (India), tropical climates where Europeans, in course of time, die out, unless they are constantly re-enforced by new immigration from the mother country."-^ A. R. Wallace speaks in a similar vein when he says that the Jews are "a good example of acclimatization because they have been established for many centuries in climates very different from that of their native land ; (?) they keep themselves almost wholly free from intermixture with the people around them. . . . They have, for instance, attained a population of near two millions [over five millions in 1897] in such severe climates as Poland and Russia." According to Mr. Brace {Races of the Old World, p. 185), " their increase in Sweden is said to be greater than that of the Christian population [at present the reverse is true] ; in the towns of Algeria they are the only race able to maintain its numbers [many ' See Ch. E. Woodruff, Expansion of Races \ New York, 1909. - Houdiii, M^mohes de la Societe d Anthropologic, vol. i, p. 117. •^ K. Andree, Znr Volkskiinde der Juden, pp. 70-71, Leipsic, iSSi. 10 Till': jhws. other Europeans have succeeded in this since the improve- ment in sanitary conditions which the French have broug'ht about] ; and in Cochin China and Aden they succeed in rearing" and forming- permanent communities."' Of course all these statements are based on antiquated vmcws of the problem of acclimatization and ancient data about the Jews. Conditions have changed at present, as will be seen later on in this work. This peculiarity of the Jews has been considered a racial trait. Felkin even states that it is probably due to a certain amount of Semitic blood that the Southern Fig. 5. Caucasian Jewess. I'ic. 6. Europeans possess in a higher degree the power of adapt- ing themselves to a subtropical climate-; and discussing the overwhelming superiority in adaptability of the Maltese over the Spaniard, Virchow says that it is derived from the mixture of Semitic blood. ^ This ethnic trait of the Jews is said to have been slowly acquired by their con- stant migrations, even their temporary stay in Egypt. Their slow progression {petit accliniatcment) is stated by ^ Article "Acclimatization," EncycIopi?dia Briiannica, Vol. I. '' Scottish Geographical /ottrua!, vol. ii. p. 653. •' R. Virchow, " Ueher Akklimatisation," Verhandlungen der Versamni- lung der Naturforscher und Aerzte in Strassburg, 1SS5. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION. IQ Bertillon to have had its influence on their power of accHmatization.^ This is confirmed by Schellong^, who points out that the centre of Jewish dispersion in Europe was in the countries around the Mediterranean, whence they have slowly penetrated northward (which was not the case with all the Russian Jews, as will be shown later) into colder climates, for which less aptitude for acclimatiza- tion is necessary. - All these theories about the superior powers of acclima- tization of the Jews are disproved by the changes which have taken place during recent years in the life of those followers of Judaism who have been emancipated. They no more keep themselves free from intermixture, and, as will be shown later on, have hardly ever refrained from intermarriage to the extent with which they are credited. Physically they do not retain their identity in every country, but we distinguish types of Jews in various places which differ from each other quite as much as, and often more than, from the people around them. So that if they do prosper in tropical as well as in cold climates, it is probably more due to the racial elements which they have acquired in the countries of their present sojourn than to the "Semitic" blood which is alleged to flow in their veins. But it must also be borne in mind that they are hardly comparable with the average colonist who engages in agriculture and allied pursuits, which necessitate severe exertion and exposure to the hot rays of the sun in tropical climates, or to the frigid cold of northern climes. The Jew mostly confines his activities to small trading, and during the greater part of the day is protected from the vicissitudes of the weather in his shop. In addition to this, his proverbial sobriety, the purity of his domestic life and freedom from vicious habits generally, contribute largely to his facility of adaptation to a new climate. The Jews cannot be compared with the average colonist who in a strange country, without the usual restraints of home life, is prone to do things which he would not dare to do at home. Wallace points out that the English, who cannot ^ Article " Acclimatement," Diclionnaire des Sciences Antliropologiques, Paris, 1SS4. ^ " Akklimatization," in Wcyl's Handbiich der Hygiene, vol. i. p. 334. 20 Tin-. JKWS. s^ive up animal food and the use of spiriLous liquors, are less able to sustain the heat of the tropics tlian the more sober Spaniards and Portug^uese. The Boers in South Africa are another example of a people who keep sober and prosper in a tropical land. The wide distribution of the Jews in the world, under various climatic conditions, is not due to any special racial peculiarity; their power of acclimatization is the result of the peculiarity of their occupations and habits of life. Any other race or people adopting- the habits of the Jews could just as well live under similar climatic conditions. CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. The alleged purity of the Jewish race — Persistence of racial trails — Race and environment — Stature — Height of ancient Hebrews — Height of modern Jewish conscripts — Growth of the body — Height of Jewesses — Influence of the environment on the stature of Jews — Influence of occupation — Social selection — Selection by immigration — Ethnic factors. It has been accepted by anthropologists that there are no pure races among- civilized peoples and nations. Migra- tions, wars, and conquests, with their concomitant inter- mingling, assimilation, and absorption of different races have been in operation for ages. One exception, however, has been pointed at by many who studied the problem of races. The Jews, constituting as they do only a small fraction of civilized humanity, were alleged to have suc- ceeded in maintaining their race in a state of purity for the last four thousand years. Moreover, during the last eighteen centuries of dispersion among all the nations of the habitable globe, among nearly all the races of man- kind, they are alleged to have refrained from intermarriage outside of their pale, and thus maintained the purity of the breed of Israel to an extent unknown among any other ethnic group of people. The result, it was asserted, is a most astonishing and noteworthy phenomenon : the Jews of to-day present a uniform physical type wherever they may be encountered. One met with in Scandinavia hardly differs physically from one who lives, and whose ancestry have lived for several centuries, on one of the oases of the Sahara; nor do these differ materially from Jews who have been domiciled from times immemorial in the Caucasus, or on the Malabar coast, or from the recent immigrants to England, the United States, and Australasia. Furthermore, it has been repeatedly asserted by archaeologists that the race portraits portrayed on the 21 22 TIIK JEWS. ancient Eg'vptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian monuments which liave recently come to Hg^ht, show faces of Jews Fig. 7.— VouxG Jewess ix Sfax, Tunis. which bear a striking- resemblance to the faces met with to-day in Warsaw, Frankfort, Whitechapel in London, PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 23 and in the east side of New York City. Notwithstanding' all the vicissitudes which he was subject to for four thousand years, it is said that the type of the ancient Hebrew survives to-day in the modern Jew, whether you meet him peddling his wares on the high road, working in a sweat-shop in New York, or speculating in the bourse of Paris. For these reasons anthropologists in Europe have given the Jews an unusual amount of attention. Measurements have been taken of Jews in various parts of the world in order to ascertain whether the alleged uniformity of physical type can be substantiated by scientific tests. Demographers have studied the birth-rates, morbidity, and mortality of the children of Israel and found that there are important differences between them and the people around them. Sociologists have given due atten- tion to social and economic phenomena as they appeared among the Chosen People. Many have, as a result of their studies, come to the conclusion that the differences elicited were to be attributed solely to endogenic causes, that the Jews differ in racial derivation from all other Europeans, and that all their peculiarities, virtues, and vices are the result of heredity. It is therefore important to inquire at the outset what are the traits which differentiate the Jews from other races, and also whether these race traits are persistent — i.e., transmitted by heredity from generation to generation, irrespective of the environment. The material for the purpose of such an inquiry is, to a certain extent, available in anthropological literature. There are measurements and photographs of race types of Jews in many parts of Europe, and some parts of Asia and Africa. All these can be utilized in a study of the racial characteristics of the Jews, and can materially aid us in our attempt to determine whether their physical type in various parts of the world is really homogeneous from the standpoint of physical anthropology. If the physical type of the Jews of to-day be found homogeneous, it may safely be assumed that they have preserved themselves free from any considerable infusion of foreign blood. Because, in contrast with the remark- able changes which have taken place in the cultural 24 Tin: ji:ws. characters o( mankind within historical times, research has shown that physically the various races of man have remained practically the same. Judg^ing- from the remains of well-preserved skeletons which have been recently un- earthed, it appears that prehistoric man did not materially differ from the people of to-day. The morpholo'^'^ic traits which differentiate man from the anthropoids have not changed since the neolithic period — i.e., for about eight to ten thousand years.' In fact, a glance at the repro- ductions of race types depicted on Assyrian, l^abylonian, and Egyptian monuments reveals that at the time these portraits were produced the Nubian was black with a long head, a flat nose and thick lips, a prognathous jaw, etc.; the blonde-haired individual is represented as orthognathous with medium-sized lips, a straight nose, etc., correspond- ing to the fair complexioned population of to-day. The physical type of the Egyptian, as painted by artists of three thousand years ago, bears a striking resemblance to the modern Fellah. There is consequently justification for the assumption that the different races, varieties, or types of mankind which are met with at present have persisted for several thousand years, and that changes in the physical and social environment to which they have been subjected during long centuries have been powerless to alter them. This is also confirmed by observations made on skeletons of pre-historic man which have been reclaimed in various parts of the globe. The shape and form of the human skull, the proportion of the limbs, etc., are about the same as seen among modern peoples. These morphological traits have persistently been trans- mitted from generation to generation. According- to J. Kollmann, the most constantly reappear- ing racial traits are the following: — The colour of the skin, hair, and eyes; the form of the skull and face; the relative length of the limbs; and within certain limits the height, or stature. These traits are constant in a race and depend only on heredity, and are not known to be in- fluenced by external conditions. These are to be dis- tinguished from the secondary or fluctuating racial traits which depend greatly on the social and physical environ- ^ See J. Kollmann, "Die Rnssenanatoniie der Hand und die Persister.z der Rasseninerkinale, Archiv fiir Authropologie, 1902, pp. 91-14I. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 25 merit. The latter are, according- to Kollmann, the amount of fat on the body, the development of the muscular system, the strength of the skeleton, and, to a certain extent, also stature. All these are known to increase in well-nourished individuals. The persistence of the racial traits just mentioned is seen to-day among the inhabitants of Australia and America. The white race has been transplanted from Europe into countries with different climates and con- ditions of life. In the course of three hundred years' sojourn in America no new race has appeared. The descendants of the original English, Spanish, and French settlers are of the same physical type as the parent stock, the inhabitants of England, Spain, and France of to-day. Although some maintain that they have changed both physically and mentally, still there is no case on record showing the transformation of a white man into anything like a redskin.^ There is no new American or Australian race differing physically from the European. This tends to confirm the belief that the milieu does not change races, as far as the anthropological type is concerned. Crossing of human races is also not known to produce new types of mankind. Professor Boas' investigations have shown that crossing of whites with North American Indians and negroes has not produced any new type nor middle types, but generally the half-breeds showed a reversion to one of the parent types. - This theory of the stability and persistence of racial characters has never been accepted in its entirety by all anthropologists. Many have insisted that the geographical and social environment has a great influence in modifying physical traits, and that the process of adaptation to a new environment involves a change in the organism with ^ The statements often made by anthropologists that Europeans in America, as a result of the geographical environment, begin to resemble the Indian physical type appear to be pure fiction. Professor P'ranz Boas, the foremost authority on American anthropology, failed to find even a trace of evidence on which this opinion can be based. (Science, vol. xxix., p. 844.) W. Z. Ripley considers such observations amusing and the product of an overexcited and vivid imagination. (Journ. Royal AiithropoL IiisL, vol. xxxviii., p. 221.) - F. Boas, "Zur Anthropologic der nordamerikanischen Indianer," Zeitschrije Jiir Et/inoiogJe, vol. xxvii. p. 401. 26 THi: JKVVS. concomitant chang^es in the somatic traits. It is im- material for our present purposes whether these changes are due to the creation of new types, or are merely the result of a process of natural selection which eliminates individuals whose head-form, complexion, etc., are not fitted to the new milieu; while those possessing- traits best fitted to their new home survive and transmit their advantageous characters to their offspring. The followers of the environmental theory have often mentioned the Jews as a good example of a race which has maintained itself in absolute purity of blood, yet showing physical differences in different countries. The blonde Jews in Northern Europe, the brunettes in the South, the black Jews of the Malabar Coast, the Negro Jews in Abyssinia, and the Mongolian Jews in China, were thus supposed to be not a product of race fusion, but solely the result of the climate, altitude, nourishment, etc. The fallacy of this contention will appear later on in this work. Meanwhile, it must be mentioned that different races are found in many places living side by side under the same physical and social environment for centuries, and, as far as we know, showing no tendency toward changing their physical type. Indeed, investigations have shown that long-headed men usually beget long-headed children ; blondes only rarely have dark-complexioned children, etc. Heredity seems at work in all directions. The first, and thus far the only, proof of the theory that the environment is capable of modifying the physical type of human races has been brought forward by Professor Franz Boas, whose researches have recently been pub- lished. Measurements taken of about 30,000 immigrants and their descendants in New York revealed that the change in the environment from Europe to America has a profound and far-reaching influence on racial traits, such as stature, headform, and to some extent also on complexion. The Eastern European Jews with their brachycephalic heads become long-headed, while the Sicilians, w'ho are pronounced dolichocephals, become more short-headed, so that they approach a uniform type in America. It was also evident that the influence of the American environment, as expressed by the divergence of the descendants from their European type, manifests itself PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 2/ with increasing- intensity according- to the time elapsed between the arrival of the mother and the birth of the child. The increase in stature and weig-ht, as well as the acceleration of growth of the descendants of immigrants, may be attributed to a certain extent to economic improve- ment. But the chang-e in the headform cannot thus be accounted for, as far as our present knowledg-e g-oes.^ Of course these observations are comparatively limited in number and extent of territory they cover. Similar investigations must be undertaken in other parts of the world before drawing definite conclusions. It is also necessary to inquire whether these changes are pro- gressive and permanent through several generations and not temporary divergences, the result of intermixture of the various local types of Jews, Italians, Scotch, Bohemians, etc., who at home mostly married with persons in their own towns or villages, but in New York, while marrying with their own people, yet often from different cities. Such intermingling may lead to changes in certain directions, but whether it will lead toward a permanent, uniform, "American" type remains to be seen. With these preliminary remarks on the significance of ethnic traits we can proceed to examine in detail the more important physical traits of the modern Jews, beginning with stature, a trait which is less stable than others, still of suflficient importance in our study, showing, as it does, the influence of both heredity and environment. Stature. — No definite information is found in Biblical and Talmudic records and traditions as to the stature of the ancient Hebrews. Judging from the descriptions found in the Bible about the autochthonous races of Palestine at the time of their invasion, the Hebrews were short. The Raphaim, who were settled both east and west of the Jordan, are stated to have been of immense stature ; also the Emiins, "a people great, and many and tall," as the A?iakit7i, who were also accounted as giants. ^ The Amorites, the sons of Anak, were, in the estimation of the Bible, giants, "and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their sight. "^ Whether ^ See Franz Boas, Chatii^cs in Bodily Form of Descendants of Inunigrants., Washington, 1910. '■^ Denier., ii. 10, n. •' Nunihers, xiii t,^. 28 THR ji:\vs. these and others who were taller than the Hebrews constituted a distinct non-Israelitish race or nationality, or were a selected warrior class of tall individuals, is uncertain. For our purpose it is sufficient to indicate that Biblical evidence tends to show that the Jews were not as tall, and apparently could not line up an army of such tall warriors, as the indigenous population, but this did not interfere with their success in the strug^gle for the supremacy over Palestine. Taking-, with Topinard and Deniker, the median heig-ht of the contemporaneous population of Europe to be about 165 cm., the Jews of to-day are short of stature. General observation in the extensive settlements of the Jews in Eastern Europe reveals an immense number of stunted individuals among- them. But there is no need to rely on superficial observation to reach this conclusion. There are records in anthropological literature of a large number of measurements taken of Jews in various countries. As is the rule with other races, the largest number of Jews were measured in the conscript offices of the European armies, particularly in Russia, Austria, and Poland. The following are the averages of stature of Jewish conscripts in various countries, based upon records of over 10,000 individuals reported by Snigireff, Zakrzewski, Scheiber, Pantiukhof, Himmel, Ranke, Tolwinski and others^ : Poland 1 6 1. 3 cm. Bavaria - 162.0 cm Lithuania 161. 2 ,, Hungary - - 163.3 M Little Russia - 164.2 ,, Baden - 164.3 .> Odessa - 166.9 .. Bukowina - 165.4 ,, The average stature of Jewish conscripts is shown by these figures to be quite variable. In Poland and Lithuania it is slightly above 161 cm. ; in Bavaria, 162 cm. ; in Hungary, Little Russia, and Bukowina, between ^ Snigireff, " Material! dlia medizinskoi statistike i geografii Rossii," Voenuo- Medizinski Zhiirna/, 1878-1879; Zakrzewski, " Wzrost w Krolews- twie Vohk'xcnx" Zbior 7iiado>/i. do anirop. kraj, 1 89 1, vol. xv. pp. I -38; Himmel, " Korpermessiigen in der Bukowina," Afici. attthropol. Ges. Wien, vol. xviii. pp. 83-S4; Scheiber, " Untersuchnug. iiber den mitteleren Wuchs der Menschen in Ungarn," Archiv f. Anthropologie, vol. xiii. pp. 133-267; J. Ranke, " Zur Statistik der Korpergrosse, etc." Beih: z. Anlhrop. Bayerns, vol. iv. pp. 1-35 ; I. I. Pantiukhof, Observ. anthropol. ail Caucase, Tiflis, 1893. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 29 163 and 167 cm. These variations are of significance, and, as will appear hereafter, may be attributed to either ethnic or economic and social causes. They go far ta show that the stature of the Jews is not a homogeneous trait, but that it is subject to wide limits of variation. It must be mentioned, however, that recruiting statistics are not a reliable guide. There are many sources of error^ which are often sufficient to deprive them of any con- siderable value after a thorough analysis. Thus, most of the conscripts are persons between nineteen and twenty-one years of age, t. e., before they have attained their maximum growth. With Jews this is of importance, as will soon be shown. In addition it must be borne in mind that the largest number of measurements were recorded by Snigireff, having been obtained in Russia and Poland during 1875-77. At that time the Jews were very much averse to serve in the army, and they often presented themselves before the actual age of twenty ; many have appeared at the age of nineteen, eighteen and even fifteen,, hoping to be rejected because of imperfect physical develop- ment and shortness of stature. That such individuals were thus measured in large numbers at that time (1875-77) '-^ well known to every one who knows conditions in that country. How far this may influence the average height in the records can be seen when growth is taken intcy consideration. From measurements taken by Weissenberg in South Russia, Majer and Kopernicki in Galicia, Sack in Moscow and \'ashchinski in Poland,^ all of which give quite uniform results, it appears that Jewish children in Eastern Europe grow very rapidly up to the age of six, whereas • observations among other European children indicate that development usually slackens at four years of age. From six to eleven, growth is slower among the Jews than among others ; from eleven to sixteen the body again increases rapidly, then growth becomes somewhat slower, but it continues nevertheless, up to the age of thirty. At this age the maximum height is attained. .At forty the body begins to decline and grow shorter. ' S. Weissenberg, " Die s'ndiussischen Judcn," .-Irc/tiv /urAM/kro/>o/oi;;'/e^ vol. xxiii. pp. 347-423 ; 531-579 ; J- Majer, Roczny przyrost ciala, elc. Zbtov Wiai. do autropjl. kraj. vol. iv. pp. 3-32. 30 THI-: JEWS. Weissenberg-'s diagrams sliow graphically the process of growth in Eastern liuropeaii Jews based on observations f I-. ti. I- ig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. II. Figs. S-ii. — Typf.s of Eastkrn F.uropean Jsw; of his own and others, and confirm the conclusion that at twenty the Jew has not yet attained his full height. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 3I There are, however, on record measurements of adult Jews which may be of great assistance to determine the actual height of Jews in various countries. Here again wide limits of variation are seen. The shortest Jews are found in Lithuania and Poland, averag- ing about 161 cm. in height ; in South and Little Russia they are taller, from 163 to 166 cm.; while in England and the United States they even reach 168 and 171 cm. on the average. Altogether it is seen that the limits of variation are almost as wide as for all European races ; at any rate there is no uniformity to be observed. One peculiarity worthy of note is the large number of short persons among the Jews. This has been observed by the recruiting officials of Russia, Poland, Austria, etc. It is true that it may partly be ascribed to their aversion to military service and the means they often resorted to to escape it in Eastern Europe, as has been just stated ; but measurements taken on the general population, in- cluding only persons over twenty years of age, also show an excessive number of short individuals. Taking Topinard's classification of stature, it is found that, among 3,209 Jews measured in Eastern Europe and America, 29.67 per cent, were of short stature, less than 160 cm. in height ; 31.35 per cent, were below the average stature, 160 to 165 cm. ; only 24.3 per cent, were above the aver- age, 165 to 170 cm. in height; and of tall persons, measuring 170 cm. and more, only 14.68 per cent, were found. The number of stunted persons is significant. When compared with other European races, it is found that only the Magyars, Lapps, and Sardinians can show such a large proportion of short persons. The Russian recruiting officials have recognized this as a trait of the Jews, and admit them into the army even when they are a few centimetres shorter than the minimum prescribed for the non-Jewish recruits. Jewesses are similarly short of stature. The absolute diff"erence in height of men and women is about the same in all races. From Deniker's study of 35 series of measurements of women it is seen that in 20 cases out of 35 — i.e., almost two-thirds — the diff'erence in height be- tween the two sexes in any given population hardly varies more than from seven to thirteen centimetres ; 14 times 32 rm-: ji.ws. out ot 35 it only varied from i i to 12 centimetres; so that tlie figure 12 centimetres may be accepted as the average.* Measurements oi' Jewesses show the same results : they were found to be about eleven centimetres shorter than the Jews. The 435 Jewesses measured in New \'ork by the present writer had an average height of 153.5 cm., as against 164.5 cm. of the average height of the Jews, thus showing the ratio of stature of men and women as being i to 0.931 or as 16 to 14.88, which is exactly the ratio of adult men and women in England.- 'I'he same has been observed among Jewesses in Poland, South Russia, Lithuania, etc. It is also significant that the number of tall individuals is very small among the Jewesses, just as has been found among the Jews. Only 2^ per cent, measured over 157 cm. among 435 immigrant Jewesses in New York city. In their native homes they are even shorter: only from 9 to 13 per cent, are found of that height in Poland, White Russia, Lithuania, etc.-' Infiuence of Environment on the Stcitnre of the Jews. — The shortness of stature of the Jews has been taken by some as a racial trait, and as one of the proofs of the uniformity of their physical type since biblical times. Even then, it is pointed out, they were shorter than the Aryan Amorites, and to-day they are shorter than the Aryans in Europe. On the other hand, others, particularly Jacobs, are of the opinion that it is not necessarily of ethnic origin, but is solely the product of the social and economic environment under which they find themselves. In countries in which the Jews are generally poor, of sedentary habits, employed at indoor occupations, deprived of the invigorating and growth-accelerating influence of outdoor life and only rarely or never engaged in agricultural pursuits, they are shorter of stature than in places where they are on a higher economic level. This is best shown by the rich Jews of the West End of London, who are as tall as the average Englishman, reaching ^ J. Deiiiker, 7 he Races of Man, p. 33; London, 1S99. - There the stature of men is 170 cm., and of women 160 cm. ; the ratio then as is 16 to 14. 88. See Report of the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association, 1883; H. Ellis, A/an and Woman, p. 39. ■' For detailed statistics on the subject see Fishberg, Materials for the Physical Anthropology of the fczvs, pp. 195- 199. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 33 171. 4 cm. in heig'ht, while their poorer co-religionists in the East End only averag'e 164. i cm. in heig^ht. The influence of the milieu is worthy of consideration while this particular subject is considered. The Jews are mostly town-dwellers, and this may account for some of the shortness of their stature. " The general rule in Europe," says Ripley, "seems to be that the urban type is physically degenerate."^ Beddoe con- siders it as proved that the stature of men in large towns of Britain is lowered considerably below the standard of the nation, and that such degradation is progressive and hereditary.- The same has been observed to be the case in Bavaria,^ by Anutchin in Russia, and by many others. Ripley points out that the unfavourable influence of city life is often obscured by the great social selection which is at work in the determination of the physical type of the population of great cities. While the course of town life is downward, oftentime the city attracts a class which is markedly superior, in the same way as the immigrants of the United States have been distinguished in this respect. Not having a large number of agriculturists in their midst, the Jews of course cannot enjoy this advantage of renewing their physical conditions by intermarrying with country people. The wretched social, economic, and sanitary conditions under which they labour in Eastern Europe will also account for the deficiency which they display in bodily height. As a matter of fact, in Galicia and Lithuania, where they find themselves under the worst circumstances materially, they are shorter than in any other country. Zakrzewski, in his work Liidnosc Miasta IVarssawy,* shows graphically on maps of the city of Warsaw that the shortness of stature goes hand-in-hand with economic misery. The indoor occupations in which they are mostly engaged have also a great influence in reducing their ^ Wm. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, p. 95; New York, 1899. - J. Beddoe, "On the Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles," Miin. AntJu-op. Soe., III. ; London, 1867. ' J. Ranke, Der Mensch, vol. ii., p. 131 ; Leipsic, 18S6. ■* Materiali AntyopoL-archeol. Aeadetn., uiniej., Cracaw, vol. i., part i. ; 1895. See also Ripley, Races of Europe, p. 381. 3 34 THE JliWS. averag^e heii^'lit. The author has investig'ated this problem among- the Jews in New York City, and the results showed in a striking manner that those eng-ag^ed at indoor occupations were shorter than those who worked outdoors. Among- 1,528 individuals thus investig'ated 720 (47.12 per cent.) were eng^aged in indoor occupations, including- the various branches of tailoring", shoemaking", weaving-, baking-, etc.; 344 (22.51 per cent.) were outdoor w^orkers, including- carpenters, house painters, masons, ironworkers, etc.; 398 (26.65 P^^" cent.) were engag-ed in mercantile pursuits and clerks; 130 were pedlars, and 66 were of the class g-enerally termed professional, including- the liberal professions, and also students. The tallest were the professional men, who average 169.6 cm. in height, and it is significant that thirty-five per cent, of these were 170 cm. and taller. The clerks and merchants come close, with 169.2 and 168.7 cm. in height on the average respectively, while the pedlars are much shorter, only 164.3 cm. on the average. Jews engaged in outdoor occupations were also taller, 166.4 cm., than the average for the Jews, which was 164.5 cm., and nearly twenty- three per cent, of them were above 170 cm. in height, as against only nineteen among the Jews generally. Masons and iron workers were the tallest in this class, while the carpenters were the shortest. Among the Jews engaged in indoor occupations there was found an appalling proportion of stunted individuals. Thirty-one per cent, were shorter than 160 cm. in height, and only twelve per cent, were tall, 170 cm. and higher. It is also significant that only one of the entire number was 178 cm. in height, and even he was not a tailor in his early life, but only adopted this occupation after arriving in the United States at the age of twenty-one. The average stature of this class was 162 cm., 2.5 cm. shorter than the average for the Jews in New York City. Deplorably deficient in this respect were the shoemakers and tailors, the former average only 160.3 cm., and the latter 161. 3 cm. The percentage of short persons was 32.79 among the tailors and as high as 38 among the shoemakers. These figures tend to show that the deficiency of the Jews' stature, as compared with other races in Eastern PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 35 Europe, may, at least partly, be ascribed to the wretched social and economic conditions under which they find themselves in the Eastern Europe Ghettoes. Dr. Weissen- berg"^ also observed the same process in South Russia, and Zakrzewski in Poland confirms it for Warsaw. It is remarkable that in contrast with this is the fact that the first generation of native Jews in New York, who are only rarely employed at indoor occupations, but lead a more active outdoor life, which is conducive to normal g-rowth and development, are also taller, as will be seen hereafter. Socidl Selection among the Jews. — Much weig-ht cannot, however, be placed on these fig-ures as showing- the effects of the milieu on stature. A further analysis shows that besides social and economic conditions there is also a process of selection going on which is more potent in its effects. This process of artificial selection is well summarized by Ripley: "The physically well developed men seek certain trades or occupations in which their vigour and strength may stand them in good stead ; on the other hand, those who are by nature weakly, and coincidently often deficient in stature, are compelled to make shift with some pursuit for which they are fitted. Thus workers in iron, potters, porters, firemen, policemen, are taller as a class than the average, because they are of necessity recruited from the more robust portion of the population. In marked contrast to them, tailors, shoe- makers, and weavers, in an occupation which entails slight demands upon physical powers, and which is open to all, however weakly they may be, are appreciably shorter than the average." Besides this process of selection it must be added that the habits of life which are peculiar to certain occupations also have a perceptible influence on stature. The conditions in the tailoring shops of Eastern Europe, or in the "sweat-shops" in England or America, act very adversely on the physique of young tailors who have not reached their full growth. They work in cramped positions for long hours daily, amid unsanitary surroundings which by no means contribute to full growth and development of the human body. May not the peculiar occupations of the Jews be the ' " Die sUdrussisclien Judcn," Archiv fur Aulhropologic, vol. xxiii. ; 1895. 36 THE JEWS. effect rather than the cause of their poor physique? May we not consider that so few Jews enj^aj^e in occupations requiring- strong- and violent muscular ex- ertion merely because they find themselves unequal to the task? Tailorings, shoemakingf, weaving", etc., do not require strong- muscles ; any one with a spark of life may successfully pursue any of these vocations, and for this reason Jews are mostly working- at these trades. The shortness of stature of the Jews working- at these occupations may thus be explained as due principally to selection, the shorter persons as well as those with weakly and flabby muscles are more likely to eng-ag-e in them. The author has also observed a process of selection in connection with emig-ration of Jews. The Jewish immi- grants to the United States were found to be taller, on the averag-e, than those in Europe. Thus, the averag-e stature of the Jews in Poland has been determined by Elkind and Snig-ireff to be i6i cm., while immig-rants from that country are taller by one inch, reaching- 163.4 cm. in height. In Lithuania and White Russia the averag-e height of the Jews is around 162 cm., according- to Snigireflf, Talko-Hryncewicz, and Yakowenko, while immi- g-rants from that region of Russia are 164.2 cm. The Jews in South Russia and Little Russia are known to be taller than those in Poland and Lithuania. Snigireflf and Wissenberg found them to average 164 cm. in height, and immigrants from that region measured in New York were found to be taller, 165.6 cm.; and the Jewish immigrants from Hungary are also taller by one inch than those who remained at home. The only exception was found with the Jews from Galicia, who measured, both in the United States and in their native home, 162.3 cm. in height.^ Among immigrants there are to be found a larger pro- ^ These observations have been confirmed by the investigation of Professor Boas recently published. He found the following average stature for Jewish immigrants in New York : — Roumanian, 164.8 cm.; Galician, 163. 6 cm. ; Little Russian, 165.6 cm. ; White Russian, 163. 8 cm. ; Polish, 163. 5 cm. ; Lithuanian, 164. cm. They are thus all taller on the average than the Jews in their native countries. (F. Boas, Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants : Washington, 1910. ) There are no published data about Jewish immigrants in England, but Jacobs' investigations show that the native Jews are much taller than their alien co-religionists. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 37 portion of persons of superior stature, as can be seen from the following figures embracing measurements of i,68i Jews in Poland, Russia, and Galicia, compared with 1,528 Jews who emigrated to New York city:— Eastern New Europe. York. Persons of short stature - 35-46% 23-30% Persons below the average - 32.48 30.10 Persons above the average 21.41 27.40 Tall persons - - . - 10.65 19. II Individuals of short stature, less than 160 cm. in height, were found in Eastern Europe to the extent of 35.46 per cent., while among the immigrant population in New York City only 23.3 per cent, are of this class. On the other hand, tall persons were more numerous in New York, ig. II per cent., as against only 10.65 per cent, in Eastern Europe. The process of selection by immigration is thus seen to work by leaving many of the short in- dividuals at home and attracting to the new country many of the taller ones. The result of this selection is manifesting itself in the physical development of the children of the immigrants, who are much taller than their parents. The author has found that the average stature of 1,404 immigrants in New York City was 164.2 cm., while their children, the first generation of descendants of Eastern European Jewish immigrants, measured 167.9 cm. in height, an increase of 3.7 cm. in height in one generation. This increase in stature is yet better displayed in the accompanying table, showing the proportion of persons in each class of stature: — Persons ot' short stature - Persons below medium height Persons above medium height Tall persons - - - - These figures show that while among the Jews born in Eastern Europe 24.57 P^^ cent, were of short stature, there were only 8.87 per cent, of native Jews thus deficient in body-height. On the other hand, tall men, 170 cm. in height and over, are found among the native Jews, 33.87 F^Keign Native Jews. lews. 24-57% "8.77% 30-63 24.19 26.99 33-07 17.81 33-87 38 THE JHWS. per cent, as agfainst only 17. Si per cent, among^ their jnimig"rant parents. A process of double selection can thus be seen at work. The immigrants are, on the average, taller than the people of whom they spring, as has already been noted. That stature is transmitted by heredity is not questioned. When to this are added other factors which are favourable to the growth and development of the body, we have good reasons for the superior stature of the native American Jews. Here during the period of most active growth, the Jewish child attends a modern public school, instead o{ the semi-oriental Cheder in Eastern Europe. During- adolescence the Jew here engages mostly in outdoor occu- pations, instead of the dangerous "sweat-shop" which is the workshop of a large proportion of the immigrant Jews. In addition, the native Jewish youth in New York City- indulges quite freely in open-air recreations, games, bicycle riding, etc., all of which is conducive to healthy growth and development of the body. This gives him an immense advantage over his immigrant co-religionist. Possessing the qualifications required for doing outdoor work successfully, he no longer engages in tailoring, weaving, shoemaking, etc., but mainly engages in occupa- tions into which his superior muscular development has fitted him. Had he remained physically as weakly as his Eastern European co-religionists, he would surely have been compelled to seek occupations in which muscles are not the determining factor of success. Ethnic Factors of Stature. — We have thus arrived at the conclusion that the social and economic environment in which the Jews find themselves has some influence on their stature. It is true that it usually works indirectly, by compelling persons of poor physique to seek occupations in which muscles are not essential ; but still it can be stated that it has a perceptible influence. This, however, does not clear up the most important part of the problem. We are still in the dark as to the reason why the Jews in Poland are shorter than those in Roumania, although the economic and social conditions of both groups are not materially different ; any difference that may be discerned is rather in favour of the Jews in Poland. Similarly, the Jews in South Russia and Bukowina are taller than those PHYSICAL CHARACTEKS, 39 in Bavaria or Turin, Italy, althoug"!! the latter are un- questionably more prosperous socially and economically ; or the Jews in North Africa, in Algeria, Tunis, Morocco, and the Spag^nuoli in Palestine, who are very poor, and live, even taking" their oriental surrounding" into considera- tion, in disgracefully overcrowded and unsanitary sur- roundings ; but they are taller than the native Jews of Germany, France, and Itah\ A careful study of the height of the Jews, as compared with the height of the non-Jewish populations among which they live, shows certain relations which are important in this connection. In general it is found that in countries where the indigenous population is of tall stature, the Jews also are of superior height ; and, reversely, wherever the non-Jewish population is short of stature, the Jews also are deficient in this respect. This noteworthy pheno- menon is plainly seen when a comparison of the average stature of the Jews and non-Jews in various countries is considered. To begin with Russian and Austrian Poland, where a fairly large number of measurements have been taken of the population. Here the shortest Jews are found averaging i6i to 162 cm. in height. It is questionable whether the non-Jewish Poles were ever taller, as has been repeatedly asserted by many patriotic publicists of Poland, who bewail the manifestation of physical decadence of their compatriots, manifesting itself chiefly in their inferior height, averaging from 161 to 164 cm., according to the district. Some have attempted to attribute this deficiency to the presence of a large number of Jews in that country whose shortness of stature drags down the average. Of course measurements of recruits taken en bloc without any attempt to separate Jews from Christians can be used to prove the proposition that a large number of Jews would undoubtedly reduce the average perceptibly. But, as a matter of fact, even in cases when the Jews and Christians were considered separately, it was not found that the Poles were much superior of stature. Thus, Snigireff"'s statistics, taken from a large number of measurements of Jews and Christians in Poland, show that the average for the Poles is 162.5 cm., and for the Jews 161. 3 cm. Similarly, Zakrzewski's series, after selecting only certain classes of 40 I HI-: J i:\vs. Poles, show an avcraj^e stature for Jews, 162.3 cm., and for Poles, 165.5 cm. IClkind and Tolwinski found 161 cm. for Jews and 164 cm. for Poles. In Galicia the Jews are of the same average stature as the Poles in that country. Both liave an avera<,'-e of 162.3 cm. in heii^'ht, according- to Majer and Kopernicki. All this shows that the Jews in Poland approach the average of the Christian population of the country. South and Little Russia is mainly inhabited by Slavs, who are taller than the Poles. The Little Russians are from 164 to 167 cm. in height, according to Ivanowski.^ It is a striking fact that the Jews who live among these people are much taller than the Polish Jews. Weissenberg found an average of 164.8 cm. in height ; immigrants from that region of Russia to the United States were 165.7 c^- '" height ; and even' the recruits reported by Snigireff, who are only twenty years of age and often less, and have not yet attained their maximum height, were 164.2 cm. in height, and Jewish recruits in Odessa even reach 166.9 c^- •" height, according to Pantiukhof, being taller than the Christian recruits from that city, who averaged only 166. 1 cm. In the north-western provinces of European Russia, in Lithuania and White Russia, where the non-Jewish population is short of stature, measuring about 163 to 165 cm. in height, being midway between the short Poles and the tall Little Russians, the Jews also approach the same height; 161. 2 according to Snigireflfs recruiting statistics, and 164.2 cm. in immigrants to the United States. Going further south-east, in Roumania and Bukowina, where the Slavonic population is characterized by tall stature, we find the Jews also tall, 165.4 cm. in height, according to Himmel, and the indigenous Ruthenians averaged 167.3 C"^- Jewish immigrants from Roumania were 166 cm. in height, taller than the Christian Roumanians, who, according to Pittard's measurements, - were 165 cm. in height. The average stature of 77,579 ' A. A. Ivanowski, " On the Anthropological Composition of the Races in Russia," Memoirs Society of Friends, etc., vol. cv. ; Moscow, 1907 (in Russian). - E. Pittard, " Anthropologic de la Roumanie," U Anthropologie, vol. xix., pp. 33-5S ; 1903. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 4I Hung-arian soldiers was 164.6 cm., according to Deniker, and the Jewish soldiers in Hung-ary measured 163.3 cm. on the average, according to Scheiber ; Jewish immigrants to the United States averaged 165.7 ^"'^- Besides these, there are evidences that in Italy the Jews in Turin measured by Lombroso gave an average stature of 163.3 t^ni-j a"d the Catholic population of the city was 165. 1 cm.^ ; and in England, as has already been mentioned, the native Jews are, according to Jacobs, almost as tall as the average Englishman, 17 1.4 cm. in height.- Outside of Europe there are very few measurements of Jews recorded. In North Africa the Jews of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis averaged 166.9 cm. in height,^ which corresponds to the superior stature of the native tribes of Kabyls, Arabs, Berbers, etc., in that region. In Trans- caucasia, Pantiukhof found the Jews short of stature, only 161. 2 cm. on the average; but their non-Jewish neighbours, the Armenians, are not much taller, measuring about 163 cm.'* The mountain Jews of Daghestan are taller, 164.4 cm. according to Pantiukhof, and even 166.3 cm. on the average according to Swiderski and Kurdoff, corresponding to the superior stature of their neighbours, the Lesghians.^ All these facts point to the conclusion that there is no uniformity of stature among the Jews in various countries ; in some they are taller, in others they are shorter. These differences are not satisfactorily explained by the differ- ences in the social and economic conditions under which the Jews find themselves. One thing is certain, the stature of the Jews varies with the stature of the non-Jewish population among which they live. They are tall where the indigenous population is tall, and vice versa. ^ C. Lombroso, L'aiitisonitisino e le science Moderiie (Appendix). Torino, 1897. - J. Jacobs, " On tlie Racial Characteristics of the Modern Jews," Journal Authi-opol. Insli/ii/e, vol. xv., pp. 23-62; (with Spielman), "On the Comparative Anthropometry of English Jews," Ibid., vol. xix. , pp. 76-88. " M. Fishberg, "North African Jews," Boas Anniversary Volume, PP- 55-6.1 ; New \'ork, 1906. ' Pantiukhof, loc. cit. ■' K. Kurdoff " Gorskie evrei dagestana," Russian Anthropol. /ourn., Nos. 3, 4, pp. 57-87 ; 1905. 42 THI-, J i:\vs. An objection may justly be raised to this conclusion by showing- that averagfes are not always exact representations of actual conditions. This is particularly true when we deal with small numbers of observations of such a variable factor as stature. A few abnormally tall or short in- dividuals, who in fact are only chance variations, will influence the resulting average perceptibly, and may lead to erroneous conclusions. An attempt has been made to obviate this source of error by studying- the stature of the Jews by the method of seriation and co-ordination. First it is determined how- many individuals were found measuring say 150 cm., then how many 151 cm., 152 cm., and so on. The figures thus obtained are used for the construction of a curve on a scale. It is expected that if more than one ethnic element is represented in the group of Jews measured, the curve will show more than one apex each corresponding to the racial element which has been infused. On diagram (Fig. 12) such a curve is shown. It is drawn from measurements of 3,209 Jews in Eastern Europe. It will be noted that the maximum frequency, corresponding to the largest number, measured about 162 cm. in height, which is about the average stature of the Jews in Eastern Europe. It will be seen that the curve toward the left, where stature below the average is represented, descends pro- gressively downward, until the stature of 150 cm. is reached, when the number becomes almost insignificant. Similarly to tlie right, where heights above the medium is represented, the curve runs more or less smoothly down. Altogether it gives an impression that the Jews represent a homogeneous race, because it has been accepted by some anthropologists that measurements of a mixed people will not show a smooth curve when figures of stature are used for the construction of a diagram, but will display two or more apices, each corresponding to a racial element which entered into the composition of the people. On the other hand, when a curve shows a single apex — one maximum of frequency, around which are clustered all other observations, the lesser values to the left, and the larger to the right — it may be accepted as good proof of the purity of the race. But in the case of the Jews under consideration this PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 43 curve does not by any means establish absolute evidence of freedom from foreign blood. A collection of measure- ments of 6,708 Christians in Eastern Europe, including- Little Russians, Letts, Lithuanians, White Russians, Poles, and Ruthenians, has been tabulated by the author, the percentage of frequency calculated for each group of stature, and the results plotted as a curve on the same diagram. 1 A glance at this curve reveals the following salient points: — Notwithstanding the fact that it represent's peoples, each of which has no special claim to exceptional racial purity; notwithstanding that no matter how pure M 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 ll 1 1 STATURE NON-JEWS JE.WS JEWS AND NON-JEWS 1 \ 1 1 IlL \ \ / < // \ !fl ^ •V \ •\ ' ti if \ i » ,' S '/ 1 , / w ,/ ■,\ K^ • V k H =q ^ s ^ -1 1 T t^ ^ Etjcyclopicdia, vol. vi., p. 157. 60 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 6l coloured ; and in countenance he was ruddy like his father David. "^ In one of the stories of the Arabian Nights entitled "The weaver who became a leech," the quack is asked how he recog'nized a certain patient as being- a Jew, and he answered: "Thou must know that we people of Persia are skilled in ph}siog-nomy ; and I saw the woman to be rosy-cheeked, blue eyed and tall statured. These qualities belong- to no woman of Rome . . . and I knew she was a Jewess." Jacobs mentions that Jehuda Halevy, a Hebrew poet of the twelfth century, speaks of the g-olden hair of his. Fig. 17. — Bokhara Jews. beloved, and mentions a Spanish Jew, Roven Salomo, ii> the fourteenth century, who had light brown hair, and Rembrandt's painting- of a Rabbi in the National Gallery, with a red beard. Many other paintings or portraits of Jews during- the middle ag-es show them to have had light brown, blonde, or red hair, and particularly beards. The colour of the eyes is not indicated in either the Bible or Talmud, although this organ is mentioned more than ^ Grant Allen, Ihc Origin of the Idea of GoJ, chap, xviii. He believes that all these descriptions are obviously influenced by the identificatioa of the bread and wine of the eucharist with the personal Jesus. 62 THE JEWS. eig^Iit luindred times in the Bible, and is described in detail as reg'ards other characteristics, such as anatomy, ex- pression, etc. It may be mentioned in this connection, however, that according,'' to some Hebrew scholars, there is no equivalent in the Hebrew language for the word blue in either the Bible or Talmud. Fig. i8. — Old Jew. [From a Painting by Rciiibrandtt\ The predominant type of complexion of the Jews of to- day is also dark; black and brown hair and eyes are in the majority. But still a large proportion have blonde hair and blue eyes. In the most extensive investigation of the subject made by Prof. Virchow,^ of over 75,000 Jewish school children in Germany, it was elicited that only 66 per 1 R. Virchow, " Gesamtbericht . . . ueber die Farbe der Haut, der Haare und der Augen der Schulkinder in Deutschland, " Archiv J'iir Anthropologie, vol. \vi. pp. 275-475; 18S6. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 63 cent, had dark hair, and 52 per cent, had dark eyes. Fair- haired children were found to the extent of 32 per cent., and fair-eyed even more, 46 per cent. Up till recently it was stated by ethnologists that the Jews in Germany had a larg-e number of blondes in their midst, but that in other countries they are mostly brunettes. Virchow's investigations have Fig. 19. — Jewish Facial Exi'Ression. [From a Painting hy Kaiifinami.^ confirmed it for Germany; and when the colour of the hair and eyes of Jews in other countries was investigated it was found that blonde Jews are to be met with almost every- where. Thus, the 60,000 Jewish school children examined in Austria,^ and reported by Schimmer, revealed that 27 per cent, had blonde hair and 54 per cent, had blue eyes. In ' G. A. Schimmer, "Krhebungen iiber die Farbe der Augen, der Ilaare, und der Ilaut bei den Schulkindern Oesterieichs.'" MiU. der ant/iro/ol. GeseL, Wien, 18S4, Erganzungsband. 64 Tiiic J i:\vs. Hung^ary 24 per cent, of Jewish children had fair hair and 42 per cent, fair eyes, and even in Bulgaria 22 and 61 per cent, respectively were found.' The author has examined 600 children in the schools of the .Alliance Israelite in Algiers, Constantine, and Tunis, and among them also six per cent, were found who had fair hair and 22 per cent, with fair eyes.- These fair-haired Jews created a problem for anthro- pologists. It is a question whence these "Indo-Germanic" Jews, as Virchow called them, have found their way into the midst of a dark complexioned race Hke the Jews, and whether they are signs of racial intermixture between Jews and northern Europeans. Some have argued that inasmuch as these observations were made on children, they are of doubtful value, because the hair and eyes of at least twenty-five per cent, of fair children darken with the advance of adolescence. But investigations of adult Jews did not alter the case at all. As can be seen from the following figures, there are fair haired Jews in almost every country '.'■^ Percentage of Fair Country. Hair. Eyes. England- . . . . . 25.5 41.2 Galicia 20.03 52.12 Little Russia 17-74 53 68 Roumania - - - - - 14-67 51-33 Lithuania - - - - • 14 09 37-8l South Russia ----- 13.00 33-00 Baden, Germany - - - - 12.80 51.20 United Slates 11.29 44-35 Hungary 1 7. 86 50.71 Poland 7.16 43-89 Caucasia ----- 2.00 15-69 Daghestan, Caucasia - - - 0.05 4-38 ' J. Korosi, " Couleur de la peu, des cheveux, et des yeux a Budapest," Annal. de deinographie, I, pp. 136-137. S. WatetT, " Anthropologisciie Beobachlungen der Farbe der Augen, der Haare und der Haut, etc., in Bulgarien,"' Con esponJenzhlatt der DetUschen Gesel. Jur Anthropologies vol. xxxiii. No3. 7, 8; 1904. - ^L Fishberg, "North African Jews," Boas Anniversary Volutney pp. 55-63 ; New York, 1906. ^ These figures were obtained from the following sources : — England : 1. Jacobs, " On the Comparative Anthropometry of English Jews,"yi?«r«(i/ Anthrop. Institute, vol. xix. pp. 76-86; Baden: O. Ammon, Zur A uthropol. der Ba.iener, ]tna, 1899; Caucasia: J. Pantiukhof, Observ. anthropol. att Hair. Eyes. 18.50 30.90 11.90 33- 20 5-19 16.88 4.80 30.00 2.60 32.00 10.00 18.70 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 65 In fact, even the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, the Sephardim, who have been considered to be of a much darker complexion than the Eastern European Jews, the Ashke?iushn, also have a fair number of blondes among them, as can be seen from the following figures : — ^ Percentage of Fair Country. Bosnia .... England . . . . North Africa Italy Various . . . . Turkey .... From these figures it is evident that Jews in every country investigated had a certain proportion of fair-haired and eyed individuals, and that the percentage of these fair Jews fluctuates within wide limits. The smallest per- centage of fair hair and eyes is found among the Caucasian and Arabian Jews. Pantiukhof found among the Caucasian Jews only two per cent, with fair hair and 15.69 per cent, of fair eyes. .Among Georgian Jews Weissenberg found 3.33 per cent, fair hair and 12.33 P^^ cent, fair eyes, while Kurdoff counted among the Daghestan mountain Jews less than one per cent, fair hair and only 5.63 per cent, fair eyes. Among 78 Jews from Yemen, Arabia, Weissenberg did not find one who had either fair hair or eyes.- On the other hand, among the English Jews, one in four was found with fair hair, while fair eyes were found among 41 per cent. Among the Austrian Jews the percentage exceeds fifty. The Sephardim, who had been reputed to Caucase, Tiflis, 1S93; Daghestan : K. Kurdoff, "Gorskye evrei dagestana," Hiiss. An'hrop. Journal, Nos. 3-4, pp. 57-87, 1905. The rest are from M. Fishberg, "Materials for the Physic. Anlhrop. Eastern European Jews," Memoirs A iiier. Anlhiop. Assn., vol. i. ; 1905. ' These observations were reported by Glueck, " Beilr. zur physisch. Anthrop. der Spaniolen," If^'iss. Mid. aiis Bosnien ttnd der Hercegovina, vol. iv. pp. 587-592; Jacobs, loc. cit. ; J. Beddoe, "On the Physical Characteristics of the Jews," Trans. Ethnol. Soc, vol. i. pp. 222-237, London, 1861 ; C. LomL-roso, L'aittise/nitisnio e le scienze vioderne, Torino, 1894; M. Fishberg, "North African Jews," Boas Anniversary Volume, PP- 55-63, New York, 1906. - Pantiukhof, Obse/i: Anthrop. au Caitcase, Tiflis (in Russian), 1893 '■> Kurdoft. h\\ tit., ; Weissenberg, Archiz> f. Anthropologic, vol. viii., pp. 237-245, 1909; idem, ZatSihr. f. Ethnologic, pp. 309-327: 1909. 66 THE JKWS. have preserved the Jewisli type more perfectly, are also not lackiiii,'- in a blonde element. Of the Spa<^nuoli in Bosnia, 18.5 per cent, have fair hair and 31 percent, fair eyes (Glueck), and those in En<^land 11 per cent. Even the Spanish Jews in Turkey, as well as the indig^enous Jews of Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia have blondes.^ Types of Pigmentation. — Typical representatives of a race show a constant interrelation between the colour of the hair and eyes : In the blonde northern races, their fair hair is usually accompanied by blue eyes, while among- the dark southern races the dark hair is usually accom- panied by dark eyes. The former are considered pure blonde types, and the latter pure brunette types. Indi- viduals who do not exhibit such interrelation — i.e., who have dark hair with fair eyes, or fair hair with dark eyes — are considered " mixed types." It is interesting- that only about one-half of the contemporaneous Jews have pre- served the pure brunette type ; the rest are either of the blonde or mixed types. Among- 4,235 Jews observed by the present writer in New York the following- proportion of types were found : — Jews. Jewesses. Brunette type - ... - 52.62% - 56.94% Blonde type 10.42 - 10.27 Mixed types 36.96 - 32.79 The brunette type, which is considered characteristic of the Jews from time immemorial, is thus reduced to only 52 per cent, among- the European representatives of the race, while among the Jewesses it is not much larger, 57 per cent. The pure blonde type was found to the extent of ten per cent., while over thirty per cent, were of the mixed type. Observations made on Jews in various countries have brought out similar results. Of the 75,377 Jewish school children in Germany reported by \'irchow only 46.83 per cent, were of the brunette type, 11. 17 per cent, of the blonde, and 42 of the mixed type. In Austria, Schimmer found between 32 and 47 per cent, of the brunette type among Jewish school children and 8 to 14 per cent, of the blonde type, according to the district. Wateff" s investi- 1 For England, see Jacobs, loc. cit. ; North Africa, Fishberg, loc. cit. : for Turkey, Weissenberg, JI//U. Anthropl. Ges. IVicii, vol. xxxix., pp. 225-239 ; Bosnia, L. Glueck, toi: at. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 67 gations in Bulgaria, where the general population is brunette, the Jews have only 49.57 per cent, of the pure brunette type, 8.71 per cent, blondes, and 41.72 per cent, of mixed types. In North Africa, where there is known i ig. 20. — Jewess, TANGUiR, Morocco. [/vw;/ a Painting by Por/ach.'] to be a strong blonde element among the Berbers and Kabyls, the Jews were also found by the present writer to have 4.62 per cent, of pure blondes and 76.40 per cent, of brunettes. The only country where all the Jews examined 68 THE JEWS. were brunettes is Yemen, Arabia, where Weissenberg- did not find a sini,'-lc Jew with either blonde hair or fair eyes. Perhaps the reason is that the Bedouins in that region also have no blondes, and intermarriage could not affect the Jews in this direction. Altogether, it appears that the proportion of Jews of the pure blonde type oscillates between five to sixteen per cent., according to the country of birth. Hetween twenty-five and fifty per cent, are of the mixed types, and if this is one of the signs of racial intermixture, as some are inclined to believe, this is important. Eryfh?'is7n, or Red Hair. — Red hair appears not to be of recent origin among the Jews. It was known among the ancient Hebrews, for Esau was said to have been " red all over, like a hairy garment."^ The Biblical reference to King David as "ruddy" is explained by some as meaning that he had red hair. Besides Judas Iscariot, who is, without any special reason, considered to have been red-haired, it must also be mentioned that in ancient Egyptian monuments the Canaanites are pictured as having red hair and red beards. The Edomites, if we may rely on the etymology of the word " edom," were also red-haired. Among the modern Jews, about four per cent, of men and women are rufous, and nearly ten per cent, of men have red beards ; in fact, the beard of Jews is quite frequently red, and very often it has at least a rufous tinge of a frizzly character. I find that red beards are more frequently encountered among Galician Jews than among those of other countries. As is usual, the red- haired individuals have nearly always a freckled skin, and the beards are frizzly. Many anthropologists, like Topinard, Deniker, Kopernicki, etc., believe that red hair is a special racial characteristic of the Jews. At the present state of our knowledge as to the origin of red hair in man we are unable to assign any reason for its prevalence among the Jews. Indeed, some believe that red hair is a special shade of blonde, while others class it with dark hair. One thing is certain, red hair is often encountered when intermixture between dark and blonde races has taken place to a large degree. Whether the ' Genesis, xxv., 25. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 69 erythrism of the Jews is due to this cause is difficult to say. Origiji of the Blonde J eivs. — One of the most important problems in the anthropology of the Jews has been the origin of the Jews with fair hair and eyes, and it has been discussed by every one who wrote on the subject. Generally speaking, two theories have been advanced. One, represented by Broca,^ Lagneau,-' and others, is to the effect that the blonde Jews have their origin in inter- mixture with North European races. Others claim, Fig. 21. Fig. 22. Figs. 21, 22.— Lithuanian Jews. however, that blondeness is no proof of intermixture with Teutonic races of Europe. As has already been men- tioned, there were blonde Jews in Biblical times, and the modern blonde Jews are considered as descendants of the blondes of the time of the Bible. -^ Prof, von Luschan, in fact, sees in the modern blonde Jews the descendants of the Amorites, who are said to have been blondes, ^ Bull. Soc. d' Aiitfiro/<., vol. ii., p. 416. - G. Lagneau, " .Sur la race juive et sa pathologic," Bull Soc. d \t iilhropalof;ic ; 1 89 1 . ^ Pruner-Bey says : " Ii est incontestable pour nioi, qui'il y en a dc Ires Ijlonds juifs qui ne sont pas des metis." — Ibid. 70 THii J i:\vs. and with whom the Hebrews intermarried to a great extent.^ The sug-gestion made by some that the blondeness of the modern Jews is a product of chmatic conditions can be eliminated as worthless. In the first place, there are blonde Jews in every part of the world, in Southern and Eastern, as well as in Northern countries, even in India and North Africa. Then it must also be borne in mind that in countries where the g"eneral population is distinctly blonde, like Germany, it is not the Northern provinces where the highest percentage of blonde Jews are met with. Indeed, the g^eographical distribution of the Jewish blondes proves quite the contrary. On the whole, it can be stated that most of the blonde Jews are found in countries where the g'eneral population has a considerable pro- portion of blondes. This is exemplified by the larg-e number of blonde Jews in England, twenty-five per cent., and in Germany, where over thirty per cent, of Jewish children had blonde hair. On the other hand, in Italy, where the Christian population is distinctly brunette, less than five per cent, of Jews are blonde, while in Algeria, Bokhara, the Caucasus, etc., the percentage is even less. But that things are not so simple can be seen w'hen the question is studied more carefully. It must be recalled that the home of the blondes in Europe is the North, and as we proceed East and South, the proportion of fair people decreases, and brunetteness becomes predominant. It is a striking fact that with the Jews of Germany and Austria this appears not to be the case. It was elicited by Virchow and Schimmer during their investigations of the colour of the hair and eyes of the school children of Germany and Austria, that among Jewish children there were more brunettes in the Northern provinces than in the Southern. Among the Germans the largest proportion of blondes are found in the provinces of Prussia, Pomerania, Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Westphalia, etc., while further east, in Posen, Bohemia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Austria, and finally, Galicia and Bukowina, the number of blondes decreases. With the Jews it is the reverse. It is in Southern and Eastern parts of Germany ^ F. V. Luschan, " Die Anthropologische Stellung der Juden," Corr.- Blatt deiitsch. Gcs. Aiithrop., vol. xxiii. pp. 97-102. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 71 and Austria where most of the Jewish blondes are met with, while the highest proportion of brunettes is en- '4 I. i-'\ i h'y -)^H;';m- Fig. 23. — Algerian Jewess [Koviaii Nose). countered in the Northern provinces. These facts do away with the statement that only the Jews in Northern 72 THK JKWS. countries are blonde, in contrast with the Jews in Southern countries, who are of dark complexion, and that the origin of this blondeness is to be looked for in the Northern climate; a kind of transformism, as Darwin would call it. All the facts point to heredity as the basic cause, and, consequently, intermixture with blonde races. Whether this intermixture took place solely in Biblical times with the Amorites, and was transmitted by heredity to the modern Jews, as was suggested by Luschan, is doubtful. It appears to the present writer that if this was the sole cause, i.e., if intermarriage with the indigenous blonde races of Palestine in ancient times were the only source of the modern Jewish blondes, the proportion of fair Jews would be about the same in every country. As a matter of fact, howev'er, we find in some countries, like Caucasus, Africa, Arabia, Italy, etc., only from less than one to six per cent, of Jews have blonde hair; while in others, like Germany, Galicia, England, etc., the pro- portion exceeds thirty per cent. This points to a suggestion that in regions in which the non-Jewish population is distinctly brunette, the Jews by inter- marriage have acquired again dark traits, as is the case in Caucasia, North Africa, etc., while in European countries in which the number of blondes among the Christian population is larger, they acquired by inter- marriage a larger proportion of blondes. There is no way of escaping such a conclusion, when all the facts are considered. Everything points in this direction. It is curious that the so-called "Aryan," or North European type, i.e., the combination of blonde hair, blue eyes, tall stature, and long head in the same individual, appears not to be common among the European Jews. As is well known, many anthropologists speak of the ideal " European" type. The Germans have been so exalted with this type of mankind, that they have named it the " Indo-Germanic" type, in spite of the fact that less than one-half of the population of their country is tall, blonde, and dolichocephalic, and in some of the southern provinces hardly fifteen per cent, of the population is of this type. Some anthropologists have spoken of the blonde Jews as the " Indo-Germanic" or "Aryan" elements in Judaism. Majer and Kopernicki, investigating the somatic traits of PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 73 the Galician population, have found that brunette Jews are usually brachycephalic, while the blonde Jews are predomi- Fig. 24. — Algerian Jkw {Aquiline Nose nantly dolichocephalic, which they, and many others who quoted their writing's, consider as good proof that there is 74 THE JEWS. an " Indo-Germanic" element among- the modern Jews.^ Hut this conclusion was based on rather few observations. Among Jewish immigrants in New York City I have found that the head-form of the tall Jews is almost exactly the same as among Jews of shorter stature, I also found that the average cephalic index of 86 blonde Jews was 81.35, 'il'iiost identical with that of the dark-complexioned Jews, which was 81.97. In fact, the dark-haired individuals had even a somewhat larger percentage of dolichocephalic persons. Similarly, Jews with fair eyes had the same head-form as those with dark eyes, while the percentage of brachycephalic Jews was larg-er among the blondes than among the brunettes. - It has also been alleg^ed that tall Jews are usually blonde, and short Jews of dark complexion. Pantiukhof found this among- the Jews of Odessa, South Russia ; and among the Jews in Caucasia, also, those with fair eyes are tall of stature, while those with dark eyes are shorter. ^ But these observations have not been confirmed by other investigators. Among the immigrants of New York examined by the present author, it was found that the proportion of tall Jews is about the same among the blonde and brunette Jews."* The same has been reported by Otto Ammon about the Jews in Baden, Germany; and Elkind finds that the dark-complexioned Jews in Poland are even taller than the blondes. '■ It is thus seen that the ideal "Aryan" combination of tall stature, blondeness, and dolichocephaly is not observed among the European Jews. Indeed, all the facts seem to ^ J. Majer and J. Kopernicki, "Charakterystyka fizyczna ludnosci galicyjskiej," Zbior Wiadom. do antropol. Kraj., Cracow, vol. i., p. 132. 1877. '^ For details, see M. Fishberg, "Materials for the Physical Anthropology of the Eastern European Jews," Annals New York Acadciiiy of Sciences, vol. xvi., pp. 280-284. ^ I. I. Pantiukhof, " Semitic Types," Proc. Russian Anthropological Society, St. Petersburg, 1889, pp. 26-30. Idem, Obseivalions anthro- pologiqiics an Caiicase (in Russian), pp. 37-38; Tiflis, 1893. * ^I. Fishberg, " Materials for the Physical Anthropology of the Eastern- European Jews," Memoirs of the American Anthropological Society, vol. i., part I. pp. 130-134. ^ Otto Ammon, Zitr Anthropologie der Badener, pp. 663-664, Jena, 1S99 ; D. N. Elkind, " Evrei," Memoirs of the Society of Friends of Natural Science, Anthropolog)', and Ethnography, vol. civ. pp. 82-83, 1902. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 75 point to a quite contrary condition. It appears that the tall Jews are more liable to be brunettes than blondes, and Fig. 25. — Jkwisii 1\.\hi!I in CoiN-stan 1 ink {Aquiline A'ose). also that they are more often long'-headed. This tends to exclude Northern I-Luropean influence as a cause of Jewish blondeness, especially for those who believe that the 76 THE JliWS. combination of traits in question is invariably found amoni^ persons who are of "Aryan" orig-in, which, liowever, is not the fact, as can be seen from a study of European anthropology. At any rate, it must be remembered that this does not at all exclude Slavonic infusion. It has been observed that among the various Slavonic peoples tall stature is often combined with dark complexion, and short stature with blonde com- plexion in the same individual. This is the case, according- to Weisbach's researches, with the Serbo- Croats.^ Among the Poles and White Russians it was also found that the brunettes are taller than the blondes. Vorobyeff, who studied this question, concludes that many Slavonic peoples are characterized by traits which are the exact opposite of the conventional "Aryan" type: The larger the percentage of brunettes, having dark eyes and hair, the larger the proportion of tall and long^-headed individuals.- The blondes in Eastern Europe, on the other hand, are often of medium stature, and brachy- cephalic. Deniker describes this class of blondes as the " race on'entale,'' and states that they are mostly found in White Russia, and among the Great Russians of the Northern provinces of Russia.^ All this evidence shows that the Slavonic type does not at all agree with the so-called "North European" or "Aryan" type, in which fair complexion is combined with tall stature and doli- chocephaly, but the reverse seems to be the case. Tall stature is often combined with round heads and dark complexion. It thus appears that the blonde Jews may- be the result of intermixture with the Slavonic races. All available data about the interrelation of stature, com- plexion, and head-form point to a similarity between the Jews of Eastern Europe and the Gentile races among- which they have lived for centuries. Discussing the origin of the blonde Jews, Ripley ^ A. W'eishach, " Die Serho-kroaten der adriatischen Kiistenlander," Zcitschriftfiir Ethnolooje •, Supplement, 1SS4. - Russian Antkrofological Journal, No. 2, p. 106 ; 1902. No. I, pp. 43-82 ; 1900. ^ J. Deniker, " Les six races composant la ])opuIation acluelle de I'Europe," Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xxxiv. pp. 181-206; 1904. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 'J'J sug^g-ested that they may be a product of social or artificial selection. ^ Auerbach has developed this theory, and says that sexual selection has greatly influenced the Jews in every country in which they have been dispersed. The racial characters of the population among- which they lived has become their ideal. In countries where the non- Jewish population is blonde, the ideal type of the Jews may have become persons with blonde hair, and unconsciously preference might have been given in marriage to blonde individuals. He speaks of a physical but not a cultural assimilation of the Jews. In this manner the blonde elements of the Jews has been multiplied by giving more chance to persons of fair complexion to leave a progeny. - I do not believe that this theory is in agreement with facts of Jewish Ghetto life. The ideal type of the Ghetto Jew is the Jewish type. As I will show when speaking of the types of Jews, they prefer in marriage persons with Jewish physiognomies. It is true that to-day, among the Western European and American Jews, blondeness is idealized, as can be seen from the comparatively large number of Jewesses who bleach their hair. But this is a recent phenomenon, going hand-in-hand with other peculiarities which have made their appearance in Jewish life since they were released from the Ghetto, and are no more isolated from the general population. Nowadays the ideals of the people among which they dwell are their ideals. In former times the ideals of their non-Jewish neighbours were not only not their ideals, but more often were very distasteful to them. One who looked like a " Goy " (Gentile) stood no more, but rather less, chance to be preferred in marriage. As the Jews of to-day are the product of the Ghetto Jews, one is at a loss to find in artificial selection a tenable explanation of the origin of the blonde Jews. The conclusion thus reached is that while some of the modern blonde Jews may be the direct descendants of the blonde Jews of antiquity, or of the intermarriage of ancient Hebrews with the Amorites, still this will not account for all the fair-complexioned Jews of to-day. If all were the descendants of the ancient blonde element, we should ^ Win. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, pp. 396-400. - Elias Auerbach, "Diejlidische Rassenfrage," Archivfur Kassen und Gesellschafts-Biologic, vol. iv., p.p. 332-261 ; Berlin, 1907. 78 TH1-: JHWS. expect that the proportion of blondes would he about the same amoni;- the Jews in all countries. Considering', however, that in some rei^ions, like Germany, Austria, etc., the proportion is about thirty per cent., while in others it is much less — as, for instance, in North Africa about six per cent., in Italy five per cent., in Caucasia less than one per cent., and in Yemen, Arabia, no fair Jews are met with at all — it must be concluded that the blondes have their origin in the countries in which they are found to-day. When, in addition to this, it is men- tioned that the fair-complexioned Jews have other physical Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Figs. 26, 27. — Galician Jews {RcfroussJ Nose). traits of their non-Jewish neighbours in the country in which they live, the conclusion that it has been acquired by intermarriage with non-Jews is inevitable. The A^ose.^Wow far popular fancy is unreliable as a guide when an attempt is made to determine the type of a race or people is best shown by consideration of the Jewish nose, which most people regard as characteristic. In addition to tlie cartoonists, who always exploit this part of the Jewish anatomy, and never draw a Jewish face without a nasal appendage which looks like the beak of a parrot, most of the writers of fiction, in describing their PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 79 Jewish characters, only rarely omit to mention the large protruding, hooked nose of the Jew. Even anthro- polog-ists have been led astray by this popular notion. Topinard, in his classification of the forms of noses in the human being-, speaks of a separate variety, the "Semitic," or "Jewish" nose. He enumerate* several varieties of convex noses, generally known as aquiline: The simple aquiline, the arched, some of which have the appearance of the beak of the parrot or of the eagle {'^ bee de perroqtiei,'' '^bee d'aigW) according to the direction taken by the extreme point of the nose. From all this one would be led to believe that a Jew without a "Jewish" nose must be extremely rare. It may consequently be surprising to some that observations among the Jews show that there is no valid reason for considering the arched or hooked nose as peculiarly Jewish. The reverse is rather true. If the most prevalent type of an organ is to be considered as typical of a race or people, then the Jewish nose is the straight, or Greek variety. The present author has investigated the subject among the Jews in New York City and also in various countries of East and West of Europe, in North Africa, and among Jewish immigrants from various countries of Asia. The results of these investigations do not bear out the popular opinion that the hook nose is to be considered the "Jewish" nose, because only a small minority of Jews have the privilege of possessing this kind of nose. Among 2,836 adult male Jews in New York City the percentage of noses was as follows: — Straight, or Greek - - - - 57 '26 percent. Retrousse, or snub - - - - 22*07 n Aquiline, or hooked - - - I4'25 ,, Flat and broad - - - - 6 "42 ,, Among 1,284 Jewesses the percentage of straight noses was even larger, and of aquiline and hooked noses even smaller than among the men: — Straight, or Greek - - - - 59'42 per cent. Retrousse, or snub - - - - 13 '86 ,, Aquiline, or hooked - - - 1270 ,, Flat and broad ... - 14-02 ,, This shows that the predominant type of the Jewish nose is the straight. Fifty-seven per cent, of the Jews, 8o THi: JEWS. and fifty-nine per cent, of the Jewesses, have this variety of nose. This type is known as the Greek nose, because the ancient Greel< sculptors have usually produced in their statues faces with straight noses. It must be mentioned, however, that faces with noses after the form of the Greek monuments are veryrare among- all races. This is true especially oi' that part where the root of the nose joins the forehead, which is represented in the productions of the masters as almost straight, with practically no indentation at all. The straight noses observed among the modern Fig. 28. Fig. 29. Figs. 28, 29. — P0LI.SH Jew (White Russian Tyte), (Rehoiissc' A^ose.) {Photo hnt hy Elkiud.'\ population of Europe and America have a more or less deep depression at the root, while the dorsum is straight, without any considerable elevation or depressions in its course.^ Nearly three-fifths of the Jews have this form of nose, which cannot be called the classic Greek nose for ^ It appears that even in ancient Greece this perfectly straight nose was also not the rule. The figures which represent the gods who stand for evil have many other kinds of noses, as, for instance, Pan, Satyrs, etc. Socrates, also, is represented as having had a snub nose. Only the good gods were pictured with beautiful and straight noses. See O. Hovorka, Die ixitsscre Nasc, pp. 80-83; Vienna, 1S93. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. bl reasons just mentioned. Indeed, many of these noses are slightly convex, and could be classed with the form known as the Roman nose, a type very prevalent among- Europeans of to-day. The retrousse, or concave, or snub, popularly known as the saucy nose, has been found more often among- Jews than popular fancy would lead one to expect. Twenty- two per cent, of the Jews, and thirteen per cent, of the Jewesses, have this form of nose. The chief character- istics of this type are that it is usually short and comparatively broad. When looked at in profile, the dorsum appears short and but little elevated, while the nostrils are often directed upward on both sides. The root is generally broad, low, and the bridge concave. This concavity may be of various degrees, some having but a slight curve hardly to be distinguished from the straight nose, while others have a deep concave curve, which makes them very ugly and animal-like. Popularly this type of nose, if not of the pathological variety due to disease, is considered rather beautiful by some, and the name, "saucy" or "cute" nose, is then given to it. It is very frequently seen among the Slavonians, especially in the Ukraine among the Little Russians, in Galicia among the Ruthenians, among the Bohemians, etc. It is a fact worthy of note that these noses are also most often encountered among Jews coming from these places. The flat and broad noses are usually short, broad at the base, with both nostrils rather large. The bridge is flat and low, not much protruding from the face. Many of this variety of noses can be called " Negroid," for their similarity to the nose of Negroes. The latter form of nose is often seen among Jews who possess other negroid traits, such as prognathism, large bulky lips, frizzly hair, etc. When this type of nose is seen among the Jews in North Africa, Egypt, Yemen, etc., it can be assumed that its origin is about the same as the origin of negroid traits among their non-Jewish neighbours in those countries, namely, intermixture with Negroes, which is very pre- valent among the Arabs, Kabyls, Berbers, etc. But it is also seen, though not very often, among Jews who have had no opportunity to come in contact with Negroes for centuries, such as the Jews of Eastern Europe, and more 6 82 THI-: J i:\vs. often yet among' the Jews in Italy, and the South of France. The sug-i^^estion has been made that this may be con- sidered a case of atavism, striking" back to the ancient Hebrews, who intermarried with the tribe of Cushites, said to have been Nubians. Of course this rather far- fetched theory is just as difficult to prove as it is to disprove. The proportion of aquiline, hooked, convex, or so-called "Jewish" or "Semitic" noses is thus rather small among- the Jews of to-day. The author, as has been stated, found Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Figs. 30, 31. — Polish Jew (Great Russian Tyte). IPhoto lent by Elkimi.^ them to be only fourteen per cent, among- the Jews, and twelve per cent, among- the Jewesses. Observers in Russia, Austria, Hungary, etc., have also found a rather low proportion of this form of nose among Jews in those countries. Some report only two per cent., others ten per cent., while Majer and Kopernicki have found it among 30 per cent, of Galician Jews. This contradicts flatly the prevailing popular opinion that every Jew is the possessor of a hook nose. Moreover, this kind of nose is not infrequent among non-Jewish peoples in various parts of the world. Among the Slavic races amidst whom the PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 83 bulk of the modern Jews live there was found quite a considerable proportion with aquiline and hook noses. Among the Little Russians, Talko-Hryncewicz has found that over ten per cent, of men and women have aquiline and hook noses; among" the Poles and Ruthenians of Galicia, Majer and Kopernicki report over 6 per cent., and among- the Germans in Bavaria thirty-one per cent, of aquiline and hook noses have been found. ^ It is note- worthy that Bavarian Jews also have a higher proportion of hook noses than their co-religionists in other countries. In fact the best specimens of the beak-formed nose, the delight of the cartoonist, which is prominent, with fleshy wings, and a dorsum forming a very convex arch, the lower end of which makes a twist backward, are mostly found among the Bavarian Jews, and extremely rare among Jews in other countries. This form of nose is also very frequently met with among the various non- Jewish Caucasian tribes, and also in Asia Minor. Among the indigenous races in this region, such as the Armenians, Georgians, Ossets, Lesghians, Aissors, and also the Syrians, aquiline noses are the rule. Among the people living in Mediterranean countries of Europe, as the Greeks, Italians, French, Spanish and Portuguese, the aquiline nose is also more frequently encountered than among the Jews in Eastern Europe. The North American Indians also have very often "Jewish" noses. Considering, on the one hand, that only one Jew in six has an aquiline or hook nose, and on the other, that so many races in various parts of the world have just as many and often more persons with this kind of nose, there is hardly any justification for speaking of a "Jewish" or "Semitic" nose. Indeed, as has been pointed out by Luschan, the modern non-Jewish races who speak Semitic dialects, especially such as are sup- posed to have maintained themselves in a pure state, as the Bedouin Arabs, do not have this characteristic at all. The predominant type of nose among them is the short, straight, and very often the "snub" or concave variety. Luschan holds that the aquiline nose is by no means characteristic of Semites, and contends that the small proportion of arched noses that are found among the ' J. Ranke, Dcr .Mciisch, vol. ii., p. 50; Leipsic, 1S94. 84 THK JHWS. modern Jews is due to ancient intermixture with the Hitlite race which reii^ned in Asia Minor in pre-Biblical times. One of their chief physical characteristics is said to have been the aquiline and hook nose. The same author shows that other races which have a considerable portion of Hittite blood in their veins, as the Armenians, also have aquiline noses.' Indeed, Luschan believes the aquiline and hook nose should rather be called the "Armenoid," and not the "Jewish" or "Semitic" nose. There are various explanations why popular fancy, artists, cartoonists, actors, and even ethnoloii;-ists have always considered the arched nose peculiarly Jewish. Beddoe believes that it is due to a characteristic tucking- up of the wings which is mostly seen among Jews. He believes that the common type of nose is not sufficiently described when it is called aquiline, though that term is etymologically very appropriate. Beddoe thinks that there is usually more hollowness at the root, more depression at the point, and more tucking up of the wings, than in high-nosed persons of "Aryan" race.- Jacobs concludes that the nose contributes much toward producing the Jewish expression, but it is not so much the shape of its profile as the accentuation and flexibility of the nostrils. He alleges that from Galton's composite photographs of Jewish faces it appears that when the nose is covered the Jewish expression disappears entirely, and that it is the so-called " nostrility " which makes these composites "Jewish," which is not in agreement with the present author's observations. " A curious experiment illustrates this importance of the nostril toward making the Jewish expression," says Dr. Jacobs. "Artists tell us that the very best way to make a caricature of the Jewish nose is to write a figure 6 with a long tail (Fig. i) ; now remove the turn of the twist as in Fig. 2, and much of the Jewishness disappears ; and it vanishes entirely when we draw the continuation hori- zontally, as in Fig. 3. We may conclude then, as ^ F. V. Luschan, "Die anthropologische Stellung der Juden," Corrc- spondeiizblatt dcr dciitKhcn Gcsellschajt fur Anthropologic, etc., vol. xxiii., pp. 94-102 ; 1891. - John Beddoe, " On the Physical Characters of the Jews," Transact., of the Elhitological Society, vol. i., p. 222; 1861. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 8=; reg'ards the Jewish nose, that it is more the Jewish nostril than the nose itself which goes to form the characteristic Jewish expression."^ Ripley ag^rees with Jacobs on this point, and concludes that next to the dark hair and eyes and a swarthy skin, the nostrils are the most distinctive feature among- Jews.- But if this were the chief criterion of the Jewish cast of countenance, then very few Fig. T. Jews would look like Jews, because the nostrility is mostly found among Jews and Christians who have arched noses, and this sort of nose is met with in less than fifteen per cent, of the Jews. Among Jews who have straight or con- cave noses the "nostrility" is hardly ever seen. Among the inhabitants of Asia Minor and the Caucasus, as has already been mentioned, this nostrility is also frequent. The Girth of the Chest. — In addition to the "Jewish face," "Jewish nose," etc., there has also been described a "Jewish chest" by various authors. The chief char- acteristics ascribed to this chest are narrowness and flatness, and a special deficiency in vital capacity. As is well known to those who have seen many Jews of Eastern Europe, there are not many among them who can boast of a fully developed, capacious chest ; most of them have emaciated, flat, and narrow chests. One of the chief criterions as to chest capacity is its circumference, which in a healthy, well-developed individual should measure more than one-half his stature. Indeed, in most Europeans the average circumference of the chest is from about fifty- five to fifty-eight per cent, of the average stature, while ^ Joseph Jacobs, " On the Racial Characteristics of MoJern Jews,' foHiiial of the Anthropological Iiistitule, vol. xv., pp. 23-62; 1886. - \Vm. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, p. 395. 86 THE JEWS. among" those who liave indulged in athletic training" it may reach sixty per cent., and even more. This is one of the most important measurements taken by conscript officers in continental armies when attempting" to determine the fitness of recruits to do military duty. Such measure- ments taken in Eastern Europe have shown that the Slavonic races have a g^irth which exceeds half of their body-heig"ht by from two to eig^ht per cent. Among- Jewish conscripts of Russia, Poland, and Austria, it was found that they are notoriously deficient in this respect. Among^ 4i470 Jewish recruits in Poland, Snigireflf^ found that their g"irth is on the averag"e only 49.68 per cent, of their stature. Among" 2,122 Lithuanian Jewish recruits he found the g^irth measured only 49.55 per cent, of stature, and among Galician Jews the same condition was elicited by Majer and Kopernicki.- Military medical journals have on the streng"th of these facts repeatedly discussed the subject whether the Jews, owing" to their defective " vital capacity," and their lesser "index of vitality,'' are at all fit for military service. It appears that the consensus of opinion, as well as practical experience with Jewish soldiers, was to the eflFect that this defect, if it may at all be termed a defect, by no means interferes with their efficiency to bear arms. In fact the Russian and Austrian armies have decided to disreg"ard the girth of the chest as a primary test for recruits, and admit Jews, even when they are deficient in this respect, provided they are healthy in all other respects. The g"irth of the chest has thus been g"iven an official recog"nition as a racial trait of the Jews. But this official stamp is by no means convincing" that the narrow chest is a racial trait, transmitted by heredity, and cannot be eradicated by proper sanitary and hygienic measures. A careful study has shown that it mainly depends on the social and economic conditions under which the Jews find themselves, and in part also on the tardy development of their physique. The precocity of ^ " Materials for Medical Statistics and Geography of Russia,"' I'oycito- Aledizinski Zliunial (in Russian) ; 187S-79. See also E. Goldstein, " Des circonlerences du thorax et de leur rapport a la taille," Revue tfaitthro- pologic, Series II., vol. viii. , pp. 639-675; B. Blechman, Ein Beitrag ziir Antkropologie tier Jii.ien, Dorpat, 1SS2. - " Charakterystyka fizyczna ludnosci galicyjskiej," Zbior Wiadoni. do antropol. kraj., vol. i., pp. 1-181 ; vol. ix., pp. I-92; Cracow, 1S77, 18S5. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. Sy Jewish children is well known. This precocity manifests itself, however, only in their mental and intellectual development. The success they achieve in public schools and undergraduate colleg^es bears witness to this. But this success is usually achieved at a hig"h price ; it is gained at the expense of their physical development, which is very slow in the Jewish youth, as can be seen among- the Jewish pupils of public and high schools of the United States. In Russia and Austria conditions are much worse in this respect. At a very early age the Jewish child is sent to the so-called cheder (Jewish religious school), which is almost invariably in a deplorable sanitary condition, and in which he remains from morning till late in the ev'ening engaged in the study of Hebrew, the Bible, and the Talmud. Games and outdoor exercises are foreign to the Jewish child in Eastern Europe. During adolescence conditions do not change materially. Indoor and domestic occupations, sedentary habits and the lack of physical culture are notoriously frequent among them. All this does not contribute much to the healthy develop- ment of the muscular system, and their chests remain flat and contracted. It must be borne in mind that the girth does not depend entirely on the size of the skeleton of the chest, but also in a great measure on the condition of the muscles. Well-developed muscles enlarge the girth by their bulk, as well as by their ability to hold the ribs at a very obtuse angle in relation to the spinal column, while weak and flabby muscles do not elevate the ribs to any perceptible extent, but permit them to hang down at an acute angie in relation to the spinal column, pro- ducing what is known among medical men as the so-called "paralytic chest," which is of small capacity, narrow and flat. Individuals with strong, well-developed muscles have consequently capacious chests. The absence of agriculturists among Jews is also an important factor. The rural population is known to have a larger girth than the urban population, and the factory worker is at a disadvantage when compared with the outdoor worker in this respect. It has also been observed that the intellectual classes are often deficient in chest capacity unless they engage in outdoor sports and games, as is generally the case with the American college boys. Otto Amnion, 88 THI-: J i:\vs. speaking- of the deficient girth of the Jews in Baden, attributes this condition to the fact that a very large proportion among them is engaged assiduously in study in a sitting posture, and also because they are very frequently engaged in mercantile pursuits. He ascribes this defect of the physical organization of the Jews to their faulty muscular development.^ The tardy development which has been mentioned already is also an important factor. It has been elicited that measurement of adults over twenty-five years of age shows that Jews have a girth which exceeds half their stature. Recruits, who are usually between nineteen and twenty-two years of age, on the other hand, have a deficient girth. Measurements taken by the author on 983 immigrant Jews in New York showed that their girth was 52.2 per cent, of the height of their body. While this may be due partly to the fact that immigrants are a selected class physically, yet the fact that they are all over twenty years of age is also important. All the measurements of adult Jews over twenty years of age taken in Russia also show that their girth is between 52 and 54 per cent, of their height. But even measurements of native American Jews in the east side of New York City have not shown that they improve materially in one generation of favourable sanitary and hygienic surrounding during their youth. This confirms Ripley's opinion that, even if granted that the narrow chest of the Jews is an acquired characteristic, the effect of long-continued sub- jection to unfavourable sanitary and social environment, it has none the less become a hereditary trait. Some curious statements have been made about the ethnic relations of the Jewish chest. Pantiukhof observed that in Odessa, South Russia, the chest of the taller Jews is more capacious than that of Jews of inferior stature. He considers this another proof of the greater vitality of the " Ar3'an " element among the Jews, particularly be- cause the taller Jews were also of fairer complexion than were the short Jews.- This was not sustained by investi- ^ Otto Amnion, Die natiirliche Aitslese heim Menschcn, p. 134. Tena, - I. I. Pantiukhof, " Semitic Types," Proc. Russian Anthropolog. Society, St. Petersburg, vol. ii., 1S89. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 8g g"ations made by others who have taken measurements of large numbers ot Jews. The present author has found that the contrary is true among" the immig"rants of New York. The shorter Jews have larger chests than the taller ones. It has also been found that among" the Jewish conscripts those who were affected with consumption were taller than those who were healthy. Observations of Jewish consumptives in New York City made by the author show that this condition prevails also here. Consumption appears to select its victims preferably among the taller Jews. Judt thinks that this factor, by a natural elimination of the taller Jews, exerts a great influence on their average stature.^ ^ J. M. Juclt, Die Juden ah Rasse, p 85; Berlin, 1903. CHAPTER V. TYPES OK JEWS. The "indelibility" of the Jewish type — The type of the ancier.t Hebrews — The characteristics of the Jewish face— The artist's conception of the Jewish type — The novelist's conception of the Jewish face — The an- thropologist's conception of the Jesvish type — Prepotency of the Jewish type — The Sephardi type of Jews — The Ashkenazi type of Jews— The Slavonic type — The Turanian type — The Teutonic type — The Mongo- loid type — The Negroid type — Other types of Jews. While all acknowledg-e that the Jewish type cannot be distin Fig. 97. l\. 9S. Figs. 97, 98. — CiiiNiiSK Jkws. Fig. 99. — F.AMII.Y OK CtllMCSK 1 KWS IN K'aI-FiTNC.-FoO. 138 run; jiiws. parts of the continent. Here, instead of being physically Asiatic, as is the case with the Jews of Asia Minor, Fig. loo. — Tunisian Jkw. Central Asia, China, etc., the Jews are of distinctly African appearance. Their complexion varies from white in North Africa to black in Abvssinia. In North Africa there are TYPES OF JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 139 several types of Jews in Morocco, Alg-eria, Tunis, and Tripoli. There are seen there : First, the Sephardim, Fig. loi.— Fat Jewkss in Tunis in Nativk Costume. descendants of the Jews expelled from Spain and Portufjal at the end of the fifteenth century. They do not materially 140 im-: ji.ws. differ from the same class of Jews living: in Europe and Asia Minor, already described. Then there are the in- dii^-enous Jews, who differ in pliysical type, dress, habits, and customs, according- to the reg-ion they live in. In the cities of Alg-iers, Tunis, Oran, Constantine, Biskra, etc , the native Jews are quite interesting from an ethnolog^ical standpoint. They dress almost exactly like the indig-enous Moors, excepting: that the colour of the clothing- is some- what different, and the women do not wear veils. In g-eneral the .A.lg-erian and Tunisian Jewesses are pleasing- ; Fig. 102. — Tunisian Jkwi-.ss. many can even be called beautiful. Their big- black eyes are full of expression, their long black hair and vivacious features give them a charming appearance. But their size is appalling; most of them are rather over than under two hundred pounds, and they have absolutely no shape. But this is in accordance with the Oriental notion of feminine beauty. A young lady who is not fat cannot find a husband. From anthropological investigations of these Jews made by the present author, it was elicited that they are taller than the Jews of Europe, and that only five per cent, have TYPES OF JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 141 fair hair, as against nearly thirty per cent, among' the Jews in Europe. They are dolichocephalic, especially the Fig. 103.— Fat Jewess, Seax, Tunisia. Tunisian Jews, whose cephalic index is 77.56, thus corre- sponding to the type of head among the Mohammedans 142 THE JEWS. Fig. 104. — Jewess in Constantine. of that region of Africa.^ The author was unable to distinguish a Jew from a Mohammedan while passing ^ M. Fishberg, "North African Jews," Boas Aitiiivcrsaiy Volume, pp. 55.63, New York, 1906; Idem, " Beitriige zur Anthropologie der nordafrilcanischen Juden," Zeitschrijt fiir Demographic uiid Statistik der Juden, No. 11, 1905. TYPES OF JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 143 along- the streets of Algiers, Constantine, and Tunis. It is remarkable that among- the non-Jewish natives there Fig. 105. — Tattooed Jewess in Biskra, Algeria. are seen many Jews of negroid type, showing a decided negro infusion. On several of the oases of the Sahara there are manv 1.44 THIC J i:\vs. nomadic tribes of Jewish faith. They are known as " Berber Jews," or " Dag'g'atuns." They are described as a people living' in tents, and in their mode of life, language, dress, habits, and customs resemble much the Fig. io6. — Sahara Jewesses. Tuaregs and other Berber tribes among whom they live. Physically they are hardly to be distinguished from their Mohammedan neighbours, excepting by the colour of their skin, which is said to be somewhat fairer. It is also TYPES OF JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. I45 stated that they do not intermarry with the Tuaregs, althoug-h they are subjected to them.^ The Jews on the oasis M'zab, to the south of Ali^eria, are a very interesting^ type, because they have there been isolated for centuries, having- hardly had any relations with Jews outside this oasis. There they live among- the Berber tribes, dress like their non-Jewish neig-hbours, and are only to be disting-uished from the latter by the ear-locks which they wear and by the fact that the women wear no veils.- Hug-uet obtained measurements of Jewish, Mzabite, Arab, and negro children on this oasis. All have dark hair and eyes. The cephalic index was 72.9 in the Jews, 75.5 in the Mzabites, 77.2 in the Arabs, and 79.3 in the neg-roes. These Jews are thus the most dolicho- cephalic of all that have been measured in any part of the world. The stature and chest measurements of the Jewish children showed that they are below all the other g-roups. The g-eneral type is that of the Mzabites and Arabs, from whom they are hardly to be distinguished.^ The most interesting of the North African Jews are the cave-dwellers of Tripoli and its adjoining districts of Southern Tunisia. From the recent descriptions of Slousch and Hesse-Wartegg we learn that in the rocky fastness of Tripoli and South-Eastern Tunisia, on the slopes of which is the caravan road from the Mediterranean to the Sudan, there are found many Jewish Troglodytes.^ They live in caverns, built three or four stories underground. Wartegg describes several of these buried cities and villages — Beni Abbas, Yehud Abbas, Tigrena Dschebel Iffern, Dschebel Nifussia, etc. — in which the homes, the schools, synagogues, shops, etc., are all underground. The dwellings are hardly visible to the traveller unless his attention is drawn to the crater-like openings which serve as entrances. On entering it is found that these caverns 1 See I. Loeb, Lcs Daggatoitns, Paris, 18S0; K. Mordecai ahi Sarur, in Bull, de La Soc. de Gt'ographic, Dec, 1895. ^ J. Iluguet, " Les Juifs du M'zab," BitlUiin cl Memoiics dc la Soc. if Anthropologic de Paris, V. series, Tome III. ; Paris, 1902. •* J. Huguet, in Revue de P Ecole d'Aii/hropologie ; Paris, January, 1906. -• N. Slouscli, " Heljrieo-Pliceniciens et Judeo-Berbers," Archivts Maroccaiiies, vol. xiv., 190S ; Ernest von Ilesse- Wartegg, "Die jiidischen Hohlenbewohner der nordafrikanischen Sahara," Ost mid West, vol. x., pp. 225-236, 1910. 10 146 THE JEWS. run zigf-zag- fasliioii ten metres in diameter and about the same depth until the dwelHnsj rooms are reached. In eacli cave is ibund a family consistini^ of father, mother, sons and daug-hters with their spouses, children and grand- children, liach pair has its den, which is practically devoid of any furniture. The donkeys, fowls, dogs, and other domestic animals are also sheltered there. Wartegfg observes that apparently this subterranean existence has no deleterious effects on the health of these Jews, because they appear lively, their faces beaming- with large bright eyes. He says that in his opinion these troglodytes are not only Jews by religion, but also by descent, especially the women are of a pronounced Jewish type. " I emphasize this," says Wartegg, "because I found among the Riff Berbers in Northern Morocco a large number of Jews whose forefathers were converted to Judaism manv centuries ago. They hold on to their religion, although physically they are decidedly of the Berber race, having blonde hair and blue eyes." In Abyssinia there is a large colony of Jews called Falashas, who are of pure African type. They claim to have come thither in the retinue of Menelik, the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. They are described as a tall, muscular people, with a dark brown skin, like that of the Abyssinians in general. Their hair is black and frizzly, or woolly, as is also the beard, which they never shave, but only cut with scissors. Many o'i them are black, and have thick lips, which are upturned, and are practically negroes. They speak the same language, live in similar houses, and have most of the habits of life and customs of the non-Jewish Abyssinians, from whom they differ only in religion. It is curious that they not only circumcise their male children, but their female children are also subjected to a similar barbaric operation.^ Of the latest travellers who studied them was M. Faitlovitch, who was delegated by the Alliance Israelite Universelle of Paris to visit them and to report in detail. From his report we quote the following as of interest: — "The Falashas say that they belong to the Jewish race, and are descendants of our ancestors, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Their African colour, their ^ See Flad, Kiirze Schildentng dcr abcssinischen /ti.icii; Konthal, 1S69. TYPES OF JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. I47 more or less dark skin, appears to contradict this relation- ship. However, their fine traits, their strong- intellig-ence, which manifests itself in their physiog-nomy, the obstinate resistance which they displayed during- thousands of vears to the surrounding- population, the persistence of "their religious convictions, justify their pretensions. The nobility of their ori\jiisa,t. of Ih' Ethnological Society, London, vol. i., p. 222 ; 1861. 170 THE JEWS. 1- ).:. I 17. Figs. 117, 118. — I.MER. Caucasus, with Jewish Expression. [Photo, Pmttiiikhof.^ Fig. 119. Tartar from Tut. is, with Jewish rHYsiocNOMv. \Photo, PiuitiiiI:hof.'\ Fi-. 120. Georcwan, Caucasus, with Jewish Physiog.nomy. [Photo, Pa)ttiid-ho/.'\ ORIGIN OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF JEWS. I7I dark, and brilliant. A g-eneral impression of heaviness is apt to be given. In favourable cases this imparts a dreamy, melancholy, or thoug-htful expression to the countenance, in others it degenerates into a blinking-, drowsy type; or, again, with eyes half-closed, it may suggest suppressed cunningness. The particular adjective to be applied to this expression varies greatly according to the personal equation of the observer."^ But that this is a psychic trait, and does not depend on any anatomical peculiarities, is shown by the fact that it is only met with among the Jews in the Ghetto or their immediate descend- ants. Jews who have been out of the Ghetto for two or more generations do not have this peculiarity. Among the Jews in the southern states of the United States, or among the native English, Italian, French, or Scandinavian Jews, only a few are found with this Ghetto expression of the eyes. Professor Schleich, speaking of the Jewish type, says that it is more of a functional character than a formative. It depends more on the soul of the in- dividual than on his morphology. The activity of the muscles of the face, due to mental anxiety, arterial tension, deposition of fat in various parts of the face, are greatly influenced by the above conditions; and, finally, all those things which depend on the psychic state of the individual. He also shows that it depends more on imitation or mimicry, children acquiring the Jewish expression by imitating their parents, than on heredity.- "Continued hardship, persecution, a desperate struggle against an inexorable human environment as well as a natural one, could not but write its lines upon the face," says Ripley. "The impression of a dreary past is deep sunk in the bodily proportions. . . Why not in the face as well?"-' This explains why the peculiar Jewish expression dis- appears in Jews who have been out of the Ghetto for a few generations. The so-called " Jewish " cast of countenance is a pheno- menon not exclusively met with among Jews. It is seen among various races and peoples in different parts of the ^ Wm. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, New York, 1S99, p. 396. '^ C. L. Schleich, "Jiidische Rassenkopfe," Ost unUWest, vol. vi., 1906, pp. 227-239. ■* Win. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, p. 397. 172 THE JEWS. globe. It is no more a siij;'n that its possessor or his parents have worshipped in the synag'Oi^-ue than blondeness is proof that one is a German or than brunetteness is proof that one is an Italian. The "Jewish" type has been met with among various races, among many nations, and in places where one would least expect Jewish influence. In fact, it seems to be ubiquitous, met among peoples among which Jews have never lived. All interested in the Bible know how assiduous some theologians have been in their search for the "Ten Lost Tribes." In their zealous Fig. 121. Fig. 122. Figs. 121, 122. — BAICAIRI INDIAN WITH JEWISH CaST OF Countenance. {Front a Photo by Ehrcitrciih.\ search for these Lost Tribes of Israel, students of the Bible, missionaries, and dilettantes, have positively identified nearly every nation on the habitable globe as descendants of these mysterious tribes. Successive investigators have discovered that the English, the Irish, the Basques, the Spanish, the Franks, the Hunns, the Romans, the Greeks, the ancient Peruvians and Mexicans, the dead peoples of Central America, the Japanese, and many others are the descendants of those carried by Shalmaneser into a distant land. Many Biblical quotations are cited in support of the positive identification of each and every one ORIGIN OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF JEWS. I73 of the above-mentioned peoples as being" "Jews." That they "look like Jews" goes without saying. Recently the theory that the Japanese are the true descendants of these ubiquitous tribes was revived. Some similarity between Shintoism and Judaism is shown to exist, and the Scriptures and Japanese traditions and customs are stated to conjoin to prove that the Japanese are the real Fig. 123. — Japanese with Jkwish Physiognomy. (From Hutchinson's Ixmes of Mankind.) \^Photo by Afessrs. Kajima nyc/o/u(//ii, vol. xii. , pp. 249- 253- - Loc. cit. ^ F. Ratzel, Volker/cundc, \o\ ii , p. 8; Leipzig, 1SS7. * Von den Sleinen, Unter den Natii)vi?lk€ni Zeutralbrazilieiis, fig. 16. ^ T. L. Pennell, Among the Wild Tribes of the Indian Frontier, p. 32, London, 1909. ORIGIN OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF JEWS. 1 75 Afghanistan and Baluchistan it is said: "In physiog- nomy there is a striking resemblance, both possessing a decidedly Jewish type of countenance."^ Of the Hindus of Kashmir it is stated that "the men are of a square, herculean build, well proportioned, and with a frank ex- pression, while the women are fresh looking and often decidedly beautiful, with an almost Jewish cast of Fig. 124.— llovA OK Tananarivo with Jewish Cast ov CoUNTENANCK. \^Photo by CoUignon.'\ (From Deniker's Races of Man.) countenance.- It is well known that the old Incas frequently presented Jewish facial features. Stratz says that he can testify from personal experience that he encountered fine Jewish faces among the noble families of Java, and also among the old German and old French aristocratic families, and again among the old Netherland patrician families. He also points out that Ml. N. Hutchinson, The Living Races of Mankind, p. 212; New York, 1902. ''■ Ibid, p. 196. 176 THK ji:\vs. among' the many busts of Cajsar not a few are seen which present a Jewish countenance, and shows that various writers have found the same "Semitic" type among Japanese, North and South American Indians, Papuans, Todas, Indonesians, Negroes, Incas, Javanese, Germans, Frenchmen, and Dutch. Particularly often is this type met with, in a more or less striking manner, in old noble families.' He agrees with Ten Kate, who considers these Jewish traits as an isomorphism — i.e., as physical peculiarities which are met with everywhere, and they are not at all a racial trait, but common to all races, like, for instance, red hair. It must be emphasized, again, that there is not any single part oi the anatomy of the Jew which marks him as a follower of Judaism, or determines any other person as being of the " Jewish " type. This is not peculiar to the Jews. No other race or people can be judged by any single physical criterion. Galton, speaking of features, says: — "The general expression of a face is the sum of a multitude of small details, which are viewed in such rapid succession that we seem to perceive them all at a single glance. If any one of them disagrees with the recollected traits of a known face the eye is quick at observing it, and it dwells upon the difference. One small discordance overweighs a multitude of similarities, and suggests a general unlikeness ; just a single syllable in a sentence pronounced with a foreign accent makes one cease to look upon the speaker as a countryman."' Watching an artist painting a portrait, Galton calculated that 24,000 separate strokes of the brush, or separate traits which each stroke attempted to bring out, were necessary to complete the portrait, to bring all the features out com- pletely.- It is easily understood that most of these features are not of an anatomical nature, but rather functional. They are, consequently, not hereditary. I am inclined to agree with Ripley to the effect that the physiognomical type of the Jew is a product of artificial selection. It appears that many other groups of people, who for one reason or another have been isolated for centuries, develop a peculiar cast of countenance. The ^ C. H. Stralz, IVas siiiJJudcn, pp. 25-26; Wien, 1903. " Francis Galton, Inquiries Into Human Faculty and Its Development, pp. 3-4 ; London, 1907. ORIGIN OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF JEWS. I77 Basques, as Ripley points out, "by long- continued and complete isolation and in-and-in breeding;- primarily en- g-endered by peculiarity of language," have developed a type differing- from that of the French and Spanish among- whom they live. " It is easy to conceive of artificial selection in an isolated society, whereby choice should be '^.^jIB^^^Bla-^ \ •-^«;? ^ 1 -.f^. Fig. 125. — VORO COMKO, FAIRLY rUKE FULAH OF Kayor (Futa-Jallon), wnit Jp:\vish Cast OF Countenance. YPholo by Co/ligiioi!.'\ (From Deniker's A'arts of Miui.) exercised in accordance with certain standards of beauty which had become g-enerally accepted in that locality. . . . A primary requisite is isolation — material, social, political, linguistic, and at last ethnic." ' The Jews have been isolated from the peoples among^ which they lived, in a manner unprecedented among- other civilized peoples. In ^ Wm. Ripley, The Races of Europe, p 204. lyS THE JEWS. addition they were always keenly sensible of their social individuality. They, in fact, kept aloof, and the ideals of their non-Jewish neig"hbours were rarely or never in accordance with their own standard. How could they be expected to idealize anything- characteristic of their tormentors ? They particularly abhorred anything not in conformity with their own ideals of Jewishness, especially concerning- physical appearance. To the strictly orthodox Jew in Eastern Europe, a strong- muscular person is an Esau. The ideal of a son of Jacob was during the centuries before the middle of the nineteenth century, "a silken young man." This was a delicate, anaemic youth with flabby muscles and above all with a Jewish facial expression. A young man of well-developed physique, of blonde com- plexion and non-Jewish appearance, one who " looked like a Goi (Gentile)," stood less chance to be acceptable to the parents of a young Jewess than the proverbial " silken young man." This is true even to-day of the sect of Chasidim in Galicia and Poland. Such a conception of the ideal of physical beauty could not but have a strong tendency to perpetuate the Jewish type, and by in-and-irr breeding accentuate it. The fact that among many Jews who have left the Ghetto, who are no more isolated from the general population, and whose ideal of beauty is about the same as that of their non-Jewish neighbours, this peculiar cast of expression disappears, as has already been stated, is also proof of artificial selection being an im- portant factor. In Western Europe and America there is at the present a strong tendency in the opposite direction. Many Jews are proud of the fact that they do not look like Jews. " If you want to compliment a Jew," says Israel Zangwill, "tell him that he does not look like one. What a depth of degradation for a people to have reached ! "^ Considering this, it must be acknowledged that there is hardly a glowing future for the so-called "Jewish" cast of countenance. ' Israel Zangwill, " Zionism and East Africa," The Menorah, Dec. 1904. CHAPTER VIII. PROSELYTISM AND INTERMARRIAGE AMONG JEWS. The Jewish race — Mixtures during the period of consolidation of the Hebrews — Intermarriage of the Patriarchs and Kings of Israel with other races — Intermarriages during the Babylonian captivity — Ezra's admonition about the purity of the race — Intermarriages during the Greco-Roman period of the Jews — Extent of proselytism — Graelz's and Reinach's estimate of the extent of intermarriage and proselytism of the Jews during that period — Intermarriages prohibited by Church edicts — Intermarriages in Gaul and Spain — In Slavonic countries — The Chozars — Origin of the Eastern European Jews. While speaking- of the various types of Jews in the preceding- chapters it was briefly indicated that the origin of some types is due to intermixture with races and peoples with whom they came in contact. Some writers have stated that the history of the Jews is ag-ainst any such supposition, because Judaism is an exclusive relig-ion, and also that the laws of most countries where they lived prohibited intermarriag-e, while proselytism was always discourag-ed by the Jewish law. This is, indeed, the crucial point in the anthropolog-y of the Jews: are they of pure race, modified more or less by environmental influ- ences, or are they a religious sect composed of racial elements acquired by proselytism and intermarriage during their migrations in various parts of the world ? In other words, are the various types of Jews the result of diff"er- ence in viilicn, or are they due to the admission of non- Jewish blood into the fold of Judaism? As far as our present knowledge of the origin of racial traits can teach us, we know that the ynilicu cannot change dark hair into blonde, or the reverse, nor can a residence in any country transform a hook nose into a snub nose, or a long head become round by a change of climate. Somatic traits are known to be influenced only by heredity. The negroes in the Western States of North America bring 179 i8o THE JliWS. forth only black children as lontf as no mixture with whites takes place ; the offsprin*^ of the blondes in the southern states are of fair complexion ; the children of the Eng'lish immi> . - - 1900-04 4. CO 4.71 8.71 ,, - - - 1905-07 4-38 4-55 8.93 Elsass-Lorraine - 1905-06 7-05 3-30 10.35 Hesse 1 906- 07 4.42 3-87 8.29 Baden 1903-05 5.21 4.00 9.21 Hungary 1 895 -1 904 3-03 3-i8 6 20 ,, - - - 1908 4-93 4-38 9-31 Copenhngen 1880-90 55-17 ,, - - - 189I-I9OO 71.07 ,, - - - 1901-05 96.05 Berlin - 1875-79 1643 1964 36.07 ,, - 1895-99 13-07 21.05 34- 12 .. - - - - 1905-06 18.65 25-40 44-05 Breslau - - 1905 725 6.52 13-77 Munich 1891-95 13-33 20.00 33-33 )i - - - 1 896- 1 900 10.00 27.50 37-50 >i ■ " ■ 1901-05 13.46 17-31 30.77 ,, ... 1906 08 15-27 22.13 37.40 Hamliurg - 1905-06 26.37 34.82 61.19 Frankfort - 1905-06 10.87 12.42 23.29 ,, - - 1907-08 12.54 12 22 24.76 Charlottenljurg - 1905-07 11.62 23.26 34-89 Brandenburg 1905-06 1 v8i 24.15 3996 Budapest 1896-1900 7.22 6. 1 1 13-33 ), ... 1903-04 8.22 8.84 17.06 ,, ... 1907 7.78 10.62 18.40 Trieste I 887- I 903 36.01 Vienna 1906 12.97 Bucharest - 1904-05 2.89 0.83 3-72 Amsterdam - I 899- I 903 12.22 " " ' " 1904-08 ""■ 10.30 igS THE JF.WS. from 1880 to 1S90 the percentai^-e was only 55.17; it rose to 71.07 per cent, during- 1890 to 1900, and from 1901 to 1905, inclusive, there were 76 pure and 73 mixed, both classes about equal.' Similar conditions are reported in other Scandinavian countries. In Sweden, according- to Samter, the number of mixed marriag-es exceeds the number of pure Jewish marriagfes.- In former years, we are told by Salomon, the Rabbis revolted and refused to solemnize mixed marriages or to admit the children born to such couples into the fold of Judaism, but of late years the Jewish community authorized several physicians to ^"yg- 134- American Jew. ^\- 135- American Jewess. circumcize such new-born bo3's. But as will appear later very few such children are in need of this operation, because most of them are baptized at birth. The statistics of the German empire are particularly reliable in this reg-ard, because they have been collected for many years with g-reat care, with a view to elicit the deg-ree of assimilation of the Jewish population. During- the seven years 1901-1907 there were contracted in Germany ^ Cordt Trap, "Die Juden in Kopenhagen nach der \'olkszahlung von 1906," Zeitschr. Demogi-aphie laid Statistik der /udcit, pp. 97-101 ; 1907. - N. Sa.mi.er, Jtt /tntaii/en im igjahrhtindert, p. 82; Berlin, 1906. MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. IQQ 27,672 marriag-es between Jews and Jewesses and 5,300 between Jews and Christians. The mixed marriag'es con- stituted consequently 19.15 per cent, of the pure Jewish marriag'es ; nearly one marriag^e out of five was contracted with a non-Jew. It was also found that 8.86 per cent, of all the Jewesses and 10.29 per cent, of all the Jews in that country married Christians during^ these seven years. In other words, every twelfth Jewish bride and every tenth Jewish bridegroom married a Christian. The Jews in the various states of Germany have different proclivities in this respect. In Prussia a very large number marry Christians. Statistics are available here for 33 consecutive years, since 1875, when this sort of marriag'es was legalized. The growth of the proportion of mixed marriages has been remarkably steady. The proportion of mixed marriages has more than doubled within these 33 years, and still keeps on increasing. The absolute number has also doubled. During 1875 to 1879 ^^^^ average number of such marriages was 239, and in 1908 the number was 742; while the number of pure Jewish marriages has diminished from 2,675 i" ^^75 to only 2,623 ^" 1908, notwithstanding the fact that the Jewish population has somewhat increased during that period. The larger num.ber of these marriages in Prussia are contracted in the city of Berlin, where the proportion is about double that observed in Prussia. Here the increase was as follows: — In 1875-1879, 36.26 per cent., while in 1905 it was already 44.4 per cent, of the pure marriages. During the last-mentioned year 17 per cent, of all the Jewesses, and 27 per cent, of all the Jews who entered matrimony in Berlin married Christians. In other words, every fourth Jew and every sixth Jewess married outside of their faith. ^ Conditions are similar in Hamburg, where the increase has been as follows during the three years 1903-1905:— Husband Wife rj, . , Cnrislian. Lnristian. 1903 23.64 17.27 40.91% 1904 ... ... 26.47 23.53 50.00 1905 ... ... 25.00 33.65 60.65 ^ See A. Ruppin, " Die Mischehe," Zeiischr. f. Dcmograph. Statistik dcr JuJen, pp. 17-23; 1908. Idem., Die Jtiden der Gegenwart, pp. 78-96. 200 THE ji:\\s. The condilions here are about the same as in Scan- dinavia. In other German states the proportion is not so g'reat as in Prussia or Hamburg-, but still there is every- where shown a decided tendency to intermarriage. In Bavaria the increase has been from 3.86 per cent, in 1876-80 to 10.26 in 1905, and in Hesse from 0.5 per cent, in 1866-70 to 7.33 in 1901-04/ and even 10.30 per cent, in 1905. In Baden the percentage was, during 1903-05, 9.2, and in Elsass-Lorraine, during the same period, 8.2 per cent.'-' It is remarkable that even in the most orthodox Jewish communities, where mixed marriages would be least ex- pected to occur, there are evidences that the tendency is in this direction. Thus, in Amsterdam, where up to about fifty years ago hardly any Jew ever married out of his faith, there are to-day quite a considerable number of such unions. During 1899-1901 the mixed marriages constituted 9.45 per cent., and during 1902-03 the pro- portion increased to 15.08 percent. — i.e.^ one out of six Jewish marriages was contracted with a Christian.-' In Austria, as has already been intimated, mixed marriages are prohibited. Jews who want to marry Christians have to proceed in a roundabout way: one of the couple either joins the religion of "the other, or declares himself a Freethinker. While in Austria the number of marriages of Jews with Freethinkers is comparatively small, conditions are different in the city of Trieste. Between 1887 and 1903 there were contracted 472 marriages between Jews and Jewesses, and 170 between Jews and Freethinkers — i.e.^ the mixed constituted thirty-six per cent, of the pure Jewish marriages. This does not, however, give a complete picture of the state of affairs. Many mixed couples both declare themselves as Freethinkers, while in other cases one accepts the religion of the other. "This shows that, like ^ J. Thon, "Die Beweguncj der judischen Bevolkerung in Bayern, etc.," Zeitschr. fiir Demographie tiiui Statist, der Judeit, No. 8, 1905; Knopfel, "Stand und Bewegung der judisch. Bevolker. in Hessen," Ibid., No. 6, pp. 81-85, 1906. '■^ Calculated from figures given in the Zeitschn'/t fii> Demographic und Statistik der JudcH, No. 4, 1905; p. 158, 1906; p. 79, 1907. •* Statistisch Jaarhoek der Geuieeitte Aiiisteniain, vol. viii. ; Amsterdam, 1905. There was a decrease during 1904-08 to 10.30 per cent. (Statistiqiie Anmtelle, Amsterdam, 190S. ) MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 201 Denmark and Australia, the integrity of Judaism is here in danger."^ The conditions in Hungary, while not as acute as in Trieste, are also interesting- in this respect. In that country mixed marriages were not permitted until 1895, when they were legalized. Since then they have been growing in frequency and were 9.31 per cent, in 1908,'- and in Budapest the proportion even reached 18.40 per cent, during 1907. Even in Roumania, where the social and intellectual conditions of the Jews have remained rather backward, there are mixed marriages contracted. Most of them are contracted in Bucharest, Fig. 136. — RrssiAN Jkwisii Rabui. Slavonic Type. Fig- 137- Caucasian Jew. where during 1904-05 3.52 per cent, of the pure marriages were mixed. -^ France and Italy publish no denominational statistics, but it is well known that intermarriages between Jews and Christians are very prevalent there. In France it has been said that most of the Jewish rich families iiave ' Zcitschrift filr De/nographie tiitJ Sfatistik der /udcH, pp. 60-61 ; 1907. '" L. Schick, " Eheschliessungen zwischen Juden und Christen in Ungarn," Zeitschrift fiir Deino,^raphic und Sta/isiik der Jtidcn, No. 4, 1905. He shows that during the nine years 1895 to 1903, 3,590 Jews married Christians in Hungary. •* A. Ruppin, " Die Bewegung der jiidischen Bevolkerung in Rumanien," Zeitschtift fur Dernographie und Statistik der Juden., p. 12, 45-46; 1907. 202 THE JEWS. intermarried with the decadent aristocracy of that country. Indeed, Jewish heiresses in various European countries iiave often married with men of the highest grade of nobility, and some have stated that the majority of the mixed marriages are of this nature — i.e.^ somewhat like the marriages of American heiresses with European nobility. This is decidedly not the case with the bulk of mixed marriages. The fact that more Jew-s marry Christian women than Jewesses marry Christians is good proof against this statement.^ Conditions in Italy are most interesting in regard to the assimilation of the Jews. It has been stated by many who are well informed that there is hardly a Jewish family in that country with no Christian relatives through intermarriage. The number of mixed marriages is said to be much in excess of the number of pure Jewish marriages. In English-speaking countries conditions are about the same as in Western Europe among the native Jews. Although the immigrant Jewish population of London do not marry with Christians as often as the native Jews do, still such unions are not as rare as is generally supposed, and the number is growing.- The Spanish and Portuguese Jews in England have practically disappeared ; they were absorbed through intermarriage with Christians.^ In New ^ See table on p. 197. This phenomenon is not peculiar to the Jews. In the United States intermarriages between aliens and natives are mostly contracted between foreign-born men and native women. Among five million children who had but one parent native-born, it was ascertained by the census of 1900, that in two- thirds it was the father who was an alien. Ripley attributes it to the ambition to rise among men, tending inevitably to break down racial barriers. The woman is always the conservative element in society, and tends to cling to the old ways long after they have been discarded by the men. The result is, that in inter- mixture of various peoples, it is more commonly the man who marries up the social scale. Even colour lines are more often crossed by men ; more negroes have white wives than white men coloured wives. See Wm." Z. Ripley, "The European Population of the United States," Jotinial Royal Aiithivpol. liisiiiittc, vol. xxxviii., pp. 221-240, 1908. - I believe that the decrease of the number of Jewish marriages recently observed in England is in a great measure due to this cause. •^ The orthodox Jews have recently been alarmed at the increase of this sort of marriage in England. Th.e Chief Rabbi preached a special sermon admonishing his flock : " Be steadfast in your separateness, so that your wedded state may bring you true happiness," Jewish Chronicle, pp. lo-li; September 27th, 1907. MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 203 South Wales, where denominational statistics are pub- lished, it was found, while collecting- the census statistics of 1901, that of all married Jews, 781 were married to Jewesses, and 360 — i.e., 46.1 per cent., were married to Christians.' In Western Australia 157 Jews married with Jewesses, and 62 married Christians ; again, 39.5 per cent, of Jews were married to Christians. Intermarriag-es between Jews and Christians were already quite common in the United States in colonial times. According- to Hollander, the well-known " Ye Jew doctor," Jacob Lumbrozo in Maryland married a Christian woman about 1660.- Dembitz shows that "there is no frequenter of the synag-og-ue who either lived in Kentucky or whose ancestors lived there before 1836," and he g-ives as a cause that the early Jewish settlers disappeared through intermarriage with Christians, " and the de- scendants of the early settlers are known only by their Jewish family names and their Oriental (?) features." •'' One has to read detailed accounts of several Jewish families in New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Mas- sachusetts, etc., to be convinced as to the extent of mixed marriages in pre-revolutlonary times ; the reason for the disappearance of the Sephardi Jews is then evident.^ This process can be seen now with the German Jews, who are frequently marrying out of their faith. There are even Rabbis who are not loath to officiate at such unions, although the strictly orthodox condemn them. For lack of denominational statistics it is impossible to state accurately the number and proportion of this sort of marriage. It is, however, known to be very common in the Western and Southern States, and less in the Eastern States. Rabbi George Zepin, the director of circuit preaching of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, estimates that in the northern part of the United States five per cent, is the maximuni proportion of mixed marriages, while in the south the proportion ranges ' Results of Census of Nc'v Soiilh IVa'es, Part V., p. 449; 1901. - Ptiblications American f elvish Historical Socie/y, vol. i., )i. 29. " Ibid., pp. 99-101. -* See for details, Publications American Je'vish Historical Society, vol. '•' PP- 57-58; vol ii., p. 91 ; vol. vii., ji. 43; vol. .\ii., jip. 6S-69 ; vol. vi., pp. 92-93. 204 THK JliWS, between twenty and fifty per cent., thirty-three per cent, beinj;- the mo.st nearly correct. Similarly, an investig'ation made by the Superintendent of the Jewish Orphan Asylum in Cleveland revealed that the g"raduates of that institu- tion are very much prone to marry Christians: 175 g'irls and 122 boys were married ; of the boys ten and of the gfirls twenty-four are married to Christians.^ Fig. 138. — Daghestan Mountain Jiiws. IPhoto, A'lirJoff.] There are no available statistics as to the frequency of intermarriag-es in New York City to-day. They are not so rare as is generally supposed. A Rabbi informs me that he is often called to circumcize children born to such parents. Curious as it may appear, it is not of very rare occurrence for the Christian woman to embrace Judaism in order to obtain permission from the parents of the man 1 Amerhan Israelite, p. 4; October iSth, 1906. MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 205 she loves, while occasionally a man even submits to circumcision for this reason. In a Jewish hospital, located in the east side of the city, I have myself witnessed this operation performed by a Mohcl, in the presence of physicians, thus initiating a Christian into the fold of fudaism, and incidentally making- him acceptable to the parents of ihe Jewess he long-ed for. Many such cases are met with by the Mohalivi. One informs me that he circumcizes two to three adults a year, and many more children born to mixed parents. But the vast majority of mixed marriages taking place in New York City are devoid of any of these ceremonies. Most of them are satisfied with a civil ceremony, while the rich have either a Rabbi or a Christian clergyman. From the facts and figures just presented it appears that the Jews do intermarry with people of other faiths in every country where the law permits such unions. The assumption of many authors that Jews and Christians refrain from intermarriage because of an inherent racial antipathy existing between the Aryan and the Semite is disproved by the large number of mixed marriages in Western Europe, America, and Australia.^ All the facts go far to prove that the main reasons why they have not intermarried to any large extent during medieval times, and even as far as the middle of the nineteenth century, were the opposition of the state laws and the difference of religious belief. Even to-day, in countries where the law does not permit such marriages, as, for instance, Austria, and especially Russia, intermarriages are next to im- possible. Both the Church and the Synagogue are against mixed marriages. Not only has the Church prohibited intermarriage with Jews, ^Iohammedans, and heathens, but even the adherents of the different Christian denominations have thus been enjoined. Moreover, in the past and to-day in Russia, the Church could enforce such ' Andree says : " It is impossible for Jews to mix completely with other peoples" {Ziir Volkskiindc dcr Jitdcii, p. 56). The German philosojjher, l-Aiuard von Hartmann, also says that no intermarriage takes place between Jews and Christians, because of the instinctive repulsion existing between the Semites and Aryans, although he is of the opinion that such inter- marriage would prove beneficial ior the Jews, and more so for the Germans. —See Das Jitdcnthum in Gcgcmvart itiid Zukioift, pp. 6-28; Leipzig, 1885. 206 THE JEWS. a prohibition in unmistakable terms.' It must be recalled that in the beg-inning- of the nineteenth century inter- marriagfes between Catholics and Protestants were comparatively rare in Europe and America. It was only with the chang^e of conditions characteristic of our age, with the spirit of toleration which has become dominant in some countries, that intermarriages have become more or less frequent in those countries. That relig^ion is often a bar to intermarriag'e can be seen from statistics published in some countries on the subject of intermarriage between the followers of various religious denominations. In Hungary it appears that the Unitarians are more apt to marry persons of other denominations than the Protestants, Catholics, or Jews. The percentage of mixed marriages in 1903 was as follows: — Unitarians, 167.73; Protestants, 49.39; Reformed Church, 48.5-2; Greek Catholic, 42.79; Greek Oriental, 16.88; Jews, 7.21.'^ Here it is seen that two factors are determining the frequency of intermarriage : the degree of religious toleration and the number of persons who profess the religion. The Unitarians, who are only .few in Hungary, must search for mates among the majority who follow other creeds ; they are also the most tolerant religion, nothing is consequently in their way to marry out of their faith. There are more mixed than pure marriages among them. Next come the Protestants, with nearly fifty mixed to one hundred pure marriages. The large proportion of mixed marriages among the Greek Catholics is due to intermarriage with adherents of the Roman and Greek Oriental Churches ; comparatively few marry Protestants. The Jews and Roman Catholics have the lowest percentage of mixed marriages in Hungary, because their clergy does its best to oppose such unions. In the capital of that country, in Budapest, where the Rabbis are not exerting as great an influence on the Jews, who are on a higher ^ Angelo Sovia was, in 17 12, arrested in Turin and sentenced to seven years on the galleys, because he married a Christian woman and had two children with her. — Allgcmeine Zcititng des Judenthuins, p. 678; 1867. In Vienna such a marriage, contracted in New York, was declared void by the court when the parties returned to their native land. — A'ciie Frcie Presse, p. II ; May 22nd, 1906. ^ Compiled from figures given in the Ungaiisihes Statist, fahrbiuh, 1903- MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 20/ economic and intellectual plane than their co-religionists in the province, the rate of intermarriage is more than double, reaching 18.4 per cent, in 1907, although it is only thirteen years since they have been legally permitted to marry with Christians. In Germany similar conditions prevail. Of a total number of 468,329 marriages con- tracted during 1901, only 41,014 were between persons of diflferent faith — i.e., only 9.59 per cent, mixed to 100 pure marriages. Among the Jews in that country the percentage of mixed marriages was 16.97 <^Liring that year. This shows a larger tendency to marry outside of their faith than among the Christians in Germany. A study of conditions in the various German provinces in this respect shows that the religion which has the larger following exerts a powerful influence on the minority, and always tends to absorb by intermarriage the few who follow other creeds.^ Intermarriage between persons of different creed is a recent phenomenon ; only one hundred years ago it was quite rare. It is only since civil marriage has been recognized in some countries that such marriages have become possible. In some countries, like Russia, Austria, Spain, Portugal, etc., the civil marriage is not yet recog- nized, and matrimonial affairs are left entirely to the clergy. Intermarriages between persons of different creeds are there not tolerated even to-day. "In no respect has modern civilization acted more beneficently than as a promoter of religious toleration," says Westermarck. " In our time difference in faith discourages sympathy to ^ Detailed stalislics on the subject can be found in II. A. Krose, Koufcssio>is-slalistik Deiitschlands ; Freiburg, 1904. See especially pp. 132-168. Some of the figures are reproduced by the author in the Popular Scit'itw Monthly, pp. 502-505 ; December, 1 906. A somewhat similar phenomenon has been noted among the immigrant population in the United States. The Tenth Census made the interesting deduction that in those portions of the country where a single nationality was numerously represented, as, for instance, the Irish in New York City, there was little intermarriage with other nationalities. But where the nationality was not numerously represented, as the Irish in St. Louis, there was a greater tendency among the men to marry native women, or women of other nationalities. — See R. Mayo-Smith, Stalistics and Sociology, ]ip. 111-112. The same holds true of the Jews in the United States. Only few marry Christians in New York City, while in the Western and Southern Stales intermarriage is common. 208 THE JEWS. a much less extent than it did in former ages."^ In Prussia the number of mixed marriages has quadrupled within the last fifty years, while the number of marriag-es I'ig. 139. — Yemenite Jews. [Photo, Aiiiericaii Co/o//y.] in general has increased only 70 per cent, during that period. In Bavaria the increase has been even more ^ E. Weslermarck, History of Huiiiait Marriage, p. 376. MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 20g pronounced. During^ the first half of the nineteentli century mixed marriages constituted less than three per cent, of the total number, while to-day more than one in ten are contracted between persons of different faiths. All this goes to show that it was not difference in race, or instinctive antipathy between the so-called "Aryan" and "Semite," which kept Jews in former days from marrying w-ith Christians. There were few mixed marriages, excepting clandestinely, among persons of different religion in mediaeval days, when the Church and the Synagogue had full sway over the people. Indeed, before the Church had such great power, intermarriages between Jews and Christians did take place, as can be seen from the instances cited in the preceding chapter about Spain, Gaul, Hungary, etc. To-day again the clergy has been losing its influence in this respect, while the State has not been helping them, and the number of mixed marriages has been increasing among persons belonging to all creeds, including the Jews. The best preventive of intermarriages of Jews is the Ghetto, as has been aptly pointed out by Ruppin. In Galicia, Russia, the East End of London, and the East Side of New York, they are infrequent; but in countries where the Jews participate in the social and economic life of the general population as equals, mixed marriages occur, and are steadily increasing in frequency, as is the case in Prussia, Scandinavia, France, Italy, etc. The largest proportion of mixed marriages in Europe is con- tracted in large cities, as was shown to be the case in Copenhagen, Berlin, Budapest, etc. This is because in large cities the population, Jewish as well as Christian, is less apt to be influenced by the clergy, and there are better opportunities offered for people of different faith to come into intimate social contact with each other. Effects of Intermarriages between Jeivs and Christians. — Intermarriages have been welcomed by many Jews and Christians, who have claimed that they are the best means of solving the Jewish question, which is acute in some liuropean countries. Some have maintained that racial intermixture is of advantage for both Jews and "Aryans," because the fusion of the two "races" will be beneficial by giving the progeny the higher intellectual and moral 14 210 THE ji:\vs. qualities of the original people.' On the other hand, some have discouraged intermarriage. The orthodox have their religious scruples. Others again state that no good can be expected from the children born to such couples; they inherit all the vices of their parents, but hardly any of their virtues. Moreover, it has been stated that most of the mixed marriages are infertile, that a large proportion remain sterile, and that the average number of children born to each marriage is much below the average of pure marriages. In fact, it has been repeatedly stated, as one of the best proofs of the racial purity of the Jews, that intermarriage with "Aryans" produces no progeny. The fertility of mixed marriages has been discussed especially by Joseph Jacobs, who calculated that even if one-tenth of all the Jews and Jewesses married outside of their faith only a little over two per cent, would be left of the original ten per cent, within six generations or two hundred years. Of course, if this was the case, it would tend to show that, in spite of intermarriages, the Jewish race remains pure. It purges itself of all foreign blood in time, and the seed of Abraham again becomes as pure as it was originally. This idea of the infertility of mixed marriages prevailed until, recently, Arthur Ruppin, after a thorough study of Prussian statistics, showed conclusively that there is no real basis for any such assertion. The fertility of mixed marriages in Prussia is not much below that of pure marriages.'-' It is true that, superficially, statistics do show a lower ' Bismarck even said that he favoured inleruiarriages. He tersely ex- pressed the wish to see that "Christian stallions should be mated with Jewish mares." M. Busch, Cm/ Bisi/iairk ti/ni stiiic Lciite, vol. ii., pp. 2i8; Leipzig, 187S. W. T. Stead says: "The Jews are to the human race very much what the pure-bred Arab steed is to the equine world. But whereas the Arab thoroughbred is used freely to improve other breeds of horses, the Jew obstinately objects to be utilized in the same way for the purpose of raising the intellectual level of the human race. lie is afraid, he says, of debasing the purity of his blood. But the Arab strain of blood runs through the veins of a million European horses without impairing the purity ol the desert stock. If half the Jews of the world intermarried with other races the other half would keep the original fount free from debasement" (A't-'icti' 0/ /vcZ-uk's, p. 217, March, 1910). - Arthur Ruppin, "Die sozialen Verhaltnisse der Juden in Deutschland,' Jahrbuchcr fi'ir Nalionaiokotiomie unci Statistik, vol. Ixxviii. , pp. 760-767; Idem, Die Juden der Gegenztart, pp. 78-96. MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 211 birth-rate among' Jews married to Christians than amoni;;- such as are married to their co-religionists. Thus, in Bavaria, statistics of the number of births per marriage during- thirty years may lead one to believe that there is a smaller fecundity among- mixed than among- either pure Jewish or Christian couples^ : — Pure Mixed. Christian. Jewish. 1876- 1900 . - - - 1902 . - - - 1903 - . - . 1905- 1906 - 2.64 4.40 4.31 4. 1 1 3-54 2.20 2.31 2.24 1.58 1.38 2.11 1-37 In Prussia and Hung-ary the same is shown to be the case, while in Berlin the fertility of mixed marriages appears to be even lower. It has also been stated that the number of couples who are completely sterile was much larger among- the mixed-married. Evidence col- lected during- the census of New South Wales seems to substantiate this statement. There 13.41 per cent, of all the Jews married to Jews were sterile, while among- the Jews married to Christians 30.55 per cent, were sterile. The averag-e number of children was 3.48 among- the general population, 4.06 among the Jews, and only 2.01 among Jews married to Christians. - But all these figures are no safe criterion as to the fertility of mixed marriages. They are calculated by a fallacious method — namely, by dividing the number oi' births in a given year by the number of marriages con- tracted during the same year. It is known that only very few of the births during any one year are due to the marriages during that year; the vast majority are born to couples married within the preceding twenty-five years. If the number of marriages would, within reasonable limits, remain stationary, such a division would more or less accurately give us the average marriage fecundit) . ' J. Thon, "Die Bewegung der judischeii HevdlkerunL,' in IJ.iycin," Zcilschr. Dciiio^y. Stat. d.Jiidoi, 1 905, No. 7. '•* Results of Census of New South Wales, 1901, pt. iii., 1902; pt. v. , 1903- 212 THI-: JEWS. Hut as has already been shown, the number of mixed marriages has been increasing steadily in every country considered. It is evident, consequently, that the births of the year considered represent a smaller number of marriages than have been contracted during the year. The smaller fertility of mixed marriages is thus only apparent. We will illustrate this point by figures compiled by Ruppin about conditions in Prussia. During 1901 there were 4.2 births to each Christian marriage, 2.8 to each Jewish marriage, and only 1.8 to each marriage of a Christian to a Jewess and 1.53 to each marriage of a Jew Fig. 140. South Arabian Tew. IPhoto, Hildcbrandt.'] Fig. 141. Samaritan Grand Rabbi. with a Christian woman. But recalling that few of these births were the result of marriages contracted during 1901, but represent marriages for about twenty-five years, we are led to investigate further. In 1876 only 256 mixed marriages were contracted in Prussia, and during the twenty-five succeeding years they increased annually, reaching 455 in 1901. If we accordingly calculate the birth-rate for 1901 on the basis of the average number of marriages during these twenty-five years (i 876-1 901), the result is entirely different. Ruppin shows that the rates calculated by this method are 5.07 births to each Christian MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 213 marriag-e, 2.96 to each Jewish marriage, and 2.5 to each marriage of a Christian to a Jewess and 2.35 to each marriag-e of a Jew with a Christian woman. The differ- ence is thus not much in favour of pure Jewish marriages when compared with mixed marriages. But it must be added that even this does not give a clear picture. In many mixed marriages one of the partners subsequently accepts the religion of the other, or declares him or herself '■'■ Ko7ifessw}islos,''' and the births henceforth are recorded not as the issue of a mixed marriage, but of a pure Christian or Jewish marriage, as the case may be. Many of these births are therefore missing from the official records, thus reducing the number of births from mixed marriages perceptibly. Considering this and, in addition, the fact that most of the mixed marriages occur in cities, where the birth-rates are much lower than in the country, and also that the tendency to a low birth-rate is very strong among the Jews in Western Europe in any case, one is bound to agree with Ruppin that Prussian official statistics do not support the theory that mixed marriages are less fertile than pure marriages. There is very little to be said about the alleged physical deterioration of the offspring of mixed marriages, because it has not been proven by any reputable author.^ Some have attempted to prove the lack of vitality of the offspring from mixed marriages by stating that immediately at birth the chances of such infants surviving is less. It has been stated that the proportion of still-births is much higher among such infants than among infants born to parents who are both Jewish. This would tend to show even an ante-natal unfavourable influence. As a matter of fact, however, the number of still-births in Prussia was found during 1875-99 ^^ follows: — Christians, 3.59 per cent.; Jewish, 3.21 per cent.; and mixed, 3.45 per cent. The rates of the mixed are thus about midway between the pure Jewish and pure Christian. ^ One vvrifer, Marelzki, says that criminality is very cmmon among children born to mixed couples, and he believes that there is a relation between criminality and intermarriage. His main reason is that persons who are as careless about thtir religion as to marry out of the pale of their faith cannot expect to have decent children. Quoted from iramter, _/« Christians married to Jewesses, 1 1. 16. Mixed marriages are thus three to four times more likely to be dissolved than pure marriages. Marri- ages between Christians and Jewesses are more otten dissolved than marriages between Jews and Christian women. That the excessive friction incidental between married couples of different faith is one of the causes of divorce among them, is seen from the fact that marriages between Protestants and Catholics have also a high rate of divorce. In addition it must be recalled that mixed ^ Zeilschrift fiir Demographic iiitd S/aiisU'k der /udai, pp. iio-lii; 1907. 2l8 THE JliWS. marriaj^es are takings place mostly in lars^e cities, where divorces are more common than in small towns and in the country. Another factor which may have an influence is the fact that mixed marriag-es have lately been increasing-, as was shown above, and divorces are more frequent among- couples recently married than among those who have passed successfully several years of marital life. Statistics of divorce among mixed couples for a small number of years are, therefore, likely to be fallacious, and for a long period of years there are no available data. The most noteworthy effect of these mixed marriages is the resulting- diminution of the number of Jews in countries where they are at all common. "The loss sustained by Judaism through mixed marriages," says Ruppin, "is not to be considered a negligible quantity. In 1901, after five years of legalized intermarriage in Hungary, the proportion of children born to mixed parents was 1.23 per cent, of the total number of Jewish births ; in Prussia, after twent3'-nve years of intermarriage, it was found to be 10.47 P^^ cent, (in 1908, even 12.4 per cent.) ; and in Berlin, as high as 15.15 per cent, of all the Jewish births were of mixed origin. Between 1875 and 1902 14,536 children were born in Prussia from mixed marriages." Indeed Ruppin points out that the loss is much greater than the loss sustained through baptism, which is very much in vog-ue in Prussia. He shows that in that country only about 400 Jews are converted annually to Christianity, as against 700 children of half-Jewish blood becoming Christians. Only about 25 Christians are annually converted to Judaism and 75 children of half-Jewish blood are gained by Judaism through intermarriage.^ It is of interest to mention in this connection the enormous sums spent annually by various Christian missions to the Jews, maintained mostly by moneys contributed by Eng- lish-speaking people. It is well known that they meet with little, if any, success. From some reports published it appears that it costs between ;;^6oo to ;^3,ooo for the conversion of a single Jew, which makes a converted Jew a rather costly article. It appears from the figures given above that intermarriages bring much better results for the promotion of Christianity among- the Jews than ^ A. Ruppin, '■'■ Die Jitdcn dcr Gcgcnwart, pp. 92-94. MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 219 missions with their "costly converts,"' who only rarely, if ever, prove desirable acquisitions to Christianity. The ethnic effects of intermarriage between Jews and Christians must not be under-estimated. We have shown that comparatively few of the offspring- born to "mixed" parents remain within the fold of Judaism, — in the long- run hardly more than ten per cent. But it must be borne in mind that the number keeps on increasing and is cumulative. It is consequently to be expected that in the course of years new anthropological types are being intro- duced among the children of Israel. We do not realize on superficial examination the significance of fusion unless it involves the total population of given groups oi people. Professor Franz Boas has calculated that in a population in which two types intermingle, and in which both types occur with equal frequency, there will be in the fourth generation less than one person in ten thousand of pure descent. When the proportion of the two original types is as nine to one, there will be among the more numerous part of the population only eighteen in one thousand in the fourth generation of pure blood. ^ It is thus evident that both the Jewish as well as the Christian populations of the countries in which mixed marriages take place to any considerable extent are bound to show their effects from the anthropological standpoint. When, in this connection, it is again mentioned that in some cities in Europe, America, and Australia the proportion of "mixed" marriages is between twenty-five and sixty per cent, of the number of "pure" Jewish marriages, it is clear that even with the small number of children that are left within the fold of Judaism the Chosen People cannot maintain themselves ethnically in that state of purity which they claimed to date. It will, indeed, be a very fertile field for anthropological study to follow up the new generation of Jews in Berlin, Munich, Copenhagen, Sydney, etc., and watch the effects of this fusion on the number of blondes among them, as well as on the stature, head-form, and other stable physical traits. We know from biology that, as a result of intercrossing of two or more types, no new or middle types are originated as a rule. From investiga- ' Franz Koas, " Race Problems in America," Science, vol. xxix., pp. 839- 849; 1909. 220 THH JP:VVS. tioiis made by Franz Boas on Half-breeds of American Indians' it was evident that they revert to either of the orig-inal types of the parents ; in other words, there is a tendency in the offsprings of red and white parents to revert to either the paternal or maternal type. Investi- g-ations on Eastern Jews in New York City have confirmed the above by showin<^ that, as regards the head-form, there is an alternating heredity, largely a reversion to the type of the father and mother, but also to a remote ancestral type,- We are under the impression that the effects of this law of alternating heredity is responsible for the claim made by several authors that Jewish blood is more prepotent than the non-Jewish/" When among some of the offspring of a mixed marriage the " Jewish " cast of countenance is very pronounced, it is pointed at as a proof of the greater power of survival of Jewish blood, without taking the trouble to find out how many of the other children look like their Christian parent. Indeed, we have read some- where a statement that just as among animals and plants there is by intercrossing a tendency to revert to a more primitive type, so may it be expected that as a result of Jewish-Christian marriages the reversion will be toward the Jewish racial type, which is alleged to be the older of the two. In other words, there will be no progression, but reversion. The alleg'ed "prepotency" of Jewish blood was thus used both by the Jews, who were proud of the superior tenacity of their blood, and by their enemies, who claimed that Jewish survival under such circum- stances was merely a reversion to a more primitive and inferior type. However, all available evidence, quite meagre to be sure, tends to point in the opposite direction. Investigations made on a large scale on Jewish immigrants in the United States show that the taller, the fair-com- plexioned, and the dolichocephalic have more chances to survive and leave a progeny. This is evident from measurements taken of the second and third generation of ^ Verhandl. d. Berliner anthrop. Gesellsih., pp. 367-41 1 ; 1S95. " F. Boas, " Heredity in Head Form," A/ner. Anthropologist^ N.S. vol. v., pp. 406-409 ; " Heredity in Anthropometric Traits," //'/«'., vol. ix., pp. 453-469- ' See p. 99, stipra. MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 221 American Jews. Whether this is due to environmental influences or to a natural elimination of the darker, shorter, and brachycephalic types in the United States is difficult to determine with our present limited knowledge as to the orig-in of these traits in general. It remains yet to speak of the Jewish attitude toward intermarriage. Of course the orthodox are altogether opposed to such unions. They follow implicitly the Biblical prohibition as regards the seven nations of Canaan, " Neither shalt thou make marriage with them ; thy daughter thou shalt not give unto his son, nor his daughter shalt thou take unto thy son."^ From the facts just brought together it is evident that the reason, " for they will turn away thy son from following Me, that they may serve other gods," holds good to-day as it did in Biblical times. Ezra for the same reasons extended this prohibition to all other idolatrous nations, and the Talmud to all Gentiles. A modification of this prohibition was interpreted in cases of converts to Judaism ; when a Gentile says like Ruth : "Thy people shall be my people, and thy God shall be my God." A Rabbi interprets in the Talmud the Biblical law relating to a captive woman not being tabooed provided she " shall bevail her father and mother," as meaning that she shall bevail her ancestral religion. - It is interesting that at some periods of their history Jews were inclined to look at intermarriage without scorn, some Rabbis even going so far as to exclude only the seven nations of Canaan, or idolaters in general, or to condemn only such marriages "by which the offspring is turned into idolatry," while Christians being regarded as "proselytes of the gates" might be permitted to marry with Jews. But here the Church intervened. Emperor Constantinus prohibited such marriages in 339 under the penalty of death, and this prohibition has been repeated at various Church Councils throughout the Middle ages.-* ^ Deuteronomy, vii. 3. - For details see article, " Intermarriage," _/<;t//j7i Eitcydopudia, by K. Kohler. " The texts of the ecclesiastical canons prohibiting friendly intercourse and intermarriage between Christians and Jews are given by I'rof. B. Fcldman, " Intermarriage Historically Considered,"' Ytar Book Criifr. Confr. Amer. A'abh's, 1909, pp. 271-307. 222 THJ: JKWS. In 1807 Napoleon I. convened the Assembly of Jewish Notables, known as the Sanhedriu, with the object of inquiring- into the Jewish view-point on many questions relating to Jews as citizens oi European countries. One of the questions propoOnded by the Government read as follows: "May a Jewess marry a Christian, or a Jew a Christian woman? or does the Jewish law order that the Jews should only intermarry among themselves?" The answer given by the representatives of the Jews, among whom were many great Rabbis of that time, was to the effect that "marriages between Israelites and Christians when concluded in accordance with the civil code are valid, and though they cannot be solemnized by the religious rites of Judaism, they should not be subject to rabbinical anathema [Cherefu).'' Of course the orthodox Jews have never accepted this resolution as binding. But the reform synagogues of Germany have not condemned intermarriage. At its session in Brunsw ick the Rabbinical Conference in 1844 declared that " the marriage of a Jew with a Christian woman or with any adherent of a mono- theistic religion is not prohibited if the children of such issue are permitted by the State to be brought up in the Israelitish religion." While I am convinced that it was the secularization of marriage by the law of Germany that has been the most important factor in popularizing this kind of unions, yet it must be conceded that the Hberal attitude of the Rabbis has also been a factor in increasing the number of mixed marriages in Germany, France, and other countries. The American Rabbis, who follow closely the German reform movement, have for years looked at intermarriages with equanimity, and some have even not refused to officiate at such functions. But the number has of late increased to such a degree that an alarm was sounded in Jewish circles and an agitation started against them. At their conference held in 1909 in New York City, the General Conference of American Rabbis took up the problem for discussion. While many rabbis strenuously opposed intermarriage as threatening the integrity of Judaism, yet the following mild resolution was passed by a large majority: "Resolved, that the General Conference of American Rabbis declare that mixed marriages are MIXED MARRIAGES IN MODERN TIMES. 223 contrary to the tradition of the Jewish religion and should therefore be discourag-ed by the American rabbinate." An amendment to the effect that a rabbi " ought not to officiate " at a mixed marriage was lost when put to a vote. In the discussion it was stated by several rabbis that if a rabbi will refuse, the couple will surely go to a Christian minister, showing that the rabbis are powerless to counteract the tendencies of the times. Indeed, this was the most logical way to look at the matter. American rabbis do not grant divorces and remarry persons who were divorced in the state courts; they do not insist on the restrictions imposed on the Cohanim in the choice of a wife^; they do not insist on the Levirate marriage [Chalisah), the practice of marrying a dead brother's widow, and the like. If intermarriage was not as dangerous for the integrity of Judaism as it practically proves to be, the rabbis would undoubtedly do away with the restriction as they did away with other traditional ordinances. In England, where the synagogue followed strictly the orthodox precepts, the rabbis never countenanced inter- marriage. During recent years the Jewish Religious Union, which declares Judaism essentially a universal religion and its doctrines not merely suited to one race, has not declared in favour of such unions. "We agree with our orthodox brethren in rejecting and deprecating inter- marriage, for the simple and adequate reason that only by this means can Judaism as a distinct and separate religion be preserved," says Claude Montefiore in a dis- sertation on the principles of the religious reform of the English Jews. It is noteworthy that although French Judaism has been strictly orthodox during the nineteenth century, German reform not having had any influence till recent years, still the number of mixed marriages has been very large, as already shown. This again confirms our contention that at the present time religion is power- less to keep the Jews away from marrying with Christians as long as the State does not interfere. But since the final act of the separation of the Church and State of 1905 a reform synagogue has been established in Paris which is very lax in this regard, inasmuch as it permits mixed ^ The plot of Zanpwill's Chi/dirn 0/ the Glwtto is based on this [leculiar Jewish restriction. 224 '^'"'■- JEWS. marriag'cs, makes circumcision optional, has a "solemn service on Sunday," and the like. In Russia, Austria, and the Orient the rabbis need not take any action in this matter, because the laws of these theocratic countries prohibit intermarriag^e between Jews and Gentiles. It is noteworthy that with such laws some statesmen in those regions complain that the Jews will not assimilate. Of course, these legal prohibitions are more effective barriers in the way of fusion than the religious prohibitions. Thus, while practically all the rabbis agree with the American rabbi, Einhorn, that every mixed marriage is a nail in the coffin of Judaism, yet they find themselves powerless to counteract the tendencies of the times, and they submit to the inevitable. Just as they find that it is practically impossible for the majority of the Jews to obey the Sabbath in a country where the majority of the population rests on Sunday, and they therefore have Sunday services in their temples ; just as they find that dietary laws cannot be obeyed by Jews who come in intimate social contact with their Christian neighbours, in just the same manner they acknowledge that social intimacy must often result in intermarriage. Dr. Emil G. Hirsch,! the leading rabbi in the reform movement in the United States, speaking of the problem, points out that intermarriage is inevitable under present conditions ; he says that he cannot agree with the opinion that the increase of mixed marriages will seal the doom of Judaism. He considers Judaism a philosophy of life and an inter- pretation of history, surviving^ without the racial or national substratum of Jewry. He points out that social intercourse between Jew and non-Jew is responsible for intermarriage, and from the standpoint of those opposed to it, anything which prevents social intimacy between Jew and Christian must be regarded as providential. '' Let us cease protesting against our being socially ostracized, against the refusal of private schools to receive Jewish pupils. They who exclude us work for the pre- servation of Judaism. For social intercourse is very apt to result in mixed marriages." ^ E. G. Ilirsch, "An Historic Resolution," Reform Advocate (Chicago), Nov. 27th, 1909. CHAPTER X. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. The alleged superior fecundity of the Jews — Birth rates of Jews in various countries — In Eastern Europe — In Western Europe — The decline in the procreating capacity of the Jews— The marriage fecundity of the Jews in eastern and western countries — Causes of the low birth rales of the Jews —Sex at birth — The enormous excess of males is only apparent — I'roportion of still-births — Illegitimacy among the Jews. Natality. — The vulg-ar errors often made by writers on the racial characteristics of various peoples become evident when a study is made of the demographic phenomena oi the Jews. Most recent authors, drawing- upon antiquated sources of information which deal with conditions in the Ghettoes, assume that the Jews in Western Europe and America are possessed of the same traits. The birth-rates of the various populations in Europe were very high during the Mediaeval centuries, and only began to abate about the middle of the nineteenth century. The death-rates, especially the infant mortality, were high almost every- where. The Jews at that time also had high birth-rates, but their general, as well as their infant mortality, was comparatively low, for reasons which will be stated here- after. Owing to this lower mortality, their natural increase, the excess of births over deaths, was much higher than that of the non-Jews among whom they lived. Moreover, the economic, social, and especially the political conditions of the non-Jewish inhabitants oi various countries, diiler according to the country in which they lived, and according to the social group or caste to which they belong^ed. As might be expected, the demographic phenomena were heterogeneous, do- pending on various social and intellectual factors. With the Jews conditions were different. They were isolated by law from the general population and segregated in 226 THE JEWS. Ghettoes ; their religion, to which they strictly adhered both to the spirit as well as to the letter of the law, was just as strong" as the civic law, often even stronger, in keeping- them apart from their non-Jewish neighbours. These conditions could not but result in a totally dis- similar viilicu, which carried with it as a concomitant demographic phenomena which differed in no small degree from those observed among the Christians. What is of most importance in this connection, and which must always be borne in mind, is that the con- ditions of the Jews in the various countries of Europe were, up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, more or less the same. They were everywhere isolated from the non-Jewish population, engaged everywhere in similar occupations, adhered to their religion with as much fervency in every country to about the same degree, etc. Homogeneity of environment produced homogeneity of demographic phenomena. They were everywhere prolific, their birth-rates were high, their mortality low, and the excess of births over deaths was large almost everywhere. Seeing that these characteristics were evident among Jews in v'arious countries, it was at once explained as a racial trait, as inherent in the Jews to "increase and multiply and replenish the earth. "^ It is also mentioned that ex- cessive fecundity is not a new phenomenon among the Jews, it had already been observed among them in ancient times. In Egypt, "the children of Israel were fruitful, and increased abundantly, and multiplied, and waxed ex- ceedingly mighty; and the land was filled with them."- Those who consider ancient statistics as reliable as those carefully collected to-day, even point to the Biblical census ^ "The demographic phenomena are very favourable among the Jews, as is attested by the investigations of many statisticians. This is to be con- sidered as a characteristic trait of the Semitic race, as against the Aryans, who are less favoured. Not only are the Jews, by virtue of these racial characteristics, able to pr(jsper in climates which are detrimental to the Aryans, but by greater fertility and longer duration of natural life, they multiply much faster." — Schimmer, Statisiik dcs Judcnlhums, p. 5. Andree also speaks of the demography of the Jews as partly differing from that of the Aryans, and says that these difi'erences have been elicited in every country in which sutticient statistical evidence has been collected on the subject {Ziir Volkskiidc dcr Judeit, p. 70). But he bases his opinion on statistics gathered during the first half of the nineteenth century. - Exodus, i. 7. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 22/ according to which Jacob emigrated to Egypt only seventy strong, and after remaining there for about four hundred years the descendants of these seventy persons left the country under the leadership of Moses, their number amounting to 611,730 males over twenty years of age and capable of bearing arms, thus implying a population of over three millions. If a racial characteristic of the Jews, this fecundity should be stable, persistent, and only little if at all in- fluenced by external conditions such as climate, economic and social conditions. Inasmuch as the census offices of many European countries inquire also into the religious belief of the population, it makes it an easy matter to determine whether at the present there are any differences in this respect between Jews and the races and peoples among which they live. On the whole, it must be stated at the outset that from the enormous mass of vital statistics collected during the past century nothing definite has been established as to the influence of race on the birth and death rates. All the evidence indicates that the influence is negative, and that standards of comfort, intellectual, social, and economic conditions are the sole determining factors. Race, per se, has nothing to do with the de- mography of Europe ; and as regards the Orient and the peoples in a state of nature, there are no censuses made among them, so that no opinion can be formed on their birth and death rates. Judging by European conditions, there is positively no race influence to be observed. On the one hand, one would be led to believe that the Teutons have a high birth-rate, when the rates of the peoples in the German Empire are considered. But on the other hand, more than one-half of the population of that country is not at all Teutonic in origin, while in Scandinavia, where the Teutons have preserved themselves in much greater purity, the birth rate is comparatively low, as it is also in England. The Slavonic races in Eastern Europe have a very high degree of fertility, but the differences in the various provinces of Russia, Poland, and Austria are so great as to disprove directly the contention that race is necessarily the cause. In the same manner the differences in the rates in Italy and Southern hVance are striking.. The racial elements are about the same in both countries, 228 THE JEWS. as are climatic conditions, yet tlic birth-rates of Italy are much higher than those of France. These and other examples which are to be observed in Europe and America are definite proof that race has nothing- at all to do with fertility. With such a complex problem, however, it is always best to consider every factor which may have an influence. Inasmuch as it is difficult and often impossible to include every essential factor and to exclude everything which is not essential, when speaking of other races and peoples, the Jews in Europe, owing to their isolation and alleged abstinence from intermarriage with Christians, should offer good material for the solution of the question of the influence of race on fertility. The vital statistics of several countries where the birth, death, and marriage certificates include questions as to the religious belief of the parties concerned, give excellent information on the subject. This is the case with the vital statistics of Russia, Ger- many, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Roumania, Servia, and partly also Holland and Italy. It is to be regretted that in France, England, Belgium, and the United States no such information Is to be obtained from the census and registrars' reports. As is the case with many other alleged characteristics of the Jews, their demography is not uniform in every country. From statistics collected in various parts of Europe it appears that there are just as many differences among the Jews as there are among the various races and peoples of that continent. Those living in Eastern Europe are very prolific, while those in Western Europe and America have quite low birth-rates, and between these two extremes there are Jews who stand in this respect in an intermediate position. In other words, the Jews who live among people with high birth-rates also have the same characteristic, and the reverse. Thus the highest birth- rates recorded among the Jews is in Algeria, where the rate was in 1903, 44-67 per 1,000 population; next to these are the Jews in Bulgaria with a rate of 38.2 per 1,000, while among the Greek Orthodox in that country the rate was 41.4. The Jews in Austrian Galicia are also very prolific, in 1900 their birth-rate was 38.01 (as against 45.85 among the Christians of that country), as are also DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 229 the Jews in European Russia, where the rate during- the census year 1897 was 35.43 and 53.36 among the Greek Catholics, who seem to he the most proHfic people in Europe. Austria with a birth-rate of 33.89 among the Jews in 1900 (Christians 38.01), and Roumania with rates of 36.63 among Jews in 1 897-1902 and 40.72 among Christians, come next. ^ Finally, Hungary also shows high Jewish birth-rates, 30.09, as against 37.0 among the Christians in 1907. It is thus seen that in countries where the birth-rates of the non-Jewish population are high, the same is to be seen among the Jews, although as a whole they are slightly lower than those of the Christians among whom they live. The reason for this will appear later in this chapter. In Western Europe, where the rates among the general population are either low, or have been falling during recent years, the birth-rates of the Jews are also low, in fact lower than among their neighbours. Thus in Hesse their birth-rate was in 1901-04, 19.0, while among the Christians it was 34.0 per 1,000 population ; in Bavaria during 1906 it was, Jews, 18.17, and Christians, 35.91 ; in Prussia, in 1908, Jews, 17.01, and Christians, 32.89; and Bohemia in 1900, Jews, 17.85, Christians 34.88. In some cities the rates among Jews are even lower : Jews. Christians. Berlin (1905) 17-73 25-54 Frankfort-on-Main (1905) 16.19 29 08 Prague ( 1 901) i5-«5 31-31 It is thus seen that every wheie the birth-rates of the Jews are lower than those of the Christians among whom they live. In some countries and cities, like Prussia, Bavaria, Bohemia, etc., they are only one-half as fertile as the Christians. While, as has already been stated, some authors consider the Jews a very prolific race, there are other authors who speak of the lower Jewish birth-rates as a racial peculiarity, common to all Jews living in different countries, and having a definite physiologic or ethnic basis as its cause. Instead of looking into the social environment, which is the most potent factor in the reduction of the birth-rate of most European peoples, ' A. Ruppin, Diejtidcn in RtiinaitiLit, p. 65; Berlin, 190S. 230 Till' JEWS. instead of inquirint,'- into the occupations, standards of comfort, economic prosperity, aj^e at marriaj^e, etc., which would give reasonable explanations of this phe- nomenon, many writers have been satisfied with "race" as a satisfactory interpretation of conditions. But the figfures cited above directly disprove the ethnic theory of the low birth-rates of the Jews. If it was a physiolog'ical characteristic of the Jews, we should expect that the rates in every country would be about the same. As a matter of fact, however, there are wide limits of variation, as wide, in fact, as for the whole population of Europe, extending as they do, from 44.67 per 1,000 population, in Algeria, to as small a rate as 15.85 in the city of Prague. Ethnic conditions are never known to display such wide limits of variation. An attempt has been made by several statisticians to find some geographical differences in the birth-rates of Europe. Sundbilrg, studying the rates during the entire nineteenth century, finds that 38.2 births took place on the average annually per 1,000 population, but that there were significant differences when Eastern Europe is compared with Western Europe. He calculated an annual rate per 1,000 population for Eastern Europe, 46.1; Western Europe, 33.6 ; South-west, only 32.3; and North- west, 34.7.^ On the whole his calculations are well- founded, although there are some exceptions which are to be attributed to social conditions of a local nature. A careful analysis of the figures given above shows that the Jews, in a measure, follow the rule laid down by Sund- barg, excepting the fact that their birth-rates are every- where lower than those of the Christians. Russia, Poland, Galicia, and Roumania are typical of Eastern Europe, and there the Jews are the most prolific in Europe. As there are no statistics obtainable for the extreme west of Europe, we must consider some Central European countries instead. Taking Bavaria as typical of conditions among Western European Jews, we find here a very low birth-rate, only 18.02 per 1,000 Jews. Amster- dam is intermediate between these two extremes, only 24.82, corresponding roughly to the North-west of Europe. ^ Sundbiirg, Staiis/ika Ofvcrsiktsiabcllcr, ix., SUit. Tidskrift, H. 130, 1904, p. 27S. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 23I For the south of Europe there are no available statistics of recent date, because the census inquiries do not ask any questions about the relig'ious affiliation of the people. It tiius appears that the Jews follow quite closely the rates observed in Europe. The highest rates are observed in the east, the lowest in the west, etc. It is also known that in Denmark the birth-rate of the Jews is very low, corresponding to the rates in the north, and in France it is at least as low as that of the French. In general, it can be stated that Sundb;irg's rule holds as good for Jews as non-Jews in Europe. The fall in the birth-rates among Europeans, which has engaged so much attention of recent years, is also seen among the Jews. Indeed, the decline is much more decided among them than among the Christians. In Poland, for instance, the birth-rate of the Jews was, in 1891, 36.98, sinking in 1901 to 30.85, while among the Catholic population of that city it remained stationary, 41.58 and 41.59 respectively. In Roumania it decreased among the Jews from 40.17 in 1896 to 32.36 in 1902, while among the Christians it actually increased during that period from 41.49 to 42.86 ; and in Hungary also the rate sank from 36.86 in 1891-95 to 28.00 in 1908, and in Buda- pest during 1901-05 it was only 22.8.^ This decline in the fertility of the Jews is remarkable, because it has been taking place in Eastern Europe, where the fertility of the Christian population is very great, and is indicative of great and important changes in the social conditions of the Jews of that region. But in Western Europe the decline in the birth-rates among the Jews is actually appalling. In Bavaria the difference between 1876 and 1906 is nearly one-half against the Jews: — Annual IJirlh-rale. Jews. Christians. 1S76 34-40 4590 1904 ...... 1S.02 3^-.s6 1906 ...-.- 1S.47 35.91 The birth-rate of the Christian population was, in 1906, only 78 per cent, of the rate in 1876, while among the Jews the decline during these thirty years was greater, ' Auerbach, "Die Sterbliclikcil dcr Jiiden in Budapest," Zcitschr. Deniop-. Stat. d.Jiidcii, p. 152; 1908. 232 THE JEWS. sinking- to 52 per cent. That this is not due to any special cause operating- in 1906 is shown by the fact that the rates have been steadily g'oins^ down in Bavaria. The averas^e annual birth-rates were as follow: — 1876-18S0 35.5 iSSS 1S90 - 26.3 IS90-I900 199 1906 18.5 Bavarian Jews are not unique in this respect. In Prussia the decline in Jewish fertility has been much more pronounced. In that country the available vital statistics for eighty-six consecutive years, 1822-1908, show a con- dition alarming- to all who have any reg-ard for the future of Judaism. The rates among^ the Christians weie in 1822-40, 40.01 ; in 1888-92, 37.03 ; in 1908, 32.89. Among- the Jews the rates dropped from 35.46 in 1822-40 to 23.75 in 1888-92 and 17.01 in 1908. The decline among- the Christians has not been very great during- the eig-hty-four years ; the rate was, in 1908, 83.4 per cent, of the rate of 1822-40. Among- the Jews it sank to only 48.0 per cent, ofthe rates in 1822-40; less than one-half the number of children are proportionately born to Jews in 1908 than eig-hty-four years ag-o. This is not specially due to mixed marriages, which are very common in Prussia, as will be seen from the next chapter. In the above figures the factor of intermarriage has been provided for in the following simple manner: — One-half the number of children born from such unions have been credited to Christians and the other half to Jews. This shows that it is an actual decline in the procreating capacity of the Jews in Prussia, as well as in Bavaria, which is responsible for the low birth-rates. The immigrant Jews in London have quite high birth- rates. Dr. S. F. Murphy testified before the Royal Com- mission on Alien Immigration that while the birth-rate has been falling in London it rose in Whitechapel from 35.7 to 39.2 between 1886-90 ; in St. George-in-the-East it rose from 39.9 to 43.3 ; in Limehouse it fell from 35.3 to 33.4 ; in Mile End Old Town it rose from 37.5 to 38.2.^ Dr. ^ Minutes of Evidence, 3957. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 233 Joseph Loane testified to the same effect and showed that the rate of the Eng^hsh hi that district was 31 to 35, and amons^ the Jews it goes up to 48. ^ This is confirmed by the figures in the A?! final Report of the Public Health Committee of the London County Council for the year igo6, which shows that the birth-rate in Stepney was 35.3 in 1906 and 36.7 during- the period 1901-05. Both these figures are the hig^hest recorded in London for the years named. In 1906 the nearest fig-ure to that of Stepney w^as the 34.5 in Bethnal Green, and the next hig-hest the 34.2 in Shorcditch. The Stepney rate com- pares with 17.2 in Westminster and 19.2 in Kensing"ton. A hig-h birth-rate is characteristic of immigrants for various reasons, particularly because they have a hig"her proportion of persons of child-bearing- ages. Among- the native Jews in Eng-land the rates are much lower, probably the same as among- the Christians of the same social and economic status. ^ For the Jews in the United States there are no available vital statistics, excepting- those collected in 1890, and published by Dr John S. Billing-s, containing- information about 10,618 Jewish families, including- 60,630 persons living- in the United States, December 31st, 1889.- From this census bulletin it is evident that the birth-rate of the Jews is only 20.81 per 1,000, which is at least 10 per cent, lower than among- the general population. A fairer means of comparison, however, is the ratio of births with reference to the number of women of child-bearing age present — viz., those between 15 and 49 years of age, inclusive. This rate was found to be 72.87 per 1,000, as against 82.9 in Massachussets and 86 in Rhode Island. During the six years in which this investigation was made by the census officials the rates among the Jews were decreasing perceptibly, showing the same tendency as is being observed among their European co-religionists. It must be mentioned that the majority of the Jews enumerated in the above inquiry were immigrants or children of immigrants. It is well known that among the native Jews of the United States conditions are almost the same as among the native population of Massachusetts. ' l^Iiniitcs of Evidence, 4557-59. - Census Bulletin, No. /y; Dec. 30, 1S90, Wasliinglon, U.C. 234 THE JEWS. Indeed, the large families, in which up to a dozen and even more children wero seen, wliicli were not uncommon among' the Jews of Europe before the middle of the nineteenth century, are almost unknown among" the American Jews. Among the immigrant Jewish population large families are not rare, just as is the case with most other immigrant populations ; but even their fertility is declining. Physicians who practise their profession among the immigrant Jewish population of New York City all agree that its fertility is decidedly on the wane. Those who have been for some time in the United States are only too frequently inquiring as to the best means of "prudentially" limiting the size of the family. In Eastern Europe the same Jewesses have never known of the possibility of doing any such thing. This metamorphosis goes hand-in-hancl with other habits and customs which the Jewish immigrants are acquiring from their American neighbours. From all that has been said, it appears that in no country in the civilized world is there to be seen such a formidable decline in fertility as among the Jews in Western Europe. In Germany the birth-rates among the Christians have, with slight fluctuations, remained about the same since the beginning of the nineteenth century ; since 1S40, the rates have been about 36 births per 1,000 population, and have remained about the same in the beginning of the twentieth century. In some provinces it has decreased, but the decrease was comparatively slight, as in Prussia from 37.8 in 1841 to 36.5 in 1900. The reduction of the birth-rate in Germany is chiefly shown in its great cities, while the rural population has not yet been affected to any great extent. ^ In other countries, like Scandinavia, England, Italy, Austria, etc., the decline has been more pronounced. The most striking decline in the procreative capacity has been observed in France ; there it was 27.3 in 1841-50, and it sank to 22 in 1900. This is considered by statisticians the most appalling decline in Europe. But among the Jews in Western Europe racial self-effacement has been much more pronounced. In Prussia it was in 1906 less than one-half of what it was ' Newsholme and Stevenson, "The Decline of Human Ferliliiy," Journal Koyal Statist. Society, vul. Ixix., pp. 34-S7 ; 1906. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 235 eighty-four years ag"o. In Bohemia, Bavaria, etc., the rates are even lower than in Prussia, only 17 per 1,000 Jews. In lari^e urban centres, like Berlin, Prag'ue, etc., it is yet lower, almost reaching" vanishing" point. The effects of this violent race suicide are evident in the censuses of the Jewish population in those countries. The nun'rber of native Jews is decreasing in rapid strides to an extent unknown in the history of any civilized people. If there were no immigration of Eastern European Jews to the West the future of the Jews in Western Europe would not be an encourag"ing one. They could hardly hold their own as a religious minority. It has been suggested that notwithstanding the low birth-rate the Jews have a higher marriage fecundity or fruitfulness than the Christians. But this is not borne out by facts as recorded in various censuses. When judged by the number of children to a marriage, they show the same characteristics as when the crude birth- rate is taken as criterion. In the Orient and in Eastern Europe their marriage fecundity is very high, while in Western Europe it is low, even lower than among their Christian neighbours. Thus in Bulgaria there were during 1897-1902 5.67 births recorded to each marriage among Jews, while among the Christian population of that country the rate was only 4.68. In Austria it was in 1901, Jews, 5.37; Christians, 4.59; in Algeria in 1903, Jews, 4.74; Europeans, 3. 86 (the native non-Jewish population cannot be compared with the Jews because they are polygamous); in Warsaw, Poland, in 1901, Jews, 4.59; and Catholics, 2.95; in European Russia in 1897, Jews, 4.33; and Greek Orthodox, 5.63; and in Roumania in 1902, Jews, 3.22; and Christians, 2.15. It is thus seen that with but two exceptions the Jews have a higher marriage fecundity than their non-Jewish neighbours. However, in the named countries the native populations are very fertile, while the Jewish rates are also high, but somewhat lower than those of Gentiles. But in Western I-lurope the fruitfulness of the Jews is alarmingly low. In Prussia, where there were recorded in 1905 4. 1 1 births to each Christian marriage, the Jews only had a rate of 2.48. This condition had not been observed among the Jews of thirty ye.'us ago. The following are the figures showing the marriage fecundity 236 THE JEWS. of the Jews in Prussia since 1820.^ It was 4.33 per 1,000 in 1820-30, and 4. 11 in 1905 amoni;- the Cliristians; amoni^ the Jews it fell durini;- that period from 5.19 to 2.48 per 1,000, showinf^ that while the decline in fruitful- ness among- the Christians in Prussia has been insii^nificant during'the mentioned eig-hty-five years among' the Jews it has been reduced to nearly one-half. Similar conditions have been observed among- Jews in other Western liiuropean countries. In Bavaria, the number of children per marriag-e was during 1876-80, 4.75; it decreased during the next five-year period to 4.15; during 1886-90 to 3.49; then a further fall was observed to 3.01 during 1891-95; during 1896-1900 it was only 2.50, and it did not stop here, but kept on sinking till it reached in 1Q04 a rate of only 2. 1 1 births per marriage. Similar conditions have been reported about the province of Hesse and in several other European countries. The traditional large families of the Jews are matters of the past, and are only seen among Jews living in the state in which the forefathers of the Western European Jews lived fifty years ago. To-day in their "march of progress" they have outstripped the Christians in regard to the tendency to " prudentially " limiting the size of the family. Indeed, if their death-rate was not so favourable, as will appear in a later chapter, there would hardly be left any Jews in Western Europe within the next fifty years. The causes of this decline in the procreating capacity of the Jews of W^estern Europe and America are not of a physiological or pathological nature. It is not due to physical degeneration affecting the reproductive powers, or the procreative capacity of the Jewish people. The etiology is the same as the etiology of the decline in human fertility among other peoples in Europe and America. It is mainly due to the late marriages, high proportion of celibacy, and the determination of modern people to improve the standard of comfort in their daily life. With the Jews there are some special causes, which are also seen among others, but which act for various reasons more intensely among the descendants of Israel. ^ A. GoUlscheider, "Die Entwicklung der jiidischen Bevolkerung Prcussens ini 19 Jahrhundert," Zcitschr. Dcmog. tStatistik dcr JiiJcn,^^. 70-75; 1907. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 237 The Jews are city dwellers par excellence, as has already been shown. The fertility of city populations is almost everywhere lower than that of the rural population. The agricultural people of all nations are to-day swelling- the birth-rates of every European country, and in Russia, Austria, the Balkan States, etc., where the proportion of persons eng^agfed in ag^ricultural pursuits is very great, the highest birth-rates are to be seen. The Jews have practically no agriculturists, hence a cause for a lower fertility. It has also been shown that the birth-rate is lowest among the rich, highest among the very poor, and that the mass of the population which lies between these two social extremes occupies an intermediate position in regard to preventive measures taken against conception.^ This is well confirmed by conditions among the Jews. In the Orient and in Eastern Europe, where the bulk of the Jews live in poverty and want, their birth-rate is high, and they are very prolific; in Western Europe, where the majority of the Jews are economically prosperous, mostly engaged in mercantile pursuits and in finance, their birth- rate is low, even lower than that of their Christian neigh- bours. The latter have a higher birth-rate, because among them there are many agricultural and industrial labourers whose high fertility raises the general birth-rate. If Jews in Germany were compared with Christians in that country, who are merchants, manufacturers, professional paople, bankers, etc., there would hardly be any difference between the two groups in regard to fertility. It is absurd to com- pare the Jews with the millions of agriculturists with their high fertility found in that country. The Jews, who are on a high economic, social, and intellectual plane, cannot, according to modern standards of comfort, afford to marry early; and after marriage are anxious to limit the size of the family at all events, for reasons known to-day in every large city. The lack of religious restraint among the Western European Jews is well known. In l^astern ICurope and in the Orient they are intensely religious, and as a result marry earlier, and after marriage know little or nothing about keeping their families within "prudent" limits. It is considered a sin to remain unmarried, an old maid ' Newsliolme and Stevenson, loc. tit. 238 THE JEWS. is considered a disgrace to the family, and sterility is a valid cause for divorce by the Rabbis. The result is that these Jews are having- a very high birth-rate. It is remarkable, however, that when these Jews leave their native country and emigrate to Western Europe or America, where religious restraint is either weakened or, as is often the case, almost entirely lacking, their fertility also declines. As has already been intimated, the methods of prevention of conception are sought for by immigrant Jews, and especially by their descendants, to the same extent as by other peoples living in the United States, and probably more often than by Catholics, among whom religion plays a greater role. The lower birth-rate of the Jews is not then a sign of physical degeneration, but solely due to the practice of artificial prevention of child-bearing. In this they have outdone the Christians, even those of France, where conditions are considered alarming. The outlook for the Jews in Western Europe and America is gloomy; it is a question how long they can hold their own as a religious minority with a low birth-rate which keeps on sinking. Sex at Birth. — The number of boys at birth exceeds the number of girls among nearly all European races and peoples. From an exhaustive statistical study on the subject made by Nichols, it appears that among nearly seven million births in all parts of Europe the average ratio was 1,057 boys to every 1,000 girls born, and that in most countries in Europe the ratios range in the neigh- bourhood of the average. Only in the southernmost countries of Europe is there a decided general tendency toward a much higher ratio of boys, as is the case in Greece, Roumania, Bulgaria, etc. The highest proportion of boys has been found among the Mussulman population of Algeria, 1,191 boys to 1,000 girls. ^ Among the Jews it has been found that in certain countries this excess of male births is more pronounced than among the non- Jewish population. Inasmuch as at the present state of our knowledge we do not know the cause of the preponderance of males at birth, this excess has been ^ J. B. Nicliols, " The Numerical Proportion of the Sexes at Birth," ATcnioirs Amcriian Antliropological Associaliov, vol. i., pp. 247-300; Washington, 1907. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 239 considered a race trait of the Jews. What else can be the cause if not "race" ? The social and physical environment is not known to exert any influence. Some have attributed it to the smaller proportion of illegitimate births, ^ others to the fact that they are mostly town dwellers, and to many other causes which by no means explained the case. From the vital statistics of European Russia it appears that there is a very excessive number of male births reported among- the Jews. During- 1897 there were recorded 121,031 Jewish births, of which 69,089 were males and 51,942 were females, or 1,331 boys to 1,000 girls. But a careful study of these figures brings forth some strong suspicion as to their accuracy. Thus when we examine the various provinces we find great variations. In Taurida the ratio was only 1,016 boys to 1,000 girls ; in Cherson, 1,112; in Poltava, 1,128; while in Wilna it reached the unprecedented ratio of 1,774; '" Grodno, 1,706, and in Minsk, 1,654. In general it can be stated that in the south of Russia the excess of male births is not much larger among the Jews than among the Christians, while in the north-western provinces the excess is enor- mously high. That climatic conditions are not the cause is shown by the fact that the excess is not more pronounced among the Christians in the north-western provinces than in the southern. Two provinces not far distant from each other, like Wilna and Curland, show great diff"erences in the proportion of male births among Jews — 1,774 i" the former and only 1,154 ''^ the latter. Climatic conditions cannot therefore be considered. If the excess of males were really as large as the above figures would indicate, we should expect that the number of male infants below one year of age would also be excessive among the Jews. But from the census statistics of 1897 it is shown that it was only 1,042 boys to 1,000 girls below one year of age. The hig-her mortality of male infants is not sufficient to account for the loss of so many boys during the first year of their life. ' See C. Loml)roso, I.c Crime PoUliijiic ct Ics Kcvohitious, \^A. i., p. 149 ; E. Nagel, " Der hohe Knaljeniiberschuss der ncugchorencn tier Jiuliiinen," Statistischc Monatschrift, pp. 1S3-1S6, 1SS4 ; J. Jacohs, mliclc, " Kirths,"' Jeivish Einyclopadia, vol. iii., pp. 223226. 240 THE JEWS. The only plausible explanation for this apparent excess is that a larg-e number of female births are not reported to the authorities by the midwives and Rabbis, who are expected to register each birth. This finds its explanation in certain features of Jewish life in Eastern Europe. The birth of a boy in a Jewish family is accompanied by im- portant festivals and ceremonials. It is very dani^erous in later life for a boy, who has not been registered at birth : he cannot obtain a passport when he wants to leave his native city; he cannot prove his identity, which is often of vital importance in Russia ; he can be drawn into military service unjustly, etc. All this brings it about that practi- cally all the male births are registered, while a large number of female births is missing from the registry books. A female birth among Jews in Russia is easily overlooked, because among the poorer classes no cere- monial is attached to its appearance. The father merely mentions its occurrence when visiting the Synagogue on Saturday, and the Rabbi confirms the name selected for the newcomer. That this is the true explanation is seen from the fact that in 1893 the ratio of recorded male births among the Jews in Russia was 1,459, while in 1901 it was only 1,295 to 1,000 females, indicating a more complete registration of female births in recent years. If the excessive proportion of male births was a racial trait of the Jews it would be expected that the same phenomenon should be observed among the Jews in all countries. But this is not the case. In Warsaw, Poland, the ratio was in 1897 only 106 boys to 100 girls. Ethni- cally there is hardly any difference between Polish and Lithuanian Jews, still the latter show a ratio of 177 in Wilna, which again confirms the opinion that the excess in Wilna is due to neglect in reporting female births. In Bulgaria also the ratio is excessive, 1,224 boys to 1,000 girls during 1897-1902, but in Prussia, where the reporting of births is more thoroughly done, the proportion was, in 1893-1902, 1,062 (1,059 ^mong the Christians); in Austria, in igoo, it was 1,078 (1,060 among the Christians). In Prague the number of male births among the Jews in 1901 was equal to that of the female births, although among the Christian population there was an excess of males DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 24I amounting to 104. i per oent.^ In the United States the excess ot male births among the Jews was not large, only 103.16, while among the general population of Massachusetts and Rhode Island it is much higher. - It is thus seen that the Jews do not at all differ in this regard from other peoples. Only in countries where the registration of females is neglected there appears to be a larger excess of male births. But this is not the case in countries where the registration is properly done. Proportion of Still-births. — In many works on the demo- graphy of the Jews it has been stated that not only is the Jew more long-lived than his neighbour of other creeds, but even at birth he has already an advantage. Indeed, before his birth he was said to be endowed with a peculiar vitality which renders him less liable to lose his life during parturition. This vitality can only be measured by the proportion of still-births, which were said to be less frequent among Jews than among Christians ; even when only one of the parents is a Jew, the chances of death during parturition were alleged to be somewhat less than when both parents are non-Jews, though not as good as in cases where both parents are children of Israel. All this was based on imperfectly collected statistics of the first three- quarters of the nineteenth century. More recent data on the subject show that this is not the case with the Jews in every country,^ and that only in two out of ten instances are the Jews more favourably situated in respect to the proportion of still-births. Only in Amsterdam and in Frankfort-on-Main is the percentage smaller among them than among the Christians, while in Bulgaria, Warsaw, and Bucharest they have even a larger proportion of still- ' Thon shows that in Galicia and Bukowina, where tlie registration uf girls is as defective as in Russia, the excess of male births also appears high; while in Silesia, Moravia, and Bohemia, where the registration is more or less complete, there is hardly any excess. J. Thon, Die /lulcii in Ocstcirciiii, pp. 23-27; Berlin, 1907. ■■* Census Bulletin, No. 19; 1S90. '^ See J. Segal, "Die Vitaliiat der jiidischen geborenen," Zcitsehr, Deino!^>: Stat. d. [uden, pp. 76-79, 1910. He finds that in two countries, Bavaria and Austria, the vitality uf the new-horn is ahout the same anumg Jews and Christians; in two other countries, Russia and Cialicin, the vitality is inferior among the Jews ; and in Hungary they have a sinalKr proportion of still-births. 1(> 242 'ini'. ji.ws. hiitlis. In all the other places mentioned the percentage -s about the same among- both groups, Jews and Christians. It should be mentioned in this connection that the smaller number of illegimate births among the Jews would lead one to expect a smaller percentage of still-births, because the proportion of still-births is very large among illegi- timates. The suggestion made by some that the large ratio of males born among Jews is due to the fact that the percentage of still-births is small is also not to be seriously considered, simply because the proportion of still-births is not smaller among them. It must, however, not be over- looked that the percentage of still-births among the Jews varies roughly with the conditions observed among non- Jews in a given country. It is high in Austria, Warsaw, Bucharest, etc. , and low in Bulgaria, Frankfort, Bavaria, Prussia, etc., as it is among the Christians in these places.^ In other words, in Eastern Europe, where child-birth is attended by ignorant midwives, the proportion of still- births is larger than in Western Elurope, where either physicians or trained midwives are, as a rule, in attendance. Still-births are, after all, dependent on economic and social conditions. They are very frequently met with among people in the lowest social and economic strata, and rarely among the prosperous. An apparent exception appears to be the Jews in Berlin. But there the high percentage of still-births is probably due to the high proportion of illegit- imacy among them. Illegitimate Births. — Illegitimacy has often been taken as an index of the morality of a community. While it may be a true index in some countries, yet in others, owing to special marriage laws, an excessive proportion of illegiti- mate births is not necessarily an indication of vice. A good illustration is presented in Austria. There, a child is considered illegitimate when the parents have not registered their marriage with the civil authorities. It ^ It appears thai in Austria the rates of still-births are larger in Lower Austria, Bohemia, and Silesia, where the Jews are economically on a superior plane when compared with their co-religionists in GaJicia and Bukowina. But considering tliat the predominant religion in Calicia and Bukowina is Catholic, we have an explanation for the low stillbirth rates among the Christians. They are said to often declare a child to have been born living when it was really born dead, in order that it should be baptized. See J. Thon, DicJuJcn in Oesteneidi, pp. 26-28. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 243 appears that the Jews in Galicia and Bukowina very often neglect to reijister their marrias,'-es, and consider their rehgious ceremony as sufficient tor all purposes. As a result of this special law, it is found that while nowhere else is the proportion of illeg-itimate births among- the Jews over four per cent, of the total number of births, it reached in Austria 61.37 per cent. In Galicia and BuUo- wina the percentage is about 80, and in one small town in Galicia the records even show 99.61 per cent, of illegitimate births among Jews, which is manifestly absurd. For similar reasons the percentage of illegitimacy in Bucharest, Roumania, during 1904-05 is reported to be 22.99, '^"'^ only 3.82 among others ; while in Hungary, and particularly in Budapest, the statistics are worthless for the same cause. In other countries, where conditions are not disturbed by this factor, it is evident that illegitimacy is less frequent among Jews than among others. I find that about five illegitimate children are born to Christians in Bavaria to one among Jews ; in Amsterdam and Warsaw, seven to one ; in Frankfort, four to one ; in Berlin, about three to one ; and in Russia, five to one. With the exception of Bulgaria and Amsterdam, it is seen that the percentage of illegitimacy among jews increases as we proceed from east to west of Europe. It is very low in Russia, about one-half of one per cent. ; higher in Bavaria, 2.5 per cent.; and is nearly four per cent, in Prussia, while in Berlin it is even six per cent. This indicates that where the Jews are not affected by modern "civilized " conditions the chastity of the women is much superior, the family ties are much stronger, and girls only rarely go wrong. In small towns in Russia, Poland, and Galicia, one only rarely hears of a Jewish child born out of wedlock. Unmarried women seldom associate, even socially, with men before marriage. The absence of alcoholism, particularly among Jewesses, who never drink, is another factor in keeping the sexes apart. But in the large cities in Eastern Europe, where the separation of the sexes is not so strict, illegitimacy is frequently encountered. In Western Europe it is more frequent for the same reason. It was shown by Ruppin that in Germany illegitimacy is rarer among the Jews in Eastern Prussia (Posen, Pomerania, East and West Prussia), where they 244 THE JliWS. adhere strictly to their orthodox rclii^ion, while in larije cities, where tliey have adopted many of the habits and customs of their Christian neig'hbours, the percentage of illeg'itimacy is much hig'her, though still smaller than among non-Jews. He concludes that "a higher percent- age of illegitimate births among Jews is quite a good sign that the orthodox Jewish life has weakened, and para- doxical as it may appear, it is also not a bad index of the degree of assimilation of the Jews in general." ^ It is well known that illegitimate births are very rare among women living with their parents, while agricultural servants, domestics, factory hands, etc., show a high proportion of births out of wedlock. The Jewish women in Eastern Europe only rarely live away from their parents or relatives, comparatively few are engaged in domestic service, and practically none as agricultural servants. In the small towns, Jewish girls rarely work outside of their own homes. In Western Europe the social conditions of the Jews are nearer those of the Christians among whom they live, and illegitimacy is more frequent than in the East. But inasmuch as the economic conditions of the Jews in Western Europe are superior to those of the average non- Jewish population, the women receiving a better education and being taken care of by their parents and relatives to a much higher degree, illegitimacy is less common than among non-Jews. ^ Arthur Ruppin, Die Judcii dcr Gcgciiwarl, p. 245 ; Berlin, I904. CHAPTER XI. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS {coutinucd). Marriage rates among modern Jews in various countries — Differences in marriage rates between eastern and western Jews — Age at marriage — Proportion of celibates — Causes of low marriage rates of the Jews — Consanguineons marriages — Divorce. Marriages. — One of the most important causes of the low birth-rate of the Jews is their low marriage rate. Especially the Western European Jews are marrying' later in life than Christians, thus diminishing the period of the married state, and increasing the interval between genera- tions. Only about fifty years ago an unmarried Jew was rare in Europe, while an old maid was hardly to be met with in the Ghetto. In every large settlement of Jews in Europe there was a special society for the purpose of assisting poor young men and women to enter the marriage state. Even to-day one can see Jewish women in Russia, Galicia, Roumania, etc., going around from house to house collecting money for dowry, trousseau, and furniture for a poor girl whom they intend to lead to the altar. I am under the impression that one of the causes of the large number of defectives found among the Eastern European Jews is the fact that the Jewish communities have always been doing their best to marry every defective man and woman, who among other peoples would hardly have a chance to propagate their kind. Up to about fifty years ago the Jews closely followed the Rabbinical ordinances: "It is the duty of every Israelite to marry as early in life as possible." Eighteen years is the age set by the Rabbis ; any one remaining unmarried after his twentieth year is said to be cursed by God Himself. vSome Rabbis urge that children should marry as soon as they reach the age of puberty /'.r., the fourteenth year. A man who, without any reason, 245 246 THE JEWS. refuses to marry after he has passed his twentieth year was frequently compelled to do so by court.' These Talmudical laws were observed by the Jews durinjjf the Middle Ag^es, and in lilastern Europe even as late as the middle of the nineteenth century. To-day it appears that they are more or less disreg"arded by the bulk of the Jews in Europe and America. Their marriag^e rates are as a result much lower than those of the Christians, among whom there is a large agricultural class who marry early. A study of the crude marriage rates — i.e., the annual number of marriages per 1,000 population — shows among Jews and Christians in some countries that, with the excep- tion of Algeria and Bavaria, the rates are lower among Jews than among others. But it must be emphasized that even registrar's figures do not give an adequate idea of the low marriage rates of the Jews, because the Jewish population, especially in Western Europe, contains a smaller number of children and larger proportion of adults of marriageable ages. If statistics of the number of marriages per 1,000 Jews over fifteen years of age, and especially of un- married adults, were obtainable, the rates for the Jews as compared with the Christians in Europe would show that they are yet less apt to marry than available statistics indicate. Thus it was found in Berlin during the Census of 1900 that of all persons over twenty years of age the following percentage were married": — Men. Women. Jewish - - 51.62 per cent. 52.51 per cent. Christian - - 60. 3S ,, 53- Sj ., This shows that there are more celibates among these Jews than among Christians. And even those who marry do so later than Christians, which has an important in- fluence on their birth-rate. In Berlin it was found in 1900 that of married persons there were the following per- centages under thirty years of age : — Men. Women. Jewish - - 6.S9 per cent. 20.41 per cent. "Christian - - 15.56 ,, 24.34 ,, ^ Jcivish Encyclopedia, vol. viii. p. 347. - A. Ruppin, Dicjitdcit der Gcgenwart, p. 49. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 247 Similar conditions have been found in Hesse and also in Bulg-aria.^ The Jews have a larg-er proportion of celibates and marry at a more advanced age than the Christians. In Hungary only twenty-five years ag^o marriages at the early age of fifteen or even less were quite common among Jews. To-day conditions have changed. In that country young men under eighteen and women under sixteen must obtain special permission from the authorities before they can procure a marriage licence. It appears that the Christian population by no means often apply for such special permission to marry at an early age — during 1904 2,673 young women and three young men received this special permission to marry. That the Jews only rarely marry so young is to be seen from the fact that only seven Jewesses and not a single Jew are included in the above, and the Jews constitute nearly five per cent, of the total population of that country. - It is interesting that even in Russia, where the bulk of the 5,500,000 Jews live to-day under strict adherence to their faith and traditions, early marriages are less frequent than among the Christians. From the census taken in 1897 it was found that the Jews marry later than their neighbours of Greek Orthodox faith. Only 5.95 per cent, of all the Jews who married in 1897 were less than twenty years of age, while about five times as many (31.22 per cent.) Christians married at this youthful age. Even among the Jewesses only 27.76 per cent, married before reaching twenty, as against double that number, 55.01 per cent., among Christian women. On the other hand, marriages between twenty and thirty years of age are more frequent among the Jews —77.78 per cent, as against only 54.58 per cent, among Christians, and 63.91 per cent, among the Jewesses and 38. 53 per cent, among Christian women. Finally, marriages between persons at advanced ages, over thirty, are contracted in about the same pro- portion in both groups. In general Russia has an extra- ordinarily large number of }Outhful marriages. Nowhere ' See A. Ruppin, "Zur Statislik iler [uden im C.rossherzostum Ilcssen," Zcilschrift fur Dano::;raphicini{ Slutil'ik iicrjudai, p. 171, 1907; " Ikwc- gunp; der Bcvcilkerung; in Bulgarien," ibid. p. 134-137. - Ungarischcs Statistisch. Jahiinuh, 1904, Budapest, 1906; ZcitSiht, Vemognilhie k. S(alis(ik d.Jndcu, p. 61, 1907. 248 THF. JEWS, in Western Europe are there to be found more than four per cent, of hridei^'rooms under twenty years of ag'e. This, of course, is due to tlie numerical predominance of aj^ricultural workers with a communistic arranf^^ement of the villag"e community. The Jews in that country live mostly in cities, are either merchants, manufacturers, etc., or skilled artisans. Marriai^e among' such people has to be postponed till business assures a secure income, or till the individual has attained skill in his trade or pro- fession. The low birth-rate of the Jews in Russia (com- pared with the non-Jewish population of the same country) is thus partly explained. The later an individual marries, the shorter is the period of the married state, and the number of children to be expected is smaller. In fact, during the census of 1897 it was found that there were five per cent, more unmarried Jews than unmarried Christians. In this connection it is interesting to note that the per- centage of protogamous marriages is smaller among Jews in Russia than among the general population. The marriages of bachelors and spinsters constituted 83.73 per cent, among the general population and only 80.72 per cent, among the Jews. Second marriages are more frequent among the Jews in Russia, though in Western Europe the reverse appears to be the case. Contrary to the almost general experience that widowers are more likely to marry maids than widows, the Jewish widowers in Russia more often marry widows. These peculiarities are to be explained by social customs. The marriage statistics of the Jews confirm the con- clusion that marriage is purely a social phenomenon, unaffected by any racial affinities. The Jews in Eastern Europe marry earlier and have a smaller proportion of celibates than their co-religionists in Western Europe, because the latter enjoy on the average higher social and economic prosperity, and find it advisable to postpone marriage till they have attained proficiency in their callings. It is a case of "prudential forethought," as it has often been described. When compared with their non-Jewish neighbours in Eastern Europe, the Jews have a lower marriage rate, because they have only few agri- cultural labourers, and have, on the other hand, a larger DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 249 number of merchants, skilled mechanics, professional men, etc., whose niarriag^e and birth-rates are lower amoiii,-^ all the peoples of Europe. In Oriental countries like Palestine, Turkey, Persia, Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, etc., where the Jews live under a primitive culture, and arc almost entirely unaffected by any occidental influences, the Jews to-day marry very earh\ Husbands at fourteen and wives at the same age are not uncommon. Their birth-rate is also above that of the Christian population in those countries, as was shown to be the case in Alg-eria. Of course, when compared with the Mohammedans of these countries, their marriage and birth-rates are lower, because the former are polygamous. In Western Europe and America, owing to the intense influence exerted on the Jews by the occidental social environment, their marriage rates are low.^ But even here the conditions have not always been the same as we find them to-day. Statistics of marriage rates in the beginning of the nineteenth century show conclusively that then the Jews married earlier and had fewer celibates than the Christian population in Germany. Their economic, social, and intellectual condition at that time was about the same as that of the Jews in Eastern Europe to-day. Even as kite as 1861 to 1870 Austrian statistics show that 34.3 per cent, of all the Jews who married were less than twenty-four years of age, as against only 17.6 per cent, of Christians who married thus early; 23.5 percent, of Jewesses were married at this early age, and only 15. i per cent, of Christian women. Conditions have changed recently, as ' According to statistics published in the Report of ihc Kcgistrar-Gcucral for the year 1908, there has been a remarkable decline in the number of Jewish marriages in I'-ngland and Wales. They sliow that the proportion of Jewish marriages, which had, with slight fluctuations, steadily increased for many years, until, in the year 1906, it reached S.3 per 1,000 marriages solemnized, fell in 1907 to 7.2, and in 190S to 6.6 per 1,000. The Jewish population has during that period increa.sed, as is evident from the number of dead interred in Jewish cemeteries. In London the percentage was 39.5 in 1906, and it fell to 32.6 in 190S. Some Jewish writers were inclined to attribute this to hard times, but tlie decrease was noted in the rich West London Synagogue of IJritish Jews, at Ilampstead and Hayswater .Synagogues, where such a cause cannot be o]ierative to any extent. I am inclined to the opinion that it is mainly due to the increase of civil marriages as well as to mixed marriages, wliich iiave both been on the increase among the Jews in England. 250 THE jr.ws. we have seen, gfoing- hand-in-hand with the chang^e in the sum total of tlie social, economic, intellectual, and particu- larly political conditions in which the Jews find themselves at the beg^inning- of the twentieth century. Covsani^uiiicoiis Marridgcs. — The extraordinarily larg-e number of physical and mental defectives among^ Jews in Europe has been in part or wholly attributed to the frequency of marriag^e of near kin amon. fur Nafionalokoitotnh- //. S/atis/il', vol. I.x.wiii., p. 385; Zcitschr. Dcniogr. It. Statist, d. /itdot, p. 172, 1907. - Zeitschrift /tit Difiiognxpiiie uud Siatistil: der Jiidcu. \>\>. IIO-III; 1907. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 253 much larger increase in the number of divorces than the Christians. Thus when it is remembered that the pro- portion of Jews in Hung"ary is 4.4 per cent, of the total population, the following- figures are important in this respect. Of all the divorces granted by the courts in that country during 1901, 8.75 per cent, were granted to Jews; in 1902,9.12 percent.; in 1903,9.29 percent.; and in 1904, 9.98 per cent.^ The Jews thus have more than twice as many divorces as the Christians. It must, however, be mentioned that the majority of the population in Hungary is Catholic, which partly explains the divergence. In Roumania also the number of divorces is larger among the Jews than among the rest of the population, 5.83 per cent, of all the divorces granted during 1897 were granted to Jews, while only 4.55 per cent, of the total population was Jewish.- Even in Algeria it appears that the Jews are much given to divorce, although since the native population is mostly polygamous, it is dillicult to make comparisons.-' There are no denominational statistics of divorce in the United States, but it can be stated, without fear of serious contradiction, that it is not uncommon among the Jews. The divorce courts in New York City are quite often asked by Jews to dissolve their marriage. I am inclined to believe that it is in New York at least as frequent among the Jews as among the rest of the population. On the east side of the city the immigrant population very often takes advantage of the Rabbinical law, and easily obtain divorces. But among the native Jews this never happens; they go to the civil courts for the purpose, and London conditions are about the same. From all the evidence available it appears that the causes of divorce among the Western Europe and American Jews are about the same as those among the Christians. In Berlin, Ruppin mentions that infidelity on the part of the husband is more frequently a cause among the Jews than among Christians. Wife-desertion is also more ' ZcitschriJ't fur DcinO};rapliic mid S/attsiik ihr Judiii, pp. 93-94, 1906; Uni;a>isihes Statist. Jahrluii/i, 1904. - Zeitschr. Demo<;r. Statist, d. /itdni. No. J, p. 15. 1905. " '6^^ All II iiaire Statistic iii: de la Fiaiiie, 1903; Zcitsilir. Dcmo^r. Statist, fudcii, pp. 15-16, 1906. 254 THE JEWS. frequent amoiisj;" Jews than amoiii^ Cliribtians in Berlin.^ In New York City only infidelity on the part of one of the parties is a valid cause, and the fact that so many divorces are sjfranted to Jews indicates that it is not infrequent, thus shovvini^ that the traditional family ties are breakinj^ down among- the Jews. In Eastern Europe, where Rabbinical divorces are granted, the causes are only rarely of this nature. Wife desertion is also very common among the immigrant Jews in New York and London. The United Hebrew Charities and the London Jewish Board of Guardians find it one of their most difficult tasks to deal with this problem. - Divorces among Jews make evident the influence of the social environment. In the Orient and in the small towns in Eastern Europe, where the Jews live in strict adherence to their faith and traditions, participating but little in the tendencies of modern life, the sacredness of the family ties is strictly guarded. Divorces, though easily obtainable from the Rabbis, are rather uncommon, and those granted are very rarely for infidelity. In Western Europe and America, where the Jews are com- pletely under the influence of modern city life, divorces are frequent, and are growing in frequency. ^ A. Ruppin, Diejudcn der Gegenwart, pp. 245-247. - See Annual Kcpoi-ts of the United Hebrew Charities for the years 1903-1907. CHAPTER XII. DEMOGRArinc CHARACTERISTICS [coiicluded). Mortality of tlie Jews in various countries — Tenacity of life of llie Jews — Jewish infant mortality — Expectation of life of the Jews — Causes of the low death-rales of the Jews — Effects of liie demographic phenomena on the Jews — ICxcess of births over deaths — Diflcrences between Eastern and Western Jews — The recent decline in the natural increase of the Je«s. Mortality. — Tlie bulk of the Jewish popuhilion in the Orient and Eastern Europe live mostly in the oldest and most congested parts of cities, amid squalid and un- sanitary surrounding-s, where the mortality rates are by g^eneral experience known to be excessive. In Eng"land and the United States the immigrant Jews also live, as a rule, under similar conditions, as can readily be seen in the East End of London and the East Side of New York. Physically, we have seen, the Eastern Jews are appearing weak, anaemic, and decrepit when compared with the Christians among- whom they live ; and, in addition, they are engaged mostly in indoor occupations. These peculiarities would lead one to expect a priori that the mortality rates among them would be much higher than among other people who live mostly under better hygienic and sanitary conditions, have a large proportion of agriculturists who live in the open country and are more often engaged in outdoor occupations, and to all outward appearances are more robust and healthy. Paradoxical as it may appear, however, the contrary is true. Statistics, wherever available, show that the general mortality of the Jews is lower than that of the Christians among whom the}- live. It appears that while among the general population the mortality of infants and children is very high, during adolescence much lower, and among the dead only a small proportion are found who ■255 256 THE JEWS. arc over sixty years of ai^e, among- the Jews tlie pro- portions are difTerent. Their infant mortality is lower ; during' adolescence they also lose less throug^h death, and many more die at an advanced ag^e. From the sociolog-ical standpoint the Jewish rate of mortality is more advantageous. The high infant mortality among- the Christians means an enormous drain on the national resources spent in procreation and rearing- of infants and children. Among^ the Jews more children reach maturity and even old ag^e, and during- their lifetime are in a position to return to society the investment made on their rearing- and education. In every country in which vital statistics have been collected, classifying- the material in accordance with the relig-ious belief of the inhabitants it is found that the death-rates of the Jews only rarely exceed twenty per 1,000 population. In Galicia, Poland, Russia, and Austria the rates are between seventeen and nineteen ; in Holland and Bavaria and in some German cities the rates are even as low as twelve per 1,000. From fig-ures presented before the Royal Commission on Alien Immig-ration it appears that in London the mortality rates of the immig^rant Jews are rather low. Dr. J. Loane showed that the rate of aliens in Whitechapel was 14 to 16 ; of natives, 20 to 26.4, according- to the sanitary condition of the home. He also showed that the rates have declined since Jews settled in that district from 26 to 18 per 1,000 between 1880 and 1900.^ A yet lower mortality was found among- 10,618 Jewish families, including- 60,630 persons living- in the United States, December 31st, i88g. In the fig-ures published by the United States Census Bureau it appears that the death-rate was only 7. 11 per 1,000, "which is but little more than half the annual death-rate among- other persons of the same social class and conditions living- in this country. "2 When compared with the non-Jewish population of the countries in which they live, the Jews have a much lower mortality. In Algeria their death-rate is only eig-hty-nine per cent, of that of the Europeans in that colony ; in ^ Miiiiitis 0/ EviJiihc, 4519, 453S-44. '^ Cciiuis Bnlktin, No. 19, Dec. 30; Washington, 1890. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 257 Poland it is less than seventy-five per cent. ; in Bavaria, about fifty eig"ht per cent., while in European Russia less than one-half the number of Jews die proportionately than Christians. In other words, the death-rates of the Jews are from eleven to fifty-two per cent, less than those of the Christians. These favourable mortality rates are not a recent phe- nomenon among the Jews. At all times when statistics on the subject were compiled it was found to be the case. The censuses of Prussia, which are very reliable, give some interesting" figures in this connection, showing that the mortality has been sinking in recent years among both Jews and Christians, decreasing about thirty-four per cent, since 1822 in both groups. This is, of course, to be attri- buted to advancement in the social, economic, hygienic, and sanitary conditions characteristic of the age. But it is remarkable that there is only a slight change in the ratio of Jewish to Christian mortality during the eighty-three years under consideration ; it was in 1822-40 about seventy- three per cent, of the Christian mortality, and increased to seventy-seven per cent, in 1906. When it is considered that the average of economic prosperity of the Jews in Prussia during the last twenty-five years is much superior to that of the Christians, it is evident that the decrease in the mortality was not commensurate with the economic comfort they attained. But bearing in mind that the Jews had already a very low mortality in 1822, which could not sink much more, the explanation is at hand. Among the Christians in Prussia, the lowering of the mortality is a recent phenomenon, which began to manifest itself only during the middle of the nineteenth century. But there is yet an enormous difTerence in mortality in favour of the Jews, which will not be wiped out soon, even if we admit that the longevity of the Jews in Prussia has reached its limit. ^ Hungary is another country where reliable statistics arc available for fifteen years. In 1891-95 the mortality of the Jews was 19.07 per 1,000; it went down to 16.95 '" 1901. ^'■"-1 '" 190^ '' f^'' ^o 16.7; among the Christians it was 33.12 in 1891-95, 25. 9.^ in 1901, and 25.7 1 See A. Goldscheider, "Die Entwicklung der judischen Bevulkerung Preussens im 19. Jahrhundert," Zcitschtift Jiir Demog>aphi( tind Statistik (ferjtuun, pp. 70 75 ; 1907. '7 258 THE JEWS. in 1906. The decrease has consequently been more marked amonj^f the Christian popuhition. In 1891 the Jews' mortality was 57.58 per cent, of the Christian mortality, while in iyo6 it was 63.8 per cent., which indicates that they are approaching the mortality rates of their non-Jewish neighbours on the one hand ; and on the other, with the improvements of sanitary and hygienic conditions, the rates among the Christians are getting lower and approaching those observed among the Jews. This, as well as evidence available for other countries, all tends to show that in recent years the differences between Jews and Christians in this respect are being obliterated. Death, as a biological phenomenon, cannot be in- fluenced by purely ethical or metaphysical factors, such as, for instance, religion, when Jews are compared with Christians. Viewed from this view point, differences in religious belief are not sufficient to explain the differences in the mortality rates between Jews and followers of other creeds. Nor can racial affinities explain this "absolutely unprecedented tenacity of life," as Ripley calls it. It has already been shown that there is no uniformity of racial traits to be noted among the Jews, but on the contrary, physically they bear a striking resemblance to the non- Jews among whom they live. Besides, racial uniformity would imply also demographic uniformity, which is by far not the case. The differences in the rates of mortality are too large when Jews of one country are compared with Jews of another country, to admit the racial factor as the main cause. It appears that a study of differences in social and economic conditions is more fruitful of reason- able results. Thus in Budapest the death-rate of the Jews has been only about seventy per cent, of that of the Christians. But, as is aptly pointed out by Korosi, according to the census of 1891, out of every 1,000 in- habitants there were 118 common labourers among the Catholics, among the Lutherans 125, and among the Jews only 67 ; 95 domestic servants were found among 1,000 Catholics, among Lutherans 98, and among the Jews only 17; 20 merchants were found among 1,000 Catholics, among Lutherans 36, while among the Jews the figure was 131. These social differences are of sufficient importance to influence perceptibly the death DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 259 rates, and to account for the favourable showing- made by the Jews. As is well known, certain occupations are more deadly than others. When to this are added other social factors which differentiate the Jews from the Christians, such as the rarity of alcoholism and illegitimacy among the former, and the proverbial care bestowed by them on their offspring, thus contributing to a low infant mortality, the effect of the social factors becomes apparent. The influence of poverty is evident. Recent statistics by Dolgopol show that in the richer districts of Odessa the Jewish mortality was 12.5 as against 35.6 in the poorer districts. Infant Mortality. — All this is depicted in a striking manner when the infantile mortality among Jews is considered. It appears, namely, from all available data, that the Jews do not have any advantage over others when deaths of adults, particularly persons over fifty, are compared. It is only during infancy and childhood that fewer deaths occur among them. In Prussia, where the mortality rates are classified in the official reports accord- ing to the age of the individual, whether he is less or over fifteen years old, it was found that the mortality of Jews under fifteen years of age was less than one-half that of the Christians. In 1906, 53.1 per cent, of all the deaths among the latter in Prussia occurred in individuals less than fifteen years of age, while among the Jews only 18.58 per cent, of all the deaths were in persons of these ages. In Berlin it was in 1905, among Christians, 42.28 per cent., and Jews, 13.45 P^*" 1000 population, less than one- third. In some cities in Germany, where detailed statistics of infant mortality are published, this point is yet better illustrated. Thus in Frankfort-on-Main in 1905 the mortality was as follows among infants under one and under five years of age : — Under One. Five years of age. Among Protestants Among Catholics Among Jews 29.27 30. 1 1 12.33 39.09 per 1000 40.72 '4-33 The infant mortality among the Jews is here also less than one-half that of Christian infants. In Amsterdam ' Zeitschrift fur Demographic uiid Slatistik dcrjiideu^ pp. 61 62; 1907. 26o THE JEWS. the deaths recorded in 1900 were distributed by ages as follows : — Age. Christians. Jews. 25-23% 15.68 33-58 25-5' 18.76% 11.72 33-38 36.14' 1-13 13-64 64 and over - - - - The mortality durin<>" infancy and childhood is here also smaller among the Jews than among the Christians ; between the ages of 13 and 64 it was equal among both classes, while among the old it was more frequent among the Jews. The same condition has been observed in Hungary, where the mortality of children below seven years of age was 49.5 per cent, among the Christian population, and only 43.69 per cent, among the Jews. Objections may justly be raised against this method of calculating the infant mortality, because it must first be ascertained whether the distribution of the population by age classes is the same in both groups. This is especially important when we deal with Jews, whose birth-rate is known to be lower than that of the Christians with whom they are compared. The smaller the number of births, the smaller the number of infants liable to die. The best way to compare the mortality of Jews and Christians is to calculate the ratios of deaths at each age period — i.e.^ to ascertain the death-rates at each age in both classes, Jews and Christians. But this is difficult, because there are no available data published in the census reports. The exact infant mortality is, however, easily computed by finding the ratios of deaths of infants below one year, excluding still-births. From available figures it is evident that the Jews have an enormous advantage over their Christian neighbours when the infant mortality is investigated in this manner. In Hungary the rates per 1,000 births during 1901-05 was among the Catholics 166.5 ^•'' against only 98.2 among the Jews ; - in other words, of 1,000 new-born infants 834 survive the first year of life among the ' Slatistisch Jaarboek der Gemeente Amsterdam, Jaargang, 1900, quoted from Zeiischrift fi'ir Demographic utid Statistik der J tide n, No. 8, p. 15; 1905- - E. Auerbach, "Die Sterblichkeit der Juden in Budapest, Zatschrift f'llr Demographic tiiid Statistik der JitJcn, p. 152; 190S. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 261 Catholics, while among the Jews 902 survive. In Amster- dam the survivals were in 1900 among" Jews, 907, and among" Christians only 861. In Russia the figures stand as Jews, 849, and Christians, 726. In Frankfort, Jews, 903 ; Christians, 830. In Galicia, where they live in poverty and want to an extent not seen among Jews in other countries, and in Wilna, Russia, conditions appear not to be so favourable. In Lemberg, during 1901-02, the number of surviving infants v/as even less than among the Christians, 866 and S70 respectively. In Wilna also Abramowitsch shows that the infant mortality among the Jews is much higher than among the Catholics in that city,^ which goes far to show that economic conditions have a great influence on the mortality of children among Jews as well as among others. Even in Whitechapel, London, under the most unsanitary conditions, the infant mortality is very low. Dr. Murphy testified before the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration that while the infant mortality has increased in London between 1886-1900 from 153 to 161 per 1,000 births, the Whitechapel district showed a decline from 170 to 144 ; in St. George-in-thc- Kast, from 195 to 181 ; in Limehouse it rose from 191 to 204, etc. E. W. Hope, Health OflScer of Liverpool, testified that in his city also the infant mortality is lower among the Jews than among the Christians; and Nivcn, who held the same office in Manchester, showed that there it was lowest in Cheetham, the Jewish district, 104 per 1,000 births, as against 205 for the city.'-^ But some Galician and Russian towns only prove to be the exceptions to the rule that the Jewish infant mortality is lower than among others. This has a great bearing on their expectation of life. According to calculations pre- sented in Census Bulletin., No. 19, 1890, the expectation of life of the Jews is much more favourable than that of the Christians in the United States. Assuming 100,000 Jewish individuals to have been born on the same day (among which there would probably be 50,684 males and 49,316 females), 45,680 males and 44,995 females will survive the first year; 41,731 males and 42,326 females ' M. Abramowitsch, " Die Bewcgung der judischcn Bevolkeruny in \Viliia," Ibid., pp. 23-29; 1909. - Minutes of Evidence, 3,960, 214,11-17, 21,749-57. 262 THE JEWS. will survive the fifth year, etc. At the end of about seventy-one years one-half of them will be dead. Taking the data for Massachusetts for 1878-82, of 100,000 American infants born (among^ whom there would probably be 51,253 males and 48,774 females), only 41,986 males and 41,310 females would survive the first year ; 36,727 males and 36,361 females would survive the fifth year; and half of them would be dead at the end of about forty-seven years. While these fig-ures are open to criticism, for, as has been pointed out by Hoffmann, the method adopted for the calculation of the life-tables is not stated in detail, still it may be said without any hesitation that the longevity of the Jews in the United States and Europe is superior to that of non-Jews. 1 The insurance associations of the Jews in the United States have never made known the results of their experience, but the published data as to the average ages at death, average duration of member- ship, mortuary cost, death-rate, etc., support the conclusion that the Jews in this country, as well as abroad, enjoy a longevity superior to that of the Christian populations. I can add that this superiority is mainly due to the lower mortality during infancy and childhood. It is doubtful whether there are any differences in mortality rates during adolescence and middle life between Jews and others. Among persons of advanced age the rates are higher among the Jews, simply because a larger number of Jews reach that age. The lower mortality of Jewish infants is not due to any special inherent vitality, but finds its explanation in certain social causes. Jewesses in Eastern Europe and the United States almost invariably nurse their infants at the breast, and it is rare to find among them an infant brought up by artifical feeding, unless the mother is physically incapable of suckling, which is comparatively rare among them. The mortality of breast-fed infants is much lower than of hand- fed. A large proportion of lives is thus saved. Jewish mothers only rarely go to work after marriage, and can, therefore, bestow all possible care on their infants, which cannot be said to be invariably true of the poorer classes of the population in Eastern Europe and America. In ^ F. G. Hoffmann, article, " Expectation of Life," Ji-vish Eucyclopadia, vol. V. pp. 306-30S. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 263 Western Europe the Jews are economically on a hig^her plane than the general population, and when causes of infant mortality are considered, it must be recalled that it is much lower among the economically prosperous than among- the poor. The native Jews of the United States and Western Europe should be compared with the wealthier classes of population, and not with all classes; the majority of the general population being more or less poor and at the same time very prolific, swell the infant mortality. To these social factors there must also be added the fact that the birth-rates of the Jews are, on the whole, lower than those of Christians, and a high mortality cannot be expected when fewer children are born. Indeed, where the birth-rates of the Jews are very high and economic conditions are bad, as is the case in Galicia and some parts of Russia, their infant mortality is also higher. As has repeatedly been pointed out by various authors, illegitimate children of Jewish mothers have a much higher mortality than the same class of Christian mothers, thus indicating that the lower mortality of Jewish infants generally is not due to any inherent tenacity of life, but to the care bestowed on them by their mothers. That this is the case is confirmed in another way. Auerbach points out that in Budapest, as well as in Vienna, the infectious and contagious diseases which have a favourable prognosis in children who are carefully nursed, such as measles and its sequelae, pneumonia, bronchitis, diphtheria, and croup, kill comparatively fewer Jewish than Christian children. On the other hand, diseases in which the prognosis is not very much influenced by the care taken during an attack, such as scarlet fever, meningitis, etc., give about the same rates among both Jews and Christians.' This, as well as the fact that more Jewish infants in Budapest die from congenital debility than Christian children, tends to dis- prove any theory of an extraordinary vitality of the Jews. Arthur Ruppin, who has studied this problem thoroughly, insists that the superiority of the expectation of life of the Jews is mainly due to the higher infant mortality among the Christians, which drags down the average duration of life. "To use a coarse illustration, the expectation of life of a Christian child on the day of its birth is, roughly ' E. Auerbach, loc. cit. 264 THE JEWS. stated, about forty years, as ag-ainst sixty years of the Jewish child ; at the tcntli birthday the probable duration of life of the Christian child is fifty-five, while that of the Jewish child is sixty-five ; and at the twentieth birthday the probable duration of life is, for both, seventy years — i.e., the expectation of life of the Christian is equal to that of the Jew as soon as the Christian has passed his years of infancy and childhood and reached adolescence." "The best illustration," Ruppin goes on to say, "of this condition is perhaps seen when we take definite statistical data of a given city, say Budapest, Hungary. The mortality during 1902 was 14.17 per 1,000 Jews and 21.81 per 1,000 Christians. The Jews were favoured by the following factors : — 1. A Low Infantile Mortality. — The proportion of deaths of infants under one year was during that year 9.52 per cent, of all the births from Jewish mothers and 16.46 per cent, of all the births from Christian mothers. If the infant mortality was as high among the Jews as among the Christians, the number of Jews who died during that year would have been larger by 320, and through that the general mortality would have increased by 1.89 — i.e., the death-rate would have been 16.06, instead of 14.17. 2. The Lozver Birth-rate of the Jeivs. — The birth-rate per 1,000 population was, namely, 27.29 among the Jews and 32.74 among the Christians. If the Jews had relatively as many births as the Christians had, the mortality rate, on the basis of the Jewish infant mortality just determined above, would have been larger by 0.48 per 1,000; their general death-rate would have been increased to 16.54 from 16.06. 3. The Smaller Mortality of Childj-en under Ten Years of Age {excepting Infants under One Vear). — The pro- portion of deaths of children between one and ten years old was 2.15 per 1,000 among the Jews and 3.73 among the Christians. If the Jewish mortality at these ages were as high as that of the Christians, 266 more Jews would have died during that year, and the general mortality rates would have increased by 1.57 per 1,000, or, instead of 16.54, '' would have been iS. 11.' In this manner one-half the difference in death-rates ' A. Ruppin, Die Ju.icn der Gcgcnwaii,\\\>. 54 57. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 265 between Jews and Christians in Budapest is wiped out. It stands now as 18. 11 for Jews and 21.81 for Christians. The remaining- difference in the rates of 3.7 per 1,000 in favour of the Jews can also be accounted for by other social factors, and no special physiological tenacity of life of the Jews need be considered as a cause. One has only to recall that alcoholism is very rare and that the Sabbath is a day of rest among- the orthodox Jews in Eastern Europe, and not of drink and dissipation, to find a reason for being- spared by certain diseases and a lesser liability to accidental death. Their occupations are mainly of the kind in which accidental or violent deaths are not of frequent occurrence. There are, relatively, very few Jews engaged in shipping, mining, and dangerous trades generally. The deleterious effects of the indoor occupa- tions which they prefer mostly manifest themselves in the anaemia and poor physique which are characteristic of them. But, on the other hand, they are only rarely exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, and thus acute articular rheumatism, pneumonia, etc., are less often a cause of death among them than among others. In fact, diseases of the respiratory organs, including tuber- culosis, have been observed to be less commonly a cause of death among the Jews in Russia, Hungary, Austria, England, United States, etc., as will be shown in a later chapter. Effects of Demographic PJienomena on the Jeivs. — From the statistical evidence presented in the preceding pages it is evident that the birth, marriage, and death-rates of the Jews are everywhere in Europe and America more or less lower than among their non-Jewish neighbours. But a low birth-rate does not always mean a low degree of fertility. It is of importance to inquire what effect these low rates have on the increase of the Jews. Are they gaining in strength, are they losing, or are they merely holding their own ? This is of supreme importance, because, as a religious minority, their future depends largely on numbers; if they keep on losing- it is only a question of time when they will be swallowed up by the majority amongst whom they have lived. Population increases, as is well known, by the excess of births over deaths, and it is important to determine whether the small 266 THE JEWS. birth-rates are everywhere compensated by the low death- rates, leaving- a substantial surplus, or whether their low birth-rate is insufficient to replace all those who die and leave an excess which keeps them, after all, on the increase. These are problems of greater importance than appears at first sig^ht. In g-eneral terms it can be stated that there are two ways in which a population may replace its losses by death: first, by a hig^her birth-rate much in excess of the death rate. This is usually the rule in communities in a low state of culture, among ag-ricultural classes, and also among- the poorer and labouring- classes in European and American industrial centres. It is an extravag-ant way of keeping- up the population. The death rate, especially the infant mortality, is very high ; early marriages and an excessive prolificacy are actively engaged in replacing in the community the losses sustained by death, and leave yet a substantial surplus. On the whole the average duration of life is in such communities comparatively short; the population is being replaced at frequent in- tervals. Life insurance societies do not consider members of such communities as good risks. The second is the more economical way. It is usually seen in communities in a higher state of culture, where the birth, marriage, and death-rates, especially the infant mortality, is much lower than in the first-mentioned com- munities. It requires a longer period of time to renew its population, because the average duration of life is superior. This is observed generally among the upper ten thousand of modern civilized states, particularly in large cities. From a sociological and economic standpoint this method of perpetuation of population, if kept within certain limits, has its advantages over the former method. To use Spencer's terminology, it decreases the expenditure on genesis, leaving sufficient for individual evolution. In other words, the smaller number of children born has as a concomitant a smaller infant mortality, and also gives the parents an opportunity to raise their offspring on a more desirable standard. It appears that the second method is seen in various degrees of intensity among the Jews, especially those in Western Europe and America. "The Jews have thus a twofold advantage over their fellow- DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 267 countrymen of different religions: they multiply more rapidly and with less waste. They bring- fewer children into the world, but they bring more of them to maturity. It would seem as if, with their characteristic cleverness at calculations, they had instinctively solved the difficult problem of population in the manner most advantageous to themselves and most satisfactory to the economists."^ But the Jews are not everywhere " clever at calculation" in this respect. In some countries they are quite wasteful in their efforts to maintain their numbers. It is after all, with the Jews as well as with others, a matter of social and economic environment. In the East their birth-rates are high, and their mortality is high, though not as high as among their non-Jewish neighbours. The result is that their natural increase — i.e. , the excess of births over deaths per 1,000 population — is much above that seen among Christians in the same country. In Oriental and Eastern European countries, where the birth-rates of the Jews are lower than those of non-Jews, they nevertheless increase in number much more rapidly than the Christians. The excess of births over deaths is larger among them, excepting in Roumania. In Algeria the natural increase is very great. The social conditions of the native Jews in that country are purely Oriental. Early marriages are the rule and celibacy almost unknown. I have seen in Constantine a married couple with the com- bined age of twenty-nine years, which was not considered anything unusual or of special significance. The result of these conditions is a high rate of fertility. Their birth- rate was 44.67 per 1000, with a correspondingly high mortality rate of 20.58. But, after all, the excess of births over deaths was large, reaching annually 24.09 per 1000. In European Russia, where the social conditions of the Jews are somewhat more occidental, the excess ot births over deaths is smaller, only 17.61; in Austria 16.63, in Roumania 12.34, etc. They all show the characteristics of Eastern people in this regard. Conditions in Western luirope are diametrically opposite to those just seen. Here the natural increase is much lower than among the Christians. The rates of proliferation are ^ A. Leroy Btaulieu, Israel among the iVaiioiis, p. IS5; New York, 1896. 268 THE JEWS. low, owing' to the low marriag-e and birth-rates; even their favourable mortality rates arc insufllcient to leave a sub- stantial excess of births over deaths. Thus in Bavaria the natural increase is 4.81, as against 13.96 among the Christians; in Prussia it was only 3.34 among the Jews, and in Prague even lower, only 2.59. Conditions in Scandinavia are even worse. ^ The influence of social and economic conditions on the natural increase is well dis- played in the various provinces of the Austrian Empire. In Galicia, where the bulk of the Jews live in poverty and want, and are rigidly devoted to their religion and traditions, their natural increase was during 1900 17.92 (Christians 16.61); in Bukowina, where the conditions are about the same, it was 12.66 (Christians 15.83); but in Lower Austria, where their social, economic, and in- tellectual conditions are much superior, almost the same as in any Western country, it was only 7.69; while in Bohemia, which is on the Bavarian border, and the Jews live on about the same standard, the natural increase is very low, lower even than in Berlin, only 1.35 per 1,000 Jews, as against 10.76 among the Christians. There are good reasons to believe that in Italy, France, England, and the United States the same conditions prevail among the native Jews. This is a recent phenomenon among the Jews in Western Europe and America. During the first half of the nine- teenth century the excess of births over deaths was equal, and even superior, to that of the Christians. In Prussia, for instance, the average natural increase during 1822-40 was 14.02 per 1,000 Jews, as against only 10.40 among the Christians. This excess began to sink gradually but steadily, as can be seen from the following- figures": — ^ See Cordt Trap, "Die Jiulen in Kopenhagen," Zeitschrift fur Demo- graphic toid Statistik dcr Jitdcit, No. 7. PP- 97-101 ; 1907. In some cities the number of deaths actually exceeds the number of births among the Jews. Thus, in Breslau, in 1906-07 there were 5S1 births and 694 deaths. Breslmicr Sta/islik, vol. xxvii., 1 907. ^ Fuller details on this suljject can be found in A. Ruppin, " Das Wachstun der jiidischen Bevolkerung in Preussen," Ziitschrift fur Demo- graphie iind Statistik dcr Jitdeii, vol. i., 1905, No. 6; A. Goldscheider, "Die Entwicklung der jiidschen Bevolkerung Preussens," Ibid., No. 5, pp. 70-75, 1907. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS. 269 Natural Increase. Jews. Christians. 1885 ... ... 10.33 12.29 1890 ... ... 7.64 12.58 189s ... 6.66 15.12 1900 ... ... 4.52 14.57 1905 ... ... 3-34 12.93 1908 ... ... 3.33 14.97 The Christian popuhition has held its own during these years; in fact the excess of births over deaths was in 190S much superior to the average attained in 1822-40. It is different with the Jews. From 14.02 in 1822-40 it slowly dropped to 10.33 ""* '885, and kept on falling-, reaching the negligible excess of 3.33 per 1,000 population in 1908. There is hardly any doubt that this is not the lowest mark attained. The excess of births over deaths has thus dwindled to about one-quarter in Prussia since 1822, and to a little over one-third in Bavaria^ since 1876. This decline in the natural increase is not only characteristic of Western European Jews, but is beginning to be noted in Eastern Europe. In Hungar}', where the rate was among the non-Jewish population only g.6g during 1891-95, and with slight fluctuations rose to 12.2 in 1904, the tendency among the Jews was decidedly in the opposite direction. It was 17.79 during 1891-95, and sank to 16.07 J" 1901. and even to 14.4 in 1904,- and in 1908 it went further down to 12.8. Similar conditions have been observed among the Jews in Russia, Austria,^ Roumania, etc. It will probably not take very long before the Eastern Jews will catch up with their western co-religionists. In fact the Jewish immigrants to the United States, who are mostly from h^astern Europe, show a decided tendency in this direction. While in their native homes they hardly knew anything about "prudential" limitation of the size of the family, they know all about it in New York City. Their children are hardly to be distinguished in this regard from native Americans of any origin. ' J. Thon, "Die Bewegungtler jiidi.schen BevolkerunginBayern.seit dem Jahr 1876," Zcitsch rift fur Dcmos^raphic itui Statistik dcr Jmicit, No. 6, pp. 6-9, 1905, shows that it sank from 1 5. S to 4.8 (luring that period. - Hugo Iloppe, "Zur Statistik der Juden in Ungarn," ZeitSihr. f. Demographic uiui S/atislik dcrjiukn, Ho. 12, pp. 8-13; 1905. ■* See J. Thon, Die Jtideii in Ocstcrrcich, pp. 40-42. CHAPTER XIII. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Race and disease — Effects of social conditions on the incidence of patho- logical processes — Alcoholism — Contagious diseases among Jews — The black death — Typhoid fever — Cholera — Endemic diseases — Causes of differences in the frequency of certain contagious diseases among Jews and non-Jews — Tuberculosis — Causes of the infrequcncy of tuberculosis among Jews. The external causes of disease, such as climate, condition of the soil, habits and customs of life, state of culture, which find their expression in the sanitary and hygienic condition of the person, home, and city, have all been more or less thoroughly studied. It is known to-day that in- fectious and contagious diseases find their best opportunity to spread among the poor, underfed, and ignorant; that those who are on a higher plane economically and intel- lectually are more or less spared during epidemics of contagious disease, though they are more liable to suffer from organic and functional derangements of the nervous and circulatory systems. It is also known that certain diseases require a special milieti for their development and propagation among people. Malaria is mostly found in marshy and swampy regions where mosquitoes are numerous; tuberculosis, among the poor who live in over- crowded dwellings, and among persons who work in dusty shops and factories. But after discounting these and many other external factors in the production of disease, it is found that there are also certain internal factors which render people either excessively predisposed or immune to certain pathological processes. In the past, physicians have attributed these differences in the susceptibility to disease to differences in temperament of various persons or peoples. Among anthropologists there is to-day a tendency to ascribe these differences in proneness to disease to somatic 270 PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 271 or racial differences. It is shown that plants and animals react differently to org-anic and inorg-anic poisons. The dog" and the cat, and carnlvora generally, are distinguished by a marked degree of resistance to anthrax and septic infection, which is almost equivalent to exemption ; chickens are immune to tetanus, or lockjaw, and the white rat to diphtheria. Other animals display an excessive susceptibility to certain diseases. Guinea pigs, mice, rabbits, etc., are especially susceptible to anthrax; the camel, the horse, the ass, and the ox are less resistant to tropical fevers; while the cat and the hog are relatively immune. It has also been observed that among animals of the same species differences occur in this respect. The Algerian sheep is immune against anthrax, an infection fatal to other sheep ; and the Holland cow is easily stricken by peri-pneumonia, while other sub-species are only rarely affected. Among men certain differences in susceptibility or immunity to disease are observable which can only be due to internal or racial causes. The Negro is only rarely affected by yellow fever, and he resists malarial fever much better than the white man. Such racial immunity is at present explained, to a great extent, as having- been acquired by a process of natural selection and heredity. These diseases were in the past probably very prevalent among these races, and all individuals who were susceptible have perished, while the most refractory members of the race have survived. And since the properties to which they owe their survival are of benefit to the species, it is assumed that they are readily transmitted by heredity. On the other hand, populations which have not been subject to this kind of selection are violently affected when a new disease is introduced among them. Thus, when measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc., are imported on islands where they were unknown before, the population is actually decimated in a short time. Their ancestors have not acquired any immunity and have not transmitted it by heredity. But this kind of special vulnerability to contagious disease cannot in the strict sense of the word be called ethnic, because after a few epidemics — i.e., after most of the susceptible persons have succumbed,— those who either were not affected or who have acquired ini- 272 THE JEWS. munity by an attack of the disease, transmit these pro- perties to their proj^eny, who are not as susceptible. Other so-called racial susceptibilities or immunities to disease are also interpreted easily without resorting to race theories. Thus sleeping^ sickness, a disease endemic in western equatorial Africa, was up to recently considered peculiar to the negro race, and Europeans were thought to be perfectly immune. But recent investigation has shown that the immunity of the white race is due to the fact that there are only few Europeans living in Western Africa, that those who do live there are under much better hygienic and sanitary conditions than the natives, and that this is the reason why they usually escape. In fact, many cases have recently been reported in whites. All this proves that when racial immunities or susceptibilities to disease are spoken of, many circumstances which may contribute to the observed peculiarity must first be ascer- tained. *' Race " alone may often be only a cloak for our ignorance, unless all the conditions of the tnilicu have been excluded. By committing this common error — forgetting the en- vironmental influence in the etiology of disease — the Jews have repeatedly been described as the best example of a race which shows striking immunities or susceptibilities to certain diseases. It was, namely, found that they suffer less than Christians from certain contagious diseases, that they are especially prone to derangements of the nervous system and of the metabolism. Some have found in this a confirmation of the alleged differences existing between the "Semites" and the "Aryans." Buschan says that, in spite of all the arguments brought by those who believe in the heterogeneity of the Jewish type, he is convinced of the purity of the Jewish race. He has always gained the impression that the Jews are physically, as well as psychologically, in a great measure different from the Aryans. He insists that racial pathology confirms this view, showing that the Jews, in contrast with the Aryans, display a racial influence in their susceptibilities or im- munities to certain pathological processes.^ ^ G. Buschan, "Einfluss der Rasse auf die Form und Haufigkeit patho- logischer Veranderungen," Globus, Ixvii., pp. 21-24, 43-47, 60-63, 76-80; 1S95. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 273 While discussing" the pathological characteristics of the Jews, we shall in the following pages always first inquire into the facts as they present themselves, investigating, in accordance with statistical data obtainable from publica- tions of registrars' offices of cities where many Jews live, the causes of death among both Jews and Christians; we shall also make use of scattered literature in medical books and journals bearing on the morbidity of the Jews. If in certain respects it is found that the Jews show either a tendency to an excessive susceptibility or a relative im- munity to a certain pathological process, we shall not be satisfied with the easy explanation of "race influence." We shall go into detail as to other causes that may con- tribute to the differences displayed. Particular attention has to be paid to the distribution of the population by ages, because people with a lower birth-rate have a lower infant mortality, which means also a lower morbidity and mortality from contagious diseases of childhood. The habits and customs of life must receive due attention, with especial reference to the consumption of alcoholic bever- ages, because this plays a great role in the etiology and particularly in the prognosis of many diseases. Occupa- tions, distribution of population in cities and in the country, and their influence on the morbidity and mortality, will receive their proper share of attention. Only after the social and economic environment has been studied and found to be inadequate to explain a phenomenon can it be attributed to race influence. Before going into details of the pathological peculiarities of the Jews it is important to speak of the rarity of alco- holism among them. It is a well-known fact that a drunken Jew is rarely met with in any part of the world. Indeed, many physicians state that in their professional experience they have never treated one for inebriety. Even among the poor and dependant Jews drunkenness is extremely rare. In the capacity of physician to the United Hebrew Charities of New York City, I see thousands of applicants for relief annually, and during the last ten years 1 have hardly seen more than a do;ien Jews whose poverty was due to drink. This is also true of conditions in London, Paris, Berlin, and especially Eastern Europe. In this connection it is important to 18 274 '^"''' JJi'^'^s. mention that between twenty-five and sixty per cent, of the dependency and pauperism among- people of other faiths are directly or indirectly ascribed to alcoholism. The problem recently discussed in sociological literature whether alcoholism is a cause or an effect of poverty can- not be applied to the Jews either way. Among- them it has been neither a cause nor an effect of adverse sanitary, hygienic, social, or economic conditions. On the other hand their abstinence is responsible for many of their pathological, social, and economic peculi- arities. It is well known that alcohol reduces the vitality of the body and increases the susceptibility to infectious and contagious diseases, and as a result we find that during an epidemic drunkards are usually the preferred victims of the scourge. Alcoholic mothers are apt to neglect their children, in addition to begetting inferior offspring, and thus expose them to the ravages of disease. Many diseases are known to be caused directly or in- directly by the abuse of drink, especially Bright's disease, cirrhosis of the liver, arterio-sclerosis, etc. The experi- ence of life insurance companies shows that the expectation of life is greater in those who are total abstainers or only moderate drinkers than in those who indulge in it ex- cessively. In spite of their abstinence, the Jews are great sufferers from nervous diseases, especially insanity, but alcoholic insanity is extremly rare among them. A case of delirium tremens in a Jew is seldom seen in European and American hospitals. As has been the case with many other peculiarities of the Jews, their abstinence has been spoken of by many authors as a racial trait. Some have even maintained that Jews are immune to alcohol. Thus, Norman Kerr^ had never in his professional intercourse with Jews been consulted by one of them for inebriety. He believed that it is due more to racial than to religious influences, con- sidering, as he thought, that they are sober in all climes and under all conditions. He "cannot help thinking that some inherited racial insusceptibility to narcotism, strengthened and confirmed by the practice of various hygienic habits, has been the main reason for their superior temperance." G. Archdall Reid, who never ^ Iiubrivtf, London, 1SS9. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 275 treated a Jew for alcoholism and never heard of one being- so treated, also believes that it is not superior moral teachings, education, or environment that keeps them back from drinking-, but is purely due to inclination, " because deep indulg-ence, so far from beings delightful, is disagree- able to them."^ His theory is that alcohol eliminates in course of years a g^reat number of people so constituted that intoxication affords them keen delig-ht, leaving- the perpetuation of the race, in a great measure, to those on whom intoxication confers little or no delig-ht. Alcoholism is thus a strong- agent of selection and transmissible to the oftspring-. He hnds evidence that the ancient Hebrews drank excessively, and their contemporary descendants are therefore not inclined to excessive drinking^. This is not in agreement with the true conditions of the Jews. There are practically no total abstainers among- them. Those who follow implicitly their religious precepts drink regularly, at least every Friday and Saturday and at every festival, including marriages, births, etc. The followers of the sect known as the C/uisidhn, who are very numerous in Eastern Europe, indulge in drinking quite freely, often to intoxication. On the whole, total abstainers are rare among them, moderate drinkers quite common, while dipsomaniacs are very rare. That this is all due to social conditions is evident, for as soon as they leave the Ghetto atmosphere their " racial " immunity to alcohol vanishes. In England and the United States the immigrant Jews are quite temperate, and a drunkard is rare among tliem. But among their descendants drunkenness is becoming more and more common. The same is reported to be true of the Jewish immigrants to Paris. -^ Their reputation in this regard is in fact waning. While in former times it was rare for a Jew to be seen in a hospital for the treatment of dipsomania, there are many cases seen at present in the United States and in Germany. It was the Jew of the Ghetto, isolated from his non-Jewish neighbour, who abhorred drunkenness as a sin, a disgrace, only fit for a Goi (Gentile) but not for one of the Chosen People. In ' Cj. a. Reiil, Alcoholism, pp. 99-100, 11711S ; I.oiuloii, looj. " L. Clieinis'Je, " La race juive, jouil-ellc d'uiic iminuiiilL' a I'li^aid de \Wzo\^o\\i\\\^'i^ Setiiaiite Mt'dicak \ Dec. 23, 190S. 276 THE JEWS. meduuval times, evcrywiicre, and recently in Eastern Europe, he had a profound contempt for everybody and everything- not Jewish. He considered himself on a higher plane of culture. But as soon as the barriers of the Ghetto are broken down and he comes in more or less intimate contact with non-Jews, he learns much from them which is not always good for him. Drinking is one of those acquirements which is beginning to show itself among the Sons of Jacob in recent times. There is no doubt that many of their biostatic social and economic peculiarities have been changing of late as a result of their drinking. That the change is not to their advantage does not alter matters. As will be seen in subsequent chapters, this is responsible for the change in their proclivity to commit certain forms of crime. It also influences their demographic characteristics as well as the diseases from which they are liable to suffer. Many of the immunities which they enjoyed in former times, and which the Jews who live at present in a Ghetto atmosphere still enjoy, are bound to disappear with this change, so that no differences between them and others may be evident in the future in regard to these characteristics. Contagious Diseases. — According to many observers, the Jews enjoy a remarkable immunity to most of the con- tagious and infectious diseases. In medical literature there are many articles dealing with the subject, and nearly all of them record the testimony of physicians in various countries to the eff^ect that most epidemic diseases kill, proportionately, a lesser number of Jews than non- Jews. This peculiar resistance of the Jews to the noxious effects of contagious disease had already been noted in mediaeval times, especially during the great epidemics in Europe of the plague, known then as the " Black Death." At that time it appears that the immunity had not done them much good ; on the contrary, they suff"ered severely because it was thought that the pestilence aflfected them to a lesser degree than it aff^ected their Christian neighbours. The Jews were accused of being special emissaries of Satan in causing- the plague. It was said that their immunity was due to a special protection conferred on them by Satan, as a compensation for the services they rendered him by their wholesale poisoning of the wells. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 277 The use of this poisoned water was thoug^ht to be the cause of the Christians being- attacked by tlie phigue. The Ahnighty had to be propitiated before he could be expected to move in the direction of lessenins;;^ the severity of the plague, and, by torturing and murdering the Jews, and especially by confiscating their tainted property, Satan was expected to be thwarted and the terrible scourge driven from Christendom ; and, in fact, after thousands of Jews were burned at the stake, or otherwise done away with, the plague finally disappeared, but not before killing twenty-five millions of people, a quarter of the population of Europe at that period. That this legend was not based on fact is evident when we read in Graetz that the Marranos who fled to Naples, Genoa, and other Italian cities, in 1492, were severely attacked by the pestilence, to which thousands succumbed. Then, their enemies accused them of spreading the plague among the Christians and demanded that they be expelled for this reason. 1 G. Deutsch- quotes a contemporary author, Conrad von Meyenberg, to the effect that the Jews of Vienna had to enlarge their cemetery to find room for their dead during the epidemic of the plague. In Worms, during the plague of 1666, 136 Jews died within four months, a death-rate equal to that of ten years under normal conditions. In a study of the causes of death among the inhabitants of the Ghetto in Vienna during 1648-69 Schwartz finds that many died from contagious diseases, such as plague, typhus, dysentery, small-pox, etc., and can find no evidences of immunity.-' Medical literature of the last century mentions many instances showing a complete immunity of the Jews during epidemics. In an article by Dr John Stockton Hough ^ the following data are collected from ancient books: — Tschudi, in speaking of the plague of 1346, says that this malady did not afi'ect the Jews of any country. Fracastor mentions the fact that the Jews escaped completely the ^ Graetz, History of tlic JiU's, vol. iv. , pp. 359, 363, 486. •Jewish C7/;v7;//(7(', July 9th, 1909. ' f. Schwartz. Das Wiener Glutto, Leipzig, 1909; "Zur Mortaliliit der Wiener (Jhettobewohner, 1648-69," Zcttschr. DcviOi^r. Stat. d. Jiideti, pp, 49-61, 1910. * "Longevity and Other Bioslalic Peculiarities of the Jewish Race, Medical Keconi, vii., ]ip. 241-245; 1S73. 278 THE JEWS. epidemic of typhus of 1505. Rau mentions the same immunity from typhus observed at Lang-eons in 1824. Ramazzini insisted on the immunity of the Jews from intermittent fevers observed at Rome in 1691. Degner says the Jews escaped in 1736 the epidemic of dysentery at Nimegue. Michael Levy makes the remark that this immunity was manifest at the same time in the French and in the IsraeHtes. M. Eisenmann insists on the extreme rarity of croup in Jewish children. In addition to all the above immunities, Cohn also reports that between 1856 and 1865 the proportion of deaths due to typhoid fever in Posen, Prussia, was 9.96 per 1,000 deaths, due to all causes among the Protestants, 9.4 among the Catholics, and only 5.26 among the Jews.^ In recent years no such immunities are observed anJbng the Jews, although it appears that the mortality from typhoid fever is slightly less than among others. In the United States, according to the special census of the Jewish Vital Statistics- the mortality rates from typhoid fever per 1,000 deaths due to all causes was, among the Jews, 27.64, as against 32.16 among the general population of this country. In Vienna, Rosenfeld-'' reports also that there is hardly any difference in the mortality from this disease between Jews and Christians. The rates in 1901-03 were: Jews, 3; Protestants, 3; and Catholics, 4 per 100,000 population. Between 1896 and 1900 the mortality from typhoid in Cracow was slightly less among the Jews, 28.1, and among the Christians, 29.8 per 100,000 population ; in Lemberg, in 1897-1902, the mortality of the Jews was even higher, 24.2 and 20.6 respectively. Similar statistics are available for Budapest.^ And it must be borne in mind that a low mortality does not necessarily mean a lower morbidity, because the prognosis of typhoid fever is more favourable among Jews than among Christians, mainly ^ " Sterblichkeitsverhaltnisse der Stadt Posen," in Vicrteljahrsschrift fur Gerichtlichc Mcdiiin, p. 292 ; 1869. - Report on Vital Statistics, C/isus Bulletin No. ig ; 1S91. * S. Rosenfeld, "Die Sterblichkeit der Juden in Wien," Archiv fiir Rasscn itnd Gesehchajtsbiologic, heft I and 2 ; 1907. ^ See M. Fishberg, "Die Angebliche Rassenininiunitat der Juden," Zeitschr. Dcmoi^r. der Jttdctt, pp. 177- 188, 1908; also E. Auerbach, " Die Sterblichkeit der Jviden in Budapest," Ibid., Nos. lo-ii, 190S. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 279 because of the sobriety of the former. It is reasonably evident that in mediceval times the Jews may have been spared during- some epidemics of typhoid fever, not necessarily because of some physiological or ethnic advantage, but mainly because they lived apart from the Christian population, segregated in closed Ghettces, and usually having a separate water supply. During epidemics of this disease among the Christian population, it could easily happen that the wells which supplied the Ghetto- dwellers with water were not contaminated. Such things occur quite often in recent years, when the population of one part of a city suffers from an epidemic of typhoid fever while a neighbouring part is spared, mainly because it has a separate water supply. Cholera. — Medical literature abounds with many in- stances of the Jews being spared during epidemics of Asiatic cholera. According to all etiological factors of cholera, excepting alcoholism, the Jews should suffer from this disease much more frequently than, or at least as often as, other peoples. Yet there are records showing that during many epidemics they were affected to a lesser degree than non-Jews ; indeed, during some epidemics they are said to have displayed a perfect immunity. According to Boudin, the Jews of Algiers, notwithstanding the fact that they lived overcrowded in small and dark dwellings, very often in cellars, showed a lesser morbidity and mortality during the epidemic of cholera in 1844-45. Similarly, while cholera was raging in Budapest, Hungary, in 1851, the mortality among the Christian population was seven times as great as among the Jews, and during the epidemic of 1866 there were, in every 100 deaths in the general hospital, 51.76 deaths from cholera, and in the Jewish hospital only 34. o.^ From a pamphlet published in 1869 by Dr Scalzi, Professor of Medicine in the University of Rome, it appears that the case mortality of cholera was in 1S66, among the Catholics, 69.13 per cent. ; among the inhabitants belonging to other non- Jewish cults, 42.13 per cent. ; and among the Jews only 21 per cent. In proportion to the population, the mortality from this disease was 0.45 per cent, among the Jews and I per cent, among the Christians — more than double. ' Tormay, Die lebeiis mid sterblkhkcilsverhalliiissc dcr Sloiit P,st ; 1S66. 28o THE JKWS. Dr. Mapother of Dublin,' in one of his lectures on public byi,''icne, stated that there was observed a surprisini^ immunity of the Jews in Whitechapel, London, durinq;- epidemics of cholera ; and Mr. Wolff, surg-eon to the poor of the Spanish and Portug-uese Synag^og-ues in London, thus refers to the immunity of the London Jews in 1849: — "They do not suffer from the depression caused by habitual intoxication. These circumstances in their favour enabled them, during- the epidemic of 1849, to enjoy almost an Immunity from the disease, which rag^ed with frig-htful violence in the immediate neig^hbourhood of the district where they most congreg^ate, and the sanitary conditions of which, as reg^ards cleanliness, ventilation, etc., were decidedly unfavourable. - But the Jews have not always enjoyed such immunity from cholera. During- some epidemics of this disease they are said to have suffered severely. Thus, Hirsch states that the Jewish population of Alg-iers and Smyrna suffered more from cholera during the epidemic of 183 1 than the rest of the population, and the same was observed in 1831 among- the Jews in Poland, Roumania, and in many other places.-^ Boudin also collected evidence showing- that the cholera attacked the Jews during- 1831 much more often, and their mortality was much hig-her, than among- their non-Jewish neighbours, althoug-h thirteen years later the exact opposite was the case. During^ the most recent epidemic of cholera in Europe in 1891-96 it appears that in some places at least the Jews were less often affected by the disease. In Hamburg-, Germany, during- the months of August and September, 1902, there were buried in the non-Jewish cemeteries 6.4 times the average number of dead for the three previous years; in the Jewish cemetery only 3.5 times as many.* George Buschan also states that there are evidences that in Berlin, Breslau, etc., the Jews suffered from the recent epidemic of cholera in Germany to a lesser degree, and ^ Kt'viic Sdc>!/i/iipic,Y>. 62$; iSSi. - Medical Times ani Gazette, vol. vii., p. 356; London, 1S53, •* A. Hirsch, Handbiteh der Historiseh-geo^raphiseheii Pathologie, vol. i. 1 laesar, in his History of Medieine, brings many instances showing that the Jews are often greater sufTerers from cholera than the Christians among whom they lived. ■* Dctitsche McdiziniseJie IVoehcnschrift, p. 193, 1S93. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 281 had a lower mortality, than the Christians.' .Similar evidence is broue^ht showing- that in NikolayefT, South Russia, the Jews had a lower morbidity and mortality during^ the cholera epidemic than non-|ews. In that citv there were at that time about 75,000 inhabitants, of whom about 15,000 were Jews — i.e.^ one Jew to four others. Among- the latter the scourg-e attacked 756, of whom -^82 died, while among- the former only 36 were attacked, and but 13 of these succumbed. ^ Dr. BarazhnikofT reported to the St. Petersburg Medical Society that during- the epidemic of this disease in 1894 in the province of Mohileff the morbidity among- the Jews was g-reater and the course of the disease much more severe than among- the Christians, but the rate of mortality was much snialler among- the Jews. He adds that it must be borne in mind that the Jews in that locality, althoug-h generally poorer, are more intelligent than their neighbours, and take better care of their health.'' In this disease it is again evident that the immunity of the Jews has no ethnic basis, but is solely due to their social conditions. Their abstemiousness in the use of alcoholic liquors spares them quite often from infection, because it is well known that cholera attacks much more often alcoholics than those who abstain from excessive drinking. In the Middle Ages, when they were segregated in Ghettoes, the disease often did not penetrate the walls of their quarters, and they remained as a result completely unaffected during an epidemic. Since they commingled with the general population during the nineteenth century, it is seen that they are often afTected, occasionally more severely so than non-Jews. But recalling that they take better care of their health, that they believe in infection as a cause of certain diseases, and more readily take proper precautions to prevent the spread of contagious disease, while in Russia and in many other places the poor and ignorant are likely to attribute epidemics to acts o'^ Providence, it can only be expected that the Jews should be less often affected, and the prognosis in those who arc stricken be much more favourable. ^ Globus, vol. Ixvii. p. 47. - Vrah/i, xiv. p. I15 ; 1893. ■' l^roceedings of the St. Pitcrshttrg Midicnl Society, p. 206; 1S05. 282 THE JEWS, Endemic Diseases.- -t\. considerable amount has been written on the prevalence anion^ Jews of the more common contag^ious diseases which are endemic in all civilized countries. Many authors have mentioned that the con- tagfious diseases of infancy and childhood, such as measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, whoopin<^-coui,'-h, etc., are either less among- the Jews or that they have entirely been spared during certain pandemics. Considering the poverty, over- crowding in dark and ill-ventilated dwellings, and the unhygienic surroundings in which a large proportion of Jews live, this peculiar resistance to the noxious effects of contagion on the part of Jewish children was sur- prising, and could only be ascribed to an inherent or racial characteristic, which gives them an invaluable advantage in their struggle for existence among the nations of Europe. These opinions prevailed as long as the testimony of individual physicians on local conditions was relied upon. But since registration of contagious disease has been inaugurated in various countries in which many Jews live, and since the registration of the causes of death has been enforced almost everywhere in Europe, the data accumu- lated by these processes have shown conclusively that things are not as simple as was supposed. The most important point elicited from the statistics of registrars' offices is that the Jews do not show any uniformity in this respect, but that there are great differences in the rates of Jewish morbidity and mortality from contagious diseases according to the time, place, severity of the epidemic, etc. In fact it was shown that some contagious diseases are more often a cause of death among Jews than among others. Diphtheria and croup particularly appear to affect Jews much more often than Christians, or at least have more often a fatal issue. Stokvis reports that in Amster- dam during 1856-62 the death-rates from diphtheria and croup among Jewish children was 13.7 per cent., among the non-Jewish poor only 4.04 per cent., whereas it was 5.88 per cent, among the rest of the population of the city. Similarly, according to Census Bulletin No. 19, 1891, the Jews in the United States are also more liable to diphtheria and croup than the rest of the population, although in New York City it appears from statistics collected by the PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 283 author^ that the mortality from these diseases in the four wards largely inhabited by Jews was during- 1897-gg 5.95 per 10,000 population, as against only 6.42 among the general population of the city. But it must be recalled that the Jewish population of these wards consists mainly of immigrants, with an excessive proportion of adults, especially males, and a lesser proportion of children than among the general population.- So that the slightly lower mortality from diphtheria and croup may be ascribed to the difference in the age distribution of the population. But according to the careful statistics collected by Rosenfeld^ of the mortality in Vienna during 1901-03, the mortality from this disease was more favourable among the Jews than among the Christians of that city. There the mortality was as follows:— Catholics 27, Pro- testants 19, and Jews only 13 per 100,000 population. But in Cracow, Galicia, the Jews are at a disadvantage when compared with the Christian population in this respect. In 1S96-1900 the death-rates from diphtheria were — Jews 57.6 and Christians 49.0 per 100,000 population, and in Lemberg during 1897-1902 Jews 27.1 and Christians 35.5, showing that there is no uniformity. That the mortality and possibly also the morbidity of the Jews from this disease depends on the severity of the epidemic, and not on any inherent ethnic peculiarity, is well illustrated by statistics from the city of Budapest, Hungary. Clatter' reports that during 1863 the mortality of the Christians from diphtheria and croup was only 2.6 per cent., as against 4.2 per cent, among the Jews, while Korosi^ found the exact opposite during 1886-90, as the followiner fio-ures show: — ' M. Fishberg, Health and Saiiilatio)i of the Ivuuigraut Jewish Population of New YokCity; New N'ork, 1904. - In fact, in 1906 it was found that the mortality from diphtheria of the Russians (mostly Jews) in New York was 71 per 100,000 population, as against 39.9 among the general population. Gilfoy, "The Death-rate of New York," Medieal Keeord, vol. Ixxiii., pp. 132-135. ^ I.oe. eit. " " Das Rassenmoment in seinen Einflus auf Krkrankungen," Casters Vjseh, t. XXV. pp. 32-45 ; 1864. ' '■'■Einflus der Confession, des IVohlstandes und der Beseh'dftigmtg auf die Todesuisaehcn, p. 11 ; Berlin, 189S. 284 THE JEWS. Diphtheria. Croup. Catholics - - 559 265 deaths per 100,000 children under 10 years. Protestants - 509 2S6 ,, ,, ,, ,, Jews - - 345 215 ,, And in 1901-05 Auerbach^ al.so found a lower proportion of deaths among" Jew.s — 16.5 per 100,000, as ag'ainst 33.7 among- Catholics. It cannot be imagined that in i.%3 the Jews in Budapest were more susceptible to diphtheria and croup because of their ethnic characteristics, but within twenty-five years their racial traits have changed so that they gained a com- parative immunity from the diseases. The most reason- able explanation is that in 1S63 the disease invaded the part of the city largely inhabited by Jews with greater severity, while in 1S86-90 and 1901-05 the Christian parts of the city was more severely invaded. Conditions are the same with other endemic diseases, such as measles, scarlet fever, whooping-cough, dysentery, etc. In some places the Jews appear to suffer less from these diseases, while in others the contrary is true. I have shown elsewhere that in Vienna and in Budapest the Jews have more favourable mortality returns from scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, croup, whooping-cough, and dysentery than the Catholics and Protestants. But in Cracow, Lemberg, and New York quite the opposite is thefact^; these diseases claim more victims from among- the Jews than from among the Christians of these cities. Conditions in many other cities could be cited showing- similar differences, which all go to prove that there are no racial proclivities among the Jews in this respect, but that they are, under similar conditions, just as liable to be affected as others. Smallpox has repeatedly been mentioned as a contagious disease which only rarely affects Jews. Cohn reports that in Posen, Prussian Poland, the mortality from it among children during the period 1856-65 was 31.3 per 1000 deaths due to all causes among Catholics, 22.6 among Protestants, and only 9.0 among Jews. Similarly in ^ Elias Auerbach, "Die Sterhlichkeit der Juden in Budapest," Zcitsihr. Dcmo^r. Stat is. d.Judcti, p. 167 ; 1 90S. I - M. Fishberg. " Die angehliche Rassen-immunitiit der Juden," ZcitSihr. Denioor. Stat. d.Jmtrii, pp. 177-1SS, 190S. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 285 Budapest, during the epidemic in 1886 and 18S7, the mor- tality per 100,000 population was as follows : Catholics, ro6 ; Protestants, 81 ; Calvinists, 74 ; and Jews only 33. Nearly all who quoted these figures were satisfied that the Jewish "racial peculiarities" have given them an advantage in this respect, forgetting that vaccination has a much greater influence on the prevalence of smallpox than racial proclivities. As a matter of fact, it is well known to every physician of experience among the Jews that they are always ready to take advantage of any new measure to prevent or cure disease. There are practically no anti-vaccinationists among them^ ; nor are there any other kind of cranks among them to urge them on to resist the attempts on the part of the authorities to vaccinate them. The Jewish clergy also is always in favour of placing medical matters in the hands of the physicians, and is not in favour of leaving such things solely to Providence. As a result of this the Jews in Eastern Europe have been almost universally vaccinated during the first half of the nineteenth century, while the general population of that region have not even to-day submitted completely. Indeed, since vaccination has been adopted on a grand scale in Russia, Austria, Hungary, etc., both Christians and Jews are only rarely affected by this disease, and there are hardly any differences between both groups. In Cracow and Lemberg, according to Thon, the mortality from smallpox was the same among Jevvs and Christians during 1901-03, and in Vienna Rosenfeld reports that during 1901-03 neither Jews nor Christians died as a result of this disease. It must be emphasized in this connection that the Jews in Eastern Europe, superstitious as they are undoubtedly, believe in infection as a cause in the transmission of certain diseases ; they believe that disease may be trans- mitted from the sick to the healthy by personal contact, by fomites, dwellings and food, and are willing to follow the advice of medical men in these matters. This cannot be said of the poorer and more ignorant parts of the ' Accordin,;:^ to Dr. Ward, Wliitcc:liapcl is tlie best vacciiiatetl district in the whole of London ; the Jews seek vaccination. Dr. Niven reports the same for Manchester. See Miniil^s of E-.idnuc lakcii in/oir llic Koyal Com mission On Alien Ivimigratton, 18,314, 21,792. 286 . THIi JEWS. population in Eastern Europe, especially of the Slavonian peasantry. The Russian i^overnment is always helpless in times of epidemics when attempting" to check the pro- i^ress ot a scouri^e. No assistance can be obtained from the general population, in fact they resist all sanitary and hygienic orders of the medical men. Living in separate parts of a city, and obeying the sanitary orders, the Jews may occasionally be spared during an epidemic. But this cannot by any means be considered an ethnic trait of the Jews. Tuberculosis. — The habilus phthisicus, which was de- scribed in great detail by ancient medical writers, and which can also be found mentioned in many recent mono- graphs on tuberculosis, is very common among Jews. The phthisical chest described by Hippocrates and Galen is to-day found in a large proportion of Jews. Indeed, that frail, undersized, emaciated body, with a long, narrow, flat chest, in which the ribs stand out promi- nently, the chest-bone is depressed, and the shoulder- blades project in the back like two wing-s, may be considered as characteristic of a large number of Jews. The capacity of the chest, considered by some as the " index of vitality," is also at a minimum in the Jew when compared with non-Jews. This is especially noted if we take into consideration only one criterion about which a consiberable amount of evidence has been accumulated, namely, the relative size of the chest. As was shown before (Chap. IV.), the circumference of the Jew's chest is usually less than one-half his height, while among others it is almost invariably more than one-half the height in healthy persons. Physically, the Jews can, under the circumstances, be considered predisposed to pulmonary diseases, especially consumption. Considering their economic and social conditions, it is also evident that everything favourable for the develop- ment and spread of tuberculosis is found among them. They are pre-eminently town-dwellers, and in cities the bulk of the Jews r-eside usually in the most densely overcrowded sections of the city ; and lacking proper ventilation, fresh air, and sunshine, they are thus in an atmosphere favourable for infection with tubercle bacilli. Their occupations, which are usually of the indoor variety, PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 287 such as tailoring-, shoemaking-, fur, etc., also enjoy the evil distinction of supplying a g-reater number of consumptives than outdoor occupations. When to this are added poverty, g^rief, anxiety, and excessive mental exertion, want of proper exercise, fresh air, and sunshine, conditions under which the majority of Jews live in various parts of the world, it would be expected that they should be attacked more often by this disease than others; indeed, a priori they should actually be decimated by the White Plague. Investigation of the prevalence of tuberculosis in various countries has, however, revealed the amazing fact that this disease is less frequent among the Jews than among their Christian neighbours. In Italy, Lombroso has found that the Jews of Verona have a lower mortality from tuberculosis than the Catholics of that city ; in London it was found that the Jews in the Whitechapel district have relatively only about one-half as many deaths due to this disease as the general population of the city ; and similar evidence is available for Eastern Europe, Russia, Austria, Hungary, and Roumania, as well as for New South Wales, Tunis, and the United States.^ The most recent statistics on the subject are given about Budapest, where, during 1901-05 the mortality from pulmonary tuberculosis was 44.15 per 10,000 Catholics, 20.06 among Jews, and 39.27 among persons of other faiths.- Also in Vienna the mortality from all forms of tuberculosis during 1901-03 was, per 100,000 population, among Catholics, 496; among Pro- testants, 328; and among Jews only 179. To pulmonary tuberculosis alone succumbed 388 per 100,000 Catholics, 246 Protestants, and only 131 among Jews. -^ Tuberculosis of the lungs, the brain membranes, or of the bones among adults and children is here less frequent among Jews than among either Catholics or Protestants. The same has been the fact in New York City. Here the bulk of the ^ For detailed statistical evidence, see M. Fishberg, " The Relative Infreciuency of Tuberculosis amont; Jews, Atncricaii McJiciiu., Nov. 2ii(l, 1901 ; idem, Transactions Sixth International Congress on Tuberculosis, 190S. - K. Auerbach, in Zi:itscli>ift ft'ir Demographic tind Statislik der Judcii, No. 1 1, p. 164 ; 1 90S. ^ S. Rosenfeld, "Die Sterblichkeit der Juden in Wicn," Archiv fitr h'axsciiitiid Gesellschaftsbiologie, Nos. I and 2 ; 1907. 200 THE JEWS. immii^rant Ji^wisli population lives mostly in the lower East Side, the streets of which have the unenviable repu- tation of bcini,'- the most insanitary in the United States ; the tenement houses in which they mostly live are over- crowded and ill ventilated ; the size of the rooms is proverbially small, and they each accommodate many inhabitants. The majority of these people work in the well-known "sweat shops" for long' hours daily, at tailoring- and the allied industries. But in spite of all these unfavourable conditions, the mortality from tuber- culosis is much lower in these streets inhabited by Jews than in any other part of the city. Lower yet is the mortality from this disease in the Harlem district, where a large number of more prosperous Jews live. How far adverse hygienic and sanitary conditions, per se, are from being always conducive to the development and spread of tuberculosis is illustrated by conditions in Tunis, North Africa. The Jews in that city live in very narrow streets, such as can only be seen in Oriental countries. Their conditions are there to-day only slightly different from those in which they could have been seen several hundred years ago, and although they are no more com- pelled to live in a closed Ghetto, still the poorer class, which constitute the majority of Jews, even now live often more than one family in one room. The Europeans, who have only recently immigrated into Tunis, live in the European part of the city, which hardly differs, from the standpoint of sanitation, from the average provincial town in France. Still, according to Tostivint and Remlinger, the mortality from tuberculosis in that city during 1894- igoo was 1 1.3 per 1,000 Arabs ; 5. 13 per 1,000 Europeans ; and only 0.75 per 1,000 Jews. ^ The cause of this relative immunity of the Jews to the white plague has been differently interpreted by different writers. The race element has been given attention by many authors who state that here the vitality of the Jewish race, its tenacity of life, and its power of resistance to the noxious effects of contagious disease is evident. Others have argued that no ethnic factors are at work in this ^ Tostivint and Remlinger, " Note sur la rarele ile la Tuberculose chez les Israelites Tunisiens," Kcviic d' Hygiene cf de Police Sanitairc, vol. xxii., ]) 084. Paris, 1900. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 289 respect, but that it is a question of a peculiarity of the Jewish 7ntlieu, which often spares the Jews from infection by the tubercle bacilli, Lombroso, who holds the latter view, attributes this immunity to the fact that the Jews are eng-ag-ed in occupations which require no exposure to the vicissitudes of the weather; in fact, all other acute pulmonary diseases, particularly pneumonia, are also in- frequent among them, and their lung-s are thus left in a condition fit to resist infection by tubercle bacilli. But this does not hold good for the Jews in Eastern Kurope, nor for those in London or New York. These Jews' occu- pations, while not exposing them to frequent changes of temperature, still being mostly of the domestic and indoor variety, and the workshops in which they are generally employed for long hours being of the "sweat shop " kind, should rather render them more liable to be affected with this disease than others who have a large number of agriculturists in their midst and work outdoors, Drs. Tostivint and Remlinger also do not regard it likely that ethnic peculiarities of the Jews explain this immunity, because they are just as "Semitic" as the Tunisian Arabs, yet the latter suffer much from tuberculosis. These authors are also unable to discover any disparities as to nourishment, clothing, etc., which might reasonably be held to explain the situation, because both eat about the same kind of food and are dressed in the same Oriental fashion. Moreover, the poor native Jews occupy a portion of the town common to them and the Mussulmans, while the few rich live in the European section of the city. There is, however, one thing to which these writers attribute the lesser liability of the Jews to tuberculosis. The Jews abhor the dusting-brush, and instead of using it they wipe all surfaces, in some instances several times daily, with damp cloths. By this means very much less dust is raised than by brushing, and the risk of inhaling air laden with tubercle bacilli is lessened. Moreover, the Jews have but little furniture as compared with the French or Italian immigrants living in Tunis, and consequently the opportunities for collecting dust are correspondingly diminished. This explanation, which is in accordance with our present knowledge of the spread of this disease, may hold 290 THE JEWS. ^ood for the Jews in Tunis, but as reg^ards the Jews in other countries is hardly tenable. The dustint^-brush is not abhorred by Jews all over the world, unless in some parts where neither dusting nor wiping with moist rags are brought often enough in operation to remove dust at all. To meet this situation several authors have attributed their lesser liability to succumb to tuberculosis to a special inherent vitality of the Jewish " race," which saves them not only from this but from all other contagious and infectious diseases. Some have even maintained that the "Semitic" blood which flows in their veins renders the Jews immune to the virus of infection and gives them an advantage in the struggle for existence when they meet the " Aryan " in Europe. But this argument is fallacious, not only for the reason that, as we have already seen, the Jewish " race " is not as pure as is generally believed, but for various other valid reasons. Tuberculosis is known to attack without any racial preferences. The small differ- ences observed among the various divisions of mankind in regard to their liability to tuberculosis are traceable to social and economic causes. Moreover, the variations dis- played by the different social groups of white humanity, such as the differences in the incidence of the disease between city and county dwellers, rich and poor, those engaged in indoor or outdoor occupations, persons active in a dusty atmosphere as compared with such as are work- ing in clean, airy shops and the like, are just as great, often greater, than the differences observed in the white, black, red, or yellow races. It is also a fact that inter- marriage of Jews with Christians does not increase their susceptibility to tuberculosis. In Berlin, where the pro- portion of mixed marriages is over forty per cent, of the pure Jewish marriages, the mortality rate from tuber- culosis is the lowest recorded, 9.81 per 10,000, while in Cracow and Lemberg, where intermarriages are prac- tically not taking place, the rates Vv'ere 20.49 ^"<^ 30-64 respectively.^ The ritual dietary laws practised by the Jews have also been given credit for their lower tuberculosis mortality. - ^ M, Fishberg, "Tuberculosis .imong ihe Jews," Trans. S/.v/Zi Intern. Congress on Tnberculosis, vol. iii. , pp. 415-428; 1 908. - See especially Behrend, Nineteenth Century, September, 1SS9. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 29I As is well known, Jews, before pronouncing meat as fit for human consumption [kosher], subject every carcass to a thorough examination by an expert. Special attention is paid to the condition of the viscera, particularly the lungs, pleura, liver, and spleen. Those animals whose lungs present any adhesions to the thoracic walls or adhesions between the lobes of the lungs, or in which small nodules are discovered scattered over the surface of the lungs, are pronounced terefa — i.e., unfit for human consumption. It has been stated that bovine tuberculosis is thus prevented from gaining a foothold among the children of Israel. In the light of our present knowledge of the origin and spread of tuberculosis, some of the fore- most authorities (Behring, Calmette, and others) being of the opinion that tuberculosis is more often acquired by ingestion than by inhalation, the Jewish dietary laws should be an excellent preventive when strictly adhered to. But as a matter of fact, all the available evidence is against this view. In Eastern Europe, where the Jews follow the dietary laws, strictly adhering both to the letter and spirit of the sacred ordinance, there is more con- sumption among them than among their co-religionists in western countries who disregard the dietary laws in part or completely. In Germany, France, England, Italy, etc., where the majority of the native Jews are constantly met with eating in Christian restaurants, and many are not particular to procure kosher meat at home, there is less consumption among them than in Eastern Europe, the East End of London, or the East Side of New York City, where the poor, as they generally are, pay exorbitant prices for meat which is, or is alleged to be, kosher. The incidence of this disease among the Jews depends more on their social and economic conditions than on racial or ritual aflinities. In Berlin, where they are economically prosperous, there is but little tuberculosis among them, only g. 81 deaths per 10,000 population; in Vienna, where a large proportion are on a high economic plane, but still many poor artizans of Jewish faith are met with, the rate is somewhat higher, 13. i for pulmonary and 17.9 for all forms of tuberculosis; in Budapest and Bucharest, where the bulk of the Jews are poor, the rates were 21.93 •^"'^^ 25.6 respectively; in Galicia, where their poverty is appal- 292 THE JEWS. lingf, it even reaches 30.93 per 10,000 Jews. The influence of the social and economic conditions is also illustrated by the tuberculosis mortality of the Jews in various parts of the city of New York. In those districts where the poorer class of artizans and labourers live the mortality rates are quite high, while in the districts in which the richer class of Jews have settled it is very infrequent as a cause of death. The Jews in the East Side are more orthodox, more strictly adheringf to their faith and traditions, and still have proportionately a higher rate of morbidity and mortality from tuberculosis than their co-religionists in the Harlem district, who, as is characteristic of the Jews generally, with their prosperity have more or less dis- carded many of their religious practices, and the first change consists usually in consuming meat not prepared according to the dietary law. It must also be mentioned in this connection that the rarity of alcoholism and syphilis among the Jews has a salutary effect in this respect. It is well known that chronic alcoholics are very prone to be attacked by tuber- culosis ; the alcohol lowers the vitality of the tissues and thus enables the bacilli to develop and grow more readily. It must also be borne in mind that the centuries of life in the confines of the Ghetto might have adapted Jews to indoor life by a selective process. The bulk of the European population were agriculturists before the advent of the industrial development of the nineteenth century, and even at the present, from sixty to ninety per cent, of the population of the various countries are engaged in agri- cultural pursuits. It is a matter of general observation that races not adapted to Indoor life quickly succumb to consumption as soon as they attempt to live in modern dwellings or to work In mills and factories. When alcoholism is added to the Indoor life, the morbidity and mortality from tuberculosis Is actually appalling. Savage tribes, as long as they live In their villages and do not know anything about alcoholic drinks, are only rarely attacked by this disease, but so soon as they come In touch with our civilized life, which, in most cases, means they learn to drink, tuberculosis becomes quite common among them. Among the wild or "blanket" Indians of the western plains of North America the disease is almost unknown. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 2g3 but upon the reservations, where, though prohibited by law, yet whisky is consumed quite freely, they are almost being- exterminated, chiefly by tuberculosis. The same is true of the Indians of Peru, of the Khirgiz Tartars, and of the savage tribes of Africa and Australia. How far this is true of the modern city populations of Europe, which are mostly drawn from the loins of the country people who are not adapted to urban life, has not been investigated to the extent it deserves. We do know, however, that the progeny of the tuberculous, when reared in a hygienic and sanitary environment, are not more predisposed to the disease than others; in fact, there is evidence tending to show that they display some degree of immunity. The Jew, living for centuries in the Ghetto, could under the circumstances have adapted his organism to an adverse milieu^ to overcrowding, to dark and ill-ventilated dwellings, etc. Those Jews who could not adapt them- selves to a confined atmosphere succumbed to various diseases which thrive in such a ?nilien, chief among which is tuberculosis, and they were eliminated from their midst, having had slight chances to perpetuate their kind. Contrary to the generally accepted notion, the mortality of the Jews in the mediaeval Ghettoes was appalling, due to the overcrowding, lack of ventilation in the dwellings, etc. Hanauer shows that the death-rate in the Ghetto of Frankfort during 1624- 1800 was always higher than that of the Christians in that city.^ Schwartz finds from a study of the mortality of Vienna during 1648-69 that among 883 registered deaths in the Ghetto 92 were attributed to " Schwindsucht," 124 to "Dorr," and 62 to " Lungensucht " — i.e., nearly one-third of all the deaths were due to tuberculous conditions.- Living under such conditions for eighteen hundred years has had the effect of weeding out a large proportion of those Jews who were excessively predisposed to tuberculous infection. This gives a reasonable theory why they do not have a very high mortality from tuberculosis in the East End ^ W. Hanauer, " Geschichte d. Sterblichkeit, etc., in Frankfurt-am- Main," Deutsches Viertdjahrsuhrijt J. offiii/l. Gisufui/uits/iflti^i-, 190S. ■' I. Schwartz, " Zur NlortalitiUsstatislik dcr Wiener Ghettobewohncr, 1648-69." Ztv'/jt/^;-. Demop: Stat. d. Jndcii, pp. 49-61, 1910. 294 THE JEWS. of London and the East Side of New Voik.^ The immi- grant Jew has not made a material change in his removal from Eastern Europe to London or New York. He liv'ed there in a city and settled again in a city; he worked before at some indoor occupation, and does again the same in his new home; he lived there in an over-crowded home, and moves again into an American tenement or a London slum dwelling. He has paid the price for urbani- zation already for several hundred years. With other immigrants to the United States, such as the Italians, Irish, Syrians, Slavonians, and Hungarians, the case is different. At home they were mostly farmers, living in the open country, and when they come to the United States or England they meet for the first time with urban conditions to which their organism is not adapted, and they must pay an exorbitant price while trying to adapt themselves to the new conditions. The tuberculosis mortality among them is actually appalling. The effects of the thorough urbanization of the Jews are manifesting themselves in many other ways. It has been observed by many physican^ that even when infected by the tubercle bacilli the prognosis is more favourable in the Jew than in other people. The course of the disease is slower. We have seen very few cases of tuberculosis of the fulminant or galloping type among several thousand cases of consumption in Jews. Acute miliary tuberculosis is very rare indeed among them. The cases in which the victim is stricken with high fever and rapid extension of the disease with cavity formation within a few weeks or months are also rare. But cases of the extreme chronic type, running on for years, and still permitting the victim to make himself useful at some occupation, are common, more so than among other people of the same social status. Of course this is due to a certain extent to the infrequency of alcoholics among them, but this alone does not explain the condition. It appears that thorougly urbanized humanity does not offer a good soil for the growth and development of the tubercle bacilli, while the inhabitants of the plain, and less so the peasant or farmer in modern European and American villages, offer a virgin soil for ' For conditions in London sec British Medical Jon nial, April 25111, 1908. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACf ERiStlCS. 295 these parasites. This is the only reasonable way we can explain the high rates of morbidity and mortality from tuberculosis of the rural dwellers who emigrate to cities. Being more predisposed to infection, they also more often supply cases of the acute fulminant or galloping type, as well as acute miliary tuberculosis. Among the Jews it is just the reverse. CHAPTER XIV. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS {continued). General diseases — The diatheses — Diabetes as a "Jewish disease'' — Diseases of the respiratory organs among Jews — Diseases of the circulatory organs — Diseases of the digestive organs — Goitre — Cancer — lurlor Jtidaiciis — Skin diseases among Jews — Syphilis — Leprosy- Eye diseases among Jews — Blindness — Colour blindness — Myopia. General Diseases. — Certain patholog^ical processes of obscure causation have been attributed to a peculiar diathesis of the persons affected. With the advance of our knowledge of the etiology of disease, most of these diathetic disturbances are disappearing from the termin- ology of medicine. In fact, many disease proclivities which have previously been considered as racial, or as due to somatic characteristics, have been proven to have their origin in certain habits of life, diet, climate, or the social environment. The ethnic factor in the causation of these pathological processes has been in most cases eliminated in recent years, especially after it was demon- strated that with a change of the social environment the liability to the diseases has diminished or disappeared. One of the best examples in this respect is the so called "nervous diathesis" of the Jews, which, as has been shown, is solely due to their peculiar mode of life, their occupations, and especially their past history of martyrdom; no peculiarity of the structure of the nervous system has been found among the Jews to account for their excessive number of neuropathies and psychopathies. French medical writers, like Charcot, Lancereaux, F^re, and others, have stated that the rheumatic and gouty diathesis is more widespread among Jews than among people of any other European race. The group of diseases, called by French medical men by the terms 296 PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 297 arthritisms and herpetisms^ are also said to be more common among Jews. By arthritisms these authors understand a certain g"roup of diseases which are usually due to disturbances of the normal metabolism, and manifest themselv'es primarily as chronic rheumatism and gout ; they also include other morbid processes, such as diabetes, gall-stones, stone in the kidneys, obesity, and some diseases of the skin. By herpetism is understood a group of diseases which manifest themselves in various forms of vasomotor disturbances, as some skin eruptions, neuralgia, migraine, gastralgia and nervous dyspepsia, various forms of trophoneuroses, pulmonary emphysema and arterio-sclerosis, with their sequelae — apoplexy, soften- ing of the brain, paralysis, etc.^ Of these pathological disturbances only diabetes has been found to be more frequent among certain classes of Jews than among non-Jews. The testimony of many physicians who have had a large experience with this disease goes to show that it occurs from two to six times as frequently as it does among the people around them. Indeed, diabetes has been called by some German physicians a Judcnkrankheit, a Jewish disease. Reliable statistical evidence as to its excessive prevalence among the Jews is, however, not abundant, just as it is difficult to estimate its extent among people of other creeds. It has been stated to be extremely common among the educated classes of natives of India and Ceylon, but almost unknown among the negroes in Africa, though many cases have been observed in coloured people in the United States, which tends to show that their immunity in Africa is by no means absolute or due to ethnic causes. There is abundant evidence that the Jews in Germany are very subject to the disease. In Hungary, also, their mortality from this disease has been excessive. From Auerbach's analysis of the demography of the Jews in Budapest it appears that of the 487 deaths reported as due to diabetes during 1902-07, 238, or more than one-half, occurred in Jews, although they only constituted 23.6 per cent, of the population. The rates were 5.9 deaths due to diabetes ' See on this point, " Discussion on the Pathology of the Jews before the Paris Academy of Medicine," Bullclin dc I' Aiudcmic dc Mi'dccitic, Sept. S, 1891. 298 THE JEWS. per 100,000 Catholics and 21.4 per 100,000 Jews.' In Frankfort, VVallach found that the number of Jews who died from diabetes during 1872-90 was proportionately six times as large as the number of Christians who died from the same cause.'-' In Prussia, Singer finds the mortality was six and a half times larger among the Jews than among the general population, and in ratio to the total mortality it was even nine times more frequent among the Jews.-^ Specialists in diseases of the meta- bolism who meet many cases of diabetes all agree that the Jews supply an extremely large quota of patients suffering with this disease. Thus Frerich found that twenty-five per cent, of his diabetics were Jews' ; Kulz^ found 17.8 per cent., and Carl v. Noorden even 38.8 per cent.*^ But these statistics cannot be accepted without reservation. They are mostly taken from patients treated in German bathing resorts and sanatoriums, where well- to-do patients from all parts of the world are apt to flock for relief. While of other Europeans mostly the rich and prosperous come to these health resorts, it is different with the Jews. Besides the prosperous, there also come numerous diabetics who are quite poor, as any one who has been at Carlsbad or Marienbad can testify. Hundreds of poor and destitute Jews are there every season, coming from Russia, Poland, and Austria, all seeking a cure from the hands of some famous physician at these resorts. It is clear that they thus swell the proportion of Jewish diabetics on the books of the physicians at these resorts. Dr. Arnold Pollatschek of Carlsbad, finding that fifty-six per cent, of his diabetic patients were Jews, is inclined to partly agree with the view just expressed. In the first place, about fifty per cent, of all his patients were of Jewish origin, which would lead one to expect that fifty per cent, of the diabetics should be Jews. He is inclined to believe that the slight excess of Jewish diabetics is only ^ E. Auerbach, " Die Sterblichkeit dcr Jutlcn in Budapest," Zcitschr. Dcmogr. Stat. Jtiden, p. 164; 1908. - Wallach, "Notizen zur Diabetessterblichkeit in Frankfurt a. -M.,"' Deutsche Mcdizinischc IVochcnschr., p. 779 ; 1S93. •* H. Singer, A'raiikheJts/c/irc der Jiuiot, p. 81 ; Leipzig, 1904. * F. T. Frerich, Ubcr den Diabetes, p. 185; Berlin, 1SS4. ■' Klinisehe Erfahriingcnuber Diabetes Melitiis, pp. 2-3; Jena, 1 899. ^ Die Zuckcrkrankheit itnd Ihre Behandluiig, p. 44 ; Beilin, 1 901. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 299 apparent. He indicates that the circumstance that Jews apply oftener than Christians to the sanatoriums for treat- ment is due to their <^reater wealth, and that consequently as a bath physician in Carlsbad he saw more patients of Jewish origin. He also draws attention to the fact that the mortality from this disease in England is quite high, although there are comparatively few Jews there, and states that it is doubtful whether Thomas, Willis, Dobson, and Rollo, who first observed and described diabetes, had Jewish material for their researches. ^ It is hardly justifiable to speak under the circumstances of diabetes as a Jtidenkrankheit. In New York City it has also been found that the Jews suffer from this disease more often than others. Stern has found that the mortality from diabetes during 1899 was relatively more than double that among the non- Jewish population.'^ Rudisch has investigated the mor- bidity from this disease in the Mount Sinai hospital ot New York City, and compared it with four non-Jewish hospitals in the city, and comes to the conclusion that, after making all allowances for the chances of error, diabetes is nearly three times as prevalent among Jews as among Christians. •' It has been stated by several physicians of experience that the course of the disease is to a certain extent diff"erent among Jews from what it is among others. It is also stated that they bear diabetes better than other people. Von Noorden observes that it is remarkable how some patients will endure glycosuria for years without much discomfort, succumbing finally — perhaps after decades — to what is supposed to be heart failure. This peculiar type of diabetes, and this remarkable endurance of the human body of the disturbance of the metabolism are more frequently observed among women, and almost exclusively among Jews.'* This peculiarity may be ex- plained by the rarity of alcoholism among the Jews. ^ A. PoUatschck, " /.ur Aeliologic dcs Diabetes Melitus," Zeil.ufin'ft fuy Kliniulic AhJiziii, vol. xxxii,, pji. 47S-482 ; 1901. - Stern, "The Mortality from Diabetes Mellitus in the city of New York during 1899, Mcdiial Raonl, Iviii., pji. 766-774. •' Mount Sinai Hospital Reports, -^y. 26-29; 1898-99. ■• Von Noorden, loc. tit,, p. 176. 300 THE JEWS. It is well known that diabetes in alcoholics is much more severe, and the course is more rapid than among' those who abstain from the abuse of alcoholic drinks. Another peculiarity, which was pointed out by Dr. Stern, is that Jewish diabetics succumb to coma more often than others. On the whole there is no justification for considering diabetes a racial disease of the Jews. It has not been observed to be more, frequent among- the Jews in every country than among their non-Jewish neighbours. Dr. S^e is emphatic in his statement that it is no more prevalent among the P'rench Jews than among the rest of the population of France.^ In New York City it is met with in an excessive proportion only among the German Jews, and is hardly more frequent among the Russian Jews than among any other class of people of the city. This may be due to the fact that the German Jews in New York City are mostly of the prosperous business and professional class, among whom diabetes is always more frequent, while the bulk of the Russian Jews are working men, a class which is not often affected with this disturbance of metabolism. Many reasons have been assigned for the excessive prevalence of diabetes among the German Jews. Von Noorden- thinks that the frequent racial intermixture of Jewish with " Indo-Germanic " blood is the cause, but he does not state how such racial intermixture can produce diabetes. Racial intermixture is quite frequent among civilized peoples, and it has never been considered to have any etiological relations to the disease. Most writers have attributed diabetes to the frequency of consanguineous marriages among Jews, but these, provided they are contracted between healthy individuals, have by no means been proven to be detrimental to the metabolism of the offspring. It must be borne in mind that diabetes is a disease of the wealthier classes, and is more frequent in cities than in the country. Bertillon has demonstrated that it is more frequently a cause of death in the wealthy districts of Paris than in the poorer districts. Persons of a nervous 1 Bull, de P Academic de MMecine, Sept. 8, 1S91. - " Ueber Diabetes Mellitus," Berliner klinische IVockenschrifi, p. III7 ; 1900. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 301 temperament are very often affected, and it is not un- common to elicit a history of insanity, consumption, and gout among- the blood relatives of diabetics. Sudden emotional excitement, grief, terror, worry, and anxiety may each and all be followed so closely by diabetes that there is no room to doubt as to their having been the cause of it. It is well known as a result of commercial disaster. " When stocks fall diabetes rises in Wall Street," says Dr. Kleen. For the same reasons engine drivers are especially subject to this disease, the ex- cessively anxious nature of their occupation being the etiological factor. It is also more frequent among the class that is given to high living, to overfeeding, lack of proper exercise, etc. All these etiological factors are found among the Jews in Germany owing to their superior economic status. Their nervous temperament, their occu- pations, their high living, etc., are just the etiological moments in the causation of diabetes.^ We know of no ethnic causes for the frequency of this disease, and among the class of Jews who live moderately, it is no more frequent than among others of the same class. The case is similar with gout, which is extremely rare among the poorer Jews in Eastern Europe, and among the immigrant Jews in the United States and England, while it is very often met with among the wealthier Jews in all parts of the world. Chronic rheumatism, however, is very frequent, even among the poorer classes of Jewish immigrants in the United States. But this can be considered as due more to their nervous disposition than to disturbed meta- bolism. There are no data published to show that acute articular rheumatism is more frequent among Jews than among others, as was found to be the case with the Jews in the United States. In Vienna and in Cracow, Rosenfeld and Thon'-' have found no difference between ' Auerbach points out that in Budapest, where the diabetes mortality of the Jews is very high, among the deatlis during 1902-05, one out of 296 artizans, one out of 128 professional persons, and one out of 65 commercial persons died from diabetes. The dialietes mortality of the professionals was consequently two-and-a-half times and that of the merchants even four-and-a half limes as high as that of the artizans. It is true that one-half of all these deaths was of Jewish origin, but it nevertheless tends to show the great liability of merchants to this disease. I.oc. lil., p. 165. - Loc. cit. 302 THE JEWS. the Jewish and Christian mortality from this disease. Considering- that their occupations are mostly of the indoor variety, and they are not so often exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, it may be expected that they should suffer less than others. Diseases of the Circulatory and Respiratory Systems. — The acute respiratory diseases appear to be less often a cause of death aniongf Jews than among- the Christians around them. This is particularly the case with pneu- monia, which claims less victims in the districts largely inhabited by Jews in New York City than in districts where the Jewish population is scarce. In Budapest, also, Korosi notes a lower mortality of the Jews from pneumonia. During 1886-90 the mortality per 100,000 population in that city was, among the Catholics, 405 ; among Protestants, 307 ; and among Jews only 186.1 ^^^ during 1901-05 Auerbach found the mortality among Jews 89.1, and among Catholics 176.9 per 100,000. Similarly Rosenfeld finds that during 1901-03 the mortality from pneumonia and pleurisy was in Vienna as follows per 100,000 population: Catholics, 218; Protestants, 183; and Jews only 113.^ Other respiratory diseases, such as acute and chronic bronchitis, etc., were also less often a cause of death among the Jews in Vienna than among either the Catholics or Protestants of that city. Altogether diseases of the respiratory system were the cause of death to the extent of 355 per 100,000 among Catholics, 291 among Protestants, and only 176 among Jews. And in Budapest Auerbach reports that the Christians die from these diseases more than twice as often as the Jews. Lombroso also reports that in Verona, Italy, the mortality from pneumonia among the Jews was eight to nine per cent., as against fifty per cent, among the Catholic popu- lation of that city.^ The lesser liability to die from pneumonia and other acute respiratory diseases does not at all mean that they ' J. von Korosi, Eiujluss der Confession, des Wohbtaudcs und dcr Bcschiifligung auf die Todcsursacheu, p. 14 ; Berlin, 1S98. '-' S. Rosenfeld, "Die Sterhlichkeit der Juden in Wien," Atrhiv ftir J^asscn-iind Gcselschaffsl>io!ogic, Nos. I and 2 ; 1907. ^ C. Lombroso, Vaniisemitismo c le scienzc vioderne, Appendix ; Torino, 1S94. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 303 have also a lesser morbidity from these causes. In fact it can be stated that the chronic respiratory diseases, such as chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema, and asthma, are very common among them, perhaps even more common than among others. This peculiarity has been brought out in the discussion on the pathology of the Jews held before the Academy of Medicine in Paris in 1 891.1 Among the immigrant Jews in New York City the author has observed a very large number affected with these chronic respiratory diseases, especially asthma and pul- monary emphysema. Their life in cities, as well as their indoor occupations, are to be considered the most im- portant causes. In New York and London, and also in Russia and Austria, a large number of Jews are furriers, and asthma is as a result very common among them. Chronic bronchitis with emphysema is also frequent among tailors, a favourite occupation of Jews. Their indoor occupations, however, are to be con- sidered a cause of the infrequency of the acute respiratory diseases, especially pneumonia. They do not expose themselves too often to the inclemencies of the weather and to frequent chillings of the body. Besides, it must be recalled that alcoholism is an important factor in the etiology and prognosis of pneumonia. Chronic drunkards are more liable to be attacked by this disease, and when attacked, the prognosis is more grave than in moderate drinkers or total abstainers. The Jews, not being addicted to the abuse of alcoholic beverages, are placed in a more favourable position as regards liability to acute respiratory diseases, and when attacked are more likely than others to recover. It is clear from all this evidence that no ethnic peculiarities are to be discerned in this respect. The determining factors are the mode of life, occupations, etc. Lombroso, investigating the vital statistics of the Jews in Verona, Italy, found that they have a very high mortality from heart disease. Nine per cent, of the total number of deaths among the Jews were due to this cause, while in the Catholic population only four per cent, of deaths from heart disease were recorded. He explains this phenomenon by the fact that in Verona the Jews live in ' Bnllotin de V Academic dc Mcdeiiiic, September 6lh, 1891. 304 THE JEWS. high building's, often on the seventh and eighth floors. He tersely remarks that they thus have "all the disadvantages of mountaineers without any of the hygienic benefits of a mountain climate." He also points out that the Jews in Verona have among them a larger proportion of old persons, and heart disease is the "privilege" of old age. Finally he considers as other factors their passionate temperament and the anxious struggle for existence to which they are exposed by reason of constant persecution. Lombroso believes that the fact that Jewesses are affected with heart disease to a much lesser extent than Jews proves that his contentions have a firm basis. But a careful study of other literature on the subject does not confirm the above observations. In other countries the Jews do not suffer more than the Christians from heart disease, and the percentage of mortality is even less among them. Thus in Budapest Korosi shows that in 1886-90 the mortality from the diseases of the circulatory system was, per 100,000 population, as follows: Lutherans, 198 ; Catholics, 134 ; Calvinists, 100 ; other Protestants, 104; and Jews, 106. Here the Jews had about the same mortality from this class of disease as the Calvanists and Protestants, and a much lower mortality than the Lutherans and Catholics.^ Auerbach also found that the mortality of the Jews was quite as low as regards diseases of the circulatory system, 18.86 as against 22.93 among the Catholics during 1901-05. ^ In \'ienna Rosen- feld did not find any differences between Jews and Christians in this respect.'^ Of the diseases of the circulatory system which have been stated to be more common among the Jews than among others may be mentioned arterio-sclerosis, varicose veins, hemorrhoids, and hemophilia. The old adage that a man is as old as his arteries may be applied to the Jew as regards his liability to arterio-sclerosis; he is often mentally and more often physically precocious, and dis- plays a tendency to grow old prematurely. All precocious persons have this characteristic, and early physical decay is one of the penalties the Jew pays for the rapid pace he makes in life — for the excessive care, worry, and anxiety he displays in his business pursuits. Many "climbers" 1 Korosi, loc. cit. - Auerbach, loc. cit. •' Rosenfeld, loi. cit. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 305 suffer from arterio-sclerosis. As a matter of fact it is not observed with g-reat frequency among- the Jewish artizans and labourers, though among the small traders it is quite common. Aneurism is very rare among Jews. Dr. Arpad G. Gerster, of Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, who for a long period of years has had many Jewish patients, says that during a service of twenty-five years in a large Jewish hospital he has met with only one case of aneurism, and this was in a gipsy. He believes that the rarity of this disease among Jews is due to the rarity of syphilis among them, which again he ascribes to the toughened glands, the result of ritual circumcision, which makes the danger of syphilitic infection less than in those not circumcized. He adds that the majority of the Jews are not employed in occupations which require severe physical exertion, and this may be an important factor.^ Varicose veins are very common among Jews, especially among Jewesses. It may be attributed to their indolent habits, deficient muscular development, and in women to frequent pregnancies. The results of these varicose veins are to be seen in surgical clinics frequented by Jews, in eczema and ulcers of the legs, which heal with great diffi- culty. Another manifestation of varicose veins is hemorr- hoids, which are probably more common among Jews than among any other people. Indeed, in Eastern Europe *' the Jew with the hemorrhoids" is proverbial, and among the sect of Chasidim in Galicia and Poland a Jew without piles is considered a curiosity. Physicians of experience among Jewish patients all agree that it is rare to find a Jew who has passed middle age without having his hemorrhoidal veins more or less enlarged. The Kiastern European Jews attribute this condition to the habit of sitting during the greater part of the day on the hard benches of the synagogue school while studying" the Talmud, and to constipation of the bowels, from which they suffer very much. Hemorrhoids in young persons, which are only rarely observed among non-Jews, are very prevalent, and Jews under twenty-five years of age have often to be treated for pries. Hemophilia appears to have been known to the Jews in ^ Nexv York Medical Record, vol. Ixxiv. p. 167 ; 1908. 20 3o6 1 111'. jKWS. ancient times, since there is an ordinance in the Talmud that in case two children of the same mother die as a result of circumcision, the third child born to her shall not be circumcized. The reason g-iven is that in some families the blood does not clot readily, and any wound inflicted may prove fatal. Among the Jews of to-day bleeders appear to be more common than among others. Jewish boys are mostly affected, girls only rarely. The reason may be that in boys circumcision reveals it eight days after birth, when they are circumcized, while in girls it may pass ofT unnoticed till a wound is accidentally inflicted. Meanwhile many of these female bleeders may die in infancy from some other causes, thus reducing the number actually observed. In fact there are evidences that there are many bleeders among Jewesses.' Diseases of the Digeslive Organs. — It appears that during infancy the Jewish child has some advantage over his non- Jewish neighbour, because the disturbances of digestion, which claim so many victims during infancy, especially during the summer months, do not affect him to the same extent as others of the same social status. Infantile diarrhcea is mostly prevalent among the poor who live amid insanitary surroundings, in overcrowded dwellings; just the conditions under which the bulk of Jews in large cities live in Europe and America. But it appears from the vital statistics of many cities that the mortality of Jewish children from diarrhoeal diseases is about one-half to one-third that of non-Jewish children. In Budapest Korosi reports the death-rate from infantile diarrhoea during the period 1886-90 to have been as follows per 100,000 children under five years of age-: — • Catholics 4, 143 Lutherans ------ 3,762 Calvinists ------ 3,293 Other Protestants - . . . 3,498 Jews 1,442 ' See N. Rothschild, Ucbcr das Alter der Hamopilie, ^^unich, 1SS2 ; Grandidier, Die Hantophilic, Leipsic, 1877; Julius Moses, Die Blutkrank- hcit, Greifswald, 1S92. ^ Korosi, Einfliiss der Coufessioii des U'ohhlandes iind der Besehiiftigung au/die Todesiirsaehen, p. 10 ; Berlin, 1898. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS, 307 And during- 1901-05 Auerbach finds the infant mortality from diarrhcca among- Jews 17.9, and among- Catholics 24.7 per 100 deaths of children under two years of ag-e. The mortality here is about one-third that of the mortality of non-Jewish children. In Vienna also Rosen- feld found that the mortality caused by infantile diarrhoea among- children less than two years of ag^e was as follows: Catholics 1S6, Protestants 137, Jews only 61 per 100,000 population — /.£'., the mortality of the Jewish children was only one-third of that of the Jewish children.^ The same conditions have been observed in the United States and in England. In New York City, where the immig-rant Jews live in the most overcrowded sections of the city, the author has calculated from the reports of the Department of Health that during- 1897-99 the annual mortality from diarrhoeal diseases in the entire city was 125.54 P'^'' 100,000 population, whereas in the four wards largely inhabited by Jeijvs it was only 106.79, notwithstanding- the insanitary surrounding-s and overcrowding- in ill-ventilated tenements. - And in London, where the sanitary and hyg-ienic milieu of the Jews is not superior to that of the east side of New York City, the same conditions have been observed. The Jewish infants suffer from diarrhceal diseases to a much less extent than others of the same social status. Several physicians testified to this effect before the Royal Alien Immigration Commission, and stated that it is their opinion that the lower mortality of Jewish children is due in a measure to their great power of resistance to contagious diseases and gastro-intestinal derangements during infancy. The lower mortality of Jewish children from gastro- intestinal derangements of early life is not due to inherent or congenital vitality giving them an advantage over other children. As has been shown (Chap. XII.), the mortality of the Jews is lower mainly because of the favour- able mortality rates of their children under ten years of age. It is not only that they have a favourable mortality in the case of infantile diarrhoea, but the infantile mortality ^ S. Rosenfeld, "Die Stcrblichkcit der Juden in Wien," An/iiv fur Rassen-und Geselhliaftshioloi:;ic^ No. I and 2 ; 1907. '^ M. Fishheri;, ILallh an i Saiiiliitioii of the linnii^ianl rcpulalioit in New York ; 1907. 308 TlIK JEWS. due to all causes is lower than among- others. In g^eneral this is due to the great devotion of the Jewess as a mother. The care bestowed by the Jewish mother on her children, even when labouring under severe stress of poverty and privation, is proverbial. The anxiety displayed by the parents, even in cases of slight illness of their children, is well known to every physician who practises among them. What is of most importance, however, is the fact that only rarely does a Jewish woman go to work in the mill or factory after she is married. The large number of married women who leave their children at home or in the nursery, and work the whole day in the factories and mills, which are to be seen among the proletariat of other peoples, are only rarely seen among Jews in every country, although in New York and London this class of Jewesses is already beginning to be seen. The result of this is that the Jewish mother nurses her children at the breast, and artificial feeding is rare among them, and among healthy Jewesses almost unknown. Infantile diarrhoea, which is chiefly caused by improper artificial feeding, is as a result less common among them. Indeed, this gives these Jewish children an advantage over other children of the poor in many other ways. Their general health is superior to that of infants of the slums of other nationalities. Rickets, atrophy, malnutrition, scrofula, etc. ,^ which undermine the vitality of the children of the poor and make them ready victims of contagious diseases or of some acute diseases of childhood, are less common among Jewish infants as com- pared with children of others of the same economic and sociologic condition. This was brought out by testimony given before the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration in London, England, in 1904. Dr. Hall stated that in Leeds he found 50 per cent, of children in a poor school affected with rickets, and only a percentage of eight in a school attended by children of the better classes. In a school of poor Jewish children he found only seven per cent, affected with rickets. It has been affirmed by 1 But this is not true of all the Jews. In Wilna, where their poverty is appalling, rickets and scrofula are more common among them than among Ciiristian infants. (S. Kowarsky, in llnirhehthiia Gtnc/a, No. 20, 190S.) I observed the same among the poorer classes of Jews in Russia and Austria. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 309 Drs. Eustace Smith, Eichholz, and others that this superiority of Jewish children in Eng^land, in spite of their inferior sanitary and hygienic environment and their over- crowded dwelling-s, is due to the fact that Jewish mothers bestow more care upon their children during' infancy and childhood, and also because it is exceptional to find a Jewish mother acting as breadwinner.^ As might be expected, considering that there are no anatomic or physiological peculiarities to be discerned in the Jews, there are no differences in the morbidity and mortality from gastro-intestinal diseases among adult Jews. Lorribroso- reports that in Italy these diseases are more frequently a cause of death among Jews than among the Catholics, and Glatter^ states that the same obtains in Hungary, though Auerbach's statistics of more recent date show that in Budapest the contrary is true. Lombroso attributes these conditions to the overcrowding in badly ventilated dwellings, and also to the fatty foods which Italian Jews are wont to eat and which are unsuit- able for people living in a warm climate. But the statistics recently compiled by Rosenfeld ^ about the Jews of Vienna, and by K<;)rosi "' about Budapest, and many others, show, on the contrary, that the Jews have either about the same rate of mortality from gastro-intestinal disorders, or even less than the non-Jewish population among which they live. The same is true of diseases of the liver, which show no peculiarity among Jews, excepting in the case of cirrhosis, which is quite uncommon. This is due to the infrequency of alcoholism and syphilis, which are the most important etiological factors in the production of cirrhosis of the liver. Nervous dyspepsia is a very common disease among Jews, and acid dyspepsia (hyperchlorhydria) is also more frequently met with among thcni." Physicians who have experience among them find that acute indigestion is particularly met with among orthodox Jews on Sundays, ^ Jeivish Chronicle; August 19, 1904. •* Loc. cil. ^ Lor. cit. ^ I.oc. (it. ^ Loc. cit. "" A iiromincnt clinician, a si)eciali.st in diseases of the stomach in Ikriin, slates that three-fourths of the Ivussian Jewisli patients who consult him belong to the class of neurojiaths anil hypochondriacs. See II. Oppenheim, Journal f. Psychologic 11. Neurologic, vol. xiii., 190S. 310 THE JEWS. due to the consumption on the Sabbath of food which has been prepared on I'Viday and kept in the oven from twelve to twenty-four hours. Tliis is seen mostly in Russia and Poland, but rarely amonj^ the Jews in Western Europe and America, because here, as a rule, they do not prepare their Sabbath food on I'riday to be kept in the oven till Saturday. But chronic dyspepsia is very common. It is due to the fact that Jews generally, owing to deep absorption in their business, rarely have regular hours for meals, and can hardly spare time to masticate their food properly. Among the Jews living in Slavonic countries, excessive tea-drinking, a habit acquired from their Slavonic neighbours, is much to blame for the frequent occurrence of chronic indigestion. It must be mentioned, however, that alcoholic gastritis is, for obvious reasons, quite rare among them. Of many other diseases which various physicians have stated that the Jews are either relatively free from, or more predisposed to, than non-Jews, are to be mentioned Bright's disease, exophthalmic goitre, cancer, various forms of skin disease, etc. But it appears that there are hardly any special peculiarities to be noted when everything connected with the etiology and diagnosis of these diseases is taken into consideration. Thus Bright's disease was found to be more frequent among American Jews than among the general population of the United States.^ But when it is recalled that the Jews are largely town-dwellers, and that this disease is mostly prevalent among this class of people, it is evident that they are only to be compared with city population. Indeed, when this is done it is elicited that there are hardly any differences between Jews and non-Jews in this respect ; a slightly lower mortality of the Jews from this disease is then found and can be explained by the fact that there are very few alcoholics among them, since alcoholism is an important factor in the etiology of this disease. Among the Jews in Vienna the mortality from Bright's disease is about the same as among the Christian population of that city,- and in Budapest it is slightly lower among the Jews.-' It is ^ Census Bullelin No. ig, 1890. - Kosenfeld, loc. cit. ' Korosi, loc. cit. ; also Auerhach, loc. cit., who found the rates: Jews 37.2, Catholics 55.2, and others 53.3 per 100,000. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 3II thus seen that no ethnic factors are at work ; it all depends on the complex etiology of the disease. G. Lagneau states that Jewish women are hardly ever afflicted with groitre, and mentions that the medical society of Metz handed out the question in one of its competitive examinations of 1880: " Why are Jewesses exempt from g-oitre?" Bordier also says that this disease is rare among them.^ On the other hand, G. Buschan states that he finds that Jews are more strongly inclined to this disease than non-Jews.- The present author has seen many cases of goitre among Jews, and can find no differ- ences between them and non-Jews in this respect. This is merely cited as an example, showing how some diseases are either stated to be very frequent, or less common among Jews, or one physician states emphatically that Jews are exempt from a certain disease, while another finds the Jews more inclined to suffer from it. In his investigations of the demography of the Italian Jews Lombroso found that while the mortality from cancer was among the general population only two per cent, of the total mortality, the cancer mortality of the Jews was 3.3 per cent. He also found that Jewesses are more often attacked by cancer than Jews, which is in agreement with the observed fact that women are more apt to be affected than men.^ On the other hand, in England, Dr. James Braithwaite noticed that cancer of the uterus was seldom or never encountered among the numerous Jewesses attending the outdoor department of the Leeds General Infirmary. Only one case was met with in ton years. He points out that the experience of the London Hospital, where there is a special Hebrew department, is the same, only one case was seen in a Jewess during ;i period of five years, against 178 among Gentile women. Dr. Braithwaite considers that the only possible explana- tions are difference in race or difference in diet, especially the absence of pork in the Jewish diet.* On the other hand, a writer in the British Medical Journal-' states that in his experience cancer of the breast has often been met with among Jewesses in London, and while examples oi ' A. Bordier, La Gc'ograJ^hie inMualc, p. 529, Paris 1S84. - Globus, vol. Ixvii., p. 46; 1895. ■* I.aiuct, vol. clxi., p. 1578. ^ Lombroso, loc. ci(. ' '■' ^farch 15, 1902, p. 6S1, I900. 1899. 1898 6.1 6.5 5.02 8.4 8.8 6.1 312 THE JEWS. nearly every form of cancer have been .seen, there seemed to be a .special tendency to the development of inte.stinal malignant growths. Of the patient.s dying between forty and .sixty-five year.s of age, a large percentage have been sufTcring from cancer. The writer then brings figures from the records of the United Synagogue Burial Society of London, showing that during 1898-1900 the percentage of deaths from cancer to deaths due to all causes among persons over twenty years of age was as follows : — Jews - - ■ - General population (Registrar-General's report) It thus appears that the Jews in London are by no means free from cancer. In the United States also it is found that deaths due to cancer and tumour are just as common among Jews as many others.^ In New York City the present author found that the mortality from cancer among the Russian Jewish emigrants is much below that of the non-Jewish population. But it must be borne in mind that the Jewish immigrants are mostly young men and women, a class among which cancer is uncommon. - And a study of the reports of a large Jewish and one Christian hospital in New York elicited that Jews affected with cancer are by no means rare in this city, although less common than among non-Jews. Sarcoma appears to be more frequent among the Jews, while cancer of the breast, and especially of the uterus, is less frequently met with among them. They appear, however, to be more often affected WMth cancer of the gastro-intestinal tract, with the exception of the rectum, though they are great sufferers from other rectal diseases, such as hemorrhoids, fistula, etc. In other cities also it has been found that Jews are not exempt from cancer. Rosenfeld finds a mortality per 100,000 of 129 among Catholics, 108 among Protestants, and 130 among Jews. Auerbach gives figures for Budapest as follows : — Cancer, excepting of the uterus — Jews, 66.2, and Catholics, 73.7 ; cancer of the uterus — Jewesses, 8.6, and Christians, 24.0 per 10,000 population. In Berlin, 8.6 per cent, of all deaths among Jews were, in 1 dnsus BuUetiu No. ig; 1890. - See article, " Cancer," y. , ill-smelling, for turbulent. This factor Judaicus was in mediaeval times considered of importance in this respect : some Christian theologians stated that the baptismal waters are the best remedy to remove this objectionable odour from any Jew, while others claimed that even this will not help,^ It is to be regretted that these able theologians were not possessed with any special knowledge of " races" and "race traits," in the sense some are using these terms to-day. If they had been imbued with the " scientific spirit " they would surely have claimed that this is one of the racial traits of the Jews which cannot be obliterated. Yet the consensus of opinion appears to have been that even baptismal water ^ Fortunatus, however, was of the opinion that the baptismal waters were effective. lie said : " Abluitur judoeus odor baptismate divo, Et nova progenies reddita surgit aquis, Vincens ambrosios suavi spiramine rores, Vertice perfuso chrismatis efllat odor." ■^Venaiitii Foritinali Carm., v. ^, 109- 112, PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 315 leaves this peculiarity unchang-ed, because it was some- times discovered by the odour that this or that hig-h dignitary of the Church was of Jewish extraction. Many recent writers have expounded this nonsense and given it a kind of a scientific air.^ Gustav Jaeg-er of Stuttg^art constructed a complete theory of odours which human being's exhale, and which are characteristic of each ag-e, sex, race, and even the mental and emotional state of each individual. He pretends to be able easily to recog^nize any Jew by his odour, and that even an "Aryan " who has the least drop of Jewish blood in his veins can thus be disting-uished. It appears that he has not experimented much to test his theory, and he says that the fact that some Jews have placed some obstacles in his way when he attempted to give his teaching's a wide circulation has not influenced his opinion ag^ainst them. He mentions a certain Dr. M., who visited Pope Pius IX. in 1847 at Rome. When he was allowed to kiss the Pope's slipper, he claims that he at once perceived by the odour that the Pope was of Jewish origin. That this Dr. M. was right, Jaeger thinks, is confirmed by the fact that Cardinal Consalvi had said a long time before E nn Ebrco, although Dr. M. knew nothing about it. Finally, he assures us that Pius IX. confirmed this fact while confidentially speaking to certain brothers Cahn from Lyon, two baptized Jews.- Racial odours have been described by many writers. In addition to the well-known odour of the negro, it has also been stated that every other coloured race has its characteristic smell. ' Recently a Japanese anthropologist has even described the smell of the Europeans, and says that it is very pronounced to the Japanese, and that able- bodied adults smell most. The odour is local, chiefly in the armpits, and is not removed by soap and water, while Japanese armpits are practically odourless. Indeed, ^ See also R. Kleinpaul, "Alt-in Neu-Jerusalem," AtishinJ, No. 25-26, 1S74; M. Reich, Die Einhcit des Mciischcui^isch/cch/s, pp. 90-92, Augsburg, 1873. - Gustav Jaeger, Eii/Jeckiiiig lier Seelc, vol. i., pp. 246-248; 1SS4. ' See R. Andree, " Volkergeruch," Ethiiographisihc J'araHc.'iii, New Series, pp. 213-222, 1S89. H. Ellis, Stinii,s in the Fsychology of Sc.\\ vol. iv., " Smell," pp. 59-90, gives a good suniniary. 3l6 THE JEWS. Adachi states that an armpit odour disqualifies a Japanese from military service and makes it difficult to enter matrimony. 1 How far this is true cannot be stated. At any rate, it has not been confirmed by any other investig^ator. But one thing- is sure : no ethnolog-ist believes at present that the Jews exhale a characteristic odour discernible to other Europeans. H)ven Richard Andree, who cannot be considered biased in favour of the sons of Jacob, says: — "No matter how the theory of special race odours may be substantiated by incontrovertible evidence, yet it is difllcult to prove a special Jewish odour, in spite of Professor Jaeg^er's assertions." Andree believes the origfin of this myth is to be soug-ht for in the filthy and malodorous conditions of the medieval Ghettoes of Europe, and also in the fact that the Eastern Jews love to consume larg-e quantities of g^arlic, a tendency which they displayed already in ancient times.- But he points out, justly, that there are many other races who indulge in excessive consumption of g^arlic, as, for instance, the Italians, the Provencals, etc.^ It must be mentioned in this connection that the Jews were not the only ones who were accused by ancient theologians of exhaling a special disagreeable odour from their skin. There were many so-called "accursed races," about whom it was stated that they emit offensive odours, which wither fruits when held in the hands of one of these accursed ones ; and many others unfit to mention.* It is noteworthy that skin diseases, which might have given a reason for the allegation of a special Fuetorjtidaicus, are no more common among Jews than among others. Hardy ^ stated that eczema is more frequent among Jews than among Christians, but many other dermatologists with extensive experience among Jews assert the contrary. In the dispensaries of New York City, where large numbers ^ B. Adachi, "Geruch der Europiier," Globus, vol. 83, pp. 14-15. - "We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlic." — Numbers, xi., 5. •* Richard Andree, Ziir Volkskiiudc der Jiidcn, pp. 68-69 ; Leipzig, 1881. * See a curious book by Francisque Michel, Histoire des races mauditcs de la France el de CEspagne ; Paris. 1847, s Bulletin Medical, p. 851; 190 1. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 317 of Jews are being treated daily, it is not observed that they have an excessive proportion of eczematous persons*, and when compared with other immigrants — for instance, the ItaHans, Greeks, or Hungarians — it would appear that the disease is even less common among them. In Chicago, Dr. Fishkin also found that among the immigrant Jews the number of patients suffering from eczema is not much above the usual proportion.^ Parasitic diseases of the skin and scalp are said to be more common among the Jews in Eastern Europe and the Orient than among non-Jews. This is particularly em- phasized in reference to scabies and favus [plica Polonica and plica Judaica).'^ In the United States this is not observed to be the fact when the immigrant Jews are compared with non-Jews of the same social status. In the Russian army, on the other hand, there is statistical evidence that the Jew^s are the greatest sufferers from favus. It must be mentioned, however, that the Jews in the Russian army are mostly recruited from the lowest and poorest classes, as was shown by Weinberg, while the robust and also the richer classes of Jews escape military service in some manner/^ It is a fact that in order to escape conscription, Jews often submit to certain treat- ment by quacks who, by the use of some acids, produce artificial eruptions on the scalp, thus simulating favus. Of late, favus is not considered by the authorities a sufficient cause for liberating Jews from military service, and the number of cases of this disease has decreased considerably in the military hospitals of Russia. Parasitic diseases of ^ Journal of the American Medical Association, August 23rd, 1 902. ' Flica Polonica, or Wcichschopf in German is, as its name implies, .1 disease, mostly met with in Poland along the banks of the \^istula, charac- terized by the agglutination of the hairs which are infested with vermin. It was (luite common in Slavonic lands during the Middle Ages when the comb was not used as often as it should be. Lafontaine ( y);//// (/<■ la riiijuc Polonaise; Paris, iSoS) shows that not only the peasantry, Jews, and beggars were attncked, but even the nobility and the burghers were not free from it in Poland, Lithuania, etc. The Jews appear to liave acquired it in those regions, and at ])resent since it disappeared among the Christian pojudalion it is also very rare among the Jews. Its synonym, Plica Judaica, is as unjust as the accusation of ihe fator Jicdaicns. See also Cnjuld and Pylc, Anoiiialics and Curiosities 0/ Medicine, p. S4.S. •' R. Weinberg, "Zur Palhologie der Juden," Zeitschrift fiir Demo- SKiphie loid Statistik der JiiJen, ■^. 10; 1905. 3l8 Tllli JEWS. the skin are mostly seen among- the poor and dey;raded ; in fact, they are filth diseases, pure and simple. In Western Europe and America, where the social and economic conditions of the Jews are superior, these diseases are uncommon among- them. The same is true of impetigo contagiosa, which is quite as comnion among Jews as among the poor of all nations. Syphilitic dermatoses, on the other hand, are very uncommon .'imong the children of Israel, who strictly adhere to their religion and traditions and maintain strict purity of the family, as is to be observed in Eastern Europe and the Orient. This is not true, however, of the Western European and American Jews, among whom this disease is tolerably frequent; thus disproving the theory that the Jewish " race" possesses a peculiar immunity to venereal diseases, which was enter- tained by many physicians. It appears that even circum- cision, which was considered one of the reasons for their immunity to venereal diseases, is not of material avail when they expose themselves to the dangers of infection. Of course certain complications of gonorrhtEa, such as balanitis and posthitis, and also phimosis, are unknown in circumcised persons of Jewish as well as of any other creed. But no other specific immunity has been established. It is immaterial for our purposes whether the disease mentioned in the Bible as Zaraat is the same as leprosy of to-day, or includes various diseases which have as their chief characteristic some skin eruption. To-day it appears that leprosy is uncommon among Jews, the numerous photographs of leprous Jews sent out by missionaries in Palestine notwithstanding. Most of the physicians who practise in Palestine and Asia Minor speak of the rarity of this disease among the Jews in those countries. Dr. Nicholas Senn reports from Jerusalem that "most of the lepers are Arabs, and the Jews are singularly free from the disease. . . Among the forty-seven inmates of the Jesus Hilfe Hospital there is only one Jew. Dr. Einsler, during his long and extensive practice in Jerusalem, has seen only five Jews affected with leprosy; and of these one came from Salonica, and of the remainder two from Morocco. It seems that the Jerusalem Jews have in the course of time acquired an immunity from this disease, notwithstanding the increase of poverty and unsanitary PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 319 surroundings." ^ Only one physician in the Orient mentions leprosy as common among" Jews; Zombacco- found it to be very frequent among- them in Constantinople. Buschan, quoting this statement,'^ argues that the predisposition of the Jews to leprosy is a racial characteristic hereditarily transmitted from the ancient Hebrews to the modern Jews. In support of this he mentions that the Karaites of Con- stantinople are entirely free from the disease, as attested by Zombacco during twenty years of medical practice among them. These Karaites are only Jews by religion, according to Buschan, but ethnically they are not Semites.^ They are of "Finnic" origin, derived from the Chozars who accepted Judaism during the eighth century of our era. The other Jews of Constantinople, those who follow the Talmud, are, on the other hand, derived from the " Syro- Arabic-Semitic " race, and they are the ones who are racially predisposed to leprosy. Me further asserts that the Mohammedans, Christians, Greeks, Armenians, and other non-Jews in Constantinople are free from it, not- withstanding the fact that they frequently come in contact with the Jews. For Buschan this is sufficient proof that the predisposition of the Jews to leprosy is of a racial nature, and also that the modern Jews are a pure race. But as a matter of fact there are many Turkish, Greek, and Armenian lepers in Constantinople whom Zombacco has not met, while among Jews in other countries no excessive number of lepers have been met with. Thus in Russia, where in some provinces leprosy is endemic, Jewish lepers are only seldom seen ; while in Palestine they seem to be entirely rare, as has already been mentioned. Pathology of the Eye. — " We know of certain eye diseases," says Singer, "which are met with among the Jews in an unusually high proportion, so that it can be admitted that the Jewish race in all probabilities has a special predis- position to these diseases."^ Many specialists emphasize ^ N. Senn, " The Hospitals in Jerusalem," American Mcdicitic, vol. iv., pp. 509-512. "^ Bulletin dc la Socic'ti! d\inlhro/>ologic dc Paris, Oclobcr 1S91. ' Globta, vul. Ixvii., p. 61. "• "About the Karaites," see p. 150 supra. * H. Singer, Krankheitslehrc derjudcn, p. 100; Leipzig, 1904. 320 THE JEWS. that the Jews are the at/iohi;ii-, I'art III., p. 0. ' DeutSihe Zcitsdirift filr Nci-vcnhiilktindc, xix. ; 1901. '^ Mitnchcncr Mcdiciiiisihc Woiluitschrift, No. 21, p. 905; 1904. Oppenheim fouiul among 48 patients sulTcriTig with this disease jS were Russian Jews, and he attributes it to their neuro-psychopathic diathesis. {Jour. f. Fsychol. it. NLiirologie, vol. viii., 190S.) 328 Tin-: JEWS. was known, as against a rate amonfif the f^eneral popula- tion of 118.62 amongf men and 108.61 amonj,'- women.' The mortality from nervous diseases is thus higher among- the Jews, and the high mortality of the Jewesses, almost equalling that of the men, is striking, and is in agreement with the high frequency of insanity among Jewesses. Similarly, Lombroso found that the mortality of the Jews in Verona is almost double that of the Catholics in that city,'-^ and the same was found to be the case in Cracow, Austrian Galicia.^ On the other hand, in Budapest Auer- bach found that the mortality from nervous diseases during 1901-05 was among the Christians 22.42 per 10,000, as against only 16.31 among the Jews,'* and the same was found to be the case in Vienna, where Rosenfeld gives the rates as — Jews 123, Protestants 156, and Catholics 160 per 100,000,^ while in Lemberg there were no differences to be discerned between Jews and Christians.*^ These contradictory mortality rates may be due to differences in the milieu in which Jews in various countries live, or to differenced in the classifications of the many varieties of nervous disease as registered in the vital statistics. On the whole, we cannot place considerable reliance on this kind of test as to the prevalence of nervous disease among Jews, or even as to the proportion of deaths caused by nervous derangements. Better results may be had by investigating the morbidity of the Jews as compared with the people among which they live. A study of this character shows no uniformity in every class of Jews, but tends to confirm our previous observation that there is no racial factor concerned in the etiology of these diseases, but that it all depends on many and com- plex causes, such as degree of culture, prevalence of alcoholic intemperance, syphilis, accuracy of diagnosis, and the like. 1 Census Biilhtin, No. 19; Washington, 1890. - C. Lombroso, L\iiitiseniitisino c Ic sa'cnze mydcnic, Aiijiendix ; Torino, 1894. ^ J. Thon, Die Jiidtii in Oesterreieh, pp. 34-36. ■• E. Auerbach, "Die Sterblichkeit der Juden in Budapest," Zeitsehr. DonjqraJ'/iie S/ii/isL Juden, p. 163; 190S. ' Rosenfeld in Anhiv fur Jyassfu u. Gesellsehaftsbiologic, Nos. i and 2 ; 1907. « J. Thon, loe. eit. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 329 Epilepsy is a disease usually met with in families of a neurotic taint, which would lead us to expect it among the Jews with greater frequency than among- others. But on the other hand, it is mostly met with in the offspring- of parents who suffer from syphilis or alcoholism, conditions only rarely met with among- Jews. It appears from the available evidence that epilepsy is, in fact, rather in- frequent among them. In the discussion on the pathology of the Jews in the Paris Academy of Medicine in 1891, Charcot stated that at the Salpetriere only thirty-nine Jewish epileptics came under observation during a period of thirteen years; Worms stated that at the Rothschild Hospital in that city it was also infrequently met with.^ Minor in Moscow found it less often among his Jewish than among his Christian patients; and from information I obtained from the physician in charge of the Craig Colony for Epileptics in New York, it seems that the percentage of Jewish inmates is lower than their percentage in the population. 2 Among Jewish insane it appears that epilepsy is rather infrequent. Pilcz found it less often among Jewish lunatics in Vienna,-' and Sichel also found it one- half as frequently among the Jewish inmates of the insane asylum of Frankfort as among the Christians.* All available evidence tends to show that their neurotic taint has not been sufficient to produce among them a large number of epileptics. The rarity of alcoholism and syphilis was more potent in preventing this disease than their predisposition to neuroses. Taking another common disease, apoplexy, which is quite common and is usually diagnosed properly, no racial preference of either Jews or others can be discovered. Lombroso,^ analyzing the vital statistics of the Italian ^ Discussion sur la Pathologic de la Race Jiiive, Bull, dc I' Acadt'mie dc Mddccinc dc Paris, vol. xxvi., j)p. 23S-241. - Among the applicants for relief in the United Ifehrcw Charities in New York I only rarely meet witli an epileptic. During ten years' service in that institution, examining over 3,000 Jews annually, I have not met with more than six cases of ei^ilepsy on the average ])i'r year. ■* A. Pilcz, " Ueber Geistesstorungen bei den Juden," W'ii-ntr Klinischc Wochenschrift, Nos. 4748; 1901. * M. Sichel, " Ueber die (leistesstorungen bei den Juden," Ncuio- hqisihcs Centralblall, pp. 351-367 ; 1 90S. ^ Loc. cit. 330 THE JEWS. Jews, found that deaths due to apoplexy were about twice as common among" them as among" the g'eneral population of that country, and assig-ns as reasons the emotional temperament of the Jew, his avarice, his constant struggle ag'ainst adverse conditions of life, and the sufferings caused by the ceaseless persecution to which he has been subjected. Consang^uineous marriages and the greater development and use of their brain are also assigned as predisposing causes. But an inquiry into the question in New York City showed that the proportion of patients suffering from apoplexy admitted to two large Jewish hospitals was proportionately about the same as in two non-Jewish hospitals in the city, and the mortality of the Jews from this disease does not materially differ from that of the general population. ^ In Vienna, on the other hand, Rosenfeld found that the mortality from apoplexy was as follows: — Catholics 62 per 100,000 population, Pro- testants 71, and Jews only 51 ; and in Budapest Auerbach found the rates — ^Jews 35.2, and Catholics 41.7 per 100,000 population. All the evidence so far brought forward shows distinctly that when the Jews are compared with the non-Jewish population among which they live, it is found that they are no more liable to die from diseases of the nervous system than others. The mortality rates from these diseases are different in different times and places, and depend on a multiplicity of causes of a complex nature which are diffi- cult to unravel. One thing is certain, the Jews are more affected with the so-called functional nervous affections, especially neurasthenia and hysteria, and most of the physicians who have an extensive experience among the Jews testify that hysteria in the male is a characteristic privilege of the children of Israel. The causes of this nervousness of the Jews are apparent to every one who knows the conditions under which they have laboured for the last two thousand years. In the first place, they have been town-dwellers for centuries, and only rarely engage in agricultural pursuits. Neurasthenia is known to be a disease of large urban centres, where the hurry and bustle of life is an appalling drain on nervous energy. These diseases are also most frequently seen * See article *' Apoplexy," /<: wis A Encyclopadia, vol. ii., pp. Ii-I2. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 331 among commercial people, speculators, and bankers; and considering- the larg-e number of Jews who depend on commerce for a livings, and their ways of doing business often with a small capital, it is not surprising- that many break down under the strain of speculation. It is, how- ever, to be remembered that neurasthenia and hysteria are not only encountered among- the richer classes of Jews. They are just as frequent among- the poorer Jews, the artisans and labourers. In fact, one can almost daily meet with numerous Jews in the clinics for nervous diseases in New York City, many of whom are seeking- relief from several physicians during the same week, and whose chief complaints are the symptoms of neurasthenia and hysteria in their various manifestations. But the Jews are not the only ones who have overstrained their nervous system in the keen struggle for existence. A large proportion of the inhabitants of modern large cities are known to be in the same plight. Leroy Beaulieu, speaking of this nervous- ness of the Jews, concludes as follows:—" It is well known that the increase of cerebral diseases and the exacerbation of nervous disorders is one of the distinctive marks of our age and our civilization. It is due to the feverish intensity of modern life, which, by multiplying our sensations and efforts, overstrains the nerves and rends the delicate net- work of the cerebral fibres. The Jew is the most nervous and, in so far, the most modern of men. He is'^by the very nature of his diseases the forerunner, as it were, of his contemporaries, preceding them on that perilous path upon which society is urged by the excesses of its intellectual and emotional life, and by the increasing spur of com- petition. The noisy army of psychopathies and neuro- pathies is gaining so many recruits among us that it will not take the Christians long to catch up with the Jews in this respect. Here, again, there are probably no ethnic forces in operation." Many authorities on nervous diseases have blamed the frequent consanguineous marriages among them for the nervousness of the Jews. While on the whole facts are against them, because marriage of near kin when con- tracted between healthy individuals has not been proven to be detrimental to the offspring, still, considering that the inbreedinof amonof them has been sjoin"- on for the lonir 332 THE JEWS. centuries of their dispersion, often in small communities the members of which had unstable nervous systems, it is not surprising that this has at least partly contributed to their nervousness of to-day. People who " owe their existence less to their hands than to their brains," and who have to tax their ing^enuity severely in order to subsist, in a manner unknown among' any other human beings, cannot be anything else than nervous, and the children they bring into the world cannot but inherit these characteristics. The present author has seen many of the Jews who have survived the recent "pogroms" in Russia. The stories each of these men, women, and children had to tell were sufficient to explain why they, as well as the children they may bring forth in the future, should be psychopathies and neuropathies. No physician can expect that children who have witnessed the slaughter of their parents, the violation of their mothers, sisters, and friends, should remain with a stable nervous system. The Jews, who for centuries had been maltreated or at least harassed, have had their nervous system shattered, hence their nervousness to-day. Mental and Physical Defectives ajnong Jeivs. — Statistics obtained by German censuses tend to show that there is. an excessive number of feeble-minded Jews. It is difficult to say whether this is the case with the Jews in other countries, because the available data on the subject for Russia and Roumania, where about one-half of the total number of Jews in the world live, are rather defective. The German censuses give a special enumeration of all defectives according to their religious affiliation. One of the most important results of these investigations is that figures were obtained tending to show that idiocy and imbecility are more frequently met with among the Jews than among the Christians in that country, and various theories were advanced to explain this phenomenon. In Hanover^ it was found that in 1855-56 there was one idiot to 1,528 Lutherans, 1,473 *^f the Reformed Church, 1,143 Catholics, and 763 Jews, which shows that the Jews have nearly twice as many of this kind of defectives as the Protestants. Similarly, in Baden and Bavaria, according to Mayr, the number of Jewish defectives is larger than of ' G. Brandes, Dcr Idiotisntus itnd die Idiotic mit Bcsondcrcr Bcrittk- sichti^ung dcr Vcrhiiltnissc in Kgr. Hanova ; 1S62. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 333 Christian. In 1880 there were 260.7 idiots per 1,000,000 Jews, and only 158 per 1,000,000 Christians; and in Bavaria the rates were 207.3 ^"d 144 respectively. But in other German provinces the excess of feeble-minded of Jewish faith is not as large. Thus, in Wiirtemberg' it is reported that there was one idiot among- 3,003 Jews, as against one among 3,207 Protestants and one among 4,113 Catholics. The difference between the Jews and Protestants is so small as to be of no significance, while the difference between the Protestants and Catholics is quite large ; still nobody would say that there is a racial basis for this advantage of the Catholics. In Silesia also there is hardly any difference between Jews and non-Jews in this respect. There is, it was found, one idiot to 580 Catholics, one to 408 Protestants, and one to 514 Jews, which is rather unfavourable to the Protestants. From the reports of the asylums tor mental defectives in Prussia, I compiled the following table, showing the number of idiots admitted per 1,000,000 population : — 1882-1885 1886-1890 1891-1895 1896- 1900 The disparity between the number of male and female idiots and imbeciles was greater among the Jews than among the Christians. Thus, of the total number of patients in the Prussian asylums it was found that 9.9 per cent, of the males and 8.9 per cent, of the females were idiots and imbeciles, while of the Jewish patients the ratio was 1 1. 1 per cent, male and 6.6 per cent, females. The enormous number of Jewish idiots and imbeciles in Prussia is only appreciated when it is recalled that the birth-rate of the Jews has only been one-half that of the Christian population, and that the number of Jewish children is comparatively small, especially when compared with the Germans, whose rate of increase has been remarkably high. The number of mentally feeble and defective Jews is, when looked at from this view-point, not only double, but more than triple the number met with among the Christian population in that country. Pilcz found that in the clinic for nervous diseases in Vienna no less than 17.7 Christians. Jews. 25.9 28.6 95-5 88.1 53-4 62-1 122.7 140.2 334 T"!^- JEWS. per cent, of the male and 15.3 per cent, of the female idiots and imbeciles who applied for treatment were of Jewish extraction. Considering" that the Jews in Vienna constitute only 8.86 per cent, of the total population, it appears that they are twice as liable to idiocy as the Christians.^ But it must be borne in mind that Vienna is a veritable Mecca for the sick and afflicted Jews of Austria, and particularly Galicia and the Bukowina, and to a certain extent also from South Russia and Roumania. Many who suffer from some intractable disease or defect g"0 to consult some famous specialist in Vienna ; even some who are very poor often begf their way to Vienna in hope to obtain relief. The patients in that clinic do not include only Viennese Jews, but also a large number of strangers ; so that this by no means proves that idiocy is twice as common among the Jews of Vienna as among" the Christians. 2 There is one more point to be considered. Jews are well known, as a rule, to take more care of the health of their children than the poor classes of the Christians among whom they live. They are thus more likely to send their defective children to institutions. This is especially true of Prussia, where their economic condition is superior to that of the non-Jewish population. The Jews are town-dwellers almost exclusively, and a feeble- minded child cannot be kept at home in the city; while the Christians, the majority of whom live in the country, can, and do often, keep a large proportion of their defectives at home. The result is that a larger proportion of Jews reach the institutions for the care of mental defectives, thus showing an apparent excess when admissions to asylums are taken as a criterion. To this must be added the fact that, as the result of the enormous care bestowed by Jews on their children, their defectives have more chance to survive than defectives of the slum population of non- Jews, and the differences between Catholics and Protestants ' A. Pilcz, " Geistesstorungen ilei den Juden," Wtetier Klinische J^iiu(isihau,\'o\. xv., pp. 8S8-890, 90S-910; 1901. - According to Then, there were in Austria, during 1S9S-1S92, per ICX3,ooo population: Idiots, Jews 0.98, Christians 0.70 ; imbeciles, Jews 3.53, and Christians 2.05. Tliis indicates a higher ratio for the Jews. See DieJudcH in Ocsterreich, p. 157. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 335 in this respect are often just as large as between Jews and Christians. No theory of race influence is advanced in this case, and the complex causes at work are obscure. There is consequently no good reason for attributing the excess shown in the relative number of idiots among the Jews in some countries to ethnic causes. It is difficult to estimate the number of idiots among the Jews in the United States. In New York City the number of feeble-minded Jews in the hospitals for these diseases is quite considerable. But then, the Jewish population of this city is also very large. It must be mentioned in this connection that the immigration authorities are very strict in regard to the exclusion of feeble-minded aliens when they attempt to enter the United States. One form of idiocy, known as Aynaurotic Family Idiocy, a rare and fatal disease of children, is mostly found among Jews. The largest number of cases have been observed among the Jews in the United States. At first it was thought that here an exclusively Jewish disease was at last found, because all the cases first reported were in Jewish children. But later on many cases have been observed among non-Jews. The chief characteristics of this disease are progressive mental and physical enfeeblement of the child, weakness and paralysis of all the extremities, and marasmus. These symptoms are associated with changes in the macula hitea, the yellow spot in the retina. An investigation of the etiological factors has left pathologists in the dark as to the causation of this disease. It has been found that neither syphilitic, alcoholic or nervous antecedents in the parents, nor consanguinity, have any- thing to do with the disease. No preventive measures have as yet been discovered, and no treatment has been of any benefit. All reported cases have terminated fatally. The Mongolian type of idiocy has also been frequently observed among Jews. Its chief features are shortness of stature, broad, protruding cheek-bones, flattened bridge of the nose, rounded pinna of the ears, enlarged tongue, and the obliquely-placed Mongolian eyes. As to why this form of idiocy occurs more frequently among the Jews is impossible to say, as long as the etiology of the disease remains obscure. Deaf-mutism is another defect which appears to be more 336 THE JEWS. frequent amongf Jews. The latest census of these de- fectives in Germany shows that in 1902 there were the following^ proportions of deaf-mutes in that country^: — Protestants ... 83 per 100,000 population. Catholics - - - . 92 ,, ,, ,, Jews .... 136 ,, ,, ,, The Jews in Germany are thus shown to have over one-third more deaf-mutes than either the Catholics or Protestants. In Bavaria it was found that in 187 1 there were 8.6 deaf-mutes per 10,000 Catholics, 9.5 among Protestants, and 18.5 among- Jews. A new census in 1901-02 showed that the proportion among- the Christian population remained about the same — 8.3 among 10,000 Catholics, and 9.1 among 10,000 Protestants. Among the Jews the number of deaf-mutes decreased during these thirty years from 18.5 to 12.6 per 10,000.- In Hungary also it was found in 1890 that there were, per 100,000 population, 100.93 Jewish and 88.51 Christian-deaf mutes; and in Prussia in 1895 the proportions were, Jews 129.8 and Christians 85.8.^ It has been stated that the number of Jews who are congenital deaf-mutes is about the same as among the Christians, and that it is only the acquired form which is more prevalent among them. Thus, the census of Germany in 1902 shows that there 77.5 per cent, of the Protestant, 77 per cent, of the Catholic, and 79.2 per cent, of the Jewish deaf-mutes were disabled since early infancy ; while in Prussia in 1895 it was found that 46.88 per cent, of the Christian and 57.40 per cent, of the Jewish deaf-mutes were such since infancy. This would tend to confirm the opinion that congenitally, or racially, there are not many more Jewish than Christian deaf-mutes, and that only in later life, as a result of disease, a larger number of Jews acquire the defect. If this could be confirmed by further evidence, then the explanation might be this : deaf-mutism is usually acquired as a result of some febrile disease, particularly scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, or meningitis in early ^ Mcdiiinalstatistische Mitleihingcn atis dcm Kaiserlichcn Gesundhcitsamt, vol. viii., p. 21 ; 1 905. ' Papralz, Allgcmeine Statistik ubcr die Taiibstummen Bayerns ; Munchen, 1906. ' A. Ruppin, Die Judcn der Gegefiwart, p. 104. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 337 life. Considering' the great care taken by Jews in cases of illness, and that the number of children who survive attacks of acute ailments is larger than among the poor of other peoples, a larger proportion of those who survive may remain deaf-mutes. Congenital deaf-mutism, which constitutes the great majority of these defectives, has usually inheritance as a potent cause, and it has been stated that consanguineous marriages are at the bottom of many cases. Among the deaf-mute children admitted to the institutions for the care of these defectives in Holland it was found that 24.3 per cent, of all the Jewi.^i deaf-mutes had a history of marriage of near kin in their parentage, as against only 9.7 per cent, among the Protestants, and 3.7 per cent, among the Catholics.^ But it must be again mentioned in this connection that the number of consanguineous marriages among Jews is much larger than among Christians, and that any class of Jews will therefore show a larger proportion of consanguinity. On the whole, it appears that no ethnic factors are the cause of the larger number of deaf-mutes among the Jews. The larger number of survivals from acute febrile diseases during early life, the fact that they are town-dwellers, and are subject to nervous diseases much more than others, give us hints as to the complex etiology of this peculiarity. Insanity anion^ Jews. — From statistics collected in various parts of the world it appears that insanity is much more frequent among Jews than among the Christians among whom they live. Some authors, like Buschan, consider this predisposition of the Jews to mental derangement an ethnic trait. They point to the Bible, in which it is frequently mentioned that the ancient Hebrews were already great sufferers from mental alienation.- The number of people "possessed with devils," "lunatics," "men with unclean spirits," etc., mentioned in the New Testament as having called on Christ for relief, and that He had cured them, are other ' ZcitschriftjTir DeiHOS^raphic itnd Stalistik dcr Judoi, p. 63 ; 1907. - W. Ebslein, Die Mcdizin itn Altcit Testament, Stuttgart, 1902, i;ivcs details; see especially pp. 114-I17. liordier says: " Les songes, les hallucinations, le don de prophctie joiient en elTet un grand role dans I'Ancien Testament et montrent la frequence considerable, chez le peuple juif, des phcnomenes curebraux d'excitation," Gtiogiiiphic Mddtealc, p. 530; Paris, 18S7. 22 •;j8 Tin; JEWS. indications o( tlie frequency of insanity among- them.' In modern times it was shown that the Jews in various countries are from two to four times more Hable to insanity than the non-Jews among- whom they live. This was especially noted in Germany, where careful statistics are published on the subject of insanity, and the religious faith of the patients is stated in the reports. During 1895-97 it was found that the insane asylums, both public and private, contained, proportionately, about three times as many Jews as Christians. There were, namely, 23 insane per 100,000 Catholics, 23 P^'' 100,000 Protestants, and 92 per 100,000 Jews.- The census of the insane in Prussia taken in 1895 showed that there were, per 100,000 population, 491.9 Jewish and 253.0 Christian lunatics.-' During 1898-1900 it was found that the Jews made up 3.42 per cent, of all admissions to the insane asylums in Prussia. Inasmuch as they constitute only 1. 14 per cent, of the total population, it follows that the Jews have about three times as many lunatics as the Christians.^ Per 100,000 population the admissions to the asylums in Prussia were as follows^ : — General population. Jews. 1881 29.7 - 92.9 1890 39.7 120.4 1895 .... 58.0 - 145.6 1900 - - - . - 68.3 - 163. 1 These statistics are to be taken with a certain amount of reservation. They are based on the asylum population of the country, as most statistics of this nature are. But it is a question whether the Jews are not more likely to send their mental defectives to asylums than Christians. As city dwellers they find it diflicult to keep lunatics at home, while the Christian population, over one-half of ^ See particularly St. Matthew, viii. 16, ix. 32, xii. 11, xvii. 15; St. Mark, v. 2; St. Luke, viii. 27, xiii. u, and many other places. Ehsleio in his Mcdizin tin ncuen Tcstaiiuiit mid tin I'almiid (Stuttgart, 1903) ; also Sichel, " Psychiatrisches aus der Literatur und Geschichle der Juden," Nciirologischcs Cenlralblatt^ Nos. 5-6, 1 909, give details. - Statistics for earlier years in the various German States, also for Italy, Denmark, etc., are given in the article " Insanity,"' by the author, in the Jewish EitcyclopLidia, vol. vi., pp. 603-605. ^ A. Kuppin, Die Juden der Gegefiwart, p. 104. •• Ibid., p. 103. ^ H. Singer, Kranheitskhre der Juden, p. 91 ; Leipzig, 1904. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 339 which live in the country, may not send all their insane, especially those of the milder forms, to institutions. Moreover, insanity is mostly met with among adults and is comparatively rare among the young. As already under- stood, the birth-rate of the Jews in Germany is pheno- menally low, and the composition of the Jewish population is consequently peculiar in regard to the small number of children, especially when compared with the Germans, whose birth-rate is remarkably high. It is thus evident that much of this heavy proportion of insanity may be only apparent. In fact, in some cities in Germany the number of Jewish lunatics is not above their proportion in the population. In Frankfort, Sichel has recently investi- gated the problem and found that, "contrary to the general impression, the number of Jewish lunatics corresponds altogether to the proportion they make up of the general population."^ They constituted 6.8 per cent, of the total population and made up 6.5 per cent, of the insane asylum population in 1906-07, and an investigation of the number of admissions during the period 1897-1907 gave the same result. From statistics of other German cities it appears that in cities the divergence between the rates of insanity of Jews and Christians is not at all great. In Berlin, 3.4 per cent, of the insane are Jews, while they constitute 4.8 per cent, of the population ; in Leipsic the proportions are 1.3 and 1.5, and in Breslau 4.3 and 4.0 respectively. This is probably due to two factors : The large pro- portion of alcoholic insanity among the Christians, which is rare among the Jews, and also because in the cities the Christians as well as the Jews cannot keep their demented at home and must commit them to institutions. In Austria it is seen from statistics compiled by J. Thon, that during the twenty years 1882-1902 the number of Jewish lunatics w^as in excess of their proportion of the population. During 1898-1902 there were confined in the insane asylums 49.35 per 100,000 Christians and 67.89 per 100,000 Jews.- In the city of Vienna alone the proportion ^ Max Sichel, " Ueber die Geistesstorungen bei den Juden," Ncuro- logischcs Centralblatt, pp. 351-367; 1908. - See detailed statistics in J. Thon's Die Judcn in Oesterreich, pp. 151-160; also N. Wcldler, "Die Geisteskrankheiten unter den Juden Oesterreichs in den Jahren 18S2-1902," Zeitschr. Dcino^r. Statiitik tier /«(/£;«, pp. 61-63 ; 1908. 340 THK JEWS. seems to have been hii;"her. Diiriiii;' 1903 it was found that 13.2 per cent, of all admissions to the insane asylums were Jews, while they constituted only 8.86 per cent, of the population of that city.^ In Hun<,'-ary also the birth-rate o( the Jews is quite high, and the disproportion in the incidence of insanity among- Jews and Christians is not very great. During 1890 it was found that there were 91.01 insane per 100,000 Jews and 87.94 per 100,000 Christians.- In Russia, where the birth-rate of the Jews is the highest in Europe, the returns of the census of 1897 showed that the number of Jewish insane is not at all excessive. It was found that 4.23 per cent, of all the insane enumerated in that country were Jews, which is about the same as the proportion they made up of the total population. Some special classes of Jews in Russia have, however, been found to be more liable to mental derangement than the Christians around them. Thus, among the troops stationed in Kieff, MaximofF and Sikorski found the following proportions of insane : — Russians, 0.91 per cent. ; Poles, 0.92 per cent.; Mohammedans, 1.06 per cent.; and Jews, 2. 19 per cent.-^ Even in Algeria it has been found that the Jews have a larger quota of insane. Marly, the physician to the hospitals in Constantine, shows the following pro- portion per 1,000 population: — Jews, 1.7; French, 1.5; and Arabs, 0.07.^ The only statistics about the Jews in the United States were collected by Dr. Hyde.'^ He found that the ad- missions of Jewish insane to the asylums of New York City, during the period extending from December 13, 1871, to November 30, 1900, amounted to 1,722, among a total number of 17,135 patients. The Jews thus constituted 10.05 P^*" cent, of the total number of insane admitted. While at present the proportion of Jews in Greater New York is about twice ten per cent., it must be recalled that * Bcn'cht ubcr die nicdcros'.errckh. Irrciiaiistaltcnfi'ir tg02, '•* A. Ruppin, Die Judcn dcr Ge,^euwart, p. 104. •' Proieediiif^s of the Twelfth International Medical Coni^ress, vol. iv., Part I., p. 661. See also ^^. A. Ryazansky, in Vraehelmaia Gazcta, ix., pp. 438-442, 1902, for further evidence in Russia. * Zeitschr. fur Deinoi^raphie und Statistik der Jiiden, No. 4; 1 907. ^ Frank G. Hyde, "Notes on the Hebrew Insane,"' American Journal of Insanity, Iviii. , pp. 469-471. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 34I up to 1882 there were fewer Jews there, and that this indicates a higher proportion than 10 per cent, for the twenty-nine years. Indeed, an analysis of the fig-ures given by Dr. Hyde for the five years ending November 30th, 1900, shows that the proportion of Jewish insane in New York City is much larger. During these five years 3,710 insane were admitted to the asylums of New York City, and of these 573 were Jews. However, it again makes a smaller proportion than the estimated Jewish population of this city, for indeed it constituted only 15.44 per cent. Whether there is an error in these figures somewhere, or the Jews in New York are not as liable to mental alienation as in their native countries in Europe, is impossible to say, as long as there are no available data about other cities in the United States. Perhaps the care taken by the immigration authorities to exclude defective aliens has some influence. As to the forms of insanity most frequently met with among Jews, alienists are not in agreement. Dr. C. F. Beadles, basing his assertion on the experience he gained in the Colney Hatch Asylum in England, stated that there appears to be a great preponderance of general paralysis among Jewish males ; twenty-one per cent, of all the male Jews admitted to that institution being subjects of this disease, while the proportion of cases of general paralysis among all the males admitted to the hospitals for the insane in England and Wales is only thirteen per cent. "It is evident," says Dr. Beadles, "that among the Jewish males, admissions for general paralysis are sixty per cent, more frequent than among the non-Jewish English and Welsh." ^ No such disparity has been ob- served in the case of Jewesses. Other observers also found an excessive proportion of general paralysis among Jews. Thus, Pilcz found a large number of paretic Jews among his patients in Vienna. He is impressed that the so-called circular course of this disease is not to be noted among Jewish paralytics.'- Hirschl also found among 200 of his paretic patients that 40 — i.e. twenty per cent. — ^ C. F. Beadles, "Tlie Ins.ine ]q\\'," Journal 0/ Mental S' Christian women in Europe, and their greater hability to insanity may be said to be due more to their greater prosperity and " tension of civilization," to which they as town-dwellers are exposed more than Christian women. The best summary as to the differences in the forms of insanity observed among Jews when they are compared with C'hristians has been compiled from the figures pub- lished in the OcsterreichiscJic Statistik by N. Weldler.^ From these figures I gather the following table, showing the average annual number of insane during 1890-1902 per 100,000 population, as well as the forms of insanity with which they were affected: — Congenital idiocy . . - . - Congenital imbecility . . . . Melancholia .--... Mania ....... Amentia ------- Paranoia ------- Psychosis periodica ----- Dementia - - Progressive paralysis - - - . - Epileptic insanity - - - - - Hysterical insanity . - - - - Insanity, with neurasthenia Psychosis cum cerebropathia circumscripta - Psychosis cum pellagra .... Alcoholism ...--. Alcoholism, with drug addiction Other forms .-..-. It will be observed that these figures give an excellent summary as to the differences between Jews and others in Austria in respect to the forms of insanity to which they are liable. Alcoholism is rare among Jews, though addiction to drugs is more frequently met with than among Christians. Both melancholia and mania are more frequent among Jews, while amentia is nearly twice as often met with as among Christians. Paranoia is met with in about the same proportion among both classes, v^rhile progressive paralysis, dementia, and periodic insanity, as well as hysterical and neurasthenic forms of mental derangement, are more frequent among the Jews. ^ See ZeUschr.f. Demogra^hie ti, Slatistik derjiidcii, pp. 59-63; 1S9S. Christians. Jews. 0.70 0.98 2.05 3-53 297 3-89 1. 61 3-87 7.62 13-44 5.41 5.96 1.99 4.86 6.79 10.79 7-77 11.07 3,10 2.22 1-35 2.04 0.71 1.78 0-45 0.62 0.50 0.16 5-44 0.68 0.14 0.28 0.65 I 42 PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 347 Epileptic insanity is rarer among- Jews, which is to be expected, considering that epilepsy is comparatively infrequent. These differences between Jews and Christians have never been studied as regards their causation. The infrequency of syphilis and alcoholism among- the Jews, while explaining some phases of the problem, does, however, not explain all that may be important in this connection.^ It is important to inquire why the psychoses of an hereditary and degenerative nature are so often met with among the Jews, and also the frequency of idiocy and imbecility, as well as dementia and progressive paralysis, irrespective of the prevalence of syphilis. It has been stated that the prognosis of insanity is more unfavourable in Jews than in others. During 1902-03 the proportion of admissions of Jewish patients to the asylums in Vienna was 11.6 per cent., and only 7.5 per cent, of those who were discharged as cured and 15.4 per cent, of those who died were of this creed.- Similarly, in the Austrian insane asylums the number of Jewish patients discharged as cured is smaller than the number admitted. Here, however, the number of deaths is smaller among the Jews.'^ On the other hand, SicheH could discover no differences between Jewish and Christian lunatics in Frankfort as regards their chances of recovery. It must also be borne in mind in this connection that the number of alcoholic insane is very small among the Jews, and among Jewesses almost unknown, and the prognosis of alcoholic insanity is rather favourable. The higher death- rates of the Jewish insane merely indicate that they are more often affected with the more dangerous and incurable forms of insanity. ^ The influence of modern conditions on the Jew is noteworthy in con- nection with the number of drug fiends met with among them. In Russin, Roum.inia, the East End of London, and New York, a Jew addicted to the morphine or cocaine habit is very rare. In Austria such Jews are twice as often treated in institutions than Christians. The same is true of Germany with greater force. Singer mentions that in one institution there were 970 Jewish among 3,200 drug habitues— /.c, they made up 30 per cent.— KraiiJuitslelue drr /idlrit, p. 92. Tlie frerpiency of neuralgia, gall stones, stone in the kidney, etc., among Jews m.ay be the cause ol the large number who have to resort to drugs for the relief of pain. - Ziitschr. Dcinogr. Statist, it. d.Jud.n, No. I; 1907. ^ Ilnd, No. 10; 1907. J. Tlum, Dicjitdcn in Ocstcrrcich, 190S. •• Sichel, Die Umschau, No. 26; 190S. 348 THE JEWS. On the whole, it can be stated that the so-called psyc/iosis Juduictiy spoken of by some writers,' is not recog'nized by most authorities. The talkative and quarrelsome pro- clivities of many Jewish lunatics are not a specific Jewish trait, and are met with among' most lunatics who suffer from the mania stag^e of circular insanity and among- certain cases of paranoia. Sichel- could not find any specific Jewish form of insanity, and Pilcz'' shows that there is no justification for speaking- oi Jiidenpsychosen. The only differences to be observed between Jews and others are in the frequency of insanity and in the forms most often met with among the two classes. The symptomatology of a given disease is, however, about the same in both Jews and Christians. Altogether there are no racial peculiarities to be observed in the forms of mental derangement which affect the Jews. It must be borne in mind that " religion, as part of the civilization of a nation, plays some part in the colouring of insanity, and to a smaller extent has an influence in producing it ; the Protestant religion, for instance, has its special mode of colouring melancholic feelings." "The position and the profession of the individual will colour the nature of the insanity : a doctor tends to hypochondriasis, a parson to remorse ; a man is more egotistical, a woman more altruistic in her morbid bent, etc."^ Considering the peculiarity of the social and economic environment of the Jew, there is little wonder that his peculiar milieu should lend a certain colouring to the manifestations and course of his malady, when his mind gives way to the excessive strain under which he labours so often. Causes of the Frequency of Insanity amongst Jeivs. — Many authors believe that the frequency of insanity among the Jews is but another manifestation of the neurotic strain running through the Semitic race. Some like Erb, Buschan, and others, state that even in Biblical times the Hebrews were already neurotics, and since then this ^ Brosius, " Die psychose der Juden,'" Allgcm. Zcitschrif I fur Psychiatric, etc., vol. Ix., p. 269. - NciDologischcs Ccntralblatl, p. 364; 1 908. •' A. Pilcz, Bcitrag ziir vcrgh'ichcudcn Rasscn-Psychiatric, p. 31 ; 1906. ■• G. II. Savage, in AllbuUs System of Mcdiciue, vol. viii. , p. 1S4 and 186, PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 349 ethnic peculiarity has been transmitted by heredity from generation to generation. The fact that the Jews in every country are more Hable to mental derangement than their non-Jewish neighbours would speak in favour of racial peculiarity in this respect. But it must not be overlooked that up to recent years the Jews have for centuries lived in every part of the world under almost identical social and economic conditions, and have been engaged in about the same occupations, subjected to the same kinds of abuses, persecutions, and disabilities. Identity of environ- ment could not but produce the same pathological results. Altogether, it is questionable whether certain races are more liable to insanity than others. Neurologists have so far not yet determined that race influence is the cause of the differences in frequency of insanity among the various peoples in the world. While it is true that insanity occurs more frequently than is generally supposed among primitive races, still they suffer much less than the civilized and cultured. But this does not indicate that there is an ethnic basis for these differences. The com- plexity of modern life, the violent increase of mental work, the variety of social and economic requirements which are very difficult to satisfy, are each and all well-known causes of insanity among civilized peoples. It is well known that the differences in the incidence of insanity between the various social classes of a modern community is much larger than between the various races of Europe. Indeed, mental alienation is not at all more common among the dark-complexioned, excitable southern peoples than among the blonde and phlegmatic northerners. The milicit is more of a determining factor in this respect than ethnic origin. Marriage of near kin, which is very common among Jews, has also been considered a potent cause of the great frequency of insanity among them. In fact, all the other physical, mental, and intellectual peculiarities of the Jews have been ascribed by many authors to this cause. Being very neurotic, consanguineous marriages among Jews cannot but be detrimental to the progeny. In one generation the neuropathy may manifest itself as hysteria, in another as some other functional or organic nervous disease, then as insanity, etc. The chances of thus per- 350 THE JEWS. peluating" a nervous strain in families by consang-uineous marriages are much greater among the Jews than among other peoples in whom nervous derangements are less frequently encountered. The Jews, as town-dwellers par excellence^ cannot be compared with the general population of any European country in regard to the incidence of insanity. About two- thirds of the European non-Jewish population live in the country, and are engaged in agricultural and allied pursuits which entail, comparatively, but little care and worry. With the Jews it is the exact opposite ; three- fourths of them live in cities, and hardly live per cent, of them are engaged in agricultural pursuits. The populations of the cultured states in Europe, as has been repeatedly proven, keeps on renewing itself by inter- marriage of the city-dwellers with the immigrants from the country. It has been calculated by Ripley that in thirty of the principal cities of Europe only about one- half of the population increases from their own loins, the overwhelming majority being of country stock. For eighteen centuries the Jews have been at a disadvantage in this respect. As town-dwellers, they degenerated physically like all others, but could not drain pure, healthy, fresh country blood for the rejuvenation of their own, which has been deteriorated by the deleterious effects of urban life. The evil effects of the strained, nerve- shattering city life has thus been deeply rooted in their bodies and minds, and is kept up by hereditary trans- mission. With each new generation the nervous vitality of the Jews lessened, and one of the results of this mode of life is that most of the diseases which increase with the advance of civilization, especially the neuroses and psychoses, are more common among them than amongf others. Suicide among Jeivs, — One of the most peculiar traits of the Jewish pathology and psychology was once considered to be the infrequency of self-destruction. It is well known that mental alienation is the most potent factor in the etiology of suicide. The Jews having such a large pro- portion of insane, would, a priori^ be expected to have also a large proportion of suicides. But most writers on the subject, relying on statistics collected about fifty years PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 35 1 ago, found that the Jew only rarely kills himself. Various explanations were offered for this phenomenon. Some have attributed it to their proverbial cowardice, others to their abstemiousness, others again to the great tenacity of life of the Semitic blood which flows in the veins of the Jews. The fact is that suicide is a purely social phenomenon, and has hardly anything to do with ethnic origin. The Jews are the best example illustrating the influence of the environment on the rates of self-destruction among men. Statistics collected by Morselli ^ show that during the middle of the nineteenth century Jews only rarely com- mitted suicide. From the table given by Morselli on the influence of religion on the tendency to suicide, it appears that in Central Europe, Austria, Hungary, and Transyl- vania, the most frequent order in which the various religions follow each other in their tendency to self- destruction is this : Protestants, Catholics, and Jews ; and the next order of frequency is Protestants, Jews, and Catholics. "This peculiar position occupied by Jews in relation to Catholics deserves attentive investigation," says Morselli. "Jews in general are more subject to mental alienation than either Catholics or Protestants." He does not, however, attribute this characteristic entirely to race influence, because he finds that Jews of various countries differ more among themselves than Catholics from Protestants, who maintain a certain relative pro- portion with little variation. He justly lays great stress on the influence of religious fervency, and maintains that individuals ardently devoted to religion, especially women (nuns and lay sisters), only rarely commit suicide. Jews intensely devoted to their religion are similarly less apt to self-destruction. A study of more recent statistics about the Jews con- firms this view. In Eastern Europe and the Orient, where they follow the religion of their fathers fervently, a Jewish suicide is very rare; in some cities in Russia, Galicia, or Roumania, with over 20,000 Jews, more than ten years often pass without a Jew taking his own life. During the first half of the nineteenth century, when the social and economic condition of the Jews in Western Europe was ^ Siinic/c, ]i. 122; New Votk, 1882. 352 THE JEWS. not much different from thai of their Iiastcrn European co-rchyioni.sts of to-day, self-destruction was also rare among- them. With the decHne of the intensity of rehgious belief which is characteristic of the contemporaneous Jews in Western Europe and America, an adoption of the habits and customs of the Christian population has been noted, among which suicide may be mentioned as a social fact important for the study of the effects of the milieu on certain human traits. In Eastern Europe suicide is even to-day less frequent among the Jewish than among the Christian population. In Cracow, for instance, one per cent, of all the deaths during 1895-1900 was self-inflicted among the Christians, as against only 0.4 per cent, among the Jews,' and the same is true of Lemberg. In Budapest, Hungary, the rates during 1901-05 were per 100,000 population: Jews, 21. 1 ; Catholics, 28.8; and others, 25.7.- Suicide is here less frequent among the Jews than among others. But proceeding to Western Europe, where the Jews are affected by what Morselli characterizes as the " universal and complex influence to which we give the name civilization," the proportion of suicides is at present much larger among the Jews than among Christians, although but fifty years ago it was quite uncommon. Thus in Vienna, where both the orthodox and the liberal Jews are about equally common, the rates in 1901-03 were, according to Rosen- feld,'* 28 per 100,000 Catholics; Protestants, 38 per 100,000; and Jews, 32 per 100,000 Jews. Here the Jews have more suicides than the Catholics, and less than the Protestants. In Wiirtemberg, the Jews also had but few suicides during 1846-69, only 65.6 per 1,000,000 population, as against 77.9 among Catholics, and 113-5 among Protestants. But the rate for the Jews kept on increasing, and during 1898-1902 it was 252, as against only 162.7 among the Christian population of that country.^ In Bavaria the rates for the Jews were already higher than those of the * J. Thon, "Die jiidische Bevolkerung in Krakau," Zt/Vjv/ir.yw^ Demo- graphif tend Statistik de Jitdcii, No. II; 1 905. Also Die Jitdcn in Ocstcrrciiii ; Berlin, 190S. - Auerbach, loc. cit. =' Loc. cit. * Zeitsckr.fiir Demographic iind Statistik dcr Jiidcn, No. 4; 1 905. Catholics. Protestants. Jews. 73-5 194.6 "5-3 95-3 221.7 1S5.S 92.7 210.2 2!24 PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 353 Catholics, during- 1844-56, when it was Jews: 105.9; Protestants, 135.4; and Catholics, 49.1 per 1,000,000 population. Since 1870 a steady increase was noted as follows : — 1870-79 1880-89 1S90-99 It is evident from these figures that the increase of suicide has been more pronounced among- the Jews than among- the Christians in that country. Among the Protestants the rate during 1890-99 was 156 per cent, of the rates in 1844-56, among the Catholics it was 189 per cent., while among the Jews it was 200 per cent., actually an appalling increase in fifty-five years. The greatest increase in self-destruction among the Jews is to be seen in Prussia, where it was rather uncommon in the first half of the nineteenth century. During 1849-55 the rates were: Jews, 46.4; Catholics, 49.6; and Protest- ants, 159.9 P^'' 1,000,000 population. Then an increase began to be noted among the followers of each of these three denominations, and during 1869-72 it was: Jews, 96; Catholics, 69; and Protestants, 187; the Jews then out- stripping the Catholics, though still having fewer suicides than the Protestants. But they did not stop at that. The latest figures available are for 1907, which show that the rates were for Catholics 104, for Protestants 254, and for Jews 356 per 1,000,000 population. ^ For each suicide among the Catholics in 1849-55, there were in 1907 about two ; for each suicide among the Protestants in 1849-55, there were in 1907 one and a half, while among the Jews the increase was eight-fold during these fifty-eight years. Such an appalling increase has not been noted among any other civilized people. All these figures show conclusively that the rates of self-destruction among- the Jews are not at all influenced by ethnic factors. The social environment is solely responsible for the infrequency of suicide among the Jews in Eastern Europe, where they live in strict adherence to their faith and traditions; while in Western Europe, where ^ Preuss. Statistik, vol. cxxiv. 354 THE JEWS. they commingle with their Christian neighbours, adopting their habits and customs, the rates of suicide increase. Considering that there is a lesser number of children among the Western European Jews, and suicide is rare among the young, and that they are mostly town-dwellers, and have a larger proportion of persons engaged in mercantile, financial, and professional pursuits, than people of other creeds, there is good reason for the higher rates among them than among others. A curious illustration of the influence of occupation on the suicide rates of the Jews is afforded from data obtained in Baden, where the rates among both Jews and Christians were about the same during 1896 to 1901, excepting 1900, when the rates were 19 per 100,000 Christians (about the average for the six years) and 50 per 100,000 Jews. During that year there was a commercial depression in Germany, and many merchants and bankers were ruined. The Jews, owing to their unusual participation in commerce and banking and other hazardous occupations, have suffered more than the Christians, hence the enormous increase in suicides among them during the year 1900.^ Further proof of the influence of the environment on the suicide rates of the Jews may be adduced from the fact that with a change of the milieu there is an immediate change in their suicide rates. The Jewish immigrants to the United States are much given to self-destruction, although in their native homes suicide is very rare. There are no available statistics as to the exact number of Jewish suicides in New York City, but judging from the news- paper reports it appears that it is of frequent occurrence. An editor of a Jewish daily writes as follows: — "About fifteen years ago suicide was uncommon among the immigrant Jews, so much so that I always gave each case reported a prominent place in my paper. To-day, conditions have changed. There are so many cases of suicide among my co-religionists that, unless it is a pro- ^ L. Wasserman, "Aufbau der jiidischen Bevolkerung in Baden, etc.", Z.eitschnft fi'tr Demographic vtid Statist ik nhr Judcii, pp. 22-29; 1906. During the commercial crisis in the winter 1907 oS in the United States the number of Jewish suicides in New York was extraordinary. Hardly a day passed but one or more Jews were reported in the press as havinc; put .nn end to their existence, and one day I knew of as many as six. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 355 minent person, or there are special news features con- nected with the case, I do not at all mention it in the columns of my paper." He estimates that there are about six cases of Jewish suicides on the averag^e weekly in New York City. If this figure is near the truth, and I am inclined to believe it is, then the suicide rate of the Jews in New York is appalling-, constituting about forty per cent, of all the suicides, while only about twenty per cent, of the population is Jewish. The aversion to suicide of the Eastern European Jew is thus seen not to be racial. As soon as he is brought face to face with a more complex life in New York City, as soon as his devotion to the religion of his fathers more or less dwindles, any serious reverse in life is liable to dis- courage him to the extent of causing him to terminate his existence. CHAPTER XVI. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. Factors influencing social and economic conditions — Distribution of the population by ages — Differences between Eastern and Western Jews — Poverty — Absence of the pauper element — Economic conditions depend mostly on their political status — Poverty of the Jews in Russia, Poland, and Roumania — Prosperity of the Western Jews — Differences in the economic conditions of the native and immigrant Jews in the United States — Capacity for regeneration of the Jewish immigrant. The social characteristics of a community depend on a variety of factors of a very complex nature. It is often impossible to disentangle the different elements at the bottom of a social phenomenon, to select those which are important as social facts and to eliminate those which are of little or no significance. Indeed, cause and effect are often so inter-related as to make it impossible to distinguish one from the other. When it appears, for instance, that a very large proportion of Jews are engaged in commercial pursuits, it is questionable whether the fact that they have been town-dwellers for nearly two thousand years is not a sufficient reason, because an inhabitant of a city cannot engage in agriculture for obvious reasons. On the other hand, some authors have argued that his aversion for agriculture, and for manual labour in general, has brought the Jew to the city and made of him a merchant par ex- cellence. There are many similar problems to be discussed while speaking of the social conditions of the Jews, most of which have been explained by various authors in a different fashion. What we must guard against, however, is the danger of finding a ready explanation of many complex social and economic phenomena by attributing them to racial characteristics. " Race" has been used recently as a cloak to cover a large number of facts which are more correctly and truthfully explained by a careful inquiry into 356 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. 357 the composition of the population as regards age and sex, education and faciHties for educating the young generation, occupations, economic well-being, poverty and pauperism, etc. The distribution of the population by age classes is of vast sociological importance, and before speaking of differences between Jews and Christians in a given place, we must make sure that there are no differences between the two classes in this respect. From an economic stand- point, a community with an excessive number of children and aged persons who are incapable of self-support, has its productive members highly burdened with the task of supporting these dependents. Age distribution has also an important effect on the rate of criminality observed in a given place. A community with a high proportion of children under twelve years of age will show a smaller ratio of criminality when calculated on a basis of the total population. Occupation will also have an important bearing in this regard, especially as to the species of crime most often observed. Thus, labourers, agricultural workers, etc., cannot become bankrupts, nor defraud in business. On the other hand, crimes of violence occur more often among labourers than among merchants. The political status of the members of a community is of special interest to us while studying the social conditions of the Jews. It must be recalled that at the present time the majority of the Jews live under legal restrictions which hinder them in many of their undertakings, aspirations, and ideals. This is the case with the Jews in the Orient, in Russia and Roumania, representing about 7,000,000 out of a total of 12,000,000 Jews in the world. As will soon be evident, the social conditions of these Jews are different from those who live in Western and Southern Europe, America, and Australia, where they are politically on an equal plane with the population around them. These factors are to be considered when speaking of the social conditions of the Jews, and the differences noted when they are compared with the Christians among whom they live. In addition it must be emphasized that religion has more bearing in this respect among the Jews than among the Christians. The separativeness which Judaism exacts from its faithful followers, the Sabbath, the dietary 358 THE JEWS. laws, etc., have had a profound effect on their social con- ditions. In fact, as will appear later, this exclusiveness of Judaism has been the cause of many of the Jews' dis- abilities, perhaps to a g^reater extent than many Jews are willing- to admit. Ajo-e Duti'ibiition of the Population. — That the social conditions of the Jews are not alike in every country, that there are differences in this respect just as we have seen that there are differences in the physical types of Jews, is evident when we consider the distribution of the Jewish population according- to ag-e classes. Considering- those below fifteen years of ag-e as unproductive, we find that there are material differences in the burden carried by the productive class of fifteen to sixty years of ag-e while attempting- to provide for their dependents. In Eastern Europe they are prolific, as was already shown. The result is that they have a large number of children. In Russia, 51.9 per cent, of male and 52.6 per cent, of female Jews are under twenty years of age, as against only 48.4 per cent, among the general population. Under ten years of age there were enumerated 40 per cent, of all the Jews, and only 38 per cent, of the Russians. This, of course, is the result of a high fecundity coupled with a low infant mortality. Old persons are found less among the Jews than among the Christians : 2.0 per cent, of males and 1.6 per cent, of the female Jewish population were over seventy years of age, as against 2.5 per cent, among the Russians. Similarly, in Servia the census of 1900 showed that 38.99 per cent, of the Jews were under 15 years of age, and 4.56 per cent, over 60 years. In Western Europe conditions are different. In Frankfort- on-Main only 21.42 per cent, of the Jewish population is under 14 years of age, while among the Christians the proportion was 25.2 per cent. In Hamburg there were under fifteen years of age, Jews 22.27 P^'' cent., and Christians 29.45 P^'' cent. ; in BAle, Switzerland, Jews 26.2 per cent., Christians 27 per cent. ; in Denmark (under 20), Jews 24.9, and total population 43.6 per cent. ; in Hesse, Jews 25.8 per cent, (under 15), and Christians 32.9 per cent.; in Italy, Jews 26.45 P^*" cent., and Christians 34.5 per cent. In the United Stales the Tenth Census showed that the proportion of children under SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. 359 five years of age was less among the Jews than in the general population in the proportion of 9 to 13, while from five to fifteen years of age it is greater in the proportion of 29 to 23. ^ It is thus evident that the Western European Jews have fewer children than their Eastern co-religionists, or than the Christians among whom they live. The proportion of persons of the productive ages — i.c.^ between fifteen and sixty years of age — is larger among the Jews in Western Europe than in Eastern Europe, and they are in this respect also at an advantage when compared with their Christian neighbours. This advantage is the more valuable eco- nomically because they have another advantage when compared with non-Jews. They are, namely, mostly engaged in mercantile pursuits which do not incapacitate them at sixty. On the contrary, a business man is usually reaping a great reward with the advance of age and experience. The Jews in Eastern Europe, engaged as they are to a large extent in industrial pursuits, at which a man is often quite incapacitated at sixty, are at a disad- vantage in this respect. In addition, these facts also confirm our observations regarding the decadence of the Jews in Western Europe. A smaller number of children implies that in the near future there will be a smaller number of adults. The numerical strength of Judaism is thus by no means hopeful. On the other hand, it must be borne in mind that the Jews in Eastern Europe, with their large number of children, will remain for some time to come the vast reservoir whence Jews will keep on streaming by immigration into western countries, thus replacing those who disappear under modern conditions. Poverty. — There is a widespread tradition that in spite of disabilities to which they have been subjected, Jews are always successful in every walk of life, and, as a class, economically prosperous. "As rich as a Jew," is a common saying. This, however, involves, as Jacobs aptly says, one of the popular fallacies in destroying which statistics perhaps do their most useful work.-* The reasons for this popular fallacy are evident to all students of the economic conditions oi the Jews. As town-dwellers, ' Census Bulletin No. ig, p. 5 ; 1890. - Joseph Jacobs, Siudks in Jewish HhUisiies, p. 1 1 ; London, 18S9. 360 THE JEWS. .'ind enq-aged to a large extent in mercantile pursuits, they arc looked at by the people around them as prosperous. A larg-e proportion is enijag'ed in money exchange. The unsophisticated peasant in liastern Europe, beholding the Jewisii money-changer sitting in the market place behind a small desk on which a display of money in various denomination is exliibited, is convinced that he sees one oi' the richest men in the world. As a matter of fact many of these dealers in money are by no means prosperous, often even poor. The comparatively large number of Jews seen in the stock exchanges of Western European cities also gives an impression that all the Jews are rich.^ If to this is added the fact that a Jew only rarely applies to a Christian for assistance, the impression that there are no poor Jews is gaining credence. Indeed, the Jews take great pride in the fact that they take care of their own poor, and in former times they always promised that under no circumstances would they permit their co- religionists to fall a burden on the community in which they lived. ^* It must also be mentioned that there are comparatively few vagrants and paupers among Jews, considering a pauper one who is able-bodied, but has lost all ambition to work for himself and his own. Among the Jews there are many poor, but they mainly consist of the sickly, the infirm, and the defective. When nearly every vestige of the traditional Jewish ^ The participation of Jews in the slock exchanges has been very much overestimated. According to Mr. Percy M. Castello, M.P. (Jeivish Chronicle, June 17th, 1910), there are at most 330 Jewish among 5,100 members of the Stock Exchange in London. The great American Marlhie iind Stalisiik der Juden, p. 34; 1907. 378 THE JEWS. above-mentioned institutions, 732, or 39 per cent, were Jews — i.e., about twice as hui^e as the ratio of the Jewish population in New York City. In several other medical schools located in Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Missouri, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, Professor Loeb calcu- lated that 10.7 per cent, of the students were Jews. If to this should yet be added dentistry and pharmacy, the number of Jewish students in medicine and allied branches would be enormous. Similarly, in the law schools of New York City, the number of Jews is very large. During" the session, 1904-05, Professor Loeb found that of the 1,931 law students enrolled in the schools of this city, 659, or 34 per cent., were Jews. The percentag^es were as follows: — Columbia, 26.8; New York Law School, day and evening classes, 23; University Law School, day, evening, and women's classes, 52.5. I do not know of any enumeration of the number of lawyers of Jewish faith in New York City, but it may be stated that it is very large, by far larger than their number would lead us to expect. The preference shown by the Jews for the study of medicine is not a recent phenomenon. All through the Middle Ages we meet with many famous Jewish physicians. Many conditions have been favourable to them to excel as medical men. Their knowledge of anatomy, because of the ritual slaughter of cattle and fowl in accordance with the Jewish law, may have had some influence in this regard. But the most important factor was the discouragement of the practice of the healing art by the Christian Church, which left the field practically clear for them.^ Several of the Popes and many kings have had Jewish physicians, who enjoyed special privileges. On the other hand, the study of jurisprudence is rather recent among the Jews. Up to their emancipation they could neither study nor practise law in any court in Europe. Even to-day it is very difficult for a Jew to be admitted to the bar in Russia or Roumania. ^ Abrahams {Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 236) says " the Church never reconciled itself to the reputation won by Jewish physicians, and the influence which it gave them over their patients. Eftbrts were constantly made to suppress these doctors, but the kings and popes them- selves disobeyed the Church canons on the subject. When, however, the Christian Universities taught medicine scienlitically, the Jewish and Arabian predominance died a n.itural death,"' EDUCATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 379 It must be said, however, that medicine and law are not the only professional studies in which they eno"ag"e. Thus, in Austria 12.5 per cent, of all the students of the philosophical faculty and 20.2 per cent, of the technical hitjh schools were Jews in 1904. In other words, during^ 1898-1902 the proportion of Jewish students per 10,000 population in Austria was 7.0 among the Christian, and 32.2 among- the Jewish population. ^ In Hungary, 20.95 per cent, of the students in philosophy and 45.27 per cent, of the students in the polytechnicum in 1904 were Jews. In New York, Professor Loeb found that, in 1904-05, 12.2 per cent, of all the students in the Teachers' College, 22*5 per cent, in the University School of Pedagogy, 20.6 per cent, in the Schools of Mining, Engineering, and Chemistry of Columbia University, and 18.3 per cent, in the New York University School of Applied Science were Jews. In other countries, as in England, France, Germany, etc., the proportion of Jewish students in the departments of philosophy, applied science and arts is also very large. Indeed, it cannot be said that they are in any way one- sided in regard to studies, as has been stated by some authors. It is about the same as with their occupations. As long as they were kept out of certain trades by the guilds and by the law generally, they were compelled to confine their activities to but a few trades. To-day they are to be seen in almost every trade and occupation in which they are permitted to engage. Similarly with studies pursued by Jews. Since they are allowed to select their studies, they are met with in every department of the universities of Europe and America. Languages spoken by Jews. — Of immense sociological importance are the languages spoken by the Jews in various countries. As a religious minority, segregated in separate parts of a city as the Mediaeval Ghetto, or in separate parts of a country as the Pale of Settlement of Russia, they have often been deprived of opportunities for social intercourse with the people among whom they have found a resting-place. If in addition to their separate day of rest, their dietary laws, etc., they also spoke a foreign tongue, as was often the case, there is little wonder that they have been considered an alien element in race, 1 Zcitschr.f. Dcvwgmph. 11. Stalistik derjuden, p. 35; 1907. 380 THE JEWS. relig-ion, traditions, and languagfe. But, peculiar as it may appear to the uninformed, it is nevertheless a fact that there is no such lani;-ua<^e as could properly be called " Jewish." There is no laiii^uag-e which is, or has been, the mother-tong-ue of the Jews in every country, or at least understood by all Jews. The lang-uag'e called by many writers "Hebrew," "Jewish," and the like, is either not used at all by any Jews in their daily inter- course with their co-relig'ionists, and understood by very few Jews, as is the case with the Hebrew lang-uage; or when used as the mother-tong-ue by some Jews, as is the case with Spa^niioh', Viddi's/i, /udcro- Persia ?i , etc., it is not at all a Jewish language in the strict sense of the word, as will soon be seen. At any rate, each of these dialects is not understood by all Jews, as German is understood by all Germans, or English by all Englishmen. The Yiddish- speaking Jew does not understand his Spanish-speaking co-religionist, the Persian does not understand either; while very few indeed understand Hebrew. The use of the Hebrew language in their daily inter- course with each other was given up by the Jews long- before their dispersion among the nations. Since their Babylonian captivity, and even before, Chaldaic, or East Aramaic, displaced Hebrew as a vehicle for interchange of thought. In addition to several fragments of the Bible and the Apocrypha being written in that lang-uage, the Jews at that time found it necessary to prepare a trans- lation of the Bible into Chaldaic in order that the bulk of the Jews should be able to understand it. Ever since their dispersion the rule has been that the Jews adopted the language of the country they lived in. During the Hellenic period Greek completely displaced Hebrew and Chaldaic, and became the vernacular of the Jews. When Arabic culture spread in the countries around the Mediter- ranean, the Arabic tong-ue displaced Greek among the Jews, and for about fiv^e centuries it was their vernacular in Southern Europe. Later, when Arabic was fading away in Southern Europe, and the Jews came under the rule of the Latin-speaking peoples, such as the Spanish and the French, they adopted these languages as their mother-tongue. Hebrew was, however, never entirely forgotten, at least EDUCATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 381 by cultured Jews. It has been, ever since their dispersion, the language of literary composition, of sacred literature, and of prayer. It was Loshon Hukodesh, the holy lan- guage, understood only by the minority. But there were many exceptions in this respect. The Babylonian Talmud and the Jewish literary productions of the first ten centuries of the present era were written in Syrian, or Western Aramaic, and not in pure Hebrew. The prayer- books of the modern orthodox Jews are mostly written in Hebrew, although only very few understand them. In Jewish synagogues the majority of Jews merely read their prayers without having any idea as to the exact meaning of the words. All the facts of history show conclusively that the Jews living among various nations have always made strenuous efforts to assimilate linguistically with their neighbours of other faiths. In Rome they spoke Latin; in Spain, Arabic and later Spanish ; in France, French ; in Italy, Italian ; in Germany, German ; etc. As long as the Church and State which in mediaeval times worked hand-in-hand, did not interfere, as long as they were permitted to associate freely with the general population, "they spoke Arabic, Spanish, Italian, German, or French with accuracy, though they probably employed Hebrew characters."^ An important change took place during the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries. Persecutions were then the order of the day. The most important and far-reaching consequences as regards the languages spoken by the Jews were the frequent expulsions to which they were subjected. Even when they were allowed to remain in a country they were only tolerated in certain parts oP the city assigned to them, in the Ghetto. "There was hardly a congregation in which a large foreign element had not been forced to settle by continued expulsion from their native land." This was in itself sufficient to introduce foreign words and phrases and thus afTect the language. Hebrew, of course, being the language understood by many Jews of every country, was therefore used on such occasions, and thus many Hebrew expressions were intro- duced into the vernacular of both the native and foreign Jews. Social ostracism, which was part and parcel of ^ J. I-. Abrahams, yt'Xfw/i Li/c in the Middle Agis, p. 359. 382 THE JliWS. Ghetto life, also contributed to the development of peculiar jarg'ons. Isolation among" all nations is the chief cause ot the development of dialects and lang-uag^es, which remain permanent once there is the proper soil, especially political unity, which was lacking" among the Jews. The result is that the dialects which they thus developed were only evanescent, as I will soon show. Thus, the peculiar Jewish dialects known as Judaio- Spanish, or Ladiiio, Jiidcco-Persuin, Judao-Geriium^ etc., have developed as a result of emig^ration and social isolation. The chief characteristics of these dialects are that foreign words are often treated as Hebrew, or Hebrew words treated as foreign words, or they are marked by the use of words which have long- since disappeared from the ordinary speech of the country, or by the retention of the ancient pronunciation of the language.^ Another peculiarity was the singular proclivity of the Jews to write these languages with Hebrew or Syriac characters in correspondence among themselves, and even in literary compositions. Arabic, Persian, even Provenc^al, and to a lesser extent Italian, were at various periods of Jewish history written by Jews in Hebrew script, modified by the incorporation of some Hebrew words. The most important of these dialects, even at the present employed as the vernacular of a large number of Jews, are Spagniioli and Yiddish. The former is known under various names, as Espanol, Spaniolic, and Ladino. It was acquired by the Jews during their long residence in Spain and when expelled from that country at the end of the fifteenth century, they continued to speak Spanish in the ' various places where they found a resting-place. Spanish is still the mother-tongue of a large proportion of the Jews in European Turkey, Servia, Bulgaria and Bosnia, North Africa, Palestine, etc., although more than three hundred years have passed since they have been mercilessly expelled from Spain. This Spagnuoli dialect is essentially the old Castilian language of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, into which many Hebrew words were incorporated by the process already mentioned, and also some Arabic expressions which they acquired from the Moors who lived with them and shared their fate in 1 Jewish Encyclo^ceJia^ vol. iv., p. 557. EDUCATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 383 Spain. In addition, new words and expressions were admitted from the lang-uag-es of the people among- whom they have hved durini^ the last three hundred 3'ears. In Turkey many Turkish words, in Bulg-aria and Servia, many Slavonic words, and in North Africa, Arabic and Berber, and recently also French words became part and parcel of the dialect. Even to-day many Jews write Spanish by transliterating^ it into Hebrew characters, but occasionally also in Latin script. Quite a rich literature was developed, which is still being- cultivated, and several periodicals are published in Ladino. An important peculiarity, to which I will revert later, is that up to the end of the first half of the eig^hteenth century nearly all the descendants of the Spanish Jews employed this lang^uag-e in speaking- and writing-. Of late it has remained the mother-tongue only of some Jews in Oriental countries, as Palestine, Turkey, Morocco, and also Servia, Bulg-aria, etc. In Western and Southern Europe, as in Holland, England, France, Italy, Germany, and America, it has completely disappeared, and has been replaced by the languages of these countries.^ The most widespread of the Jewish dialects is Yiddish, which is the vernacular of about three-fifths of all modern Jews. During mediaeval ages the Jews in Germany spoke the same language as the Christians in that country. When later they were restricted by law to the Ghetto, and thus deprived of the opportunity for social intercourse with the people around them, the German spoken by the Jews assumed certain characteristics which are the usual results of isolation. In addition, many Hebrew words and phrases were incorporated by the usual process already indicated. When the Jews began to eniigrate during: the fourteenth century from Germany into Poland and Russia they brought their German vernacular along with them. The native Jews of Eastern Europe who lived there before the invasion of their German co-religionists spoke Polish, Russian, Lithuanian, etc. It appears, however, that the German Jewish immigrants, with their superior religious culture, succeeded in imposing their language on the natives. It must be emphasized that up to the end of the ' For further details about Spagiuioli see A. Ilcbiiius, "Die Spanioliscljc Juden," Osl mid IVcst, vol. x., pp. 351-367. 384 THE JEWS. Middle Ag'es the Jews employed the archaic German vernacular of that time. A considerable number of French words found their way into the German spoken by them when persecutions in France broui;"ht a hirge number of Jewish immigrants from the Rhine district, where they originally spoke French. A curious feature of this linguistic chaos is the fact that while the Crusaders harassed them they were compelled to flee into Poland, where they were welcomed. There they preserved the various dialects of Northern and Southern Germany for about three hundred years, and when they returned to Germany during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries they brought along with them the German language of the fourteenth century, modified by the inclusion of a large number of Hebrew and Slavonic words and expressions. In Germany this dialect has at present entirely disappeared among the native Jews, who now speak a pure German. But in Eastern Europe nearly all the Jews speak Yiddish, which is archaic German, but also contains a large number of Hebrew words, introduced into the dialect through the religious instruction to children, which is entirely in Hebrew. It is quite natural that Slavonic words of the peoples among whom they lived should have been intro- duced by social contact, as well as in business pursuits, among the Russians and Poles. More than one-half of all the Jews in the world speak Yiddish in their daily intercourse with each other. According to the census of Russia, 97 per cent, of all the Jews in that country speak "Jewish" — i.e., Yiddish. A curious feature is that 8,856 non-Jews were enumerated as Yiddish-speaking. Among them were 4,841 who professed to be Greek Orthodox, 2,129 Roman Catholics, 861 Protestants, and even 12 Yiddish-speaking Baptists and 304 Mohammedans were found in Russia. All these were converted Jews who still considered Yiddish as their mother-tongue.' Another focus of Yiddish-speaking humanity is Austria, especially Galicia, where two-thirds of all the Austrian Jews live. According to the census of 1900, 34.7 per cent. ' For details see B. Goldhercj, " Uelier die sprachlichen Verhfiltnisse der Jiulen Russlands," Zcitschiijt fu) Dcmogrnphii tind Stalistik dcr JiiJcu, "Nos. 6 and 7 ; 1905. EDUCATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 385 of all the Jews spoke "German," which is practically Yiddish, especially in Galicia and Bukowina ; 50.8 per cent, considered Polish as their niother-tong-ue ; 4.7 per cent, spoke Bohemian, Moravian, and Slavonic, and 3.4 per cent, spoke Ruthenian.^ In Hungary, where Yiddish was as widespread among- the Jews as in Russia and Galicia, it appears that they are g^iving' it up in favour of Hungarian. According to the census of 1900, 70.32 per cent, spoke Hungarian, and only 25.45 P^^" cent. German, In Croatia 35.22 per cent, spoke Croatian, 41.92 per cent. German, and 21 per cent. Hungarian.^ In contrast with Hungary may be mentioned Servia, where the Jews, who are mostly of Spanish origin, do not as yet part with their Spagnuoli dialect. According to the census of 1900, 80.35 P^^ cent, of the Jews spoke this dialect, 12.56 per cent. German, and only 2.79 per cent, Servian and Slavonic.^ Up to the middle of the nineteenth century the Yiddish- speaking Jews were concentrated in Poland, Russia, Roumania, Austria-Hungary, and parts of Germany, These Jews only rarely emigrated, and therefore Yiddish was seldom heard outside of that region. But since they began to wander away from their native lands during the last fifty years, they have carried this dialect into all parts of the globe. Over two million Eastern European Jews have within the last thirty years settled in England, France, Germany, Switzerland, Palestine, America, South Africa, and Australasia. It is natural that the first genera- tion should employ this dialect as their vernacular. One can hear Yiddish in every part of the globe to-day ; but it is not the same dialect as employed by the Jews in Russia and Austria. In the western countries new changes have taken place by the introduction of new words, expressions, and even phrases borrowed from the languages with which they came in contact among their new neighbours, and incorporated into the dialect. Thus, according to the best authority on the \'iddish language ' J. Thon, Die Judt'ii in Ocstcrrcicli, pp. 10S112, gives details rib. 191 ; 1 907. •* Annual Report fo7- the Year igog. 4o6 THE jF.ws. been on the Increase during' recent years. But there are no available statistics as to their exact number, which is much less than that in the United States. In Argfcntine also there are many Jews engfagfed in agriculture. Most of them have been brought thither by the Jewish Colonization Associrition. According to the last report of that organization, there were in 1909 15,771 Jews under the care of the Baron de Hirsch F'und; they were cultivating 84,000 hectares (one hectare = 2 acres, I rod, 35 perches); and had 178,000 head of cattle. They work with the assistance of their adult children and of labourers, nearly all of whom are Jews. The total harvest of the winter 1907-08 amounted to 436,926 cwt. of produce, the approximate value of which was 2,185,000 dollars. On the whole they make successful farmers, especially considering that most of them have been merchants or traders in Russia and Roumania, and they again prove that the assertion that Jews are, for one reason or another, incapable of tilling the soil is without foundation.^ ^ For details of the Ilirsch Colonies see Rapport dc radminislratioii centrale of tlie Jewish Colonization Assn. ; Paris, 1909. CHAPTER XIX. CRIMINALITY. Differences between Jews nnd Christinns in regard to the numher of arrests — Number of convictions — Effects of occupation on criminality — Criminality of the Jews in Germany, Hungary, and Holland — Differences in the nature of crimes committed by Jews and Christians — Infrequency of crimes of violence among Jews — Recent changes among the Jews in England and America. So many contradictory statements have been made about the criminality of the Jews, most of them based on general impressions of the writers, that it must be stated at the outset that in this chapter only statistical evidence will be relied on in our consideration of the subject. Such data are available for several European countries, where the official publications take cog'nizance of the religious faith of the offenders. But even these figures do not afford a thorough understanding of the difference in the criminal proclivities of the Jews as compared with the Christians around them. As an illustration it may be mentioned that the total number of arrests or of convictions cannot be taken as a criterion, because the Jews would in most cases appear in a more favourable light than may actually be the case. The large number of arrests and convictions for drunkenness observed among Christians is altogether lacking among the Jews. On the other hand, in some places, as in the large cities of the United States and England, where many Jews are engaged as pedlars and street vendors, many are often arrested and convicted for violation of city ordinances, such as selling in the streets without a licence or for obstructing traffic. Here it will appear that the Jews are more liable to arrest and convic- tion than others, although the transgressions with which they are charged are trivial and not essentially anti-social. Similarly, violations of the Sunday laws of some states 407 408 THE JEWS. will more often be comniitlcd by Jews for obvious reasons, bill this will not make them a criminal clement of the communily in the strict sense of the word, it must also be added that in certain countries the Jews are at a dis- adv'antag"e as req'ards the punishment meted out for trans- g-ressions of the law. In Russia and in Roumania a Jew is more liable to arrest and to conviction to a lonj^ term of penal servitude than a Christian. This is especially true in respect to political offences, which are dealt with by the Russian authorities more severely in cases in which Jqws are the culprits. The result is that the number of Jews confined in penal institutions may appear larg'er than their real criminal records would warrant. The Jews have always taken great pride in the reputa- tion they have acquired as being" law-abiding citizens of the communities in which they live, and that comparatively few of their co-religionists find their way into prison. Statistics of crime in various countries seem to confirm the assertion that the Jews are less likely than the Christians to get into conflict with the law. Thus, in Germany during- the four years 1899- 1902 the average annual number of convictions w^as 78.87 per 10,000 Jews and 86 per 10,000 Christians;^ in Holland during 1898- igo2 the number of convictions per 10,000 was — Christians 29.78, and Jews 18.27;'- '" Austria, Jews 107.4, ^"d Christians 134.8 per 100,000.^ On the other hand, in Russia the number of persons confined in prisons was as follows: — ■* Men. W omen. Russians - - 19 2 per 1,000 persons over 10 years of age, Poles ■ 23 5 Letto-Lithuanians - 17 2 Jews - 22 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, The larger number of Jews and Poles in Russian prisons is the result of their intense participation in the revolution- ^ Zeiischr. f. Demogi: v. Statist, d. Jiidoi, No. i ; 1905. Blau (i/>id., PP- 49-54) 1909) gives detailed figures for 1903-1906, which do not materially difler from the above. - Jbid. , No . 2. ' J hid., p. 6; 1906. ■* R. Weinberg, " Psychische Degeneration Kriminalitat und Rasse," Monatschr. f. Kriiniual Psychologic, February-March, 1906. CRIMINALITY. 4O9 ary movement. If a census of the prison population were taken to-day, it would be found that there are even more Jews imprisoned, because of late there have been arrests and summary convictions of Jewisli political otTenders in appalling- numbers. As will soon be evident, excluding- political prisoners, the proportion of Jewish offenders in Russia is smaller than of prisoners of other relig^ious denominations. In the United States the relative number of Jewish prisoners appear to be less than of the general population. Bushee's investig-ations in Boston lead him to believe that they are more law-abiding- than other immi- g-rants, and even the native Jews are less liable to g-et into conflict with the law than others.^ An investigation made by the Commissioner-General of Immig-ration has shown that 559 alien Jews were confined in penal institutions of the United States, constituting- 6.5 per cent, of all the aliens confined in prisons. Considering that over ten per cent, of the aliens admitted into the United States are Jewish, it appears that there are less Jewish prisoners than of other immigrants. Similarly, the reports of the Boards of Magistrates of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, etc., show that the number of Jewish offenders brought before them is less than their proportion in the general population. Of course it must be recalled that the number of "drunks" is practically nil among the Jews, but on the other hand a larger number get into trouble for peddling without a licence, for obstructing traffic, for violation of the Sunday laws, and similar insignificant offences. The experience of the police courts in London is about the same as in New York. Evidence presented before the Royal Alien Immigration Commission was to this effect. The report of the United Synagogue shows that during the six years ending 1909 there has been a very material diminution in Jewish criminality in London. In 1904 the number of Jews and Jewesses imprisoned was 717, but this number decreased steadily, reaching 433 in 1909 — i.e. , there was a decrease of forty per cent. Jewesses were singularly rare in prisons, and not one remained in Holloway on December 31st, 1909. For a population of ^ Y. A. Bushee, " Ethnic Factors in the Population of Uoston," Puhliiat. A nerican Economic Association, No. 2, vol. ix. pp. 9S-121, Third Scries; New York, 1905. 4T0 THF. JEWS. over 150,000, 433 in prison shows a rather low rate of criminality, and it is noteworthy that the terms of imprison- ment inflicted were mostly short, indicating- that the odenccs committed were not as a rule of a serious character. ' A considerable literature has been produced within the last fifty years on the subject of the criminoloj^y of the Jews. Most of the articles and pamphlets are, however, of no scientific value, because they are either apolog^etic, prepared for the purpose of showings that the Jew has an advantag-e over others in this respect, or they are anti- Semitic, showing that the Jew is a dang^erous member of a community. It is a matter of course that friends of the Jews are not slow to point to such ficfures as those just cited, showing- that the Jews have a slighter proclivity to act in an anti-social manner, as confirmed by the lesser number of Jews sentenced for offences against the law and the smaller proportion of Jews in penal institutions. On the other hand, anti-Semites have maintained that the Jew is very clever, and by various tricks succeeds in keeping out of the clutches of the law, while the unsophisticated "Aryan" gets into trouble as soon as he commits the least offence. As regards certain crimes, it is shown that the Jew is more liable to get into conflict with the law. Many authors have even been inclined to attribute the Jews' alleged shortcomings in this regard to race influence, and consequently as beyond redemption by environment, education, and the like. He is therefore a dangerous element in a European community. The subject can best be studied by a consideration of the kinds of crimes for which Jews and Christians are convicted in countries where the official publications classify the population by religious faith. It must be borne in mind that evidence is necessary for a long number of years, otherwise the chance element may enter to large extent. The factors of place of residence, occupation, education, and the like are to be considered in connection with the kinds of crimes, because each of these has an immense influence. A good illustration is the violation of the game and fishing laws of Germany. During the four years 1S99-1902, only one Jew was annually con- '^ Jcivish Chronicle^ March nth, 1910, CRIMINALITY. 4II victed for evading- this law, as ag-ainst 5,695 Christians convicted for this offence. Relatively it appears that, per million, there were 2 Jews and 102 Christians convicted for the violation of this law. But this by no means indicated that the Jews are so law-abiding- as to carefully obey the g-ame and fishings laws. The fact of the matter is that very few Jews indulg-e in the sports or derive their livelihood from fishing- and huntingf. On the other hand, we find that convictions for fraudulent bankruptcy in Germany during- 1899-1904 were among Jews 1.4, and among- Christians 0.2 per 100,000 — z'.r. , seven times more frequent amongf Jews than among- Christians.^ But when we learn in this connection that of the persons who are engfaged in the money and credit business in Germany 38.89 per cent, were Jews, although they only constitute a little over one per cent, of the total population, we have a reason for the larger number of failures among the Jews. It must be borne in mind that agricultural labourers, factory workers, and artisans are not as a rule liable to fail in business. All this indicates that, considering the large proportion of Jews engaged in banking and in commercial pursuits, there is little wonder that a larger number of failures are shown among them. Only by comparing the number of failures among all the Christians engaged in financial and commercial pursuits, with a similar class of Jews, can we determine which class is more unscrupulous in its dealings. Business men cannot be compared with farmers and labourers in this respect. Uniformity of political and social conditions for centuries have been eff'ective in determining to a certain extent the choice of occupations of the Jews. .As has already been shown, they have everywhere a large number of persons ^ To dispel the idea tlirit lir\nkrLi]itcy is a peculiarly Jewisii crime, only rarely committed by " Aryans," it is only necessary to mention that clurint; 18991906 there were convicted for fraudulent bankruptcy 11 Jews and 192 (Christians. In cases like this the absolute figures arc often to be preferred to the relative. Projiortionally it apjiears that Christians hardly ever commit trans<^ressions of this kind. But, dealing; with such small numbers, we must be careful. While amonc; a population consislin<^ of ninety-nine per cent, of Christians and one ]ier cent, of Jews a few more Christian bankrupts will not show an excessive relative rate of criminality, a couple more of Jewish bankrupts will make it appear that they arc tlic only ones who are committing this kind of crime. 412 THE JEWS. eng'ag'ed in commercial pursuits. It has also been shown that they are everywhere thorouj^hly urbanized, and as such have all the social attributes of the city population. The result is that, with sliijht variations due to special local causes, the criminoloijfy of the Jews is about the same in every European country and in America. This is, however, difficult to demonstrate, because the laws, and particularly the zeal which the police and judiciary display in suppressing" lawlessness, are not the same in every country. There are no crimes which can be called political in the greater part of Western Europe and in America, while in Russia, where nearly one-half of all the Jews live, such offences are most zealously prosecuted. Even specific crimes are treated differently in different countries, and any attempt to make comparisons will meet with failure immediately upon attempting- to adjust the terminolog-y. I will therefore simply take the classifica- tions of crime adopted in three European countries as a basis of comparison, and consider them as types of Jewish criminality. Germany, with its excellent official publica- tions on the subject, may serve as an illustration of con- ditions in Western Europe, and Hung^ary of conditions in Eastern Europe. Divergencies from these types of criminality shown in other countries will have to be ex- plained in accordance with special causes. The following- fig-ures show the proportion per 100,000 population of persons convicted for the mentioned classes of offences during 1899-1902 : — - Jews. Christians. Crimes against the State, public order and religion 221.7 - 136.4 Crimes against the person - - - 265.5 " 373- ' Crimes against property - - - - 299.1 - 348. 1 Crimes in public office . - . - 2.4 - 2.4 It appears from these figures that the Jews are more often convicted for transgressions against the State, public order and religion, while for crimes against the person and against property they are less often punished. It is interesting to point out some of the specific crimes which are included in these four mentioned classes in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the differ- ences in criminality between Jews and Christians in Jews. Christians. 0.3 0.6 9-7 334 90.7 12.7 44-7 21.0 22.3 40.5 7-9 4.0 38.4 17. 1 CRIMINALITY. 413 Germany. Some of the offences in the first group are the following": — Treason, lesc niajestc, etc. - Resistance against the Slate authorities Violations of the Sunday laws Violations of the trade ordinances Disturbing the peace of the home Other disturbances of public order Jor evading military duty - It is seen from these fig;ures that the Jews are especially often convicted for violations of the Sunday law. Con- sidering- that many keep the Sabbath and are not inclined to take two holidays during" the week, and also that many Jews are small traders, just the class tempted to make some sales during hours leg^ally set apart for rest, there is no surprise that they are often found guilty of this offence. For the same reasons we find that there are also more Jews liable to take the risks involved in violations of the trade ordinances, which agriculturists and artisans are not at all in a position to do. Because Jews are more liable to emigrate there are more evasions of military conscription among them. In addition, it must be mentioned that Jews as a class cannot see any bright prospects for themselves in a military career in Germany, and there is little wonder that many see fit to evade it. On the other hand, disorderly conduct, or disturbing the peace of the home, is less often punished among the Jews than among the Christians. There is no doubt that the rarity of alcoholism is the main reason. Crimes against the person, for which the Jews are less often convicted, include primarily crimes of violence. The ratio of murder, homicide, manslaughter and infanticide is four to one, when Christians are compared with Jews. Assault among Christians was also 228.3 and among Jews only 94.6 per 100,000, while duelling was more than twice as often punished among Jews as among Christians. Perhaps the reason for this is the fact that there are comparatively more Jewish than Christian students in the universities, where differences of opinion are, in Germany, often settled in this manner. Slander is another crime lor which jews are more often piuiished than Christians. I i\o not think that their alleged excitable temperament is 414 I'HE JEWS. to be blamed for this shoitcomiiii,'-. It appears to me that the comparatively larg'c proportion of Jews eiii^ai^ed in journalism and often sued for libel, and also the large number of petty traders who will stop at nothing- when trying to promote their business, amply explains it. Indeed, slander appears to be more often punished among business men in other countries, where the Jewish element is insignificant.^ Among the crimes against pi^operty, burglary and larceny are less frequently a cause for conviction among Jews than among Christians. The proportion stands as 64.9 among Jews and 175.4 iimong the latter, and the same is true of other crimes consisting in the violent appropriation of property which belongs to others. The case is different with fraud, forgery, embezzlement, bank- ruptcy, etc. During the four years mentioned there were convicted annually 82 per 100,000 Jews for fraud, as against only 43.6 per 100,000 Christians ; for forgery the ratio was Jews 21. i, and Christians 9.9 per 100,000; fraudulent bankruptcy, Jews 1.4, and Christians 0.2 ; simple bankruptcy, Jews 18.9, and Christians i.i; and other offences relating to bankruptcy, Jews 1.2, and Christians 0.2 per 100,000. To these crimes may also be added offences in dealings with lotteries and other games of chance, for which Jews were convicted, 9.4, and Christians only 2.6, while convictions for usury were 0.04 among the Jews and 0.5 among the Christians. On the other hand, " damaAfing property" is more often a cause for conviction of Christians, 33.9, than of Jews, 7.3 per 100,000. Other dangerous crimes, such as arson, malicious mischief, etc., also are more often committed by Christians than by Jews. The convictions were 5.8 among the former and only 2.0 among the latter, while the reverse is true of crimes in connection with adulteration of food and evasions of the laws regulating the sale of diseased animals and meats, which is explained by the fact that, ^ That tlie larger number of convictions for slander is not due altogether to their excitable temperament is confirmed by the following figures: — In Germany, convictions for slander were per 10,000 as follows: INIerchants 49.3, employers in industrial pursuits 27.8, other occupations 20, domestic servants 9.8, and farmers only 2.4. See Prinzig, " Soziale Factoren der Kriminalilat," Zcitscltr. d. gcsai)it. Strajrcchts-ivisscusihajt, vol. xxii., p. 551. CRIMINALITY. 415 constituting one per cent, of the population, they made up 8. 16 per cent, of all who deal with domestic animals. Conditions are about the same in other countries where many Jews live. From Thon's compilation of the official Hungarian records of crimes committed during 1904 it appears that Christians are more often convicted for the following offences^ : — Manslaughter - - - - - 10 5 limes more often llian Jews. Robbery ------ 9.0 ,, ,, IIoniicii.lc . - ... 7 J J jj Assault 6.3 ,, ,, Arson 4.23 ,, ,, Diilurbance of tlie peace of the home 2. 88 ,, ,, A'iolence against authorities - - 2.56 ,, ,, Larceny ------ 1.S7 ,, ,, Crimes against morality - - - 1. 71 ,, ,, Receivinjj stolen goods - - - 1.30 ,, ,, For the most violent crimes, such as premeditated murder and infanticide, no Jews at all were convicted. But there are crimes for which they arc more often punished. Some are the following : — Bankruptcy - ■ - - 62.50 limes more often than Christians. Duelling 11. 10 ,, ,, Usury - ... - 4.40 ,, ,, l-'raud ----- 4.02 ,, ,, Perjury ----- 4.00 ,, ,, Forgery ----- 1.66 ,, ,, Slander ----- 1.39 ,, ,, Counterfeiting - - - - 1.15 ,, ,, Similar statistics are available for other countries, especially Austria,'-' Russia,-' and Holland.^ It appears from all these figures that up to a certain point the criminality of the Jews is about the same in every country. They are less liable to commit crimes of violence, and also certain crimes against property, such as larceny, burglary, etc., while crimes against property 1 J. Thon, " Die Kriminaliiat der Christen und Juden in Ungarn iin Jahre, 1904," Zcitschr. DciiiOi^iaphic itiid Statistik dcr Jiaicn, pp. IO4-ZO7; 1907- . „ - Sec J. Thon, "Kriminaliiat der Christen und Judcn in Oeslcrrcicli, ibid.. No. I ; 1906. ^ P. Kovalevsky, La J^syiho/oi^te in/iiiii,//i\ pp. 21, el si>/. ; Paris, 1903. * Zeitschr. Dem. Statistic d/jiuhn, p. 190; 1907. 4l6 THE JEWS, committed throui^h fraud, forg'ery, bankruptcy, etc., and also slander, are more often committed by Jews than by the people around them. Ruppin thus i,'-eneralized on this point: "The differences in the criminality of the Jews as compared with Christians can be summarized as follows : The Christians commii crimes with their hands, ivhilc t)ie Jews nsc their reason for these evil purposes."^ The Jewish immigrants to England and the United States show the same tendency. Crimes of violence have been rare among them, although a change, to be noticed among their descendants in America, will soon be mentioned. Testimony given before the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration in England shows that in London the immigrant Jews are only rarely brought to courts for crimes against the person and against property. Certain parts of the East End, which were formerly the most dangerous in London, where the display of a shilling at night endangered the person of its owner, and where the whole day long there were constant brawls and fights among drunken men and women, have actually been pacified since the Jews have displaced the natives of the district. The police have very little trouble with the present inhabitants.- The chief annoyance these immigrants are apt to give the London police is their aptitude for street vending and their passion for gambling. The same conditions are observed among the Jews in the United States. In New York City certain parts of the lower East Side, like Water, Cherry, and neighbouring streets, were quite dangerous three decades ago. The police found it diflficult and hazardous to preserve order in that neighbourhood, where brawls and fights were the rule and not the excep- tion. To-day this is one of the most peaceful districts in the city. The occasional robberies and assaults, which the police of that district have to deal with, are mostly com- mitted by non-Jews. One of the chief characteristics of this district is the small number of liquor shops, but gambling resorts are perhaps more numerous than in any ' A. Ruppin, Die JiidiH der Gigcuivari, p. 233. - See Miiiti/i's of ETideiiiC taken before the Royal Commission on Alien I/m/iii^ration. Also Report on the Volume and Effects of A'eeent Immi- gration from Eastern Europe into the United Kingdom. CRIMINALITY. 417 Other part of the city. It appears, however, that an im- portant change in the character of the people of that neighbourhood is taking place, especially with their descendants. While about thirty years ago it was prac- tically unknown that a Jew should commit murder, several Jews have been punished within the last fifteen years for this crime. Crimes of violence, such as assault and battery, are becoming more and more common among the native Jews of the United States. This may be due to either the increase in the consumption of alcoholic beverages or the acquisition of the knowledge of the importance of physical force in the struggle for existence, both of which they have learned from their American neighbours. The number of excellent prize fighters which are met with among the descendants of the Jewish immi- grants shows that they have of late begun to cultivate their muscles, which have been neglected for centuries. The gymnasiums in the various large cities also have a very large proportion of Jewish patrons. This gives them the power to exercise brute force when occasion arises, and those of criminal tendencies apply it for evil purposes. New York Jews are not unique in this respect. It appears from the figures reproduced that in Amsterdam also the Jews are apt to commit crimes of violence; 18.7 per cent, of all the Jews convicted during 1901-04 were brought to justice for this sort of offences, as against only 15.2 per cent, among the general population. This has been explained as due to the fact that the majority of the Jews in that city are artisans, working at the diamond industry, and are not averse to the abuse of alcoholic beverages. Among such persons differences are often settled by fights and brawls.^ In Germany, Austria, and Hungary, where these crimes are rare among the Jews, it may be due to the fact that there is a smaller proportion of artisans and labourers, and a larger proportion of merchants among them. It is also significant that the proportion of Jews in Amsterdam who were convicted for fraud was smaller than among the Christians, 1.7 per cent, among the former and 1. 9 per cent, among the latter. This is the exact opposite of conditions in Germany, Austria, and Hungary. It again confirms the influence of occupation on criminality. Russia ^ Zcitsghf. Dtiiios^r. u. Sta/is. d.Jiidcu, p. 190; 1907. -^7 4l8 THE JEWS. ofTers an excellent illustration on the influence of external causes on the criminality of the Jews. In all other countries Jewish vai^rants arc very rarely seen. The well-known type of tramp is seldom a son of Jacob. Still, in the statistics of convictions in Russia g^iven in an official compilation we find the followini^ percentai^es of convic- tions for " vagrancy and violation of the laws concerningf passports": — ^Jews 6.5, Greek Orthodox 4.5, Protestants 3.7, Catholics 3.1, Mohammedans 2.6, and followers of various sects 1.8.' This by no means indicates that there are more Jewish tramps and vagabonds in Russia than of other faiths. In fact it is well known that a Jewish tramp is very rare in tliat country. The large number of convic- tions for vagrancy is merely due to the limitation of the rights of residence of Jews to the Pale of Settlement, and any Jew discovered outside of the Pale without special permission is arrested and transported back to his native city as a vagrant. Thousands of well-to-do Jews are thus annually treated as vagabonds. The criminology of the Jews, inasmuch as it differs from conditions among others, can be summarized as caused by the special conditions under which they live. The differ- ences are mainly due to the fact that they are town- dwellers, whose chief occupations are commerce, in- dustry, and finance, and in some comitries to their political disabilities. Discounting these social difTerences between Jews and the people around them, there is hardly any difference in the criminology of Jews as compared with Christians. One author has recently proven mathematic- ally that most of the phenomena under consideration, at least as far as concerns the Jews in Germany and Austria, are due to the fact that they have such a large proportion of merchants and traders.- The same could be demon- strated for other countries by the application of the same method of study, and would prove one of the most valuable contributions to the subject of the influence of the inilicu on criminality. ^ /A'.i,'/ riisskoii ugo]o7'iioi statistiki za 120 lict^ p. 167-8; St. Petersburg. - See R. Wassermann, Bern/, Kon/cssion und Vcrbrcchcn; Munich, 1907. CHAPTER XX. POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. Proportion of emancipated Jews — Effects of the union of the Church anil State on the political conditions of the Jews at various periods of their history — Political status in ancient Greece and Rome — Eflects of the spread of Christianity — Effects of the separative tenets of Judaism — Aims of the Mediaeval legislation against the Jews — -Political con- dition of the Jews in Roumania— Conditions in Russia — Summary of restrictions imposed on the Jews by the Russian laws — Causes of Russian persecutions — Political conditions of the Jews in Western countries — First admission to citizenship in France — Emancipation in England, in Holland, Austria, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, etc. — Analogy between conditions of the Jews in Russia and Roumania and those in Media-val ages — General effects of the recent political dis- abilities — Migrations of modern Jews— The United States the point of destination of the vast majority of the Jewish immigrants. Few in Western Europe and America realize that less than one-half of the total number of contemporary Jews enjoy the civic and political rights of the non-Jewish inhabitants of the countries in which they live. Only Eng-land, France, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hung-ary, Holland, Belgium, Svi'itzerland, Scandinavia, Servia, and Bulgaria, as well as America and Australasia, consider the Jews citizens more or less on an equal basis with the Christian popula- tion. We find that of the twelve million Jews in the world only five millions, a little over forty per cent., can be considered in that category. The rest, sixty per cent, of all the Jews, are to-day being treated by the nations among which they live as aliens, and, in some countries, as even beyond the law. A study of the history of European legislation concerning the Jews shows that during the last eighteen hundred years the most important factor in determining their legal status in a given country has been the relation of the Church to the State. In countries where the Chinch has been part and parcel of the machinery of the State the fate 419 420 THE JEWS. of the Jews has been more or less deplorable, while wherever the Church has been divorced from the State the Jews have enjoyed some degree of civic and political liberty. "All the Mediaeval States were moulded by the Church," says Bernard Lazare. " In their essence, in their very existence, they were permeated with the ideas and doctrines of Catholicism. The Christian religion gave to the numerous tribes which were segregating into nations that unity which they lacked."' The Jews who would not adopt the prevailing religion placed themselves on an equal basis with foreigners. The same is true to-day of the Christians and Jews in Mohammedan countries — Turkey, Persia, Morocco, etc. — where those who are not followers of the State religion are considered aliens and enemies of the social order. In Morocco the natives cannot imagine a citizen who is a follower of any but the dominant faith. Similarly the Mediaeval European could not conceive a citizen who denied the divinity of Christ, even one who denied the authority of the Pope, as was the case with the Protestants. During the first centuries of the present era the Jews, barring some insignificant exceptions, were politically treated on a level with the rest of the population. In fact, while in pre-Christian Rome and Greece they were opposed on account of their monotheism, when Christianity began to spread the Pagans treated both the Jews and the early Christians with the same suspicion as aliens — as opponents of the prevailing order. Under Caracalla, 211-217, they were full-fledged Roman citizens, enjoying all political and civic rights, even holding public office. But inasmuch as their dietary laws prohibited them from eating food prepared by non-Jews, and the obligations of the Sabbath precluded their service in the army, they as a rule abstained from military service. But with the spread of Christianity, after the Emperor Constantine yielded to that religion, the conditions of the Jews changed. On the one hand, the Jewish religion sought separation from Christian and Pagan, and exerted its utmost to keep apart the holy seed from those who believed differently; on the other hand, the Church, being in its formative stage, ' Bernard Lazare, V Andsimitisnic, so» Histoirc et ses Causes, chap. v. ; Paris, 1892. POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. 421 welcomed this separativeness of the Jews, and promulgated laws with the object of preventing- Judaizing, which was not infrequent in those days. On the whole, the Jews also welcomed separation, but though originally granted as a special privilege, later it became a terrible burden. ' ' During the first seven centuries of the Christian era, anti-Judaism originated exclusively from religious causes, and was led only by the clergy," says Bernard Lazare. " One must not be misled by evidences of popular excesses and legis- lative repression; they were never spontaneous, but were always inspired by bishops, priests, or monks. It was only in the eighth century that social causes supervened over the religious causes, and it was only after the eighth century that real persecution of the Jews began to manifest itself. This coincides with the universal spread of Catholicism."^ A study of the history of the Jews in Spain, France, Italy, etc., shows that their fate depended mainly on the influence exerted by the Church on the State. As long as the State was independent of the Church they enjoyed political rights and often even greater privileges than the bulk of the non-Jewish popu- lation. The origin of the Ghetto was, in fact, Jewish. Before Christendom made it compulsory the Jews them- selves preferred to live in separate parts of the cities. This was not due to the alleged clannish proclivities of the Jews, but was the best way of following their religious precepts, of preparing food, especially meat, in accordance with the dietary laws, of being near the synagogue where they could pray three times a day, etc. Indeed, as Abrahams well says, "the Ghetto was rather a privilege than a disability, and sometimes was claimed by the Jews as a right when its demolition was threatened."- But later Christian States began to enforce that isolation by various legal decrees. The seventy-sixth paragraph of the de- cisions arrived at by the Cortes of Toledo in 1480, held after the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, opens with a clause which proves that up to that date the attempt to isolate the Jews had utterly failed. " As great injury and inconvenience results from the constant society of Jews and Moors being intermixed with Christians, we ^ Bernard Lazare, ihid.^ chap. iv. - Abrahams yi-w/j/i Life in the Middle Ages, p. 65; London, 1S96. 422 THE JEWS. ordain and command thai all Jews and Moors of every city, town, and place in these our king-doms . . . shall have their distinct Jewries and Moories by themselves, and not reside intermixed with Christians, nor have en- closures tog'ether with them, etc."^ As has been pointed out by Scherer, the legislation concerning- the Jews in mediaeval ages was mainly based on two different conceptions of the civic function of those who were not of the dominant faith. The Jews, followers of an alien faith, opposed to the established Church and State, must be suppressed in order to prevent them from gaining converts to their religion. They must be kept apart from the general population, segregated in separate quarters, and their civil rights must be restricted, though their life, property, and liberty must be protected to some extent. This principle, traces of which are perceptible in heathen Rome, permeates the Christian-Roman, Germanic- Roman, and Mohammedan systems of law. The second basic principle of mediaeval law concerning the Jews has its foundation in the conception that the Jews are members of a foreign nation, and must accordingly be treated as aliens.- Early Teutonic law held that foreigners did not share in the rights accorded by the nation to its members ; they might at any time be expelled from the country in which they had settled, and their property, which was regarded as belonging not to them but to the sovereign, might be taken away from them. Rights were secured by them only through grants from the sovereign, and were limited by such grants. Such were the principles of law applied to the Jews in Germany, in the Carolingian empire, in most portions of Austria, and in Aragon, Castile, Portugal, England, France, and South Italy till the thir- teenth or fourteenth century. The only two countries in Europe in which similar treat- ment is being accorded to the Jews of to-day are Russia and Roumania. In the Orient, in Persia, and Morocco the Ghetto is as well an institution at the present as it was in Medizeval Europe. In Europe, Roumania alone treats her ^ Abrahams, ibid., p. 66. - J. E. Scherer, Die RcchtrL'crhiiUnissc der Judcii in den Dcuisch- Oesterrcichisihen Landcrn ; Leipsic, 1901. Cf. Jrwish Encyclopiidia^ vol. iv., p. 609. POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. 423 266,000 Jews as aliens. The only difTerence between the mediujval way of considerinij Jews aliens and the modern way adopted by Roumania is this: Medijieval statesmen candidly stated that the reason why the Jews are dis- criminated ag'ainst was their refusal to adopt the dominant faith, while in a modern constitutional government in- habitants cannot be discriminated against because of their creed, especially when the basic principle of the constitution has been framed and guaranteed by the " Powers," as was the case with the Roumanian Con- stitution. With chicanery characteristic of Oriental statesmen, the Government of Roumania went around the Treaty of Berlin by declaring all the Jews aliens and framing laws against all those who were not citizens. The ridiculousness of the laws discriminating against the Jews in Roumania is evident when it is realized that they have all the duties of citizens without enjoying any of their rights and privileges. They are not only taxed excessively when compared with the Christian population, but, thougli "aliens," they are compelled to serve in the national army just as all other inhabitants, excepting that they cannot rise from the ranks under any circumstances. This injustice has been perpetrated by classifying the Jews as "aliens not subject to alien protection" {A\'supiisi iiici unci protcctmni). All those who cannot prove that they have to serve a foreign state must, on reaching twenty years of age, enlist in the army. But after his service, no matter with what distinction, the Jew, in common with his co-religionists, remains an "alien." He must not live in the rural districts, nor can he own land outside of towns or work as an agricultural labourer. The humour of the situation is that whenever the Jewish problem is discussed in the Parliament of that country some of the deputies point with disdain at the Jews who refrain from working on the soil. The Jew in Roumania cannot vote for public office, nor hold a position in the civil service. All the liberal professions are closed to him ; he cannot even open a pharmacy ; his presence in the Chamber of Commerce is not tolerated, though his main support is derived from commercial pursuits, and he has done much for the commercial and industrial development of that backward countrv. Factories and mills must not employ more 424 TIIH ji-:\vs. tlian twenty-five per cent, workmen who are of Jewish persuasion. The analogy of this treatment of the Jews with that accorded them in Mediaeval Europe is plain. Just as many other survivals are to be noted in Eastern Europe, the political situation of the Jews may be considered a political survival. The effects of this anomalous political situation on the social and economic conditions of the Jews may be conjectured. Ostracized as pariahs, subjected to abuse and persecution at the hands of petty officials who receive pitifully low salaries, without any hope of receiving- just treatment, even in the highest courts, unless bribes are freely used, they have of late despairingly begun to emigrate in large masses. Many settle in Western Europe, especially France and England, while the vast majority go to North and South America. The causes of these persecutions have been discussed rather extensively. Lazare, who studied the problem quite thoroughly, is inclined to attribute it to the separa- tiveness of the Jews, manifesting itself in their special garb, their Yiddish language, their preference to live in separate parts of the cities, thus proving that they are aliens. "They were the victims of an isolation which was due to the influence of their guides, the Rabbis. The patriotic passions were particularly aroused in that country, which was in a nascent state, and striving to acquire a nationality and unity. There has been a pan- Roumanism, just like pan-Germanism or pan-Slavism. There were discussions on the Roumanian race, on its integrity, its purity, the danger threatening it by adul- teration. Associations were formed to counteract foreign encroachment in particular. Schoolmasters and university professors were the soul of these societies; just as in Germany they were the most active anti-Semites. They looked upon the Jews as agents and apostles of Germanism, and they became the instigators of re- strictive legislation in order to repel and restrain them. They reproached the Jews with forming a State within a State, which was true, but — and this is the everlasting inconsistency of anti-Judaism — they passed laws to retain them in the condition they considered dangerous. They asserted that the Jewish education crippled the brain of POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. 425 those who received it, which was but too correct, and yet they proposed to shut the Jews out completely from obtaining- the education g-iven to Christians, exactly the kind that would lift them from deijradation."' We cannot agree with this view. While it is true that about thirty years ag^o the separativeness of the Jews m that reg-ion was very marked, that they differed from the Christian population in lang-uage, dress, habits, and customs, etc., conditions have recently changed. When we studied the Jewish problem in Roumania during- the summer of 1907 we were surprised to find that practically all the young- Jews speak Roumanian, even in their inter- course among- themselves; that the Talmud is hardly studied in that country, as the Rabbis deplored when speaking of it ; their dress, especially among the Jews living in Valachia, does not at all differ from that worn by the other city population ; the majority of the young men shave, and one with side locks is rather uncommon, even in Moldavia. These and many other changes in the habits of the Jews indicate that they are doing their best, in spite of all the laws to keep them isolated, to assimilate with the general population. Indeed, the anti-Semites in that country point to the dangers of the assimilated Jew, showing that while the bulk of the Christian population is submerged in ignorance and about ninety per cent, are illiterate, the Jews, especially the younger generation, are showing a very small percentage of persons unable to read and write. They point to the fact that the simple- minded and ignorant Roumanian cannot compete with the clever Jew. Roumania is an agricultural country, but most of the land is owned by a comparatively few land- lords, all Christians, who spend most of the money in Western Europe. The bulk of the peasantry is exploited in a manner unknown in other parts of Europe, and, fearing revolt, the authorities not only keep them in ignorance and illiteracy, but also continue agitating- against the Jews, and thus divert the attention of the peasants from the real causes of their poverty. The causes are purely economic, and could only be solved by- opening public schools for the education of the peasantry, ' Bernard Lazarc, IJ Antiiciiiitisiiic, son Histoii-c ct scs Causts, chap. viii. ; Paris, 1S92. 426 THE JEWS. as well as by a more just distribution of the land, which has been appropriated by a few landlords. It appears that, thoug-h on the whole the political position of the Jew in Russia is not better than that just described in Roumania, there is one feature which indicates that Russia is somewhat advanced in the manner she treats her inhabitants of Jewish faith. While in Roumania they are considered absolute aliens, in the land of the Tzars they are permitted to vote and even to be elected as deputies to the Duma. This would indicate citizenship, with the highest rights and privileges of citizenship. Russia practically never permitted Jews to settle on its sacred soil, yet has at present about one-half of all the Jews under its flag. This large number of the children of Israel was acquired by Russia while annexing Poland, White Russia, etc. It appears that at the time of annexation of these provinces the Jews were promised all the rights and privileges of subjects of the Tzar. In a manifesto published at the time of the invasion of White Russia in 1772, the Empress Catherine, through Governor- General Tschernyschew, promised the Jews freedom of religion and rights of property, on an equal basis with the rest of the population. In a later Ukase the Empress ordained that "the Jews, on the strength of former Ukases, have been raised to an equality with others, and that it is imperative to observe always the fundamental principle of equality of the Tzar's subjects, without distinction of religion or nationality." It will be understood that these promises were never kept. Even at the end of the reign of Catherine, in 1794, the Jews were compelled to pay higher taxes than the Christians. The political status of the Jews in Russia at the present time is most peculiar, and cannot be duplicated in any other country. They are acknowledged subjects of the Tzar, and have all the duties of such subjects, such as military conscription, taxation, etc.; they can also vote for deputies to the Duma, and several have even been elected as deputies. But, on the other hand, their rights and privileges have been curtailed by certain administrative orders and "temporary laws," which do not even apply to aliens living in Russia. Especially severe are the so- called "temporary laws" or "May laws," promulgated POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. 427 May 3rd, 1S82, for the repression of the Jews. The restrictions under which they labour in Russia can be thus summarised: — The Jews liave no rig-ht to live outside of the so-called Pale of Settlement. This Pale is, on the whole, not Russia at all, but consists mainly of provinces which Russia has annexed within the last 200 years, and where Jews have lived for centuries before that annexation. The fifteen provinces of Western and South-Western Russia, embracing- White, Little, and New Russia, as well as the ten provinces which make up the part of Poland which Russia has sliced off for itself during' the division of that country, are the "Pale." Outside of these provinces, in the interior of Russia and Siberia, only some special privileg-ed classes of Jews may live, such as merchants of the first g^uild, who pay about 1,000 roubles annually for a licence; Jews who have graduated from the hig-hest educational institutions; and some artisans. That very few of these can avail themselves of these privileg-es is seen from the fact that only six per cent, of all the Jews in that country live outside of the Pale. A peculiar feature of these restrictions of habitation is the fact that no Jew may live in Siberia unless convicted for a serious crime. But, after the term of his banishment has ended, he may not remain in Siberia, unless he commits another crime. Within the Pale there are other restrictions as to residence. The Jews are segreg^ated in cities and in- corporated towns, and are not permitted to live in the rural districts ; they are not even allowed to live in many health resorts located in villages. This segregation in cities and towns, most of which are commercially and industrially unimportant, has worked economic havoc among them, because it virtually prevents them from working at agriculture, and especially in many factories and mills, metal smelting, and glass works, which are usually located in rural districts. Some of the most important harbour cities, as NikolayefT, Sebastopol, etc., are also closed to them. By prohibiting them from owning or even leasing land outside of cities in the Pale, they are cut off not only from working the soil, but also from trading in agricultural implements or products, and agriculture is the staple industry of seventy-five per cent. of the population of Russia. In addition to this, they are 428 THE JEWS. excluded completely from the civil service and public oflRce in any capacity. When, several years ag'o, the railroads in Russia were monopolized by the Government, 100,000 Jews suddenly lost their employment at vocations for which they were best fitted by education and special training. Nor are they permitted to teach in public schools, excepting- Jewish religious schools, or to hold any academic position in high schools and universities. Many a Jewish scholar of international eminence had to leave Russia in search of emoluments in foreign countries. Among the university professors in Germany, Italy, and France there have been many Russian Jews who could not advance in their native country. The public schools in Russia are mostly found in cities, while the agricultural districts hardly have any schools worth mentioning, and the result is that about eighty per cent, of the population is illiterate. It is a notorious fact that the Government has never been in earnest as regards the education of the peasantry. The Jews, with their universal eagerness for knowledge, are anxious to give their children proper school training. Indeed, the only way to assimilate those portions of the Jewish population in the Pale that has remained foreign in Russia, and is still ignorant of the Russian language, traditions, customs, and habits, is to give them a Russian education. As taxpayers in cities, they pay even more for such purposes than the Christian popu- lation. The}' are kept out of the common and high schools and universities. Bearing in mind that in many cities in the Pale they constitute from thirty to eighty-five per cent, of the total population, it will be evident that the law per- mitting only ten per cent, of the pupils in educational institutions to be of Jewish faith is a great hardship for those who have an intense desire for education. More- over, the Christian population in some cities is not at all eager for education, and comparatively few seek admission to the schools. The result is that the total number of pupils is quite small, and of this small number only ten per cent, may be Jews. It often happens that Jews hire some Christian children to enrol in a school, in order to increase the total number of pupils, and thus secure a chance for their own children in the schools. POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. 429 These and many other political restrictions, coupled with special taxation, have had a terrible influence on the social and economic condition of the Jews in Russia. In addition to the usual taxes paid by the Christians, they are compelled to pay extra taxation on the rents they receive from their property, on inheritances, on the meat they consume {Kosher meat is therefore about double the price of now- Kosher), on the candles their women lii^ht every Friday for ritual purposes, and even for the skull- caps some Jews wear during" religious ceremonies. They pay excessive municipal taxes, but still they are not admitted to hospitals, schools, and public functions which in the Pale are maintained from funds mainly derived from Jewish taxation. In addition to this, they are the constant prey of petty officials, as well as the higher ones who subsist on the bribes regularly collected from the Jews. Indeed, it appears that almost everything a Jew may do can be arbitrarily declared illegal by the police, or the governor, and the only way of conducting his affairs without molestation is by oilingf the machinery of the State with bribes. It is a notorious fact that the Jews consider a governor or chief of police as bad in case he proves . to be incorruptible, which is, however, rare. According to Harold Frederick, and Weber, and Kempster, half the income of the Jews of the middle-classes finds its way to the police. The causes of these political and civic disabilities of the Jews in Russia are mainly religious, in spite of many assertions to the contrary. While Roumania as a constitutional monarchy cannot limit the rights of any of its citizens because of their faith, the case is different in Russia. There the union of the Church and State is to-day just as intimate as it was during the Middle Ages in the rest of Europe. While the Chauvinist agitators and press of Russia are constantly clamouring for Pan- slavic supremacy on racial grounds, yet it cannot be denied by any of them that the so-called Slavonic race is a composite of many racial elements, and that a considerable portion of its blood is Asiatic, or Mongolian. The tendency of the Government has always been to strive for religious unity, and the followers of Christian sects other than the Greek Orthodox have been persecuted 430 THE JEWS. more or less. Russian statesmen of influence, such as the late PobiedonostzefF, arc convinced that homog'eneity of relig^ious confession is indispensable for the main- tenance of the unity of the State. The Tzar is not only the head of the nation, but of the Church as well. It is a fact that Russia has always kept the Jews out of the interior of the empire for fear of Judaizinii;", which in former centuries was not at all rare. The Subbotniki, a sect of Russians which denies the divinity of Christ and keeps the Jewish Sabbath, etc., are said to have been orijanized by Jews. There are several other sects with similar tendencies, and the Church has always done its best to suppress them just as the Jews were suppressed. Another proof of the relig"ious character of the persecutions of the Jews in Russia is the fact that baptism at once removes all disabilities. All kinds of efforts have been made by the Government to encourag^e them to abjure their faith. Every convert has been given a bonus of thirty silver roubles ; a convert who was married to a Jewess before baptism is divorced as soon as he is immersed in the holy waters, and the same is true in case a Jewess adopts Christianity, while the non-converted consorts are considered married by the law. Judaism has also been persecuted as a religion. The Rabbinical seminaries have been closed, the number of synagogues limited, and in Moscow the synagogue had been closed altogether since 1892 as " an indecent thing," and only re-opened since the constitution was granted by the Tzar in 1905. That these attempts to bring the Jews of Russia nearer to Christianity have utterly failed can be seen from the fact that Judaism has lost numerically less in Russia during the nineteenth century than in Prussia, although there are about twelve times as many Jews in the former as in the latter. During recent years some Jews, especially those who sought admission to universities, have adopted Mohammedanism in the hope of gaining permission to live outside of the Pale, or to enroll as students in the university, but the decision of the Govern- ment was to the effect that only by conversion to Christianity can a Jew remove the disabilities which the law places on him. Excepting Finland, where but few Jews reside, and POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. 43 1 Spain and Portugal, where their number is also insit;- nificant, the civil and political rights of the Jews in the rest of Europe are more or less the same as those of the non-Jewish population. It was within the territory which was soon to become the United States of America, where, for the first time since their dispersion among the nations, the Jews were placed on a basis of absolute equality with people of other creeds. Roger Williams, founding Rhode Island, welcomed the Jews on the same terms as Chris- tians. Hut their number was rather small and insignificant. The first admission of the Jews to citizenship was accom- plished in France, September 27th, 1791, one day before the closing of the Constituent Assembly. Although some of the minor political and civil disabilities were yet enforced for years thereafter, still this was the first act of emancipation of the Jews in Europe, and was sooner or later adopted by all other European nations excepting Russia, Roumania, Finland, Spain, and Portugal. In England repeated attempts to emancipate the Jews were made during preceding centuries, but without success. In 1753 Pelham introduced a bill permitting the naturaliza- tion of Jews who applied to Parliament, which passed the House of Lords without much opposition. But when it came before the Commons the Tory party made a great outcry against this " abandonment of Christianity," as they called it. It was only after the Roman Catholics of England were in 1829 freed from all their civil and political disabilities that the Jews and their friends began an active agitation in favour of emancipation. Bills were repeatedly introduced to that eff"ect, but they usually died before reaching the third reading, though a Bill permitting Jews to hold municipal ofiice was passed on July 31st, 1S45, and the following year the Religious Opinion Relief Bill removed a certain number of minor disabilities, which aft'ected, not only the Jews in England, but also other dissenters from the Established Church. It was only in 1858 that a Jew was permitted to enter as a member ol' Parliament by allowing him while taking oath to omit the words, "on the true faith of a Christian." The difiiculties in the way of a Jew becoming a scholar or a fellow in an English university were removed as late as 1870 by ihe University Test Act. Since then the political 432 THE JEWS. and civil position of the Jews in Eng-land does not at all differ from that of persons of other creeds. In all the Eng^lish colonies, as well as in the United States, the Jews are at present politically equal with the population of other creeds. In Holland the Jews have enjoyed for centuries a certain amount of freedom, and when in 1795 the emancipation was proclaimed in France, Holland followed suit. The National Convention on September 2nd, 1796, proclaimed this resolution: " No Jew shall be excluded from rights or advantages which are associated with citizenship in the Batavian Republic, and which he may desire to enjoy." This, as well as the later removal of some minor disabilities, solved the Jewish question in the Netherland. In the rest of Europe the naturalization of the Jews came slower. In Austria, Emperor Joseph I. (1780-90) was the first to remove some of the restrictions placed by law on the Jews. The laws requiring- Jews to wear distinctive dress was first abrogated, then the poll tax, and finally attempts were made to assimilate them by encouraging them to enter schools. But it remained for the revolution of 1848, when the new constitution of April 25th was adopted, providing freedom of religion and the abolition of the special Jewish taxation, to remove the major political disabilities. However, they still laboured under important restrictions till the constitution of December 21st, 1867, was adopted which completely naturalized the Jews and made them citizens in the full sense of the word. Similarly in Germany it was only during the middle of the nineteenth century that most of the states admitted Jews to citizen- ship. In Prussia, Hanover, and Nassau this occurred in 1848; in Wiirtemberg, in 1861; in Baden, in 1862; in Hol- stein, in 1863; in Saxony, in 1868; and it was only after the establishment of the North German Confederation by the law of July 3rd, 1869, that all the existing restrictions imposed upon the followers of different creeds, and among them the Jews, were abrogated. Moreover, and this is important in relation to the question of assimilation, mixed marriages were only legalized in 1S75. In Austria they are not even at present permitted. In Italy all the papal states became the United Kingdom POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. 433 in 1859, and, except in Rome, where oppression lasted until the end of the papal dominion (September 20th, 1870), the Jews obtained full emancipation. In Switzerland political equality for the Jews was advocated by many of the Liberals of the Great Council of Helvetia (i798-99\ but without avail. In i860 and 1861 some Cantons — Graubi'mden, Zurich, etc. — granted them civil rights but refused to naturalize them. Only as late as 1874 the revised Confederate Constitution proclaimed religious liberty, and all the Jewish inhabitants became full fledged citizens. In some countries emancipation was even slower in coming. In Bulgaria and Servia they were naturalized as late as 1S78 and 1879 respectively. ' It is thus evident that comparatively few of the Jews Iiave had human rights for more than one hundred years; the majority of those who are politically free have enjoyed this freedom for between one to three generations, while more than one-half the total number of Jews in the world are to-day in about the same position from the civil and political standpoint as their grandfathers during the dark Middle Ages. Of the 12,000,000 of Jews, 5,500,000 in Russia are at present segregated in a Ghetto in the Russian Pale of Settlement, which does not materially differ from the Mediaeval Ghetto in Prague, Rome, or Venice. That the Russian Pale is a Ghetto in the true sense of the word can be realized when it is considered that it is not at all as large as one would be led to believe from its extent. It is true that the extent of the Pale is about 950,000 square kilometres, or one twenty- third of the Russian Empire. But the Jews are only allowed to live in cities and incorporated towns, which reduces to a minimum the space on which they are permitted to dwell. Bearing in mind that fully 5,500,000 souls are thus segregated in several cities, the analogy with the Mediaeval Ghetto is evident. When to this is added the fact that they are exposed to frequent attacks on their lives and property, as well as to expulsions from certain parts of the country, or ordered to leave the country altogether, as is often the case in Roumania, we can see no difference between the modern and former Ghetto. The words written in 1781 by Oolun about the civil disabilities of the Jews can be applied to the modern 434 "^"1^ JEWS. Jew in Russia and Roiimania. He says: "This un- fortunate being', who is countryless, whose activities are everywhere circumscribed, who is nowhere permitted to exercise his talents untrammelled, in whose virtue no one places credence, for whom scarcely one attainable dis- tinction exists — for him no path leads to the enjoyment of a dignified and independent existence, or even to self- support, other than the path of trade. But here also discriminatory limitations and imposts beset him, and but few of these people have sufficient property to engag"e in wholesale trade. They are, therefore, mostly confined to a petty retail trade, in which only the constant duplication of small profits sufllces to sustain a needy existence; or they are compelled to lend to others the money they cannot employ themselves . . . Many kinds of trade are wholly closed to them; others are open only under leg'is- lative regulations concerning- time, place, and person; the permitted trades are beset by so many imposts, hampered by so many investigations, and dependent on the caprices of so many petty officials, that the earnings of the Jews are extremely small, and can attract only such as are accustomed to the most miserable existence."^ The differences between the Jews of mediaival times and those of to-day in Russia and Roumania vanish when these words are read. These political disabilities of the Jews in Russia and Roumania have made themselves felt not only in those countries, but also in Western Europe and America, and, to a certain extent, also in Australasia and South Africa. The segregation in the Pale of Settlement, and within that Pale in cities and towns, has brought about social and economic conditions which cannot be paralleled in any other region in Europe. The Jewish misery and poverty, which has been described in one of the preceding chapters, has become unbearable. The number of artisans and small traders who cannot find opportunities to earn a living has been growing. Their only salvation at present appears to be emigration to more hospitable countries. Thus it was brought about that the centre of gravity of the Jewish population, which has till recently been in ' C. W. von Dohm, Uebcr die buigcrliihc Vcibcsscning dcr JtuUn, pp. 911; Leipsic, 1781. POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. 435 Poland, has been shifting" westward, not in Europe, but across the Atlantic — in the United States of America. In Roumania, where anti-Jewish leg"islation reached its climax in 1899, emigration of the Children of Israel has removed over thirty per cent, of their total number in the country. Up to that time very few Jews left that country, while many have emigrated from Russia, Austria, and Hungary. But the hostile legislation since 1S99, added to the disabilities of previous years, has made their existence unbearable, and large hordes of poverty-stricken Jews have began to wander westward to France and England, the vast majority, however, going to the United States, and of late also to Argentine and Canada. According to the Monitcur Officiel (August 13th, 1906), the Minister of the Interior has issued during 1899-1904 passports to 42,968 Jews who left for America. From statistics published in the Anniuil Reports of the Com- missioiier-General of Iniinigration, it is seen that there arrived during 1884-1910, 65,000 Jews from Roumania. England also was a point of destination of many Roumanian emigrants, and an estimate of 12,000 Jews having settled in that country during that period will be nearly correct. If to these be added the number who have gone to France, Switzerland, Argentine, ("anada, etc., it is evident that over 85,000 Jews have left Roumania within the last sixteen years. Bearing in mind that the returns of the census of 1899 showed a total of 266,000 Jews, the removal of 85,000, or nearly one-third of all, is enormous. But it must be mentioned in this connection that the total number of Jews in that country has not diminished to the same extent. Their natural increase has been very high, as was already shown. It amounts to about two per cent., indicating that during these years the greater part of the number who left have been re- placed by new-born Jews. The emigration from Russia is just as great relatively. Before the inauguration of the "Temporary Laws" in 1881 few Jews left Russia for Western countries. From the official reports of the United States Immigration Service, it is seen that during 1821-70 very few Russian Jews came to this country, only 7,55(5 during these filly years. During 1871-80, 41,057, or 4,100 annually on the 436 THE JEWS. average reached the United States from Russia. But then the number of Jewish immii^rants bei^an to swell, and during- 1881-90 the annual averag^e reached 20,700. Especially marked has been the increase after 1882. The available statistics show that during 1884- 1903 there came 406,657 Russian Jews to the United States, and during the seven years, 1903-10, 600,000, or over 85,000 annually. That persecution is the main cause is evident from the fact that during the two years following the bloody massacres in 1905 the number of Russian Jewish immi- grants to the United States was over 125,000 and 115,000 respectively. To these must be added the large number who went to Western Europe, as well as to other parts of North and South America, and also to Australasia, South Africa, and Palestine, which can only be estimated. I believe that an estimate that during- the thirty years, 1880- 1910, over 1,500,000 Jews have left Russia for Western countries will be rather conservative. Of these over one million went to the United States, and the rest were scattered in various parts of the globe. Since no religious data have been collected in England, it is impossible to state the number of Jews from Russia who have permanently settled in the British Isles. Moreover, it is well known that a fairly large proportion of those whose first destination is England subsequently find their way to the United States and Canada. This is evident from the American ofiicial statistics of immigration, showing a large number of English Jews arriving annually, and it was also proven during the investi- gation of the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration. Of the Jews who go to Argentine and Palestine many afterwards go to the United States. That these migrations are mainly caused by the political oppression of the Jews in Russia and Roumania is evident from the fact that comparatively few Jews from other European countries emigrate. The only exception appears to be Austria and Hungary. But there the economic factor is predominating. The Christians as well have been emigrating to the United States in much larger numbers. The Jewish problem in some Western European countries, which should have been settled, considering POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MODERN JEWS. 437 the remarkable manner in which Jews have assimilated since their emancipation, is again raised by the arrival of these new immiofrants. They serve the purpose of keeping- up Judaism, which has been underg^oing- a process of disinteg"ration through the adoption by the native Jews of the culture, habits, and customs of their non-Jewish neighbours. Their low birth-rates, frequent baptisms, and mixed marriages have been decimating the Jews in Western countries. They have not been increasing in number, and in some countries their number has so much decreased as to threaten their existence. But this loss sustained by Western Judaism has been more than com- pensated by the arrival of their co-religionists from the East. They bring along with them a more intense religious feeling, and adherence to the faith of their ancestors, which is only after a couple of generations' residence in the West more or less weakened or obliter- ated. The general effects of these conditions on the Jews and Judaism have been discussed in detail in other parts of this work. CHAPTER XXI. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS— BAPTISM. The entry of the emancipated Jew into modern society — Discrimination in the armies and navies of Europe — Social ostracism in the United States — Discrimination in German academic circles — Number of Jewish professors in (icrman Universities — Baptism the usual pre- requisite for academic appointment — Fear of the "Semite" by " Aryan " jingoes — Baptismal waters the specific means of clearing the " Semite" of his objectionable racial traits — Singular position of the emancipated Jews — Causes of baptism — Baptism in ancient and Medi;cval times — Prominent modern Jewish converts to Christianity — Number of baptisms during the nineteenth century in Russia, in Austria — Social conditions of Jews bnptized in \'ienna — Freethinkers from the Jewish fold — Infrequency of baptism in Galicia — Baptisms in Hungary — Social conditions of the Jews baptized in Berlin — Marriage and advancement, the two main causes of baptism — Effect of baptisms on the social status of those who remain within the fold of Judaism — Excessive proportion of Jewish parvenus — Eastern European Jews replacing those lost through baptism in Western countries. The removal of political and civil disabilities has had a profound effect on the social and economic conditions of the Jews in Western countries. They have been freed from restrictions which have weighed heavily upon them for centuries. They began to feel like human beings and act as such, participating in all the civil, political, and intellectual movements of the age, and have in their march of progress even outstripped, to a certain extent, the Christians among whom the}- live. This was but natural, considering that they are mostly city-dwellers among whom all great movements, economic, social, political and intellectual, originate and are maintained. Thus we find them to-day represented, not only in commercial and financial pursuits, activities in which they have been trained for centuries, to a certain degree far beyond their proportion in the population, but also in all the political and intellectual movements of the nineteenth and twentieth 438 SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 439 centuries. They have been among- the leaders of the Liberal and Socialist movements in Germany and .Austria, of the anti-Royal movcinent in France, in the revolutionary movement in Russia ; many have been elected to the parliaments of various countries ; they are leading journalists in Western Europe ; in the theatre they lead as players, authors, manag-ers, and patrons ; in the Salons and other places of exhibition of works of art they are represented far beyond their proportion in the population, and in the scientific laboratories their number is amazing^ly larg-e, both as teachers and students. They have achieved this in the space of two to four g-enerations of liberty. But all this has by no means freed them from the peril of social ostracism to which they have been subjected in Western countries. Free as they are to-day in Germany, France, Italy, Eng-land, the United States, etc., to live wherever they choose, to engage in any occupation or profession, to own property of any kind, to publish any newspaper, magazine, or review, to study in any school or university, and the like, they are checked when they attempt to reap the harvest of social position to which they consider themselves entitled. Thus in Germany no Jew can advance in the army or navy ; even if he abjures his faith he finds it exceedingly difficult, often impossible, to receive a military appointment. There are practically no Jewish officers in the German army and navy as a result of this discrimination, in spite of the fact that many have made strenuous efforts in this direction. Even the recent suggestion of the Kaiser to the effect that religious belief should not debar a citizen from serving his father- land when otherwise qualified has not had any influence. In Austria-Hungary, on the other hand, although great efforts are being made to keep them out of the army, the discrimination has not been so complete as in Germany. As early as 1855 there were 157 officers in the Austrian army, the majority probably in the medical corps. In 1893 Austria-Hungary had as many as 2,179 Jewish military and 2 naval active officers, exclusive of those in the reserve contingents.^ Recently, a Jew was even advanced to the rank of major-general, after being re- quested to be baptized, which he refused. In France ' fcivish Eiuyclopivdia^ vol. ii., p. 127. 440 THE ji:\vs. many Jews have advanced in the army and navy to the rank of captain, major, colonel, and even ifeneral. Their number is, in relation to the total number of Jews in France, even larg-er than that of non-Jewish army oflicers. In Italy they have been emancipated much later, and they are comparatively few in number, but no distinction has been made i^i appointing" army officers. The result is that many have achieved distinction in military service, and several have become g^enerals. In England also Jews are not discriminated against in this regard, and in January 1902 there were 12 naval and marine officers of the regular English army, 17 officers of the British militia, and 66 officers of British volunteers. Adding colonial Jewish officers of militia and volunteers, Canada provided 2, Fiji 2, Jamaica 2, Australia 27, New Zealand 8, South Africa 43, and India i, making a total of 239 Jewish officers in the British forces.^ In the United States con- ditions are about the same ; many Jews have been army and naval officers with distinction. All this tends to prove that the discrimination against Jews in some European armies and navies is based on mere prejudice. In fact, in Russia, where no Jew can advance in the army beyond the grade of private, many Jews are permitted, and during war compelled, to serve in the army in the medical corps. In this capacity many have achieved distinction and been promoted to the grade of colonel and even general. This, of course, is due to the fact that Russia has comparatively few physicians for her large army, and from sheer necessity during war they are compelled to ask the Jews' services. The army is not the only institution which discriminates against Jews in Western countries, where they are politic- ally equal with the rest of the population. In the United States, where Jews have held the highest offices, elective as well as appointive, such as mayors of cities, governors of states, and judges in the high courts, there is hardly a social club pretending to an exclusive set of members which admits Jews. Even clubs in which an academic degree is a pre-requisite to eligibility for membership, rebuff Jewish applicants for admission. The same is true of the college and university fraternities, some of which reject Jews because they are distinctly "Christian" organizations, but ' IciL'ish Eiuyclopirdia, vol ii., p. 127. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFFXTS. 44I the majority do so on g^eneral principles. It often Iiappens that a student is not known as a Jew, and invited to enter, but meanwhile his origin is in some manner ascertained, and he is suddenly dropped. It has been stated that the few Jews who, for one reason or another, have slipped into some of the college or university fraternities in the United States have not found it very comfortable, the treatment they received being by no means fraternal. Similarly, in many boarding schools, some Jewish children have been admitted by ''mistake," and the result was disastrous as soon as the principal dis- covered the faith of these pupils' ancestors. This social discrimination against Jews, while not unknown in Europe, appears to be more especially an American institution. There are many health and pleasure resorts which have no vacant room for Jews, no matter what their social or intellectual standing. A large number of the hotels on the Atlantic sea coast thus discriminate ag'ainst Jews, and many proprietors of such hotels have stated that while personally they would welcome Jewish guests, by admitting them they run the danger of losing most of their non-Jewish patrons. Thus it happens that the majority of first-class hotels harbour either Jews or non-Jews. According to an eminent Rabbi, thousands of his co-religionists are compelled to flee from America during' the summer months and spend their vacations abroad, because of the prejudice against them at prac- tically every attractive resort on their side of the Atlantic. Moreover, a Jewish child with a distinctly Jewish name, such as Goldberg, Cohen, Silverstein, etc., finds it almost impossible to gain admission to any first-class boarding- school, even into the few that c\o admit a limited number of "Hebrew" children. They draw the line at Jewish names. The result of this condition of affairs is that nearly every city in the United States with a considerable Jewish population has its own Jewish clubs, Jewish boarding-schools in which no Judaism is taught, Jewish summer resorts, which do not serve Kosher food, etc. The isolation of the Jew is in this respect as stringent as it was within the gates of the Medijcval Ghetto, and it prevents assimilation, especially intermarriage, more effectively than laws of the Church, Synagogue, or State. 442 THE JRWS. It is true that there .ire in Europe also Judenreine Hacuscr in Germany, and restaurants in Berlin, \'ienna, and elsewhere, in which a Jewish patron is frankly rebuffed with the phrase 7m7- bcdienen keinen Juden^ ; it is also true that recently such a restaurant made its appear- ance in Manchester, where the proprietor attempted to segreq^ate his Jewish patrons in a special room, and was upheld by the courts; still, on the whole, they are rare and far between. Nor are clubs as severe on the Jew in Western Europe ; excepting- to the Royalist Clubs in France and some clerical institutions, Jews are freely admitted. Even in Russia, where persecution of the Jews is open and merciless, Jews are members of the most exclusive clubs. They are excluded from some resorts not because they are considered undesirable, but because the Government does not permit their sojourn in certain places. As soon as the necessary permission has been granted they are admitted into any hotel or resort, and are socially entertained on a basis of equality. This ostracism does not stop with the exclusion of the children of Abraham from hotels, resorts, and social clubs, but goes much farther. In Germany, where, as I just stated, their social disabilities are not as stringent as in the United States, they suffer from discriminations im- posed on them in academic circles. Superficially, it appears that Germany is overcrowded with professors of Jewish origin. It must, however, be recalled in this connection that there is a great difference between the "ordinary" and "extraordinary" professor and the " Privatdocent." The bulk of the Jewish teachers in the German universities are " Privatdocenten," few are extraordinary professors, and an ordinary professor of Jewish origin is very rare ; most of those who have thus been honoured, not in their case through what is known as "influence," had to abjure their faith. In a recent article on the subject of Jews in the medical faculties in German Universities'- some interesting figures are given on the sub- ject. The idea that the Jews carry off most of the medical ^ For a detailed description of Jewish ostracism in Germany see Mrs. Alfred Sidgwick's instructive book, Home Life in Germany; London, 1910. '' Berliner Tci^eblait, Oct, 22, 190S, SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS, 443 academic honours is dispelled. There are altog-ether only four Jews holdinj^ rei;'ular professorships in the medical departments of the German universities ; five more who have been appointed have died or retired. It is further stated that two of the g-reatest authorities in the medical world have resig-ned their lectureship in the Berlin University because they could see no prospect for merited promotion. Several others of international eminence in their specialities are merely honorary professors. The most noteworthy fact is that none of the reg^ular medical professors in the Berlin University is a Jew, although of the 1 1 honorary pro- fessors 3 are Jews, of the 43 extraordinary professors 9 are Jews, and of the 113 " Privatdocenten " 44 are Jews. This clearly indicates that in academic circles even the Jew who has attained great distinction in his branch of medicine cannot advance very high. Appointments which are remunerative and carry with them certain privileges are almost entirely out of his reach. Even the appoint- ment of a Jewish " Privatdocent " is very difficult, and is only given to one who has attained great eminence. In spite of all these disabilities, there were some Jewish pro- fessors in Berlin, as Traube and Remak, the physicians ; Levin Goldschmidt, the jurist ; and Kronecker, the mathematician. The last-named, however, was baptized, although it is said on good authority that he continued to pay his dues to the Jewish congregation until his death. There are several more Jewish professors in various German Universities holding the highest academic rank, as Julius Bernstein, the physiologist, in Halle, who is also a Gcheimer Medisinnlrath ; Rosanes and Pasch, the mathematicians, in Breslau and Giessen respectively ; Jacob Firedrich Behrend, the jurist in Greifswald, served a term as dean [Recior AfaQ-jn'/iciis) ; and Rosanes was also elected in 1903 to this high office of his alma mater. There are several more, but nearly all have been baptized before even aspiring to an appointment.^ ' A most recent case in point is lliat of Professor Oscar Minkowski, one of the greatest living authorities on internal medicine, who has been called to fill the chair loft vacant in Breslau by the transfer of Professor StrumiK-ll to Vienna. In spite of his great attainments, he remained for years an assistant in the Strassburg clinic. One day he decided to change his faith, and his conversion was soon followed by the appointment to the Pru- fessorship in Greifswald. 444 '^^^^' JKWS. In academic circles in Germany a Jew who devotes his life to science and expects merited advance is compelled to do either one of these two thing^s: he must be baptized or emig"rate. Germany has lost many eminent Jewish savants who emigrated in search of emoluments in foreign countries. To mention only a few: Gustav Gabriel \'alentin, the eminent physiologist, had to go to Berne, where he even became dean; another physiologist, Moritz Schifl", and Max Budinger, the historian, also went to Switzer- land; Lazarus Loewe, the Orientalist, and many others, went to England; Gottlieb Gluge, the physician, to Belgium; Salomon Munk and Joseph Dernburg, the eminent Orientalists; Heinrich Weil and Louis Benloew, the philologists; Philip Koraleck, the mathematician; Wilhelm Wertheim, the physicist; Maurice Loewe, the astronomer; Julius Oppert, the Assyriologist, and many others, went to France. They could not expect to pro- gress very far in their native land. Salomon Munk, before leaving Germany, applied at the Ministry of Public Instruction for an academic position. Altenstein, the Minister, answered him that the Ministry could not see its way clear to help him in his scientific researches as long as he professed the Mosaic religion.^ ^L'iurice Loewe was asked by a Minister, Count Leo Thun, "directly and personally," whether he would not change his faith if a professorship were promised him.- He refused the offer, and went to Paris, where he became the Director of the Observatory, and even corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the country which could not find a place for him unless he passed through the Church. The curious part is that in a country where the Con- stitution provides that religious belief should not bar any one from any rights, the Minister of Public Instruction {Kultusminisier) does not conceal his aversion to Jews who seek academic positions. Gossler, who was Minister up to 1 89 1, always asked Jewish candidates whether they were inclined to sacrifice their religious belief,-^ but his successor, Von Bosse, is reported to have acted differently; ^ Jahrb. f. judische Gischichte vnd Litcratur, vol. ii., p. iSl ; 1S99. ' Deutsche Rundschau f. Geographic tind Statislil-, vol. xvii., p. 277; 1895. ^ H. Sa.m\.ei , JudciUau/en im ig,Jah>hunderi, p. 33. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 445 he once said to a newly-appointed Jewish professor, "Do me the favour not to be baptized."^ The first step of a Jewish savant in his career is baptism. He must pass through the Church before he can ascend an academic chair. The reasons given for this condition of affairs are peculiar. The Chauvinists and Jingoes, who are exalted with the alleged "Aryan" culture, believe that modern civilization is distinctly Christian, and the Jew, the "Semite," as an alien in race, traditions, culture, religion, etc., endangers the progress of the modern world. Schleiermacher, the eminent German philosopher, was of the opinion that "Jews who refuse to accept Christianity are Frenchmen who refuse to learn German."- Mommsen, Treitschke, Paulsen,^ and many others have stated that before becoming perfect Germans the Jews must first become Christians. Hart- mann is of the opinion that the only way to bridge the gulf which separates the Jews from the Christians is for the for/ner to adopt Christianity, and that they will thereby prove that they are willing' to become real Germans."* It appears that the separation of the Church from the State in Germany has as yet not been so complete as some would believe. Even in the United States a resolution was recently carried by a board of Christian ministers, urging on the Jews that, in exchange for the liberty and equality which they enjoy at present in Christian countries, they should give up their Sabbath and other religious traditions and customs. That inferior " Semite," or Homo Syriacus, is said to have contributed nothing of value to our culture and civilization ; H. Stewart Chamberlain is even convinced that Jesus was an "Aryan" or Teuton, and says that " whoever maintains that Christ was a Jew is either ignorant or a liar."' Professor Haupt, of 1 Allqem. Israeli f. UW/tcn.uhrift, p. 1S4; 1S98. - W. Dilthey, Lebcii Sfh/ctcn/iat/urs, vol. i., api)cndix, p. 112. ■' See Th. Mommsen, Aiu/i cin Wort uhcr unscr Jtidciithiiiit, |ip. 15, 18.S9; H. Treilschke, Dtiitstln: Gcsc/iu/i/c iiii k), Jalirhiuidnl, vol. iv., |). 45s, Leip/.ii,', 1S89; Y. I'aiilsen, Sysfriii ilcr Etliii, vol. ii., j). 526. •* Lduaril von Ilarlniann, Das jiuLiillniiit in Gii^cimuirt tiiui Zuktiiifly pp. 29-48; Leipzig, 1885. •"' H. St. Ciiamberlain, Griiitdla'^,-ii dcs /q, Ja/irhitiu/ii/s, p. 2i8; Munich, 1900. Those wlio Hke to sjieculate in race theories havf recently discussed the racial afhnilies of Christ (piite extensively. Adolph Ilarnack 446 THE JEWS. Johns Hopkins University, repeated the same opinion at the Orientalist Congress of 1908. It is curious that some "scientific" jingoes have even identified Jesus as a German, 1 and Max Bevver knows even that He was of Rhinish-WestphaHan origin.- These and similar asser- tions have been repeatedly made by pseudo-scientists who gave their writings a scholarly veneer. The effect on those who have been imbued with the idea that their "race" or nation has a great destiny, the Pan-Germans, Pan-Slavists, etc., can well be imagined. The absurdity that the baptismal waters can magically convert the alien Semite into a pure-blooded "Aryan" German, Slav, Anglo-Saxon, etc., and imbue him with the spirit, ideals, aspirations, etc., of European "races" is never touched upon. As soon as he is baptized all his Jewishness dis- appears, and he is admitted to the most exclusive club, given a chair in the university, if he proves otherwise fit, and permitted to hold the best political, civil, or military honour. It may appear incredible at first sight that this ostracism brings many more Jews to the Church than mediieval massacres or the Russian pogroms of the twentieth century. Still, it is a fact. The position of the emancipated Jew is most singular. He succeeded, through two to four geneia- tions of freedom, in acquiring wealth; from a small trader who peddled his wares on the highroads, or sold second- hand clothing in the dingy streets of the Ghetto, or lent small sums of money on high interest, he became a great merchant, a manufacturer, a banker, a stock-jobber. Only one hundred years ago he was not permitted to pass the threshold of a university as a pupil, and within that short space of time he succeeded in becoming a scholar, a scientist, a painter, sculptor, musician, actor, and the like; aplly jjoints out tlial if Jesus were no Jew his Jewish antagonists would undoubtedly not have omitted to mention it. But, on the other hand, if it were proven that the supposed lineal descent of Jesus from David is a myth, then His claims to JMessiahship, upon which the New Testament rests largely, would receive a heavy blow. Furtliermore, the alleged direct descent of the modern Jews from the ancient Semites, as well as the purity of their race, is shattered, if it is agreed that 1900 years ago the Hebrews had "Aryan" elements in their midst. The ethnic theory of antisemitism is then without foundation. ^ J. VV, Binzerbach, War Christus ciii Deutsche ! Berlin, 1900. '^ Oesteneiihisihe IVoeheiisehri/t, \!. 5SS ; 1902. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 447 but he is repulsed when he attempts to break hito the drawHig"-room of modern society; repulsed when he attempts to enter a social club or college fraternity; or when he desires to teach in a univ^ersity the science to which he has devoted the best years of his life. In the Ghetto he did not invite social intercourse with the non- Jews around him. In fact, his separate relitjion precluded social intimacy with those who had not a Jewish table; he could not eat with his Christian or Mohammedan neii^h- bour, nor could he share with him his joys and sorrows. The reputation of the pride and aloofness of the Jew has its orii^in in these separate traits of his reliijion, which he followed implicitly. But with the emancipation not only were the portals of the Ghetto opened to him, but he also beg'an to discard most of those tenets of his creed which made an unsocial being of him in former times. He eats now at any table, he does not rest on the Sabbath but on Sunday, he is even not averse to marry out of his faith. Under the circumstances, he desires, and often craves, social intercourse with the people of other faiths. When rebuffed he feels it more keenly than he felt the blows given him during the massacres of Mediaeval Europe, or the frequent expulsions to which he was subjected; indeed, Jews are more sensitive about social discrimination than about political and civil discrimination. "Contempt is worse than hatred," says an American Rabbi; "social discrimination attacks a man's personality, where legal discrimination only robs him of his civic rights." The causes of the social ostracism of the Jews are to be sought for in the centuries of oppression of the Children of Israel in Europe. The prejudice of ages cannot be obliterated in one or two generations of freedom and political equality. Social sympathy and intimacy are not gained in a short period of time. One has to consider that some text-books used in schools speak of Jews and gypsies as accursed and inferior races ^ ; even books on ethnology and anthropology refer to the Jew as an Asiatic, ^ The analogy between Jews and gypsies is ([uile often drawn in lexl- books on geography and hislory, but it is unjust to the Jews. The Jews liave a history to whicii they look back with pride, and wliich Christendom has adopted as part and parcel of their past ; the gypsies have played no role in the hislory of the world. The Jews have a religion to which they 448 TIIK JKWS. a strang-cr in Europe. These teaching's leave Ihcir im- pression on the averai^e pupil, who accepts them usually without further investigation, and thus they become deeply-rooted prejudices. If to this be added the modern teachini^-s of a certain class of pseudo-scientists, who believe that the "Aryan" is the superior race, we can readily understand why liberal and educated people should often be imbued with the alleged inferiority of the "Semite," and look at him with suspicion. An excellent illustration is to be seen in a recent work by Shaler, an American author of note, who says that he has investi- gated the problem personally, and asked some twenty of his friends for introspective investigation, and the con- clusion he arrives at is the old idea of " race" differences between the "Aryan" and the " Semite," and not at all mere differences in faith. His "fair hypothesis" is that " the trouble is attributable mainly to something which takes place in the intercourse between individuals of diverse stocks." He sees a confirmation of this hypothesis in the repugnance of the whites against the blacks. He forgets, however, that baptism often helps a "Semite" to remove all his objectionable traits, while the negro cannot by any known means reconcile his white neighbour. His suggestion that it is a "spontaneous instinctive contact dislike " and an " emotional and instinctive state, being in eff"ect the same as that which is always excited by contact of racially different men," is rather vague, and admits of no proof for or against.^ have adhered tenaciously under the severest stress of persecution, and the greater part of which makes up the main principles of Christianity and Mohammedanism ; while the gypsies are heathens, and often atlopt the religion of the people around them, at least giving the impression that they do. The Jew adopts the language of the dominant people as liis ver- nacular ; the gypsy holds on to his Romany. The Jew is plastic, and accommodates himself to the social environment in which he lives as soon as the laws of the state are not in his way ; the gypsy looks down with disdain on every ideal of those who differ from him. The Jew is an active worker, thrifty and ]iersevering, trying to amass wealth, power, and to become a factor in the social and political life of the country in which he lives, while the gypsy is shiftless and lazy, never caring for the future. The Jew is a settled inhabitant, maintains a home and is a citizen, while the gypsy remains a nomad, caring little for the advantages of citizenship. The Jew has participated and contributed to the civilization and progress of the world, while the gypsy has done nothing of the kind. ' See N. S. Shaler, T/ic JVei^/dour, pp. 107-111; Boston, 1904. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 449 This alleged instinctive dislike for the Jew is difTerently explained by Max Nordau, in an essay on the psycholog"ical causes of Anti-Semitism,' as caused by misoneism, which he, in common, with Lombroso, considers one oi' the most fundamental and g"eneral traits of human and animal psychology. Every creature endowed with consciousness bears a certain animosity toward every other creature which differs from itself in appearance, habits, and dis- position. Especially is this the case when the dilTeringf group constitutes only a small and weak minority, and we find no need for suppressing or concealing our aversion to the stranger. He can then be used as the scapegoat for all the shortcomings, mistakes, and misfortunes of the majority around him. This was undoubtedly true in former ages, and to a certain extent the Jew differs in habits, in customs, from his neighbours in Eastern Europe at present. But as we have shown elsewhere in this work, there is no ethnic difference of great significance to sustain such a theory. Social causes are more operative in this direction. Indeed, the baptismal waters remove all dis- abilities in one, or at most two, generations, proving that it is not altogether the Jew who is disliked, but it is his Judaism. We believe that Leroy Beaulieu is nearer the truth in his explanation. " Religious differences and mutual in- tolerance," he says, "are forces strong enough to separate men of the same blood into hostile and almost foreign tribes. And the old lines of division are often visible in social customs long enough after the hatreds which produced them have passed away. Consider by way of example the position of the French Protestants. Even at the present time, when the dividing walls of governmental ordinances and the barriers of prejudice between them and us have been levelled, and in every school their children sit side by side with ours, it seems at times to us, Catholics, as if the French Protestants still retained a certain Puritan stiffness foreign to the PVench nature. There appears to be in their manners, their speech, and their -turn of mind something strange, something Swiss, something Genevese, I might say, for want of a better ^ La Ft/a liiiernalio)iak, 1.S97 ; Zionis'.ische Schriftcn, pp. 199-201. 360-367. 29 450 TUK JRWS. word. I have known Parisian Freethinkers who, having' accidentally fallen in with Protestant fellow-countrymen, felt themselves entirely out of place, havini^ no ear for what has been humorously called the ' Patois of Canaan.' And yet, althoug^h many of them have come to us, or come back to us, from the beyond the Rhine or the Jura, our Protestants are often as thoroughly French in blood as our old Catholic families, and woe to him who would dare to question their patriotism. Similar illustrations might be drawn from the Irish Presbyterians and the Catholics of the Netherlands, the Hungarian Calvinists, the Pied- montese natives of Vaud, and certain Raskolniks of Russia." ^ The bulk of the Jews, those who live in poverty and have a hard struggle to make both ends meet, are not affected by this social discrimination. It is mostly the emancipated Jew who is disappointed by meeting obstructions on the way he lays out for himself. Nothing but a reaction could be expected under the circumstances. Some have despairingly given up the struggle against such great odds and returned to certain aspirations of the Jews which have consoled them during centuries of op- pression, abuse, and persecutions among the European nations. They again begin to dream of a Jewish king- dom or republic in Palestine, their own home, where they will not be exposed to political and civil disabilities, to massacres, or to social discriminations at the hands of those who believe differently. They look forward to a revival of the national consciousness of the Jews, and do their best to assert themselves as Jews at every opportunity. These are the Zionists, Territorialists, and other nationally-conscious Jews who have been ardently advocating their cause within the last twenty years. As will be seen in a subsequent chapter, they are not in the majority, and do not include in their ranks many of the prominent Jews in any country. On the other hand, the Jews who have since their emancipation attained eminence in any walk of life have taken an entirely different view of the situation and adopt radical methods for the solution of the Jewish problem. Having discarded most of the separative tenets of Judaism, and finding nothing in the ' Israel amoii^ the Nations, Y>^. 303-304. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 45 1 way of intimate association with tlieir fellow-men who profess Christianity, they often take the decisive step which removes all the disabilities from which they, as well as their ancestors, for g-enerations have suffered. Even if they themselves are not to be the gainers, they at least hope that their children will not be handicapped by that heavy load of Judaism. This voluntary baptism, which is so prevalent among- certain classes of Jews, is an interesting- social phenomenon in the history of the Children of Israel, and deserves to be treated in detail. Its causes and effects are of more than passing- importance in reg-ard to the present condition a« well as the future of the Jews among the nations. Indeed, it appears from all available data that while it is mainly used by Jews who wish to remove the social disabilities from which they suffer, and that in each individual case of baptism it has, sooner or later, the desired effect, it makes the burden harder for those who remain within the fold of Judaism by removing from their midst the most assimilated as well as the best elements among them, elenients in which they have taken great pride. The result is that an excessively large proportion of Jews are upstarts, ox parvenus^ who, in their attempts to gain recognition, often cast discredit on their co-religionists. In his study of the problem of baptism, Ruppin arrives at the conclusion that the Jews are the more inclined to change their faith for Christianity the more they par- ticipate in the intellectual life of modern times. ^ Samter, in his study of the baptism of Jews, also says that the modern estrangement of the Jews from their religion is mainly due to their emergence from their isolated life heretofore, and their participation in the general culture of the peoples among which they live.- It is a fact that as long as the portals of the Ghetto are bolted and he remains unaffected by the life, habits, and customs of the surrounding peoples, the Jew remains faithful to his creed, and even prefers martyrdom in case severe measures are taken to bring him to the Church. As soon, however, as the gates of the Ghetto are thrown open, and he begins to come into intimate contact with his non-Jewish neigh- ' A. Ruppin, Die Jttiicii dir Gcgi'itwa>t, p. 69. - Samlcr, he. ct't., p. 94. 452 THE JEWS. hours, he is aiTccted hy their civilization, culture, ideals, and aspirations ; and finding- that his march of proj:jress is more or less impeded, or even checked, he often displays no hesitation in passing- throug^h the g^ates of the Church on his way to success. During- preceding- ag-es it was usually political and civil disabilities, expulsions, con- fiscation of property, massacres, and the like that have convinced some Jews of the superiority of the Christian or Mohammedan relig^ion. Often thousands of Jews have been "converted" en masse by these methods.' But making all allowances it appears that Judaism lost just as many, perhaps even more of its adherents during prospering periods than during massacres and expulsions. To mention only two periods in Jewish history which bear out this assertion : during the Hellenic period, when they adopted the Greek language, habits, and customs, they soon began to discard Judaism, and were even ashamed to be recognized as children of Israel. Particularly offensive was it to some to appear nude in the gymnasium, and thus expose themselves to be recognized as circumcised. Judaism lost at that time many of its followers. Similarly in Spain they assimilated the current mode of thought and action and began to discard Judaism. A Jewish savant wrote the following about their condition at that period : ^ An active missionary in Spain, \'incent Ferrer, afterwards a saint, is said to have converted 35,000 Jews into devout Christians by his preaching and miracles. Mihnan {History of the Jcivs, vol. ii., p. 3S7) quotes from his biography that "the Jews, before the insurrection in July 1391, were assembled for worship in a noble synagogue, afterwards the Monastery of St. Christopher. A voice was heard three times, ' Ve Jews, depart from my house.' The Jews took no heed. On the ninth of the month, when they were again in prayer, the holy martyr spoke once more, rebuked their obstinacy, and threatened them with condign punishment. The perverse and blind race were not moved by this celestial monition. In the middle of the day a procession of boys, with crucifixes and while banners, appeared at the gates of the Jewry, crjing out to the Jews to be converted to the faith of Christ and be baptized. The Jews, dreading popular fury, closed their gates, some of the boys and some men remaining within ; the men raised a cry that the Jews were murdering the boys ; the rabble rose, burst the gates, slew 300, and sacked the whole quarter. At the sight of this carnage, the eyes of many Jews were opened ; they fled to the Cardinal Archbisliop of Valencia, Don Jayme of .-Vrragon, and, relating the marvels about St. Christopher, demanded baptism."' Such marvels often convinced the medireval Jews in various countries of the superiority of the Christian religion. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 453 " I know Jews in whose homes no co-religionist is ever admitted ; they keep themselves aloof as if their g"old had ennobled them. The word Jew must not be mentioned in the presence of their servants ; in fact, they are not ashamed to deny everything^ Jewish, and even to scoft at Judaism. The children are not ijiven presents on Purim, as our sacred laws and customs ordain, but on Christmas. Jewish holidays are not at all kept. Those who still pray in Hebrew are frig-htfully alarmed when a non-Jew enters at the time, and drop their prayers at once. The g-irls do not pray in Hebrew at all. Indeed, nothing' Jewish re- mained in these families ; during my youth they were all baptized."^ Samter, ciuoting the above, aptly remarks, "Does this author speak of Berlin? No, he deals with the conditions of the Spanish Jews of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries." To those well acquainted with Jewish history it appears that the persecutions to which they were at that time subjected rescued Judaism among a great number of its followers who, had they peacefully remained in Spain, would have sooner or later become assimilated to such an extent as to be lost to their co-religionists. Similar phenomena affecting a yet larger number of Jews are seen to-day in every country where they have been emancipated, and even in Eastern Europe among the richer children of Abraham. The spirit engendered by the Talmud, that spirit of exclusiveness which held them together for centuries, is vanishing wherever the Jew is admitted freely into the modern schools and universities. Abandoning most of the ritual and cere- monial tenets of their religion, there is very little left (or which to struggle and uphold. The result is that most of these Jews can hardly be considered jews; they are mostly Rationalists and altogether Freethinkers. For such it is often not diflkult to submit to baptism when they find that it will give them important advantages or remove some obstacle in their way. These who for one reason or another do not care to abjure the faith of their ancestors themselves often baptize their children at birth. This has been done by many Jews in Germany, Austria, and France. " In the Strassburg University we can count more Jewish professors than is necessary for a Jewish prayer meeting," ^ L. Zunz, Ccs. SJiriJlcn, vol. ii., j). 177; LJi-ilin, 1S76. 454 "1""^ JEWS. writes a correspondent. "None of them have been baptized, but not one of them has nej^-lected to baptize his children."^ Even Cremieau, the late president of the Alliance Israelite Universelle, who has done so much for his co-relii^ionists, has baptized his children with a view of assuring" them a smoother road in their future life. As Gutzkow says, the majority of Jewish baptisms are the result of their intense love for their children. ^ Even in France and England, where the Jew does not suffer as much as in other countries from the exclusion from social and political advantatjes, baptism has been decimating the higher classes of Jews, and, together with mixed marriages, has prevented the accumulation of aristocratic families among them. In a list of prominent converts to Christi- anity given in the Jcivish Eucyclopccdia, which does not include living converts, and is not by any means exhaustive, it is seen that the majority of Jewish-German savants and litterateurs of first and second rank have been sprinkled with holy water. French Jews are rare, "which is probably owing to the fact that conversion was not necessary to a public career in that country.""^ Even England has been affected. Many ot the most prominent Spanish and Portuguese Jewish families whose parents fled from Spain, sacrificing everything while refusing to abjure their faith, have during the nineteenth century voluntarily adopted Christianity. The Bernals, Furtados, Ricardos, Disraelis, Ximenes, Lopezes, Uziels, and many others have been lost to Judaism in this manner. From statistics compiled by several authors,^ taking as their sources either governmental documents or reports of the Jewish communities or of missionary societies, it appears that during the nineteenth century there have been baptized in Europe about 224,000 Jews. Of these 84,000 exchanged Judaism for the Greek Orthodox Church in Russia. It is noteworthy that among the Russian Jews ' Al/i;t>iitiiit /srdili/ist/it- ]VoihiiiscliiiJt, p. 640; iSgS. ^ K. Gutzkow, Gcs. Schriftcn, vol. vi. p. 323 ; I'raiikfoit, 1S45. •* Jcii'ish Eiin'iiopitdia, vol. iv. p. 253. A more recent list of " celebrities of Jewish liirth or descent" is given in [\\^ /cti'ish Year Book, pp. 279-291 ; London, 1909. ^ See Joh. de le Y\o\, JiiJciitaii/in iiit ig Jahrhitiidcrt, Leipzig, 1S99; N. ?>M\\\.tx, Judoitaufen iiii ig Jahihiiitdcrt, Berlin, 1906 ; A. Ruppin, Die Jiidcii der Gegeinvart, pp. 62-77, Berlin, 1904. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 455 nearly 4,000 have joined the Protestant Churches. The reason is that many cultured Jews who decide that the only way to g^et alonj^ on the path of pros^'ress is baptism give preference to the Protestant ministers to escort them to salvation from disabilities which became unbearable. In the Greek Orthodox Church they have to submit to certain ceremonials which are distasteful to them. The English clergymen are the preferred class of Christian ministers for the purpose, because, without subjecting the nascent Christian to any rituals or ceremonials, they simply issue a certificate to the effect that the bearer has been admitted to the Church and is to be considered a "Christian" henceforth. Many Jews in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kieff, etc., where they are not permitted to live, when asked how they succeeded in remaining there, answer, " I reside here on a baptismal certificate. "• That the more cultured as well as the richer Jews more often abandon Judaism than their poorer as well as their uncultured co-religionists is seen from conditions in Austria. There they are politically free, and many Jews have even been elected to Parliament. Socially they are, however, ostracized and maltreated in every conceivable manner. Moreover, in that country we have about 900,000 Jews living in the provinces of Galicia and Bukowina, who, in spite of their emancipation, have remained backward and live in their primitive way, strictly adhering to their faith, traditions, customs, and habits, hardly affected by modern conditions. In other provinces, in Lower Austria, Moravia, Bohemia, etc., there are 300,000 Jews who have more or less abandoned their separative practices, who speak the language of the country, dress like the rest of the popula- tion, .and attend the same schools, thus coming in more or less intimate contact with their non-Jewish neighbours. It appears from statistics compiled by Thon that in Galicia and the Bukowina baptism is exceedingly rare, while in ^ Major W. Evans Cinrdon repeats a cliaractciisiic story of a Jew whose biLsincss interests required that he should reside in St. Tetershurg, and he determined to be baptized. lie was prepared for the rile, and at llie end of iiis instruction in tlie tenets of the Orthodox C hurch his pieceptor asked him, "What do you believe?" "I believe," he replied, "that now I shall not be driven out of St. reterslnni;." "Ah, Jewish brain -Jewisli brain !" said the tutor, and, beckonin}^ the jiupil to his side, he whimpered, " I, too, am a Jew."' — The Alien Inuni^raitt, p. 63 ; London, I'joj. 456 Tiiii jLWs. Lower Austria, Moravia, and Bohemia it is quite frequent. This is evident when the city of Vienna is compared with the two hiri,'-est Gahcian cities, Cracow and Lemberg-.^ In Vienna the social conditions of tlie Jews are about the same as tliose in Berlin, Paris, London, etc. They are cultured, and a large proportion are economically prosperous. From statistics of baptisms in that city, it appears that during" the thirty-seven years, 1868- 1904, Judaism lost to the Church in that city 9,675 adherents, of which 5,426 were men and 4,249 women. In 1868, before their emancipation, only seven Jews were baptized; during the five years, 1868-72, the annual average was but thirty- two baptisms. But then emancipation came, with its impetus to assimilation, and the number of baptisms began to increase steadily, so that during the five years, 1900-04, the annual average was 577, and in 1905-06, 610 annually. This does not include cases of baptism of children whose parents remain within the fold of Judaism. The social conditions of the baptized Jews are an in- teresting topic for inquiry, because they throw a sidelight on the causes which are operative in the direction of the defilement of Judaism. From Thon's figures it appears that three-fourths of all the Jews who join the Church are unmarried, showing that one of the important causes of baptism is marriage with a Christian consort, especially since mixed marriages are not permitted in Austria. The fact that about one-half the number are of marriageable age, between twenty and thirty tends to confirm this view, but it also shows that the fact that a Jew is impeded in the advancement of his vocation is another factor. The vast majority of the population of Austria being Roman Catholic, it is natural that most of the Jews who abjure their faith should join this Church. It is, however, note- worthy that only a little over one-half of the converts become Roman Catholics; and, although only a little over one per cent, of the general population of Austria is Protestant, 23.1 percent, of all the baptized Jews became Protestants, while 19.9 per cent, declared themselves Free- thinkers {Co///essio/is/os). These last are an interesting ^ Sec J. Thon, " Taufbewei^iing der Juden in Oeaterreich," Zci/sihi: Demoi^r. it. Slatistik der Jiidcii, pp. 6- 1 2, 1 90S; also Die Jiukn in Ocstcinii/t, pp. 69 Si. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THKIK EFFECTS. 457 class. It must be mentioned that in Austria Dissenters or Freethinkers do not enjoy any advantages, probably less than the Jews, because the clericals, who have great power, will rather stand for a Jew than a Freethinker. The Jews who declare themselves Freethinkers, while abandoning Judaism, do so consequently for no purpose of material advancement; in the vast majority of cases it is done in order to be permitted to marry a non-Jewish consort, because mixed marriages are not allowed in Austria.^ It is also noteworthy in this connection that one-third of all those who declared themselves Freethinkers during 1868- 1903 in Vienna were of Jewish origin. This, in connection with thefact that so many, when abandoning Judaism, prefer the Protestant Church in that clerical Roman Catholic country, shows that they want to slip away as quietly as possible, without having to vmdergo various ceremonials characteristic of Roman baptism. The large number ot Freethinkers from the Jewish fold may also be explained in another way. Jews who discard the religion and traditions of their ancestors often do so because of their rationalist tendencies, and in such cases the Trinity does not appeal to them. A similar phenomenon is to be observed among the Jews in the United States, where the Ethical Culture movement has attracted a large number of former Jews. The majority of the baptized Jews in Vienna were by occupation engaged in the liberal professions, such as physicians-, lawyers, students, teachers, civil and military functionaries of the State; in short, vocations in whicli the social disabilities of the Jews are most acute. Very few were labourers and artisans, because these hardly suffer in that city from disabilities oi' the kind mentioned, nor do they often need a baptismal certificate in order to obtain employment. In contrast with Vienna may be taken Cracow and Lcmberg, two cities where the Jews have enjoyed emanci- pation for exactly the same period of time, but, for various reasons, have remained backward, keeping themselves isolated from the Christian population around them, and thus remaining unaffected to a large extent by modern conditions. These two cities have a combined Jewish population of 69,9^8 (Census, 1900), among whicli mis- >■ Sec Chapter IX. 458 THE JEWS. sionaries have been hard at work propag-atinfj their faith, not even stopping' at taking children from the bosom of their mothers and thus bring them to salvation. In Lemberg, during the six years, 1897- 1902, only 157 (77 Jews and 80 Jewesses) were baptized ; 68 per cent, joined the Roman Catholic Church, 12.7 per cent, the Greek Catiiolic, and 15,3 per cent, the Evangelical Church. The vast majority, 115, were unmarried, and 137 between the ages of 14 and 40. From Cracow there are available statistics for 16 years, 1887-1902, showing that Judaism lost during that period 444 adherents in this manner. Among them were more women than men, 302 and 142 respectively; 412, or 92.8 per cent., were unmarried; and 395, or 89 per cent., were less than 30 years of age. It is interesting to note that only 10 per cent, of these back- sliders were natives or inhabitants of Cracow, 66 per cent, came from various parts of the country for the purpose, 18 per cent, came from Russia and Poland, and 5.4 per cent, from other countries. It thus appears that Cracow forms some kind of a central point for Galician Jews who want to abjure their faith, and even some from other countries are often attracted thither under such circumstances. From all available statistics it appears that in Austrian Galicia and Bukowina baptisms are comparatively rare, about one out of 10,000 is lost to Judaism in this manner annually. In Vienna it is much m.ore frequent, about one out of 200 Jews is baptized annually. The causes of this disparity have been indicated already. It mainly depends on the extent to which Jews come in contact with their neighbours. Hungary also publishes some details about the baptism of Jews. Excluding those who, after deserting Judaism, do not join any other Church, but declare themselves Freethinkers, the average annual number of baptisms was, during 1S96-1900, 261 ; since then the number has swelled so that in 1908 there were registered 510 baptisms, 255 men and 255 women. During 1896-1908 Judaism lost in that country through baptism 5,790 persons, or 482 annually on the average. On the basis of the natural increase during 1908 it made up 4.3 per cent, of the Jewish excess of births over deaths. The majority joined SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 459 the Roman Catholic Church.^ Budapest seems to be here the central point for baptism. Durinij- 1896, 120, Jews were baptized in that city, and the annual number kept on increasing^, reaching- 206 in 1904." Stronger yet than in Budapest has been the movement of baptism in Berlin. In that city there was a great rush of Jews in the direction of the Church during the first decade of the nineteenth century, when they began to emerge from the (ihetto; still, the movement soon ceased, and but few backsliders were recorded. During 1872-76 the average number of baptisms was 26 annually, or one in 1,700 Jews. But soon the anti-Semitic movement began to make its appearance, social ostracism was acutely felt by the Jews, and the number of those who found it to their advantage to change their faith, in order to clear the way of all obstructions which kept them back in their march of progress, began to grow entirely out of all pro- portion to the growth of the Jewish population. During the five years 1899-1903 it reached an average annual number of 153, and in 1908 186 baptisms, or one to 535 Jews.'^ From a study of the social conditions of the bap- tized Jews in Berlin, made by Blau,^ it is shown that 70 per cent, were between twenty and forty years of age, mostly unmarried. The occupations of these baptized Jews were most varied, but the largest contingent was derived from among the mercantile class — 43 per cent, were merchants, agents, manufacturers, bankers, etc. Next in frequency to these merchants come the physicians, who made up 1 1. 81 per cent., not including students of medicine; while the jurists were a close second, ii.i per cent. More than one-third, 35.88 per cent., of the Jews who were baptized in Berlin had a liberal education, not including the authors and editors, who made up 3.4 per cent, of the total number.^ ' Uiii^aiischcs Slalislischcs Jahibutli, vol. xvi. ; :ilsu Zcilsilir. ncuiogr. Sfd/. d. fitdcii, vol. iii., ]!. 45, vol. vi., p. 112. - '^^xwKiiX, Jiulritlaiifnt iin u), Jdhihiiiuliit, p. 14S. ■' Samter, Ibid.^ p. 147. ■* l^runo Blau, Aiisliillc mis dciii Jiidriilliiiin in H,i!iii\ Biilin, 190S. Also Zc/Avc//;-. n,iiio-^r. Sta. Jtidcii, pji. 145-15;, 1907; |>p. 87(10, 1909. ^ From Jewish history it appears that it was always the licher and the more cultured who were more apt to desert Judaism than the poorer classes of Jews. According to a Ilelirew writer, Joseph Jahez, himself one of the 460 THE JICWS. All these facts point to two main causes of baptism amony the Jews in countries where they have been emancipated— marriage and advancement. In Austria, where mixed marriai^es are not permitted by law, marriage appears to be as great a factor as advancement in life. In Germany the most important factor is not marriage, because mixed marriages are allowed. Here it is mostly the well-to-do merchant, as well as the physician and lawyer, who suffers from the disabilities which emanci- pation has not removed. In the case of the Jew with an academic education, we have already seen that the only road to advancement in his profession is baptism, and the same is true of man}' who look for an appointment in any of the government bureaux. Having been freed from the ancient political disabilities, and having aban- doned most of the separative tenets of his religion, the wealthy and the cultured Jew has of late become either a ceremonial deist or altogether a Freethinker. Under the circumstance, in case he finds that modern society is not inclined to forget and forgive that his parents were Jews, or that an appointment in a university is withheld because of the faith of his ancestors, which he has practically dis- carded, he, often against his inner self, visits a Christian clergyman and buys a baptismal certificate, with the hope that even if he personally should not be much of a gainer, his children at least will be freed from the stigma of Judaism. Many have nothing to lose, while nearly all believe, often with truth, that they have everything to gain, be it social advancement, a position in a government bureau, an appointment as teacher in a school, college, or university, and the like. That these are the main causes of baptisms in countries where the Jews have been politically emancipated is con- firmed by the fact that in those countries in which religion refugees at the lime of their expulsion from Spain in 1492, it was mostly those w ho were known for their riches or culture who submitted to baptism, while the jioor and humble sacrificed cverythin<; for their faiih. (('(. Samier, /it(/i/t/a!t/'e//, p. 7S). The same is seen amoni^ the Poles in Russia and Germany : the prospert)US and learned more often desert Romanism for the Greek Church or Protestantism than their poorer compatriots, perhaps because the latter have little to gain by the change. Lecky {l/ie Leaders oj ritblic Opinion in Ireland, i^T\) shows that similar conditions prevailed among the Irish Catholics during the eighteenth century. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 461 is not always a hindrance to advancement, as is the case in England, France, Italy, the United States, etc., very lew baptisms are taking- place.' In these countries, as has already been shown, Judaism suffers defilement from other causes, mainly mixed marriag-es, which work in the same direction — namely, removing from Judaism the wealthiest, the most cultured, and the best assimilated. The general effect of these factors on the social status of the Jews in Western Europe and America cannot be over- estimated. In the first place, the number of native Jews either remains stationary or is actually decreasing, as a result of the large number of baptisms and of mixed marriages, coupled with a vanishing birth-rate. The loss sustained by Judaism includes Jews who, had they re- mained true to their faith during several generations of prosperity and culture, would have formed a nucleus of Jewish aristocracy endowed with the attributes requisite for membership in the society for which they crave. But as conditions prevail at present, they are removed in the manner indicated, and their places are filled by large hordes of Jews from Eastern Europe, driven away from their native lands by political persecution, with its con- comitant misery and poverty, and attracted to France, Switzerland, England, the United States, etc., by the freedom as well as by the superior economic prospects. Their adaptability is well known: they display a remark- able power of regeneration, and in a short period of time these immigrants ascend in the social, economic, and intellectual scale, and demand recognition, which their Christian neighbours are often slow to extend. "The metamorphosis was often too sudden to be complete," says Leroy Beaulieu. " There seems, at times, something incongruous in the French and English (and I may add ^ I am aware that llio missionary societies puMish reports showing that ill Knt^land and the United States many Jewish souls are annually saved by baptism. But most of the Jews who are baptized in these countries at present belong to the poorer classes, who are actually bribed to declare themselves Christians, and thus justify the cn(h)wments of the missioiiary societies by pious Christians. I have known Jews who have been baptized many times in several cities in England and the United States and received payment on every occasion. One assured me that a missionary in New \()rk, an apostate of Jewish origin, knew all about the trick, and did not mind it as long as he could show that he gained a soul for the Church. 4C2 THE JEWS. American) Israelites whose fathers have emig-rated from Poland and (lermany. A i^Iance, a word, a j^'csture, all of a sudden lays bare the old Jews at bottom. ' Scratch an Israelite,' said a friend to me, 'and you will find the Jew of the Ghetto.'"' The final result is that the number of pan^c7ius, or upstarts, is abnormally larg^e among- the European and American Jews. People of other faiths have also upstarts, but the children of these parvenus remain within their fold ; and having- received superior breeding and education, they are fit for the society in which their parents were more or less tabooed. One has to consider the large number of up- starts in the United States who do not at all differ from the Jewish upstarts. Their arrogance, ostentation, and self-assertion, their lack of manners, want of tact and distinction are notorious. They also crave for display, jewels, horses, and anything that may excite comment; and will go to any extreme to g"ain recognition in European "noble" society, or give away their hard-earned fortunes to some scion of European family with a title. Persons of this type of parvoin, so common m America but not unknown in any other country, also have hotels in Europe which are shunned by the native rich. The higher classes of English ladies and gentlemen, excepting such as have some special interest to meet these Americans, avoid many hostelries in London for fear of coming in intimate contact with these upstarts, who are characterized as noisy, osten- tatious, pompous, lacking manners and tact — exactly what is said oi the Jew. But eccentric or even repulsive as this class of people is, their children, or at least their grand- children, will acquire the manners, tastes, the bearing, reserve, moderation, and distinction which ^o to make up a gentleman, and as such will redeem the good name of the American people. This is actually the case with a large number of Americans, especially in New England, who have had behind them a couple of generations of prosperity and culture. With the Jews this is often not the case. A large pro- portion of the rich among them, as we have just seen, are either baptized or have entered into matrimony with Christians; and their descendants, no matter how refined, ' Lcioy Beauliou, Israel ai/toii^ (lie Nations, p. 2 1 8. SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 463 are no more considered Jews. In addition, having in their midst a hir^^e number of rich merchants, bankers, authors, journaHsts, etc., who have been self-made, they are every- where in evidence, and are juds^ed by their conduct, which is often unfavourable, just as is the case with other upstarts. As a matter of fact, Jews who have remained true to their faith during- a few generations of material or intellectual success are admitted into the social life of the haute societe of Europe, as is the case in England, France, Germany, and Italy. Even in the United States, where the line of demarcation is quite distinctly drawn against the Jew in "Society," exceptions are often made in cases of Jews who have been here for several generations. But there are comparatively few of this class, which again illustrates vividly the causes of their social disability. Here there were about 2,000 Jews at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Had they not been absorbed by the surrounding Christians, we should have now between 25,000 and 30,000 Jews who could trace back their ancestry as residents of the United States for more than a century. But as a matter of fact there is hardly one- fifth that number, and the few who have remained Jews do enjoy all the social advantages to which their position entitles them, in spite of the drawbacks placed in their way by the conduct of their German and Polish co- religionists who have come since. Confirmation in other countries is not wanting. Max Nordau summarizes con- ditions in France: "Of the descendants of the French members of the Synhedrion, not half are now Jews; and even of those who have not abjured Judaism many have Christians in their families. There is not a single Jewish house of more than half a century's standing which has not become related by marriage to Christians. Vet another generation and not one of these old families of I-'rench Jews will any longer adhere to Judaism. The poor, the young, and the uneducated have remained true to Judaism ; but no sooner had a Jewish family attained wealth and culture, entered into higher careers, and been seized with ambition, than it was at once, or in the next generation, lost to Judaism."^ ' M.ix Nordau, "The Dec.idence of Judaism in France,"' J-ivish Chronicle, p. 10 ; London, January 10, 1907. 464 TIIF. JEWS. Similar conditions are known to exist in other countries, especially in Italy, (icnnany, Kni^land, anil even in Russia and Poland. Accordins,'' to Samtcr, there arc to be seen on the walls oi the Jewish community {fsraclitischc Knltus- gcmeindc) in \'ienna portraits of former representatives, communal workers and philanthropists, of the Jews in that city. Their descendants are mostly Christians. In Berlin the descendants of the g'reat Itzig- family of the eig-hteenth century are now known as Christians under the name of Hitzig, the Ephraims are now Kbers and Kbertys, etc. ; in Breslau the privileged jews of former times have all been baptized, and in Konigsberg- conditions are not diiTerent.^ In Italy we have already shown that there is hardly a Jewish family of note that has no Christian relatives, and their children are practically lost to Judaism ; while in Eng-land the best and most disting-uished Sep- hardic and many of the once prominent Ashkenazi families have been lost in this manner.- The statement made by a Jewish author that Judaism cannot withstand a couple of g-enerations of prosperity is confirmed by modern con- ditions observed in Europe and America. It is thus evident that there is hardly anything- like a hereditary Jewish aristocracy; only few of those who have acquired wealth, culture, and social position, with their concomitant advantag^es in modern society, can trace back their ancestry for several g^enerations as belonging- to the same class. The vast majority of the Jews who have attained eminence in any walk of life during the first half of the nineteenth century have left descendants who are not any more within the fold of Judaism. Their places have been filled by a yet larg^er number of their former co- relig-ionists who have risen from the lower social strata, or ^ ^^m\.tx, Jiidoifati/Lit ii/i ig Jalirlnindci f, pp. 7S-79. " The Old Portuguese Congre£;alion in Philadelphia offers an excellent example of the disintegration of the Jews in the United States after several generations in this country. They recently built a synagogue, a member having left the necessary funds for it as a legacy. But the nephew of the testator, who was the executor under the will, was a member of the Episcopalian Church. Kabbi Ilirsch was called to officiate at the funeral of a well-known Jew, where he found that the whole family had either intermarried or gone over to Christianity. (Jewish Chioiiicle, May 27th, 1910. ) Most rabbis in the United States have had similar experiences. Some CxiU such persons " Cemetery Jews." SOCIAL DISABILITIES AND THEIk EFFECTS. 465 have immigrated from Eastern Europe. It is this hist chiss that is usually discriminated against in the huiile socictc of western cities. But they, just like their fore- runners, adopting the habits, manners, and customs of the people among which they live, leave a progeny which is not averse to intermarriage with Christians, or to abjure their faith in case they find it to their advantage, and will sooner or later be lost to Judaism to give place to new upstarts, who again may create a "problem." Whether this means the complete absorption of Judaism in the near future is a question which cannot even be answered by conjectures. Lazare says that " the Jewish religion itself is in its death agony. It is the oldest of all existing* religions, and it would seem right that it should be the first to disappear."^ This cannot be taken seriously as long as there are such large numbers of Jews who, under stress of abuse and persecution, hold on steadfastly to their faith and traditions. As long as the six millions of Jews in Russia and Roumania are compelled to live under cruel discriminatory laws, segregated in Ghettoes or Pales ol Settlements, isolated from their neighbours of other faiths, they will keep on increasing in numbers more than ample to replace those who are lost through inter- marriages and baptisms in Western Europe and America. ' Bernard Lazare, loc. cil.. Chap. xiv. 30 CHAPTER XXII. ASSIMILATION VC/'SUS XIOMSM. Tendencies among the modern Jews — Georg Brandes' view of his relation to Judaism— Causes of revival of Jewish Nationalist aspirations — The Zionist's jirogramme — Zionism and assimilation — The Zionist's assumption of a distinct Jewish nation — Attempt to avert disin- tegration of Judaism — Are the Jews a nation? — The Jews were a nation before their emancipation in Europe — Judaism and the laws of Christian States have kept them apart from their neighbours — Assimilation of the Western Jews — Causes of denationalization of the modern Jews — Religion and nationality — Language and nationality — There is no national Jewisli vernacular — Adoption of culture and civilization of the countries in which they live l)y modern Jews — The failure of the Nationalists in their eflmts to revive the Jewish national spirit — What is Jewish art? — Is there a Jewish literature? — Absence of a specific Jewish spirit in painting, sculpture, music, and architecture — There is no Jewish folk-lore, folk-tales, folk-medicine, etc. — Professor Lazarus on Jewish nationalism — Why Palestine is inadequate to shelter all the Jews — Christendom would not favour renationalization of the Jews in the Holy Land — The fertility of Palestine — The difticullies in the way of developing Palestine industrially and com- mercially — Repatriation offers no solution of the Jewish problem — Zionism has not attracted the cultured Jews — Objections to an autonomous territory — The two tendencies observed among the modern Jews. It is evident from all available facts that Judaism thrives best wheti its faithful sons are isolated from the surround- ing- people, segregated in Ghettoes or Pales of Settlement, excluded from educational institutions frequented by people of the dominant faith, and thus prevented from coming into intimate contact with their non-Jewish neighbours. As a religious minority it is difficult for the Jews to pre- serve their identity after coming into close social contact with the majority around them ; social intimacy means danger of losing many, I may say most, of their best elements. Anti-Semitism on the one hand and tendencies to assimilation and even fusion with the Christians among cultured Jews on the other, have made some thoughtful 466 ASSIMILATION VCnuS ZIONISM. 467 Jews take note of the dang-ers threatening' Judaism of to-day. The result is that two diametrically opposed tendencies are to be noted among the leading modern Jews, each working in a different direction, while aiming at the solution of the perennial " Jew'ish question." The leading Jews who have adapted themselves to the culture, customs, and manners of the countries in which they live begin to discard the separative tenets of Rabbinical teaching-. They demand assimilation and adoption of the culture, ideals, and aspirations of the peoples among which they live. Those of them who still claim adherence to Judaism are of the opinion that they can best fulfil the mission of their religion by being good Englishmen, Frenchmen, Italians, Germans, Americans of Jewish faith. Most of these do not disdain fusion with the Christians through intermarriage. Their Rabbis teach that the Biblical interdiction of intermarriage was really intended for the priests of Israel, originally for the High Priest, ^ and not for all the Jews ; or that only the " seven nations " of Canaan were tabooed by the Bible in order to prevent idolatrous practices among the Chosen People. The Christians are not tabooed, because they are not idolaters. This class of Jews also points to the impossibility of holding on to tenets of Judaism while living among Christians, and advocate and practise certain reforms which make their position more tenable. These are the reformed Jews of Western Europe and America. A large proportion of them i^o much farther, and join many of the rationalist movements, such as that of ethical culture in the United Slates- and the Freethinkers in Europe. The latter type of Jew is best represented by Georg Brandes, the eminent Scandinavian critic, w'ho, in an article pub- lished in the Frankfurter Zeitimg concerning his relation to Judaism, says:— "As a rule, writers when speaking- of me refer to my Jewish origin. I may remark en passant that there is no danger that I should overlook in which ' Levilicus, xxi. 14. - More recently many Jews in the United States, especially women, have joined the Clirislian Science cliurches, many of tliem, however, not deserting the synagoijiies, Tlie Rabbis, just like the Christian ministers, have raised a stormy protest against the Jewish " Christian " Scientists, and point to its dangers to Judaism. 468 THE JEWS. religious community I was born. I confess that if all my life I were not constantly reminded of the fact by others, I should have forgotten it, so little significance has it had for me. . . . As soon as any one puts his pen to paper to write about me, for or against me, invariably the first thing he says is that I am a Jew! Mow funny! If there is anything I am not, it is this. The whole of Denmark and the whole of Finland are impregnated with Judaism; their God is Jewish ; their religion is reconstructed, de- veloped Judaism, with a few mystic additions. The Old Testament in both lands is a holy book ; and the New, which is still holier than the Old, was written by Jews. Half the Danish culture originates from Palestine; half its literature is thence inspired. Even the real Danish names, Petersen, Hansen, Jensen, etc., are Jewish names, Biblical names. If, then, a solitary young man succeeds for a short time in cutting adrift from the prevalent Judaism, he falls back again on all fours; returns, like so many Danes, to one of the many representatives of Jerusalem, to the Pope, or to Grundtvig, or (like Strindberg) to Swedenborg. There was a time when I was about the only man in the whole country who was not a Jew. Nevertheless I might almost say that the sole thing that everybody in the country knows about me, and the sole thing that they communicate to the whole world, is that I am one. They all live and breathe in Jerusalem's atmosphere. All the churches are full of it. It was not long since it was pumped into the universities. And he among the Danes who earliest, most zealously, and most obstinately in his spiritual life strove towards Athens they are never tired of dragging back to Jerusalem, which they can never eliminate from their own minds." A large proportion of the intellectual Jews in Europe and America of to-day entertain the same view as to their relations to Jews and Judaism. In fact it can be stated that if on the one hand the Jews should not claim them, and on the other Christendom should not push them back to breathe the atmosphere of Jerusalem, they would like to forget it ; they would like their children to remain in entire ignorance of it. It is from these that the confcssionshse in Germany, the Ethical Culturists, " Christian Scientists," and most of the Reform Jews ASSIMILATION Wr.W? ZIONISM. 469 in Engfland, France, and the ITnitcd States draw their followers among^ Jews. It is this class of Jews that go down into the " meltinj^ pot" of Western countries, as Zangwill calls it, and alloy with their non-Jewish neighbours. Their effect on the social and political position of the Jews has already been indicated in a preceding^ chapter. But it remains yet to speak of that class of intellectual Jews who express an unwilling^ness to dissolve in the " melting" pot" of luirope and America ; who see in this tendency to assimilation real race suicide, and adopting- the Chauvinistic ideas of their Christian neig^hbours, make strenuous efforts to revive a racial and national spirit among^ their co-relig^ionists. Living in Eastern Europe, where the struggle of the oppressed nations is most acute, where minorities and often majorities are seen endeavouring to assert themselves against their oppressors, some Jews were inoculated with the nationalist tendencies and began to dream of the renationalization and repatriation of their people. Seeing that on the one hand their emancipation in Western Europe has brought new perils in the shape of Anti-Semitism and social ostracism ; and that assimilation threatens their survival as Jews among people of other faiths, they in their discouragement begin to look for a specific remedy which will surely cure Judaism. Con- sidering that for centuries the Jews, dispersed among the nations, never forgot Zion, Ercts Israel^ the land of Israel, and awaited the Messiah to reappear and reassemble the Jews from various countries in which their fate has dis- persed them, lead them back to Palestine and re-establish a Jewish kingdom, it is not surprising that the dreamers among the modern Jews have again turned their eyes toward Palestine. The orthodox Jews of to-day expect yet that Messiah will come at any time, in spite of the fact that Christian missionaries have been industriously at work to convince them that he had already appeared in the person of Jesus Christ ; but the more enlightened Jews, having lost confidence in supernatural redemption, have been imbued with the idea that the only way to relieve their people from all political and social disabilities is to "obtain for the Jewish people a legally secured, publicly recognized home in Palestine," as the Zionists 470 THE JEWS. demand, or " to acquire ri territory in any place of the world upon an autonomous basis for those Jews who are unable or unwilling' to remain in the lands in which they live at present," as is demanded by Zangwill's "Jewish Territorial Organization." As the best means of attaining" their object the Zionists have adopted the following pro- gramme : — I. To promote the settlement in Palestine of Jewish agriculturists, handicraftsmen, industrialists, and men following professions ; 2. To centralize the Jewish people by means of general institutions agreeably to the laws of the land ; 3. To strengthen Jewish sentiment and national self-consciousness ; and 4. To obtain the sanction of governments necessary to carrying out the object of Zionism. " Zionism is an ideal," according to Max Nordau, " a wish, a hope, just as Messianic Zionism was and is. But the new Zionism, which is called political, is distinguished from the old religious Messianic Zionism in this, that it repudiates all mysticism and does not rely upon the return to Palestine to be accomplished by a miracle, but is resolved to bring it about through its own efforts. The new Zionism has partly arisen out of the inner impulses of Jewry. . . . It is also partly the effect of two influences that have come from without : first, the national idea that has dominated European thought and feeling for half a century and determined international politics ; secondly, Anti-Semitism, under which the Jews of all countries have to suffer more or less." " Doubtless many an educated Jew has been constrained only through Anti-Semitism to attach himself again to Judaism," Nordau goes on to say, " and he would again fall away if his Christian compatriots would welcome him as a friend. "^ To the Zionists the Jews are a distinct, non-European race which has preserved itself in its original purity in spite of the Jews' wanderings all over the globe. They hold that the Jews can never merge with the European races, and are bound to remain distinct from their Christian or Mohammedan neighbours. The Jewish problem can therefore not be solved by emancipation, as is evident in Western Europe, where they still have troubles after one hundred years of freedom and political equality. Nor ' Max Nordau, Zionism: its History and its Aims, pp. 6-7 ; London, 1905- ASSIMILATION t'^r.WS ZIONISM. 47I will emigration solve the problem of the Jews in countries where they suffer from political oppression. " Like previous migration oi' Jews, it has produced fresh trouble," say the Zionists in an " Official Statement to the Christian World." "These large numbers of poor Jews are, at best, not welcome in the places to which they migrate. Their immigration is not that merely of an alien people who, whatever temporary inconvenience may be caused by their arrival, will soon merge in the general population of their new home. The immigration of Jews is different. They form or augment a body differentiated from the general population."' They object to assimilation. " With whom is the Jew of Eastern Europe to assimilate if he is to assimilate at all? Clearly not with the Russian Moujik or the Galician or Polish peasant. But this is a proposal that a superior race shall become absorbed by a greatly inferior, a stronger by a weaker, a sober by a particularly unsober one, and is altogether contrary to the course of race absorption. The Jew has no mean opinion of the status of his race in the world. Purer than most, it is one of the oldest ; its preservation is part, a great part, of his religious belief. He does not readily yield it even to advance civilization. "- To the Zionists the Jews are not only bound together by a common religion, differing from others only in creed; they are not only a race having a common origin ; but a nation with a distinct history, traditions, aspirations, ideals, etc. " The hypothesis upon which political Zionism is based is that there is a Jewish nation," says Nordau,''^ and "whoever maintains and believes that the Jews are not a nation cannot in truth be a Zionist." Saj'S another Zionist, in reply to a question whether the Jews cannot completely identify themselves with the English nation : " They (the Zionists) feel that as Jews this is not possible. They cannot be as entirely English in thought as the man who is born of English parents and descended from ancestors who have mingled their blood with other Englishmen for generations. Jews must always have a feeling of sympathy and brotherhood with the Jewish ^ Zio/i/.\m : a /t'rcvV// Sliili'iiic-itl lo the Christian World, |). 4 ; published by tlie Feileratioii of American Zionists, New York, 1907. - Ibid., p. 7. •' /.or. lit., p. 10, 47- THE JEWS, people in all other parts of the world, and must always, in some degree, remain socially separate if they are to con- tinue loyal to their relijjion. There is no use disg-uising this fact. To me it seems impossible to separate religion from nationality in Judaism without destroying both. The Jewish religion is and must for ever remain national, and Jewish nationalism is and must ever be religious. . . . The fundamental cleavage between Judaism and Christianity was that the Christian community rejected the national law, while the Jews felt it to be essential."' Amplifying this statement, after being taken to task by eminent British Jews, the same writer says : '* ' Englishman ' is a word used in two senses : it means either a person who is a citizen of the British nation — and in this sense a Jew may, of course, be fully an Englishman and born of English parents — or a person who is a member of the Anglo-Saxon people as distinguished from a Welshman, a Scotchman, or an Irishman. Try as he may, a Jew cannot become fully English in this sense unless by inter- marriage he ' mingles his blood ' ; and then he ceases to belong to Jewry. Not only is the Jew different from other members of the nation in blood, but he has a history, a literature, a culture, and traditions of his own — these are among the chief elements of nationality which he does not share with other Englishmen ; and he can only disown this splendid heritage at the price of disloyalty to his people and the certain disintegration of his religion." - This fear of the disintegration of Judaism which is at the bottom of Zionism had already been indicated by Spinoza, who stated that the emancipation of the Jews must in- evitably lead to the extinction of Judaism wherever the process is extended beyond the political to the social sphere, and throughout it has been evident that such is the case with the modern Jews. Moreover, the Zionists see no relief in emancipation. " The attempt to make the Jews of France and Germany entirely French and German in thought, and to identify them entirely with the French and German nations, has been tried in the last one hundred ^ Norman Bentwich, in /iw/'s/i Chrouich-, p. 22; London, March 26, 1909. ^ N. Bentwich, " Zionism at the Universities," yadi\i, vol. iv. p. 565. 4/0 THE JEWS. They also possessed the privilegfe of settlinof their own legal affairs ; they had their own judg'cs and their own code. This code — which was simply the Mosaic law, sedulously commented on by the Rabbis — was the sole study of the Jews and Judaizers to the exclusion of the Roman law, a fact mentioned by Juvenal.' In civil suits the autonomy of the Jewish courts applied only in cases when both parties were Jews ; in penal cases, at the commencement of the common era, the Jewish mag-istrates exercised a wide disciplinary jurisdiction, including- the riijht of incarceration and nogg^ing-. This judicial autonomy of the Rabbis was kept up even after the admission of the Jews as Roman citizens. Because of the requirements of the dietary laws and the Sabbath rest, they could not perform military service, and they obtained decrees of exemption. These and many other peculiarities show plainly'that they could not be considered an integ^ral part of the nation, but that they formed a nation by them- selves. Conditions at later periods and in other countries were not much different. Milman says of the Jews in Spain : " Whatever they were in other lands, in Spain they were more than a people within a people — they were a state within a state. The heads of the community, whether as princes or rabbins, exercised not only relig^ious, but civil authority also ; they formed a full judicial tribunal in criminal as well as ecclesiastical affairs ; adjudg-ed not only in cases of property but of life; passed sentences beyond that of excommunication, sentences of capital punishment. Many of the hostile statutes of the king's and of the Cortes aim at depriving- them of this judicial power; they are to cease to have judges. Even as late as 1 391 they put to death, as unsound, Don Joseph Pichon. It was only at that time, under John I., that they were deprived of this right."- In Poland conditions were not different. In addition to the usual communal organization of ever}' town, they also had a central organization, the Council of the Four Lands, which was in control of the administrative, judicial, religious, and charitable institutions of the Jews. They ^ S(i/. xiv. , 100 // Ii/i,rt/i'/',c. 354. - Even Zangwill, who lias been working earnestly for the renation- alization of the Jews, acknowledt^'es that, " not only is Mount Zion private jiroperty politically, it is a holy mountain for Mohammedanism and Christianity as well as for Judaism, and this makes it rather like a volcano, very dangerous to those who dwell on its slopes." {Jewiih Chronicle, August 7th, 190S). ^ Loc. (it. 494 THE JEWS. and honey" does not allude to the fertility of the soil, but to a country with g'reat pasturai^e for cattle, the land probably not being' cultivated in antiquity at all. It is deficient in water in that the arable land has not a quantity sufficient for its productive capacity. If sufficient rain does not fall in time many of the springs dry up, and the land cannot be properly cultivated ; the crops wither, there is no harvest, and a general scarcity of grain results, so that the price of bread is closely connected with the rainfall.^ Irrigation, to be sure, might be effective in improving the soil, but it is problematical whether it would pay to bring thousands of people, as well as a great capital, for the purpose. It is to this inhospitable soil that the Zionists intend to take the Jews and make farmers of them. After two thousand years of city life, the small traders, the merchants, and the artisans of Eastern Europe are expected to be at once transformed into pioneer farmers and become efficient workers of the soil. It is well known that the tendencies observed among modern peoples are quite the reverse of this process. The stream of migration is to-day from the country to the city. All successful colonization has been accomplished by the transportation of people who have been farm hands for generations. There is no instance in history in which a large number of city-dwellers have gone to a virgin soil or a desert and soon developed its natural resources. The fact of the matter is, that while some Jews have become excellent agriculturists in Russia, the United States, Canada, and Argentine, it seems that in Palestine the results thus far obtained have not been very encouraging. There are in that region about seven or eight hundred Jewish families engaged in agriculture. Nearly all have been subsidized by the Jewish Colonization Association, by the Zionist societies, and through the munificence of the Paris Rothschild. As to their success, I will quote an article published in a Yiddish Zionist weekly, Das Yiddishe Folk, in Wilna, and written by an ardent Zionist. He says: "Land is bought for the purpose of cultivation — to plough, to till, to sow, to plant. Are there many Jews who till the land of Israel with their own hands? I know nearly all the colonies and colonists, ' See I. Benzinger,ytj£'/i// Eucyclopiidia, vol. ix., pp. 495-496. ASSIMILATION verSIIS ZIONISM. 495 but colonists who hire Arabs and are paid by Rothschild for their task, Jews who only take pensions from Zionist societies, are not agriculturists. Rothschild's riches, com- bined with the funds of the various groups of Zionists, will be inadequate to settle all the land of Israel with this t3'pe of colonists, who receive regular salaries for hiring Arabs to cultivate their land. It is all useless. The idea of the repatriation of Zion is that the Jewish land should be settled with real Jewish farmers, and thus develop a great Jewish population. But now quite the contrar) is being done. All the money collected for our purposes ultimately finds its way into the hands of the Arabs. It is no secret that only a small percentage of the colonists are working with their own hands. The majority are small landlords whom Rothschild or the Jewish Coloni:cy somebody else) to one only — the Sabbath. But there is no essential restriction on the observance of the Jewish .Sabbath or in the substitution of Suiula}- work for it in I*!ngland ; and where Jews mostly congregate, as in the East End of 502 THE JEWS. London, the observance is fraught with Httle or no inconvenience. The only restrictions the emancipated Jews have to observe are that they cannot make the strang-er within their gates observe the Sabbath or stone to death the Jew who desecrates it. I do not imagine that tlie Nacht Asyl is designed to correct these anomalies. Latterly, Mr. (ireenberg h;is given us another national custom for the observance of which we are said to require a political free hand — the Jewish law of Marriage and Divorce. May I ask him what law? Is it the l3euter- onomic or the Rabbinic law of divorce? Is it the ancient polygamy which lingered among the Italian Jews as late as the seventeenth century, or Rabbi Gershom's mono- gamous ' custom of the Gentile ' of the tenth century, or Mr. Zangwill's recent repudiation of the marriage regulations of Ezra and Nehemiah which even the Paris Sanhedrin upheld ? " ^ There are thus seen two tendencies among the modern Jews. One class, represented by the various factions of nationalists, is aiming at the segregation of their co- religionists in Palestine, or in some other territory, where they may live under an autonomous government. Mean- while they strive to re-awaken the national consciousness of the Jews, keep them together in the cities in which they live and thus prevent assimilation with its concomitant dangers of disintegration of Judaism, fusion with their non-Jewish neighbours, and ultimate absorption by the other elements in the "melting pot" of modern society. Against this tendency are to be seen arrayed all the assimilated Jews, those who have adopted the culture, habits, and customs of the non-Jewish neighbours, and who consider themselves citizens of the countries in which they live. They have given up most of their separative rites and practices in order to facilitate adaptation to their environment and to be fit for the intimate social contact with their neighbours. They do their best to disperse their co-religionists who cannot or will not remain in their native lands in Eastern Europe and are compelled to migrate westward. Considering that this class is re- presented by the vast majority of the Jewish elite society, ' L. Wolf, "The Zionist Peril," /t-w/.f/^ Quarterly Rcvicxv, pp. 21-22; 1904. ASSIMILATION veVSltS ZIONISM. 503 the money powers, the students, litterateurs, professional men and merchants, and tiiat they in addition control the millions left by the Baron de Ilirsch for the purpose of alleviating the lot of his co-religionists, it is evident that they are more elTective in their work. If in addition it is considered that history shows conclusively that as soon as the Jew is emancipated and given human rights he alwa\s discards his separative practices and does his best to assimilate, and that reactions, such as were witnessed in Spain and in other countries during mediaeval ages, arc at present unlikely, it is not diflicult to foresee which tendency will prevail among the Jews in the near future. CHAPTER XXIII. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. Race pride of the Jews — The Semite and the Aryan — Influence of the environment on racial characters — The difference between the social and anthropological tyiie of the Jew — Anthropolofjically the Jews are not a pure race — Mixed marriages and their significance — Failure of hostile legislation against the Jews — Decline of fertility of Western Jews — Demography an index o( the social and religious status of the Jews — Decadence of Western Jews — Alleged racial immunities — Isolation often spared the Jews daring epidemics — Natality — Mortality of the Jews depends more on economic conditions than on "inherent tenacity of life" — Psychic trauma as causes of the nervousness of the Jews — Isolation — Medireval legislation always aimed at the isolation of the Jew — Judaism the most separative of religions — Effects of the dietary laws and the Sabbath — Judaism the best ally of the Church in keeping the Jew isolated from the Christian — Economic and social effects of isolation — Alleged superiority of the Jew as a trader — Characteristics of the Jewish artisan — The "inherent thirst for know- ledge"' of the Jews — Causes of peculiar criminology of the Jews — Assimilation of the Jews — Large number of baptisms prove capacity for assimiliation — Disabilities in liastcrn Europe the greatest barrier in the way of assimilation of the Je\\s. Hampered on the one hand by their strict and separatist relig^ion, and on the other by the disabilities imposed on them by the laws of Christian states in Europe, the Jews have for centuries lived apart from the people around them. Up to the end of the eig'hteenth century the social and political environment in which they found themselves was almost alike in every country in Europe. Though scattered in various countries, amonij diverse races and peoples of different culture, language, traditions, and religion, the Jews, owing to the homogeneity of their own Ghetto environment, presented a uniform social type. Basing their assertions on superficial observation, writers have confounded this uniformity of the social type of the Jew with homogeneity of the physical or anthropological type. The "Semite" was supposed to differ radically from the 504 RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 505 "Aryan," not only in relig^ious belief and traditions, but also in descent. The Jew boasted of his own superior lineag-e, which he believed he could trace back to the time of the great patriarch Abraham. He was proud of the fact that he alone among- the nations was able to trace back his ancestry for over four thousand years, having maintained the purity of his breed, unpolluted by the infusion of foreign blood, in spite of all the historical vicissitudes under which he has laboured for centuries, living under the most varied influences of the physical and social environment. It was not the Jew alone who was of this exalted opinion about the seed of Israel. Many non- Jewish writers speak of this "great," "superior," and " remarkable" race, displaying such a striking prepotency of blood which survives victoriously, in spite of all attempts made by other races to vanquish and absorb it. But of late, since the race theories have been taken up by several pseudo-scientists, some authors have turned round and discovered that the Semite is altogether an inferior race when compared WMth the "Aryan." He is a stranger in Europe, an alien in race, speech, tradition, religion, aspirations, ideals, and the like. Judging from the abundant literature about the Jews which has appeared within the last fifty years, it seems that they have been an interesting topic not only to the philosopher, scientist, and theologian, but more so to the pamphleteer, publicist, statesman, and demagogue. Our study of the racial characteristics of the modern Jews is thus seen to be of more than academic interest. It is of vital importance to the Jews, as well as the people among whom they live, whether they really differ radically, whether they are of different race stock when compared with the Homo Euro- pwiis, and whether their prepotency is so strong that they can never be assimilated by people of different origin.^ ' It was Christian Lassen, in his Indische Alltrthtiiiiskttndc (vol i., p. 414; Bonn, 1844-61) who fust made the distinction between the Semite and the Aryan. IJe claimed that the Semite is selfish and exclusive, and not endowed with the liarmony of psychic forces wiiich is characteristic of the Aryan. E. Renan, in his IJistoire i^i'in'ra/e ft sys/i'inc compan' dcs latii^tiis si'miliqucs (Paris, 1S7S), and also Eftulc d histcin relijp'insc (I'aris, 1862), speaks of the Semites, and especially the Jews, as differing radically from the Aryan. Renan's opinion was often quoted in favour of the view of the purity of the Jewish race. But later Renan himself has emphatically 506 THE JEWS. Tliis problem can only be studied by the anthropolog"ist. Only somatic traits, only anatomical peculiarities, are stable and persistent, and comparatively unaffected by external conditions. Morpholog"ical traits alone depend mainly on heredity for their transmission. Individuals, or «;"roups of individuals, may chanij;"e their langfuagfe, their relij^ion; may for<,^et their most sacred traditions within one or two generations. But there is no known way of chang-ing the complexion, the head-form, the heig'ht, and the like, and to assure their transmission to the prog^eny in the new shape. If the Jews have really pre- served their originar " Semitic " traits, it is in their morpholog'y that we should look for proof. In our study of the Jews we found that language, dress, deportment, manners, and customs, and even religion, are by no means sufficient to prove identity of origin. It was evident when we detailed the physical char- acteristics of the modern Jews that they do not by far present a homogeneity of physical type. Renan's apt statement, " II n'y pas un type juif, il y a des types juifs," is confirmed by a careful study of the somatic traits of the Jews in various countries, and often by the study of the Jews in a single country. These differences are mainly evident in the most persistent traits, which depend solely on heredity for their transmission and constant re-appear- ance from generation to generation. Some of the differ- ences displayed by Jews in different countries can indeed be attributed to the action of the physical and social environment. The height of an individual may be modified to a certain extent by the mode of life ; a plentiful supply denied the existence of a Jewish race In the following words : — "J'ai la con- viction qu'il y r\ dans rensemble de la popidation juive, telle qu'elle existe de nos jours, un apport considerable de sang non scmitique ; si Lien que cette race, que Ton considere comnie I'idOal de I'lt/inos pur, se conservant a travers les siecles par I'interdiction des marriages niixtes, a ete fortement penetree d'infusions etrangcres, un ]5eu comnie cela a eu lieu pour toutes les autres races. En d'autres termes, le judaisme a I'origine fut une religion nationale ; il est redevenu de nos jours une religion fernice [At the time Renan wrote this mixed marriages were yet infrequent, and the few that did take place were not studied. It cannot be said to-day that Judaism is closed to all admixture of foreign blood]; niais, dans I'intervalle, pendant de long siecles le Judaisme a ete ouvert ; des masses tres con- siderables de populations non israelites de sang ont embrase le judaisme."' — Le Judaisme comme race ct commc nlii^ieii, p. 24 ; Paris, iS8^. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 507 of nourishment, combined with proper physical exercise, may develop the muscular system; example, training', and education may influence for g-ood or evil the psychic, moral, and intellectual capacities. All these human qualities may be influenced by the environment. But these factors are impotent to transform a dark-haired individual into a blonde, or a round-headed person into a long-headed one. The descendants of the German immigrants who settled in the Caucasus about one hundred years ago are to-day just as blonde-complexioned as their compatriots in Central and Northern Europe. The physical environment has not transformed them into dark-complexioned people, the prevalent type in that region. The descendants of the English immigrants in Australia are to-day, after long residence in the Antipodes, and under a diff"erent physical environment, of the same physical types as those prevalent in England. When we find that the European Jews have between fifteen and thirty per cent, of blonde-haired, and even up to fifty per cent, of fair-eyed, persons in their midst, we can by no means take it as evidence of pure breed. When we find in addition that, with a few insignificant excep- tions, these blonde Jews are met with in different propor- tion in various parts of the world; that in Arabia, Africa, and the Caucasus, where the non-Jewish population is distinctly brunette, only from one to five per cent, of Jews are blonde, while in Germany the proportion of blonde Jews reaches thirty per cent., we are forced to the con- clusion that the fair-complexioned Jews are a European acquirement of Judaism. This is important, because it throws light on the most crucial point of the anthropology of the Jews. Some have, namely, suggested that the blonde Jews are the descendants of the blonde elements mentioned in the Bible, such as the Amorites, and that since their dispersion in Europe they have kept themselves free from intermixture. If this were the case, the propor- tion of blonde Jews in every part of the world should be about the same. The difl"erent proportions of blonde Jews in various countries shows that other factors were re- sponsible. Was it climate? As far as our present know- ledge goes, this cannot be confirmed. There are blondes living in countries where the bulk of the population is 508 THE JRWS. brunette. Tliis is, for instance, the case with the blondes in North Africa, which have been discussed so much in anthropolof^-ical htcrature,^ or the larj^e proportion of brunettes in Northern (Jcrmany. Such cases are known to be tlie result of diflfcrenccs in racial derivation. Why should the Jews be considered an exception in this respect ? No g^ood reason has been advanced as^^ainst the opinion that we deal here also with difTcrent race types of Jews. In Northern Europe, where the population is predominantly blonde, the Jews could by fusion acquire mostly blonde elements; while in Italy, where the bulk of population is distinctly brunette, or in the Caucasus, Persia, Arabia, and Africa, where the proportion of blonde Jews is practically insignificant, the Jews could not, even if they did inter- marry openly or clandestinely, or admit proselytes, acquire anything- else but brunette traits. It is conceded by all, except themselves, that the black Jews in India and the Malabar Coast are of undoubted Hindu derivation. It is their misfortune that they are of an extremely different type when compared with white humanity, and could not be incorporated into the body of Judaism as easily as blondes were, owing- to the usual prejudices ag-ainst coloured people. They are, in fact, treated by their white co-relig-ionists with about the same amount of contempt as the coloured population is treated by the whites in the southern states of America. And when the Falasha Jews in Abyssinia are considered, there is hardly any one who would not ag-ree that they are of a distinctly different racial type from the Jews of Europe. These dark Jews in India and Abyssinia offer excellent proof that the Jews have made proselytes after their dis- persion among- the nations, in spite of the fact that Judaism is such an exclusive relig^ion, barring- the stranger at the gate, and practically never sending forth mission- aries to make converts. Jews have, however, incor- porated into their communities, at various times, foreign racial elements. It appears that the suggestion that the origin of the black Jews in India dates back to the days when white Jews had native Hindu slaves and forcibly con- verted them to Judaism is correct. Similar cases are ' See especially G. Sergi, The McditaTancan Race, pp. 59-75, for dis- cussion of the African blondes. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 509 recorded in the history of the Jews in various parts of Europe, particularly Gaul, Spain, Italy, and Hung-ary. There are records showing- that the Church has at various times taken measures to prevent them from converting their Christian slaves to their own faith. ^ That all these measures were of no avail, is seen from the fact that finally the Church was compelled to forbid them to own slaves altogether.-' The descendants of white slaves have been fused with the rest of the Jews, and cannot to- day, after several generations of liberty, any more be recognized. It is, however, different with the descend- ants of the Hindu slaves converted to Judaism. They are to-day recognized as of difTerent stock, and treated according to the notions held by the white Jews about the superiority of the white man. But they serve as an ex- cellent example of the proselytism practised by the Jews, and we are justified in assuming that if the differences between Jews and other white folk were extreme, we should undoubtedly recognize at present the descendants of these slaves just as they arc recognizable in India. Turning now to a more stable trait, the head-form, we find the lack of homogeneity is extreme. It is doubt- ful whether the most mixed of European nations, like the Italians or French, display any greater heterogeneity of cranial type than the Jews. In the Caucasus there are extremely brachycephalic Jews with heads almost round ; ^ Vide Chapter VIII. supra. Even Jacol)5, who denies altogether any intermarriage and proselytism among the Jews since their tlisiK'rsion in Europe, concedes slavery to have been ihe cause of the infusion of "Aryan" blood into ]\.\da.ism.— Journal Aiithrop. Imtiltitt:, vol. xv. , p. 21 of rejirint. ■^ For details sec I. Abrahams, ycTivV/i Life in lite Middle A:^es, pp. 95 et seq. The Talmud and all later Jewish codes forbade a Jew from retain- ing a slave who was uncircumcised, because a Jew must not ])rofit from a slave's disobedience of the Law of Moses, and no Jew might drink wine touched by a non-Jew. With the female slaves conversion to Judaism was easier and more frequent. The Rabbis even relaxed somewliat in their decisions on female slavery "in order to preserve the morality of Jewish women." The solicitude of the Church in its desire to prevent Jews from owning Christian slaves had a good reason. On the other hand, offences between Jewish masters and their lemale slaves were punished by the Rabbis, and in order to escape the penalty the owner often voluntarily gave his slave her liberty and recognized her sons as his legitimate offspring. It cannot be said lluU such pr.actices left llie seed of Abraham free from foreign blood. 510 Tin-: JEWS. in Africa and Arabia there arc dolicliocephalic Jews, with loiii^ heads Hke those of the nomadic tribes of these regions ; and llicre are niesocephalic Jews in Europe, standing mid- 15 14 / \, 13 / \ v^ 12 1 i\ / s 11 / 1 / 10 , 1 i 9 1 8 1 1 1 1 \ 7 1 1 I \ 1 6 1 i 1 5 ' 1 \ 1 1 -1 4 / \ 5 / ;' / \ I \ 2 / / / ^ \, \ \ 1 \ \ 7 7 ^ 7 8 8 2 8 6 5 9 f 9 8 CKI'IIALIC INDEX. Fig. 142.— The Three Tyi>es of He.vd-form among Jews. Jews in Tunis. .Jews in the Caucasus. Jews ill Lithuania. way between the above two extreme types. Tlie accom- panying" diagram (Fig. 142) shows three curves, each RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 51I representing- measurements of heads of Jews. The one to the right represents measurements of Jews in Caucasia ; the one to the left, Jews in North Africa ; and the middle curve, Jews from Lithuania. This diagram shows in a striking manner that all the three main types of head-form are to be found among the Jews. In other words, as far as the head-form can show, these three different groups of Jew^s represent three different races, just as if they were of wliite, yellow, and black com- plexion. When further inquiry reveals that in Caucasia their non-Jewish neighbours are also brachycephalic, that in Tunis the predominant type is dolichocephalic, the inference forces itself on us that the dilTerences in head- form between these three groups of Jews have been acquired in the countries in which they live. When we further learn that in Europe also the slight differences between the head-form of the Jews in various countries coincides, in a measure, with the differences displayed by the Christians around them, there is no way out but to conclude that the heterogeneity of the cranial type among both Jews and Christians is due to the same causes. As far as our present knowledge of the origin of cranial types goes, only racial intermixture can alter the shape of the head. And when we find that the cranial type of the Jews in countries where they have lived for centuries coincides with the cranial types of the people around them, we may safely conclude that only inter-marriage, — it is immaterial whether open or clandestine, — or conversions, could be the cause. Indeed, if the ancient Hebrews were long- headed, as some are inclined to believe, then only those in countries where the non-Jewish population is of the same cranial type have remained unchanged in this regard; the bulk of the Jews in Europe have diverted from the original type, and are not at all of the race-type of the ancient Hebrews. The same is true if we consider that the ancient Hebrews were brachycephalic. Then only the Jews in the Caucasus have remained true to the type, and the rest have more or less diverged from it. Nor can we imagine for a moment that an assumption that the ancient Hebrews had been a mixed race, and all the cranial types were found among them, will help us to solve the problem. \Wc cannot conceive that all the brachycephalic Jews at 512 Tui: jiivvs. the time of their dispersion went to Caucasia, the dolicho- cephaHc to Africa, etc. Tiie only phiusible exphmation is that by intermixture with their non-Jewish neit^hbours they have slowly acquired the cranial types prevalent in the countries in which they have lived for a loni,'- time. Stature, though a fluctuatinij character depending' to a certain extent on nourishment, also confirms the racial heterogeneity of the modern Jews. It must be emphasized that social misery with its concomitant defective nutrition may cause a retardation or even an arrest of growth, and thus lower the average stature of a people. But this defect, as an acquired character, does not become a per- manent trait by hereditary transmission. Thus, the poorest of the population of England, Scotland, or Nor- way may be of lower stature than the average of their compatriots, but they are taller than the best nourished of the Hungarians, Poles, Sardinians, or Japanese. ^ We have seen that the Jews in Eastern Europe are almost everywhere shorter by about one inch on the average than their Christian neighbours. This may be due to the miserable social and economic conditions under which they labour. But we have found that they also differ among themselves. Thus, the Jews in South Russia are taller than their co-religionists in Poland. Moreover, the Jews give ample evidence that stature is not altogether dependent on social and economic conditions. Those in Bavaria and Turin, for instance, are on a superior plane economically, still they are much shorter than those in the Bukowina, in Rouniania, or in Tunis, the majority of whom are living from hand to mouth in abject poverty. This goes far to show that the milieu alone is not sufficient to explain the differences in stature of Jews in various countries. But when we bear in mind that the non-Jewish population in Bukowina, Roumania, and Tunis is also taller than the non-Jews in Bavaria and Turin, we may safely conclude that the origin of the differences in stature of the Jews in these countries is due to the same causes as the differences in their complexion and head-form. Additional confirmation of the heterogeneity of the racial aHinities of Jews is found in the different types of ^ See J. Deniker, The Races of Man, p. 32. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 513 the modern followers of Judaism met with in different countries. It is an undeniable fact that the cast of countenance depends as much, probably more, on the social viilicu than on the anthropological traits. More- over, the cast of countenance chani^es very easily under a change of the social environment. I have noted such a rapid change among immigrants to the United States. While here they are often easily taken for "foreigners"; still when they have remained in America for a long number of years and have adopted some or most of the habits and mannerisms of Americans, they assume quite a new general appearance. This new physiognomy is best noted when some of these immigrants return to their native homes ; it is then evident even to the casual observer that they radically differ in appearance from their compatriots who have not been in the United States. This fact offers excellent proof that the social elements in which a man moves exercise a profound influence on his physical features. In our study of the types of Jews it was evident that the social type is the one which is commonly recognized among the inhabitants of the Ghetto and their descendants. " We distinguish different nation- alities not so much by physiognomy, figure, complexion, or proportions, for our eye is not sensitive enough to perceive all this without practice and without the aid of scientific apparatus. But what strikes us is the type — something inexpressible and indefinable — which is the effect of social influence — i.e.^ of the influence of the social factor. . . . The type or physiognomical character of .a folk or social group is not anthropological but social."' It is this social type of the Jew which popular opinion considers peculiarly Jewish, and which is an expression of the prolonged action of a uniform environment. That the anthropological type of the Jews escapes our attention is due to the fact that "we are in general more impressed by what is human in man — i.e., by his intellectual and moral faculties — than by what is animal. . . . Thus when an individual has certain outward marks denoting member- ship in a group, such as costume, head-dress, and the like, the moral type of the group is still more striking in * L. Gumplowitcz, The Ouiliues of Sociolog\\YV- 161-162; Pliiladelphia, 1899 514 THE JEWS. him, and we do not notice his anthropolog^icai type or deceive ourselves about it, unless it is very conspicuously unusual."' Mainly for this reason most of the Jews in Eastern Europe, who are anthropologically of various types, deceive the casual observer into believing- that they all present physiognomical homogeneity. If in addition his dress is peculiar, as is the case in Poland and Galicia, the Jew can be diagnosticated without looking at his anthropological traits at all. Many of the Western Jews who recently emerged from the Ghetto have not succeeded in ridding themselves of the expression peculiar to that social type. But closer examination has shown that this is but the expression of the mental man, the mirror of his soul, which is reflected in his cast of countenance. Anthropologically we have seen that there are many types of Jews. In addition to the extreme types, such as the Black Jews in Malabar Coast, the Falashas in Abyssinia, or the Chinese Jews, there are in Slavonic countries Jews who do not differ physically from the Slavs ; there are Teutonic, Mongoloid, Negroid types to be met with in all parts of the world. But it must be emphasized in this connection that while the social milieu may alter the expression of an individual, may influence his bearing and deportment — -as the transformation which many of the immigrants to the United States undergo proves — it cannot alter the anthropological type. A dark-com- plexioned individual cannot become blonde by a change of milieu; a long head cannot be transformed into a round one, a hook into a snub nose, or straight into oblique eyes. And when we find that many Jews with thick upturned lips are also prognathous, have long heads, frizzly hair, and other negroid traits ; when we find other Jews with oblique eyes who have also prominent cheek- bones, fiat noses, thin, straight, long hair, and often Mongolian beards ; when we find that many Jews present all the physical traits of Slavonians, Teutons, etc., we cannot attribute these different morphological characters to the action of the milieu. Such transformations of the physical type are not known to have taken place among any other people. They are always due to racial inter- mixture. It appears thus that the Jews during their ' L. Gumplowitcz, il>id., p. 166. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 515 migrations in various parts of the world have taken up almost everywhere new racial elements and incorporated them by fusion into the body of Judaism. There is no more justification for speaking- of ethnic unity among the modern Jews, or of a "Jewish race," than there is justification to speak of ethnic unity of the Cliristians, or Mohammedans, or of a Unitarian, Presbyterian, or Methodist race. There are more difTerences to be seen in the antliropological type of the Jews in the Caucasus when compared with their co-religionists in Tunis than between each of these groups of Jews and the peoples around them. A considerable proportion of Jews in Eastern Europe have more Slavonic blood flowing in their veins than so-called "Semitic" blood, whatever this may imply. Viewed from this standpoint, the question of the origin of the Jewish "race" loses its significance. It is im- material whether they were a homogeneous ethnic type in their home in Palestine, or whether at the time of their consolidation into a national unit they were already a conglomeration of the diverse racial elements common at that time in Egypt, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Mesopo- tamia. Nor is it important in this connection to make a pedantic attempt to trace the "cradle of the Semites," as has been done by many authors, with a view to determining whether the ancient Hebrews were of Asiatic or African physical type.^ Considering their present ethnic hetero- geneity, it is immaterial which type of mankind was predominant among their precursors as carriers of monotheism. We have seen that to-day the bulk of the Jews who have lived for centuries in Africa present predominantly an African physical type ; those in Asia are mostly of Asiatic type, and the European Jews are mostly of the anthropological types met with among the European races. The Jew in Russia has less kinship in blood with his co-religionist in the interior of Morocco than with the Slavs among whom he lives ; the thirty per cent, of Jewish blondes are nearer in blood relationship to the North European Teutons, or the East European blondes, than to their co-religionists in Yemen, Arabia; the ^ See D. G. Brinton and M. Jastrow, 'J'/if Cradle of the Scinitts, I'hila- delphia, 1890; \V. Z. Ripley, The Races of Eiin^, pp. 36S (V iyv/. 5l6 THE JEWS. brachycephalic Jews in the Caucasus are further removed racially from the dolichocephalic Jews on the oasis M'zab than are the Christian Lithuanians from the Germans in Europe. This point cannot be too strongly emphasized. It not only dissipates the exalted notion of the " Chosen People," who believe that they can trace back their ancestry for over four thousand years, as far back as their patriarch and progenitor, Abraham, but it also shows the baseless- ness of the position of their enemies, the Anti-Semites. In accordance with the spirit of the times, the Anti- Semites have also attempted to put a pseudo-scientific veneer on their agitation, and propounded a theory that the "Jewish race" constitutes a branch of the Semitic race, and is entirely alien in Europe, incapable of assimilating European standards of morals and fair-play ; that the antipathy between the Aryan and Semite is quite natural, considering the differences in racial affiliation ; that fusion between the Aryan and Semite is almost impossible, and that the gulf between them will always remain wide enough to keep them apart. The differences between these two races, the "Aryan" and the "Semitic," being natural and depending on hereditary transmission, cannot be wiped out by a change of the environment. This alleged gulf between the Jew and his non-Jewish neighbours, being purely social and having no ethnic basis, has, however, been narrowed of late. The large and increasing number of mixed marriages which have been taking place in recent years bear testimony that there is no ethnic reason for the separation of the Jew and Christian. Indeed, as we already know, it was the Church as well as the Synagogue which prevented the amalgamation of the Jews and kept them apart as a religious minority for centuries. As long as the Church held all matrimonial affairs with an iron hand, no inter- marriage was allowed. Mixed marriages were only permitted by law since civil marriage was established in some countries. In Russia, Austria, etc., the}- are not yet allowed. When the question of legalizing marriages between Jews and Christians was discussed in the German and Hungarian Parliaments, the clergy, as well as many pious Christians, petitioned the representatives against RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 517 the passage of the law. It was stated that this will prove to be a relapse into paganism, that Christianity will lose many adherents, and that the general population may become Judaized. But from all the historical evidence available it appears that the Synagogue and the Church are both powerless to prevent intermarriage between Jews and Christians unless the State comes to their rescue. In Germany such unions were only legalized in 1875, and during 1900-08 one-fifth of all the Jewish marriages were contracted with Christians ; in Hungary they were only legalized in 1895, and one-sixth of the Jewish marriages in Budapest are with Christians ; in Scandinavia mixed marriages are as frequent as "pure" marriages. Two forces only are capable of preventing mixed marriages — the State, and isolation of the Jew. In Russia and Austria, where the law prohibits such unions, there are officially no mixed marriages,^ nor can we expect mixed marriages in Moslem countries for the same reasons. Isolation of the Jews from the general population, which is to be observed in the East, where they differ from the Christians not only in religion but also in language, dress, etc., is even a better preventive of intermarriage. This is best illus- trated by conditions in New York City. The Jews who have been here for two or more generations are marrying with Christians as frequently as the Jews in Berlin, Paris, Rome, and Copenhagen. The Spanish and Portuguese Jews in the United States have in this manner practically disappeared. Having adopted the habits and customs of the general population, they come into social contact with Christians, and alliances follow as a result. In contrast with these native Jews are to be seen the immigrants, who less often, though not as rarely as is generally supposed, marry out of their faith. The reason is that they are practically isolated from the Christians. Like all other immigrants, they are clannish, perhaps more clannish than others, and live only among their own countrymen. It is ^ The spirit of the times is to-day, however, much stronger than letjis- hition. In Austria mixed marriages are as yet not permiued legally; still, in Vienna a large pro]K>rtion of lews marry with Freethinkers, thus evading the iirohihilion to marry with Christians. In Galicia and Bukowina prac- tically no intermarriages are taking jilace, not because the law is in the way, but because the jews, adhering strictly to their faill), do not want to marry out of their pale. 5l8 THE JEWS. noteworthy that the largest number of Jewish marriages among- the immigrants are contracted between natives of the same city in luirope, while international marriages, considering as such those which are contracted between Russian and German, Austrian, Roumanian Jews, are in the minority. Indeed one often hears among the New York Jews that a marriage between a Russian and German Jew is bound to prove a failure ; even the Lithuanian and South Russian Jews are said to find it hard to get along in matrimonial affairs. Yet such marriages are taking place because these different classes of Jews come socially in contact. There is one class of immigrant Jews which often intermarries with Christians. We refer here to public school teachers, especially male teachers of Jewish origin, who very often marry out of their faith. The main reason is that they come in social contact with their non-Jewish colleagues at school. Here also the rule observed in Europe is confirmed. More Jewish men marry Christian wives than Jewesses marry Christian husbands. In the present age when marriage is a civil and not a religious affair, when the Church and the Synagogue have no support from the State in their prohibition of inter- marriage between persons of different creeds, religion is powerless to prevent mixed marriages. The effect on the Jews and Judaism is immense. The gulf which separated them from their Christian neighbours in the past is narrowing with the increase of these unions, and the way is paved for the solution of that problem of the Jew and the Christian which only thirty years ago was con- sidered hopeless. This is an indication that the social isolation of the Jew is coming to an end, and that in the near future all the real and alleged differences between Jews and Christians will completely disappear in pro- gressive communities. The demographic phenomena presented by the Jews in various countries are very instructive. In addition to the fact that no uniformity can be observed, which practically excludes ethnic causes, they are also valuable in giving us a striking picture of the social conditions of the Jews in Various parts of the world. The demographic phenomena of the Jews may be taken as an index of their social, economic, and intellectual conditions, which again are RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 519 mostly dependent on their political position in the countries in which they live. Wherever they are isolated by hostile leg^islation, compelled to live apart from their non-Jewish neig-hbours, confined within the walls of the Ghettoes, and thus deprived of every opportunity to enter into intimate social intercourse with Christians; wherever, largely as a result of this isolation, they are on a low economic and intellectual standard, their birth-rates and marriage-rates are high, and practically no inter-marriage with Christians takes place. Hostile legislation against the Jews is thus shown to fail utterly in its aims, as can be seen from the detailed evidence presented in the course of this work. Legal repression of the Jews, as practised during the centuries preceding the beginning of the nine- teenth, and even to-day in Russia and Roumania, has had mainly one aim in view : to render their life so miserable and unbearable as to make it more advantageous for them to adopt Christianity, and thus rid themselves of all dis- abilities.^ How far this policy fails in its aims and purposes can be seen from the fact that conversions to Christi- anity are comparatively rare in Russia and Roumania. On the other hand, in common with all other classes of people who are on a low social and economic level, their natural increase — i.e., the excess of births over deaths — is enormous among them. They increase in number in spite of all the cruel attempts to check them. This is substantiated by the statistical evidence given in the first chapter of this book dealing with the number and dis- tribution of the Jews. In Russia, Poland, and Roumania they have kept on increasing in number. Conditions are different in Western and Southern Europe. In Germany, France, Italy, Kngland, and also in America and Australia, where the Jews enjoy civil liberty on an equal basis with the general population, and where they are, as a result, on a superior plane socially, intellectually, and economically, their marriage-rates and birth-rates are so low, that even with a phenomenally low mortality, there is left a very small excess of births over * A Russian statesman recently said tlial repres.sit^n of the Jews will, he hopes, result in converting to Christianity one-third of their number ; another third will emigrate, and the last third will die. Thus he expected to solve the "Jewish problem'' in Russia. 520 THE JEWS. deaths, which excess keeps on dwindliiifj. Indeed the Western Jews display a striking- retrog-ression and decadence, which is by no means accidental. It can be traced mainly to the remarkable development they have been underg-oing- during- the last seventy-five years, and especially to the social intercourse with the Christians around them, which is responsible for the large and g-rowing tendency to inter-marriag-e. The children born to these mixed couples, as was shown above, are practic- ally lost to Judaism ; hardly ten per cent, are raised as Jews, and the rest is a g-ain to Christianity. On the whole, the native Jews in western countries are being- diminished by low birth-rates and absorbed by the Christian population through inter-marriage, and in Germany and Austria partly also through baptism. These phenomena have been kept in abeyance by two redeeming factors : the favourable mortality rates of the Western Jews and the high birth-rates of the Eastern Jews have both been effective in keeping the total number of Jews in the world on the increase. It must, however, be borne in mind that while the birth-rate can keep on sink- ing, in fact natality may go down till the annual number of births is insufficient to replace all those lost by death, the low mortality must reach its limit. It seems that mortality rates often to fourteen per looo population are quite low, and it is doubtful whether they can ever be much lower. To date the Western Jews hold their own by immigration from Eastern Europe. But the reservoir of Jews in Russia, Poland, and Roumania is by no means inexhaustible. The seven or eight millions of poverty- stricken humanity of Jewish faith also show signs of lesser vigour as regards multiplication in number. Their fertility begins to abate as we have seen from statistical evidence gathered in Warsaw, Bucharest, and especially Budapest. Even in Austria the natural increase of the Jews has been declining. During the period 1869-1880 they increased 22. 88 per cent.; in 1880-90, 13.42 per cent.; while the general population increased during these periods only 8.58 and 7.91 per cent, respectively. During the decade 1890-1900 the Jews only increased 7.14 per cent., as against 9.12 per cent, of the Roman Catholics, 15.71 per cent, of the Protestants, and 11.38 per cent, of the RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 521 Greek Catholics. ^ Durini^ the last ten years the excess of births over deaths among the Eastern Jews has been more or less drained off by emigration to western countries, where they replaced the large number lost by a vanishing birth-rate, mixed marriages, and baptism. But with the improvement of the political status of the Jews in Russia and Roumania, which is bound to come sooner or later, their demography will approach that of the Jews in Western Europe. That such is the tendency is proven by conditions in Austria and Hungary, where the birth-rate has fallen perceptibly, and the number of mixed marriages has increased within the last ten years to an alarming degree; in the large cities of Russia, according to reports, "prudential limitation of the size of the family" is no more unknown among them ; -' while among the immi- grants from that region who have lived for some time in western countries, it appears that "race suicide," inter- marriage, etc., are just as frequent as among the native Western Jews. We do not want to be misunderstood on this point. In showing the tendency to retrogression of the Jews we do not at all mean to imply that this is a sign of physical degenera- tion of a physiological or pathological nature. The decline of the birth-rates of the Jews is no indication that they have recently suffered from a diminution of their pro- creating capacity. Nor are they in any way unique in this respect. The same phenomena are to be observed among all civilized peoples in varying degrees of intensity. "Prudential foresight" goes hand-in-hand with an im- proved standard of life, with greater ambition to raise children wlio are fortified with a proper education, the best weapon in the fierce struggle for existence wliicli has been going on in modern commercial and industrial life. ^ J. Thon, Dicjiukii in Ocstencich, pp. 40-42; I'-crlin, 1907. - A considerable luiiliber of pamphlet.s on nicllioils of pievcnlion of con- ccplion have recently a])pcauHl in ^'i^lclii^ll, and they have had a wide circulation in Russia. Tiie effect of this kind of literature on the birth- rate is well known. Then it must be mentioned that recently the marriage rates have declined among the Jews in Russia ; late marriages and celibacy have made their appearance. "(Sec p. 247 sii/^iti.) This must, in the near future, have an immense eflect in diminishing the birth-rates. To expect that they will increase in nundjcr at the same rate as they did during the preceding century is absurd. 522 THE JEWS. The birth-rate of the city population has been declininj:;- for this reason in every country ; celibacy and late marriag"es are the order of the day. In a g^reat measure this is due to the chang"es brouj^ht about in modern times by the intense development of industrial activity, and the increased demands for skilled artisans who are educated. The ag-ricultural labourer is thus attracted to the city where he can fmd g"reater opportunities for his advance- ment, as well as for the education of his children. The fecundity of modern peoples thus depends, in an inverse ratio, on the number of town-dwellers, and people who are engaged in mercantile and industrial pursuits and in the liberal professions. The main difference between Jews and Christians in Europe is therefore evident : while among the Christians the accretion of the city population is a recent phenomenon, and the rural districts are still recruiting heavily from their loins population for the "man-killing" urban centres, the Jews have been town- dwellers for centuries, and thus have all the attributes of the town-dwellers in a more accentuated degree. In other words, the difference between the Western Jews and their Christian neighbours is only one of degree. They are going more rapidly on the frenzied path of modern life. With birth-rates of 12 to 18 per 1000, the Western Jews have outstripped France with its birth-rate of 20, which has been considered alarming. In this respect as well as in many other respects, the Jews are merely the avant- coureurs, showing whither modern society is travelling. Christianity, however, has yet large reserves to draw upon to replace the losses incurred by the conditions just described, while Judaism cannot count very much ©n its reserves in Eastern Europe, for reasons indicated in the preceding pages. The demographic phenomena presented by the Jews can also be taken as an index of their religious status. In the Orient and Eastern Europe, where their devotion to faith and traditions is intense, they have high birth rates ; they marry early, have a substantial excess of births over deaths, and hardly ever intermarry with Christians. In western countries conditions are the exact opposite, indicating a lessened intensity of faith in their religion and traditions, often amounting to religious RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 523 indifference. The result is that "race suicide," late marriages, celibacy and the like are frequent, and Jews do not increase, and in some places even retrogress, in number. Indeed, the cruel persecutions and massacres to which they have been exposed during the last two thousand years have not robbed Judaism of as large a number of adherents as modern emancipation, with its concomitant adoption of the habits and customs of modern life in Western Europe. The orthodox Jewish rabbis of yore, who were against all intercourse between Jews and Christians and placed almost unsurmountable barriers in the way of those of their followers who might have come in intimate contact with non-Jews (such as, for instance, the dietary laws), were right from their standpoint. Judaism prospers best under the iron rule of isolation. Russia offers perhaps the best illustration of the point. The oppression of the Jews in that country has but one aim in view — to gain them for the Greek Catholic Church. The Russian bureaucracy believes that religious unity will greatly strengthen their hold of the people. As soon as he is baptized, the Jew, besides receiving a bonus of thirty silver roubles, is also granted all the rights and privileges enjoyed by the Christian population. The world which was denied to him in a great measure, is at once opened to him as soon as he is immersed in the baptismal waters. But notwithstanding all the tempting advantages offered, less than 90,000 Jews were baptized in Russia during the nineteenth century.^ In contrast with Russia may be taken conditions in Prussia, where the number of Jews is only about 400,000, less than one-tenth the number in Russia. Here, according to De le Roi, as many as 13,128 Jews have been baptized during the nineteenth century, and since mixed marriages have been legalized in 1875, about eleven thousand Jews have married Christians. In Russia no such marriages have taken place, excepting among those who adopted Christi- anity, and are thus included among the converts. In Russia the birth-rate of the Jews was 37.43 in 1897, not much lower than it was in the beginning of the nineteenth century. As a result, the number of Jews in Russia has 1 See J. de Ic \\o\, /ii(Liitaii/iii tin 1.^ Jahyhtindcil, pp. 31-32, 4045; Berlin, 1903. 524 THE JEWS. at least tripled within one luuidrcd years, in spite of the vast exodus to Western Europe, America, and other continents. On the other hand, in Prussia the birth-rate of the Jews, which was his^h in 1S22-40 — 35.46, the same as that of the Jews in Russia — beg"an to sink since their emancipation, reachinyf only 18.72 in 1906. In other words, if the Prussian Jews had remained in their orig^inal political and social condition, unaffected by modern life and by contact with the Christians, they undoubtedly would have maintained their birth-rate, just as their co-relii^ionists in Russia, and the number of Jews born in 1906 would have been about 15,000 instead of 7,541, as was the case. Moreover, the number of Jews born in Prussia during- 1875-1906 was altogether 281,500; if they had maintained their birth-rate at 35 per 1,000 the number born would have been about 400,000 during that period. The decline in fertility has consequently caused a loss to Judaism of about 118,000 souls. If to this are yet added the large number of conversions to Christianity and of mixed marriages which have taken place during these thirty-two years, it is evident that the total loss sus- tained by Judaism was larger in Prussia during 32 years where there are only 400,000 Jews, than among the 5,500,000 Jews in Russia during the entire nineteenth century. What are the effects of this decadence on the number of Jews residing in western countries ? They are decreasing in number in an unprecedented manner, and will hardly be able to maintain themselves from their own loins as a religious minority among so many Christians. Although an enormous number of Germans have left their native country for America and the German colonies, still the population keeps on increasing. In contrast with the Christians, the Jews in that country have not kept pace with the general increase of population, and in fact show a relative decrease in number, and this in spite of the fact that comparatively few have emigrated and many Eastern European Jews have immigrated to German}'. If the constantly increasing number of mixed marriages, baptisms, as well as the declining marriage-rate and vanishing birth-rate be taken as a criterion, the future of Judaism in Germany is, to put it mildly, not very bright. The same RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 525 process of decadence is to be seen among" the native Jews in Italy, France, England, America, Australia, etc., in varying degrees of intensity. About conditions of the Jews in France Max Nordau says tliat, since the law for the separation of Church and State has been enforced, tliere has been "disclosed a situation which hitherto had been hidden from most people by a deceptive cloak. The official organization of French Judaism formed a fai^ade which was very imposing, but which had nothing behind it. Now that the State has separated itself from the Synagogue, as it has done from the Church, the oilicial fa(;:ade of French Judaism has collapsed and it is disclosed in all its pitiful weakness and decrepitude." As is the case with other Jewish communities in western countries, the defections have been replaced by immigration from the East of Jews who preserved Judaism with zeal. But this is only observed during the first and often also in the second generation. " In the third generation they were mostly swallowed up. The grandchildren of the immigrant German Jews are no longer to be distinguished from the old French Jews ; they are alienated from Judaism and everything that is Jewish to as great an extent as the others." It is doubtful whether the recent immigration of Russian Jews will save the situation. "Sooner or later the descendants of the Russians and Poles will freely adopt the French local colour," says Nordau, and concludes that "The decay of French Judaism is not in doubt. French Judaism has no future, for it has no present. . . . If fudaism is only a religion, then religions ijidifferencc ivill soon put an end to Judaism.'''^ This situation is not confined to France. Exactly the same conditions have been observed in England, Italy, Scandinavia, Australia, and the United States. In exactly the same manner the original Jewish settlers, the Spanish and Portuguese Jews of the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries who refrained from intermarriage with their German and Polish co-religionists, have practically disappeared ; very few of them have been left. If immigration from Eastern luwope should for some reason cease, the number of native Jews in the United States would dwindle away at a rate appalling to those * Max Nordau, "The Decadenre of Judaism in France, ' /< :r/f// Chronicle, p. 10 ; London, Tan. iS, 1907. 526 THE JEWS. who have the interests of their faith at heart. It appears that the Jews pay an exorbitant price for their Hberty and equality, — self-effacement. A Jewish physician who devoted long- years to the practice of his profession among' his co-religionists in the Russian Pale of Settlement, describing the miserable social, sanitary, and hygienic conditions of the Jews, said that they are a most remarkable people from the medical standpomt. They lend themselves best to experimentation on the beneficial effects of adverse sanitary and hygienic surroundings on the health and well-being of the human species. From the evidence presented in the chapters dealing with the pathological characteristics of the Jews, it appears that there is a considerable amount of truth in this statement. It is evident that, notwithstanding the fact that from the standpoint of sanitation the bulk of the Jews in Eastern Europe, and to some extent those in the Jewish quarters of London, New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, etc., live under conditions comparable only with those encountered in the "slum" districts of the modern large urban centres, they still do not pay so heavy a penalty for their disregard of the first principles of hygiene as does the slum population of non-Jewish origin. This singular peculiarity of the Jews has been spoken of by many writers as showing that they possess a "remark- able tenacity of life," an "inherent power of resistance to the noxious effects of contagious disease," and as demonstrating the race element in the etiology of disease. But as has already been intimated, a careful study of the morbidity and mortality of the Jews in various countries does not reveal any ethnic basis for the peculiarites shown by the Jews in this regard. The differences displayed by Jews at different times and in different places show con- clusively that other factors are responsible. Thus, they were not altogether spared by the epidemic of Black Death during the Middle Ages, as was alleged by many- writers. Haeser says that in some places they were attacked by the scourge to a lesser degree than the Christians.^ " In Avignon those mostly affected by the plague were the poor, especially the Jews and the very ^ Haeser, Gcschiih/c i/tr epidLiitischcii Kraiikhiitcii, vol. iii. , p. 153; Jena, 1865. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 527 intemperate Spanish. Amon<^ the Jews, one-tenth of whom succumbed, the scourj^-c manifested itself as fully developed bubonic plague. ' There are similar reports about the epidemics of plague in Prague during 17 13 and in Poland in 1770. Haeser also reports that during the cholera epidemic in 1831 the Jews were especially often and severely attacked, and adds thai, while during the Middle Ages they were burned at the stake because of their alleged immunity, they were persecuted and driven from many cities in 1831 as carriers of the nidus of cholera,- and in Warsaw they were very severely attacked.'' The mediaeval immunities of the Jews thus appear to be one of the many myths in circulation about them.^ We have also seen that there are practically no differences between the Jews and Christians as regards the incidence of typhoid fever, scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, etc. While in some cases there are reports of a lesser morbidity of mortality, there are also reports of other places and periods when the Jews suffered just as much and even more than the Christians around them. The fact that they generally lived in former times isolated from the non-Jewish population will often explain a difference in regard to epidemic diseases. It is well known that contagious diseases often attack one part of a city while the rest is spared, irrespective of the racial, social, or economic condition of the population. More- over, inasmuch as infectious and contagious diseases are not filth diseases per sc, but depend on specific germs for their transmission and propagation, it is evident that it is not necessarily the richer part of a city that will invariably be spared in every epidemic. Indeed, there often occur epidemics in parts of the city inhabited by the richest class of people, while a neighbouring quarter, inhabited by poor, is either partially or completely spared. It must be borne in mind that the enemies of the Jews always had their eyes open to every peculiarity they may present. In case the Ghetto was spared by an epidemic the Jews were accused of poisoning the wells of the city, while in cases when they were attacked by the scourge they were accused of being the source of infection. This is mainly the reason why we 1 Haeser, ?7>/t^, p. 1S3. •' //nd., p. 810. - /did, vol. ill., p. 807. ^ See Chapter XIII., sii/^m. 528 THIv JEWS. have so many reports about the pathological peculiarities of the Jews durini^ the Middle Ai^'-es. Their favourable death-rates are also not by any me.ans shown to be the result of an ethnic " tenacity of life," but are mainly explained by social differences when Jews are compared with Christians. In general it appears that their mortality rates are greatly influenced by their economic conditions. In Germany, Holland, Italy, France, etc., where they are on a superior economic plane, their death-rates are low, ranging from 11 to 14 per 1,000; in Russia, Austria, Hungary, Roumania, Algeria, etc., where the majority live in poverty and want, their mortality rates range between 16 and 22 per 1,000. Austria shows the influence of economic conditions on the mortality rates of the Jews in a striking manner. During i895-i90othe rates in the various countries of the Austrian Empire were as follows: — Silesia, 13.2; Lower Austria, 14. 1 ; Moravia, 14.8; Bohemia, 15.7; Bukovvina, 17.9; and Galicia, 21.0.^ It thus appears that in the parts of the country where they are on a high economic level, as in Silesia, Lower Austria (Vienna), Moravia, and Bohemia, their mortality is quite low ; while in Bukowina and Galicia, where the poverty of the Jews rivals that observed in Roumania and the Orient, their mortality rates are very high. Their favourable mortality in Western countries is also a result of their lower birth-rates, which influences greatly the infant mortality. A lesser number of children born means a lesser number of deaths in the early years of life. In Austria, the provinces where the Jews have high birth-rates, like Galicia and Bukowina, their mortality is also high ; while in Silesia, Lower Austria, Moravia, etc., where the birth-rates are low, their mortality is also low. If, in addition, it is borne in mind that Jewish mothers take greater care of their children, that their devotion as parents is unprecedented among the poor of other creeds, that they nearly always nurse their children at the breast, that Jewesses only rarely go to work in factories after marriage, and other social peculiarities, it is evident that the so-called " tenacity of life " of the Jew can equally be achieved by people of any race by adopting their mode of life. > See J. Thon, Die Judcn in Ocstcrrcich, pp. 28-34 ; Berlin, 1907. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 529 Their lesser liability to consumption is remarkable, con- siderini^ the adverse conditions under which they find themselves, all of which are favourable to the development and spread of tuberculosis. That it is not a racial trait is seen from the fact that in the United States the number of Jewish consumptives is <^rowing- to an alarmini,^ extent. Racial immunities are not lost by a residence for a few years in a new country, or by a chani^^e of milieu for one g^eneration. The nejjfro has not lost his immunity to yellow fever after residing- in the United States for two or three centuries. Nor can we attribute it to the ritual inspection of meat practised by the Jews, because in western countries, where they are not loth to consume meat not prepared according to the dietary laws, their tuberculosis mortality is lower than in the East, where they are very strict in this reg^ard. They are better adapted to city life and overcrowding- by a long^ sojourn in the Ghetto, and by a process of natural selection there were eliminated most of those who were predisposed to tuber- culosis, thus g-iving- them an advantage. The lesser number of Jews who succumb to pulmonary and bronchial diseases may also have been acquired in a similar manner. In addition, it must be recalled that their indoor occu- pations, which do not necessitate frequent exposure to the inclemencies of the weather, and also their abstemiousness, which gives them a better chance to survive an attack of pneumonia and the like, may greatly influence their mor- tality from these diseases. This indoor life is, however, responsible for the large number of Jews who suffer from chronic pulmonary and bronchial diseases, such as bron- chitis, emphysema, asthma, etc. From the facts presented in Chapter Xl\'. it is evident tliat there are hardly any difTerences between Jews and others in regard to their liability to diseases of the circu- latory and digestive organs, as well as to cancer, or to diseases of the skin and eyes. The lesser number of Jewish infants dying of acute digestive disturbances during the summer months is not due to any peculiar congenital vitality with which they have been alleged to be endowed. This is evidently the result of the care bestowed upon tiiem by their mothers, the feeding- at the breast, and the domestic habits of the Jewish mother, who rarely goes to 34 530 Till'- JKVVS. work :iftor marriage. Indeed, since a change has taken place in this regard among Jewesses in New York City, since many go to work and are compelled to feed their infants artificially, the number of children who suffer and die as a result of these diseases during the summer months has been increasing", and similar conditions have been observed in London and Manchester. The traditional purity of tiie Jewish home and family life, which was one of the characteristics of the Ghetto Jew of the past, was responsible for the smaller number affected with venereal diseases among them. Some authors have attempted to attribute this to a remarkable immunity to these diseases, while others saw one of the most beneficial effects of ritual circumcision in the fact that only rarely was a Jew affected with any of the social diseases. Some writers went even so far as to recommend the general adoption of circumcision by Christians as an excellent preventive of many ills of modern man. But what a change the Jews have recently undergone in this respect can only be attested by physicians who practise among them. Indeed, there are now hardly any differences between Jews and others as regards the liability to suffer from these diseases. The number of Jews affected with venereal maladies is commensurate with the number who expose themselves to infection. And inasmuch as the traditional purity of their family life has more or less changed since they have emerged from the Ghetto, these diseases have been on the increase among them. The only pathological processes which are more fre- quently met with among Jews are the derangements of the nervous system. The nervous and mental diseases, and also diabetes, are apparently the privilege of the Jews. But that even this is not a result of any anatomical or physiological peculiarity is evidenced by the fact that only the functional nervous derangements are thus frequently encountered. Hysteria, even in the male, which is very common, may be considered almost natural among people with such an enormous amount of suffering and martyrdom as the Jews. "They cry before they are hit," not only individually, but also as a class. One has to read the Jewish press, especially the Yiddish press, to appreciate the hysterical grief and terror displayed on every occasion RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 531 when some misfortune is threateninj;' their co-reUj^ionists in Russia, Roumania, or Morocco. The hysterical mood of the Jew is also evident when one sees the plays which are most successful on the Yiddish stai;e. The morbid, melancholy phases of life, full of i(rief, sorrow, and sad- ness, are those which succeed best. Even the humour of the Yiddish poet and playwright almost invariably has a sombre tinj^e. Considering^ their history, and how often they have been abused during the last eighteen hundred years, this is not at all surprising. Similarly, with the average Jew who suffers from some malady the hysterical element often predominates. Not only is the patient liable to exaggerate his sufferings, but also all those who take an interest in his health and well-being are thrown into a state of terror and grief at each change for the worse. It is noteworthy, however, that these hysterical manifesta- tions are on the decline. The Western Jews are ridding themselves of them in a most remarkable manner. The Jews in Russia also have shown recently that they can meet misfortune with fortitude and with manly resistance, instead of hysterical appeals for mercy. During the recent pogroms in Russia they have defended themselves in a manner with which they would have never before been credited. All this goes to show that it is all a question of education and example. Nowadays that they have been acquiring many of the habits and manners of life of their Christian neighbours, they are also learning that self- possession and calmness are usually of more benefit than alarm and excitement. There is no wonder that they have been controlled more by their emotions than by their will power. These emotional temperaments are known to be the result of traumatism — i.e., of either physical or psychic injuries. No people has been more harassed for centuries than the Jews. It is because of the cumulative effects of repeated psychic injuries that we find him to-day as a tcmptnivicnt Mensch. If to this is added the fact that Jews are pre- eminently town-dwellers, and to a large extent engaged in mercantile and speculative pursuits, it is quite in accord- ance with our present knowledge of the etiology of neuras- thenia that the stress of mind incident to the intense application to business should claim a great number of 532 THE JEWS. victims amoni^ them. Commerce, banking-, speculating', small trading^, and the professions known as precarious occupations entail a larg^e amount of care, worry, and anxietj. It is well known that the speculator and the merchant, on meeting with reverses, often lose their mental balance. In the case of the Jews, the majority of whom are what are known in the vernacular as " bundles of nerves," this over-exertion of the nervous system is liable to do more harm than in others. The disproportion between the inadequately developed physiciue and the constantly active mind, with its restlessness and ceaseless mental activity, have had a particularly deg;enerative influ- ence. His fatig'ued, weary, and exhausted brain is easily derang^ed under the least exciting cause; it g-ets " out of g-ear," and even collapses under circumstances which might produce little harm in others. The psychic trauma, or injuries to the soul, already spoken of, to which he has been subjected repeatedly during; the eig^hteen centuries of his dispersion among- the nations, have greatly contributed to his nervous disposition. He is ambitious and persevering-, possessing- an enormous amount of " push," which he cannot always bring- into play while strugg-ling- ag-ainst adverse circumstances. If to strug-gle against adversities taxes the nervous system, then what class of people has more enormous odds to overcome? To this must be added the massacres, which have not ceased during the twentieth century, and which in mediaeval times were of more frequent occurrence, the autos da fe, the expulsions from the native country, etc. Could the survivors after a massacre remain with stable nerves? Could children who witnessed their parents' violent death, their mothers, sisters, and relatives mal- treated, remain with well-balanced brains ? Physicians report that after the recent pogroms in Russia the number of insane Jews was appalling. Considering that in mediaeval times massacres of Jews were quite frequent, and the number of Jews was much smaller than at present, it may be said that many of the survivors have remained with unstable nerves, and that a fair proportion of the neurotics and psychopathies have inherited their nervous dispositions from their maltreated grandparents. Any people, no matter of what race, could not remain with RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 533 healthy nerves under the ban of abuse and persecutions to which the Jews were subjected. How far the nervousness of the Jews depends more on their environment than on ethnic peculiruities is shown by the large number of suicides among' them. In former years, when they adhered strictly to their faith and traditions, a Jewish suicide was very rare. But within the last twenty- five years they have outstripped the Christians in Ciermany and Austria (excepting Galicia) in their tendency to self- destruction. Of course this goes hand-in-hand with their nervousness, their precarious occupations, and their life in cities. Formerly they were isolated from their Christian neighbours, but since they have adopted most of the habits and customs of the people around them they have also learned from them voluntary destruction of life under severe stress of mind. The effect of isolation is best seen in a study of the social characteristics of the Jews. If their sojourn in the Ghetto for many generations was potent in producing the ethnic type of the Jew, it has been more effective in producing and maintaining the social conditions which may be called characteristic of the Children of Israel. Isolation, which has been called by Darwin the corner- stone of breeders, is more effective in engendering social types than ethnic types. In man isolation is seen to be mostly of two kinds, geographical and social, and it was mostly social isolation which was operative in moulding the Jew as we meet him to-day. In fact, geography played only a minor role in his case. Notwithstanding that the seed of Israel were scattered in various parts of the habitable globe, in spite of the fact that the different Jewish communities have been separated geographically from each other in a manner luiknown among any other social group, they still lived everywhere in the same viilicu. It was only after their emancipation in Western luirope during the first half of the nineteenth century that there were to be noted differences in the environments of the Jews in different countries. It has been often emphasized that medireval legislation against them was responsible for most of the social characteristics to be observed among the modern Jews. The uniformity of these phenomena is easily explained by the fact that, 534 Tm- jr.ws. inspired from the same source, the Church which ruled Medituval luirope, the anti-Jewish lej^islation was almost everywhere of the same character. They were every- where limited as to the choice of residence, sequestrated in the Ghetto^ Judcns^assCy or Jcivry, and not allowed to leave their quarters without special permission ; they were prohibited in every country from owning- or even leasing- land ; the guilds nowhere permitted them to choose their occupation, and in most countries they were compelled to wear the infamous "badge," so that they might be ostracized as if they were of different colour from their neighbours of other creeds. To all this must yet be added that in no country were they allowed to participate in the political, civic, and social functions of the citizen, being thus branded as an alien element. The fact that almost everywhere the same methods were used to isolate them was taken by some writers as a satis- factory explanation of the uniformity of the social phenomena among them. " Who can say what would have been the effect on any other relig-ion of such a treatment prolonged throughout several hundreds of years?" asks Leroy Beaulieu. "If the Mohammedans could have tried the experiment on the Christians, they would probably have obtained as clearly marked a type in ten generations."^ But it must be conceded that such an experiment could hardly be tried successfully on followers of Christianity. They would be absorbed by the surrounding majority within several generations. In his zeal to prevent such absorption the Jew. himself welcomed at all times the isolation in which Christendom has placed him. By the nature of his religion he could not exist as a Jew if he attempted to commingle with his neighbours of different faith. Judaism is the most separative of religions. It is not universal, like Christianity, but tribal. It has a great distaste for the stranger at the gate, and does not send forth any missionaries among people of different creeds, or among the pagans. It is not eager for proselytes like Christianity or Mohammedanism. In fact it rather repels most of those who might be attracted by its ethical teachings. Ritual circumcision is not calculated to make * A. Leroy Beaulieu, Israel (I'liong the Nafioits, p. 122. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 535 Judaism attractive to Christian or pag-an. Then the dietary laws are by no means conducive to promote intimate social intercourse between Jews and their neig'hbours of different faith. Writers on the sociology of the Jews often neg^lect to appreciate the effects of these dietary laws as they have been obeyed by all the Jews before their emancipation in some European countries, and as they are being" obeyed to-day by the Jews in tlie Orient and Eastern Europe, and some of their co- religionists in America. These laws are not limited to the avoidance of pork and to a special method of slaug^hter and meat inspection with a view of preventing" diseases aniong" the Chosen People. Only apolog^etic theolog^ians speak of Moses as the g'reatest sanitarian, the ancient precursor of modern hygiene. It has been well estab- lished that these rules had their origin much before the time of Moses, and are in fact survivals of a system of Totemism which must have existed among the primitive Hebrews. As members of Totem clans they tabooed animals which they worshipped — the totems. The list of forbidden animals given in Leviticus xi. and Deuteronomy XV. was only later codified with the object of keeping the Jews isolated from the heathen.^ " I am the Lord your God, which have separated you from other people. Ye shall therefore put difference between clean beasts and unclean, and between unclean fowls and clean. . . . And ' See Robertson Smith, Animal Worship and Animal Tribes avion;; the Arabs and in the Old Testament, and his Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. vii. ; also Relis^ion of the Semites, p. 270 f. Joseph Jacobs, in his Studies in Biblieal ArehiToloqy, pp. 64-103 (London, 1894) gives an excellent summary. Salomon Kcinach has recently pleaded with his co-religionists in favour of discarding th^ese dietary laws as relics ol barbarism, and only interfering with friendly intercourse with their neigh- bours. See Ciiites, Mylhes, et A'elixions, vol. ii., pp. 12-36, 41S-436, 443-446 (Paris, 1906). He says that " les idees dc/z/rtA'ct iVim/'iiretc' n'ont rien de commun avec cellcs de bonte, dc chaslete, d'ulilite, d'unc part, ni, de I'autrc, avec celles de m^chancete, de lubricite, d'insalubrite. Cc que Ton ne tue pas et ce que Ton ne mange pas est prcciscment ce qui provoque le respect, I'abstention, le Hands off; c'est done, \ proprement parler ce qui est sacre" (p. 12). He argues that the political emancip.ation of the Jews is not suflicicnt. They must inaugurate an I'maneipation int,'rieiire in order to succeed in li''e. The reform Rabbis in the United States take about the same position. "In this country, with our free environment, traditional Shulchan ./r///- Judaism has no place,'' says Rabbi D. Philipson {American Hebre-v, p. 91 ; Nov. 27, 190S). ^]6 THE JKWS. ye shall be lie^ly unto me : for I the Lord am holy, and have severed you from other people, that ye should be mine."' In the opinion of the Rabbis the Biblical prohibitions were insuHicient to keep the Jew away from friendly intercourse with his non-Jewish neii^hbours, and they added many new prohibitions and interdictions with the object of precludingf any intimacy between Jew and Gentile. A Jew must not eat at the same table with a Gentile, nor any food prepared by the latter ; must not eat or drink from dishes, with spoons, forks, knives, etc., which have been used by a Gentile ; must not drink wine the container of which has been touched by a Christian, Mohammedan, or heathen. This has actually engendered an instinct in the Jew ag^ainst Tore fa, unclean food — i.e.^ unfit for consumption by the Chosen People, or prepared by non-Jews. I have known Jews to feel nauseated and even vomit when told that the food they have con- sumed was not Kosher. This separatism of the Jew was yet intensified by the Jewish Sabbath. He rested when others were working-, and worked when the majority were resting. His joys and sorrows which are reflected in his holidays were different from those of the people around them. He often spoke a different tong^ue, wore different dress, both of which, though not nationally Jewish, yet differ from those of the majority. Thus he was isolated from the people among whom his lot had thrown him. The Church in its attempts to isolate the Jew found in his religion a most powerful ally. Indeed, it can be stated that if not a severely separative religion, the Church, even with the assistance of the State, could b}' no means keep the Jews from merging with the general population. Social sympathy, if not interfered with by differences in colour, is much stronger than the law. It was the intense tribal spirit engendered by his religion which kept the Jew from intimate contact with the Gentiles more than the laws promulgated by Christian States for the purpose. The effects of these disabilities inflicted on the Jew from without by the Church and from within by his rabbis are seen to-day when a study is made of their social and economic conditions in various countries. During- ' Levilicus xx., 24-26. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 537 mediaeval ag"e.s they were practically all, with very few exceptions, living" in poverty and misery. The exception was chiefly to be seen in Spain, for a hundred years before their final expulsion. But it must be borne in mind that the vast majority of the rich Jews were either Marranos (Jews who adopted Christianity officially and observed some of the Jewish rites secretly) or assimilated Jews — /.p. 186- 1S7. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS, 54I historical vicissitudes explain clearly why they have not tilled the soil, or worked at manna! labour. The le^tfisia- tion about the Jews durini^ the Middle Ai^es had one basic principle which paralyzed them in tlieir choice of occupa- tion : they were leg-ally considered aliens, and treated as such — i.e., they could at any time be expelled and their property confiscated ; they were not admitted into the trade g-uilds, thus depriving- them from pursuing- most of the skilled trades, while money-lending-, which was pro- hibited to the Christians, was rather encourag-ed among- tlie Jews.^ From within they also had many obstacles, as has been shown. Their religion demanded that they should rest on the Sabbath, when the majority is working ; their dietary laws have isolated them from every friendly intercourse with their neighbours, thus confirm- ing- that they are aliens. Keeping- apart from the majority had as a concomitant the effect of creating special social conditions. Certain peculiarities have been noted by many autiiors while speaking- of the Jewish merchant and artisan. There appears to prevail a superstition that the Jew is superior to any merchant of other faith, as a trader. Some think he is more " smart," "clever," "calculating-," etc. Ruppin thinks that all these and other terms are inadequate, and do not completely describe the Jewish superiority in this reg-ard. He coins the word " /n/c//i'c/iiti/ismi(s," and says that the superior intellectuality of the Jew explains his success in business. He ag^rees, however, that the Eng-lish are just as g^ood as the Jews, while they are no match at all for the Americans, who are much better business men.- Both friends and enemies of the Jews thus often exag^gerate the so-called Jewish commercial spirit, which on investig-ation proves to be a pure leg^end. There is no question that during the Middle Ages, when the hig^her classes of the European population looked down ^ Roscher points out that when during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Christians had themselves liegun to take a hand in com- merce, which then became con.^idcrcd a respeclalile occupation, they have framed laws excKuling Jews from every kind of commerce, thus eliminating tliem as rivals. Only peddling, jielty tr.iding, and money- lending were left for them. — See "Diejuilen im M it lelaller," .///.?/< /;/t-// ddr Volkswiiisrhafl, vol. ii., p. 221. - A. Ruppin, Die /mien clcr Ge^enwai/, pp. 176-17S. 542 THIi JEWS. at commerce, the Jews, meeting; with little or no com- petition, excelled as merchants. At the present, also, in Eastern Europe they excel because the bulk of the population is ai^'ricultural, while the cultured classes devote themselves mostly to military or professional pur- suits. This is especially the case in Roumania, where the Christian natives sadly nes^lect mercantile pursuits ; the richer class live on the incomes from their estates, or pursue military or professional pursuits, while the common people are mostly peasants, and to a smaller degree artisans who are kept in ignorance, so that over ninety per cent, of the population is illiterate. Of course here the Jew excels in business, though the Greeks in that country are at least as good, if not better, at commerce. For similar reasons the Jews succeed in other parts of Eastern Europe. But many of the Russian and Polish merchants are unquestionably shrewder and more success- ful in business than the Jews. A good public school system for the Christian population of Eastern Europe could within a few decades educate the common people so that they would rival the Jews in commerce. In addition it must be mentioned that most other religious minorities seem to develop good business capacity while living among a hostile majority. The Greeks and Armenians in Turkey are g^ood examples. "The Armenian in a foreign land is an artisan, labourer, trader, merchant, banker, speculator, etc., but never an agriculturist, as at home," says Rohrbach. It is particularly interesting to note that the Armenian merchants enjoy about the same evil reputation as the Jewish merchants in Eastern Europe. When inquiries are made in the Caucasus about the Armenians, a German, Georgian, Russian, or anybody else volunteers the information that they are despicable swindlers. It is well known that in the Orient three ascending degrees of fraudulent business men are proverbially known : one Greek is as bad as two Jews ; one Armenian is as bad as two Greeks ; and two Armenians are as bad as the devil. The opinion about the Armenian is not unanimously accepted. Sometimes it is said that two Greeks are as bad as the devil. ^ It is ^ P. Rolirbach, /// Tiiraii iiiid Artiuiiicii, pp. 214, 203. (Quoted from Ruppin, Zeitsch. Demographic iind Statistik der J iiden, pp. 177-1S1 ; 1907. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 543 curious to note that Rohrbach's description of the con- dition of the Armenians in the Caucasus is exactly the same as that commonly given of the Jews in Eastern Europe. It appears that they are mainly the merchants and middlemen of that region. Any one who wants to do any kind of business must come in contact with them. The result is that there is hardly an inhabitant of the Caucasus who has had no business transaction ol any kind with an Armenian, and perhaps has even been cheated by him, which is almost inevitable, considering the bargaining and business methods of the East. The result is that nearly everybody bears testimony as to the unscrupulous- ness of the Armenian. The same is true about the Jews in Eastern Europe. The Russians, Poles, and others can- not successfully compete with the Jews, simply because the latter never drink to excess, and assiduously attend to their affairs. When they meet, however, with Greeks, Armenians, and others, who are equally sober and per- severing, they do not excel at all ; while with the Chinese they cannot even compare as traders, as has been repeatedly shown by many observers. Their poverty in Eastern Europe bears good testimony that they are not such good business men as they are reputed to be. To ascribe to them superior qualifications in this regard is absurd. Any other civilized people placed in the same position would be as successful in business as the Jews. In a study of the Jewish spirit in modern commercial life Sombart brings forward considerable evidence to the effect that the Jews in Europe were the first to discaid the ancient trade traditions which considered it unethical for a merchant to undersell another; to be satisfied with small profits on large and brisk sales; to occasionally sell at a loss when advisable to get rid of a certain line of goods or to push out a competitor ; to sell on the instalment plan; and above all, to advertise in newspapers and otherwise, and thus create a demand for their goods.' It is prob- lematical whether they were alone in the field with these business methods during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It seems to me that because they constituted 1 Werner Sombart, "Jiidisclier Cieist in moderncn Wirlschaflsleben,"' Die A'die Ktiiidsihati, pp. 585-615, M.iy, 1910. 544 '^"1^^ j'-ws. the majority of the people eiij^aj^ed in commerce in those days, they were the most conspicuous, and for that reason Christian merchants of Germany, France, Eng^land, etc, have comphiined that they are crowdinj^ them out, as Sombart shows. At any rate, at present they are not alone in this field. All successful business of to-day is conducted on these principles. To call this the "Jewish capitalistic method," as Sombart does, and ascribe it to race characteristics of the Jews is not justified. The most that can be said is that beini^ the first merchants in luirope with international connections, brouj^dit about tlHouy;h historical vicissitudes, they were ahead of their time. Even at this game the English, and especially the Americans, have outdone them during the last fifty years. Sociological works, particularly in England and America, abound in descriptions of the characteristics of the Jewish workman. It is claimed that the Jew is a labourer and artisan only temporarily, and at the first opportunity leaves his work and becomes a trader, a merchant ; in short, that he considers himself in a stage of transition. While at work, he is an individualist and will not submit to the routine rules of a factory, and for that reason prefers to work in "sweat-shops," where there are no rules and regulations to be obeyed ; where he can smoke, talk, and have his own hours for labour and rest. Considering himself in a stage of transition, he does not look for any improvement in his trade, as the English or American workman, but is ambitious to climb higher.^ These and many other characteristics are ascribed to the "Jewish race." The fact of the matter is that in England and the United States there are two classes of Jewish workmen. One class consists of artisans who have worked at their trade since childhood, and perhaps learned it from their parents. These artisans are just as zealous to improve conditions in their occupation as any American or English mechanic ; they are also proud of the kind of work they turn out, and submit to any reasonable discipline of the factory in which they are employed. The second class o( Jewish workmen in England and America consists of ^ See C. Russell and 1 1. S. Lewis, The Jew in London, 1901 ; John A. Dyche, "The Jewish Workman," Conteinpcraiy KiTh7v, January, 1S9S; idem, " Tlie Jewish Immigrant," ibid., March, 1899. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 545 immigrants who, in their native land, were not workmen at all. There they were merchants, students, or simply people without any occupation. In their new home they had to adopt some occupation to sustain themselves, and found that tailoring- is quite easy to learn, especially work at ready-made clothing in which the division of labour has been brought almost to perfection. It is this class of Jewish workmen who do not want to submit to the strict discipline of the modern factory, and who are constantly on the look-out for an opportunity to raise themselves out of the submerged condition in which, according to their notion, they find themselves. People of this class often succeed in changing their vocation and become merchants, real estate brokers, and even professional men. Moreover, this is to be seen also among immigrants of other than Jewish faith. There are many in England, and especially in the United States, who began in a quite lowly position on their arrival, but later branch out in other directions and succeed in becoming even captains of industr}'. The Germans, Scotch, and Irish in America and Australia show similar proclivities. The Jew is by no means unique in this regard. The high proportion of Jewish students in universities and high schools is not at all an indication of a "greater thirst for knowledge" of the Jewish youth. It must be borne in mind wlien considering social conditions in Eastern Europe, that the bulk of the non-Jewish population belongs to an agricultural class which rarely send its children to high schools and universities. Even elementary education is obtained with difficulty in those regions. The Russian, Austrian and Hungarian peasantry cannot be compared with Jews, who are mainly town-dwellers and have a very large proportion of merchants and traders in their midst. This latter class is just the class from which the greater number of modern university and high school students are recruited. Among the Christians in those countries an enormous number of the educated youth finds an outlet in either the civil service or tlio military service, both of which are closed to the Jews. There is no doubt that if the children of Jewish merciiants atid professional men were compiued with the children of Christians of the same class, excluding oi' course civil and 35 54^^ IHE JEW'S. military service, there would hardly be found any differences in favour of the Jews. In tiie United States a noteworthy peculiarity is to be observed anions^ tiie Jewish ininiii^rants from Eastern Europe. The poorer mechanics and small traders are more apt to send their children to hii^h schools and universities than the Christians of the same social and economic status. In New York City the number of students in the City and Normal Collej^es is very large; a conservative estimate is that seventy per cent, of the students in these institutions are Jewish. That this also is not an indication of any special, inherent proclivities of the Jews to overcome all obstacles in their search for education and knowledjje is evident when their condition in Eastern Europe is considered. There industrial de- velopment is not on as hiijh a scale as in the United States. Only very rarely is a mechanic seen raising" him- self above the class of wage-earners, no matter how able he may be. The children of merchants and the higher class of artisans are therefore apt to flock to the pro- fessions, the civil and military careers, as the only means of crossing the great chasm which lies between them and the so-called higher classes. In Russia and Roumania the elite of society is made up, next to the noble and military classes, of persons of the learned professions. In attempt- ing to uplift himself in the United States, the Jew simply follows Eastern European notions and experience. But after one or two generations even this is changed for the American standard of proficiency, and we find many native Jews in nearly all mechanical pursuits. There are numerous Jews working as electricians, telegraph opera- tors, engineers, etc., with as much success as any other class of people have achieved in these occupations. In addition, it must be recalled that the Jewish immigrant is not drawn from the class of European agriculturists, as is the case with the Irish, Italian, and Hungarian immigrants. Many of the Jewish immigrants in New York City were well to do in their native home in Russia, and were com- pelled to emigrate by the cruel persecutions to which they were subjected. While here they live in poverty, their standard is difl'erent, I may say superior, to that of persons who were peasants at home. It is quite natural that they RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 547 should make all kinds of sacrifices to g'ive their children a higher education. Nor are there to be seen any racial peculiarities when the criminality of the Jews is considered. It must be borne in mind that with the advance of civilization crimes of violence are declining" in every country, while trans- £^ressions of fraud are Increasini,^ in frequency. Highway robbery, murder, and other extreme types of violent crime have decreased in every civilized country in Europe and America within the last thirty years. But the relative number of criminals arrested and convicted for anti-social acts has remained about the same, or has even increased. It thus appears that of late years, going- hand-in-hand with the advance of civilization, the character of the crimes committed by individuals who have anti-social pro- clivities has changed. It pays more and is safer to organize some fraudulent stock company, to forge cheques and notes, to manipulate with securities and the like, than to steal or rob in primitive fashion. The result is that criminal proclivities of individuals of any race, nation, or religious community manifest themselves in crimes of certain types, in accordance with the number of town- dwellers, the degree of education of the average citizen, the proportion of persons engaged in mercantile, in- dustrial, and agricultural pursuits. The larger the proportion of illiterates, of alcoholics, or of agricultural population — in a word, of persons who have not been affected by that complex condition of life which we style " civilization" — the larger the number of crimes of a violent and brutal character are committed. Brute force plays a very important role in the struggle for existence of such people. On the other hand, with the advance of culture, education, civilization, success in the struggle for life depends more on the mental capacity of the people than on their physical prowess. The number of criminals does not decrease, however, in civilized communities. There has only been observed a distinct transformation in the types of crimes committed. Fraud, cunning, and lust replace robbery and murder under the stress of modern industrial, commercial, and financial activities. This is the main reason why crimes of violence are proportionately more often committed ni countries which have lagged behind in the 548 iHi': J i:\vs. iiKuxli of modern civilization ; also in rural communities, than in luban centres. Many private vvroni^-s in backward communities are often privately aveni^ed by the wronged party or his friends, w'hile in communities in which an industrial and commercial spirit prevails many of these individual wrongs are settled by claims for damages. A comparison between conditions in countries like the United States and England, representing modern conditions, and Turkey or Sicily, as lagging behind in civilization, will make this point clear. In the former countries there are thousands of suits for damages tried in the courts, and wrongs are compensated by money ; in the latter, assault and murder is the method of choice when a wrong has to be avenged. The application of these observations to the criminology of the Jews is evident. For centuries they have lived in cities, have engaged largely in mercantile and financial pursuits. Up to one hundred years ago there were prac- tically no Jews engaged in agricultural pursuits, and few were artisans. Even to-day a very small, almost in- significant, number are agriculturists. Their occupations are just those in which crimes against property are usually committed by various fraudulent methods, instead ot crimes of violence and against the person, which are characteristic of rural populations and of the lower strata of city population. As a religious minority living amid hostile neighbours, they developed a distaste for alcohol, excessive drinking being very injurious in the struggle for existence. This again reduces the number of Jew^s liable to commit violent acts. As a matter of fact, in countries where their disabilities have been diminished, and they have, as a result, adopted most of the habits and customs of the Christians of the same social status around them, the number of Jews who commit crimes of violence has increased. This is the case in Amsterdam and New York, as has already been shown. In Russia, also, it was thought only two decades ago that the Jew could never commit murder, either because of his alleged cowardice or his innate abhorrence of violence. But of late they have proven the contrary. The number of Jewish terrorists in the Russian revolutionary movement is enormous, far in excess of their proportion in the total population. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 549 With the advance of civilization, with the chan£:;^e whicli is gfoing^ on in the social, economic, and industrial life in modern European and American populations, the diiTer- ence in the criminolog-}- of the Jews and others is beini^' rapidly obliterated. This is laro-ely a result of the enormous increase in the city population and in the number of persons eng-ag-ed in industrial and commercial pursuits. The Jews, on the other hand, g'iving- up most of their social and economic peculiarities, engag-e in industrial occupations more often than formerly, so that there is at present a \avge labouring^ class among- them. The crimes committed by the Jews of this class do not differ materially from those observed among- labourers and artisans of other relig-ious denominations. Fifty years ag-o the criminolog-y of the Jews was a g^ood indication of what modern society is coming- to under the stress of intense commercial and financial activit}'. In this respect, as was the case with many other peculiarities, such as the excessive number of psychopathies and neuropathies, the Jews have only been the advance ag-ents. Many publicists of Europe have, in fact, often desig-nated conditions in the Ignited States as "Jewish." But to-day Western ICurope is marchings, though somewhat slowly, on the same path, in order to obviate the intense competition of the Americans. It is noteworthy that the Jews of Europe are the best com- petitors of the Yankees in the battle for commercial supremacy. Taking- to-day one hundred thousand Jewish manu- facturers, merchants, and bankers in (iermany, I-'rance, and Eng-land, and comparing- them with a similar number of Americans of the same social and industrial class, no differences in their methods of dealing- with their fellow- man will be found. Nor will there be found any difference between the criminal proclivities of the average Jewish artisan in Russia or America and his Christian neighbour, if we except alcoholism and its consequences, which are more prevalent among the latter. The criminology of the Jews is purely a result of their social and economic con- ditions. We have found no differences between Jews and Christians which can justly be attributed to racial causes, and which depend solely on hereditary transmission, un- 550 THE JKWS. aflfected by the environment. A study of the characteristics presented by the Jews shows better than anythin^^ else the truth of Herbert Spencer's repeated assertion to the effect that the vuli^ar errors committed by sociolog'ical writers are in a i^reat measure due to a failure to recog"nize the extraordinary complexity of the problems involved in the phenomena and the subtle relations of cause and effect. Religion, the Jewish, as well as the Christian and Mohammedan, with the assistance of the State, artificially created the type of the Jew of the beginning- of the nine- teenth century. There is nothing unusual in the fact that an isolated community should evolve peculiar characteristics. As a matter of fact, in those countries in which the Church has been separated from the State the type of the Jew has undergone a transformation and approached more or less the type of the people among which he lives. There was nothing in the way of such a transformation as soon as the barriers placed by religion and the State were removed, because ethnically there are practically no differences between Jews and other Europeans. Both consist of conglomerations of various racial elements blended together in a manner that makes It impossible to disentangle the components, or even the predominant race, out of the ethnic chaos of most nations. Those Jews who have been treated for some time on an equal plane with their Christian fellow-citizens have shaken off their ancient peculiarities to such an extent, that there are to-day more differences between the native French Jews and their Russian co-religionists than between Jews and Catholics in Florence, Rome, and Naples. As a town- dweller for centuries he has become very plastic, often quick of intelligence, and eager to acquire all the attributes that make a good citizen of a country where he is given a square deal. He is even ready to shake off the traditional separative ritualism of Judaism when the law does not degrade him by segregation in the Ghetto, and is willing to contribute more than his share to the narrowing of the gulf which lies between him and others. The doubt expressed by some writers as to the possibility of assimilating the Jews is not based on facts. The fact is that the specific difference between Jews and other white RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 551 people consists mainly in the difference in relig-ious belief. Christendom has assimilated more Jews during- the past eig-hteen centuries than is generally appreciated. If the differences between the *' Semite " and the " Aryan " were really differences in kinship, the baptismal waters could not transform a Jew into an " Aryan " within two or three generations beyond recognition. The non-Jewish popula- tion of Europe and America contains an enormous number of families who arc derived from baptized Jews or from mixed marriages. The Spanish nation of to-day is super- saturated with " Jewish blood," derived from the Marranos who remained in that country after the final expulsion of the Jews during the last decade of the fifteenth century. "The blood, both in Spain and Portugal," says Milman, "was ineffaceable as the negro blood in the United States of America — the pure red of princes even kings was tainted. The shrewd Venetian ambassador in the reign of Philip the Second and his successor, observing how deeply the priesthood as well as the laity were polluted with Jewish blood, doubted whether their Christianity was more pure than their descent ; and as late as towards the close of the last [eighteenth] century it is told of Pombal, that the King of Portugal, Joseph I., proposed to issue an edict that all who descended from Jews should wear a yellow cap. Pombal appeared in the Council with three yellow caps. The king demanded the meaning of this strange accoutrement. ' One is for your Majesty, one for the Grand Inquisitor, one for myself.'"^ In a book written by Cardinal Mendoza, published in 1560 under the title El than dc la noblcza cspanola^ the author enumerates an enormous number of Spanish noble families derived from Jews. Llorente, author of a well-known history of the Inquisition in Spain, maintains that on the female line of descent all the Spanish grandees are derived from Jews. It is indeed noteworthy that in spite of the alleged prepotency of Jewish blood spoken of by some Jews as well as by many of their enemies, the Jewish blood which presumably circulated in the veins of many of these Spanish nobility by no means prevented them from treat- ing the Jews with the utmost cruelty. Many of the in- ^ M. II. Milman, Hiilory of the Jews ^ vol. iii., p. 529; I.omlon, 1864. 552 Tiin JEWS. quisitors were of Jewish orig'iii, and even I-'erdinand the CathoHc, who expelled the Jews from Spain in 1492, had Jewish blood in his veins, and Kayserling- shows that his mother was a g^rand-dauc^hter of the beautiful Jewess Palama from Toledo. Nobody will claim that the Spanish inquisitors and Ferdinand the Catholic were not assimilated and acted in accordance with the tendency of the times. That it was not only among- the noble classes which assimilation took place is evident from the fact that in the Castilian king-dom there was a diminution in the number of Jews from 1290 to 1474 from 850,000 to 150,000, judg-ing" by the head tax they paid. Spain is not unique in this reg^ard. In a recent book on the history of nobility, ^ it is shown that there have been over 1,000 noble Jewish families,- and the author enumer- ates by name 4S0 Jewish noble families. '^ Most of them are found in Germany, England, Italy, France, and even in Russia.* The descent of " noble" families is more or less easily traced, and they g^ive us an idea of the extent to which Jewish people may be assimilated, often beyond recognition. But it is not only in the nobility where Jews may adapt themselves, that even their alleged "pre- potency " does not help them to maintain their characteristics. The fact that they become champions of Christian ideals, of "Aryan" culture and civilization to the extent of persecuting the co-religionists of their forefathers belies a prepotent Jewish spirit. The millions of Jews who have been baptized within the last eighteen hundred years, v^'ithout attaining nobility in caste, have become "Aryans" without either themselves, or anybody else being able to trace their descent. Lombroso was right in his statement that if all the Jews U'ere baptized, their descendants, after two or three generations, would probably not exhibit any peculiarities. '' It must be re- called that very few of the distinguished Jews of the nine- teenth century have left descendants within the fold of Judaism. Max Nordau says that of all the Jews who ' Von Billow, Geschithle des Adels ; Berlin, 1903. - //'/(/., p. 37. •'• ///id., pp. 99-104. * See N. Samter, Judeutaufen jm ig /ahr/iiiiideri pp. 86-93; l^erlin, 1906. " Vantisetnitismo e k' scieuze niodenio^ Torino, 1S94, RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 553 gained fame and distinction or only recog^nition in any field within the last tliirty or forty years, hardly one-fifth have remained true to Judaism ;^ and Arthur Ruppin says that there was not a disting'uished Jew durinj^" the first half of the nineteenth century who was not sprinkled with baptismal waters, and he enumerates some, as Heine, Borne, Benfey, Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Marx, Stahl, Ricardo, Disraeli, and many others. - The vast majority of Jewish professors in Germany and Austria have been baptized. Of the few who have not undergone it them- selves, a large proportion have at least baptized their children at birth, in order to remove the disabilities which threatens those of Jewish faith. It is thus sub- stantiated that distinction gained by a Jew is one of the first indications that he will soon be lost to Judaism. It is related that Maria Theresa once asked her State Chancellor how she could easily gain the Jews for the Christian Church. " Majesty," the latter answered, " when you raise them to the rank of nobility." These facts are of more than passing importance ui connection with the question as to the source of the differences between Jews and others. If these were due to ethnic differences between the "Semite" and the "Aryan," as has been alleged by many writers, the baptismal waters could by no means wash away all their characteristics within two or three generations. It is evident that the differences between the Jew and the Christian in Europe are due to difierences in religious belief. It was solely the separative tenets of Judaism, coupled with the isolating laws of Christian nations which have created that type generally known as the Jewish. Within the last century, however, both Judaism and Christianity have begun to break down the barriers which have always separated classes that differ in religious belief. The Jews have fairly advanced on the path of discarding most of their separative dogmas and practices. The most potent factor in keeping them from social intercourse with their non-Jewish neighbours, the dietary laws, have recently been either completely discarded, or ^ Allgemeine Israditische Wocheiuchrift, p. 663 ; 1896. - Jah7-biuherfur Natiotialokoiiomic lotd Siatistik, vol. xxiii., pp. 766 767 ; 1902. 554 THE JEWS. more liberally interpreted. There are to-day very few- Jews, natives of western countries, who refuse to partake at a Christian table, or who will not eat from dishes previously used by non-Jews. A larg^e proportion of Western Jews also intermarry with people of other faiths, which is more potent in merging" the Jews with their Christian neighbours than any other factor. Considering- that the rates of intermarriage in some countries where the law permits such unions are about the same as the rates of intermarriage between Catholics and Protestants, and in some countries, like Scandinavia and Italy, even higher, it is evident that the isolation of the Jew has not a very long lease. In addition it must be borne in mind that most of the other separative characters of the Jews are loosing their significance. The Sabbath is a dead letter to the majority of Western Jews, they rest when the general population rests, and work when everybody is working. They have adopted many of the manners and customs of the people around them ; I believe that just as many, probably more, native Jews in the United States send New Year greetings to their friends on January the first than on Rosh Hashana^ the Jewish New Year ; and on Purim very few Jews indeed send gifts to their friends, while Christmas gifts are very much in vogue among them. Seventy-five years ago a Jew, no matter whether he lived in a eastern or western country, would have been put under ban and persecuted by his co-religionists much more severely than an apostate, for acting in this way. To-day public opinion among them has so changed that they look with equanimity at those who discard their sacred religious laws and traditions. To this must be added that they no more employ peculiar jargons, such as Spagnuoli or Yiddish, but that the vernacular of their non-Jewish neighbours becomes their own in western countries, and that even their names, dress, and the like are being changed for those common among the Christians among whom they live. When all this in borne in mind, it must be conceded that they assimilate much better than some writers on the "race question," as well as many Jews, are willing to admit. In fact they assimilate in countries where the laws of the state do not interfere with them in this direction much better than some minorities RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. 555 of so-called "Aryan" origin in Germany and Austria. The latter, thoug^h not radically difTerini:;- in religfious confession from the ruling" majority, still each having- most of the attributes of a nation, such as lang-uag^e, soil, dress, and the like, which they consider their own, are not inclined to part with them for the national attributes of their rulers. Perhaps because the Jews have none of these national characteristics, as was obvious from the evidence presented in the preceding" chapter, they are more plastic and have a greater aptitude for adaptation to a new environment as soon as they are liberated from the disabilities imposed upon them by the Synagogue, Church, and State. Judaism has been preserved throughout the long years of Israel's dispersion by two factors: its separative ritualism, which prevented close and intimate contact with non-Jews, and the iron laws of the Christian theocracies of Europe, which encouraged and enforced isolation. The Jewish nationalists rightly realize that only isolation can prevent defilement and absorption through contact with Christen- dom, and fmding that theocracies are no more to be thought of in Europe, they urge repatriation in a Jewish territory in Asia, or anywhere else, as the only means of saving the scattered remnants of Israel. But we found that denationalization has gone too far to admit repatriation of the Jews, and the solution of the perennial Jewish problem can be, and is being, accomplished in the countries in which they live at present. The eman- cipated Jew cannot and will not return to a Ghetto environ- ment. The hardest struggle they have at present is to free their Russian co-religionists from enforced segre- gation and isolation. We have also seen that when liberated from the Ghetto they soon begin to free them- selves from their ritualism, which has as a concomitant a strong and growing tendency to intermarriage. This, coupled with voluntary baptisms, low marriage and birth rates, characteristic of emancipated Jews everywhere, points to the road modern Israel is pursuing. We have also found indications that the Eastern Jews manifest a tendency to proceed in the same direction, but that the Russian autocracy has placed unsurmountable barriers in their way. Indeed, it is clear that the removal of the dis- 55^) THE JEWS. abilities under which they labour, as well as the le.Gfalization of intermarriage in Russia, would emancipate the Jews in a couple of g"enerations, not only politically, but also as reg'ards their ritualism, brinj^inj^ Ihem there where their Western co-religfionists are at present after two iii'enera- tions of freedom. The number of Jews ready to replace those lost throui^h assimiliation mij^ht thus be diminished. Meanwhile the political disabilities in Eastern Europe, and to a certain degree also social ostracism in western countries, are the most potent factors working" in favour of Judaism. The laws enacted and enforced by the Chris- tian governments in Russia and Roumania are more instrumental in maintaining Judaism than all the Rabbis in the world. 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Die Kriminalitat der Juden in Deutscliland in den Ictzten 25 Jahren. Monatschrift fiir Kriminalpsychologie und StraJ- rcchtsreform ; 1909. Weinberg, R., K-ucheniu o forme mosga cheloweka. Russian Antliropl. Journal., Part I\'., pp. 1-34; 1902. Ueber einige ungewohnliche Befunde an Judenhirnen. Bio- logischcs Ccntralblatt, Vol. XXI II., pp. 154-162; 1904. • Das Hirngewicht der Juden. Zcitschi:/. DciiiOi^r. it. Stiitist. d. Juden, No. 3; 1905. Die Transkaukasische Juden. /bitl., No. 5. Zur Pathologie der Juden. /bid., No. 8. Soziales und Biostalisclies Verhalten der livlandischen Juden. /bid., pp. 69-73; 1906. Weisbach, A., KcJrpermessungen verschiedener Menschcnrassen. Zcitschrift Jiir Ethnologic; 1877, Ergiinzungsband. Weissenberg, S., Die siidrussischen Juden. Aichiv Jiir Anthro- pologic, Vol. XXIII., pp. 347-423. 53 '-579- Die Kariier der Kriui. Globus, Vol. LXXXIV., pp. 139-143; 1903. Das jiidische Rassenprobleni. Zeitschr. /)cmogr. Statist, d. Juden, No. 5; 1905. Der Gesundheitszustand der Juden in Odessa, /bid , pp. 90-93; 1909. Die zentralasiatischen Juden in anthropologischer Bczicliung. /bid., pp. 103- 1 10. Die autoclithone Beviilkerung Paliistinas in anthropologischen Beziehung. /bid. pp. 129-139. Pekin und seine Juden. Globus, Vol. XCVI., No. 3; 1909. Die Spaniolen. Mitleil. Anthropol. Gcs. U'ein, Vol. I.\., pp. 225-239; 1909. Beitrag zur Anthropologic der Juden. Zeitschr. f. Ethnologic, Heft VI., pp. 961-964; 1907. 56G HIBLIOGRAPHY. Weissenberg, S., Die jemenitischen Judcn. Ibid.^ Heft II I. and IV., pp. 309-327; 1909. Die kaiikasisclie Jiiden in anthropologischer lieziehung. Archiv fiir Aitthropolo^^ie^ N.S., Vol. VIII., pp. 237-245; 1909. Weldler, N., Die Bevolkerungsbewegiing des Jahres 1906 bei den Judcn in Ungarn. Zeitschr. Deinogr. u. Stat. d. Jiuten, pp. Iic5-122; 1908. White, Arnold, The Modem Jezu. London, 1899. Wiener, L., The History of Yiddish Literature. New York, 1899. Wolf, Liicien, The Zionist Peril. Jewish (2uarterly Review, Vol. XVII., pp. 1-25; 1904. Article, "Zionism," in Encyclopcedia Britanfiica. 10 ed. Yakowenko, M. G., Materiali k aniropologii evreiskoi naselenii. St. Petersburg, 1898. Zack, N. W., Fisichcskoye rasvitie dietei. Moscow, 1892. Zakrzewski, A., Wzrost w Krolestwie Polskiem. Zbior Wiad. do antrop. kraj., Vol. XV., pp. 1-39; 1891. Ludnosc miasta Warszawy. Mater, antrop.-archeolog. Akadem. uiniej, Vol. I. pp. 1-38. Cracow, 1895. Zollschan, I., Das Rassenproblem. \'ienna, 1909. INDEX OF AUTHORS. Ahrahams, I., 378, 381, 393, 396, 421, 509 Aliramowilsch, M., 261 Adachi, B., 316 Adler, E. N., 126, 161 Allhutt, 348 Allen, Grant, 60, 214 Alsberg. M., 118 Amnion, O.to, 64, 74, 88 Andree, R., 17, 94, 99, 124, 136, 1 88, 205, 226, 315, 399, 540 Anutchin, 33 Apion, 475 Auerbach, E , 77, 231, 260, 263, 27S, 284, 287, 298, 301, 328, 352 Aurelius, Marcus, 314 1?AKA/,IINIK0KF, 281 I5askerviile, B. C, 539 Baslian, A., 149 Beadles, C. F., 341, 344 Beddoe, J., 33, 65, 84, 99, 169 Behrend, 290 Beloch, 2 Bendt, [. T , 161 Bent with, N., 472 Benzin^er, I., 60, 49 ^ Berliner, 396 Bershadsky, 4 Bertillon, 19, 300 Bewer, Max, 446 Billinijs, J. S., 233 Binzeri)acli, 446 Bismarck, 210 Blau. B., 408, 459 Blechmann, 13, 86, 106 Boas, Franz, 25, 27, 36, 219, 220 Boldt, J., 320 Bordier, A. 31 1, 337 Borrow, 160 Hotwinick, 323 Boudin, 17, 280 Bovis, R. de, 313 Braithwaiihe, J., 31 1 Brandes, (leorg, 3 2, 167 Brinton, D. G., 515 Broca, 17, 69, 106 Brodowski, J., 363 Brosius, 348 Brunner, A. W., 491 Billow, von, 552 Burchard, II., 126 I'lisch, M., 210 Busclian, C]., 272, 280, 31 t, 3i7, 348 Biishee, F. A., 409 Cammko, G., 215 ("astro, M. dc, 147 Chaii'lierlain, H. S., 44^ Cliarcot, 296, 324, 320 Chaslimoiioi, M., 495 Cbeinissc, 275, 313 Gohen, F. L., 490 Colin, 278, 322 Costello, Percy M., 360 Curzon, 128 Czjcki, T. , 4 Czerning, 189 Darwin, 533 Uavis, 49 Degner, 278 De le Roi, J., 454, 523 Delilzsch, 92 568 INDEX OF AUTHORS, Denikcr, J., 28, 32, 41, 68, 76, 106, 108, 114, 512 Deutscli, G., 277, 386 Dillhey, W., 445 Dolim, C. W. von, 434 Dolt^opol, 259 Diumont, 154 Dubnow, S. M., 477 Dyche, John A., 544 Ehstein, W., 337, 338 Eiclihollz, 309 Einhorn, 224 l^insler, 318 Eisenmann, 278 Elkind, 40, 74, 80, 99, 104 Ellis, Ilavelock, 32, 315, 344 Eib, W., 327, 348 Evans-Gordon, W. , 455, 53S Faitlovitch, 146 Feldman, B , 183, 221 Felkin, 18 Fere, 296 Fishberg, 32, 41, 49> 74. 27S, 283, 287 Fishkin, 317 Fiad, 146 Fracaslor, 277 FVankel, L. K., 367 Frederic, Harold, 429 Frericli, F. T. , 298 Fortunatus, 314 Gajkikwicz, 326 Gaiton, F., 100, 176 Gciger, L., 500 Gerster, A. G., 305 Gilfoy, 283 Giltschenko, N. W., 57 Glatter, 283, 309 Gliddon, 90, 92 GUick, 65 Goldberg, B., 12, 321 Goldscheider, A., 236, 257, 26S Goldstein, E. , S3 Gollanz, I., 4S3 Gould, G., 317 Graetz, H., 183, 184, 189, 190, 277 Grandidier, 306 Gumplowicz, L., 5 '3. 5 '4 Gulzkow, K., 454 IIaesf.r, 526, 527 Mahn, C , 131 Hale, II., 388 Mall, 308 Haniy, 49 Hannauer, W. , 293 Hardy, 316 Harnack, A., 445 Hartmann, Ed. v., 205, 445 Haushoffer, i Hebriiiis, A., 383 Hecata.'U';, 475 Hellwald, 102 Herzl, Th., 473, 497 Higier, 327^ Himniel, 28, 40 Hirsch, A., 280 Hirsch, E. G., 182, 224, 464 Hoffmann, F. G., 262 Hope, E. W., 261 Hoppe, Hugo, 269, 385 Hough, J. S , 277 Hovorka, O., 80 Huguet, J., 145 Hutchinson, H. N., 175 Huxley, H. M., 50, 124 Huxley, Thomas, 389, 391 Hyde, F. C, 340 Ikofi", 48, 106, 151, 194 Ivanowski, A. A , 40, 52 Jacobs, Joseph, 3, 54, 56, 64, 84, 239, 395. 509 Jaeger, G., 315 Jaslrow, M., 515 Jose[)hu^, 2, 60 Judt, J. M., 89, 99 Juvenal, 475 Kajf.wmkoI'F, 342 Kaigut, 313 Kayserling, 160 Keane, A. H., 389 INDEX OF AUTHORS. 5(^9 Kemj)ster, 429 Kleen, 301 Kleinpaul, R. , 315 Knopfel, 200 Kohler, K., 221, 404 Kohler, M. J., 150 Kollmann, 24, 48 Kotosi, 64, 25S, 283, 302, 306, 309 Kopernicki, 29, 40, 68, 74, 82, 86 Kovalevsky, P., 415 Kowarsky, S., 308 Kraft"t- Ebbing, 327 Krose, II. A., 207 Kiilz, 298 Kurdoff, K. , 41, 49, 65, 131 Lafontaine, 317 Lagneau, G., 69, 311 Lancereaux, 296 Lasson, Christian, 505 Laufer, Berlhokl, 135 Layaid, 92 Lazare, B., 420, 425, 475 Lazarus, M., 492 Lea, Ch. II., 155, 157, 158 Leake, W. M., 161 Lecky, 393, 460 Leroy-Beaulieu, A., loS, 124, 267, 449, 493 Levy, S., 488 Lewis, H. S. , 444 Libreich, R., 321 Linelzky, 3S6 Livy, Michael, 278 Loane, J., 233, 256 Locb, [., 145 Locb, Morris, 376, 378 Lombroso, C. , 41, 47, 65, 239, 302, 309, 32S, 552 Lolze, 149 Luschan, 53, 69, 83 Magnus, Laurie, 482, 499 Majer, J., 29, 40, 74, 82, 86 Maltzan, 126 Mapolher, 280 Marccllinus, Aiuiiiianus, 314 Martin, 136 Maspero, 92 Maurer, 106 MaxiniofT, 340 Mayo-Sinilh, 207 McLeod, N., 173 Meakin, 159 Meyenberg, 277 Michel, F., 316 Milman, 452, 476, 551 Minor, L. S., 325, 342 Molo, Apollonius, 475 Montefiore, C. G., 223, 482 Moretzki, 213 Morselli, 351 Moses, J., 306 Murphy, S. F., 232, 261 Nacei., F. , 239 Nahouni, II., 148 Newshohne, 234, 237 Nichols, J. B., 238 Niven, 281; Noah, M.'M., 8 Noorden, Carl von, 29S, 30x3 Nordau, Max., 154, 449, 463, 470, 474, 486, 525, 552 No.ssig, A., I, 363 Nott, 90, 92 Opi'emiei.m, II. Ordli, 123 Ottolenghi, 322 309, 327 PANiiUKm.i-, 28, 40, 49, O4, 74. 88 Papratz, 336 Paulsen, F , 4^5 Pennel, T. L. , 174 Perclz, 3S6 Petrie, Flimiers, i Philipson, I)., 535 Philo, 2, 184 Philostratus, 475 Pilcz, A., 329, 339, 341, 34S Piltard, K., 40, 52 Pollatscheck, A., 29S Pouchel, 251 Prinzig, 414 Pruncr-Hcy, !•'., 49, 69 1 ')><-", 3'7 ()uaikeiac;ks, 49 570 INDEX OF AUTHORS. Ramazzini, 278, 306 Ranke, J., 28, 33, S3 Ratzel, i"., 174 Ravi, 278 Rawlinson, 92 Rnymoiul, 324 Kcicl), M., 315 Reid, G. A., 274 Reinach, Salomon, 156, 535 Reinach, Theodore, 2, 186, iSS, 475. Remilinger, 2S8 Renan, K., 18S, 481, 484, 505 Ripley, 25, 33,51.77.85, 171, 176, 202, 515 Robert, Ulysse, 92 Rohrbach, P., 542 Rosenbaum, S., 6, 13 Rosenfeld, S., 278, 287, 302, 307, 32S, 352 Rosenthal, IL, 191 Rothschild, N., 306 Rubinow, I. M., 362, 399, 405 Ruppin, A., 2, 16, 229, 244, 246, 252, 264, 268, 321, 336, 379, 397, 416, 454, 537 Russel, C, 544 Ryazansky, 340 Sack, 29 Salomon, J., 196 Samter, N., 198, 213, 444, 454, 459, 552 Sarur, R. M. abi, 145 Savage, G. H., 343, 348 Sayce, 91, i iS, iSi Scalzi, 279 Scheiber, 28 Schellong, 19 Scherer, 422 Schick, L., 201 Schiinmer, 6;^, 226 Schleich, 171 Schleiermacher, 445 Schmidt, Emil, 132 Schwartz. I., 277, 293 See, 300 Segal, J., 241 Senn. N., 318 Sergi, 118, 508 Shaler, N. S., 448 Sibrce, 149 Sichel, 329, 338, 345, 347 Sidgwick, A , 442 Sikorski, 340 Singer, II., 298, 319 Slouschz, N., 145 .Smith, Eustace, 309 Smith, Goldwin, 154 Smith, Robertson, 535 SnigirefT, 28, 36, 39, 86 Sofer, Leo, 157, 160 Soler, T. B., 160 Sombart, Werner, 543 Spencer, Herbert, 550 .Spielman, 41 Stead, W. T., 210 Steinen, von den, 174 Stembo, L. , 326 Stern, II., 299 Stevenson, 234, 237, Stieda, 106 Stokvis, 282 Stratz, 175, 176 Struck, 153 Sundbarg, 230 Swiderski, 41 Tacitus, 2, 475 Talko-IIryncewicz, 36, 151 Taronji, 160 Taylor, I., 389 Ten Kate, 173, 176 Thackeray, 98 Theilhaber, F. , 193 Thon, J., 13, 200, 211, 241, 269, 301, 328, 334, 379, 415, 528 Tubler, 324 ToKvinsky, 28, 40 Topinard, 68, 79, 106 Torniay, 279 Tostivint, 288 Trap, Cordt, 198, 215, 268 Treitschke, 445 Tschudi, 277 ViRCHOW, 17, iS, 62, 64 Vogt, Karl, 106 Wackicknacki., 122 NVadler, 372, 385 INDEX OF AUTHORS. 571 Wagner, 490 Wallace, A. R. , 17, 19 Wallach, 298 Ward, 285 Wartegg, 145 Wassermann, L. , 354, 375 Wassermann, R., 418 Wateff, 64 Weber, 429 Weinberg, R., 57, 317, 40S Weisbach, 57 Weissenberg, S., 29, 35, 40, 49, 55, 99, 106, iiS, 151, 497 Weldler, N., 339, 34b Westermarck, 251 Weyl, 19 White, A., 154 Wiener, L , 3S6, 391 Wolf, Liicien, 478, 48 1, 497, 499, 502 Wolir, 2S0 Woodruff, Ch , 17 Worms, 329 Wright, 118 Yakowenko, 36 Yashchinsky, 29 Zakrzewski, 28, ^2, 35, 39 Zangwill, 99, 178, 223, 470, 473, 474. 49.>. 498 Zevin, I., 386 Zombacco, 319 Zunz, L., 453 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Abyssinia, number of Jews in, lo. Stc' a/so P'alashas. Acclimatization, i6 c/ sr;/. A''ghans with Jewish physiognomy, 174 Africa, numlier of Jews in, 10; North, anthropological types of Jews, 136 ('/ se/itin/i//i, loO; characteristics of, 108 ; compared with Ashkenazim, no; distribution ol, 106; race mixture of, 1 1 1 ; intermarriages of, with Christians, in Servia, number of Jews in, 6 Sex at birth, 23S 578 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Skin diseases, 313 cl seq. Skulls of Sephardim, 49. See also Cephalic index Slaves, conversion to Judaism, 189, 509 . Slavonic lype of Jews, 114 Small-pox, 284 Solidarity, Jewish, 361 SpagiiHoli, 380, 382 S]'ain, number of Jews in, 7 ; poli- tical status of Jews in, 476 ; expulsion of Jews from, 155*. baptisnis in, 452 Siature, 27 et secj. ; of ancient Hebrews, 28; of Jewish recruits, 28; of Jewesses, 31 ; and en- vironment, 32, 512; and occupa- tion, 34; social selection and, 45; race effects on, 38, 512; variability of, 44 Stillbirths, 241 cl seq. Stock Exchange, Jews in, 360 Subbotniki, 192 Suicide, 350 et seq., 533; and reli- gion, 351 ; effects of social con- ditions on frequency of, 352 ; and occupation, 354 Surinam, Jews in, 149 Switzerland, number of Jew-, 7 ; emancipation, 433 Syphilis, 318, 326, 342, 530 Tailoring, preference for, by Jews, 396 Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, 172 Territorialism, 470, 501 Teutonic type among Jews, 1 14 Totemism, 525 Trachoma, 320 Tripolis, Jews in, 145 Troglodyte Jews, 145 Tuberculosis, 286 et seq., 529; clinical forms among Jews, 294 ; during the Middle Ages, 293; and dietary laws, 291 ; adaptation to, 293 ; urbanization and, 294 Tunis, Jews in, 140 Turanian type of Jews, 114 Type, of ancient Ileljrews, 90; Jewish, persistence of, 92, 94 ; jirepotency of, 99 ; composite, 100; and social selection, 178; origin of, 102 et seq.; dress and deportment influencing the, 163, 513; psychic or social, 165, 513; Slavonic, 114; Turanian, 1 14; Teutonic, 1 14; Mongoloid, 118; Negroid, 120 Types of Jews, 90 et seq. Typhoid fever, 278 Umtkij SiATKS, nundjer of Jews, 7 ; distribution of Jews, 13 ; stature, 31, 36; complexion, 64; mixed marriages, 203, 222 ; birth- rates, 233 ; divorces, 253 ; mor- tality, 256 ; languages of Jews, 386 ; occupations, 399, 401 el seq.; Jewish agriculturists in, 405; criminality, 409, 416; immigration, 434 et seq.; social ostracism of Jews, 440 el seq.; baptisms, 460, 464 Universities, Jews in, 375 el seq. , 545 Vaccination, 285 Venereal diseases, 530 Whooi'ING cough, 284 Workman, characteristics of Jewish, 544 Ve.men, Jews in, 124 Yiddish, 380, 383; non-Jews speak- ing, 384 ; in England and America, 3S6 ; relation to Ger- man, 391 ; discarded in western countries, 483 ; as a national language, 4S3 Zionism, 466 et seq.; programme of, 469, 495 ; doctrines of, 486 ; impotent against anti-Semitism, 496 ; failure of, 497 ; Jewish opposition to, 499 Zionists, number of, 497 Zafy Ibraim, 149 THE WALTER SCOTT PUBLISHING CO., LTD., FELLING-ON-TVNE. 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By BEAUMONT FLETCHER. ^ .IVIILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT. By J. EADIE REID. New York: Charles Scrib.ner's Sons. The Contemporary Science vSeries. Edited by Havelock Ellis. .B 1 2 mo. Cloth. Price %\.'-^o per Volume. fZ I. THE EVOLUTION OF SEX. By Prof. Patrick Geddes "S u; and J. A. THOMSON. With 90 Illustrations. Second Edition. ►^ 5' " The authors have brought to the task — as indeed their names guarantee -^ ^ — a wealth of knowledge, a lucid and attractive method of treatment, and a K^ rich vein of picturesque language." — Nature. iZ II. ELECTRICITY IN MODERN LIFE. By G. W. de ^C TUNZELMANN. With 88 Illustrations. ^ >- "A clearly written and connected sketch of what is known about elec- -^ tricity and magnetism, the more prominent modern applications, and the .c _ pr-inciples on which they are based." — Saturday Revieiv. "" III. THE ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS. By Dr. Isaac Taylor. Illustrated. Second Edition. "Canon Taylor is probably the most encyclopaedic all-round scholar now living. 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" His book will probably remain for some time the best work of reference for facts bearing on those traces of the village community which have not been effaced Ijy conquest, encroachment, and the heavy hand of Roman law. " — Scottisli Leader. VII. THE CRIMINAL. By H.avelock Ellis. Illustrated Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. "The sociologist, the philosopher, the philanthropist, the novelist — all, indeed, for whom the study of human nature has any attraction — will find Mr. Ellis full of interest and suggestiveness." — Academy. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. -0 c W c ■J.'il h ^j. 4, y u q «j •^OL >■ > ^■o '-^ 3 ■w .t/3 1^ i.< z \l H 5 ;2 tUUJ < EE Hr- VIII. SANITY AND INSANITY. By Dr. Charles Mercier. Illustrated. "Taken as a whole, it is the brightest book on the physical side of mental science published in our time," — Pall Mall Gazette. IX. HYPNOTISM. By Dr. Albert Moll. New and Enlarged Edition. " Marks a step of son>e importance in the study of some difficult physio- logical and psychological problems which have not yet received much ^. attention in the scientific world of England." — Nature. ~ X. MANUAL TRAINING. By Dr. C. M. Woodward, Directoi ^ of the Manual Training School, St. Louis. Illustrated. ~ *' There is no greater authority on the subject than Professor Woodward." ^ ~ — Manchester Guardian. •£ f_ XI. THE SCIENCE OF FAIRY TALES. By E. Sidney wp Hartland. 'X) u "Mr. Hartland's book will win the sympathy of all earnest students, £/^2 both by the knowledge it displays, and by a thorough love and appreciation -^ s of his subject, which is evident throughout." — Spectator. W ^ XII. PRIMITIVE FOLK. By Elie Reclus. I** "An attractive and useful introduction to the study of some aspects of S . ethnography." — Nalzire. ^ C XIII. THE EVOLUTION OF MARRIAGE. By Professor _;> LETOL'RNEAU. c 3 "Among the distinguished French students of sociology, Professor Letour- ^ J neau has long stood in the first rank, lie approaches the great study of ~^ man free from bias and shy of generalisations. To collect, scrutinise, and ^ * appraise facts is his chief business. In the volume before us he shows these 13 H qualities in an admirable degree." — Science. '*'? XIV. BACTERIA AND THEIR PRODUCTS. By Dr. G. C^ Sims Woodhead. Illustrated. Second Edition. ^2 "An excellent summary of the ]iresent state of knowledge of the subject." ;; — Lancet. J^ 1^ C XV. EDUCATION AND HEREDITY. By J. M. Guy.\u. ^2? "It is at once a treatise on sociology, ethics, and pedagogics. It isOQi doubtful w^hether, among all the ardent evolutionists who have had their say H Z ■; on the moral and the educational question, anyone has carried forward the fl ^C new doctrine so boldly to its extreme logical consequence." — Professor Q — • SuLi.Y in Mind. < XVI. THl-: MAN OF GENIU.S. By Prof. Lo.mhroso. Illus- "{) trated. > " By far the most comprehensive and fascinating coUeciion of facts and q generalisations concerning genius which has yet been brought together." — 2. journal of Mental Science. f„ New York : CiiARi.F.s ScKUiMCR's Sons. XVII. THE HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN FAUNA. By R. F. SCHARIF, B.Sc, Ph.D., F.Z.S. Illustrated. XVIII. PROPERTY: ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT. By Ch. Letourneau, General Secretary to the Anthro- pological Society, Paris, and Professor in the School of Anthro- pology, Paris. " M. Letourneau has read a great deal, and he seems to us to have selected and interpreted his facts with considerable judgment and learning." — Westminster Review. XIX. VOLCANOES, PAST AND PRESENT. By Prof. Edward Hull, LL.D., F.R.S. " A very readable account of the phenomena of volcanoes and earth- quakes." — Nature. XX. PUBLIC HEALTH. By Dr. J. F. J. Sykes. With numerous Illustrations. "Not by any means a mere compilation or a dry record of details and statistics, but it takes up essential pomts in evolution, environment, prophy- laxis, and sanitation bearing upon the preservation of public health." — Laucel. XXI. MODERN ^lETEOROLOGY. An Account of the Growth and Present Condition of some Branches OF Meteorological Science. By Frank Waldo, Ph.D., Member of the German and Austrian Meteorological Societies, etc.; late Junior Professor, Signal Service, U.S.A. With 112 Illustrations. "The present volume is the best on the subject for general use that we have seen." — Daily Telegraph (London). XXII. THE GERM-PLASM : A THEORY OF HEREDITY. By August WeiS-MANN, Professor in the University of Freiburg-in-Breisgau. With 24 Illustrations. §2. 50. "There has been no work published since Darwin's own books which has so thoroughly handled the matter treated by him, or has done so much to place in order and clearness the immense complexity of the factors of heredity, or, lastly, has brought to light so many new facts and considerations bearing on the subject." — British Medical Journal. XXIII. INDUSTRIES OF ANIMALS. By E. F. Houssay. With numerous Illustrations. " flis accuracy is undoubted, yet his facts out-marvel all romance. These facts are here made use of as materials wherewith to form the mighty fabric of evolution." — Manchester Guardian. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. XXIV. MAN AND WOMAN. By H.uelock Ellis. Illus- trated. Fourth and Revised Edition. " Mr. Havelock Ellis belongs, in some measure, to the continental school of anthropologists ; but while equally methodical in the collection of facts, he is far more cautious in the inventien of theories, and he has the further distinction of being not only able to think, but able to write. His book is a sane and impartial consideration, from a psychological and anthropological point of view, of a subject which is certainly of primary interest."^ Atheiicrttm. XXV. THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN CAPITALISM. By John A. Hobson, M.A. (New and Revised Edition.) " Every page affords evidence of wide and minute study, a weighing of facts as conscientious as it is acute, a keen sense of the importance of certain points as to which economists of all schools have hitherto been confused and careless, and an impartiality generally so great as to give no indication of his [Mr. Hobson's] personal sympathies."— /Vz// jl/a// Gazette. XXVL APPARITIONS AND THOUGHT - TRANSFER- EN' CE. By Frank Podmore, M.A. "A very sober and interesting little book. . . . That thought-transfer- ence is a real thing, though not perhaps a very common tiling, he certainly shows. " — Spectator. XXVII. AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. By Professor C. Lloyd Morgan. With Diagrams. " A strong and complete exposition of Psychology, as it takes shape in a mind previously informed with biological science. . . . Well written, ex- tremely entertaining, and intrinsically valuable." — Saturday A'cvieiv. XXVIII. THE ORIGINS OF INVENTION : A Study of Industry among Primitive Pkoples. By Otls T. Mason, Curator of the Department of Ethnology in the United States National Museuin. "A valuable history of the development of the inventive faculty." — Naltirc. XXIX. THE GROWTH OF THE BRAIN: A Study of THE Nervous System in relation to Education. By Henry Herbert Donaldson, Professor of Neurology in the University of Chicago. " We can say with confidence that Professor Donaldson has executed his work with much care, judgment, and discrimination." — T/ie Lancet. XXX. EVOLUTION IN ART: As Illustrated by the Life-Histories of Designs. By Professor Alfred C. H addon. With 130 Illustrations. " It is impossible to speak too highly of this most unassuming and invaluable ho^>]<.." —Journal of Anthropological Institute. New York : CuAKi.ics Sikihnkk's Sons. XXXI. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE EMOTIONS. By Th. Kil'.or, Professor at the College of France, ICditor of the Revue Philosophiqiie. "Professor Ribol's treatment is careful, modern, and adequate." — Academy. XXXII. HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS: A Study OF THK F.\LLACIKS OK PERCEPTION. By ED.MUND PARISH. "This remarkable little volume." — Daily News. XXXIII. THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY. By E. \V. Scripture, Ph.D. (Leipzig). With 124 Illustrations. XXXIV. SLEEP : Its Physiology, Pathology, Hygiene, and Psychology. By Marie de Manaceine (St. Petersburg). Illustrated. XXXV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DIGESTION. By A. Lockhart Gillespie, M.D., F.R.C.P. Ed., F.R.S. Ed. With a large number of Illustrations and Diagrams. " Dr. Gillespie's work is one that has been greatly needed. No com- prehensive collation of this kind exists in recent English Literature." — American Journal of the Medical Sciences. XXXVI. DEGENERACY: Irs Causes, Signs, and Results. By Professor EuGENE S. Talbot, M.D., Chicago. With Illustrations. "The author is bold, original, and suggestive, and his work is a con- tribution of real and indeed great value, more so on the whole than anything that has yet appeared in this country." — American Journal of Psychology. XXXVII. THE RACES OF MAN: A Sketch of Ethno- graphy AND Anthropology. By J. Deniker. With 17S Illustrations. " Dr. Deniker has achieved a success which is well-nigh phenomenal." — British Medical Journal. XXXVIII. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION. An Empirical Study of the Growth of Religious Con- sciousness. By Ed\vin Diller Starbuck Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Junior University. " No one interested in the study of religious life and experience can afford to neglect this volume." — Morning Herald. XXXIX. THE CHILD : A Study in the Evolution of Man, By Dr. Alexander Francis Chamberlain, M.A., Ph.D., Lecturer on Anthropology in Clark University, Worcester (Mass.). With Illustrations. "The work contains much cuiious information, and should be studied by those who have to do with children." — Sheffield Daily Tele^aph. Nt:w York : Charles Scribner's Sons. XL. THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE. By Professor Sekgi. With over loo Illustrations. " M. Sergi has given us a lucid and complete exposition of his views on a subject of supreme interest." — Irish Tunes. XLI. THE STUDY OF RELIGION. By Morris Jastrow, Jun., Ph.D., Professor in the University of Pennsylvania. "This work presents a careful survey of the subject, and forms an admirable introduction to any particular branch of it." — Methodist Times. XLII. HISTORY OF GEOLOGY AND PAL.4iONTOLOGY TO THE END OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. By Karl von Zittel. " It is a very masterly treatise, written with a wide grasp of recent discoveries. " — Publishers' Circu:ar, XLIII. THE MAKING OF CITIZENS : A Study in Com- parative Education. By R. E. Hughes, ."\I.A. (O.xon.), B.Sc. (Lond.). " Mr. Hughes gives a lucid account of the exact position of Education in England, Germany, France, and the United States. The statistics present a clear and attractive picture of the manner in which one of the greatest questions now at issue is being solved both at home and abroad." — Standard. XLIV. MORALS: A Treatise on the Psvcho-Sociolooical Bases of Ethics. By Professor G. L. Duprat. Trans- lated by W. J. Greenstreet, M.A., F.R.A.S. '* The present work is representative of the modern departure in the treatment of the theory of morals. The author brings a wide knowledge to bear on his subject." — Education. XLV. A STUDY OF RECENT EARTHQUAKES. By Charles Davison, D.Sc, F.G.S. With Illustrations. " Dr. Davison has done his work well." — Westminster Gazette. XLVI. MODERN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By Dr. C. A. Keane, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.I.C. With Diagrams. " This volume provides an instructive and suggestive survey of the great range of knowledge covered by mcxlern organic chemistry." — Scotsman. TO-DAY'S ADDITIONS :- THE CRIMINAL. By Havelock Ellis. Fourth l-.dition. Revised and Enlarged. XLVII. THE JEWS: A Study of Race and Environ.mlnt. By Dr. Maurice Fishberc. "It shows alioun.ling evidence in its pages that it is intended to show, immense industry, consummate jiains, vast literary arid statistical resources. It •ontains, to be sure, much information of great value, and it sets forth many facts absorbing in their interest for any who desire to study the Jewish people."— yi'Ti'/.r/' Chronicle. New York : CllARLES Scrib.nf.k's Sons. IBSEN'S DRAMAS. Edited by WILLIAM ARCHER. THREE PLAYS TO THE VOLUME. i2mo, CLOTH, PRICE §1.25 PER VOLUME. " We seem at last to be shown men and women as they are ; and at first it is more than we can endure. . . . All Ibsen's characters speak and act as if they were hypnotised, and under their creator's imperious demand to reveal themselves. There never was such a mirror held up to nature before : it is too terrible. . . . Yet we must return to Ibsen, with his remorseless surgery, his remorseless electric-light, until we, too, have grown strong and learned to face the naked — if necessary, the flayed and bleeding — reality.'' — Speaker (London). ui Vol. I. "A DOLL'S HOUSE," "THE LEAGUE OF S YOUTH," and "THE PILLARS OF SOCIETY." With P Portrait of the Author, and Biographical Introduction by ^ WilliamArcher. "^ Vol. n. "GHOSTS," "AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE," S and "THE WILD DUCK." With an Introductory Note. S t'oL. HL "LADY INGER OF OSTRAT," "THE VIKINGS AT HELGELAND," "THE PRETENDERS." With an Introductory Note. ^ Vol. IV. "EMPEROR AND GALILEAN." With an ^ Introductory Note by WILLIAM ARCHER. SJ Vol. V. "ROSMERSHOLM," "THE LADY FROM THF. CO SEA," '-HEDDA GABLER." Translated by William Archer. With an Introductory Note. Vol. VL "PEER GYNT: A DRAMATIC POEM '• Authorised Translation by William and Charles Archer. The sequence of the plays in each vohime is chronological ; the complete set of volumes comprising the dramas thus presents them in chronological order. "The art of prose translation does not perhaps enjoy a verj- high litcrar) status in England, but we have no hesitation in numbering the presen version of Ibsen, so far as it has gone (\'ols. I. and II.), among the ver) best achievements, in that kind, of our generation." — Academy, " We have seldom, if ever, met with a translation so absolutely Idiomatic." — Glasgow Herald. O H New York : Charlks Scribner's Sons. (^' \4^ L 006 746 633 4 lfia.^,!\'?,S?^ALLIBRARy FACILITY r ^^ 001 167 226