THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 GIFT OF 
 Mrs. Domenico Saudino 
 
 20^ 
 
m. 
 
NATURE DISPLAYED. 
 
NATURE DISPLAYED, 
 
 IN HER MODE 
 
 TEACHING LANGUAGE XO. MAN ; ^^^-^ 
 
 OH, ^^^ ^ _, — — ' ' . 
 
 .:r A-^IF ^A'Z> mFALLTBLE METHOD 
 
 J^CQUIRItfG A LANGUAGE IN THE SHORTEST TIME POSSIBLi-., 
 
 •DEDUCED FROM THE ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN MIND, 
 
 AXD 
 
 C^NSEQUENtLr SUITED TO EVERT CAPACIfl'. 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE FRENCH. 
 
 BY N. G. DUFIEF, 
 
 OF PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 Languages were not made by rules or art, but by accident, and the 
 common use of the people. - locke. 
 
 II y a eu des poetes & des orateurs, avant qu' on imaginat de faire des 
 grammaues, des poetiques & des rhetoriques. condillac. 
 
 On ne peut apprendre la grammaire d* une langue quelconque, m6rae 
 i.'ell«i de son pays, que quand on sait parler, que quand on sait causer. 
 
 SIC^\UD. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 COXTAINING 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE, AND 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 PRINTED BY THOMAS S. ilAXNING, 
 
 FOR THE AUTHOR, NO. 47, NORTH THIRD STREET. 
 
 1804. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE, 
 
 Conversations. pack. 
 
 I. Of Words 1 
 
 Sounds of the Vowels ^ 
 
 of the Diphthongs • . • . 8 
 
 of the Consonants 9 
 
 XL OftheNoim 11 
 
 Notes on the Noun 20 
 
 III. Of the Adjective and Abstract Noun 25 
 
 Note on the Adjective 35 
 
 IV. Of the Article 38 
 
 Note on the Article 45 
 
 V. Of other Articles 47 
 
 VI. Of Pronouns 54 
 
 Note on the Origin of Pronouns 64 
 
 VII. Of Nouns, generally received as Pronouns. ... 65 
 
 VIII. Of the Verb 67 
 
 Necessity and Origin of the Verb 73 
 
 Formation of the Elliptical or Adjective Verbs. . . 74 
 
 IX. Of Moods and Tenses 76 
 
 Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verb Avoir ^ to have. . 82 
 of the Abstract and Auxiliary Verb Etre^. 
 
 to be 108 
 
 EIGHT REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 1st. In er exemplified in Porter, to carry. . . . 117 
 Conjugation of the Ifefective Verbs, exemplified in 
 
 5" habiller, to dress one's self. .... 120 
 A List of Verbs reflective in French, and not in 
 
 English 133 
 
 Conjugation of the Verb Alter, to go. . . . 134 
 
 < of Qeler^ to freeze 138 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Conversations. 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 XI. 
 
 XII. 
 XIII 
 XIV. 
 
 XV. 
 
 2d. In ir, exemplified in Puntr, to punish. . . . 140 
 
 3d. In tir, vir, or 7nir, exemplified in Sentirf to feel. 144 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Sentir 147 
 
 4th. In enir, exemplified in Tenir, to hold. . . 148 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Tenir 151 
 
 5th. In evoir, exemplified in JRecevoir, to receive. . 153 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Recevoir 156 
 
 Conjugation of the Irregular Verb Falloir, to be neces- 
 sary 156 
 
 6th. In re, exemplified in Vendre, to sell. . . 158 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Vendre 161 
 
 7th. In Uire, exemplified in Traduire, to translate. 163 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Traduire 166 
 
 8th. In Indre, exemplified in Craindre, to fear. . 167 
 
 EIGHT CLASSES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 1st. As Offrir, to offer 172 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Offrir ib. 
 
 2d, As Courir, to run. . . ... 173 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Courir 174 
 
 3d. As ConnaitrCy to know. .... ib. 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Connaitre. . . 175 
 
 4th. As Mettre to put 176' 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Mettre. . ■ . . . ib. 
 
 5th. As Prendre, to take. ..... 177 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Prendre. .... 178 
 
 6th. As Faire, to do, or to make ib. 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Faire 179 
 
 7th. As Ecrire, to write. 180 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Ecrire ib. 
 
 8th. As Dire, to say, or to tell 181 
 
 Verbs Conjugated like Dire. . . . . 182 
 
 Irregular Verbs that could not be classed. . . ib. 
 
 A Table of the Terminations of every French Verb. 190 
 
 Final Remarks on the French Conjugation. . . 191 
 
 Of Prepositions. ....... 195 
 
 An Alphabetical Table of Relations, commonly ex- 
 pressed by Prepositions 201 
 
 Of the Adverb 208 
 
 Of the Conjunction. 215 
 
 Of Elliptical and Combined Conjunctions. . . 221 
 Combined Conjunctions governing the Indicative, ex- 
 emplified 224 
 
 Combined Conjunctions governing the Subjunctive. 227 
 
 Of the Interjection. ...... 229 
 
 Instructions. 
 I. 
 II. 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Of Svntax. ...... .233 
 
 Of the Article 235 
 
 A Table of French Verbs, immediately followed by- 
 Nouns, (which are their Complement), without 
 being connected with them, by an Article or Pre- 
 position. 254 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Instructions. 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 
 XI. 
 XII. 
 
 XIII. 
 XIV. 
 
 XV. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 XX. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 XXII. 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 FACE, 
 
 Of the Noun 267 
 
 A Table of Nouns, whose gender varies according to 
 
 their number, acceptation. Sec. . . . 280 
 
 Of the Adjective and Numbers 291 
 
 Of the Possessive Articles 304 
 
 Of the Demonstrative Article, Sec. . . . 310 
 
 Of the Conjunctive Elliptical words ^i, ^rue, &c. . 318 
 Of the Elliptical terms ^i, Lequel, &c. . . 326 
 Of the Active Pronouns. ..... 331 
 
 Of the Passive Pronouns. . . . . 337 
 
 A Table showing the union of Pronouns and Verbs, in 
 
 their affirmative^ interrogative, or negati'ce sense. 342 
 
 Of the Disjunctive Pronouns 343 
 
 Of the use of the Pronouns ieur, lui, eux, elle, eiles, se, 
 
 lxii-7ne7ne,soi. ...... 348 
 
 Of some Difficulties in the French language. . . 352 
 On the use of the tenses and their correspondence with ^ 
 
 each other. ^3^2 
 
 Indicative mood. ...... y 
 
 On the Subjunctive. Of Adjectives, Nouns, and Verbs, 
 which impose the Subjunctive form on the next 
 
 Verb 368 
 
 On the Complement of Verbs 377 
 
 On the Infinitive 382 
 
 Remarks on Complements. . . . . . 391 
 
 On the Participle />rt\yen< 394 
 
 On the Declinability or Indeclinability of the;&a*« Par- 
 ticiple 397 
 
 On the proper choice of the Auxiliary. . . 408 
 
 On the Preposition 415 
 
 On the Adverb 428 
 
SECTION L 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 CONVERSATION I. 
 
 OF WORDS. 
 
 NirUBE BEGINS REASON COMPLEtSS. 
 
 SCHOLAR. 
 
 WHAT are words ? 
 
 MASTER. 
 
 The signs of onr iHeas and thoughts ; that is to say they 
 serve to represent our ideas and thoughts. 
 
 SCHOLAR. 
 
 What do you call an idea ? 
 
 MASTER. 
 
 The image or representation of an object or quality in 
 the mind. 
 
 SCHOLAR. 
 
 How are objects represented in the mind ? 
 
 MASTER. 
 
 By the Sensations or Impressions f they make on any of 
 the five Senses, or Organs which the wise disposer of 
 all things bestowed on man, to enable him to come to the 
 knowledge of external objects. Those Sensations kept up 
 and present to the recollection, are ideas ; we connect 
 
 t In familiar language the words Impretsiont and Sensations are often used 
 
 as synonymous terms ; but in Metaphysics, the language of which should be 
 
 that of precision itself, they are far from being 80 : the first of these referring 
 
 to Matter and the latter to Spirit. Their difference may be seen in the 
 
 following Table, which also contains explanations of other terms often used. 
 
 IMPRESSION ^ ^^ '^"^ change in the human body by the action of some 
 
 ' (. external object on the organs of ft^nse. 
 
 VOL. II. B 
 
2 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 them with words without which, ideas^ alternately rising 
 and vanishing on the mind^ WGidd leave no more vestige on 
 the brain than the transient waves of a flood leave on the 
 eye. 
 
 SCHOLAR. 
 
 What difference is there between an idea and a 
 thought ? 
 
 MASTER. 
 
 The following : an idea is merely, as we have said, 
 the representation or image of an object^ as that expressed 
 by house^ garden^ &c. 
 
 A thought is an idea considered under certain relations, 
 as a large house ^ a beautif id garden- 
 
 SCHOLAR. 
 
 What are words composed of ? 
 
 SENSATION 
 
 An IDEA 
 
 ATTENTION 
 
 COMPARISON 
 
 JUDGMENT 
 A PROPOSITION 
 
 REFLECTION 
 
 REASONING 
 
 5 Is an impression received, felt and known by the Soul 
 i through the medium of some of the senses. 
 
 REASON 
 
 C Is the consciousness of an impression felt or past kept 
 \ up by recollection. 
 
 Is the exclusive consideration of an object or idea. 
 C Isi the consideration of two Ideas or things in order 
 l^ to discover their relations to each other. 
 
 Is that faculty of the mind whereby the agreement 
 or disagreement, the s uitableness or unsuitableness 
 of things, or ideas is perceived after the consider- 
 aiion thereof. 
 Is the manifestation of our judgment of that agree- 
 ment or disagreement, suitableness or unsuita- 
 bleness, expressed by signs appropriate to some- 
 of the five senses. 
 
 tis an operation of the mind whereby attention is 
 given to the different parts of on object, in or- 
 der to obtain an accurate knowledge of it, or to 
 various things or ideas, in order to compare and 
 judge of them successively ; and as attention is 
 I thus refected from one object, or from one idea 
 
 I to another, that operation has been properly 
 
 L denominated Reflection. 
 
 s an operation of the mind whereby it discovers a 
 judgment contained or hidden in another it 
 had previously ma^e. 
 Results or springs from the operations we have 
 just noticed, judiciously directed or combined. 
 No man can be said to possess this faculty in 
 the highest degree. The Phitosophers that 
 I seem to have approached the nearest to that 
 
 I perfection, are Hippocrates, Archimedes, iVhc- 
 
 \^ ton, Locke, Montesquieu, Condillac andMuler* 
 
 { 
 
 V 
 
 I 
 
OF LANGUAGE. t 
 
 MASTER. 
 
 Of sounds in Speech and of letters which ore written 
 characters when they represent those sounds to the eye. 
 
 The useful art of representing Speech in written cha- 
 racters is called wr/^iwo-, the invention of which is ascribed 
 to Cadmus and celebrated by Brebeuf in the following 
 beautiful lines. 
 
 <« C*est de lui que nous rient cet art ingeaieux, 
 " Dc peindre la parole 8c de parler aux yeux ; 
 ** Et par les traits divers de figures tracee<;, 
 «^ Donner de la couleur & du corps aux pens^es." 
 
 The following version will not, I imagine, be unaccept- 
 able to the English reader. 
 
 " From him this art descriptive took its rise, 
 " Of holding converse with the wond'ring eyes ; 
 <' The various figures, by his pencil wrought, 
 *' Gave colour and a body to the thought." 
 
 Scholar. 
 How many kinds of sounds are there ? 
 
 Master. 
 Two : indrticidate and articulate ; the former are so call- 
 ed from their formation by the voice, unassisted by the 
 tongue or lips ; the latter are formed by the voice, modified 
 by the lips^ teeth^ throaty tongue^ palate or nose. The first, 
 are also called voxucls^ the second consonants. 
 Scholar. 
 What are the letters called which represent the inarticu-^ 
 late sounds ? 
 
 Master. 
 Foca/ letters, or simply, vowels ; there are five of them, 
 viz. a, f, /, 0, lu 
 
 Scholar. 
 What are those termed, which describe the articulate P 
 
 Master. 
 Consonants^ and make eighteen in number, viz. ^, c, d^fy 
 gtj^ k., /, ?n, 72, p^ q^ r, *, f, v^ x^ 2. They are called conson- 
 ants from the Latin words cww, with, zcad. sonar e^to sound, 
 to signify the necessity of their junction with the vowels, to 
 express those sounds, which, alone they could not. If you 
 add to the foregoing letters the consonant h to denote aspi- 
 
4 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ration, and the letter t/, which generally describes the sound 
 , already represented by /, and sometimes by / /, pronoun- 
 ced as rapidly succeeding each other, all the above letters, 
 twenty-five in number, compose our French Alphabet, 
 in which, as you may observe, the W has not been found 
 necessary. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What general name do you give the various sounds 
 which constitute a word ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 Syllables, which, like the Vowels or Consonants, are ex- 
 pressed or written. / 
 Scholar. 
 
 Of how many letters is a written Syllable composed ? 
 Master. 
 
 Sometimes of a single letter only, which must be Vow- 
 el ; and sometimes of several, one of which must also 
 be a Vowel. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Are there no more than five Vowels f 
 Master. 
 
 No : but there should be many more, as these five let- 
 ters could not represent all the sounds, which the voice, 
 not modified by any motion of the Organ of Speech, may 
 utter by the simple emission of the breath. To obviate this 
 difficulty, we have recourse to various means to express 
 different sounds, without resorting to additional letters or 
 characters, which would swell our Alphabet. 
 
 First ; we use three Marks, called Accents, placed over 
 the Vowels, to render their sounds more or less forcible : 
 they are described thus ; acute \ grave ^ ' and circufTifiex 
 ". Their application is exemplified in the following words, 
 «, pate ; ^, unite j e, procf's ; <?, tempete ; o, cote ; f, gfte ; 
 22, flzlte. 
 
 Secondly ; we combine several Vowels, and term their 
 combination a compound Vowel ; in French they are ten 
 in number; as ec;, il mangea ; ai^^ai; ec/, je mange«/,- aiiy 
 ttau ; eau^ ohw^eau ; eu^ heureux ; ceii^ vaii ; eoy geolier ; 
 esy a?sophage ; oii^ ouvrier. I must observe here, as imper- 
 fection is common to every language^ an imperfection in the 
 French Orthography ; which is, that all the above com- 
 pound Vowels, except the last, describe no different sounds 
 from those before represented by the five simple Vowels 
 with or without accents. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 5 
 
 Thirdly ; to express the simple sounds passing through 
 the nose, 7n or n is subjoined to the Vowels, whether slm' 
 pie or compound^ and this subj unction is termed in the sin- 
 gular a Nasal, and in the plural Nasals ; viz. am, Adam ; 
 an, Qiiiant ; aen, Caen ; ean, vengf a^zce ; em, emplacement ; 
 en, <f7zsemble ; aim, faim ; ain, ^ain ; ein, dessein ,• im, im^ 
 possible ; in, eniin ; om, sombre ; on, coniondw ; eon, man- 
 ^eons ', eun, jeun ; um, hz/mble ; un, tribw/z. The same im- 
 perfection in the mode of representing Vowels by com- 
 pound Vowels is also observable here. 
 Scholar. 
 
 What do you call a Diphthong ? 
 Master. 
 
 The distinct sound of two Vowels, the first of which is 
 nearly lost in the second : this double sound though ex- 
 pressed by several Vowels, like the compound, is essentially 
 different. In French there are nineteen : to wit ; six sim- 
 ple, as ia^ in diamant ; it, in pit/V,- to, iio\^\ oe, maclle; 
 oi, moi ; ui, nw/t: seven compound, as iai,']t coniiai ; iauy 
 m/flwlement ; ieii, ndieii ; ion, ch/oz/rme ; oiia,roua^e ; ouai^ 
 jejowfl/; oui, enfom ; and six nasals, as ian,via?idei ien^ 
 hien ; ion, amhiff on • o/riy soin ; ouin, m^rsouin ; iiin,jiii?i. 
 
 The above will give you an idea of the mechanical plan 
 adopted in the written language to fix the fugitive sounds 
 of the voice. I might indeed have dwelt a great while on 
 the subject, and have written almost a folio on the num- 
 berless irregularities of French pronunciation, complicated 
 with rules, the greater part of which, you could never re- 
 tain. 
 
 Instead of incumbering your mind with unnecessary mat- 
 ter, I will lead you to the proper French pronunciation by 
 the simple and easy method mentioned in my preliminary 
 discourse, and which Nature daily displays to us. And in 
 order to promote that object, you will find annexed to thig 
 Conversation three comprehensive Tables, in which the 
 pronunciation ofthe Vowels, Diphthongs and Consonants is 
 exemplified in familiar easy words which you will pro- 
 nounce daily after your Master, in the same manner with 
 those of the Practical part, till you become familiar with 
 them. You will not proceed to the second Table, till yoii 
 have a full command of the first, to obtain which, I hope» 
 will not require more than three attentive readings. 
 
PHILOSOPHY 
 TABLE 1. 
 
 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 
 
 Open A, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 A. Le pflge a cache mat cage. La mascarade a fait tapage. 
 
 a. 
 
 Broad or circumflex a is pronounced broad. 
 Je vous blame de macher du platre. Le patre est au paturage. 
 
 Slender or acute / is pronounced by keeping the teeth almost close. So 
 are sounded er, ez, ai, in the final syllabks of Verbs — oit in the third person 
 singular of the Present anterior of the Indicative and the conditional Present 
 of Verbs spelt after the old Orthography. 
 
 E. Je pr^frre l^ete le th/ au caf/. II a bien merite de la societe. 
 er. II faut aimer, chanter, danser, jouer, 8c bien s'amuser. 
 cz. Vous zmez, chanter, danse^, jcwez, &, vous vous amuses, 
 ai. J'aimera/, je chantera/, danserof, jouera?, & m'amuserar. 
 oit. II disoit 8& assifro/V qu'il liroiV, causcro/f, chanterof* 8c danaeroif. 
 
 Open or grave e. — This vowel is pronounced strongly and by opening the 
 mouth widely ; in the same manner are pronounced ai and ei in the first and 
 middle syllables of words — et in final syllables of words — e not accented 
 but followed by two consonants or a final c, jT, /, r, w^hich must be strongly 
 pronounced. 
 
 E. J'admirais le bon carac*#re du prre, de la m#re & du fr^re. 
 ai. Vrazment, j'aime a, plazre. Le sala/re d'une va^'ne gramma/re. 
 ei. La veme est pleine. II demeure a I'ense/gne du peigne. 
 et. II met le bidc^ du cade< dans le bosqut/. 
 ett. ess. &c. Sa belle dentelle est sur sa toi\ette. Plus de sagewe and moins 
 
 de -prouesse. 
 Final, ec. ef. el. er. Ce chef Grec maudit du ciel est en enfer. 
 
 Broad or circumflex e : — This Vowel is pronounced still more openly than 
 the e : one must therefore lay a stress upon it and prolong the sound there- 
 of Ai, aie, ais, aix, and ois, oient in the Present anterior of the Indicative 
 and the conditional Present of Verbs spelt after the old Orthography ,as well 
 as e/s, aits, es, are pronounced in the same manner. 
 
 E. La temptce emprcha la conqucte. Cette fete est bien brte. EUe n'a 
 
 point de xeit. 
 ai. aie. Na/cre sans majtre. Je suis aist que sa plare soit guerie. 
 ais, aix. Je ne \ais jamaf* au Pala/j sans desirer la paix. 
 cis. oient. J'ecudio/j &, je liso/j pendant qu'ils r'wient & s'amuso/en^ 
 ets. aits. Mes projef^ m'ont donne bien des regrets, Ces portraits sont im- 
 
 paiffl/itj. 
 ^3. Ses exc^* & ses acctf.y de fureur ont nui X ses progres. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 7 
 
 TTie Guttural e at the end of monosyllables and in the composition of 
 words. 
 
 This vowel is so called because it is pronounced from the throat ; the 
 finals ew, eeu, eus, ew, aux, euse are pronounced nearly alike, though much 
 graver, especially the three last. 
 
 E. Je me \e representais tout autr«nent quff ce quf vousditcs. 
 eu. ecu. Ce jewne homme obtiendra pa* a peu le \eu du pewple. 
 ceux. eu. eux. J'ai fait des vauxpour eux pendant les deux jours de jc»ne. 
 eus, euse. Elie a les ycux ble«* . Elle est honteu^e & peuicw/e. 
 
 Silent e. It gives a full sound to a final consonant which othe|-wise would 
 almost be silent, and the syllable which precedes it becomes long. 
 E. Un vase plein & une bouteille pleine. Le medecin ordonna une roe- 
 
 decine. 
 
 Slender i. 
 I. L7dee derindzvisib/late estn'd/cule. L'infimte deTetemite. 
 
 The Broad, or circumflex t. This vowel is pronounced by drawing the 
 teeth close. It has, if I may be allowed the expression, the sound of a 
 ■whistle. 
 I. On nous apporte a dine dans ce gite. Nous le v»mes 8t lui dimes. 
 
 The open o and au at the beginning and end of polysyllables are sounded 
 alike, 
 o. au. Les Polonais sont economes. Son tableau represente un coteau. 
 
 Broad o. — os, ots, aux at the end of words and au in monosyllables arc 
 sounded alike. It is to be observed that the letter* or x when added to sub- 
 stantives or adjectives to denote the plural, serve besides in gaierai, to make 
 the preceding syllables long. 
 
 6. Les Apotres donnaient I'aumeJne. Mon bouquet d'anemones & le vctrc. 
 OS. ots. Nous etions dot-i-dos. A propcw ou sont les pc/* d'abricof*.? 
 aux, au. Deux beaux chevai^. La peau d'uu beau \cau & un ieau d'eau. 
 
 open u. 
 ^ ^u. Elle a perdu son usu&uit. Le mercure fait de belles cures. 
 
 Broad C. 
 a. Les m«res nc sont pas mires. Je. brwle, tu briles, il br«Ie, &c 
 
 «u. 
 oM. II voMS faut beaucou/» de courage pour soutenir son coup d'oeil. 
 
 NASAL SOUNDS. 
 
 un and urn. 
 on, um. Chacun est jeun. C'est un importuw. Un jarfum exquis. 
 
 on and om. 
 on, om. On rac<»Jte que ion ballon eit tombe co»trc la pompe. 
 
8 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 in im, ein, ain, aim, are Bounded alike; .^^ 
 
 in. C'est im mal/n coqu/;z. J'ai compte quinze d/ndons. 
 
 im, ein. L.'hnpdt du timbre. Le sere/n tombe sur son se/n. 
 
 ain, aim. 'Dcmain nous aurons du \)ain. La faim, chasse le daim du bois. 
 
 an, am, en, cm, ent, aon. 
 an. Le Sultan en paVIant au 'Divan comme un tyran fit maudire son rang. 
 am, en, em. L'^mbassadeur etait dans sa chawbre. Nous partirons fn- 
 
 se^nble au print en^s. 
 ent, aon. II fait souv«w/ grand feni. Le pao» & le faen jouent dans la 
 
 cour. 
 
 N. B. 1. When after w or n follows an e mute in the same syllable, or an- 
 other m or n with a vowel in the following syllable, the sound ceases to be 
 nasal: Ex. 
 
 Parfum, parfumer. Importun, importuner, Coquin, coqulner. Don, 
 donne. Vain, vaine. 
 
 2dly. ent is silent in the third person plural of Verbs, but the preceding 
 consonant has a very full sound. Ex. Us marches/, elles viennewf, &c. 
 
 Y, by itself, at the beginning of words, and between two consonants 
 *ounds exactly like i ; it is generally used to point out the Etymology of 
 words derived from the Greek. 
 
 y. Assis a I'ombre d'une jeuse il y jouait de la lyre. U est tydropique. La 
 chj/mie & la Metaphjsique. 
 
 /, Between two vowels sounds //. 
 
 y. Employez un citoji/en ami de son pa^s & le paj^ez genereufiement. 
 
 TABLE IL 
 
 SOUNDS OF THE DIPTHONGS. 
 
 lOU, 
 
 iu, 
 icu, 
 ieux, 
 iai, ie, 
 ic, iait, 
 iaient, iais, 
 
 ia, 
 
 ia, ias, 
 ian, 
 ion. 
 
 Formed from the Voviels, Examples. 
 
 i andoxx ; La chroMrme rama vers Colliowre. 
 
 Les Confuc/us & les Fab/us. 
 Adieu, monsieur le rieur. 
 C'est un \ieux Ixxxurieux . 
 Je me confzm a son amitiV. 
 Ma nirce est vieille ; il etudia//. 
 Us se iiaient a ce nz'aw, & je m'en de- 
 iiais. 
 
 Un dmdeme orne de d/amans. 
 Au diable ton galimatias. 
 Ce negoc/ant est trop con£iant. 
 Ses passions le font rugir comme un 
 lion. 
 
 in, al'ways in 
 
 verbs, and in some ' 
 
 nouns. 
 
 ien, in nouns. 
 
 -a open ; 
 —a broad ; 
 
 -an; 
 -on; 
 
 > i ain ; Ce lien ne tient a rien. 
 
 i and ain ; and Le maintirn d'un client i le soutien d'un 
 i an ; patient. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Formed from the Vcmels. 
 
 Mieu, 
 oueux. 
 
 ouandeu ; 
 
 
 oui, 
 
 ou i; 
 
 ©uc, 
 
 ou e; 
 
 ouet, ouait, 
 
 ou e; 
 
 oi, oit, DC, 
 
 ou e ; 
 
 ouaient, ouais, 
 
 
 ouets. 
 
 ou i ; 
 
 ois, oient, 
 
 6; 
 
 ouas, ouaf, 
 
 
 oua. 
 
 
 ouon. 
 
 ou on ; 
 
 ouin. 
 
 ou in ; 
 
 oin, 
 
 o -' — in j 
 
 •uan, ouen. 
 
 
 Formed frotn the VcmeU. 
 
 ueu. 
 
 u and eu; 
 
 ueux. 
 
 
 ui. 
 
 u i; 
 
 ue, 
 
 u e; 
 
 uait, uet, 
 
 u — a; 
 
 uais, uaient, uets, 
 ua, 
 
 «ast u i broad ; 
 
 Bon, u on ; 
 
 liin, u in ; 
 
 nant, u an ; 
 
 Example*. 
 C'est un grand ]oueur. 
 Des chemins honeux. 
 I^ouise est eblou/ssante ; il est r^jo«is- 
 sant. 
 
 Vous Ites tres cnrotig; il est trot/*, 
 ]oiiet, souhait, il louait. 
 Ma foi, il croit que c'est de la mtelle 
 
 lis louaient, ]Q.\ouais, des ]ouets. 
 
 Que les rois soier* justes. 
 
 Tu joua* afin qii'il jouit. 
 
 Ce rouage va tres-mal. 
 
 Nous jouons, nous l#«o?i3, 
 
 II fait son joujou d'un h?ibotiin. 
 
 Je vis dans mon com sans soin ni be- 
 
 soin. 
 
 II vit en }ouant la ville de Kouen, 
 
 Example*. 
 
 A la \ueur des etoiles. 
 
 Son front respectueux. 
 
 Donnez-lui un biscuit. 
 
 Cette r\ui^ a remw^ vers le sud. 
 
 II remuaii ; un langage mwef . 
 
 Je le saiwa/*; ils xuaient; des bl«^«*, 
 
 II continwa d'observer le nwctgc 
 
 Tu continwa^ ,• tu substitwfl*. 
 
 Nous nous salwons/ nous continwo;»s. 
 
 Les liqueurs su//2tent en ]uin, 
 
 II a I'air d'un chat-hwan*. 
 
 TABLE IIL 
 
 SOUNDS OF THE CONSONANTS. 
 
 like 
 
 B has two sounds ; the first 
 
 b. Voili un ^au bouquet qui sent b\tn 
 l)on 
 
 Sometimes it has almost the sound Une observation aistraite. 
 of be in French. One must however II o^tint un pouvolr a^solu. 
 avoid laying much stress upon the e. 
 
 C has three sounds ; before a, o, u, i. On mit le curie ux au cachot pour le 
 
 recompenser de son caquet. 
 Before e, i, or with f , *, Cette cire est au citron. Une le^on de 
 
 Frarjiis. 
 In a few words, nearly g, Secondement ou en second lieu, un 
 
 lieu secret, une becasse & trois be- 
 cassines. 
 N. B. In the following words it Is not pronounced: Almanacb^ lacs (de 
 »oie) marc (d'or ou d'argent). 
 
 VOL. II. B 
 
I© PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CH has two sounds ; eh. On C/6argea cle c>6a!nes le c-6evalier de 
 
 C6irac. 
 In some words ; ^, L*ec/&o de la voix des Bacc;6antes re- 
 
 teutissait; une notion arci^etype. 
 
 D has the sound of 
 
 before a vowel ©r an h mute. 
 
 t, II reponc^ en furiboncf » ce granrf 
 homme. 
 
 F has generally the sound of 
 before a vowel or an b mute. 
 
 II a employe neuf hommes pendant 
 
 neuf ans. 
 
 Un esprit vindicatif & jaloux. 
 
 G keeps its natural sound before 
 a, o, u. 
 
 Before e, i, is sounded like 
 Final in some words before a 
 vowel, like 
 
 Que ^agne Guillaume a faire le ^o- 
 g, ^uenard ? 
 j, Ce general est^; une vraie pirouette. 
 
 II sue san^ & eau. C'est un lon^ Hot. 
 
 Gn is generally liquid, gnia, gnio, Les vi^obles de la Champa^jc & de 1» 
 
 Bourgo^ne. 
 Sometimes not liquid, gna,gnOt Voili des eaux sta^nantes. II ctudie 
 
 la ^nomonique. 
 
 H is sometimes pronounced 
 
 On other occasions it is not 
 pronounced. 
 
 Ce Aousard se croit un hitos avec sa. 
 
 Aallebarde. 
 II se hktdL -6ardiment de gravir la i>au- 
 
 teur. 
 Cet hommt sans Aonneur est fils d'une 
 
 i6eroine. 
 
 K is sounded before a, 
 Before the other vowels. 
 
 c, Le ^an des Tartares ; les alialis sont 
 tres en vogue. 
 qu, Le dermis ne gucrira pas son >fyste. 
 
 L has two sounds ; liquid, glia, glio, Ce Solei/bri//ant me blesse ToEi/, 
 
 Not liquid, U, la, lo, Xa Puce//e d'Orleans ega/ait Achi//e 
 
 en va/eur. 
 
 It is not pronounced in the following Bari/, cheni/, couti/, feni/, fusi/, gii/, 
 words. outi/, sourci/, genti/, (joli). 
 
 M has three sounds ; the 
 
 1st, natural, 
 2d, nasal, 
 .3d, like 
 
 m, JJfenez-moi chez ma tncre. 
 n, Je sais son no»t 8c son surnoui. 
 me, Sewi, Jerusalewi, Selim, Ephraiw, 
 
 K has three sounds ; the 1st nasal, Ce vaurien est bien malin. 
 
 2d open, L'c^znemi est aweanti. 
 
 3d like aincy L'-amour & THymen,- il dit amc« a 
 tout. 
 
 P has but one sound 
 
 j&, Pduvre/>etit/»laideur /?rend /la^ience. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 11 
 
 Q^has three sounds ; 1st, like k, II a re9U le «7uatorze en ^uantite du 
 
 and the u following is mute. ^^uinyuina de bonne ^ualite. 
 
 2d. The « is pronounced, and C'cst un ^uadrupdde a^atique. II a 
 has the sound of cou, ecrit un in-^warto sur la quadrature 
 
 du cercle. 
 3d. In some words, like cm, II a ete mis i-^ia ; le quintuple de 
 
 vingt. 
 
 R, 1st, keeps its natural sound, as in 11 a re9u recemment le rest* de la re- 
 
 cette. 
 2d. Is sonorous in Mettez dans cette cuiller de fer quel, 
 
 ques gouttes d'amer. 
 3d. Is strongly pronounced in fi- L'errewr de ce procureur guerit le 
 nal syllables in eur, taillrwr & ce volffur de fournissetzr 
 
 dc \eur terreur. 
 4th. Is mute in the Infinitive of Je vais demand^r permission d'aller 
 verbs, when followed by a conso- la trouver demain. 
 nant. 
 
 5th. Is on the contrary sounded II faut lui parler avant de cherchcr un 
 in the Inftnitives of verbs when domestique. 
 followed by a vaael. 
 
 6th. Is rauie m familiar dis- Yotre pcre a un au/re projel. 
 course, in tre, before a consonant. 
 
 S has two sounds ; 1st, #, Sujannc joyez ^age & jachez *ouffrir. 
 
 Generally between two vowels, Zt Rojette a perdu son fu*eau en allant 
 
 4 I'eglife. 
 
 T has two sounds ; 1st its natu- 
 ral sound, t, Le ronnerre f'a fait fourner la f^«-e. 
 It is pronouaced like s. 
 
 In substantives in fion, L 'ambition de cette nztion cause sa 
 
 destrucf/on. 
 
 — proper names in tien, *, Le T'lticn Sc Diocie<ien etaient de 
 
 grands hommes. 
 
 — adjectives in tial, tid, tieux, tieta, II est essenfiel d'etre imparfoal. Le» 
 and their derivatives. ambi/ieux sont rarement pa/ienls. 
 
 V has but one sound ; v, Kicndrez-vou* me voir wndredi i 
 
 X has four sounds ; 1st, like h, Les coiffeuses taxent le beau &txc. 
 
 2d, ^s, L'exaininateur cxaspere ejcige unex- 
 
 emple. 
 3d, as ss in hiss, De Cadix je me rendis a Bruxeltes en 
 
 soLxante heurcs. 
 4-th, before a J'ai mange deux ccufs St six hultrcs. 
 
 voxcel or an /} mute s, 
 
 Z has beside* its natural sound, as, Malgre son zclc, il est entre le z'lstt 
 
 &c le jzeste. 
 The souud of * in final syllables, *, Je vais a Mets & puis a Rhodes. 
 
? 
 
 IS PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Scholar. 
 How many kinds of words do you distinguish 
 
 Master. 
 
 Nine : viz. The Noun, Adjective, Article or determining 
 word, Pronoun, Verb, so called by way of eminence, PrC' 
 position. Adverb, Conjunction and Interjection, which are 
 adequate to the full expression of all our ideas, thoughts, 
 and sensations, and will become the subject of the foUow- 
 ing conversations. 
 
 CONVERSATION II. 
 
 OF THE J\r0UJ^, 
 
 Scholar. 
 WHAT do you mean by the word termed by Gramma- 
 rians a Noun ? 
 
 Master. 
 A word which presents to the mind the idea of any ob- 
 ject, being, or thing whatever : such is its magnetic pow- 
 er over the human mind, that the instant it is expressed, 
 we are in a great degree feelingly alive to the perception 
 of the object, as if it stood before us. 
 Scholar. 
 How many kinds of Nouns are there ? 
 
 Master. 
 Three. First ; The Proper, which relates to an indivi- 
 dual person or thing, as Bonaparte, Nelson, Paris, Phila^ 
 delphia. Second ; The Common, relative to a class, more 
 or less numerous, of similar persons or things, as Animal, 
 animal ; man, homme ; philosopher, philosophe ; house, wai- 
 son ; room, chambre ; and Third, The Abstract Noun, 
 which represents a quality or an abstraction, as if it were 
 an existing object, though it only exists in the mind, as 
 Courage, courage ; patriotism, patriotisme; love, amour ^ 
 birth, naissance ; time, terns ; eternity, eternite ; reward j 
 recompense. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Can you trace those Nouns to their original source \ 
 
 Master. 
 I will endeavour to do so. In the dawn of Society, when 
 the family of mankind was but small, man strongly felt the 
 
OF LANGUAGE. tS 
 
 necessity of living in a state of union, as well to shield him- 
 self from the attack of the ferocious animal that roamed 
 for prey through the wilderness, as to assist by social inter- 
 course,' in procuring the necessaries of life, and providing 
 against the cravings of hunger and other imperious wants. 
 He, therefore, had recourse to every means in his power, to 
 form the social compact^ by an interchange of kind offices 
 and communications, upon Mhich his safety and we//-^(?/«^' 
 so much depended. Endowed v/ith flexible arms, it was 
 natural that he should exercise them in order to point out 
 such objects as he was desirous of obtaining, expressing, 
 at the same time, by the various attitudes of the body, and 
 quick intelligence communicable by the eye, the degree of 
 his wants and the ideas conceived of those objects. Expe- 
 rience, however, ere long, made him sensible how inade- 
 quate the language of the eye only was to the complete ex- 
 pression of his sentiments and ideas, which would be 
 more forcibly experienced in the hour of danger, when 
 enveloped m the gloom of night. A substitute now anxious- 
 ly sought after, for signs made invisible by the profound 
 darkness of night, was readily discovered in the power 
 of speech, that wonderful gift conferred by the Creator 
 
 on man 
 
 Alive to the feelings 6f pain and pleasure, mun had 
 observed that cries never failed to succeed certain sensa- 
 tions : these, frequently repeated, became associated ex- 
 pressions and voce/ signs of such sensations (1) ; and when 
 he wanted to give an account of the sufferings witnessed^ 
 in his fellov*^-creature, he had only to imitate the cries of 
 the sufferer, and, by making certain gestures necessary to 
 unfold circumstances relative thereto, he was instantly un* 
 derstood. 
 
 Having proceeded thus far in his observations, in order 
 to give names to those visible objects which were the most 
 interesting to him, he was led by Nature, that had assist- 
 ed him in his cries, to the expression of the most lively 
 sensations. The organ of speech, rendered flexible by 
 constant and repeated exercise (2), supplied him with a 
 sufficient variety of articulate sounds, which, connected 
 into words, were always equal to the expression of his 
 wants ; and different sounds were of course imposed to 
 signify different objects (3). 
 
 The habit of giving names to visible objects becoming 
 familiar to mankind, a name was bestowed on whatever 
 
Vi PHILOSOPHY* 
 
 was useful to be known or worthy to be remembered ; but 
 in the course of this distribution^ they discovered a great 
 similarity between some objects. For instance ; having 
 called an object connected with the earth by a number of 
 small parts extending into it, uniting into a common trunk, 
 and from thence ascending and variously ramifying, Tree, 
 (which was, at first, meant to express a solitary and parti- 
 cular object) and observing many others exactly corres- 
 ponding to this description, (so natural is it for man to ge- 
 neralize) (4), he soon gave the same name to all those 
 large vegetables consisting of branches growing from a 
 common trunk, which was termed a noun common of ki?id. 
 Not confined to certain appearances common to all trees, 
 on account of their special properties, it became necessa- 
 ry to arrange them into distinct classes. Hence proceeds 
 the noun common of species^ such as Apple-trct^ Pear-tree, 
 he. (5) 
 
 The narrow province of the human memory, the boun- 
 tlaries fixed by an Almighty hand to the human under- 
 standing, will not permit us to retain a proper name for 
 every object, nor is it material we should ; thus, our in- 
 capacity, not to mention the inutility of distinguishing by 
 a different name what in the nature of things may be con- 
 sidered a mere shade of difference, has necessarily intro- 
 duced into language nouns common both of kind and spe- 
 cies. 
 
 The names that have invariably remained proper^ are 
 those of particular persons (6), countries, cities, rivers, 
 mountains, &c. besides the following two^ which denote, 
 in every language, two objects alone in their species, viz. 
 the sacred name of God^ Dieu, and that of his glorious 
 work, le SOLEIL, the Sun, derived from the Latin Sol 
 and hence the adjective solus (alone), because he shines 
 ftlone the king of light. 
 
 The Abstract Nouns will now properly come under consi- 
 deration after the Adjectives from which they are derived. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Are there not some other particulars, as well as the 
 name of objects, deserving attention t 
 
 Master. 
 
 Yes ; two essential ones : The jirst relates to the Gen- 
 der of nouns which are either tnasculine or feminine^ in 
 French ; and the second res'^ect^ the manner of forming 
 their plural. Their Gender^ as being intricate and arbitra- 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 15 
 
 ry, will now exclusively occupy our attention ; and their 
 number shall be investigated afterwards. Without giving 
 you the trouble of a further inquiry on the subject, I 
 shall immediately proceed to acquaint you with the proba- 
 ble origin of this distinction of nouns. 
 
 Man being of an inventive scrutinizing genius and giving 
 names to the objects of his wants, must have early observ- 
 ed, that Nature had divided his own species into two Sex^ 
 es I, the Male and Female : and her division would not 
 have been respected, had he called the female by the same 
 name as his, fellow-man^ or, in other words, had he given 
 the appellation oi man to -woman. He, therefore, soon de- 
 vised a term, by which the female of his species was to be 
 designated, and thus, he called her tvoman.^ Femme. 
 
 But animals also had their sex. The Coxu^ that supplied 
 him with wholesome and nutritious milk ; the Hen^ that 
 furnished his table with a luxurious food ; and the Sheep^ 
 that defended him from the inclemencies of winter with 
 her warm fleece, were severally entitled to distinct names 
 for the discrimination of their sex : and man, inspired 
 with reason and actuated by gratitud^ formed the judi- 
 cious and laudable distinction. With respect to animals 
 less important to him, or less worthy his attention, he was- 
 not so particular ; and instead of imposing a name on 
 the y^-wrt/^ , entirely diff'erent from that of the male, he 
 framed a specific name far the former, by a slight 
 change in the termination of the latter, as, in French, 
 from the masculine terms chat^ a cat ; chien^ a dog ; loupy 
 a wolf ; he derived the femines, chatte^chicnne^ loiive. 
 
 Nothing appears more reasonable than this distinction, 
 which the God of nature had wisely marked by drawing 
 with an unerring hand the sexual line. But man soon de- 
 viated from the path of reason, in rendering every object, 
 even the inanimate things of his own creation, male orfe- 
 male^ by arranging their names in the class of masculine 
 or feminine nouns. The cause of this erroneous princi- 
 ple in language may be thus accounted for. In the infant 
 state of Society, when his condition was precarious and 
 circumscribed, the sex of all animals could not be discov- 
 ered. Some that were dangerous and terrific to him, he 
 carefully avoided : some that viewed him with dread. 
 
 t Derived from th« Latin word Sccare to cut^ to divide. 
 
Iff PHILOSOPHY 
 
 sought the deepest recesses of the forest for safety ; and 
 others, expressing theirfear, with fluttering pinions, launch- 
 ed into the vast regions of the air, far beyond his observa- 
 tion. Notwithstanding those obstacles in the road to 
 improvement ; and as no law of nature, nor intellectual 
 exertion, could direct him in his course, such was the ar- 
 dor of his inclination to use the faculty of speech, now be- 
 come familiar, that he gave names to animals of the same 
 species, as if conscious, that they were all absolutely Males 
 or Females, This will account for the Elephant^ Leopard^ 
 Bear^ Rat^ £s?c. having, for instance, the name of the male 
 only, in French ; and for the Panther^ Wasp^ Adder ^ Mouse^ 
 &c. having no discriminating name for the male species. 
 Thus were fear and weakness the authors of error. By- 
 judging too hastily, the mind was misled % ; and man, in 
 early Society, leaving the path of nature to take that of 
 caprice, and easily biassed in his judgment, erred now so 
 much as to impose names even on inanimate thing%^ as if 
 they had been of the 3Iale or Female sex (7). 
 Scholar. 
 
 Is the English the only language, in which inanimate 
 objects or things are confined to a certain Gender called 
 the Neuter ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 Yes : (I believe) at least, in Europe ^8) : and this is an 
 advantage, which indubitably renders it, not only more 
 simple, but more easily acquired by foreigners ; yet it 
 must be acknowledged, that the application of various Gen- 
 ders to different things, (however introduced in the be- 
 ginning) tends in a great degree, to yield grace, harmony, 
 animation, and often precision to language. You will be 
 convinced of the truth of this assertion, as you advance iii 
 the acquisition of the French tongue ; you must therefore 
 endeavour to acquire a knowledge of the right Gender of 
 every Noun^ without which, you will be continually exposed 
 to blunders and to the ridicule even of the im learned of the 
 French. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 In order to avoid blunders and ridicule how am I to ob- 
 tain this essential information, respecting the Genders of 
 Nouns ? 
 
 I The Articles the invention of which, as we shall show in treating of 
 that part of Speech, was of a very early date,, contributed to render the error 
 irremediable. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 17 
 
 Master. 
 
 By attending to the Vocabulary prefixed to this work^ 
 and committing to memory the Familiar Phrases^ in 
 which the principal words exemplifying the Genders of 
 Nouns are exhibited, and for this purpose also many of 
 these phrases were composed. 
 
 When you wish to increase your stock of information 
 relative to the Genders, beyond what is contained in this 
 collection, you may consult the Dictionarj^ of the French 
 Academy. However, to call forth your exertions, and en- 
 courage your researches in the discovery of exceptions, I 
 here present you a few rules, by which the Gender of a 
 Noun may be nearly ascertained. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 . Nouns ending in e mute, S and ion^ are commonly fem- 
 inine, as prudence^ prudence ; humanite^ humanity j reli- 
 gion^ religion. 
 
 The terminations ble^ cle^ Jle^ gle^ ple^ dre^ gre^ trCy vre^ 
 sme^ ste, eige, oge^ itge^ are exceptions to this rule. 
 
 Nouns ending in consonants, which are by far the most 
 numerous, are masculine, with few exceptions. 
 
 The terminations ^rs*, eure^ ire, me,/)/ie, one, oire, are 
 nearly common to both Genders. 
 
 The names of winds, rivers, mountains, trees, and 
 shrubs are less arbitrary, being, for the most part, mas- 
 culine. 
 
 The names of flowers and roots are commonly of the 
 feminine Gender. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Having fully explained the Gender, you will be kind 
 enough to give me an idea of the Number. 
 Master. 
 
 With pleasure. In French there are two Numbers ; 
 the singular and the plural : the former relates to one ob- 
 ject or thing ; the latter to several. The necessity of 
 using the plural was, at an early period, readily conceiv- 
 ed. Suppose, for a moment, that a vocal sign or sound to 
 distinguish the singidar from the plural, had not yet been 
 invented ; how could you inform me that you had seen 
 birds without specifying the number with v/hich, I must 
 imagine, you were unacquainted. You would have no 
 other means of informing me of it, but to repeat the sin- 
 
 TOL. II, D 
 
18 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 gular word i^zW several times, and in order to make me 
 sensible that you had seen more birds than you had repeat* 
 ed the term, you would make rapid signs with your fin- 
 gers, to signify they were still more numerous. You 
 would continually feel the necessity of using an additional 
 sign to express the idea of plurality ; and in order to con- 
 vey such idea to the mind, your ingenuity might prompt 
 you, at last, to give a new sound to the Noun by adding 
 thereto the letter S (|). 
 
 The French, as well as the English, have adopted the let- 
 ter S for the same purpose, with this difference, that 
 the latter always pronounce it, but the former do not, un- 
 less the following word begins with a vowel ; and then S 
 is softened into Z, which, forming a syllable in combina- 
 tion with such vowel, links the two words together ; so 
 that S is never sounded ^S* but sometimes Z, and may be 
 considered rather a sign for the eye than for the ear. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Why do you make the singular undergo an alteration, 
 and scarcely make use of it afterwards ? Is there not some- 
 thing whimsical in this mode of proceeding ? 
 Master. 
 
 Apparently so ; but not in reality. It is highly proba- 
 ble that the original framers of the French language pro- 
 nounced the S at the end of words (J) when it was first in- 
 troduced, for men in those days did not, like the moderns 
 invent difficult things, which were soon after consigned to 
 oblivion ; but, as the language improved, articles were de- 
 vised, which received laws from the Noun to which they 
 were subject : they wore (if I may use the expression) its 
 livery ; and became masculine or feminine, singular or 
 plural, according to the nature thereof. The number of 
 the Noun being always determined by the Article, which 
 precedes it, there can be no occasion to use the hissing 
 sound of S when it can, without trespassing on propri- 
 ety, be avoided. 
 
 1 1 think a letter better calculated for a mark of the plural could not have 
 been selected ; for by the peculiar hissing sound of it, words may be length- 
 ened at pleasure and thereby bette/- fitted to give an additional force, to sig- 
 nify that apparent expansion of one object into many, which is the essence of 
 plurality, 
 
 \ In confirmation of this conjecture several French Gentlemen, with whom 
 I have conversed on the subject, informed me they had observed that the in- 
 habitants of several parts of France still pronounce the S at the end of many 
 Nouns 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 19 
 
 I shall now explain to you why S softened into Z is pro- 
 nounced before a word beginning with a vowel. Taste 
 and judgment have happily produced this change, for the 
 sake of harmony and to prevent an hiatus or clashing of 
 vowels, which grates on the ear, and occasions a gaping 
 barbarous sound ; as if we were to say in English a asSy 
 a art^ or in French trois dries ^ not sounding the letter S as 
 is done before a word beginning with a Consonant, as we 
 have before observed. To guard against this inconveni- 
 ence, the agreeable sound of Z is introduced between the 
 two vowels, in order to promote a connection that pre- 
 vents a harsh pronunciation. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Are there no exceptions to this rule of forming the plu- 
 ral of French Nouns by the addition of ^S* ? 
 Master. 
 
 Yes : Four, which are as follows : 
 
 First. Nouns ending in ^, x^ or z do not admit of it, in 
 the formation of the plural. Example ; le mechant Jils^ 
 les mechans Jils ; the wicked son, the wicked sons : la belle 
 voixy les belles voix ; the fine voice, fine voices : legros neZy 
 les gros nez ; the big nose, big noses. 
 
 Second. Nouns ending in aw, eu, ieu and ou^ admit of an 
 X to form their plural, as, un grand chapeau ; a large hat : 
 de grands ehapeaux ; large hats : un feu allume ; a kindled 
 fire : desfeux allumes ; kindled fires : ce lieu est Sieve ; this 
 place is elevated : ces lieux sont Sieves ; these places are 
 elevated : void un caillou bien dur ; here is a very hard 
 flint : voila des cailloux bien durs ; there are very hard flints. 
 
 Third. Nouns ending in ail or a/, change their termin- 
 ations into aux^ in the plural ; thus, un travail assidu ; a 
 diligent labour : des travaux assidus ; diligent labours : 
 son cheval est fougueux ; his horse is unruly : ses chevaux 
 sont fougueux ; his horses are unruly. 
 
 Fourth. Nouns of several syllables ending in nt^ convert 
 the t into *, in their plural ; as, je rScompense un enfant 
 obeissant ; I reward a dutiful child : je punis les enfans 
 desobeissans ; I punish undutiful children. 
 
 All monosyllables, except gent^ people (which makes 
 gens^ in the plural), follow the general rule ; as, le vent est 
 violent; the wind is boisterous : les vents sont favor ables ; 
 the winds are favorable. 
 
20 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The following Nouns may be called exceptions to the 
 second and third exceptions immediately preceding, as 
 they take an S to form their plural, instead of x, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Bijou^ cou, clou, Jilou, hibou, licou, fou, trou ; jewel, 
 neck, nail, pick-pocket, owl, halter, madman, hole : hal, 
 carnaval, regal, hocal; ball, carnival, treat, decanter ; a^- 
 tirail, detail, eventail, epouvantail, gouvernail, mail, portail, 
 serail ; apparatus, detail, fan, scare-crow, helm, mall, 
 church-gate, seraglio. Betail, cattle ; ceil, eye ; del, hea- 
 ven ; and ail, garlick, are quite irregular, and make besti- 
 aux, yeux, cieux and aulx in the plural. 
 
 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE CONVER- 
 SATION ON THE NOUN. 
 
 (1.) Those cries are composed of Interjections witk which Nature has 
 furnished men for the expression of feelings or affections, in common with 
 each other. Before we have learned to articulate a single word we already 
 know to communicate our feelings to each other, with an undeviating cer- 
 tainty, through the medium of those natural signs ; witness the language of 
 a child, which, before he can articulate, is entirely composed of interjections. 
 Heneeit appears that man by uttering the interjection was first taught his ca- 
 pacity for the various modulations and inflexions of the organ of speech, and 
 the advantages of more correctly communicating his feeling to his fellow, 
 to be derived therefrom, as there is but one step from noting what are now 
 called interjections, as the natural signs of man's feelings, to imposing, as 
 their representatives, marks or signs on the objects most useful to be remem- 
 bered ; therefore, we cannot refuse, as some Grammarians have done, to 
 rank the interjection, the mother of language, among the parts of speech. 
 
 (2.) At first, the progress of this language was nevertheless very slow. 
 The organ of speech was so inflexible that it could not easily articulate any 
 other than a few simple sounds. The obstacles which hindered them from 
 pronouncing others, prevented them even from suspecting that the voice 
 was susceptible of any farther variation beyond the small number of words 
 which they kad already devised. 
 
 " Let us suppose the two first inhabitants of the vjorld to have had a child, 
 *« who, being pressed by wants which he could not without some difficulty 
 ** make known, put every part of his body into motion. His tongue being 
 <' extremely pliant, made an extraordinary motion and pronounced a new 
 ** expression. As those wants continued to press the child, this occasioned 
 " a repetition of the same efforts ; again he moved his tongue in the same 
 *« manner as at first, and articulated the same sound. The parents surprised, 
 «• having at last guessed his meaning, gave him what he wanted ; but tried, 
 " as they gave it him, to repeat the same word. The difficulty they had to 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 21 
 
 <« pronounce it, showed they were not of themselves capable of inventing it." 
 (Origin of Human Knowledge.) 
 
 This conjecture is happily verified by the extreme difficulty Savages, 
 whom we endeavour to civilize, find in prortouncing a great many words 
 which our children have been taught to pronounce without the smallest trou- 
 ble. Add to this the ease with which they attain the pronunciation 
 of every foreign tongue they have to learn. Hence it appears that chil- 
 dren have much contributed to promote the progress of language : a new 
 reason for admiring the happy dependence which Providence has, in his wis- 
 dom established, between parent and child : a dependence which unfor- 
 tunately for their mutual happiness is but too often lost sight of. 
 
 (3.) It is an error to think that the first articulate sounds have been the 
 result of a blind choice. Nature first guided us, then analogy made us in- 
 vent some others, when they became necessary. To corroborate this obser- 
 vation concerning the choice of words, I will mention but a single fact, 
 which is incontrovertible. The words mama VLndpafia which are probably 
 among the first invented (for they are dictated by nature to children who 
 utter them,) are found, with the same meaning connected with them, in a 
 great many languages, some of which do not appear to have received them 
 from others. Thus the words abba, or baba, or papa, and that of onamaol 
 the ancient oriental languages, w^hich, with a very slight difference, belong 
 to most of the European languages, are also common to a great many na- 
 tions of South America (the languages of which are very different), and 
 particularly to the language of the Omoga nation inhabiting the center of 
 that continent. 
 
 The great principle of the formation of languages when studied, with 
 reason, in the child of the primordial family, is, that imitation has been the 
 primary cause of the first grammar : new and artless beings developing 
 themselves in the presence of nature, could not be moved but by the physical 
 objects which exercised an influence over them. 
 
 The more their senses M-erc struck by those objects, the more they were 
 tempted to imitate them. Their voice becoming through habit more and 
 more flexible, must have expressed, though imperfectly at first, the various 
 cries of animals, the whistling of the winds, the murmur of waters, 
 and even the roar of thunder and stupendous cataracts; thus, language, in 
 its first progress, must have been a collectioh df onomatopies, or imitative 
 words. 
 
 (4.) As it is easier for man to use a name he kno\vs, than to learn a iiew one, 
 he generalizes without having formed the design of generalizing, and with- 
 out even observing he is generalizing.-^" A child that is just learning to 
 *' speak (says Adam Smith), calls every person who comes t(> his house itt 
 «« papa or Its mama ; and thus bestou-^ upon the whole species those names 
 *' which it had been taught to apply to two individuals." Having several 
 times myself, made this observation, I cannot help expressing some su.-prise 
 that it could have escaped the observation of the profound and eloquent 
 J.J. Rousseau, who remarks in his discovfrse sur I'origine de /' vi^galite, 8tc. 
 Part I. " That man having called an oak A, called a second one B, &,c.*' 
 
 (5.) Our ideas begin, therefdre, from individual, and become at once as 
 general as possible, and afterwards we distribute them in various classes onlr 
 in proportion as we feel the necessity of distinguishing them ; such is the 
 order of their generation. 
 
 (6.) The attentive reader must remember that the first names invented 
 by men, were, in the beginning, peculiar to individual objects. From this cir- 
 cumstance he may accuse us of a contradiction, which is however only appa- 
 rent, when we maintain that every proper name of individuals is derived from 
 some words haying a general appellation or Common meaning. It is vcrr 
 
^2 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 true that several may be found that can not be traced to their original source, 
 and for the same reason our proposiiion cannot be disproved: while 
 every proper name vi-hose origin can be traced, is clearly proved to be derived 
 from such a source. To support this assertion we shall have recourse to the 
 Hebrew, Greek, Latin, German, French, and English languages, when the 
 universality of this principle will be no Icnger doubted. 
 
 In the Hebrew, for nistance, Adam means red. and particularly the father 
 of mankind ; Eve, the mother of the living ; Mel, affliction ; Sbem, name, 
 (probably from his bein^ the Hrst named of the family of Noah) ; Ham, 
 heat, for he inhabited Africa or Ej^ypt ; Canaan, merchant ,- Pe/e^, division ; 
 it was m the time of that Prince men began to divide the earth ; Moses, saved 
 from the waters ; Aaron, strong mountain ; Pharaoh, king ; and so on for 
 every other Hebrew name. 
 
 In Greek, Fhilippus means fond of horses ; Alexander, a powerful auxilia- 
 ry; Aristotle, o}>tiniu3 hnis, the best end ; Flato, broad shouldered ; Ache- 
 ron, the river of pain ; Africa, absence of cold, &c. 
 
 In Latin, Lucius means born at day -break ; Tyberius, born near the Ty- 
 ber ; Servitcs, born in bondage ; Fiso is derived from pisum, a pea ; Cicero, 
 from ciccr, a kind of pea. Fabius means the bean-man, £ri.m\/aba , 3. bean ; 
 Scipio, a stick ; Catullus, a little dog ; and so on for an immense number of 
 other proper names. 
 
 In the German language a great many families go by such names as Wolf, 
 a wolf; Bar, a bear ; Hoffman, a courtier, &c. That language has furnished 
 the French with a great many proper names all derived from that fruitful 
 source appellative nouns, with and v/ithout epithets, viz. Bernard, meaning 
 a courageous man ; Z^onarc^, courageous like a iion ; Gerard, hr3Lve in war ; 
 Sigcbcrt, illustrious by victories ; Dagotert, an illustrious warrior ; Leopold, 
 bold as a lion,&c. Other proper iiames or;^inate in the French language it- 
 self, as le Blanc, le Noir, /<? Rouge, Dt^cbamps, ie Maitre, Coutelier, Pellt- 
 iier, le Fer, Marchand, Grand-jtiont, Marichai, Dubois, Potier, Chateau neuf, 
 Moreau, isfc 
 
 In English, we find among proper names the words Black, White, Field, 
 Smith, Skinner, Potter, Page, Hall, Cook, Shoemaker, Butcher, Bridge, 
 Sec. 
 
 In the language of ever)' Indian tribe of North- America the individuals of 
 each are designated by nouns common. 
 
 The circumstance of every language taking, in every age, their proper 
 names from epithets and appellative nouns, proves, beyond a doubt, it is a 
 suggestion of nature, well suited to analytical views and the invariable 
 mode of proceeding of the human mind. 
 
 The uniformity in the proceedings of the human mind is a circumstance 
 ■which cannot fail to attract the notice of the attentive observer. 
 In every step towards any improvement, it never fails to proceed on the 
 same principles and to observe the same rules, and should any real im- 
 provement result from its progress, it is not so much from conceiving new rules, 
 as from simplifying those with which it was before acquainted. 
 
 (7.) It is always contrary to the interest of a new doctrine, however well 
 grounded its principles may be, to be opposed to an ancient one supported by 
 illustrious names. It is unfortunately the case with ours. Our account of the 
 origin of gender in language for the names of things or inayiimate objects, 
 differs very materially from that given by eminent Grammarians, among 
 whom Harris and Gebelin stand most conspicuous. Those writers seem per- 
 suaded that men perceived a kind of logical foundation for making those 
 names Masadine or Feminine. The ingenious reasons with which they at- 
 tempt to support their hypotheses afford sufficient ground, without even having 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 23 
 
 -recourse to material proofs, to contradict openly their own system ; for 
 mankind in the infancy of society, pressed by and surrounded, as they were, 
 with dangers of every kind, a prey to imperious wants, possessing the fa- 
 culties of the mind only in embryo (as language, the great promoter of hu- 
 man reason, was then forming by almost insensible steps), could not have pro- 
 ceeded, as the metaphysicians and philosophers of the present day could have 
 done, with ever>- requisite advantage. As the theory of the two gramma- 
 rians we have just mentioned, appears countenanced by facts, let us oppose 
 facts to facts, and, to do it with more success, let us oppose to these they 
 "have adduced in support of their doctrine those very facts themselves, but 
 better explained. 
 
 Harris, whose Htrnits is in the hands of every English scholar, will fur- 
 nish us with the verv means of overturning his own system. Hermes con- 
 tains many proofs of its fallacy, among these we shall mention only two, 
 which, as he seems particularly fond of dwelling on them, we trust, will 
 prove amply sufficient to clear up every doubt to the entire conviction of the 
 impartial reader. 
 
 " We may conceive (says he) such substantives to have been considered 
 «* as Masculine, which we're conspicuous for the attributes of imparting or 
 • • communicating ; or which were by nature active, strong and efficacious, and 
 ' * that indiscriminately whether to good or to ill ; or which had claim to emi- 
 ** nence, either laudable or otherwise." 
 
 " The Feminine^ on the contrary, were such as were conspicuous for the 
 ** attributes, either of receiving, of containing, or of producing and bringing 
 «« forth ; or which had more of the passive m their nature, than of the ac- 
 ** tive ; or which were peculiarly beautiful and amiable ; or which had respect 
 *' to such excesses as were rather feminine than masculine." 
 
 " Upon these principles the two greater luminaries were considered, one 
 *' as Masculine, the other as Feminine,- the Sun, as Masculine, from commu- 
 " nicating light which was native and original, as well as from the vigorous 
 «• warmth and efficacy of his rays ; the Moon, as Feminine, from being the 
 ** Receptacle only of another's light, and from shining with rays more deli- 
 *' cate and soft, 8cc. &c. 
 
 The reader, who may expect we are now about opposing oin* own autho- 
 rity to Mr. Harris, will no doubt feel himself obliged to us for disap- 
 pointing his expectations, in presenting him with a quotation suitable to our 
 purpose, from that justly celebrated philologist, Mr. Home Tocke. 
 
 " Mr Harris (says he) is very unfortunate in the very outset of that jt/^- 
 *' tie kind of' reasoning, (as he calls it) which discerns even in things with- 
 " out sex, a distant analogy to that great natural distinction." 
 
 «• For his very first instances — the Sun and the Moon — destroy the whole 
 «« subtility of this kind of reasoning. For Mr.Harris ought to have known that 
 " in many Asiatic Languages, and in all the Northern Languages of this part 
 *' of the gbbe which we inhabit, and particularly in our Mother-Language, the 
 «' Anglo-Saxon, (from which Sun and Moon are immediately derived to us.) 
 «• Sun is Feminine, and Moon is Masculine. So feminine is the Sun, that our 
 ** northern Mythology makes her the JVife of Tuisco," &c. 
 
 Instead, therefore, of attributing the origin of gender for inanimate things 
 to this subtle kind of reasoning of man in his infant state, we have attempted 
 to shew how this error in the formation of language originated in the con- 
 stitution of the human mind itself. 
 
 (8.) Here perhaps it may be thought well worth spending some time 
 in inquiring, why the English language should stand alone among those 
 of Europe, in asiigniHg neither the Masculine nor Feminine gender to inani- 
 -inate objects. The hazarding a few conjectures on this subject appears to 
 MIC the more necessary, when it is considered that such grammarians as 
 
24 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 have discovered the greatest acuteness in their researches, have passed it by 
 in silence. 
 
 To explain this singular deviation from the nature of other languages, I 
 ahull have recourse to that fruitful principle of the progress of the human 
 '.mind, called, the association of ideas. Whoever is acquainted with the 
 English, knows that by the help of the pronouns he and she prefixed to 
 certain nouns of animals, the male or female thereof are clearly designated ; 
 thus they say, a he or she cat ; -a. he or she goat ; a ^e or she virolf, &c. 
 
 , In the origin of the English language there was no room for error, as we 
 have shown there was in those languages that impose genders on the names 
 of things, as when giving names to animals, the framers of this lan- 
 guage were always able to make such names masculine or feminine by the 
 addition of those monosyllabic terms ; terms that were, perhaps, first devised 
 to express an idea of sexuality. Whenever it was necessary to impose 
 names on things without sex, in speaking of them, they could never have 
 made use of the words be or she ; for these words, having been placed be- 
 fore nouns of animals to designate sexuality in the beginning, could not fail 
 to awaken in the mind the idea of one or other sex. Natural good sense, as 
 yet unimpaired, could not think of employing them, when discoursing of 
 things without sex. The genius of invention, directed by reason and stimu- 
 lated by necessity, discovered the word it. 
 
 An exception among the names of things has been made in favor of a 
 ship, brig, sfiow, &.c. as the feminine gender has been conferred upon such 
 nouns. This seems to have been established prophetically, as if with a view 
 of personifying those objects to which the English nation should be indebt- 
 ed for so nuicli glory and prosperity. 
 
 A gender having thus been so justly denied to names of things, it would 
 have been the height of absurdity to allow names of qualities or adjectives 
 to have genders, as quality is evidently without sex : and quality being sim- 
 ple and not complex, its name could never have logically been made plural. 
 Hence the English adjective has neither gender or number ; and forms thereby 
 a. remarlvabie contrast to the adjectives of other languages. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 25 
 
 CONVERSATION HI. 
 
 OF Tff^ ADJECTIVE 4ND ABSTRACT J^QU^. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 WHAT is an Adjective ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 A word joined to a Noun, to signify that the object 
 represented by the Noun is possessed of some property 
 or quality ; as, a round table, une table ro7ide ; a red 
 coat, un habit rouge ; the words round and red are Ad- 
 jectives, because they denote the figure and colour of 
 |the objects tab/e and coat. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What gave rise to the use of Adjectives ? 
 Master. 
 
 The comparison of objects which, more or less, re- 
 sembled or dittercd from one another. When man 
 wanted to impart this resemblance or difference to his 
 neighbour, he had, at first, no particular terms for the 
 purpose ; but, inspired by his wants, he happily and na- 
 turally came to introduce into language a new kind of 
 words, which have been called Adjectives^ a word derived 
 from the Latin adjectus, which means added to* 
 Scholar. 
 
 Could Adjectives be dispensed with ? 
 Master. 
 
 No : for without them language would no longer 
 exist. Nouns would only represent objects disrobed of 
 all those qualities, properties, forms, and actions which 
 render them so highly interesting in the communication 
 of our sentiments. Without the assistance of Adjectives, 
 the loveliest objects of nature would sink into indifference, 
 and the finest subjects of imagination would be consigned 
 to oblivion : we should, in fact, be deprived of the faculty 
 of reasoning, as the mere repetition of solitary words to 
 represent certain objects, would be of no avail to express 
 any of the conceptions of the human mind. 
 
 The simplicity of language is divine and admirable j 
 *?^4» as there is some relation between an object and its 
 
 VOL. II. E 
 
26 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 qualities, which flow from the very nature of the object 
 itself, the Adjective may also be said to be derived from 
 the Noun^ as the latter gave rise to the former. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Favour me with some further explanation on this sub- 
 ject. 
 
 Master. 
 By all means. Some objects possess qualities in such 
 an eminent degree, that the very mention of them in- 
 stantly conveys to the mind the idea of those quali- 
 ties. For instance ; as a mountain is a very strik- 
 ing emblem of height and magnitude, a person who 
 would inform his companions that he had seen a very 
 tall or gigantic man, would have said that he had seen a 
 fnountain man ; for, had he used the word tall to convey 
 that idea, he would not have been understood, until he 
 had explained to them the meaning which he intended to 
 convey by this word. He was, therefore, in order to 
 make himself intelligible, obliged to resort to a Noun, 
 which was already associated in their minds with his 
 prototype ; or, suppose he were desirous of extolling the 
 beauty of a fine woman, he might happily express him- 
 self by saying, that her shape was an arrow (meaning 
 straight or slender) — her complexion, snow (meaning 
 rvhite) — that her eyes were heaven (that is blue) — her 
 cheeks, roses (red) — and her lips cherries or strawberries 
 (meaning ruddy). 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 By what means would he have represented a gentle 
 and docile child t 
 
 Master. 
 
 Probably by the word lamb ; as, a lamb child ; but this 
 is a very imperfect mode of caressing the quality. The 
 idea of size conveyed by the word mountain^ is far supe- 
 rior to that of the tallest man. No woman's complexion, 
 however fair, has ever equalled the matchless white of 
 snow. 
 
 Such nouns as, at first, gave to savage man a rude idea 
 of the qualities discovered in certain things, were gradu- 
 ally replaced, when he came to aim at precision, by the 
 words now called Adjectives^ which were nothing but 
 Nouns themselves, that had undergone various modifica- 
 tions (1) the better to distinguish the quality from the 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 27 
 
 objects, which man, by comparing them, in order to dis- 
 cover their relations, had learned to separate or abstract 
 from them. This alteration in the Noun to signify the 
 quality, greatly improved the faculty of thinking, as by 
 this means different names were given to different things ; 
 order and regularity began to be established in the vm- 
 derstanding of man, and this was the result of the faculty 
 called abstraction^ by which alone mankind are placed so 
 far above the brute creation. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Does the French Adjective differ from the English? 
 Master. 
 
 Yes, materially. 
 
 First. The English Adjectives have neither Gender 
 nor Number: but those of the French agree with their 
 Nouns in both Gender and Number, 
 
 Second. The English Adjective precedes the Noun ; 
 the French, with some exceptions, generally follows. 
 Scholar. 
 
 You have already explained to me how Nouns became 
 masculine or feminine ; but I cannot conceive how a 
 quality can be said to have g^ender or number, as it has 
 no sex, and is perfectly simple? 
 Master. 
 
 A good observation. A quality, indeed, should have 
 neither gender nor number. Without sex or quality, it 
 only expresses the mode of an object ; and is, in fact, 
 nothing more than a mere abstraction^ a creature of the 
 mind. 
 
 . The gender and number of Adjectives have been intro- 
 duced into some languages, to manifest more immedi- 
 ately their dependence on the noun with which they are 
 connected. Hence proceeds that grammatical harmony, 
 termed by the Latins, Concordance^ which the French 
 observe with great exactness. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 How do you form tht feminine Gtiidtv of French Ad- 
 jectives ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 The feminine Adjectives must always end in e mute ; 
 hence it happens, that Adjectives ending in e mute in the 
 masculine^ have no occasion to change that termination 
 to denote the feminine ; so they say, un homme aimable, 
 une femme aimable ; an amiable man, an amiable wo- 
 man : des hommes aimabks^ des femmes aimables; ami- 
 
^S J^HILOSOPHV 
 
 able men, amiable women. Adjectives ending differently, 
 admit of an e mute, to form Xht feminine ; as, un hommd 
 savant^ une femme savante (learned) ; un joli homme, 
 une jolie femme (pretty). 
 
 With some Adjectives, the mere addition of an e mute 
 to the masculine will not form the feminine. By attend- 
 ing to the following observations, you will soon become 
 acquainted with those irregularities. 
 
 First. Of Adjectives ending in c, and which are seven 
 in number, three require the addition of he to the mas- 
 culine to form xht feminine; as blanc, blancy^<r, (white) ; 
 franc, francAe (sincere); sec, secA<? (dry) : Three change 
 the c into que; as, public, publi^'z/^ (public); Turc, Tur^'w^ 
 (Turk); caduc, caduyw^ (decayed) /and the last receives 
 the addition of que ; as Grec, Grtcque (Greek). 
 
 Second. Adjectives ending in f form the feminine, 
 by changingyinto ve ; as, un homme vif & naif (a lively 
 and ingenuous man) ; une femme viv^ & naire (a lively 
 and ingenuous woman). 
 
 Third. Adjectives endin gin eur or eux^ changet heir 
 terminations into euse-\ ; thus, cet homme est menteur 8c 
 peureux (this man is false and cowardly) ; cette femme 
 est menteu.?^ & peureu^e (this woman is false and timid). 
 
 Comparative Adjectives such as meilleur, better ; SU' 
 pSrieur^ superior ; follow the general rule of forming the 
 feminine^ by adding e mute to the masculine ; as, cet homm^ 
 est meilleur, cette femme est meilleure. 
 
 Fourth. Adjectives terminating in / preceded by ^, u 
 or «", admit the addition of le to form the feminine ; as, 
 
 ■|" Many Nouns, some of which may be used adjectively, change the 
 termination eur into rice. They are the following : Accusateur, acteur, 
 idministrateur, admoniteur, adorateur, adulateur, ambassadeur, approba- 
 teur, auditeur, bienfaiteur, calomniateur, coadjuteur, competiteur, concili- 
 ateur, conducteur, conservateur, consolateur, cooperateur, corrupteur, 
 curateur, debiteur, delateur, destructeur, dictateur, directeur, dispensateur, 
 dissipateur, dissimulateur, distributeur, donateur, electeur, emulateur, 
 ex^cuteur, fauteur, fornicateur, generateur, instigateur, inoculateur, intro- 
 ducteur, instituteur, inventeur, lecteur, legislateur, liberateur, mod rateur, 
 moteur, opcrateur, persecuteur, perturbateur, procurateur, protecteur, re- 
 ponciliateur, reformateur, spectateur, seducteur, testateur, tuteur, violateur, 
 usurpateur, zelateur. 
 
 In the following few, the feminine terminates in resse ; as pecheur, 
 "pccheresse ; enchanteur, en chanterelle ; vengeur, vengfere^se; and the two 
 following (which are law terms) demandeur, demanderw^e ; defendeur, 
 dcfendere**e. 
 
 Gouverneur nriakes gouvernawfe. Empereur makes Impcraince. Ora- 
 tcur, amateur and auteur are used for both genders. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. i4 
 
 cruel^ crUelle (cruel) ; nul^ nulle (null, or void) ; paretic 
 pareille (similar). When / is not preceded by those 
 vowels^ they follow the general rule j as fatal^ fatale 
 (fatal) Sec. 
 
 Fifth. Adjectives ending in n preceded by o or ie 
 double the n and add e mute thereto, in forming the 
 feminine ; as, un hoa homme (a good man) ; une bonne 
 femme (a good woman) ; un usage ancien mentionne 
 dans I'histoire ancienne (an ancient custom recorded in 
 ancient history). 
 
 Others ending in n follow the general rule ; as, un habit 
 brun (a brown coat) ; une redingote brune (a brown great- 
 coat). 
 
 Sixth. Adjectives terminating in t with ^ or o going 
 before it, double that consonant and take e mute in the 
 formation of the feminine, as in the fifth rule relative to 
 n following o and ie, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Ce verre est net (this glass is clean) ; la rue est nette^ 
 (the street is clean) ;un sot discours, (a foolish discourse) j 
 une sotte demande, (a foolish question). 
 
 Secret, complet, cagot, bigot, devot, idiot, are exceptions 
 to this particular rule, and follow the general one, as they 
 make in the feminine, secrete, compete, cagote, devote^ 
 idiot e. 
 
 Others ending in t, follow the general rule, as, petity 
 petite (small or little) ; brut, brute (rough) ; plat, plate 
 (flat). 
 
 There are a few exceptions to some of those rules, 
 which, as they would tend to impede our progress, and 
 as the principal part of them more aptly occur among the 
 Adjectives in the Practical Part of this work, we shall 
 pass over. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 By what rules do you form the plural of Adjectives, 
 which, as you have already observed, agree in number^ 
 with the Nouns, they attend ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 I am glad to inform you that the same rules (if you 
 recollect them) prescribed for forming the plural of 
 Nouns, will serve you, without exception, for that of the 
 Adjectives* 
 
30 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The greatest part of the Adjectives ending in al have 
 no masculine in the plural; as, adverbial^ austral^ automnal^ 
 boreal^ canonial^ conjugal^ fatal^ Jinal^ frugal^ ideal^ jovial^ 
 litter al^ naval^ pascal^ pastoral^ pectoral^ trivial^ venal ; 
 But they are used in the feminine />/z^ror/ ; so one may 
 say, des batailles navales^ (sea fights) : des depensesynl- 
 gales, (frugal expenses). 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 You observed, I remember, that the place of the Ad- 
 jective must be attended to. What matters it, whether 
 it goes before or after the Noun ? 
 Master. 
 
 Very great, with regard to particular Adjectives ; for 
 instance, the French adjective honncte placed before a 
 noun signifies honest ; and after the noun it implies civil 
 or polite ; as, c'est un honnete homme, (he is an honest 
 man); c'est un homme honnete^ (he is a polite man). Hap- 
 pily, however, but few Adjectives change their meaning 
 with their situation. In the Practical Part o£ this Treatise, 
 you might have observed a list of such as chiefly merit 
 attention. 
 
 With regard to those which, contrary to the genius of 
 the English language, follow their Nouns^ they are consi- 
 derably the most numerous. Some of these latter, how- 
 ever, without altering the sense, may be placed before 
 their Nouns. The poets enjoy this privilege in a greater 
 latitude than the prose-writers, and call their deviation 
 from the beaten track of language a poetical licence^ 
 licence poetique. Your taste gradually improved by 
 reading the most elegant French writers, and attending 
 to polite custom, in that particular, will be your best 
 guide. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 To the best of my recollection, in the definition of the 
 Noun, I think that you observed that the abstract Noun 
 proceeded from the Adjective; and you have already 
 shown me how the common Noun generated the Adjec- 
 tive. I cannot help admiring this reciprocal action and re- 
 action of the two principal parts of speech, on each other, 
 and am very anxious to know how the Adjective could 
 have produced the abstract Noun. 
 Master. 
 
 Men observing that white objects made a peculiar im- 
 pression on the organ of vision, called those objects 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 -white^ blanc ; but afterwards, in order more particularly 
 to mark the point by which all white things resembled 
 one another in common, they invented the word white- 
 ness, blancheur, from the Adjective white, blanc; but ob- . 
 serve, that there is no such external being as whiteness; 
 it is only a creature of the mind that receives a kind of 
 nominal existence from the abstraction of our common 
 resemblance of things, by which it becomes an object of 
 our thoughts or conversation. Thus a term denoting an 
 /Wecf/ existence, becomes 2i Noun, and mixed with those 
 expressing the objects of our senses, it adopts a similar 
 termination, in the same manner as a man becomes a 
 soldier by assuming the uniform of a regiment. 
 
 Here follow some examples in the French language. 
 
 Redness, 
 length, 
 width, 
 strength, 
 bravery, 
 virtue, 
 wisdom, 
 generosity. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 I can pretty easily trace, with the help of analogy, the 
 abstract Nouns to their origin in Adjectives ; but there 
 are many that I cannot, in spite of the most diligent en- 
 deavours, trace to the Adjectives that generated them. 
 As you have established as a general principle, that the 
 abstract Noun sprung from the Adjective, I request you 
 may place its universality beyond all doubt, by showing 
 me the origin of some particular abstract Nouns from 
 their respective Adjectives ; for example, of don, a gift ; 
 dette, a debt : amour, love ; haine, hatred. 
 Master. 
 
 I am really indebted to you for the difficulty you pro- 
 pose to me, as the solving it will throw some light on the 
 nature of the Adjective and the Verb, which will soon be 
 the object of our investigation. 
 
 There are three kinds of Qualities in the objects of 
 nature : The first may be denominated Declarative ; the 
 second Active ; the third Passive. The Declarative Qua- 
 lities are permanent in objects, because they are derived 
 
 Rouge, 
 
 Long, 
 
 Large, 
 
 Fort, 
 
 Brave, 
 
 Red, produced 
 
 long, 
 
 wide, 
 
 strong, 
 
 brave. 
 
 Rougeur, 
 longueur, 
 largeur, 
 force, 
 bravoure. 
 
 Vertueux, 
 
 virtuous, 
 
 vertu. 
 
 Sage, 
 Genereux, 
 
 wise, 
 generous, 
 
 sagesse, 
 generosite. 
 
32 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 from the^r very nature, these constitute the forms and ap- 
 pearances thereof ; such are those expressed by the words, 
 blanc^ roiige^ gris^ long, large^ carre. The Active Quali- 
 ties are transitory and instantaneous ; such as belong to 
 mankind, for no action can be everlasting, unless it is 
 supposed to exist in an Eternal Being ; such are those ex- 
 pressed by the active Ad]tcti\ts^ or Participles iprestnt ; 
 a donnant, giving ; devant^ owing ; aimant, loving ; hais- 
 sant^ hating, &:c. 
 
 I have explained to you how men came to form such 
 words as hlancheiir^ and the like. Following the same 
 process they greatly enriched the nomenclature of theij: 
 abstract Nouns, by deducing from their active Adjectives 
 or Participles present a numerous host of abstract Nouns ; 
 so don was generated by donnant; dette by devant ; amour 
 by aimant ; ha^ne by hdissant. Sec. I must observe to you, 
 that were it not for the invention of such terms, it would 
 have been impossible for mankind to make the general 
 qualities of whatever exists the object of their compari- 
 son, investigation, or reflection, and thereby to come at 
 the discovery of their use, properties. Sec. As the exist- 
 ence of those qualities apart from the objects with which 
 they really coexist, is the work of the mind alone, and has 
 no other support but the denominations themselves by 
 means of which the mind takes hold of them, just as we 
 do of a pitcher by means of its handle. 
 
 The Passive Qualities, which are the last we notice in 
 the objects of nature, are transitory like the Active ones, 
 the result of which they are ; as there can be no action 
 without some object in view to act upon, which receiving 
 (if I may be allowed the expression) the blow of the ac- 
 tion, may therefore be denominated Patient or Passive ; 
 such is the meaning of the passive Adjectives, donnS^ 
 given ; r/«, owed ; aime^ loved ; hdi\ hated. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Have you concluded your remarks on the Adjective ? 
 Master. 
 
 No : I have still to examine their degrees of significa" 
 tion and comparison, and then to proceed to what ancient 
 Grammarians term their regimen; but what some mo- 
 dern French ones, with more propriety, term complement* 
 Scholar. 
 
 Please therefore to continue your observations. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 33 
 
 Master. 
 
 Men soon perceived that objects were not equally en- 
 dowed with those qualities to which they had givea 
 names ; and rather than form new Adjectives to express 
 this difference (which would swell them to an immense 
 catalogue) they naturally used Nouns denoting increase 
 or diminution in order to modify the Adjective or give 
 it a degree of signijication which it did not possess in 
 itself. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 How many degrees of signification may be expressed 
 with the help of an Adjective r 
 
 Master. 
 
 Three ; the frst is the same with the primitive signi- 
 fication of the word ; as, good^ bon ; strong, fort; rich, 
 riche : It is called positive. 
 
 The second is the Jirst reduced below its standard, by 
 the addition of such words as peu, giiere, little ; passa^ 
 ble)nent, tolerably : Examples, II est peic sage, literally, 
 he is little wise ; or, in better terms, he has little wisdom 
 — Ce vin-U n'est^^//drr^ bon, that wine is little good — Je la 
 trouve passablemcnt aimable, I find her tolerably amia- 
 ble : It may be called diminutive. 
 
 The third is the first extended beyond its original 
 meaning with the help of the worcXsfort, tr s, bien, very ; 
 extremement, extremely ; injiniment, infinitely. Sec. as, 
 II est fort, trcs, or bien riche, he is very rich — Dieu est 
 infniment sage, God is infnitely wise : It may be called 
 augmentative, 
 
 N. B. The word archi placed before some words in 
 the familiar style, extends their signification to a very 
 high degree : so they say in French, il est archi-sot, fou, 
 vilain, &c. he is an arrant fool, madman, miser. Sec. 
 Scholar. 
 
 How many degrees of comparison are there ? 
 Master. 
 
 Three also. The signification of an Adjective com- 
 prehended in the ratio of comparison is either levelled 
 to equality, sunk to inferiority, or raised to superiority, 
 in proportion as one degree is equal, inferior or superior 
 to the other. 
 
 The mode of comparing consists in placing before the 
 Adjective, the following words, viz. aussi, as, to express 
 equality : moins, less, to denote inferiority ; and plus, 
 more, to signify superiority : as, elle est aussi aimable 
 
 VOL. II. F 
 
34 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 que vous, she is as amiable as you ; Je suis moms avance 
 que lui, I am less forward than he ; Vous it^s plus ']oX\q 
 qu'elle, you are 7nore pretty than she. 
 
 I request your attention to the foregoing examples pre- 
 sented to your view, as a true model to extend or contract 
 the signification of qualities, and also to determine their 
 comparison. Your respect for my instructions, on this 
 occasion, will greatly facilitate your progress in the ac- 
 quisition of the French language. 
 Scholar* 
 
 What distinction do you make between the degrees of 
 signification and comparison of Adjectives ? 
 Master. 
 
 From what has been already advanced, the degrees of 
 signification are considered as independent ; the degrees 
 of comparison as dependent ; from the first standing alone, 
 and from the last being always compared with other Ad- 
 jectives (understood) by which they exist. 
 Scholar. 
 
 What is commonly meant by superlative ? 
 Master. 
 
 When the quality has reached its utmost degree of ex- 
 tension or diminution, it must be expressed in the super- 
 lative : it is done (in French) by placing before it, the 
 words ley la^ les^^ immediately preceding the words plus^ 
 more ; moins^ less ; as, il est le plus studieux, he is the 
 most diligent ; elle est la plus studieuse, she is the most 
 diligent ; ils sont les plus studieux — elles sont les plus 
 studieu«es, they are the most studious. 
 Scholar* 
 
 Are those rules so general as to admit of no exception ? 
 Master. 
 
 No : there are however three Adjectives only, which 
 express the comparative and superlative^ without the help 
 of moinsy plus^ &c. as bon^ good ; meilleur^ better ; le 
 meilleur^ the best ; mauvais^ bad ; pire^ worse ; le pire^ 
 the worst; petit, little ; moindre^ Itss \ le moindre, the 
 least* 
 
 You must observe, however, that mauvais and petit ad- 
 mit also of plus and le plus^ to express the cofnparative 
 and superlative^ and therefore may be considered as 
 having two comparatives. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What do you mean by the regimen or cojnplement of 
 an Adjective ? 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 35 
 
 Master. 
 It Is a word^ a Noun or a Verb^ which is necessary to 
 some Adjectives to complete their respective meanings as 
 it would be vague without it. The relation of the Ad- 
 jective to that necessary word is manifested by the words 
 de^ a, or pour y which immediately yb//ow it. These terms 
 called Prepositions^ extending its influence to the next 
 word, may not unaptly be compared to a conduit con- 
 veying the water of a fountain to a particular spot. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je suis bien aise de son rctablissement. I am overjoyed at his recovery, 
 
 II est indigne de vivre. He is unworthy ofYw'mg. 
 
 Tous les hommes sont sujets a la mort. All men are liable to death. 
 
 II est enclin a mcdire. He is inclined to slander. 
 
 I must further observe that there are Adjectives which 
 having no complement^ when used in a general sense, re- 
 quire one when applied in a particular sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 On m'a dit qu'il vivait content. I was told he lived content. 
 
 Content du simple nccessaire, je vis Content with mere necessaries, I 
 heureux. live happy. 
 
 Whenever an Adjective requires a, particular Preposi- 
 tion after it, no other must be used : thus the Adjective 
 pret requiring d after it, the following modes of speaking 
 and the like, though used by many Frenchmen, are in- 
 correct; Je suis pr^lt de parti r, I am ready to set off. The 
 Preposition d must be substitut^cj for the Preposition de» 
 
 NOTE ON THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 (1.) It appears impossible to account for the invention of Adjectives, 
 unless we have recourse to their origin from the Nouns themselves. For 
 as the quality does not exist in abstracto (as we make it in language) ; 
 but in concreto with the objects themselves, in order to form Adjectives 
 independent of their progenitors, the Nouns, we must suppose the fram- 
 ers of language to have imposed arbitrary terms, and terms not founded 
 ia nature and analogy, on qualities. The consequence of which would 
 
36 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 have been, that when any individual v^ished to signify the quality of any 
 object in abstracto, it would have been necessary to assemble the whole 
 family of his fellows to acquaint them with the idea of which he intended 
 that sign should be the representative ; this it should seem, must have 
 been impossible. But supposing, for a moment, that men should have 
 adopted arbitrary terms, and have understood the qualities of things by 
 those terms, how could memory, as yet in embryo, have retained such 
 words as were founded in whim, caprice, or chance, instead of nature and 
 the resetnblance of things ? 
 
 It is not therefore by the immediate invention of words different from 
 the Substantives, that we are to explain the introduction of Adjectives 
 into language, but by the gradual changes that Nouns of substance, applied 
 in the infancy of language to other Nouns to qualify them, underwent ; 
 changes or modifications that altered their form so very much, that in a 
 number of years after they had been first used, it was often impossible to 
 trace thenn back to the Nouns from which they were generated : add to 
 this, that the various families of mankind scattered here and there on the 
 surface of the globe, having made a different progress in abstracting or ge- 
 neralizing, those that had been nnore successful from peculiarly favorable 
 circumstances, enriched at once the language of their neighbours with a 
 number of such expressions that bore no analogy with any known Sub- 
 stantives in their language. 
 
 As the reader would perhaps be glad to see some instances of Nouns 
 becoming Adjectives by undergoing various modifications, I will select a 
 few from the Latin. 
 
 With the Noun caput which means a head, the Latins made the 
 
 Adjectives. 
 CAP- AX, capable., &.c. 
 CAP-iTAjLis, Huhate'ver relates to the heady life, and 
 
 other important things. 
 CAP-iTATus, which signifies headed. 
 CAP-iTosTJS, which IS great headed, hard headed. 
 CAP-Tiosus, which \% fallacious, cavilling, sophistical, 
 
 suspicious, hurful, prejudicial, captious. 
 
 The French with their Noun tete, which means a head, made the Ad- 
 jectives tetu, entete, stubborn, which corresponds with capitosus, and in- 
 stead of deriving other Adjectives from the word the to correspond with 
 the other Latin Adjectives derived from caput, they borrowed them from 
 the Latin ; and from capitalis, captiosus th€y made the Adjectives capi- 
 tal, captieux. 
 
 This last circumstance has thrown great obscurity on the origin of Ad- 
 jectives and prevented philosophical Grammarians from discovering that 
 Adjectives were nothing but the primitive Nouns, which had undergone 
 some modifications in the Syllables of which they are composed. 
 
 Some Philosophers who have written on language and attempted vain- 
 ly to explain the difficulties attending its formation would have been ex- 
 ceedingly surprised had our theory been published during their lives; 
 for we have recourse to nothing extraordinary to explain the origin of 
 languages. We suppose no other words necessary to create a language, 
 but primitive Nouns given by nature from the resemblance of things, 
 and by analogy and the help of those primitives we form a language, in 
 which all the parts of Speech set forth by Grammarians, are to be found. 
 The difference of our results entirely proceeds from the difference of our 
 methods. With regard to us, we began our inquiries with an idea that 
 words could not be arbitrary signs, as the use of each of them evidently 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 37 
 
 shows a foundation for adopting the same, and not a whim or silly caprice 
 in the first founders of language. 
 
 They, on the contrary, entered the career with a prepossession that 
 words were arbitrary signs ; they thought therefore they had nothing else 
 to do but to trust to their imagination to explain the formation of lan- 
 guage, and that the most ingenious theory must be the best ; which won- 
 derfully stimulated their genius to invention. The result of their labours 
 was however nothing but learned absurdities, though very ingenious, in- 
 deed, from the difficulties they laboured under, to wind up any theory 
 whatever, as they attempted to explain a language, not such as it was 
 formed, but such as they conceived it themselves to have been formed. 
 
 How could the principle from which they deduced their doctrine be 
 true, that words were invented in an arbitrary manner ? " For let us (says 
 Condillac with his usual acuteness of investigation), suppose a language 
 so arbitrary that analogy would have neither determined the choice of 
 words, nor their different acceptations, this language would be a jargon 
 that nobody could learn : one would not be able to reason by the help 
 thereof, and still less able to invent.'* 
 
 I shall now observe, that the more simple a method is, the more effec- 
 tual, because it comes the nearer to Analysis, the most perfect of all me- 
 thods which is simplicity itself, as it consists in nothing else but decom- 
 position and recomposition. It is the secret of all the discoveries that have 
 bee;i made and will be made to the end of the world. It is the analytical 
 method which has guided me in the course of this work, and I hope I 
 have seldom deviated from it. To it I owe the astonishing simplicity of 
 the mode of tuition I propose, which places the acquisition of a language 
 within the reach of every capacity. 
 
38 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CONVERSATION IV, 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE, 
 
 Scholar. 
 ON what subject do you mean to treat next ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 The Article. Though the discovery or use of the Verb 
 
 immediately followed that of the Adjective, j^et as the 
 
 Article generally precedes the Noun of which it may be 
 
 called the Herald^ its dependence on that part of Speech 
 
 renders it so interesting as next to claim our attention. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What do you mean by the Article ? 
 
 Master. 
 A word generally placed before the Noun common, 
 to fix or determine its sense, with such accuracy as to 
 distinguish the object it represents from all others of the 
 same or of a different species, and by that means to ar- 
 rest exclusively the attention of the mind. We have 
 several kinds of Articles in French which are occasion- 
 ally used to fix and determine the signification of the 
 ^oun. 
 
 Scholar. 
 How many kinds of Articles ? 
 Master. 
 Three principal : 1st. Uii (masculine), une (feminine), 
 a or an. 
 
 2d. Z^, m. la^ fem. singular ; and les of both genders, 
 plural ; all of which are expressed by the single English 
 Article the, 
 
 3d. Ce^ m. cette^ f. sing, this or that ; and ces of both 
 genders, plur. these or those. 
 
 The first is called the Declarative Article ; the second 
 the Indicative ; and the third the Demonstrative, 
 Scholar. 
 Will you have the goodness to make me sensible of 
 the distinction betw^een those three Articles, that I may 
 be enabled to employ them in their proper places ? 
 
OF LANGUAGE. S» 
 
 Master. 
 
 With infinite pleasure ; and to throw more light on 
 this subject, I shall borrow a few sentences from that 
 excellent work of Sicard, entitled " Elemens de Gram- 
 maire generate appliques u la langue Franfalse.^^ 
 
 " If there were several objects before you, such as 
 " knives, penkniveSy pens, keys, &c. and that in order 
 " to cut bread or any thing else, you stood in need of 
 " one of those knives ; were they all of different kinds 
 *' and before your eyes, what would you say to obtain 
 " one ? You would say, give me a knife. By thus ex- 
 " pressing yourself in asking for a knife , would it be your 
 '" intention to require but one knife, to specify the nurii' 
 *' ber only, and not ask for two P By no means, would 
 '* you refuse the one, which might be offered to you al- 
 *' leging it was not the one you called for ? No ! All 
 " would be equally indifferent to you ; you would not 
 " have said a knife, that a penknife should not be given 
 " to you ; to determine the kind would have been your 
 " intention : thus, in that case, one, a word of number, 
 *' would not have occurred to you, but an Article, a de- 
 " finite word, which we may call a declarative Article." 
 
 ^' If it be not only a k7iije that you wish for, but such 
 " a particular knife and no other, your idea is no longer 
 " so vague, so unfixed ; it is, on the contrary, very ex- 
 " act. The first Article, which only aims to declare the 
 *' object and separate it from the rest, in order to show 
 " and particularize it, without determining the choice, 
 " is no longer the proper word ; you must employ a term 
 " devoted to fix the idea, to place the object before vour 
 " eyes, if you would have that knife only which you de- 
 " mand ; the Article, in such case, is this, and not a or an» 
 " This knife is already known to you, and the person, 
 " who has given it to you ; and if it be no longer in his 
 " view or yours, and should you still demand it, you do 
 " not use a or a7i ; it is known ; you no longer say this^ 
 '' it is not in your view, and you cannot show it ; you 
 " say the knife, and you are understood. For it is 
 " just as if I had said, give me the knife you have already 
 " given me, 
 
 " There are then three modes of determining the ob- 
 " ject of our investigation, and those three modes gave 
 " rise to three words belonging to the same class, which 
 ^' words are the Articles un, ce, le, without excluding 
 " the other terms relative to them." 
 
40 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Having lately glanced over the pages of a celebrated 
 French Grammar, I found that the Articles as well as 
 the Nouns, have cases, and are declined together. I 
 hope you will explain more fully this particular. 
 Master. 
 
 It is impossible, as neither Nouns nor Articles have 
 cases, nor can they be declined in French or English ; 
 you will be sensible of this when the case and declension 
 are explained to you. 
 
 Those words, which have no meaning, when applied 
 to our Nouns, have been borrowed from the Greeks and 
 Romans who really had cases and declensions in their 
 language. 
 
 A case is the change of termination which a Noun 
 undergoes in performing its part in a sentence ; and as a 
 Noun may have six different parts to perform, it also 
 has six cases. 
 
 The declension of a Noun comprehends all its cases, 
 and to decline a Noun is to review each of its cases in 
 succession. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 How do you, in French, supply the place of those ter- 
 minations which, by the Latins, were thought necessary 
 to express the different parts a Noun may perform in a 
 sentence ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 We, as the English, first give the Noun a particular 
 place in the phrase which denotes whether it is consider- 
 ed as the subject or object of the action expressed by 
 the Verb. This enables us to render the two cases de- 
 nominated by the Latins nominative and accusative. To 
 denote also other relations of the Noun we have recourse 
 to general terms ; these are the Prepositions a, de^ or par ^ 
 which, being placed before the Nouns and their Articles, 
 clearly express these relations. 
 
 As the Article is never used independent of the Noun, 
 for the sake of which it was instituted, I shall introduce 
 examples of the three Articles already mentioned, viz. 
 
 The declarative Article un or une before a Noun is 
 thus exemplified, masculine and feminine. 
 
 U71 homme (ou une femme) m'a parlc. A man (or woman) has spoken 
 
 to me. 
 J'ai vu un homme, une femme. I have seen a man, a woman. 
 
 II parle d' un homme, di'me femme. He speaks of a man, of a woman. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 41 
 
 Je I'ai re^u d'wn homme, d'une fern- I received it from a man, from a 
 
 me. woman. 
 
 Jfai donn^ de I'argent a un homme a I have given money to a man, to a 
 
 une femme. woman. 
 
 The indicative Article /^, the, before a Noun masculine. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le Roi a. prononcc son discours. The King has delivered his speech. 
 
 Avez vous vu passer le Roi ? Have you seen the King pass ? 
 
 II est montc dans le carrosse du Roi. He went in tjbe coach of the King, or 
 
 in ti>e King's coach. 
 II vint de la part du Roi. He came from tbe King. 
 
 II a ^te prcsentc au Roi. He was presented to tbe King. 
 
 The indicative Article la preceding the Noun femi- 
 nine, thus. 
 
 La Reine est aimce de son peuple. 
 II conduisit la Reine a I'cglise. 
 C'est un present de la Reine. 
 EUe I'a re^u de la Reine. 
 EUe I'ofFrit a la Reine. 
 
 Tbe Queen is loved by the people. 
 He conducted tbe Queen to church. 
 It is a gift of tbe Queen. 
 She has received it from tbe Queen. 
 She oflfered it to tbe Queen. 
 
 The indicative Article le or la becomes /', de l\ a /'> 
 before a singular Noun masculine or feminine, begin- 
 ning with a vowel or h mute. This elision is merely used 
 for the sake of harmony. — Examples. 
 
 
 " fP esprit, m. 
 <{ ^(p^ esprit. 
 La P esprit, 
 
 fP ame, f. 
 
 "^ deP ame, 
 
 {J. P ame, 
 
 p/' homme, m. 
 
 tdeP homme, 
 a P homme. 
 
 the mind. 
 
 of or from the mind. 
 
 to the mind. 
 
 the soul. 
 
 of or from the soul. 
 
 to the soul. 
 
 the man. 
 
 of or from the man. 
 
 to the man. 
 
 The indicative Article les invariably corresponds with 
 both genders in the plural, as. 
 
 " fles peres, m. 
 •^ des peres, 
 \jaux peres, 
 fles meres, f. 
 <^ des meres, 
 \jaux meres, 
 ^les amis, m. 
 -^ des amis, 
 ^ \jmx amis, 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 the fathers. 
 
 of or from the fathers. 
 
 to the fathers. 
 
 the mothers. 
 
 of or from the mothers. 
 
 to the mothers. 
 
 the friends. 
 
 of or from the friends, 
 
 to the friends. 
 
 G 
 
42 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 You have observed, that Prepositions joined to the 
 Articles preceding Nouns common, are used instead of 
 the cases or varying terminations of the Greeks and La- 
 tins ; but I do not observe any Prepositions before aw, 
 ^M,^singular, and aux^ des^ plural, expressed in English 
 by to the and of or from the ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 I will explain this difficulty. You must know, that the 
 article au is the contraction of a le ; du of de le; aux of 
 a les ; and des of de les, 
 
 I am much pleased with your remark, as I think it will 
 lead you to avoid a very common and natural solecism, 
 which the English learner is often apt to slide into, by 
 frequently saying a le for au* j de le for du; les for 
 aux ; and de les for des. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What do you mean by the indefinite and partitive arti- 
 cles, which, I find, are frequently mentioned in all the 
 French Grammars that have fallen into my hands ? 
 Master. 
 
 There can be no indefinite article ; for as that part of 
 Speech is used to define or limit the Noun, it is an abso- 
 lute contradiction to say, there are articles or defining 
 words, which do not define^ or are indefinite, 
 
 Du and des denominated partitive articles, are abridg- 
 ed by contraction (as we have before noticed) from de le 
 and de les^ and used in the beginning or middle of a sen- 
 tence, apparently independent of a preceding word, which, 
 though not expressed, is understood ; as, du pain & de 
 /'eau me suffisent j bread and water are sufficient for me : 
 donnez moi du cresson & des navets ; give me some 
 cresses and turnips : The words une quantite, un nombrey 
 or some such expression, before du^ de /', or des^^ being 
 understood. 
 
 * So natural it is to fall into what may be called a mistake now, that I 
 have heard French children (and children are greater analists than our best 
 philosophers, for .they follow more exactly the lessons of Nature) use such 
 St mode of expressfon in j'ai mal a le doigt, for j'ai mal au doigt (I have a 
 pain in my finger). 
 
 t The Scholar will become more sensible of this truthi when we treat of 
 X\\t Preposition. ■ 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 43 
 
 We shall now proceed to the demonstrative Anicle 
 ce, cet, m. cettey f. this or that : ces^ pi. these or those. 
 Ce precedes a consonant ; cet a vowel or h mute. 
 
 I # 
 
 CCet 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ce jardin, s. m. 7his or that garden. 
 
 de, ce jardin. of or from this or that garden. 
 
 a ce jardin. to this or that garden. 
 
 Cet homme. s. m. this or that man. 
 
 cet homme. of or from this or that man. 
 
 cet homme. to this or that man. 
 
 cet enfant.s. m. this or that child. 
 
 1 de cet enfant. of or from this or that child. 
 
 ([ a cet enfant. to this or that child. 
 
 Cette^ this or that, in the feminine, is invariably the 
 same ; as, 
 
 CCetie dame. s. f. This or that lady. 
 
 < de cette dame. of or from this or that lady. 
 
 ^a cette dame. to this or that lady. 
 
 cette humeur. s. f. this or that huinour. 
 
 de cette humeur. of or from this or that humour. 
 
 a cette humeur. to this or that humour. 
 
 cette ecole. f. this or that school, 
 
 de cette ecole. f. of or froin this or that school. 
 
 a cette ecole. to this or that school. 
 
 Ces, plural, is the same in both genders. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ces hommes. pi. m. These or those men. 
 
 de ces hommes. of or from-Me^e or those men. 
 
 i ces hommes to these or those men. 
 
 ces femmes. pi. f. these or those women. 
 
 de ces femmes. of or from these or those womcH. 
 
 a ces femmes. to these or those women. 
 
 ces ef.fans. pi. m. these or those children. 
 
 de ces enfans. of or from these or those chiUdrcn. 
 
 i ces enfans. to these or those children. 
 
 The following, which comprehends all the words of 
 the same class, concludes the demonstrative Article 
 
 Celuiqui. m. s.— He who "* r Celui qui etudie— ^e v^ho or he 
 
 L h h th t -i '^^' studies. 
 
 Cellequi. f. s. — she who f" J celle qui ecrit — she xvho or she 
 
 J L that writes. 
 
 Ceux qui. m. pi. 'j r ceux qui etudient — they or those vjho 
 
 C^Uesqui.f.s. \ they or those who -{ celksq J icrivent-they or those -who 
 
 J L write. 
 
44 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Celui-ct — this. Celui-la. m. s. — Donnez-moi celui-ci,hg3.rdezc€lui-la — give 
 
 me this, and keep that, 
 Ceux-ci — these. Ceux-la. m. pi. those. — Donnez-moi ceux-ci, & gardez ccwx- 
 
 la — give me these, and keep those. 
 Celle-ci — this. Celle-la. f. s. that. — Prenez celle-ci 8c laissez-mioi celle-la — take 
 
 this, and leave me that. 
 Celles-ci — these. Celles-la. f. pi. th.at— Prenez celles-ci, Sc laissez-moi celles- 
 
 la — take these, and leave me those. 
 Ce qui, cecpie—whdit, that which. Ce qui lui arrive est ce que je lui ai prc- 
 
 dit — 'what befalls him is that ivhich I foretold him. 
 Note. The adjuncts ci and la render the demonstrative still more 
 forcible ; the former shows the object near ; the latter more remote. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Have you any more to say on the sdbject of Articles ? 
 Master. 
 
 Yes. Take notice, First, That the Article ie, &c. the, 
 in French, renders the idea more general, gives it the 
 greatest possible latitude, and represents the whole spe- 
 cies by a single individual, as is done in English, by the 
 suppression of the indicative article ; as, man is mortal ; 
 /' homme est mortel, that is to say, all men: — Opinion 
 (i. e. opinion in general) is the Queen of this world ; 
 /' opinion est la Reine de ce monde. 
 
 Secondly, The Article placed before Adjectives, the 
 infinitives of some Verbs, or before Adverbs, Preposi- 
 tions and Conjunctions, transform them into Nouns ; in 
 such case, though the Article may be singular or plural, ac- 
 cording to the sense, it must be of the masculine gender. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 The Article (masculine J before Adjectives, 
 Le vrai & le beau sont 1' objet des Truth and beauty are the objects of 
 
 arts. the arts. 
 
 Les vertueux sont estimcs. The virtuous are esteemed. 
 
 Infinitives, 
 Le boire 8c le manger sont indispen- Eating and drinking are indispensa- 
 
 sables. ble. 
 
 Le rire de cet homme est niais. 7'/6e laughter of this man is silly. 
 
 Adverbs, 
 
 II veut savoir le pourquoi &; l^ com- He would know thtnuhy and the %vhat 
 ment de tout. of every thing. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 Un avocat ne peut dcfendre le pour A lawyer cannot defend the Jor and 
 8c le contre dans un proces. against in a suit. 
 
 Conjunctions, 
 
 Les si, les car 8c les mais de cet The ifs,Jbrszndbiitso£ this mvLXxren- 
 homme le rendent fort ennuyeux. der him intolerable. 
 
I 
 
 OF LANGUAGE. 45 
 
 Finally. Though proper names arc in themselves suffi- 
 ciently definite, and of course need no Article, yet they 
 will sometimes admit the Article before them ; as, les 
 Franklins, les Washingtons & les JefFersons, font un hon- 
 neur immortel a TAmerique ; The Franklins, Washing- 
 tons and Jeffersons reflect eternal honour on America. 
 
 By thus placing the Articles before their proper names, 
 we form a distinct class, a separate species of them, the 
 better to convey to the mind the exalted opinion we en- 
 tertain of such great men. Then, their names becoming 
 appellative or common^ are liable to the accidents thereof. 
 
 J^OTE OA^ THE ARTICLE. 
 
 SOME Grammarians, among whom we find the celebrated Scaliger, 
 Wuo calls the Article an otiosuni instrur,ientuvi, have denied the absolute 
 necessity of such a determining word. However, a retrospective view of 
 language, so far as we have advanced in the history of its rise and pro- 
 gress, will soon convince us that it is indispensable. 
 
 The Noun^ common of kind or species, (the origin of which we have 
 accounted for, and which forms the basis of Language) are general terms 
 applying to a number or mass of individuals of the same species. When- 
 ever, therefore, we would say any thing particular concerning one of those 
 individuals, were we merely to use the general term without signifying our 
 intention of using it in that restrained or limited point of view, what we 
 would say of one individual would apply to the wMe species, and conse- 
 quently leave the mind of the hearer in a state of absolute uncertainty^ 
 which one among them it is intended to designate by the tenn. 
 
 In vain would the assistance of Adjectives be called in to fix its mean- 
 ing, by qualifying or distinguishing it by enumeration of various proper- 
 ties ; the mind of the hearer would still remain unsatisfied, as Adjectives 
 are also general terms that were devised for characterizing individuals pos- 
 sessing the same general properties. To emerge froui a state of obscurity 
 so irksome, the mind, tired of using bodily signs to limit the latitude of 
 the general term, would apply to it, at last, a short sound, which might 
 at once inform the hearer, that the general term, though used, is now 
 looked upon by the mind as fit only for the individual, which is the subject 
 of discourse. Thus, the necessity of speaking clearly in order to be un- 
 derstood, necessarily produced the invention of the Article. 
 
 What therefore could have induced men of learning to maintain an opi- 
 nion so different from that of him who studied mankind in the first un- 
 foldings of reason, and the gradual formation of articulate signs ? Preju- 
 dice, and the idea that Articles are so very abstract (which is well founded' 
 row), and that they could not have been introduced as a matter of necessi- 
 ty, bqt as one of philosophical luxury. This prepossession arose from a 
 conviction that there was but one Article which the Latins, wishing to act 
 more wisely than the Greeks (who tliought they could not dispense with 
 it), had totally banished ixoixx \.\\t\r\?iX\^wx^Q., on which those enthusias- 
 tic Grammarians wanted to new-model, even by force, (if such an ex- 
 pression may be allowed) every other language. This pretended exile an- 
 
46 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 swered to the indicative Article the of the English ; /e, Sec. of the French ; 
 and 6 of the Greeks. 
 
 The truth is, however, that the Latins had not only that very Article 
 indicative, as ille, ilia, illiid, answered pretty accurately to it ; but also all 
 our other Articles, besides one is peculiar to their language, and designed 
 chiefly for persons. HiCj ille and is, observes a celebrated French author, 
 may be united in the same phrase ; then the two first designate objects in 
 sight : hie is for those that are near, ille for those that are at a distance ; and 
 is for those that are out of sight, or the absentees : a delicate gradation, 
 which cannot be observed in our language, which is deficient in a term to 
 express the latter idea ; a proof that the Latins, so far from being depriv- 
 ed of Articles, excelled us in that particular. It is true, that ille. Sec. was 
 often suppressed, but it was only when it could be dispensed with, or when 
 the clearness of a sentence would suifer so very little from its suppres- 
 sion, that it might, in such a case, be safely sacrificed to the vivacity of 
 Diction. 
 
 See, on the subject of Latin Articles, Bonamv's Memoire, tome 
 XX. de I'Academie des Inscriptions & Belles Lettres. — Maffei, Genie 
 de la Litterature Italienne, tome i. 
 
 There now remains but one objection against the Article, that it is too 
 metaphysical to be absolutely indispensable. It is very abstract for us, in- 
 deed, who have lost sight of its origin, but it is not the less physical for it 
 on that account , for the intellectual world is always founded on the phy- 
 sical world, as its basis. 
 
 The Article indicative o of the Greeks, was, in the origin of their lan- 
 guage, a Noun of place, and meant there. 
 
 The English Article the is probably derived from the Noun of place 
 there : It is not inerely because t, h, e is to be met with in there, I say so : 
 it is because there is an analogy of iTieaning between the two expressions. 
 7he nnan, means the man already spoken of, at a distance from us, not 
 so close to us as the individual of wliom I say, 7 his mafi ; the word there 
 was then probably applied first to the word, till it becomes the, by that 
 love that mankind feel for abbreviation or conciseness of expression, as 
 well as to distinguish it from the Noun of place there. 
 
 So natural is it to use Nouns of place with Nouns common to precede 
 them, that the lower class of people, who must have kept iip, rather than 
 the polished part of the nation, the ancient forms of language, often speaks 
 more clearly, by saying, this here man ; that there man. 
 
 The French say, II vient de la; Je vais la,- Get homme la, &c. He 
 comes from there ; I am going there ; That man. In the two first sentences, 
 la is an Adverb of place, without any determination to the Pronouns // 
 and ye, which would be quite superfluous ; in the last, it is certainly the 
 same Adverb with a particular determination to the Noun, the more 
 clearly to define it. 
 
 The French demonstrative Article ce, this or that, comes from the an- 
 cient and primitive word qa, cei, ci, denoting agitation, motion, and cer- 
 tainly a word that represented a visible action, was fit to represent in a fi- 
 gurative sense the oyiotion of the mind turning particularly towards an object to 
 embrace it solely and exclusively of others of the same or different kinds. 
 
 Etymology and Reason appear, therefore, to combine in showing the 
 physical origin of those very metaphysical terms, and it is most probable, 
 indeed, that they were chosen among the Nouns of place, which must 
 have been very early invented, as they were a translation of the gestures 
 of men pointing at particular objects. 
 
 I will conclude what I have to say of the Article, by observing, that 
 there is a striking difference between the English and French languages, 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 47 
 
 in the use of the Article; in the former, the Article is never used before 
 the Noun common, singular or plural, when it is uttered to announce a 
 property belonging to the whole collection of individuals, whose species is 
 designated by the term : so, they will say, man thinks ; man is mortal ; — 
 while the French would say, I'homme pense ; 1' homme est mortel. 
 
 It is evident, that the latter do not obey, in this particular, the dictates of 
 Logic, as, in the above modes of expression, vian is used for such a mode 
 of expression, as, every inan ivhatever, which extends to all mankind: 
 The Article being a word of limitation, it should not be used, in such sen- 
 tences, before the general term. 
 
 The people who invent Proverbs, often bespeaking their native good 
 sense, seldom use, in French, the Article in this instance we are mention- 
 ing : thus, they say, without the Article, 
 
 Pauvreti ?z' est pas vice. Poverty is not a vice. 
 
 Pierre qui roule n^ amasse point de mousse. — Rolling stone will gather no 
 moss. 
 
 Coiitentetnent passe richesses. Self-content is preferable to riches. 
 
 Plus fait douceur que violence. Gentleness will do more than violence. 
 
 La Fontaine, that Poet of Nature, offers, in his Fables, a number of 
 these examples where the Article is properly suppressed. 
 
 In the Syntax of this work, we shall show the contrast between the 
 English and French Articles, with regard to the manner of using the 
 latter. 
 
 CONVERSATION V. 
 OF OTHER ARTICLES. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 WHICH are the other Articles ? 
 Master. 
 
 The following, viz. 
 
 1st. The Possessive, as, wow, &c. my, &c. 
 
 2d. The Possessive Relative, as, ie 7men, &c. mine, Sec. 
 
 3d. The Demonstrative conjunctive, as, ^w/, &c. who, 
 &c. 
 
 4th. The Numerical Determinative, as, un, &c. one, 
 &c. certain, certain ; tel, such. 
 
 5th. The Numerical Indeterminative, as, plusieurs, 
 several, many ; quelques, some ; certains, certain ; tels, 
 such. 
 
 6th. The Negative, as, mil, aiicun^ none, not any, &c. 
 
48 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 7th, The Collective^ as, tout^ m. s. toute^ f. s. tousf 
 m. p. toutes, f. p« all, &c. 
 
 8th. The Distributive, as, chaque, each, every. 
 Scholar. 
 
 I have noticed, that these very words, which you now 
 treat of, as Articles, are set down in other French Gram- 
 mars as Pronouns. Why do you call them Articles ? 
 Master. 
 
 Because, the province of the Article is, to define and 
 set boundaries to the Noun ; therefore, every word pos- 
 sessing that property must be classed with the Articles, 
 notwithstanding the respectability of grammatical autho- 
 rities, if they be erroneous. 
 
 I have adopted the classification of the two eminent 
 French Grammarians, Beauzee and Sicard (with some lit- 
 tle deviation from their system) as it appeared to me to 
 be founded on sound principles. 
 
 We will now proceed minutely to review those Arti- 
 cles in the same order as above. 
 
 OF THE POSSESSIVE ARTICLES. 
 
 Masculine. Fe7n. Of both Genders. 
 
 C mon, 
 
 1st Person ^ de mon, 
 
 C.a mon. 
 
 s. ma, 
 ma, 
 ma. 
 
 , s. mes, pi." 
 mes, ' 
 mes, [ 
 
 ^ mine. 
 C of or from mine. 
 ^ to mine. 
 
 r ton, 
 
 2d Person < de ton, 
 
 (^a ton, 
 
 ta, 
 ta, 
 ta. 
 
 tes, 
 tes, 
 tes, 
 
 J thine. 
 C of or from thine. 
 3 to thine. 
 
 C son, 
 
 3d Person < de son, 
 
 C. a son. 
 
 sa, 
 sa, 
 sa. 
 
 ses, 
 ses, 
 ses. 
 
 "^ his, her or its. 
 C of or from his, her its. 
 ^ his, her its. 
 
 
 Of both Genders. 
 
 
 C notre, 
 
 1st Person < de notre, 
 
 (.a notre. 
 
 s. 
 
 nos, pi. 
 
 nos, 
 
 nos. 
 
 ) our. 
 C of or from our. 
 ^ to our. 
 
 C votre, 
 
 2d Person < de votre, 
 
 ^a votre. 
 
 
 vos, 
 vos, 
 vos. 
 
 ■^ your. 
 C of or from your. 
 3 to your. 
 
 r leur, 
 
 3d Person < de leur, 
 
 ^a leur, 
 
 
 leurs, 
 leurs, 
 leurs, 
 
 -^ their. 
 C of or from their. 
 3 to their. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 49 
 
 OF THE POSSESSIVE ARTICLES, 
 
 RELATIVE TO AJ^ OBJECT BEFORE MEJVTIOJVED, 
 
 Masculine. 
 " le mien, s. les miens, pi. 
 du mien, des miens, 
 au mien, aux miens, 
 
 1st Person < 
 
 2d Person 
 
 3d Person <^ 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 la mienne, les miennes, 
 
 delamienne, des miennes, 
 
 ^a la mienne, aux miennes, J 
 
 Masculine. 
 He tien, les tiens, 
 
 du tien, des tiens, 
 
 au tien, aux tiens. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 la tiennes, les tiennes, 
 
 de la tienne, des tiennes, 
 
 ^a la tienne, aux tiennes,^ 
 
 Masculine. 
 'le sien, les siens, 
 
 du sien, des siens, 
 
 au sien, aux siens, 
 
 mine. 
 
 S'of or from mine. 
 
 to mine* 
 
 thine, 
 •of or from thine, 
 to thine. 
 
 Feminine. 
 la sienne, les siennes 
 de la sienne, des siennes 
 a la sienne, aux siennes 
 
 :j 
 
 his, hers, or its. 
 ^of or from his, hers, it^ 
 ! to his, hers, its. 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Of both Genders. 
 
 rie notre, s. la notre, s. les notres, pl,"^ ours, 
 
 1st Per. ^ du notre, de la n Jtre, des notres, ^ of or from ours, 
 
 ^^au notre, a la n6tre, aux notres, j ours. 
 
 rie v'jtre, 
 
 2d Per, < du votre, 
 
 C au v6cre. 
 
 la votre, les votres, 
 de la votre, des v5tres, 
 a la v6tre, aux votres, 
 
 TS. 
 
 ioi 
 
 Sd Per. 
 
 le leur, 
 
 duleur, 
 au leur, 
 
 la leur, 
 de la leur, 
 a la leur. 
 
 les leurs, 
 des leurs, 
 aux leurs, 
 
 yours. 
 
 or fromi yours. 
 
 yours. 
 
 theirs. 
 
 • of or from theirs. 
 
 theirs. 
 
 Before we proceed to the Demonstrative Conjunctive, 
 it will be necessary to premise that though mon^ ton^ son 
 are masculine, they are used instead of ma, ta, sa before 
 feminine Nouns, beginning with a vowel or h mute: thus, 
 the concordance of genders is, in this case, sacrificed to 
 the harmony of sound, as mon epee (instead of ma epee) 
 VOL. n. H 
 
50 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 est plus courte que la sienne, my sword Is shorter than 
 his ; ton amitie (for ta amitie) m'est chere, thy friend- 
 ship is dear to me ; son histoire (for sa histoire) est trop 
 longue, his, or her, history is too long. 
 
 But if an Adjective not beginning with a vowel or h 
 mute, should precede the feminine Noun, the rule of 
 concordance relative to Article and Noun is strictly ob- 
 served, and mon^ ton, son, in the above instance, natu- 
 rally become ma, ta, sa; as, ma belle epee, my handsome 
 sword ; ta sincere amitie, thy sincere friendship j sa sa- 
 vante histoire, hh learned history. 
 
 I will here observe that, though the possessive Articles 
 of the third person assume in English the gender of the 
 possessor, they assume in French the gender of the 
 thing possessed. Thus, when speaking of a lady, you 
 say, her coach ; we say so?i carosse, because the word 
 carosse happens to be masculine. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE CONJUNCTIVE ARTICLES. 
 
 Of both -> Qiii, who, that or which, 
 
 genders [ de qui, dont, of or fromwhoin, or whose, 
 and [ a qui, to whom, whose, 
 
 numbersj que, whom, that, what, how ! why ? 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. 
 
 Lequel, s. lesquels, pi. laquelle, lesquelles, "^ which. 
 
 " ^ " " " 
 
 duquel, desquels, de laquelle, desquelles, V of or from which. 
 
 auquel, auxquels, a laquelle, auxquelles, j to which. 
 
 ■ Quel, quels, quelle, quelles, T what or which. 
 
 de quel, de quels, de quelle, de quelles, \- of or from what which. 
 
 a quel, ^ quels, a quelle, a quelles, j to what which. 
 
 N. B. ^el, &c. is always joined to a Noun. 
 
 . Quoi which or what. 
 
 de quoi, of or from which what. 
 
 ■ i a quoi, to which what. 
 
 N. B. ^o/ is never applied to /?erfonj. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Can you convince me that my and who are Articles and 
 not Pro7ioiins* 
 
 Master. 
 I can. — Suppose the word my not yet invented, and 
 that I wanted to express the idea conveyed by the terms 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 51 
 
 my friends, I must have recourse to the following cir- 
 cumlocution, and say, the friend of me; my, it appears, 
 supplies the place of three words, viz. the Article the^ 
 Preposition of and Pronoun me. But which of the three 
 terms is predominant ? The word the certainly, as it is 
 used particularly to define or circumscribe the word 
 friend, which without it is only a general term for every 
 friend ; the Preposition and the Pronoun concur with 
 the Article in determining, more pointedly, the sense of 
 the expression friend, I must, therefore, conclude that 
 my, an elliptical term, the equivalent of the three words 
 above mentioned, is a determining word and of course 
 is entitled to the name of Article rather than any other. 
 
 With respect to the Demonstrative Conjunctive who, 
 qui, if we suppose it not yet introduced into our lan- 
 guage ; to express a sentence corresponding with the 
 following, viz. The master who teaches the mathematics 
 in this college is very skilful. I would say, " A master 
 teaches the mathematics in this college and that master is 
 very skilfuW^ — Instead of -who, I am obliged to use the 
 three words " and that master. ^^ 
 
 The first is a Conjunction, which unites the two Pro- 
 positions ; the second is a demonstrative Article ; and the 
 third is a Noun : Who is therefore a conjunctive Article and 
 Pronoun at the same time ; but when us^d as a substitute 
 for the three expressions above mentioned, it is in order 
 to define and circumscribe, in a conspicuous manner, the 
 general term master : Who is therefore an Article, and 
 may be called Demonstrative Conjunctive to distinguish it 
 more particularly from other Articles. 
 Scholar. 
 
 What difference is there between qui and lequel? 
 Master. 
 
 First, ^i is of both genders and numbers, and lequel 
 agrees in gender and number with its Noun. 
 
 Second, ^i, not acted upon by a Preposition, is 
 relative to persons and things j as in the following ex- 
 amples ; 
 
 Un homme qui aime la vertu, A man v:bo loves virtue. 
 
 Une histoirc qui plait. A history tbat pleases. 
 
 On such occasions it would be highly improper to use 
 lequel, &:c. 
 
52 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 But qui, governed by a Preposition, applies to persons 
 only ; the following sentences therefore would be in- 
 correct : 
 
 Voila la maison de qui j'ai fait I'ac- There is the house vihich I have 
 
 quisition. made a purchase of. 
 
 L 'argent sur qui je compte. The money on tuhicb 1 depend- 
 
 In the first instance, we should use de laquelle or donty 
 instead of de qui ; and in the next, sur lequel, instead of 
 sur qui. 
 
 In speaking of persons, we often indifferently make 
 use of de qui, duquel, or de laquelle, &c. The ear, how- 
 ever, is the chief guide in the choice of either ; but dont 
 should not be used in such cases. 
 
 Polite custom and the attentive perusal of approved 
 authors, will form your judgment, and direct you best, 
 when to adopt the one or reject the other. 
 
 We now proceed to the other Articles. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Which are the Determinative Numerical Articles ? 
 Master. 
 
 Un, une, one ; detix, two, &c. (of both genders) ; and 
 quelque, one (among many) or some ; as, quelque traitre 
 vous denoncera; some traitor will inform against you. Cer- 
 tain, certain ; J'ai oni dire a certain, ou a un certain, bel 
 esprit que ; I heard a certain virtuoso say that. As you 
 have already met with these Articles in the />rac^/ca/ part 
 of this work, there is no occasion that I should present 
 you a list of them ; it is sufficient that you should now 
 be informed to what part of speech they belong. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Why do you call them determinative P 
 Master. 
 
 Because, when they are expressed before Nouns, we 
 know how often the object represented by the Noun, is 
 repeated : I call them determinative in contradistinction 
 to other Articles, which convey an idea of number inde- 
 terminative ; such as, plusieurs (in both genders), many, 
 several ; quelques, some. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J,%i rencontre jft/w^ewr-yj olies fem- I have met many, or several, pretty 
 
 mes. , women. 
 
 Je leur pr sentai quelques p^ches I presented them*owe peaches M'hich 
 
 que j' avais cueillies. I had gathered. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 53 
 
 From this mode of expression, you cannot determine 
 how many pretty women I met with, nor hozu many 
 peaches I presented them. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 I find that in all the French Grammars I have perus- 
 ed, the Numerical Articles are called Adjectives^ as well 
 as several others of your Articles : would it not be as 
 well that they should still remain on the list of Adjec- 
 tives, as that you should class them with Articles in op- 
 position to so many grammatical writers ? 
 Master. 
 
 I think not. For you must acknowledge, that it" is 
 highly inconsistent with the character or pursuits of a 
 lover of science, if, instead of throwing some light on 
 abstruse subjects, he helps to consolidate errors, which, 
 notwithstanding the boast of their antiquity, are so many 
 impediments in the road to truth and useful discovery, 
 the great objects of the scientific man. But to return to 
 the subject ; I will endeavour to make you sensible that 
 those terms, commonly called Adjectives, cannot be pro- 
 perly termed so, without a perversion of words. Let us 
 recollect what the Adjective is. It is a word, as already 
 described, which represents a quality, action, form, co- 
 lour, passion, habit, &c. and, consequently, brings to the 
 mind the image of something physical or material. 
 
 The Article^ on the other hand, pictures nothing to the 
 mind, but leaves it in the vacuum of abstraction. For 
 instance, what means the word three^ which, of itself 
 signifies neither three dollars, nor three men, nor three 
 horses, but three in general ? 
 
 As to Adjectives y they have degrees of signification and 
 comparison, which Articles will not admit of. We can- 
 not say of any object, that it is more or less the^ a, this^ 
 my, who, three, than another. 
 
 Articles are, therefore, by no means, eiltitled to be call- 
 ed Adjectives when they possess none of their properties. 
 The name of Metaphysical Adjectives, given to them by 
 two celebrated French Grammarians, does not, in my 
 opinion, much contribute to illustrate the subject. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Which are the remaining Articles ? 
 Master. 
 
 First : The Negative, as md, m. nulle, f. aucun, m. au- 
 cimey f. signifying, in English, nobody, none, not any. 
 
54 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 They are called Negatives^ as requiring to be preceded 
 or followed by the negative ne, not, and implying a deni. 
 al of the circumstance expressed. — Examples. 
 
 Aucun on nul ne le sait. No body, or none, knows it. 
 
 De toutes les Grammaires je ne Of all the Grammars I am a slave 
 
 nri' attache a aucune. to none. 
 
 Je n' en ai vu aucune. I did not see any of them. 
 
 Second : The Collective Article, tout^ m. toute, f. sin- 
 gular, every. — Example. 
 
 Thtite peine merite salaire. Every trouble deserves a pay. 
 
 Toutes les homme sont mortals , All men are mortal. 
 
 Toutes les femmes ctaient superbe- All the women were magnificently 
 
 ment. parees, dressed. 
 
 Remark, that when tout or toute., in the singular, is 
 followed by the Article le or /<7, it is then no longer an 
 Article, but an Adjective, and means the totality, not of 
 the individuals of the species, but of the integrant parts 
 which constitute the individual. — Examples. 
 
 Tout le boeuf fut mange. The whole ox was eaten. 
 
 Toute la nation demanda la guerre . 7 he nuhole nation cried out for war. 
 
 When it means every things it is invariably tout. — Ex- 
 ample. 
 
 Dieu a tout crce. Gud has created all or every thing. 
 
 Third : The Distributive Article chaque.^ each, or eve- 
 ry, is of both genders, but without the plural number. 
 — Example. 
 
 Chaquc pays a ses contumes. Every country has its customs. 
 
 Remettez chaqiie chose a sa place. Restore every thing to its place. 
 
 CONVERSATION VI. 
 
 OF PROJVOUJVS. 
 
 Scholar. 
 WHAT is a Pronoun ? 
 
 Master. 
 A word which represents persons performing certain 
 parts in the mutual communication of their sentiments. 
 Scholar. 
 Assisted by the Parts of Speech you have just treated 
 of, could we not dispense with Pronouns I 
 
' ; OF LANGUAGE. 55 
 
 Master. 
 
 By no means : For, though aided by those Parts of 
 Speech and the Verb, without the help of Pronouns we 
 could only converse on subjects which could be neither 
 Tou nor /, and which must be expressed by their appro- 
 priate names, in order to be accurately distinguished : 
 But were we doomed by Nature never to enjoy the hap- 
 piness of acquainting one another with our mutual senti- 
 ments ! Were I never to address you in the language of 
 the heart, and you never to answer me ; may I not wish 
 to speak to you of yourelf, and you, in return to me, of 
 myself ! Too deeply should we feel the inability to unfold 
 our sentiments to one another, and particularly to those we 
 love — the insufficiency too imperious to yield to the ex- 
 istence of a language without pronouns, so indispensably 
 necessary to enable us to impart the heart-felt joy, the 
 tender affection, or the impulse of friendship ! A fond 
 mother, for want of those endearing and expressive terms, 
 in addressing her beloved son, must resort to language in- 
 adequate to her feelings ! Thus, Son^ the love that a mo- 
 ther feels for a son, induces a mother to tell a son, that a 
 son should avoid all that can be hurtful to a son, or that 
 can render a son odious to the fellow-creatures of a son. 
 
 This style would indirectly apply to her son, and con- 
 ceal her earnest desire of pouring out the full expression 
 of her cares and solicitude for him. Nature, therefore, 
 inspired her to use such terms as /, me, thou, thee, which 
 so happily represent the persons present, and she must 
 have addressed him in the following pathetic and ani- 
 mated sentence : 
 
 Ml/ son ! my love compels 7ne to admonish thee to 
 avoid every thing hurtful, and all that can render thee 
 odious to thy fellow-creatures. 
 
 Observe then, that it is not merely to avoid the intolera- 
 ble repetition of the same words that Pronouns have been 
 devised ; precision alone would require the invention of 
 them. Conversation without Pronouns would frequently 
 be productive of mistakes and confusion : Our language 
 would be imperfect and inaccurate, and the manner of 
 imparting our sentiments tedious and uninteresting ; we 
 could only converse with persons whose names were fa- 
 miliar to us, and not with persons the names of whom 
 we know not. 
 
56 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Without insisting any longer on the necessity of this 
 sentimental Part of Speech, which, according to superfi- 
 cial Grammarians, could be dispensed with, I will pro- 
 ceed to the various parts, which we may reciprocally per- 
 form in the oral conveyance of our sentiments. 
 Scholar. 
 
 How many parts can we perform ? 
 Master. 
 
 Three ; which vary according to relative circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Please to give me a fuller explanation. 
 Master. 
 
 Cheerfully. For instance, suppose you wanted to in- 
 form me that you had done something ; in speaking of 
 yourself^ you would say, / have done, &c. / represents 
 you, by your own declaration, as the author of the action 
 expressed in the sentence; and /represents all others, 
 as well as you, who declare individually, what they have 
 done. This expression is, therefore, a general term to 
 signify that a person is his own historian of the action he 
 has performed. The part that each performs, being the 
 most interesting, the representative word / is called a 
 Pronoun of the first person, to denote its precedence. 
 
 If several, enduring together the same hardships, or 
 doing the same deeds, were to express their sufferings or 
 actions, through the organ of one of their associates, 7^ 
 y*?, in French, would become we^ nous, which is termed 
 a Pronoun of the first person plural. Thus, it appears 
 that Je and nous represented one or more actors in the 
 various scenes they describe, by the relation of what they 
 have themselves done, endured, achieved, &c. 
 
 Having attentively listened to the recital of your ac- 
 tions, &c. suppose I noAv address you in these words : 
 Tou have done^ ^c. In this phrase, I call you the agent ; 
 but in the former, you declare yourself as such, by hav- 
 ing said, I have done, Qfc. In my address, you thus play 
 a different part from that you have performed in your 
 own, and to describe this difference, I make use of the 
 word Tou^ vous, which, as well as any other Pronoun, is 
 a general term to express the relation of persons under 
 similar circumstances. I should here, however, in strict 
 propriety, use thou^ tu, which is singular, instead of you, 
 vous, which is plural, as you are an individual only ; but 
 
OF LANGUAGE. ^r 
 
 politeness, sanctioned by custom, requires (unless I were 
 intimate with you) that I should address you in the plu* 
 ral number. It is then evident, that you^ vous, is a Pro- 
 noun of the iSECOND ^QYsoYi plural^ from the propriety of 
 language ; and singular^ by adoption* 
 
 Having conversed with me, some time, you retire, yet 
 unwilling to drop the subject ; I continue the conversa- 
 tion, and say to a person present, he (alluding to you) 
 has done, &c. Your part in this phrase of mine is dif- 
 ferent from that I assigned you in my former, as I no 
 longer declare to yourself what you have done^ but to a 
 THIRD person : in this case, I must have recourse to ano- 
 ther expression, which is, he^ il, denominated a Pronoun 
 of the third person singular^ masculine. Speaking of 
 a female, on a similar occasion, I would use the word 
 she^ elle ; and were I to describe many persons assem- 
 bled together, I would use the Pronoun plural^ they^ of 
 both genders, ils, mas. pi. elles^ fem. pi. were I speak- 
 ing of things, I would use the same Pronouns in French, 
 having a strict regard to the gender of their Nouns. 
 
 Hence you may easily conceive, how the same indivi- 
 dual performs three different parts. 1st. When he de- 
 clares hitnfielf to be the agent. 2d. When he is described 
 as such, by a person addressing him; and finally, when 
 he is spoken of to another as the subject of conversation. 
 
 Let us now apply those French Pronouns (which we 
 shall call active) to Verbs, as the former are as inti- 
 mately connected with the latter, as the Article with the 
 Noun. 
 
 
 ACTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 (:jeory\ ry^parle. "^ Tspeak. 
 
 singular. < before a vowe/^ ^'ecris. S. I < write. 
 Q_ or A mute. (J,^'' he rite,. 3 C. i"''^^^^^* 
 
 C C rmangeons."^ Ceat. 
 
 plural. ^nouSfVfC. < nous. <h\\vons. V ^ue < drink* 
 
 >. C. C. C.Jo"vons, 3 Cplay- 
 
 P C C Tviens. "^ Ccomest, 
 
 ?; j singular. <<M, thou. < tu. < chantes. C f>6au < singest. 
 
 S J (^ (^ (jcis. J ^.l^ughest. 
 
 Ph j singular C C Tmarchez. "^ Twalk. , 
 
 ^ I and <vouSf you. < vous. <co\xrQZ. Kyou < run. 
 
 L plural. C. L 0-ovcihQZ. 3 C^^' 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
58 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Active Pronouns^ continued. 
 
 o 
 
 to . 
 
 f C 1 C ^^^' 1 ^ ?^*y^* 
 
 singular J •/ J he, I ., J demandera, f 'i6c < will J» demand 
 
 masc. ] "' 1 it, f "' J appellera. ( C J call. 
 
 L L J Lestcasse. J /f is broken, (allud- 
 
 ing to a glass). 
 /- r "^ ^dansera, ") 7 ? dance, 
 
 singular ) ,, ) she, / „ \ plaira, ( she C will C please, 
 
 feminine, J | ^^' f I disparaltra, f J J disappear. 
 
 L V, J Cestcassee, J /« is broken, (alludingto 
 
 a bottle). 
 
 Ctis r "^ ils arriveront avec"^ Twill arrive with 
 
 pi. masc. ! I j ^''' "^ai^ee, • j the tide. 
 
 *d elles-l they )> ythey <^ 
 
 pi. fern. { } j elks ne sont pas [ j have not yet 
 
 Scholar. 
 I find that the Pronouns of the first and second per- 
 sons, singular and plural, are equally used in both gen- 
 ders ; why, therefore, should the Pronouns of the third 
 person, in both numbers, admit of two genders ? 
 Master. 
 Because the person of whom we speak, being absent, 
 and not coming under the notice of our senses, we are 
 reduced to the necessity of making the distinction of 
 gender : the first and second persons being always pre- 
 sent, there is no occasion to distinguish the sex to which 
 they belong. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Why do you call those Pronouns active f 
 
 Master. 
 Because they represent individuals as subjects of the 
 action expressed by the Verb in a sentence ; and are, 
 therefore, distinct from other Pronouns, which, on ac- 
 count of receiving the action of the Verb, may be called 
 passive^ 
 
 Scholar. 
 Which are the passive Pronouns t 
 
 Master. 
 The following, viz* 
 
 l5t Person H;^S"^^"» '^^ ^' "^^^ *^ ™*' 
 (^ Plural, nouSyC. us, to us. 
 
 * 2d Person J^^^^Sular, te, c. thee, to thee. 
 
 ^ Sing. PI. vousyC. you, to you. 
 
3d Person < 
 
 him, or St. 
 Singular, -^ /a, f. her, or it, 
 
 to him, to her, or to it. 
 
 Plural, V;*» ^- ^^^"P- ^ 
 
 > ^ /_,> ^ to them. 
 
 OF LANGUAGE. 19 
 
 Cle, m. 
 Ala, f. 
 C/w, c. 
 
 C ks, c. 
 
 \leur, c. 
 
 c-^«. fc^i V^^ (Reflect. Pron.)") one self, himself, herself. 
 Smg.&pl.^ 'j itself, themselves. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What difference is there between tne and mol; te and 
 toi^ and se^ (which you call reflective) and soi? 
 Master. 
 
 The Pronouns passive^ me^ te^ le^ la^ les^ have a fixed 
 place, which in French is immediately before the Verb ; 
 but mo/, toi^ soi^ may be placed at the beginning or end 
 of the sentence, without that close connection with the 
 Verb, of which they seem independent. These latter 
 also admit of Prepositions before them, which the former 
 entirely reject. Me^ te^ nous^ vous and se^ coming be- 
 tween the Verb and the active Pronouns Je^ tu, ii, nousy 
 vous^ /7.V, which precede them, render the Verb rejlective; 
 that is to say, they reflect the action of the agent back on 
 itself; Je nChabille^ &c. I dress myself, &c. Moi^toi^ 
 soi, can never render a Verb rejlective* These distinc- 
 tions have induced us to subdivide those Pronouns into 
 two classes ; the Passive^ as me., te., se^ &c. and the Dis» 
 junctivcy called so, because they are often disjoined or se- 
 parated from the Verb. — Those Disjunctive Pronouns 
 are sometimes active^ as may be seen m some of the fol- 
 lowing phrases. 
 
 The following tables of the two classes of Passive 
 Pronouns, will merit your attention, and give you a clear 
 idea of their use in speech* 
 
 PASSIVE PRO^OUJVS, EXEMPLIFIED. 
 
 rWrtie connalt. He knows we. 
 
 ^ J II ne me connait pas. He does not know me 
 
 Me connatt-il ? Does he know tne ? 
 
 Ne m£ connalt-il pas I Does he not know m^? 
 
 Me t m 5^ ^1 ^'^ do'^"2- ce qu'il m*avait He gave to nne what he 
 
 ' ° ^\ promis. had promised to we. 
 
 j^ ") us. CEUe nous aime. She loves us. 
 
 3 to us. i,EUe nous i'envoya. She sent it to us. 
 
60 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Have I given it to thee ? 
 
 f^ 7 thee. CJe te connais parfaitement. I know thee perfectly, 
 ^ 3tothee. ^iTel'ai-je donne ? 
 
 y "^ you. C Je i;oti* en previens. I inform j/ou of it. 
 
 f e vous en parle, I speak to you of it. 
 
 Le, him. C II le ou la regut avec ami- He received him or her 
 La, her, \ tie. with friendship. 
 
 Lui ^.^^ J. ' ^ EUe lui en envoya. She sent some to him or her, 
 
 Xes, them. Je les ai vus, w. or vues, y. I have seen them. 
 
 Leur, to them. Je leur en donnerai, I will give some to them.. 
 
 PASSIVE PROJVOUJVS, REFLECTING THE VERB, 
 
 EXEMPLIFIED. 
 
 Me, myself. Je me connais. I know myself. 
 
 Te, thyself. Tu te connais. Thou knowest thyself, 
 
 ^ 7 himself. C II se connajt. He knows himself. 
 
 5 herself. (^ Elle *e connait. She knows i6erje^. 
 
 Noiis, ourselves. Nous nous connaissons. We know ourselves. 
 FoM*, yourselves. Vous <DOM,y connaissez. You know ^j/owr^ye/wj. 
 
 ,Sc, themselves, lis or elles ^e connaissent. They know them^selves. 
 
 BISJUJVCTIVE PROJVOUJVS, EXEMPLIFIED, 
 
 Vous et onoi nous perissons,"^ 
 
 or, C Yon 3.nd /perish, 
 
 Nous pcrissons vous & moi.j 
 
 ^o^i C "^ Secourez-woi dans mon7 XT i • • r ^ 
 
 •' malheur. j Help we m my misfortune. 
 
 ^^- rVous etes venu apres7 v^ r. 
 
 . ^ > You are come after me. 
 
 I mx>t. 5 
 
 ■y- ") us. C Sans nous vous n'en viendrez Without us, you will not 
 ''""^3 '^^- \ pas a bout. bring it about. 
 
 ^ . ■> thou. C Toi & lui vous serez pimis. Thou and he will be punished, 
 3 thee. (^Pour toi, avec toi, par toi. Y ox thee, with thee, by thee. 
 
 Vous, you. Malgrc syotw, centre a'ow.y,&,c. In spite of jom, against j/ozf. 
 
 J . "> he. C Lui & elle iront en ville. He and she will go to town. 
 
 "'* 3 him. ^Devant /wi, derriere /w/. Before -6/m, behind i)m, 
 
 ■pjj "> she. C Elle Sc toi vous ne I'aurez pas. She and thee shall not have it. 
 ^ *^^ 3 her. (_ Je suis heureux auprcs dW/e. I am happy near her. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 61 
 
 ^ -^ , r£w;f 8c moi nous sommes") Sr/6ey and I are agreed. 
 
 m.p.C em. ^^yg^. ^^^ jg ^e crains rien. j With them I fear nothing. 
 
 1-77 ") .1- C Elles 8c vous, vous serez at-'i 7hey and you will be de- 
 • P- ^ C. Je ^^ saurais me passer d^elles. j I cannot do without tbem. 
 
 Note. ...The above Disjunctive Pronouns joined to the 
 word meme, singular, and memes, plural, acquire a de- 
 gree of affirmative energy and precision, which they do 
 not possess by themselves. Example: Est-ce lui qui a 
 ose le faire ? Is it he who has dared to do it ? — Qui : 
 c'est lui-meme* Yes ; it is he himself. — lis Pont arrete 
 eiix-memes ; they themselves have arrested him ; and so 
 on. Practice and your own good sense will best direct 
 you in the use of this word. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 By what rule am I to be governed in respectively plac- 
 ing le or /wi, la or /w/, and les or7«/r, before a Verb ? 
 Master. 
 
 I will lay down an infallible rule, by which you can 
 avoid mistakes, on such occasions. When you are at 
 a loss to know when le or /z//, should be used in French ; 
 take notice, that if the English Verb, corresponding with 
 the French Verb, admit of to before him, her, or them, 
 &c, lui or leur must be used ; but, if, on the contrary, it 
 does not admit of that preposition, /e, /«, or les^ are re- 
 spectively placed before the Verb. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Have you any further observations to make on the 
 Pronouns t 
 
 Master. 
 
 Yes : a few more, which I recommend to your at- 
 tention. , 
 
 The Pronoun Disjunctive, /?//, elle^ eiix and elles^ can- 
 not be used in speaking of things : instead of them we 
 use the Adverbs y and en^ which are so frequently intro- 
 duced in the French language. 
 
 EXAMPLES ON Y, 
 
 Avoid law suits; conscience is often 
 concerned in thevi, health impair- 
 ed by theniy and property wasted 
 by theni. 
 
 Do you think of ray business ? 
 
 Yes; I think of It. 
 
 Are you lying down on my bed ? 
 
 Yes; I am \)-*Z down on iu 
 
 1. Fuyez les proc-s; souvent la con- 
 science s'^ intcresse, la santi6 ^ y 
 altere, Sc les biens s' j dissipent. 
 
 Pensez-vous a mon affaire ? 
 
 2. Oui; Y y pense. 
 Etes-vous couche sur mon lit ? 
 
 3. Oui; J '_)/ suis couche. 
 
68 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 In the first example y occurs three times. In the first 
 place, it is put for a eux; in the second and third places, 
 ior par eux. 
 
 In the second example y serves instead of a elle^ as re- 
 lative to affaire* 
 
 In the third example y is put for sur luiy as referring 
 to lit, 
 
 EXAMPLE ON £JV. 
 
 II en parle toujours ; he always speaks of it (or of them) 
 alluding to a thing or things inanimate : thus, en serves 
 for de lui^ d^elle, d^eicx, dei/es, he. 
 
 T and en^ are sometimes used in speaking of persons 
 instead of Pronouns, for the sake of harmony and con- 
 ciseness of expression. — EXAMPLES, 
 
 Pensez-vous a Newton ? Do you think of Newton ? 
 
 Oui, J'j/pense. - Yes, I think g^ -6m, 
 
 T is here placed for a lui. 
 
 Combien avez-vous vu de dames ? How many ladies have you seen ? 
 
 J' en ai vu trois, I have seen three of them. 
 
 In this last instance en is put for d^elles. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Before you close this conversation, I desire you to let 
 me know why the denomination of Personal is given to 
 Pronouns ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 Because they represent persons^ that is to say, beings 
 addressing, or addressed by other beings. 
 Scholar. 
 
 From what is the word person derived ? 
 Master. 
 
 To explain this to you, I must have recourse to the 
 erudition of the profoimd Gebelin. 
 
 " We are indebted for this word to the Latins. The 
 *' Greek and Latin actors never appeared on the stage, 
 *' but with masks, which covered the whole head, in the 
 *' same manner as a helmet, and those masks were dif- 
 " ferent, according to the parts the actors had to perform. 
 *' Those masks were made in such a manner that the 
 ^ voice became more sonorous and more full, so that it 
 " much better filled the great extent of ancient theatres, 
 " which were fitted for the public at large, and not for the 
 *' wealthiest part of the nation only. They were called 
 *' from that circumstance persona.^ from two Latin words 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 63 
 
 ^^ per and sonat, which means it sounds loudly* — The 
 *' same name was also given to the actor himself; so 
 " they called him persona, all well as his mask. Let us 
 " not be surprized at it ; it is the same thing in French ; 
 '' we call masques the persons who appear with a mask ; 
 " so we say : les masques sont venus ; the masks are 
 '' come : ces masques etaient tres amusans ; these masks 
 *' were very entertaining. — The sense of the word per- 
 " sona was not confined to these limits, it extended to 
 " the part of actors themselves ; afterwards to wax fi- 
 " gures, which represent persons in the most perfect 
 " manner. — We see, by Warron, that, in the time when 
 " the Latin language had reached its greatest perfec- 
 " tion, they used the word person in the same sense in 
 " which we take it to distinguish the three parts of the 
 " actors of speech, as speaking, as being spoken to, and 
 " being those of whom one speaks. — Finally, there was 
 " but one step more, to extend this word to every human 
 " being, considered as an actor in the great scene of the 
 " world. — In this sense it designates every human being 
 " living, considered as making use of his active faculties, 
 *'^ fulfilling any function, and performing any part what- 
 *' ever." 
 
 I will conclude this conversation by observing, that the 
 word Pronoun, in its general acceptation, is a substitute 
 or representative of the Noun ; and as such it ought, as 
 well as the Noun, to represent the object alluded to ; but, 
 instead of the object, it only represents the relations of 
 subjects in the communication of our thoughts : those re- 
 lations being only those views of the mind which suit all 
 in similar circumstances, the words, which represent 
 them, having no similitude to the Noun, the representa- 
 tive of particular, sensible objects, cannot be said to be 
 used instead of it. In short, the Noun gives an idea of 
 the subject, but the Pronoun gives only an idea of its 
 relation ; two things, which ought not to be confounded. 
 
 We should now proceed to the Verb, which, next to 
 the Noun and Adjective, is the most interesting part of 
 speech, if propriety did not make it incumbent on us to 
 restore to the class of Nouns, some words, which the 
 generality of grammarians have hitherto ranked among 
 the Pronouns. These shall make the subject of the next 
 conversation. 
 
64 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 AFTER having shown the origin of Nouns — that of the Adjectives— 
 the probable origin of Articles — the reader would justly susjiect a chasm in 
 our systena were that of the Pronouns left unaccounted for. Let us there- 
 fore endeavor to show how they were introduced. 
 
 These short significant words were adopted into language after the 
 invention of the Verb, just as the invention of Nouns preceded that of the 
 Articles. Suppose then a language with the parts of speech already de- 
 scribed, and the Verb ; and let us try to make ourselves understood, without 
 the assistance of Pronouns; the language of action will supply us with pro- 
 per substitutes. The person who speaks, wishing to tell some adventure 
 of which he himself was the hero, would press his breast with his hand, to 
 signify that he was the author of the action which he would afterwards 
 express by the assistance of the Verb, By pressing his breast with viva- 
 city and warmth in order to represent himself with more lively colours, as 
 an actor, such a sound as ye, I, e, ie would emanate strongly and distinctly 
 from his lungs. This sound being produced in similar circumstances as 
 those we have mentioned, and being often so repeated, inen would naturally 
 associate the action and the sound together ; so that the sight of the action 
 would awaken in the mind the idea of the sound, and vice versa. There- 
 fore, at night, the sound owing to the association, was substituted safely to 
 the manual sign thus rendered invisible. Many advantages having beeri 
 gradually discovered in substituting the sound for the sign, while it did not 
 endanger, in the least, the certainty of being understood, the latter was 
 after a while intirely laid aside, and was used only along with the sound 
 now become a Pronoun, to give more weight to the assertion or affirmation 
 expressed by the Verb. To support this plausible conjecture, we shall call 
 in the assistance of the profound Gebelin. 
 
 " The words," says he, " which serve us as Pronouns, Je, me, tu, ie, 
 il, 8cc. are common to the European and Asiatic languages; we discover 
 in them, in that respect, the difference, which the revolution of ages and 
 changes of pronunciation have brought about. 
 
 " Let us not be surprised at it : the words were too simple— were re- 
 presentative in a manner too striking not to have been transmitted down 
 to us — to have been anihilated. — What is true and natural subsists for 
 ever, because it always pleases, and is always looked after with eagerness 
 These words necessarily occurring in speech could never be forgotten ; each 
 repetition was an inducement to repeat them again, as soon as an opportu- 
 nity should offer, and it offered continually. 
 
 *« The Pronoun Je of the first person is formed out of the primitive 
 words e, ie, \y\\\c\\ always designated existence ;" as we will show in our 
 conversation on the Verb. " Could a more expressive word be adopted to 
 point out the person that speaks — that presents itself — that says, here I 
 am ? 
 
 " So the Deity is represented as having chosen for his name that sig- 
 nificant term meaning animation, life, breathing. Hence sprung the word 
 leoua of the Hebrews, which signifies (word for word) Je, I, or I am 
 him who is — Also the Iou-piter of the Latins, which means, (word for 
 word) Ie Pere ye,- the Father /." 
 
 The origin of the Pronoun of the second person may be accounted for, 
 in the same manner as we did for that of the Pronoun of the first person. 
 
 Whenever'we address a person, we naturally try to arrest, attention by 
 stretching our arms towards him. If we do this with energy or force, a 
 sound will emanate, which differently modified by the organ of speech, 
 will give tu, toe, thou, &:c. and become naturallyafter a while the substitute 
 for the sign. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 65 
 
 With regard to the third person, as it is supposed not to be here but 
 there> it is more than probable that a Noun of place gave birth to that 
 Pronoun; so we find that in the Latin and French, ille and il (according 
 to Gebelin) are derived from the prin^itive /, which designated the side^ 
 the wing, the place ; the Pronoun lui coines from the Article le and the 
 words hui and hou which designated also the place. 
 
 The English Pronoun he, comes therefore probably froin the, by drop- 
 ping the t,- and the originated, as we showed from there, a Noun of place. 
 
 CONVERSATION VII. 
 
 OF JVOUJVS, GEKERALLY RECEIVED ASPROJ^OUjYS. 
 Scholar. 
 WHAT do you mean by those words^ which yoii re- 
 marked in the foregoing conversation were improperly 
 classed among the Pronouns ? 
 
 Master. 
 The following Nouns, viz. on^personne^ rien^ quiconque^ 
 autrui. 
 
 Scholar. 
 What is the signification of the monosyllable oriy which 
 so frequently occurs in the French t 
 Master. 
 It corresponds with any of the following words, viz. 
 one^ it, we, they, nieUy people, any body^ or any one, and is 
 used before all the tenses of the French Verbs, in the 
 third person singular, the Verb generally called hnpersoH" 
 al, excepted, before which, instead of the former, tl is 
 used EXAMPLE. 
 
 rone "1 r.u'c -\ 
 
 On dit < any body V says "^ >, ^/ ?• say, or it is said. 
 L any ofie J C they J 
 
 This monosyllable, as it goes before no other word but 
 a Verb, has been taken for a Pronoun. It is, however, 
 a contraction of the Noun homme,* which no one can 
 
 * According to Sicard, the following is the manner in which this 
 contraction has been effected : 
 
 Tous lea homnies, 
 
 les hommes, 
 
 un homme, 
 
 homme. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
66 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 consider as a Pronoun : on^ which is an abridgment oy 
 contraction thereof, cannot, therefore, be called a Pro-* 
 noun. 
 
 It is necessarily used in French before the Verb that 
 expresses what has been done, experienced, &c. by a 
 whole body or class of people, taken collectively j which 
 cannot be accurately rendered in French by the third 
 person plural ils or elles^ especially when the subjects, 
 which Pronouns represent, have not been before men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Suppose, in conversing with you, I say, on mange du 
 bon fruit en France, I signify by the phrase, that the peo- 
 ple in general eat good fruit in France. If I had said, 
 ils mangent, they eat, &c. (as it may be expressed in Eng- 
 lish) it would be vague and unsatisfactory, and the dubi- 
 ous sense of the terms would naturally prompt my hearers 
 to ask me, who eat ? and how many eat ? &c. 
 
 On is sometimes substituted for quelqiCun^ some body, 
 any body, &c. in the following phrase and the like, as on 
 jious ecoute, some body listens to us. 
 Scholar, 
 
 Convince me that Personne is a Noun. 
 Master. 
 
 I will. — >As this word is always preceded by an Article 
 (except in one instance, where it is understood), such a 
 leading circumstance would have been sufficient to prevent 
 grammarians from ranging it in a class in which it is 
 misplaced. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J'ai vu bien des personnes. I have seen many persons. 
 
 Una personne in*a dit. A person has told me. 
 
 Une personne ne m'a pas dit. A person has not told me, 
 
 • Personne ne m'a dit. tio person^ or nobody has told me. 
 
 J'ai recontre une personne. I have met a person. 
 
 Je n'ai pas rencontre une personne. I have not met a. person. 
 
 Je n'ai rencontre *personne I have met no person, or nobody^ 
 
 Pet Sonne without the Article and negative signifies 
 any body, 
 
 Personne a-t-il jamais doutc de I'ex- Has any body ever doubted the ex- 
 istence de Dieu ? istence of God ? 
 
 * The Article negative aucune is understood before personne. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. ^ 
 
 Scfe:OLAR. 
 
 Can you prove that rien^ quiconque and autrui are 
 Nouns ? 
 
 Master. 
 Certainly. — Rien is no more a Pronoun than Personne : 
 k is the accusative rem of the Latin Noun res (thing), 
 which, in becoming French, has undergone some ahera- 
 tion : it admits the Article as well as personne^ and 
 then means a trifling things as, vous vous fachez pour itn 
 rien; you fret or become angry for a mere trijie* When 
 it is preceded or followed by the negative Wf, it means 
 nothing.— EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je n' ai rien. I have nothing. 
 
 Mien ne I'epouvante. Nothing frightens him. 
 
 Without the negative and Article, it signifies any thing ; as, 
 
 y a-t-il rien de plus beau que cela ? Is there tmy thing finer than that ? 
 
 ^ticonque, whoever, or whosoever, in its full extent, 
 implies every man who : one of these three terms is a 
 Noun that, of course, must govern : if we are, therefore, 
 to give the elliptical word quiconque any denomination, 
 that of Noun unquestionably demands a preference. 
 
 Autrui is also an elliptical term, composed of two 
 words, autre and homme, the first an Adjective, the second 
 a Noun : autrui is, therefore, in every sense of the word, 
 a Noun.— EXAMPLE. 
 
 Ne faites pas a autrui ce que vous ne Do not unto others what you would 
 voudriez pas qu'on vous fit. not they should do unto you. 
 
 CONVERSATION VIIL 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 
 Scholar. 
 WHAT is a Verb ? 
 
 Master. 
 It is an essential and indispensable word which ex- 
 presses the coexistence of an attribute (that is to say of 
 
66 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 a quality, colour, form, &c.) with any subject or object 
 whatever. 
 
 Scholar. 
 How many kinds of Verbs are there ? 
 
 Master. 
 From this definition of a Verb, you may readily con- 
 clude that we acknowledge but one ; for, existence being 
 simple and indivisible^ one Verb alone is sufficient to de- 
 fine it, 
 
 ^v, Scholar. 
 
 What" is that Verb? 
 
 Master. 
 In all languages, the Verb to be^ which is called the Ab^ 
 stract Verby as it is separated from all qviality, and thus 
 considered in itself as a substance, it is sometimes termed 
 the Substantive Verb, 
 
 Scholar. 
 What, then, is meant by an Adjective Verb ; a mode of 
 expression often used in grammars ? 
 Master. 
 They generally understand thereby, such words as, to 
 love^ aimer ; to speak^ parler, &:c. which are denominated 
 V^rb"^ because the Verb to be is interwoven with their very 
 existence, and intimately connected with the word de- 
 noting the quality^ froin which they take the appellation 
 of Adjective Verbs : we cannot always by the eye perceive 
 the connection, but analysis, and sometimes etymology, 
 will evince that in all languages, such expressions, as to 
 love^ to speak^ &c. are by an ellipsis, equivalent to the 
 phrases, to be loving^ to be speakings &c. 
 Scholar. 
 How many kinds of Adjective Verbs are there? 
 
 Master. 
 Two : Active and Stationary. The first are so called, 
 because they comprehend an active quality, which extends 
 its influence to a certain object ; as, for instance, w^hen I 
 say, I esteem yoii^ or rather, I am esteeming you^ the active 
 quality expressed by esteeming-, is extended to you, who 
 become thereby the object of my esteem. 
 
 The second are denominated stationary^ because the 
 quality does not exceed the limits of the subject, as / 
 zvalk^ I sleeps I die : when I pronounce those Verbs, you 
 will not ask me, what or whom do you walk, &c. because 
 you find no object to which the action extends. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 69 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What are those Verbs, which are termed in many 
 grammars, passive^ neuter., deponent^ active-pure^ incho- 
 active, transitive, intransitive, mono-personal, he. 
 Master. 
 
 The Latins having Passive Verbs in their language, 
 grammarians more anxious to follow that language, than 
 give us accurate notions of our own, have obtruded on 
 us a sort of Passive Verbs, which the genius of our lan- 
 guage will not admit. Such passives, in French and 
 English, are rendered by ^tre, to be, and the past Parti- 
 ciple of the Adjective Verb. Example : Amor, a Latin 
 passive, is rendered by / am loved, Je suis aime. The 
 neuter are our Stationary Verbs, and as to the other classes 
 you have mentioned, they only tend to perplex and retard 
 the progress of the learner, by the introduction of unne- 
 cessary distinctions and barbarous terms. 
 Scholar. 
 
 How ipany and what properties appertain to a Verb ? 
 Master. 
 
 Five; 1st, the person ; 2d, number; 3d, tense; 4th, 
 mood, and 5th, conjugation. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 As I have acquired a notion of the person and number 
 of a Verb, by attending to your conversation on the Pro- 
 nou7i^ I now request you will give me seme information 
 respecting the tenses. 
 
 Master. 
 
 The tenses are the various epochs in which the events 
 related have happened. These epochs compared with 
 each other, and then collectively and respectively with the 
 instant de la parole, or present utterance of speech (which 
 is the standard of judging of epochs), will give us the 
 different tenses of a Verb, 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 How many tenses are there ? 
 Master. 
 
 Three, general and absolute ; the past, present, and 
 future, which, you may perceive, from the very definition 
 of the Verb, exist in every language. When we have 
 occasion to express the past, pre^^ent, 2.Yid future existence 
 of a subject, under a certain attribute, those different 
 modes ol considering existence wiii necessarily produce 
 the three tenses above mentioned : The past may be 
 
TO PHILOSOPHY 
 
 represented by yesterday ; the present by tO'day ; and the^ 
 future by to-morrow. 
 
 But man, too ambitious to convey his sentiments in 
 broken sentences (which would be the case were he 
 confined to those tenses only), and aiming at improvement 
 in language, began to consider the time of events under 
 different relations from the present utterance of speech^ 
 and to mark his actions, by contrasting them with one 
 another in the current of human affairs. 
 
 To express those different views of the mind, he made 
 the Verb undergo various modifications, and thus divided 
 the tenses into moods. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What are moods I 
 
 Master. 
 
 The various ways of considering the action affirmed, 
 either by itself or with respect to other events with which 
 it is compared, with respect to the time of the perform- 
 ance or relation thereof. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 How many moods are there t 
 Master. 
 
 Five : the infinitive (including the participle')^ indicative 
 or affirmative^ imperative^ conditional^ and subjunctive : I 
 shall define them, after you have attained the conjugation 
 of the Verb porter^ to carry ; and I think you will be 
 pleased with the denominations I have given to tenses ; 
 on consideration, they cannot fail to appear more fit and 
 proper than those by which they were formerly distin- 
 guished. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What do you signify by the Conjugation of a Verb ? 
 Master. 
 
 The class it belongs to, which is determined by the 
 termination of the infinitive. The French grammarians, 
 having observed that different Verbs of the same termi- 
 nation in the infinitive, had also similar endings in their 
 corresponding tenses, ranged them into one class, which 
 they termed Conjugation^ from the Latin word Conjuga- 
 tion to signify they were yoked by them together, like 
 oxen to the plough. 
 
 We have chosen in this work the Verb porter^ to carry, 
 as a model for those ending in ^r, in the infinitive : with 
 its various tenses, it will serve you as a model by which 
 
OF LANGUAGE. Tl 
 
 the rest of the same conjugation may be formed. This is 
 called the^rst, being by Tar the most numerous. 
 
 Those Verbs ending in /r, oir and re, having been re- 
 spectively classed in the same manner, form the second, 
 third, and fourth conjugation in the French language* 
 Grammarians, having collected all those Verbs ending in 
 er, ir, oir and re, that varied from their models in the 
 terminations of their corresponding tenses, called them 
 Irregulars in contrast to the four regular conjugations^ 
 Methodical as this arrangement may appear, it is, how- 
 ever, a servile imitation of the Latin grammarians, who 
 admit only oi four conjugations. 
 
 No longer respecting the inflexible laws of the imperi- 
 ous genius of a truly foreign language, several judicious 
 grammarians, in their attempt to reduce to a smaller 
 number the vast collection of irregulars that this Latino- 
 Franco classification introduced, by selecting several 
 Verbs among them as models for various classes, have 
 successively made the number of regular conjugations 
 amount to six, seven, ten, eleven, twelve and thirteen. 
 
 Though I feel happy in doing justice to the many ad- 
 vantages resulting from those new systems of improve- 
 ment on the old, yet much reflection, and (1 may venture 
 to say) considerable and successful experience in an ex- 
 tensive line of tuition have authorized me to adopt a 
 mode of conjugation whose simplicity will, I trust, re- 
 commend it to the votaries of language. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Be kind enough to impart it to me. 
 Master. 
 
 With pleasure. I admit eight regular conjugations, 
 and eight classes of irregulars, as follow, viz. 
 
 EIGHT REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Table L 
 
 1. er, as porter, to carry. 
 
 2. ir, as pun/r, to punish. 
 
 3. f/>, vir, or mir, as sen//>, serc/r, dorw2/>, to feel, 
 
 to serve, to sleep. 
 
 4. enir, as tenir, to hold. 
 
 5. evoir, as recevoir, to receive. 
 
 6. re, as vendrc, to sell. 
 
 7. uire, a& tradw/r^, to translate. 
 
72 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 8. indre^ as joindrej ipeindre, crmndre^ to join, to paint, 
 to fear. 
 
 EIGHT CLASSES OF IRREGULARS. 
 Table II. 
 
 1. offr'ir^ to offer. 
 
 2. courir^ to run. 
 
 3. connaUre^ to know. 
 
 4. mettre^ to put. 
 
 5. prendre^ to take. 
 
 6. faire^ to do or make. 
 
 7. ecrire^ to write. 
 
 8. fi^/>f, to say or telL 
 
 By a free command of the conjugation of the forego- 
 ing Tables, you will be enabled to conjugate about 4700 
 Verbs, 4051 of which (including those which have been 
 introduced since the French Revolution) belong to the 
 Jirst conjugation, according to Adrien Savary, who 
 by an accurate inquiry, has made out an ingenious list of 
 most of the French Verbs. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Do the foregoing Tables embrace the conjugation of 
 the whole ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 Not entirely ; as a few remaining (which I could not 
 possibly class) will be found in the alphabetical order of 
 conjugation in this work, following the eight classes of 
 Irregulars above mentioned. 
 
 You must now devote your sole attention to the auxili- 
 ary Verb avoir^ to have, which should hold the first seat 
 in your memory, and the first place in conjugation, as it 
 essentially serves to form the past tenses of almost every 
 Verb in the French language, including also those of the 
 generating Verb Hre^ to be. 
 
 JVECESSITY AKD ORIGIN OF THE VERB, 
 
 SCARCE had man, in the use of the Adjective, exerted the faculty of 
 abstraction to which he is indebted for all his progress in civilization and in 
 the region of Science, when he found it necessary to restore to objects 
 the qualities he had separated from thenn. — In reality for what purpose 
 did he wish to speak of objects, if it were not to acquaint his associates 
 with his notions of them, as being possessed of such and such qualities, 
 properties, forms, 8cc ; but the word so necessary for this purpose was not in 
 his possession ; such a word was to be acquired as would unite in speech the 
 Noun with its Adjective, as objects in the Universe are united with their qua- 
 lities. This was the word which was thought to be so useful by the Latins 
 that they denominated it Vehbum (the word), giving it the name of the 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 73 
 
 nr"hoIe species itself, thereby importing that they looked upon it as the *k- 
 preme laord. 
 
 He was (as yet} to receive from the bountiful hand of Nature that sim- 
 ple and magic sound which alone could give to speech that connection and 
 animation necessary to portray faithfully the objects of Creation, whose 
 -dependence, life and motion are so conspicuous — Mean while, he was 
 obliged to mention the word denoting the quality along with the same of 
 the object, to signify that he conceived the object endowed with such 
 quality — But how imperfect this mode was that could not express whe- 
 ther the quality s\xiit6. presently , had suited, or -vcould suit the object ! — An 
 important and absolutely necessary distinction without which no clearness 
 or intelligibility can exist in language. 
 
 As it was not in his povrer to invent that viord, necessity rendered his 
 natural disposition to observation more acute, by which means he disco- 
 vered the one nature had designed for him ; and it was the only one fit to 
 represent the sign of life, or existence, as it is an imitative word, a perfect 
 
 ONOMATOPEE. 
 
 This word is /5/, het, aist, ast, hei, est-i, est, e, evj, es, ets ys, is, ist, test,- 
 ■as and es, at, eis, which is found in the Hindoo, Hebrew, Persian, Ara- 
 bian, Greek, Latin, French, English, Polish, &c, 
 
 •Man, in the course of his observations, could not have failed to discover 
 the principal share that respiration has in promoting and supporting life, 
 so that where the former commences, the latter of necessity attends ; and 
 where it ceases, the flame of life is extinguished. Could he, therefore, 
 have chosen a surer mode of being generally understood, when he would 
 signify the existence of the object of his affections, or of his love ; than to 
 liave inaitated in a strong and impressive manner the sound of respiration 
 itself, so as to produce some of the words above mentioned ; such as the 
 ^st of the French, or the is of the English, Sec. 
 
 Man, now in possession of a word that so naturally pictured existence, 
 could not fail to use it to signify the existence or union of qualities with 
 tlie objects they modify ; and in order that language should be a correct 
 picture of objects and their relations, dejjendencies &.C. in nature, it was 
 placed between the Noun and Adjective. When receiving from nature 
 this inestimable gift, he could not fail of being understood by all as soon as he 
 uttered it, because it faithfully represented what every one felt within him- 
 self. This new term afterwards became associated with the Pronouns in 
 the following manner. — One said, first, as for instance, the Hindoos, Tne is 
 £ood; thee is goody Sec, observing to place the Pronouns first — But of this 
 monotony some nations soon became tired, and placed a termination bor- 
 rowed fronn the Pronoun itself immediately after the Verb, in order to vary 
 the termin3,tion of each person. Thus some of the Asiatic nations said 
 •ei-mi (for the first person) which means is-nie instead of me-is: ei-s, for 
 the second person, whose Pronoun is represented by the final s — This A^- 
 atic mode of expression found its way into Greece and Italy with the Ori- 
 ental Colonies — After a series of alterations, ei-7ni was changed into sum 
 among the Latins, then into suim* which formed the suis of the French ; 
 so that the French say now j^e suis, which seems to have no relation with 
 the primitive word est or ei, while they have preserved it for their second 
 and third persons, tu est, il est,- and this sufficiently explains why the Pro- 
 nouns being united with the Verb, were no longer expressed by themselves ; 
 i n fact, as they were blended with the Verb itself, it would have been use- 
 less to repeat them. 
 
 But when that union or solder was entirely lost sight of or forgotten, the 
 Verb, thus altered, no longer showed the Pronouns : They thought then that it 
 
 * See Gebelin, Grammaire Universelie. 
 VOL. II. L 
 
n PHILOSOPHY 
 
 designated by itse'f, persons, and, of course, carried in itse-^t\\e force of tli© 
 Pronouns. This circumstance threw all speculations on the Verb into con- 
 fusion, and made gram.marians ascribe to it the properties of the Pronouns, 
 the principal of which are Activety and Passiveness that certainly cannot be 
 discovered in the pure Verb, which last is the link and nothing else between 
 a Noun and its Adjectives. And hence arose the erroneous opinion of 
 some grammarians that Pronouns might be dispensed with. 
 
 Besides the two manners above mentioned of combining the Verb with 
 the Pronoun, a third one v/as formed afterwards ; it consisted in using the 
 Verb thus united with the Pronoun, after the Greek fashion, and in hav- 
 ing it preceded besides by the Pronoun, either because the Verbal Pronoun 
 had become so much altered, that it was no longer to be known as in suls, 
 where they no longer discover any features of the Pronoun -Wie ,• or because 
 some languages that used this third method, were too much used to place 
 the Pronoun before the Verb, to sufier it after. Such are many modern 
 languages, and among others the French in which they say ye suh, tu es, 
 il est, nous sonnues, vous etes, Us sont ; while the Greeks, in a much shorter 
 way, said, ei-mi, ei-s, ei or esii, es-vten, es-te, ei-si, Sc enti. 
 
 FORMATION OF THE 
 ELLIPTICAL OR ADJECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 WE have maintained, which will appear very strange and paradoxical 
 to almost every Grammarian, that there existed but one Verb and that it 
 was etre, to be ; that with regard to the other Verbs they derived their 
 property of expressing existence from the circumstance of being interwo- 
 ven or blended with that Verb, while they themselves were nothing but 
 the word denoting the quality. We are going to prove, at least for the 
 French language, and that too in a satisfactory manner, that it is the case 
 for all and every one of its Verbs whatever. Let us select for that purpose 
 the Ycvh port-er, which we have adopted as the model of conjugation for 
 the most numerous class cf Verbs in the language. 
 
 1st. They probably said, it est portant, as may be said in English, but 
 not now in French ; as that mode of expression, which is the only natural 
 one in the origin of language, has probably been lost through the lapse of 
 ages ; a transposition of the Verb est took place from the same principle 
 which actuated some nations with regard to the change of place of Pro- 
 nouns, aud they said, il portant est, then more concisely, il port-est by- 
 suppressing the termination a7Jt as well as the other 7iasal terininatives eii, 
 ens, ing, &c. which, as respiration or life is always strongly manifested 
 through the nose, always designated active existence. This they could 
 easily do as a?it left its property of designating the action of an animate 
 being, associated v/ith the first syllable oi port-ant, TK\s port-est througli 
 a love for that brevity which is always by men framing language carried as 
 far as may be consistent with the necessity of being clearly understood, 
 was judiciously changed into port-e, in which the word est denoting exist- 
 ence is reduced to the smnple element e, while no inconvenience would re- 
 sult therefrom, its value being naturally felt and agreed upon. Tti es por- 
 tant becaine, in the same manner, tu partes. When they came to je suit 
 portant, they felt that analogy would be destroyed were they to make that 
 mode of expression undergo the same changes as the two other persons of 
 the Verb ; and, therefore, (as also the Pronoun was different) without 
 any fear of being misunderstood they made the £rst person similar to thQ 
 third. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 7S 
 
 Many, I doubt not, may think it extraordinary that I should have begun 
 this decomposition of the Adjective Verbs with the third person instead of 
 the ^rst, as is done in the conjugations of every grammar. I answer to 
 this charge that in an analysis so important as the present, we have been 
 desirous of carrying exactness as high as we possibly could. In fact, as 
 mankind had to relate what they had seen done, or what they had disco- 
 vered, before they could express what they felt, it is certainly with the 
 third person that the primitive conjugation began. 
 
 In the Present anterior and the Present pos-erior of the Indicative mood, 
 xs well as of the Conditional, the Verb etre, to be, can be easily traced 
 through every person. 
 
 EXAMPLE FOR THE PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 J' etais portant became Je port-e:- ais then Je port-ais. 
 tu etais portant tu j)ortei -az's tu port-ais. 
 
 il etait portant il Tpon-et-ait il port-ait. 
 
 nous ctions portant nous itort-et-icns nous port-ions, 
 
 vous etiez portant vous ^ort-et-iez vous port-iez. 
 
 ils etaient portant ils port-et-aient ils port-aient. 
 
 We trust it is needless to give more examples, to show the existence of 
 etrc in the final termination of almost every person of every French Verb. 
 We have at the end of the French conjugation given a table of those very 
 terminations which the scholar himself may compare with any Verb. This 
 comparison cannot fail cf being useful, by causing him to remember the 
 termination conamon to each Verb, aiid thereby sheltering his Orthography 
 from blunders. 
 
 In Greek Verbs, the Verb etre is also found at the end of some Nouns 
 which thereby become the Elliptical Verbs we have mentioned, with the 
 radical Avord Phil, which means what relates to friendship and love, and 
 the Verb ei-tni, to be, which form the last syllables, they said, 
 
 Phil-e/, he loves. 
 
 Phil-C2>, thou lovest. 
 
 Phil-eo, I love. 
 
 Phil-eouj/, they love. 
 
 Phil-efo, you love. 
 
 Y\\\\-Gineny we love. 
 
 The same custom prevails in the Persian language, the Verb to be, is 
 placed at the end of their Nouns to make so many Verbs of them. 
 
 Pak which among them nieans pitre, purity, blended to the Verb to be 
 means to be pure. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 'Pd.k-asty he is ^ure. 
 Pak-az, thou art pure. 
 Vzk-am, I am piure. 
 
 I shall conclude this article by observing that Nouns, in the English lan- 
 guage, with the help of Pronouns and certain general signs to denote the 
 tenses become Verbs without experiencing any change in their termination 
 except in the second and third persons singular of the Indicative, and se- 
 cond person singular of the Present anterior, the finals of v»hich show in, 
 est, s, the Verb to be, which, it seems, could riot be banished from the 
 
76 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 second and third person singular of the Indicative, in which it made' k» 
 first appearance in the origin of language. 
 
 At sonrie future period I shall subnait to the public my conjectures hovr 
 the English language came to have general sigris to express the various 
 tenses of the Verb, instead of using for that purpose terminations after the 
 manner of most other languages. 
 
 CONVERSATION IX.f 
 
 OW MOODS AKD TEJ^'SES. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Having much to ask of you concerning your system of 
 conjugation exemplified in porter^ please to let me know^ 
 first, what you mean by the Infinitive Mood? 
 Master. 
 
 The infinitive simply expresses the action in itself^ 
 without any reference to person and number; from its in- 
 dependence in that respect, it is called infinitive^ which 
 means unlimitted orunbounded. Another property, which, 
 in a conspicuous manner, distinguishes it from the other 
 moods, is, that it admits of some Prepositions before it 
 like the Nouns, it even like them serves as a subject or 
 object in the phrase, while some infinitives, (in French) 
 will admit the Article before them, which we have before 
 observed in treating of them. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What is the Participle ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 The Participle^ which some grammarians have made a 
 distinct mood from the infinitive^ takes its name from 
 the double part it performs, first, by expressing an ac- 
 tion, like the Verb ; and, secondly, by possessing, like 
 an Adjective, the property of being affirmed of a subject. 
 Scholar. 
 
 What is the Indicative 7 
 
 t This Conversation is to be attended to as soon as the conjugation of 
 ^wtar be committed to memory. 
 
OF LANGUAGE- rr 
 
 Master. 
 
 A mood, the tenses of which directly express the exist- 
 ence of an action at the different times at which it took 
 place, without forming any contrast to that of another ; 
 the indicative, with which other moods can seldom dis- 
 pense, thus becomes independent of them. It is conspi- 
 cuous in affirmation or narrative^ and hence proceeds the 
 names of affirmative or declarative^ which some gi*amma- 
 rians have judiciously conferred on it. 
 Scholar. 
 
 I must confess, I have been much astonished to see 
 the denominations Present anterior ; Present anterior-pe- 
 riodical ; Present posterior^ &c. substituted instead of the 
 ancient and, established terms, Imperfect^ Perfect^ Pre- 
 terite^ &c. and I am apprehensive that this innovation, 
 unless supported by decisive argument, will be strenu- 
 ously oppugned by the disapprobation, if not opposition 
 of tutors in general. 
 
 Master. 
 
 After long and serious deliberation I have adopted 
 the system of the celebrated and profound grammarian 
 Beauzee^ from a full conviction of its truth and simplici- 
 ty ; but by no means, through the spirit of innovation or 
 the pride of singularity, so baneful to the advancement 
 of science. 
 
 By an explication of the use of the tenses, you will be 
 competent to judge and decide, whether my denomina- 
 tions are properly adapted to them, and whether they are 
 calculated to impress the scholar with so clear an idea of 
 their use in language as may demand a preference to for- 
 mer terms. 
 
 I call the old Imperfect, Present anterior ; first, be- 
 cause it expresses an xAt-dioi presence ; and, secondly, be- 
 cause it strikes the mind with a clear notion of anteriority 
 (or past) ; but as the idea of presence is the principaly 
 while that of anteriority is subordinate, we term the tense 
 ^Y\\\\2iY\\Y present (which seemed a paradox to you) and 
 then anterior. An example in a familiar phrase, will, I 
 am confident, convince you of the propriety of this deno^ 
 mination. Example, Je portais vos livres^ lorsque voiis 
 Tri'avez rencontre ; I was carrying your books when you 
 met with me. My meaning is not to inform you that the 
 action of carrying was elapsed ; but that it was on a level 
 
76 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 or coexisted with the time of meeting with you, which 
 makes it present with that time. The idea of anteriority 
 for past) afterwards arises from comparing the circum- 
 stance with the present utterance of speech^ which is a fix- 
 ed point, that determines the different periods of time 
 in our social communications. 
 
 The term Present anterior is therefore so expressive 
 that it must certainly be adopted by those who would ex- 
 press themselves with precision and conceive accurate 
 notions of the objects of their studies. 
 
 The addition of periodical to Present anterior^ to de- 
 note the next tense, is also founded in reason, and de- 
 clarative of the nice distinction between the two tenses, 
 which, being synonymous, in some respect, as they im- 
 ply both ideas of presence and anteriority^ learners are 
 apt to confound. It is now my business to explain its 
 signification. 
 
 Periodical is derived from period^ a portion of time cir* 
 cumscrihed and determinate ; for instance, when I say, "Je 
 portai hier votre lettre a la posts ; I carried your letter 
 yesterday to the post-office ; the action of carrying is 
 transacted within the bounds of yesterday^ a space oijix^ 
 ^^time, and is present with respect to that day, which I 
 mean to express : Therefore the term periodical joined 
 to the two others, fully explaining the meaning of this 
 tense, recommends the adoption thereof. I must ob- 
 serve, however, that you could not say, Je portai ce ma^ 
 tin, &c. I carried this morning, &c. jf^ai porte ce matin 
 must be used ; as this tense is devoted to the relation of 
 transactions, which happened within such periods as yeS" 
 terday, the -meek past, the month past, &c. 
 
 As I have now maintained the propriety of using the 
 Present anterior, &c. in place of the Imperfect and Pre* 
 terite ; I have to prove that the Future is well termed the 
 Present posterior ; for instance, ^e porterai demain vos 
 effets u hord du paquebot ; I will carry your goods to-mor* 
 row on board the packet: This manner of expression, 
 Je porterai demain, is to all intents and purposes a Pre^ 
 sent tense relative to a time posterior to the immediate ut' 
 terance of speech, as it is the equivalent of ^e/>or^e demaiuy 
 which is ceYt2Lin\y 2i Present posterior : J e porterai demain 
 which fills the place of Je porte demain, is, therefore, 
 justly denominated a Present posterior and not a Future. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 79 
 
 By comparing my names of the above tenses (which 
 convey to the mind an immediate idea of their proper ap- 
 plication) with the hackneyed w^ords Imperfect^ Preterite^ 
 &c. you must conceive that the term Imperfect signifies 
 in the English language, that the tense, thus called, is 
 deficient^ though in a logical sense, it is as complete as 
 any other. The Preterite^ denoting the /ja^^, to those 
 acquainted with the Greek, is a denomination very inade- 
 quate to its object. 
 
 As grammarians had chosen an Imperfect^ they deem- 
 ed it proper to introduce a Perfect^ a more absurd term 
 than the other, as it implies an idea of perfection, which 
 good sense and experience informs us, is not even ap- 
 plicable to the first situation amidst human affairs. 
 
 But, what romantic brain could invent the Pluperfect 
 tense^ which seems to soar above perfection itself there- 
 by vying in the imagination with the Creator of infinite 
 worlds ! ! !-|* 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Are the Present anterior-periodical^ and Pi'esent poste- 
 rior ^ always looked upon as Presents ? 
 Master. 
 
 Yes ; when compared with the fixed time expressed in 
 the respective sentences above mentioned ; but deprived 
 thereof, they can no longer be considered present; if 
 compared then with the present utterance of speech only, 
 which embraces them as anterior^ they become /7«7.9^ tenses^ 
 and simply remain so ; on this account you may there- 
 fore with propriety use (as no determinate period is men- 
 tioned) either of the following phrases : 
 
 Les "M-c^tcirxs portaient des perruques."^ 
 
 Les Medecins/jorfirrenf des perruques C Physicians twore wigs. 
 
 Les Mcdecins ont port e des perruques. 3 
 
 I must observe to you that by depriving also the Pre- 
 sent posterior of the determinate period, it becomes a 
 real Future. 
 
 t Condillac expresses his opinion of the old terms for the tenses of Verbs 
 jn the following manner : •* For my part, I confess I could never under- 
 " stand what they (grammarians) mean by Imperfect, Perfect^ Pluperfect^ 
 *' Sec. I understand better what they mean by Simple and Compound. These 
 *' names denote, at least, the forms which the Verb assumes when past ; 
 " but they do not express any of the accessories which the former awake. 
 ** It is, however, after these accessories the tenses should have been nam- 
 'f ed j" it is what we have endeavoured to do. 
 
60 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 I begin to understand the nervous simplicity of your 
 system and already behold the strong light you have 
 thrown on the use of the tenses you mentioned, by the 
 introduction of these terms anterior^ anterior per iodicaly 
 &c. which you have so fitly adapted to the subject. May 
 these terms, however, be with equal propriety applied to 
 the Past tenses ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 Equally; which must finally reconcile you to our sys- 
 tem, as well as those who may at first oppose it, on ac- 
 count of its seeming so novel and extraordinary. I shall 
 have recourse to examples to satisfy you in this respect. 
 
 When you say to me, for instance, y^avais ecrit lors- 
 que vous etes entre ; I had written when you came in : 
 what idea do you want to convey to me ? Is it not that 
 your action of writing was elapsed when my coming took 
 place ? This coming of mine is anterior to your present 
 utterance of speech to me, and of course past ; It is, there- 
 fore, properly denominated, as it expresses a double view 
 of the mind, a Past anterior. 
 
 The Past anterior-periodical is much the same with 
 the above, except it is periodical; that is to say, it ex- 
 presses the existence of an action anterior to another ac- 
 tion transacted in a period entirely elapsed ; it is exem- 
 plified in the following sentence : y eus ecrit hier a midi; 
 I had written yesterday at twelve o'clock. 
 
 With regard to the Past posteriory when you say, JVw- 
 rai fait mes affaires quand vous viendrez; I shall have done 
 my business when you come : your intention is to show 
 that the action of doing your business is past with regard 
 to my coming, which is to take place ; it is, therefore, 
 with propriety denominated a Past posterior. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Pray, what is the difference hetw&tnje porterai(\yh.en 
 without the determinate period it becomes a Future J ^ and 
 je dois porter y which seems invariably a Future in your 
 conjugation. 
 
 Master. 
 
 The difference is this ; je porter ai^ indicates a strong 
 resolution of performing the action expressed by the 
 Verb ; je dois porter^ signifies a free and duteous inten- 
 tion of the performance thereof: The former in a strict 
 
OF LANGUAGE. St 
 
 sense corresponds with the words shall carry ; and the 
 latter with the terms will carry* 
 Scholar. 
 
 What do you mean by the Imperative^ which, I think, 
 you have curtailed ; as it is conjugated v/ith more persons 
 in those grammars I have perused than you introduce? 
 Master. 
 
 Man for the purpose of expressing his command^ di- 
 rection^ or authority^ which he could not do with the 
 help of the Indicative^ through necessity devised a new 
 mood (which is called the Imperative J formed from the 
 Indicative^ by despoiling its present tense oi xho^ Pronouns. 
 Thus the Imperative was produced, a term energetically 
 expressive of its use, and derived from the Latin word 
 imperOf I command. You perceive it has no other per- 
 sons than those I have already mentioned, as no one,, in 
 a rigid point of view, can command or give orders to 
 himself. With respect to a third person, it is evident that 
 no verbal intercourse can be held with an absentee. 
 
 ' The persons,, grammarians have so liberally bestowed 
 on this mood, belong to the Subjunctive^ as the Conjunc- 
 tion que which is inseparable therefrom, fully evinces. 
 Scholar. 
 
 What is the Conditional mood ? 
 Master. 
 
 It denotes the performance of an action (either pre- 
 sent or future) when circumstances favour the actor or 
 actors ; hence it is called Conditional and essentially dif- 
 fers from the Indicative and Imperative moods, which en- 
 tirely reject those circumstances or conditions. 
 Scholar. 
 
 What do you signify by the Subjunctive ? 
 Master. 
 
 A mood always dependent on the Indicative and dis- 
 tinguished from it (in French) by the Conjunction que^ 
 which connects it therewith and from which the name of 
 Subjunctive is derived: Example, Je desire que vous 
 portiez promptement ce billet; I wish that you may car' 
 ry this note expeditiously. You must observe that 
 such Verbs as express the feelings of the heart or affeC' 
 tions of the soul, are the only ones^ which, preceded by 
 the Indicative,, may assume the Subjunctive form. The 
 others following que and the Indicative will not admit of it. 
 
 vol. II. M 
 
82 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 J* apprends avec plaisir que c'est I learn with satisfaction that it is he 
 lui qui a obtenu cet emploi lu- who has obtained this lucrative 
 cratif. employment. 
 
 Grammarians often mistake the Conditional for the Sub' 
 junctive: as a proof of their error, the latter is an entire 
 dependant on the Indicative^ and by no means adequate 
 to those functions, which the former (free from the in- 
 cumbrance of any other mood) can, with propriety, per- 
 form. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE 
 
 AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR, TO HAVE. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. Past. 
 
 To have, Avoir* \ To have had, Avoir eiu 
 
 Present. 
 Having, Ayant. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 I Had,' Eu, 
 
 Past. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Singular. 
 I have, J' at, 
 thou hast, tu as, 
 he or -she has, il ou elle a, 
 one, any body, Sec. has, on a. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We have, JVous avons, 
 you, oj? ye have, vous avez, 
 they have, ils cm^Mes out, 
 we, people, they, &c. have, on a. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 I had, J' avals, 
 
 thou hadst, tu avais, 
 
 he or <^e had, il o^cn avail. 
 
 We had, Kous arvions, 
 you or ye had, vous aviez, 
 they had, ils (mrtles avaient. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 I had, J' eus, 
 
 thou hadst, tu eus, 
 
 he or-oqe had, il ou on eut. 
 
 We had, J^ous eumes, 
 you w-y« had, vous tutes, 
 they had, ils ou'vUes eurent. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 83 
 
 I shall (or wiU) 'I 
 thou shalt Vhave. 
 
 he or one shall J 
 
 We shall 
 
 you or ye shall \ have. 
 
 they shall 
 
 '} 
 
 I have "J 
 
 thou hast \ had. 
 he or one has J 
 
 We have 1 
 you have I had. 
 they have J 
 
 Singular. 
 
 J' aurau 
 tu auras, 
 il ou on aura. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 J^oua aurons. 
 
 V0U8 aurez, 
 
 ila ou dies auront. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Singular. 
 J' ai 
 
 tu as 
 
 il ou on a 
 
 } 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nous ttvons 
 vous avez 
 Us ou dies ont 
 
 1 
 
 €U. 
 
 I had 
 
 thou hadst 
 he or one had 
 
 } 
 
 had. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 y avals 
 tu avais 
 il ou on avait 
 
 } 
 
 eu. 
 
 We had 
 you had 
 they had 
 
 } 
 
 had. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 JVbus avians 
 
 vous aviez 
 
 Us ou elles avaient 
 
 ] 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 I had 
 thou hadst 
 he or one had 
 
 } 
 
 had. 
 
 Singular. 
 J* eus 
 tu ev^ 
 il ou on cut 
 
 ] 
 
 We had 1 
 
 you had thad. 
 they had J 
 
 Plural. 
 
 M)U8 eHmes 
 
 vous eUtes 
 
 Us ou elles eurent 
 
 ] 
 
 eu> 
 
 eu. 
 
54. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 
 I shall (or will)"] 
 
 thou shalt i- have had 
 
 he or one shall J 
 
 We shall 1 
 
 you shall > have had. 
 
 they shall J 
 
 Singular. 
 
 J^ aurai 
 tu auras, 
 il ou on aura 
 
 \eu. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 J\fous aurons 
 
 vous aurez 
 
 Us ou elles aurant 
 
 } 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 I have "J 
 
 thou hast >just had. 
 
 he or one has J 
 
 We have 1 
 
 you have I just had. 
 
 they have J 
 
 Singular 
 
 Je viens 
 tu viens 
 il ou on 
 
 • I 
 
 vient J 
 
 d'avoir. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 A'ous venons 
 
 vous venez 
 
 Us ou elles viennent 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 I 
 
 (Tavoir* 
 
 I am 
 
 thou art 
 he or one 
 
 J 
 
 to have. 
 
 Singular, 
 
 Je (Lois'* 
 
 tu dois 
 
 il ou on doit J 
 
 I 
 
 We are 
 you are 
 they ar 
 
 ■} 
 
 Plural. 
 
 to have. 
 
 J^ous devons 1 
 
 vous devez K avoir* 
 
 Us ou elles doivent j 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 
 1 
 
 I am going 
 
 thou art going ^to have 
 
 he or one is going J 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Je vais* "^ 
 
 tu vas ^avoir. 
 
 il ou on va J 
 
 * The Verbs Venir, Devcir, Jller, have other tenses used as auxiliaries. 
 They will be fcund at the end of cur conjugations, as we would not, at pre- 
 sent, increase the number of tenses, by inserting those which, though use- 
 ful to be learned, can be at first dispensed with. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 8§ 
 
 We are going "^ 
 
 you are going J>to have, 
 
 they are goingj 
 
 Pi-URAL. 
 
 JVous allons "^ 
 
 vous allez p>ai;ofr. 
 
 Us ou elles vontj 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Have (thou) ylye» 
 Have Ayez, 
 
 Let us have Ayons. 
 
 CONDITIONAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Singular. 
 I should, could, would or might "j 
 thou shouldst > have, 
 
 he or one should J 
 
 We should 1 
 
 you should J. have. 
 
 they should J 
 
 J' aurats, 
 tu aurais. 
 il ou on aurait. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 J^ous aurions, 
 
 vous auriez. 
 
 Us ou dies auraient, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I should, Sec. "J 
 
 thou shouldst thave had. 
 
 he or one should J 
 
 We should"! 
 
 you should ^have had. 
 
 they should J 
 
 NGULAR. 
 
 J* aurais 
 tu aurais 
 il ou on aurait 
 
 \ 
 
 Plural. 
 
 J^foua aurions 
 
 vous auriez 
 
 Us ou elles auraie?it 
 
 I 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 That I may 
 that thou mayest 
 that he or one mav 
 
 ,} 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Singular. 
 
 have. 
 
 Que j' aie. 
 
 que tu aies. 
 
 qu il ou qu* on ait 
 
 ] 
 
 That \ve may ") 
 
 that you may yhave. 
 
 that 
 
 they may J 
 
 have. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Que nous ayons, 
 
 que vous ayez» 
 
 qu' Us ou qu' elks aient. 
 
86 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 That I might 
 
 that thou mightest ^have 
 
 that he or one might 
 
 } 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Que/ eusse. 
 
 que tu eusaes* 
 
 qu' il ou qu' on eitt. 
 
 That we might "j 
 
 ^i^a? you mip^ht K have. 
 
 M«^ they might J 
 
 PLUnAL. 
 
 Que nous eussions. 
 
 que vous eiissiez. 
 
 qu* //s ou qu* elles eussent. 
 
 T/iat I may 1 
 
 ^Aar thou mayest thave had. 
 
 that he or one may J 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Que f ate 
 
 que tic aies 
 
 qu' zV ou qu' on ait 
 
 ] 
 
 That we may 'J 
 
 that you may Vhave had 
 
 that they may J 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Que nous ayons 
 que vous ayez 
 
 qu' f/s ou qu' elles aient 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 } 
 
 eu» 
 
 That I might 
 that thou mightst 
 ^/!«^ he or one might 
 
 11 
 II 
 
 That we might 1 
 
 ^Aa? you might thave had 
 
 that they might J 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Que/ eM55e 
 
 que tu eusses 
 
 qu* // ou qu' on cut 
 
 Plural. 
 
 T Que nous eussions 
 
 *eu. 
 
 que vous eussiez 
 
 qu' //« ou qu' elles eussent 
 
 1 
 
 A VERB CONJUGATED NEGATIVELY, 
 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN AVOIR. 
 
 WHEN a Verb is used negatively^ ne (or n* before a 
 vowel) is placed before it, and is immediately succeeded 
 by one or other of the following words complementary to 
 the negation, viz. pas or pointy rien^ jamais^ personnCy 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 87 
 
 plus^ which with ncy answer, in English, to the words 
 not^ nothings never^ nobody^ no more or no longer. I must 
 observe to you, that if no is followed, in English, by a 
 Substantive, it is rendered, in French, by pas or pomt 
 immediately followed by the word afe.-— Example, 
 
 I have no stockings, Je w' ai fiaa ou fioint de bas. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Present. Past. 
 
 jV*' avoir pas 
 
 {: 
 
 Not to havc-^ ou, 
 
 ne fias avoir. 
 
 Not to have had. 
 
 A*' avoir 
 Jias eu. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Present, Past. 
 
 Not having. A*' ayant fiaa. 
 
 Not having had. \ ^ ^ 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Singular. 
 I have not, Je n* ai pas, 
 thou hast not, tu n' as pas, 
 he or she has not, il ou die n* a pas, 
 one, any body. Sec. has not, on n' a pas. 
 
 Plural. 
 We have not, J^oua n* avons pas. 
 you have not, vou n' avez pas, 
 they have not, ils ou elles n' ont pas, 
 we, people, they, £cc. have not, mi n' a pas, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SiXGULAR. 
 
 I had not, Je n' avais pas 
 
 thou hadst not, tu n* avais pas, 
 
 he or she had not, il ou elle n' avait pas. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We had not, JVous rV avions pas, 
 
 you had not, vous n' aviez pas, 
 
 they had not, ils ou elks rV avaient pas. 
 
B8 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 I had not, Je n* eics fias. 
 
 thou hadst not, tu rC eus pas. 
 
 he or she had not, il ou elle w* cut pas. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We had not, Kous rC eumes pas. 
 
 you had not, vous n' eutes pas. 
 
 they had not, Us ou elles rC eurent pas. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 I shall or will "J 
 
 thou shalt V- not have. 
 
 he or she shall J 
 
 We shall 1 
 
 you shall vnot have. 
 
 they shall J 
 
 I have "j 
 
 thou hast vnot had. 
 
 he or she has J 
 
 We have"] 
 
 you have tnot had. 
 
 they have J 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Je n\ aurai pas, 
 tu n' auras pas, 
 il ou elle n* aura pas. 
 
 Plural, 
 
 JVous n' aurons pas. 
 
 vous rC aurez pas. 
 
 Us ou elles n' auront pas, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Je 71" ai pas "J 
 
 tu n* as pas L 
 U ou elle n' a J 
 
 eu. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 JVous n* avons pas 
 
 vous n' avez pas 
 
 Us ou elles n* ont pas 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 Singular. 
 
 I had T 
 
 thou hadst > not had. 
 he or she had j 
 
 Je n' avals pas 
 tu n' avals pas 
 U ou elle n' avait pas 
 
 We had 1 
 
 you had Vnot had. 
 
 they had J 
 
 Plural. 
 
 JVous 
 vous 
 Us ou 
 
 n^ avians pas 1 
 
 n' aviez pas > 
 
 . elles n" avaient fms J 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 89 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 I had 1 
 
 thou hadst t not had. 
 
 he or she had J 
 
 We had "J 
 
 you had Wnot had. 
 they had J 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Je rV eus fias 
 tu n' eus pas 
 il ou die rV eut fias 
 
 } 
 
 Plural. 
 
 JVous n' eumes jias 
 
 vous tV eute^fias 
 
 Us ou elles n' eurent pas 
 
 1 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 
 I shall not 1 
 
 thou shalt not V have had. 
 
 he or she shall not j 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Je n' aural pas 
 tu n' auras pas 
 il ou elle n' aura pas 
 
 We shall not 
 you shall not 
 they shall not 
 
 1 
 
 Plural. 
 
 J\/'ou8 n' aurons pas 
 
 ha,ve had. 
 
 vous n' aurez pas >eu. 
 
 Us ou elles n* auront pas 
 
 >eu, 
 
 } 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 I have not "^ 
 
 thou hast not f>just had. 
 
 he or she has notj 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Je ne viens pas 
 tu ne viens pas 
 il ou elle ne vient pa 
 
 } 
 
 d' avoir* 
 
 Pn 
 
 We have not "^ 
 
 you have not p-just had. 
 
 they have notJ 
 
 JVous ne venons pas 
 
 vous ne veiiez pas 
 
 ila ou elles ne viennent pas 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 I am not 
 thou art not 
 he or she is not 
 
 y 
 
 Singular. 
 
 have. 
 
 We are not"^ 
 you are not ^to have, 
 they are notJ 
 VOL. II. 
 
 Je ne dois pas 
 tu ne dois pas 
 il ou elle ne doit pas 
 
 ] 
 
 Plural. 
 
 JVous ne devons pas 
 
 vous ne devez pas 
 
 ils ou elles ne doivent pas 
 
 }i 
 
90 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 
 I am not going 
 thou art not going 
 he or she is not going 
 
 ■1^ 
 
 ingj o 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Je ne vais fias 
 
 tu ne vas pas \. avoir* 
 
 il ou €lle ne va pas\ 
 
 I 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We are not going "] 
 
 you art not going S-to have. 
 
 they are not goingj 
 
 JSTous tC allons pas 
 
 vous n' allez pas 
 
 Us ou elles ne vont pa& 
 
 ] 
 
 avoir* 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Have thou not, JV*' aie pas. 
 Let us not have, A"' ayons pas. 
 Have not, JV' ayez pas. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 I should, would, could or'' 
 
 might 
 thou should st 
 he or she should 
 
 We should"] 
 
 you should j- not have. 
 
 they should J 
 
 Je n' aurais pas, 
 
 tu n' aurais pas, 
 
 il ou die n* aurait pas. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 JStous n* aurions pas, 
 
 vous n' auriez pas. 
 
 Us ou elle w' auraient pas. 
 
 PAST. 
 Singular. 
 
 I should not, Sec "^ 
 
 thou shouldst not Vhave had. 
 
 he or she should not J 
 
 Je n' aurais pas "j 
 
 tu n' aurais pas L ( 
 
 // ou elle n' aurait pas J 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We should not! 
 
 you should not V-have had. 
 
 they should not J 
 
 Mjus n' aurions pas 
 
 vous n' auriez pas >. en. 
 
 Us ou elles n' auraient pas 
 
 } 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 91 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I may not ") 
 
 that thou mayst not > have 
 that he or she may not J 
 
 Que je n* aie pas, ^ 
 
 que tu rC aie s pas, 
 
 qu' il ou qu' die n* ait /las.. 
 
 plura: 
 
 That we may notl 
 
 that you may not V have. 
 
 that they may not J 
 
 Que nous rV ayons pas, 
 
 que vous n' ayez pas. 
 
 qu' ils ou qu' elles n' aient pas. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might not 
 
 that thou mightst not j^have. 
 
 that he or she might not J 
 
 I 
 
 Que ^V n' eM55<? /za*. 
 
 que ?u n* eusses pas, 
 
 qu' zV ou qu die n' cut pas. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we might notl 
 
 that you might not > have. 
 
 tlmt they might not J 
 
 Que woz^s n' eussioj^s pas, 
 
 que vows n' eussiez pas, 
 
 qu' zTof ou qu* elles rC eussent pas^ 
 
 PAST. 
 
 That I may not ^ 
 
 ^/za^ thou mayst not I , , , 
 */ * u u >have had. 
 
 //«z; he or she may ; 
 
 not J 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Que ^> n' fliV /2«'5 "^ 
 
 que tu n' aies pas I 
 
 qu' il OM qu' c/Ze n' azV { 
 
 paa J 
 
 cw. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we may not "J 
 
 Ma^ you may not K have had. 
 
 that they may not J 
 
 Que nous n' ayons pas "^ 
 
 que vous w* av<?2r pas ( 
 
 qu lis ou qu e//es n' ai£nt [ 
 
 pas J 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might not "^ 
 itst 
 might 
 
 that thou mightst not I , , , 
 
 that he or she --i^^ J^^^^^^ ^^^'^• 
 
 not 
 
 Que je n* eusse pas "^ 
 
 que tu n' eusses pas 1 
 
 qu' il ou qu' e/Ze n' eut j 
 
 //a* J 
 
92 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 That we might not 
 that you might not 
 that they might not 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Que nous n' eussions pas^ 
 
 ►have had. 
 
 que vous n' eussiez pas I 
 qu' //« ou qu' e//es n' cw«- ( 
 sent pas J 
 
 A VERB CONJUGATED INTERROGAriVELT, 
 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN AVOIR, 
 
 IN order to conjugate a Verb interrogatively^ we must, 
 as in English, place the Pronoun immediately after the 
 Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Have I? M-je? 
 
 hast thou ? as-tu ? 
 
 has he or she ? a-t-il ou a-t-elle? 
 
 has one, 8cc. ? a-t-on ? 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Have we ? Avons-nous? 
 have you? avez-vous? 
 have they ? ont-ils ou ont-elles ? 
 have people, we, Sec. ? a-t-on? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Had we? Avions-nous? 
 
 had you ? aviez-vous ? 
 
 had they ? avaient lis ou elles? 
 
 Had I? Avais-je? 
 
 hadst thou? avais-tu? 
 
 had he or she ? avait-il ou e/Zt?.^ 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Had I? Eus.je? 
 
 hadst thou? eus-tu? 
 
 had he or she ? ew^-// ou die? 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Had we ? Eumes-nous? 
 
 had you? eutes-vous? 
 
 had they ? eurent-ils ou e//<?s .^ 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 Shall or will I 
 shalt thou 
 shall he or she 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I 
 
 have ? 
 
 Anrai-je ? 
 auras-tu ? 
 aura-t-il ou elle ? 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Shall we 
 
 shall you {- have ? 
 
 shall they 
 
 }' 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Aurons-noiis ? 
 aurez-vous? 
 auront-ils ou elles? 
 
 Have I 
 
 hast thou }► had ? 
 
 has he or she 
 
 ] 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Singular. 
 Ai-je 
 as-tu 
 
 a-t-il ou elle 
 
 } 
 
 Have we 1 
 have you >had? 
 have theyj 
 
 Had I ^ 
 
 hadstthou ^had? 
 had he or she J 
 
 Had we ") 
 had you >had? 
 had theyJ 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Avons-noiis 
 aruez-vous 
 ont'ils ou elks 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 SiNGULAK. 
 
 Avais-je 
 avais-tu 
 avail-il ou elle 
 
 } 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Avions-nous 
 avieZ'Vous 
 avaient-ils ou elles 
 
 >eu. 
 J 
 
 Had I ^ 
 
 hadst thou >had? 
 had he or she J 
 
 Had we 1 
 
 had you thad? 
 had they J 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Eu8-je "^ 
 
 eus-tu ^eu ? 
 
 eut-il ou €lle_^ 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Eumes-nous "^ 
 
 eutes-voiis y>€U? 
 
 eurent-ils ou clles^ 
 
 Shall or will I 
 shalt thou 
 shall he or she J 
 
 \ 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Aur ai-je 
 have had? aur as-tu ^eu ? 
 
 aura-t-ilouellej 
 
 I 
 
.94 
 
 PHILOSOPm 
 
 Shall we ") 
 
 shall you i have had ? 
 
 shall they J 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Aurons-noua 
 aurez-vous 
 auront Us ou elles 
 
 } 
 
 (?w 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 Siin^gular. 
 
 Have I just 
 hast thou just 
 has he or she just 
 
 ihad? 
 
 rtens-je 
 vins-tu 
 ■uurit-il ou elk 
 
 W'c 
 
 Have we just "J , 
 have you just i-had? 
 have they just J 
 
 Am I to "1 
 
 art thou to > have ? 
 is he or she to J 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ^^enons-nous 
 vcnez-Dous 
 viemienc-ils ou elles 
 
 FUTURE. 
 Singular. 
 
 Dois-je 
 
 dois-tu 
 
 doit-il ou die 
 
 K-d' avoir? 
 
 } 
 
 avoir ? 
 
 Are we to 
 are you 
 are they 
 
 *i} 
 
 have ? 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Devons-nous 
 
 d'evez-vous J- avoir ? 
 
 doivent-ils ou elles ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 
 Am I going to 
 
 art thou going to 
 
 is he or she going to J 
 
 1 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Vals-je 
 have ? vas-tu 
 
 va-t'il ou elle 
 
 Are we going to "J 
 
 are you going to K- have ? 
 
 are they going to J 
 
 Plural. 
 
 AUons-nous 
 
 allez-v ous > av oir ? 
 
 vont-ils ou elles 
 
 > avoir 
 
 } 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Singular. 
 Should, &c. I have ? Aiirais-je ? 
 shouldst thou have ? aurais tu? 
 should he or she have ? aurait- 
 il ou elle ? 
 
 Plural. 
 Should we have ? Aurions-nous? 
 should you have? auriez-vous? 
 should they have ? auraient-ils 
 ou elles? 
 
OF. LANGUAGE. 95 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Singular 
 
 Should I have 
 
 shouldst thou have ^had ? 
 
 should he or she l;iave 
 
 Aurais-je "^ 
 
 aurais-tu ^eu ? 
 
 Should we have "^ 
 should you have >had ? 
 should they have J 
 
 aurait-il ou elle^ 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Aurions-nous 
 auricz-vous 
 auraient-ils ou elks 
 
 J 
 
 A VERB CONJUGATED 
 
 INTERROGATIVELY AND NEGATIVELY, 
 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN AVOIR, 
 
 IN order to conjugate a Verb interrogatively and ne- 
 gatively, ne must be placed before the Verb conjugated 
 interrogatively, and pas or point, &c. after it. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SlNCULAJR. 
 
 Have I not? N' ui-jepaa? 
 
 hast thou not ? n' as-tu pas? 
 
 has he or she not ? n' a-t-il ou elle pas? 
 
 has one, any body, &c. not ? rC a-t-on pas. ? 
 
 Plural. 
 Have we not ? N* avons-nous pas ? 
 have you not ? n* avez-vous pas ? 
 have they not ? n' ont Us ou elks pas ? 
 have we, people, they, he. not ? n' a-t-on pas ? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 Singular. 
 Had I not ? N* avais-je pas ? 
 hadst thou not ? n* avais-tu pas ? 
 had he or she not ? n' avait-il ou die pas ? 
 
&6 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Plural. 
 Had we not ? JV' avions-nous fias ? 
 had you not ? n' aviez-vous fias ? 
 had they not ? n* avaient-ils ou elles pas ? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 Singular, 
 Had I not ? N' eus-je pas ? 
 hast thou not ? n' eus-tu pas ? 
 had he or she not ? w' eut-il ou elle pas ? 
 
 Plural. 
 Had we not ? JV* eumes-nous pas ? 
 had you not ? n' eutes-vous pas ? 
 had they not ? n' eurent-ils ou elles pas ? 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Shall or will I not ^ 
 
 shalt thou not ^have ? 
 
 shall he or she not J 
 
 A*' aurai-je pas ? 
 rV auras-tu pas ? 
 n' aura-t'il ou elle 
 
 Shall we not "^ 
 shall you not ^have? 
 shall they notj 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 JV' aurons-nous pas ? 
 
 n' aurez-~vous pas ? 
 
 w* auront-ils ou elles pas ? 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Have I not ^ 
 
 hast thou not J>had ? 
 has he or she notJ 
 
 singular. 
 
 W ai'je pas "^ 
 
 n' as-tu pas ^eu ? 
 
 n' a-t-il ou elle pas^ 
 
 Have we not "^ 
 have you not ^had ? 
 have they notJ 
 
 plural. 
 
 A*' avons-nous pas 
 
 rV avez-vous pas ^°.u? 
 
 n' ont'ils ou elles pas^ 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 Had I not "^ 
 
 hast thou not J>had ? 
 
 had he or she notJ 
 
 singular. 
 
 JV' avais-je pas ~\ 
 
 7z' avais-tu pas '^eu f 
 
 n' avait-ilow elk pas ^ 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 97 
 
 Had we not"^ 
 
 had you not ^had ? 
 
 had they notj 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 JV' avions-nous fias "^ 
 
 w' aviez-vous jlias ^eu? 
 
 n' avaient-ila ou elles pas J 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 Had I not 
 
 hast thou not V had ? 
 
 had he or she not J 
 
 ] 
 
 Had we not 
 had you not 
 had they not 
 
 } 
 
 had? 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 JV' eus-je fias 
 
 n' eus-tu fias 
 
 n' eut-il OM elle fia. 
 
 } 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 A*' eHmes-nous fias 
 
 tV eUtcs-vQUs pas 
 
 w' eurcnt-ils ou elles pas 
 
 Keu? 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Shall or will I notl 
 
 shalt thou not v have had ? 
 
 shall he or she not J 
 
 A** aurai-je pas 
 n* auras-tu pas 
 n* aura-t-il ou elle pas 
 
 ] 
 
 Shall we not 
 shall you not 
 shall they not 
 
 } 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 JSf* aurons-nous pas 
 have had ? w' aurez-vous pas 
 
 n* auront-ils ou elles pas 
 
 euy 
 
 ] 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 Have I not just 
 hast thou not just 
 has he or she not just 
 
 } 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 IJVe viens-je pas 
 ne viens-tupaa 
 ne -vient-il ou elle pas 
 
 Y 
 
 Have we not just "| 
 have you not just ^had? 
 have they not just J 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 IJ\re venons-nous pas 
 ne venez-vous pas 
 j ne viennent-ils ou elks 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 ji 
 
 /"■K 
 
 Am I not to 
 art thou not 
 is he or she 
 
 VOL. II 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 to > have 
 not to J 
 
 JVe dois-je pas 
 ne dois-tu pas 
 7ie doit-il ou elle pas 
 
 ] 
 
 avoir? 
 
98 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Are we not to 
 
 are you not to \. have ? 
 
 I 
 
 are they not to J 
 
 JVe devons-nmis fias 
 
 ne devez-vous fias 
 
 ne doivent-ils ou elks pas 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 
 Am I not going to 
 art thou not going 
 is he Of she not going 
 
 '0 |i 
 
 igtoj -^ 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 J^e vais-je pas 
 
 ne vas-tu fias L avoir? 
 
 ne va-t-il ou elle fias J 
 
 \ 
 
 Are we not going to 
 are you not going 
 are they not going 
 
 to J 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 IJV* allons-nous fias 
 n' allez-vous fias ^^ avoir? 
 
 ne vont-ils ou elles fias J 
 
 I 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Should I not ") 
 
 should St thou not 5>have ? 
 should he or she notj 
 
 Should we not "^ 
 should you not >have ? 
 should tliey notJ 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 JV" aurais-je fias? 
 
 n* aurais-tu fias ? 
 
 n' aurait-il ou elle fias ? 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 A*' aurions-nous fias ? 
 
 7i' auriez-vous fias ? 
 
 n' auraient-ils ou elles fias ? 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Should I not 
 
 shouldst thou not J>have had 
 
 should he or she notJ 
 
 I 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 JV' aurais-je fias 
 
 n^ aurais-tu fias 
 
 w' aurait'il ou elle fias 
 
 } 
 
 Should we not "^ 
 
 should you not >hate had ? 
 
 should they notJ 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 A*' aurions-nous fias 
 
 u' auriez-vous fias \. eu? 
 
 n' auraient-ils ou elles fias 
 
 } 
 
 As the Verb fo he is rendered by avoir^ when placed 
 before the following Adjectives, which, in French, be- 
 come so many Substantives having the import or mean- 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 99 
 
 ing thereof, I have thought it proper to inform you of 
 that circumstance, as it renders those expressions, that 
 frequently occur, idiomatical with respect to the Eng- 
 lish language ; please, therefore, to commit them to 
 memory. 
 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 
 
 'hungry, 
 
 
 "faim. 
 
 
 thirsty, 
 
 
 soif. 
 
 
 cold, 
 
 
 froid. 
 
 
 warm or hot, 
 
 
 chaud. 
 
 
 ashamed, 
 
 
 honte. 
 
 
 afraid, 
 
 
 }i€ur. 
 
 
 in the right. 
 
 
 raison. 
 
 
 in the wrong. 
 
 
 tort. 
 
 
 in need, 
 
 
 beaoin. 
 
 
 so good. 
 
 
 la honte. 
 
 
 obliged. 
 
 
 obligation. 
 
 4) 
 
 prudent. 
 
 ^ 
 
 de la firudence. 
 
 .0 
 
 reserved. 
 
 ■1' 
 
 de la resei-ve. 
 
 e2 
 
 grateful, 
 
 de la reconnaissance. 
 
 
 
 'wide. 
 
 
 
 ^de longueur (ou de 
 long). 
 
 
 
 broad. 
 
 
 
 de largeur (ou dc 
 
 
 
 
 
 -§ 
 
 large). 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 deep. 
 
 
 
 de profondeur. 
 
 
 G 
 
 thick. 
 
 
 rf' efiaisseur. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 high. 
 
 in circumference. 
 
 
 '~S 
 
 de hauteur (ou de 
 
 haut). 
 de circoriference (ou 
 . de tour). 
 
 
 twenty years old, bcc. | 
 
 
 vingt ans, Istc. 
 
 
 ^gro 
 
 vvn old. J 
 
 
 jvieil 
 
 li. 
 
 N. B. How old is expressed by quel age ; as how old are 
 you ? quel age avez-vous ? 
 
 FAMILIAR PHRASES OJV THE ABOVE IDIOMS. 
 
 He told me that he ivas not 
 
 hungry. 
 For my part, I am very hun- 
 
 grij. 
 Give me some drink, for I a?n 
 
 thirst II. 
 
 II m'a dit qu' il n' avait pas 
 
 faim. 
 Quant a moi, j' ai %ra.nd' fat m,^ 
 
 Donnez-moi a boire, car j' ai 
 soif. 
 
100 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 If you stay here, you will be 
 
 cold, 
 I now begin to be warm. 
 
 You will be warmer in the par- 
 lour. 
 
 I am ashamed to tell it to you. 
 
 Why should you be ashamed P 
 
 TiowX. be afraid ; speak. 
 
 Y'ou arc in the right to act thus. 
 
 He has been very wrong in this 
 business. 
 
 When you are in need of mo- 
 ney, apply to me. 
 
 Be so good as to make me a 
 pen. 
 
 I will be much obliged to you 
 for it. 
 
 He is not at all obliged to you. 
 
 Be prudent^ I entreat you. 
 
 You are not reserved enough 
 with her. 
 
 I am very grateful for the ser- 
 vice you have rendered me. 
 
 This carpet is seven yards long, 
 
 I'he river is more than half a 
 
 mile broad. 
 Is the well thirty feet deep ? 
 
 How thick is the ice ? 
 
 It is already five inches thick. 
 
 They say that this steeple is 
 one hundred yards high. 
 
 Do you believe he is six feet 
 
 high ? 
 England is above four hundred 
 
 leagues iii circumference. 
 
 How old are you, Miss ? 
 
 I shall be eighteen next spring. 
 
 Si vous restez ici, vous aurez 
 froid, 
 
 Je commence a present a avoir 
 chaud, 
 
 Vous aurez plus chaud dans le 
 salon. 
 
 J' ai honte de vous le dire. 
 
 Pourquoi auriez-yon^ honte ? 
 
 ^' ayez ipas Jieur ; parlez. 
 
 Vous avez raison d' agir ainsi. 
 
 II a eu grand tort dans cette 
 affaire. 
 
 Quand vous aurez besoin d' ar- 
 gent, adressez-vous a moi. 
 
 jlyez la bonte de me tailler une 
 plume. 
 
 Je vous en aurai de grandes 
 obligations. 
 
 II ne vous a aucune obligation, 
 
 jiyez de la prudence^ je vous en 
 conjure. 
 
 Vous n' a-vez pas assez de re- 
 serve avec elle. 
 
 J' ai beaucoup de reconnaissance 
 pour le service que vous m' 
 avez rendu. 
 
 Ce tapis a six verges de lon- 
 gueur (ou de long). 
 
 La riviere a plus d'un demi 
 mille de largeur (ou de large). 
 
 Le puits a-t-il trente pieds de 
 pf'ofondeur ? 
 
 Combien la glace a-t-elle of' 
 epaisseur ? 
 
 Elle a deja. cinq pouces d* 
 epaisseur. 
 
 On dit que ce clocher a cin- 
 quante toises de hauteur (ou 
 dehaut). 
 
 Croyez-vous qu' il cat six pieds 
 de haut ? 
 
 L'Angleterre a plus de quatre 
 cents lieues de circonference 
 (ou de tour). 
 
 Quel age «t^ez-vous. Mademoi- 
 selle ? 
 
 V aurai dix-huit ans au prin- 
 tems prochain. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 101 
 
 I thought that you nvere twen- 
 ty, at least. 
 
 He is grown very old since his 
 misfortunes. 
 
 Je croyais que vous arviez au 
 
 ttioins vingt ans. 
 II a beaucou ^vieilli depuis ses 
 
 malheurs. 
 
 AVOIR conjugated in the Third Person Singular, through. 
 its Moods and Tenses, with the Adverb of place, T 
 there, exemplified. 
 
 Note, that such Verbs as are conjugated in the Third Person Singular 
 are caUed IMPERSONALS. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT. 
 There is or there are, // y a. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 There was or there were, II y avait. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 There was or there were, // y cut. 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 There shall or there will be, // y aura. 
 
 PAST. 
 There has or there have been, II y a eu. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 There had been, // y avait eu. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 There had been, // y tut eu. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 There shall have been, // y aura eu. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 There has just been, // vient d^ y avoir. 
 
102 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 FUTURE. 
 There is or there are to be, II doit y avoir. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 There is or there are going to be, // va y avoir* 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 PRESENT. 
 There should be, // y aurait. 
 
 PAST. 
 There should have been, // y aurait eu, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 That there may be, Qu* il y ait. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 That there might be, Qu* il y eUt. 
 
 PAST. 
 That there may have been, Qu' il y ait eu. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That there might have been, Qu' il y eUt eu. 
 
 NEGATIVELY. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 PRESENT. 
 There is or there are not, // «' y a fias. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 There was or there were not, // n' y avait /las. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 There was or there were not, // n' y eut pas. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 103 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 There shall not or there will not be, // n' y aurafias. 
 PAST. 
 There has not or there have not been, Iln^ y a fias eu, 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR.. 
 There had not been, // n* y avait fias eu. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 There had not been, // n' y eut fias eu. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 There shall not have been, // n* y aura fias eu. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 There has not or there have ndt just been, // ne vientfias cP y 
 
 [aruoir. 
 FUTURE. 
 
 There is or there are not to be, // ne doit fias y avoir, 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 
 There is not or there are not going to be, // ne va fias y avoir. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 There should not be, // W y aurait fias, 
 
 PAST. 
 There should not have been, // n' y aurait fias eu* 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 2'hat there may not be^ Qu' // n* y ait fias. 
 
104 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 That there might not be, Qu* il n* y eitt fias. 
 
 PAST. 
 That there may not have been, Qu' il n* y ait pas eu. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That there might not have been, Qu' // n* y cut fias eu, 
 
 INTERROGATIVELY. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Is there or are there ? Y a-t-il? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 Was there or were there ? Y avait-il ? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 Was there or were there ? Y eut-il? 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 Shall or will there be ? Y aura-t-il ? 
 
 PAST. 
 Has or have there been ? Y a-t-il eu ? 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 Had there been ? Y avait-il eu ? 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 Had there been ? Y eut-t-il eu ? 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 Shall there have been ? Y aura-t-il eu? 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 Has or have there just been? Vient-il d' y avoir ^ 
 
 I 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 105 
 
 FUTURE. 
 Is there or are there to be ? Doit 41 y avoir? 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 Is there or are there going to be ? Va-tM y avoir ? 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Should or would there be ? Y aurait-il ? 
 
 PAST. 
 Should there have been ? Y auraii-il eu ? 
 
 INTERROGATIVELY Csf NEGATIVELY. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Is or are there not ? J^' y a-tdl fiaa ? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 Was or were there not? JV** y avait-il fias ? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 Was or were there not? A** y eut'ilfiaa? 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 i» Shall or will there not be ? A** y aura-tMfiaa ? 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Has there or have there not been ? JV** y a-t'il fiaa eu? 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 Had there not been? A** y avait-il fiaa eu? 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 Had there not been ? -A/** y eutKl/ias eu? 
 VOL. II. P 
 
106 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 Shall there not have been? JV* y aura-t-il fias eu? 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 Has there or have there not just been ? Ab vient-ilfias d*y avoir? 
 FUTURE. 
 Is there or are there not to be ? JVe doit-ilfias y avoir? 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 Is there or are there not going to be ? JsTe va-t'ilfias y avoir? 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 PRESENT. ^ 
 Should there not be? A*' z/ aurait-il pas ? 
 PAST. 
 Should there not have been? A^' y aurait-il pas eu? 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 SUCH other Verbs as are conjugated in the Third 
 Person Singular, are called Impersonak ; this denomina- 
 tion, which was intended to characterize those Verbs, is as 
 improperly applied as any hitherto used by grammarians ; 
 for the word Impersonal means what is without person, 
 which is not the case with respect to those Verbs, which 
 admit of the Pronoun //, and this word represents a sub- 
 ject understood, which must exist ; for the Verbs have 
 been introduced to speak of the existence of subjects to- 
 gether with an attribute. When we say, for instance, il 
 plenty it rains ; it represents such a subject as heaven^ sky^ 
 atmosphere^ weather^ Sec. and the expression it rains ^ im- 
 plies that the heavens or skies issue or pour rain. Had 
 the Romans, when they expressed the word phiit^ been 
 asked what rains f They would have readily replied 
 Civdum. The term Impersonal can only be given to the 
 Infinitive Mood^ which, indeed, is without person. Wailly 
 and Beauzee are, therefore, very correct in denominating 
 the Infinitive the Impersonal Mood. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 lo: 
 
 FAMILIAR PHRASES 
 
 ON IL r A. 
 
 There is, there are, some, many, &c. 
 
 Ts there a stage from Phila- 
 delphia to Charleston ? 
 
 There are now about thirty-two 
 millions of souls in France. 
 
 There are but nine in England. 
 
 There is a Gentleman below 
 who wants to speak to you. 
 
 There ivas a great fire yester- 
 day. 
 
 Was there any body killed ? 
 
 No ; but there have been above 
 twenty people hurt. 
 
 There ivill be a grand display 
 of fire-works next week. 
 
 There will be no bonfire on 
 account of this piece of 
 news. 
 
 I thought there would have been 
 more people. 
 
 Some people harve seen him. 
 
 Some authors firetend that Ho- 
 mer was born at Smyrna. 
 
 Many physicians are of this 
 
 opinion. 
 Many lose our esteem on a 
 
 close acquaintance. 
 Voltaire died twenty-five years 
 
 ago. 
 I have done it ten years ago. 
 Where were you, six months 
 
 ago? 
 I have not been there these 
 
 five years. 
 She arrived there six weeks 
 
 ago. 
 How far is it from Versailles 
 
 to Paris? 
 It is four leagues. 
 
 Y a-t-il une voiture publique de 
 Philadelphie a Charleston ? 
 
 Ilya main tenant environ tren- 
 
 te-deux millions d' ames en 
 
 France. 
 // n' z/ en a que neuf en An- 
 
 gleterre. 
 II y a Mii Monsieur en bas {ou 
 
 la bas) qui desire- vous par- 
 
 ler. 
 // y cut hier un grand incendie. 
 
 Y eut-il quelqu' un de tue ? 
 Non ; mais il y a eu plus de 
 
 vingt personncs de blessees. 
 
 // y aura un grand feu d' ar- 
 tifice la semaine prochaine. 
 
 // n' y aura pas de fcux de 
 joie pour cette nouvelle. 
 
 Je croyais qu' // y aurait eu 
 plus de monde. 
 
 II y a des gens qui V ont vu. 
 
 II y a des auteurs qui pretend- 
 ent qu' Homere naquit a 
 Smyrne. 
 
 Ilya bien des medccins qui 
 sont de cette opinion. 
 
 II y a bien des gens qui per- 
 dent a 1' examen. 
 
 II y a vingt-cinq ans que Vol- 
 taire est mort. 
 
 II y a dix ans que je 1' ai fait. 
 
 Gu etiez-vous, il y a six mois ? 
 
 II y a cinq ans que je n* y ai 
 
 ete. 
 II y a six semaines qu' elle y 
 
 est arrivee. 
 Combien y a-t-il de Versailles, a 
 
 Paris ? 
 II y a quatre lieues. 
 
108 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 How far is Lisle from Paris ? 
 
 It 18 one hundred and fifty 
 
 miles. 
 Jfoiv many regiments are there 
 
 in the army ? 
 There are thirty-seven. 
 How many houses were burnt? 
 
 There were twelve houses burnt. 
 
 How long have you been in A- 
 
 merica ? 
 Nine years. 
 How long is it since you saw 
 
 him ? 
 Three months. 
 How long httve you been lenrn- 
 
 ing French? 
 I have been learning it these 
 
 six months. 
 
 Combien y a-t-il de Lisle a Pa- 
 ris ? 
 II y a cent cinquante milles. 
 
 Combien y a-t-il de regimens 
 
 dans r armee ? 
 II y en a trente-sept. 
 Combien y a-t-il eu de maisons 
 
 de brulees ? 
 II y a eu douze maisons de 
 
 brulees. 
 Combien y a-t-il que vous etes 
 
 en Amerique ? 
 II y a neuf ans. 
 Combien y a-t-il que vous ne 
 
 r avez vu ? 
 II y a trois mois. 
 Combien y a-t-il que vous ap- 
 
 prenez le Fran9ais ? 
 II y a six mois que je 1' ap- 
 
 prends. 
 
 Note, there is, or there are, may be rendered, in 
 French by Voila, as follows, viz* 
 
 There is a fine shop. 
 There are handsome ladies. 
 There are fine horses. 
 
 Voila une belle boutique. 
 VtUd de belles demoiselles. 
 Voila de beaux chevaux. 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 Abstract and Auxiliary Verb etre, to be. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To be, etre. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I To have been, avoir ete. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Being, etant. 
 
 I Been, ete. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 109 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I am, Je mis. 
 
 thou art, tu es. 
 
 he or she is, il ou eile est. 
 
 one, any body, &c. is, on est. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We are, JVbus sommes, 
 you are, vous etes. 
 they are, //* ou elles sont, 
 we, people, they, &c. are, on est. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I was, J' etais. 
 
 thou wast, tu etais, 
 
 he or she was, il ou elle etait. 
 
 We were, M)us etions, 
 
 you were, vous 6tiez, 
 
 they were, ils ou elles etaient. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I was, Je fus, 
 
 thou was, tu Jus, 
 
 he or she was, il ou elle fut. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We were, nous f {hues, 
 
 you were, "uous fUtes, 
 
 they were, ils ou elles furtnt. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I shall or will be, Je serai, 
 
 thou shalt be, tu seras, 
 
 he or she shall be, il ou elle sera. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We shall be, JVau^ serons, 
 you shall be, vous serez. 
 they shall be, ils ou elles seront. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I have 
 
 thou hast Wbeen. 
 
 he or she has J 
 
 1 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 J' ai 
 
 tu as 
 il ou elle 
 
 J 
 
 etc. 
 
 We have"! 
 
 you have s-been. 
 
 they have J 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 JSTous avons 
 vous avez 
 iU ou dies out 
 
 } 
 
 St6. 
 
110 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 I had 
 thou had St 
 he or she had 
 
 } 
 
 been. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 J* avals 
 tu avam 
 il ou elle avail 
 
 We had] 
 
 you had Vbeen. 
 
 they had J 
 
 } 
 
 He, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 M)us avians 
 
 vous aviez 
 
 ils ou dies avaient 
 
 } 
 
 ete. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 I had 
 thou hadst 
 he or she had 
 
 } 
 
 been. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 J* eus 
 tu eus 
 il ou elle eut 
 
 } 
 
 ete. 
 
 We had 1 
 
 you had I been, 
 they had J 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Kous envies 
 
 vous elites 
 
 ils ou elles eurent 
 
 ] 
 
 etS, 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I shall or will have "J 
 thou shalt have I been, 
 
 he or she shall have J 
 
 J^ aurai 
 
 tu auras ^ete. 
 
 il ou elle aura 
 
 ] 
 
 We shall have 
 
 you shall have J- been. 
 
 they shall hav 
 
 e [l 
 vej 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 JVbus aurons "J 
 
 vous aurez y et4, 
 
 ils ou elles auront j 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 I have just been, Je viens d* etre, Sec. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 I am to be J Je dois etre, 8cc. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 
 I am going t© be, Je vais etre, &c. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 141 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Be (thou), Soi8. 
 let us be, soyons, 
 be, aoyez. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I should. Sec. be, Je serais. 
 thou shouldst be, tu serais. 
 he or she should be, il ou eile 
 serait» 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We should be, JVous serious, 
 you should be, vous seriez. 
 they should be, lis ou elks ser- 
 aient. 
 
 PAST. 
 I should have been, 7' aurais ete, &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I may 1 
 
 that thou mayest Ibe^ 
 that he or she may J 
 
 Queje sois, 
 que tu sois, 
 qu' il ou qu' e//^ soit. 
 
 That we may "1 
 [that you may v be. 
 that they may J 
 
 Que A^ous soyons, 
 
 que t^ows soyez. 
 
 qu' ?/« ou qu' e//<?« aoient. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might "J 
 
 that thou mightst ibe. 
 that he or she might J 
 
 Que jefusse, 
 que tu fusses, 
 qu' zV ou qu* elle fiHt. 
 
 That we might "| 
 that you might Ibe. 
 that they might J 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Que nous fiissio7i^, 
 
 que vous fussiez. 
 
 qu' 27« ou qu' elles fuasent* 
 
J 12 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PAST. 
 That I may have been, Que j* ale et6y &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That I might have been, Que feusse etSy 8cc. 
 
 ETRE conjugated in the Third Person Singular, through 
 its Tenses, with ce^ or the Pronoun //, as c* esty il est^ 
 it is. 
 
 INDICATIVE, 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 It is, C" est ou il est, 
 
 PRESENT anterior; 
 It was, C etait* 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 It was, Ce fut. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 It shall or will be, Ce sera, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 It has been, g*a ete, 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. * 
 
 It had been, g* avait ete, 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 It had been, f ' cut Ste, 
 
OF LANGUAGE. HS 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 It shall have been, 9' aura ete. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 It has just been, Ce ou il vient d' Stre, 
 
 FUTURE. 
 It is to be, Ce doit etre, 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 It is going to be, Ce ou il va etre. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 It should be, Ce aeraitf &c. 
 
 / PAST. 
 
 It should have been, 9' aurait itS, &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That it may be. Que ce soit) &c. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 That it may have been, Que 9' ait etS, &c. 
 
 PAST. 
 That it might be. Que ce/Ht^ &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 That it might have been, Que c' eUt Ste, 8cc. 
 VOL. H. CL 
 
114 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 NEGATIVELY. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 It is not, Ce n' est fias ou U n* esi fias* 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 It was not, Ce n' etait fias, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 It was not, Ce nefut pas. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 It shall or will not be, Ce ne sera fias» 
 
 PAST. 
 It has not been, Ce n* a pas etc. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 It had not been, Ce n' avait pas ete. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 It had not been, Ce n' eut pas ete. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 
 It shall not have been, Ce «' aura pas ete, 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 It has not just been, Ce ne vient pas d' ^tre, 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 It is not to be, Ce ne doit pas etre, 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 
 It is not going to be, Ce ne va pas etre. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 115 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 It should not be, Ce ne seratt fias, 
 
 PAST. 
 It should not have been, Ce n' aurait jiaa etc, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 That it may not be, Que ce ne soit fias, Sec. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 That it may not have been. Que ce n' ait fias ete^ &c. 
 
 PAST. 
 That it might not be. Que ce nefut /ms, &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That it might not have been, Que ce n' eUt pas He^ &c. 
 
 INTERROGATIVELY. 
 
 Is it, Est-ce ou cst-il? 
 was 'it, etait ce ? 
 was it, fut-ce ? 
 will it be, sera-ce ? 
 would it be, serait-ce ? 
 
 INTERROGATIVELY £5? NEGATIVELY. 
 
 Is it not, JV" est ce-Jias ou n' est-il fias? 
 was it not, n' etait-ce pas ? 
 was it not, ne fut-ce fi as? 
 will it not be J ne sera-ce pas? 
 would it not be, ne serait-ce pas ? 
 
116 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 FAMILIAR PHRASES 
 
 ON C* ESt, IL ESt, It IS. 
 
 It is the law that prescribes it. 
 
 It is they who have done it. 
 
 /* it you or I who shall speak 
 first? 
 
 Was it the Phoenicians who in- 
 vented navigation ? 
 
 Was it not you who told it ? 
 
 It was you who had promised 
 to acquaint me with the news. 
 
 It was his friend who informed 
 him of the particulars of the 
 engagement. 
 Was it the grenadiers or the 
 light troops who first enter- 
 ed the city ? 
 
 It has been the custom among 
 the ancients. 
 
 They say that it had been the 
 result. 
 
 If zr had been another, he would 
 have miscarried in his un- 
 dertaking. 
 
 Is it the" fourth regiment that 
 will be embarked ? 
 
 It would be a pity to dismiss 
 him. 
 
 It would have been a great loss 
 to the country. 
 
 It is working too much indeed. 
 
 It was acting without reflection. 
 
 It was destroying a fine work. 
 
 One must be very barbarous to 
 insult him in his misfortunes. 
 
 To be satisfied with one's lot 
 
 is to be happy. 
 It is not enjoying the pleasures 
 
 of friendship to love nobody. 
 
 It was not encouraging him to 
 continue to speak to him in 
 this manner. 
 
 C' est la loi qui 1' ordonne. 
 Ce sont eux qui 1' ont fait. 
 Est-ce vous ou moi qui parlerai 
 
 le premier ? 
 Sont-ce les Pheniciens qui ont 
 
 invente la navigation ? 
 A*' est-ce pas vous qui 1' avez 
 
 dit? 
 C" etait vous qui aviez promis de 
 
 m' apprendre les nouvelles. 
 Ce fut son ami qui lui apprit 
 
 les details du combat. 
 
 Fut-ce les grenadiers ou les 
 
 troupes legeres qui entrerent 
 
 les premiers dans la ville ? 
 9' a etc la coutume parmi les 
 
 anciens. 
 On dit que 9' avait ete le re- 
 
 sultat. 
 Si 9' avait ete un autre, il au- 
 
 rait echoue dans son entre- 
 
 prise. 
 Sera-ce le quatrieme regiment 
 
 qui sera embarque ? 
 Ce serait dommage de le ren- 
 
 voyer. 
 9' aurait ete une grande perte 
 
 pour la patrie. 
 C" est trop travailler, en verite. 
 C etait agir sans reflexion. 
 C" etait detruire un bel ou- 
 
 vrage. 
 C est etre bien barbare que 
 
 de r insulter dans ses mal- 
 
 heurs. 
 C" est etre heureux que d' etre 
 
 content de son sort. 
 Ce 71* est fias goiiter les plai- 
 
 sirs de 1' amitie que de n* 
 
 aimer personne. 
 Ce w' etait pas V encourager a 
 
 continuer que de lui parler 
 
 de cette maniere. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 iir 
 
 It is with you as with him. 
 
 It is with the son as with the 
 mother. 
 
 It is with poetry as with paint- 
 ing. 
 
 It is with the diseases of the 
 mind as with those of the 
 body. 
 
 // en est de vous comme de lui. 
 // en est du fils conime de la 
 
 mere. 
 // en est de la poesie comme 
 
 de la peinture. 
 // en est des maladies de 1' 
 
 esprit comme de celles du 
 
 corps. 
 
 FIRST REGULAR CONJUGATION IN ER, 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN PORTER, TO CARRY. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To carry, Porter, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I To have carried, ^voir fiortS* 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Carrying, Portant. \ Carried, Porte. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I carry, I do carry or I am carrying,* Je fiorte, 
 
 thou carriest, &c. tu fiortcs, 
 
 he or she carries, &c. it ou eUe fwrte, 
 
 one, any body, &;c. carries, on jiorte. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We carry. Sec. JVbiis fiortons, 
 
 you carry, Sec. vous Jiortez. 
 
 they carry, &c. its ou ellts fwrtent, 
 
 we, people, they, Sec. carry, on /lorte. 
 
 * The scholar will observe that the French have in their conjugation 
 no equivalent for do and did, and use not the Participle Present as the 
 English do. 
 
118 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I did carry or I was carrying, Je fiortais, 
 
 thou didst carry, tu portals, 
 
 he or she did carry, il ou die fiortait, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We did carry, Mcus fioriions, 
 
 you did carry, vous fiortkz. 
 
 they did carry, Us ou elles portaient, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I carried, Je fiortai, 
 
 thou carriedst, tu portas, 
 
 he or she carried, il ou elle porta* 
 
 Pt,URAL. 
 
 We carried, JVous fiortdmes, 
 
 you carried, vous portdtcs, 
 
 they carried, Us ou elles porterent, 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I shall or will carry, Je porterai, 
 
 thou shalt carry, tu porteras, 
 
 he or she shall carry. How elle port era, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We shall carry, J\rous porterons, 
 
 you shall carry, vous porterez. 
 
 they shall carry, Us ou elles porteront, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I have carried, &c. J' ai porte, Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 I had carried, &c. J' avais porte, Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 1 had carried, &:c. J* eus porte^ Sec. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 119 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 
 I shall or will have carried, J' auraifiorte, &c. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 I have just carried, Je viens de porter) &c. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 I am to carry, Je dots fiorter, &c. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 
 I am going to carry, Je vaia fiortcr^ &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Carry (thou), Porte, 
 let us carry, fiortons, 
 carry, fiortez, 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I should carry, Je fiorterais. 
 
 thou shouldst carry, tu fiorterais. 
 
 he or she should carry, // ou tile fiorterait* 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We should carry, JVbws fiorterions, 
 
 you should carry, vous fiorteritz, 
 
 they should carry. Us ou tiles fiorteraient. 
 
 PAST. 
 I should have carried, J' aurais fiorte, &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may 
 
 that thou mayst }- carry. 
 
 that he or she may 
 
 V can 
 J 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Que je fiorte. 
 
 que tu partes, 
 
 qu' il ou qu' elle fiorte. 
 
120 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 That we may 
 
 lay "I 
 
 that you may V carry. 
 that they may J 
 
 Que nous fiortions, 
 
 que vous fiortiez, 
 
 qu' Us ou qu' cites fiortent. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might "J 
 
 that thou mightst V carry. 
 
 that he or she might J 
 
 Que je portasse, 
 que ^M fiortasses, 
 qu' 27 ou qu* e//^ portat. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Tlmt we might "J 
 
 Ma^ you might V carry. 
 
 that they might J 
 
 Que nous portassions, 
 
 que T^OMs portassiez, 
 
 qu* ?7« ou qu' e//e« portassent. 
 
 PAST. 
 7y«z? I may have carried, Que j' aie porte, &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That I might have carried, Que j* eiisse porte, Sec. 
 
 WE shall now request your attention to the conjugation 
 of the reflective Verb S* Habiller^ to dress one's self: and 
 as such conjugations are difficult to the English learner, 
 we will conjugate S' Habiller^ at full length, four various 
 ways, after the manner of avoir, as a model. 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 OF THE REFLECTIVE VERBS, 
 
 EXEMPLIFIED 
 
 IN 5' HABILLER, TO DRESS ONE'S SELF. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 To dress one's self, S^ habilkr* 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 121 
 
 PAST. 
 
 To have dressed one's self, S' etre habille* 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Dressingone'sself, 'S'AadzV/aw?. | Dressed, Habille. 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I dress, I do dress or I am dressing myself, Je m' habille. 
 
 thou dressest thyself, tu V habilles. 
 
 he ? J C himself, iQ , . ,.,. 
 
 she r'"'"? herself, eUe\' ''"'""'■ 
 
 one, any body, 8cc. dresses one's self, on «' habille, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We dress ourselves, JVbw* nous habillons, 
 
 you dress yourself or yourselves, vous voua habillez, 
 
 ils } 
 they dress themselves, ,. > s' habillent. 
 
 People, they, &c. dress themselves, on s' habille. 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I did dress or I W2is dressin?^ myself, Je m' habillais. 
 
 thou didst dress thyself, tu V habillais, 
 
 he } ,., , Uiimself, il} , , .... . 
 
 , > did dress < , ,c n c ^ habtllait, 
 she 3 ^herself, elle^ 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We did dress ourselves, JVbus nous habillions, 
 you did dress yourselves, -uous vous habilliez. 
 
 they did dress themselves \ ., ^ s' habillaient, 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I dressed myself, Je m' liabillai, 
 thou dressedst thyself, tu V habillas, 
 he dressed himself, il s' habilla. 
 
 VOL. H. R 
 
122 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We dressed ourselves, JVous nous habilldmes, 
 you dressed yourselves, vous vous habilldtes. 
 they dressed themselves, Us s' habillerent. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I shall or will dress myself, Je m' habillerai, 
 thou shalt dress thyself, tu t* habilleras, 
 he shall dress himself, il «' habillera. 
 
 We shall dress ourselves, JS/ous nous habillerons, 
 you shall dress yourselves, vous vous habillerez, 
 they shall dress themselves, Us s' habUleront, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I have dressed myself, Je me suis habUle*, 
 thou hast dressed thyself, tu t' es habUle, 
 he has (h'essed himself, U s' est habille, 
 she has dressed herself, elle «' est habUlee, 
 
 PLURAL, 
 
 We have dressed ourselves, J^oiis nous sommes habUles, 
 
 you have dressed yourselves, vous vous etes habUles, 
 
 ,1 , 1 1 ., , C Us se sont habUles, 
 
 they have dressed themselves, -< ,, , ,.„. 
 
 ^ cues se sont habUlees, 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 I had dressed myself, Je vt' etais habUle^ 6cc. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 I had dressed myself, Je mefus habUle.^ £cc. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 I shall have dressea myself, Je me serai habille, Sec. 
 
 * The Past Tenses, contrary to the genuis of the English language, are 
 formed by adding diilercnt Tenses of etre, to be. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 I have just dressed myself, Je viens de m' habiller, &c. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 I am to dress myself, Je dois m* habiller, Sec. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 I am going to dress myself, Je vais m' habiller^ Sec. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Dress thyself, Habille-tou 
 
 let us dress ourselves, habillons-nous. 
 
 dress \ , ' ? habillez- 
 
 ^ yourselves, 5 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I should dress myself, Je m' Iiabillerais, 
 thou shouldst dress thyself, tu t' habillerais, 
 he should dress himself, il s' IiabiUerait. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We should dress ourselves, JVous nous habillerions, 
 you should dress yourselves, voua vous habilleriez. 
 they should dress themselves, ils s' habiller aient, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I should have dressed myself, Je me serais habille^ &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 T?iat I may dress myself. Que ye /«' habille, 
 that thou mayst dress thyself, que tu f habillea, 
 that he may dress himself, qu' il *' habille. 
 
124 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we may dress ourselves, Que noiLs nous habillions, 
 that you may dress yourselves, que vous vous habilliez. 
 that they may dress themselves, qu' ils s* habillent. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might dress myself. Que je rn' habillasse, 
 that thou mightst dress thyself, que tu f habillassea, 
 that he may dress himself, qu' il «' habilldt. 
 
 That w^e might dress ourselves. Que nous nous habillassions. 
 that you might dress yourselves, que vous vous habillassiez, 
 that they might dress themselves, qu' Us s' habillassent, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 That I may have dressed myself, Que je me sois habille, 8cc. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 That I might have dressed myself, QueyV mefusse habille, &c. 
 
 NEGATIVELY. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 r 
 
 j*s self, < 
 
 L 
 
 JVe s* habiller fiasy 
 Not to dress one's self, ^ ou 
 
 ne pas s' habiller. 
 
 PAST. 
 Not to have dressed one's self, M s' etre fias habillS. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. ' - 
 
 Not dressing one's self, JVe s' habillant fias» 
 
 PAST. 
 Not having dressed one's self, JVe s' etant fias habille* 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 125 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I do not dress or I am not dressing myself, Je ne tyC habille fias, 
 thou dost not dress thyself, tu 7ie t' habilles pas. 
 
 f > does not dress s u "^ j^' wV ou elle ne s* habille fias. 
 
 one, &c. does not dress one's self, on ne s' habille fias, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We do not dress ourselves, JVous ne nous habillons pas, 
 you do not dress yourselves, vous ne vous habillez pas, 
 they do not dress themselves, ils ou elles ne «' habillent pas„ 
 people, &c. do not dress themselves, on ne s' habille pas, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je ne m* habillais pas. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I did not dress or I was 
 not dressing myself, 
 
 thou didst not dress thyself, tu ne V habillais pas, 
 he did not dress himself, il ne s' habillait pas. 
 
 We did not dress ourselves, JVbua ne nous liabillions pas, 
 you did not dress yourselves, -uous ne vous liabilliez pas. 
 they did not dress themselves, ils ne s* habillaient pas. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 1 did not dress myself, Je ne m' habillai pas, 
 thou didst not dress thyself, tu ne V habillas pas. 
 he did not dress himself, il ne s' habilla pas. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We did not dress ourselves, iN'ous ne nous habilldmes pas, 
 you did not dress yourselves, vous ne vous h.ibilldtes pas, 
 they did not dress themselves, ils ne «' habillerent pas. 
 
126 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I shall not dress myself, Je ne m' habillerai pas. 
 thou shalt not dress thyself^ tu ne V habilleras fias, 
 he shall not dress himself, il ne s' habilkra pas. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We shall not dress ourselves, JVbus ne nous habillerons fias, 
 you shall not dress yourselves, vous ne vous habillerez pas, 
 they shall not dress themselves, Us ne s' habilleront pas. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I have not dressed myself, Je ne me suis pas "1 
 
 thou hast not dressed thyself, tu ne t' es pas K-habille. 
 
 he has not dressed himself, // ne s' est pas J 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We have not dressed ourselves, A^ous ne nous sommes pas 
 you have not dressed yourselves, vous ne vous etes pas 
 they have not dressed themselves. Us ne se sont pas. 
 
 1 r 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 I had not dressed myself, Je ne m' etais pas habUle^ Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 I had not dressed myself, Je ne me f us pas habUle, Sec. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 I shall not have dressed myself, Je ne me serai pas habUle, Sec. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 I have not just dressed myself, Je ne v tens pas de m' habUler^ Sec. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 1 am not to dress myself, Je ne dots pas m' habUler, Sec. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 I am not going to dress myself, Je ne vais pas m' habUler^ Sec. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 127 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Do not dress thyself, Ne V habille pas, 
 
 let us not dress ourselves, ne nous habillons pas* 
 
 do not dress < ^ , > ne vous habillez pas, 
 
 I yourselves 3 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I should, Sec. not dress myself, Je ne m' habillerais pas, 
 thou should St Dot dress thyself, tu ne C habillerais pas, 
 he should not dress himself, // ne s* habillerait pas, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We should not dress ourselves, J^oils ne nous habillerions pas, 
 you should not dress yourselves, vous ne vous habilleriez pas, 
 they should not dress themselves, ils ne «' habilleraient pas, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I should not have dressed myself, Je ne me serais pas habille^ kc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I may not dress myself, Queye ne m* habillc pas. 
 that thou mayst not dress thyself, que tu ne t* habilles pas, 
 that he may not dress himself, qu' il ne s* habille pas, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we may not dress ourselves. Que nous ne nous habillions pas, 
 that you may not dress yourselves, que vous ne vous liabilUezpas, 
 that they may not dress themselves, qu' ils ne s* habillent pas. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 lliat I might not dress myself, Queje ne m* habillasse pas. 
 that thou mightst not dress thyself, que tu ne /' habillasses pas. 
 that he might r.ot dress himself, qu' // ne s* habiUdt pas. 
 
128 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we might not dress ourselves, Que now ne nous habillas' 
 
 sions /las. 
 that you might not dress yourselves, que vous ne vous hahillas' 
 
 siez pas. 
 that they might not dress themselves, qu' ils ne s* habillassent 
 
 pas. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 That I m.ay not have dressed myself, Que je tie me sois pas 
 
 habille, &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That I might not have dressed myself. Que je ne me fosse pas 
 
 INTERROGATIVELY. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 • Do I dress myself? ) m' ImbUU-je? 
 
 am 1 dressmg myselt : 3 •' 
 
 dost thou dress thyself? t* Iiabilles-tu? 
 
 1 Sl^e > , ^\{\m%t\P.\s' habille-t-il? 
 
 '^""^'^ I she 5 '^''''^^ I hersdf ?" 5 s' habille-t-elle ? 
 
 does one dress one's self? s' habille-t-on? 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Do we dress ourselves? A^ous habillons-nous ? 
 
 do you dress yourselves ? vous habillez--oous ? 
 
 , ^, , ^, 1 5 ^ «' fiabillent-ils ? 
 
 do they dress themselves ? | ^, f^^m^^.^^u^^ j. 
 
 do people dress themselves? «' habille-t-on? 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 ,, . > my stlP. M* habillais-Je ? 
 was 1 dressmg 3 
 
 didst thou dress thyself? t* habillais-tu? 
 did he dress himself? *' habillait-il? 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 139 
 
 Did we dress'ourselves ? J^ous habillions-nous ? 
 did ypu dress yourselves ? -oous habilUez-vous ? 
 did they 'dress themselves ? «* habiliment -Us ? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Did I dress myself? M' habillai-je? 
 didst thou dress thyself ? t* habillas-tu ? 
 did he dress himself ? s* habilla-t-il? 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Did we dress ourselves ? J^oiis habilldmes-nous ? 
 did you dress yourselves ? votis habilldtes-vous ? 
 did they dress themselves ? «' habillerent-ils ? 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Shall I dress myself? iW' habillerai-je ? 
 shalt thou dress thyself ? t* habilleras-tu ? 
 shall he dress himself? s' habillera-t-il? 
 
 Shall we dress ourselves ? M)U8 habiUerons-nous ? 
 shall you dress yourselves ? vous habillerez-vous ? 
 shall they dress themselves? «' habiUeront-ils? 
 
 PAST. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Have I dressed myself? Me suis-je' 
 
 hast thou dressed thyself? t* es-tu \.habiUe? 
 
 has he dressed himself? «' est-U 
 
 ] 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Have we dressed ourselves ? JVbus sommea-nous "J 
 
 have you dressed yourselves? voils etes-vous S-habilles? 
 
 have they dressed themselves ? se sont-ils J * 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 Had I dressed myself ? M' etais-je habille ? 8cc. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 Had I dressed myself? Mefua-je habille? &c. 
 VOL. II. s 
 
130 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 Shall I have dressed myself? Me sercU-je habilU? &c. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 Have I just dressed myself? Viens-je de m* habiUer ? &ۥ 
 
 FUTURE. 
 Am I to dres,s myself? Dois-je trC habiller? Sec. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 Am I going to dress myself? Vais-je m' habiller ? &c. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Should I dress myself ? M* habillerais-je f 
 shouldst thou dress thyself? f habillerais-tu ? 
 should he dress himself? *' habiller ait 41? 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Should we dress ourselves ? JVous habillerions-nous ? 
 should you dress yourselves ? vous habilleriez-vous ? 
 should they dress themselves ? s' habiller aient-ils ? 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Should I have dressed myself? Me serais-je habillS? &c. 
 
 INTERROGATIVELY ^ NEGATIVELY. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Do I not dress or am I not dressing myself ? J^em' habille-jefiasf 
 
 dost thou not dress thyself? ne t* habilles-tu pas ? 
 
 , C he > J C himself, ? ne s' habille-t-il ou elle 
 
 does < , >■ not dress < , \r:, t ^ 9 
 ^ or she 3 c °^ herselt : 3 pas f 
 
 does one not dress one's self? ne s' habille-l-on fias P 
 
OF LANGUAGE. J3l 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Do we not dress ourselves ? JVe nous habillons-nous fias ? 
 do you not dress yourselves? ne -vmis habillez-vous pas ? 
 do they not dress themselves? ne s* habillent-ils ou elles pas? 
 do people not dress themselves? ne s' habille-t-on pas ? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGTJLAK. 
 
 Did I not dress or was I not dressing myself? Ae m' habillais-je 
 
 pas? 
 didst thou not dress thyself? ne t' habillais-tu pas ? 
 did he not dress himself? ne s' habillait4l pas ? 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Did we not dress ourselves? JVe nous habillzons -nous pas? 
 did yol^hot dress yourselves ? ne vous habilliez-vous pas ? 
 did they not dress themselves ? ne s' habillaient-ils pas ? 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Did I not dress myself? JVe m* liabillai-je pas? 
 didst thou not dress thyself? ne f habillas-tu pas ? 
 did he not dress himself? ne s' habilla't-ilpas? 
 
 Did we not dress ourselves ? JVe nous habilldmes-nous pas ? 
 did you not dress yourselves ? ne -vous habilldtes-vous pas ? 
 did they not dress themselves ? ne s' habillerent-ils pas? 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Shall I not dress myself? J\''e m' habilleraUje pas? 
 shalt thou not dress thyself? ne V habilleras-tu pas? 
 shall he not dress himself? ne s' habillera-i4l pas ? 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Shall we not dress ourselves, J\''e nous habiUtronS'UOus pas ? 
 shall you not dress yourselves, ne vous Imbillerez-vous pas ? 
 shall they not dress themselves, ne s* habilkront-ils pas ? 
 
 PAST. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Have I not dressed myself? JVe me suis-je pas^ 
 
 hast thou not dressed thyself? ne f es-tupas yhabille? 
 
 has he not dressed himself? ve s* eaAlhas i 
 
32 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Have we not dressed ourselves ? J^e nous sommes'nous fias^ ^ 
 have you not dressed yourselves ? ne vous etes-vous fias 
 have they not dressed themselves ? ne se sont-ils fias 
 
 pas t ?i 
 
 2 H 
 
 J <i 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 Had I not dressed myself? JVe m' etais-je fias habille? &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 Had I not dressed myself? JSfe me fus-je pas habille? &c. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 Shall I not have dressed myself? M'e me serai-je fias hah'ile? Sec. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 Have I not just dressed myself? M vien^-jepas de m' hahiller? 8cc , 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Am I not to dress myself? J\!'e dois-je pas in? habilkr^ &c. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 Am I not going to dress myself? JsTe vais-je pas m* habiller? Sec. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Should I not dress myself? JVe w' habillerais-je fias? 
 shouldst thou not dress thyself? ne f habillerais-tu pas? 
 should he not dress himself? ne s' habillerait-il fias ? 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Should we not dress ourselves? J^e nous habilkrions-nous fias ? 
 should you not dress yourselves? ne vous habilleriez vous fias? 
 should they not dress themselves? ne s' habiller aient -Us pas? 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Should I not have dressed myself? JVe ne serais-je pas habille ? &cc. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 in 
 
 ESSENTIAL REMARK. 
 
 THERE are several French Verbs, which, though 
 reflective, are not rendered as such in English, and 
 considering the frequent mistakes occasioned thereby, 
 we here subjoin a list of such Verbs as are reflective only 
 in French, which we desire the scholar to commit to 
 memory. 
 
 VERBS REFLECTED IJV FREATCIf. 
 
 abonner, to compound. 
 absienir, to abstain. 
 accorder, to agree. 
 assoir, to sit down. 
 attacher, to stick. 
 baigner, to bathe. 
 baisser, to stoop. 
 cantonner, to canton. 
 couchery to go to bed. 
 debattre, to struggle. 
 deborder^ to flow over. 
 dedire, to retract. 
 de/ier, to distrust. 
 de/iec/ier, to make haste. 
 demetre, to resign. 
 desist er, to give over. 
 elancer, to leap upon. 
 emparer, to seize upon. 
 emfiorter, to get in a passion. 
 emfiresser, to be eager. 
 €71 aller^ to go away. 
 endormir^ to fall asleep. 
 enfuir^ to run away. 
 enhardir, to grow bold. 
 enraciner, to take root. 
 enrhumer, to catch cold. 
 enrichir^ to grow rich. 
 entretenir^ to discourse with. 
 envoler, to fly away. 
 
 ^^— >. i::r;. 
 
 esrjuiver, to steal away. 
 eionner, to M'onder. 
 evamuir^ to faint away. 
 evafiorer^ to evaporate. 
 
 «' cvertuer^ to strive. 
 
 sefdcher^ to get angry. 
 
 sefaire^ to get used. 
 
 sefarder^ to paint. 
 
 sejier^ to trust. 
 
 sejigurer^ to fancy. 
 
 sejietrir^ to fade away. 
 
 se fondre^ to melt. 
 
 se formaliser^ to find fault. 
 
 *e glisser, to creep in. 
 
 «e Aarer, to make haste. 
 
 &•' iinaginer, to fancy, 
 
 «' ingerer, to intermeddle. 
 
 s' insinuer, to steal in. 
 
 5e lever, to rise. 
 
 «e Uquefier, to liquefy. 
 
 5e marier, to marry. 
 
 se mefier, to distrust. 
 
 «e mepreiidre, to mistake. 
 
 «e moquer, to laugh at. 
 
 5e mutiner, to mutiny. 
 
 5(? piquer, to pretend to. 
 
 «e plaindre, to complain. 
 
 se iiromener, to walk. 
 
 5e rapfieler, to recollect. 
 
 5c rejouir, to rejoice. 
 
 «e repentir, to repent. 
 
 se reposer, to rest. 
 
 5e ressouvenir, to remember. 
 
 «e revolter, to rebel. 
 
 «(? saisir, to seize upon. 
 
 «e soumettre, to submit. 
 
 «e souvenir, to remember. 
 
 sc vanter, to boast. 
 
134 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The scholar knowing, from the conjugation of porter 
 and *' hahiller^ that the tenses of a regular Verb are form- 
 ed from the Injimtive^ may, by comparing any Verb of 
 that conjugation with aller^ acquire a very just idea of 
 what constitutes the irregularity of a Verb. 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 or THE 
 
 VERB, ALLER, TO GO, 
 
 WITH ITS RADICAL TENSES ONLY 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To go, Aller. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I To have gone, etre * alle. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Going, Mlant, 
 
 Gone, Alle. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SIKGULAR. 
 
 I go, I do go, I am going, Je 
 
 vais, 
 thou goest, &c. tu vas, 
 he or she goes, il ou elle va, 
 one, any body, Sec. goes, on va. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We go, JVous allons, 
 you go, V0U8 allez, 
 they go, ils ou elles vont, 
 people, we, they, &c. go, 
 on va. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 was gomg. 
 
 I did go, or I 
 
 allais. 
 thou didst go, tu allais. 
 he did go, il allait. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We did go, JVous allions, 
 you did go, vous alliez, 
 they did go^ ils allaient. 
 
 * etre is used instead of avoir to form the past tenses; thus we sayjff 
 3uis alley I have gone, and never ^■' ai alle. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 135 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I went, J^ allai, 
 thou went, tu alias* 
 he went, il alia. 
 
 We went, JVbws alldmes. 
 you went, vous alldtes, 
 they went, its allerent. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 1 shall, or will go, J* ind, 
 thou shalt go, tu iras, 
 he shall go, il ira. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We shall go, JVous irons. 
 you shall go, -vous irez. 
 they shall go, ils ironu 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Go (thou), Va, 
 let us go, allons. 
 go, aUez. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL, 
 
 I should, would or could go, 
 
 J* irais, 
 thou shouldst go, tu irais, 
 he should go, // irait. 
 
 We should go, Mju^ irions, 
 you should go, vou^ iriez, 
 they should go, ils iraient. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I may go, Que J* aille, 
 that thou mayst go, que tu 
 
 allies, 
 that he may go, qu *// aille. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we may go. Que nous al- 
 liens, 
 that you may go, quevous alliez, 
 that they may go, qu 'ils aillent. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might go. Que j' allasse, 
 
 that thou might'st go, que tu allasses. 
 
 that he might go, qu' il alldt. 
 
136 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we might go, Que nous allassions, 
 that you might go, que vous allassiez, 
 that they might go, qu' Us aUassent, 
 
 THE VERB REFLECTIVE 
 
 S* EN ALLER, TO GO AWAY, IS THUS CONJUGATED. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To go away, S' en aller. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 To have gone away, S' en etre alle, 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Going away, 5' en allant, | Gone away, En alle, 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I go, I do go, I am going away, Je m' envais oxije m' en vas. 
 
 thou goest away, tu f en -vas. 
 
 he or she goes away, il ou elle s' en va, 
 
 one, any body, &c. goes away, on s* en va. 
 
 We go away, JVbus nous en allons. 
 you go away, uous vous en allez, 
 they go away. Us ou elles s' en vont. 
 people, we, they. Sec go away, on s' en va. 
 And so on for the other tenses. 
 
 PAST TENSES. 
 
 'AST. 
 
 I have 
 
 ^ 
 
 'AST ANTERIOR. 
 
 I had 
 
 >^ 
 
 'AST ANT. PERIODICAL, 
 
 . I had { 
 
 go 
 
 'AST POSTERIOR. 
 
 I shall have J 
 
 Je 7)1* en suis "^ 
 Je 7n' en etais 
 Je m' enfus ("^ 
 Je m* en serai 
 
 Y' 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 157 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Go (thou) away, Fa-t* en. 
 let us go away, allons-nous e?i, 
 go away, allez-vous en. 
 
 And so on for the other tenses. 
 
 To conclude at once what relates to the irregular 
 Verbs of this conjugation, we shall inform you that the 
 Verb Envoyer^ to send, is irregular^ in two tenses, viz. 
 the Present Posterior of the Indicative and the Conditional 
 Present. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I shall or will 
 thou shalt 
 he or she shall 
 one, any body, &c. 
 
 } 
 
 send, 
 
 J* enverraim 
 tu enverras. 
 il ou elle enverra, 
 on enverra. 
 
 PLURAL, 
 
 We shall 
 
 you shall 
 
 they shall 
 
 people, we, they, &c. shall^ 
 
 >send. 
 
 JVous enverrons. 
 voufs enverrez, 
 its ou elles enverront, 
 on enverra. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I should "^ 
 
 thou shouldst ! , 
 he or she should f ' 
 
 one, &c. should J 
 
 We should 
 you should 
 they should , 
 
 people, &c. should J 
 VOL. II. 
 
 >send. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 J* enverrats. 
 tu enverraia, 
 il ou elle enverrait, 
 on enverrait, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 JVous env err ions, 
 vous €7iverHez, 
 its ou elles enverraient. 
 on enverrait, 
 
 T 
 
138 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Note. There are some trifling irregularities in the 
 spelling of a few Verbs belonging to this conjugation, 
 among which we shall notice those of the Verbs ending 
 in ger and cer. In order to soften the pronunciation, 
 these require that e should be placed immediately before 
 the vowel a: Example, Changer^ manger must be writ- 
 ten change-ant, mangeant; changeais, mangeais, &c. in 
 the Participle Present and Present Anterior of the In- 
 dicative ; and not changant^ mangant ; changais^ mangais; 
 which latter method of spelling would be, to a French 
 ear, highly grating. For the same reason, in those in 
 cer^ as recommencer^ avancer^ &c. the letter c before a takes 
 on the sound of «, which is signified by placing under 
 the c a cedilla thu^ g. Hence we must write commen- 
 cant, avan9ant ; commensals, avansais, with the cedilla, 
 the Verb Piier^ to stink, which, agreeably to the inflec- 
 tion of a regular Verb, should make in the three first per- 
 sons, je piie^ tu pues^ il pue^ on the contrary makes je pus^ 
 tu piiSy il put* 
 
 In order to complete the subject of the first conjuga- 
 tion, we shall now present the pupil with a view of the 
 Verb Geler^ to freeze, as conjugated in the third person 
 singular only. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF GELER, TO FREEZE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To freeze, Geler, 
 
 PAST. 
 To have frozen, Avoir gele. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Freezii g, u.laif. | Frozer, Gelr 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 139 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 It freezes, II gele. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 It did freeze, // gelait, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 It froze, // gela^ 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 It will freeze, // gelera, 
 
 PAST. 
 It has frozen, II a gele, 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 It had frozen, // avait gele. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 It had frozen, // eut gele, 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 It shall or will have frozen, // aura gele. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 It has just frozen, // vient de geler. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 It is to freeze, // doit geler. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 It is going to freeze, // va geler. 
 
140 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 It should freeze, // gelerait, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 It should have frozen, // aurait gele, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 That it may freeze, Qu' il gele. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 That it might freeze, Qu' il gelat, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 That it may have frozen, Qu' il ait gele, 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 That it might have frozen, Qu' il eiit gele. 
 
 Note. The scholar would do v^tW to exercise him- 
 self in conjugating, in the third person of each tense, 
 some of the following Verbs, which are all of the first 
 conjugation, viz. 
 
 To snow, JVeiger, 
 to thunder, tonner. 
 to lighten, eclairer. 
 to seem, sembler. 
 to happen, arriver. 
 
 To thaw, degeler, 
 
 to hail, greler, 
 
 to drizzle, bruiner* 
 
 to concern, importer. 
 
 to go, aller, in such phrases as 
 
 II y va de la vie, dc V honneur ; life, honour is at a stake. 
 
 SECOND REGULAR CONJUGATION IN IR, 
 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN FUJVIR, TO PUNISH. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 To punish, Fwiir, \ To hrve punished, yA'G/r/; 
 
 u?u. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. Ul 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Punishing, Punissant. | Punished, Puni, 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I punish, I do punish, or I am punishing, Je punts, 
 
 thou punishest, tu punis, 
 
 he or she punishes, il ou elle fiumt, 
 
 one, any body, &c. punishes, on fiunit* 
 
 We punish, M)us punisaons, 
 you punish, vous fiunissez. 
 they punish, ils ou elle fmnissent, - 
 people, they, &c. punish, on fiunit, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 We did punish, Kous fiunis- 
 
 sions, 
 you did punish, vous fmnissiez, 
 they did punish, ils fiunissaient. 
 
 Ididpumshorl_^ ,^^.^^_^.^_ 
 I was punishing, 3 
 thou didst punish, tu fiunissais, 
 he did punish, il fmnissait. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I punished, Je punia, 
 thou punishedst, tu fiwiis. 
 he punished, il fiunit. 
 
 We punished, JVbus fiunimes, 
 you punished, vous fiunites, 
 they punished, ils iiunirent. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 We shall punish, J^ous fiuni- 
 
 rons» 
 you shall punish, vous fiunlrez* 
 they shall punish, il puniront. 
 
 I shall or will punish, Je pu- 
 
 nirai, 
 thou shalt punish, tu fiuniras. 
 he shall punish, il punira. 
 
142 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PAST. 
 I have punished, J' ai fiuni, &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 I had punished, J' avals jiuni^ &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 I had punished, J' eus fiuni, Sec. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 I shall have punished, J' aurai p.uni, &c. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 I have just punished, Je viens de fiuntf, &c. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 I am to punish, Je dots fiunir, &c. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 I am going to punish, Je vais fiunir^ Sec. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Punish (thou)j Pujus, 
 let us punish, puntsson^* 
 punish, j[mnis8ez» 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I should, h.c. punish, Je punirais, 
 thou shouldst punish, tu punirais^ 
 he should punisli, il punirait^ 
 
' OF LANGUAGE. 143 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We should punish, J\rous funirions, 
 you should punish, vous fiuniriez, 
 they should punish, Us fiuniraient. 
 
 PAST. 
 I should have punished, J' aurais fiuni, &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I may punish, Que je punisse* 
 that thou mayst punish, que tu fiunisses, 
 that he may punish, qu' il fiunisae. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we may punish. Que nous fiunissiona, 
 that you may punish, que vous fiuniasiez, 
 that they may punish, qu* Us fiunissent, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might punish, ^mg jc fiunisse. 
 that you mightst punish, que tu fiunisses, 
 that he might punish, qu* U/iunit, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we might punish. Que nous fiunissions. 
 that you might punish, que vous fmnissiez, 
 that they might punish, qu' Us fiunissent, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 That I may have punished. Que j* aie puni, 8cc. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That I might have punished, Que/ eusse fiuni, See. 
 
 ICP This conjugation, next to the first, is the most 
 extensive, as it embraces about three hundred and seven 
 Verbs. 
 
144 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 THIRD REGULAR CONJUGATION, 
 
 IN TIR, riR, OR MlRy 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN SENTIR, TO FEEL. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 To feel, Sentir. 
 
 PAST. 
 To have felt, Avoir sentu 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. ^-*-^^- 
 
 Feeling, Sentant. | Felt, Senti. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I feel, I do feel, or 1 am feeling, Je sens. 
 
 thou feelest, tu sens. 
 
 he or she feels, U ou elle sent. 
 
 one, any body, &c. feels, on sent. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We feel, Mus sentons. 
 
 you feel, vous sentez. 
 
 they feel. Us ou elles sentent. 
 
 people, they. Sec feel, on sent. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 We did feel, Mus sentions. 
 
 I did feel or \ je sentais 
 I was feeling, > 
 thou didst feel, tu sentais. 
 he did feel, U sentait. 
 
 you did feel, vous sentiez. 
 they did feel. Us smtaient. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 145 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I felt, Je sentis. 
 thou feltest, tu sentis, 
 he felt, // sentit. 
 
 We felt, JVotis sentimes, 
 you felt, vous scntites, 
 they felt, Us sentirent. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I shall or will feel, Je sentirai, 
 thou shalt feel, tu sentiras, 
 he shall feel, il sentira. 
 
 We shall feel, JVous sentirons, 
 you shall feel, vous sentirez, 
 they shall feel, Us sentiront. 
 
 PAST. 
 I have felt, J* ai senti, Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 I had felt, J* avazs senti, &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 I had felt, J* eus senti, &c. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 
 I shall have felt, J' aurai senti^ 8cc. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 I have just felt, Je viens de sentir, &c. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 I am to feel, Je dois sentir, 8cc. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 I am going to feel, Je vais aentir, &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Feel (thou), Sens, 
 let us feel, sentons, 
 feel, sentez, 
 
 VOL. II. U 
 
146 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I should, Sec. feel, Jesentirais. I We should feel, JVbwssew^mon*. 
 thou shouklst feel, tu sentirais, \ you should feel, vous sentiriez. 
 he should feel, il sentirait, \ they should feel, Us sentiraient, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I should have felt, J* aurais send, &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I may feel. Que je sente. 
 that thou mayst feel, que tu sentes, 
 that he may feel, qu' il sente. 
 
 That we may feel, Que nous sentions. 
 that you may feel, que vous sentiez, 
 that they may feel, qu' Us sentent, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOH* 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might feel, Que je sentisse, 
 that thou mightst feel, que tu sentisses. 
 that he might feel, qu' U sentit. 
 
 That we might feel. Que nous sentissions, 
 that you might feel, que vous sentissiez, 
 that they might feel, qu' Us sentissent, 
 
 PAST. 
 That I may have felt, Que / aie senti, Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That I might have felt. Que j' eusse iseiiti, &c. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 147 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS ARE CONJUGATED IN 
 
 THE SAME MANNER WITH SEJVTIR ; 
 
 TO WIT, 
 
 Desservir, 
 
 To clear the table. 
 
 Dormir, 
 
 To sleep. 
 
 Mndormir^ 
 
 To lull to sleep. 
 
 5' endormirj 
 
 To fall asleep. 
 Redormir^ 
 To sleep again. 
 Se rendormir^ 
 To fall asleep 
 
 again. 
 Mentir^ 
 To lie. 
 Dementir^ 
 To give the lie. 
 Partivy 
 
 To set out. 
 
 Refiartir^ 
 
 To set out again, 
 
 {or) 
 
 To reply. 
 Se refientir^ 
 To repent. 
 Scntir, 
 To feel. 
 Pressentir, 
 
 To foresee. 
 
 Ressentir, 
 To resent. 
 ServiVf 
 To serve. 
 
 Se servir^ 
 To make use. 
 
 Dites au domestique de dessei-vir^ 
 Tell the servant to cltar the table, 
 Le tonnerre m' a empeche de dormir, 
 The thunder prevented me from sleeping. 
 Nous n' avons jamais pu endor?mr V enfant, 
 We never could lull the child to deep, 
 V ai commence a m' endormir a la pointe 
 du jour, 
 
 I began to fall asleep at day-break. 
 
 II a redorjni malgre le bruit, 
 
 He sl'pt again in spite of the noise. 
 Quant a moi, je ne me suis pas vendor mi^ 
 As for me, I did noi/all asletp again, 
 
 Ne le croyez pas, il ne fait que mentir^ 
 Dont believe him, he does nothing but lie, 
 S' il dit cela, je le dementirai^ 
 If he says so, I shall give him the lie. 
 On m' a dit qu' Wpartirait a la fin de la se- 
 
 maine, 
 I have been told that he would set out at 
 the end of the week. 
 
 f II a re9u ordre de ne pas repartir^ 
 
 \ He has received orders not to set out 
 <j again, 
 
 j Qu' avez-vous u repartir a cela ? 
 
 Lwhat have you to reply to that ? 
 Si vous le faites, vous vous en repentirez, 
 If you do it, you nvill repent of it. 
 Je se7is une grande douleui* de tete, 
 I feci a great pain in my head. 
 J' ai/ires6?d72;/touslesmalheurs qui luisont 
 arrives, 
 
 I have foreseen all the misfortunes that 
 have befallen him. 
 
 II resscnc vivement cette insulte. 
 He feelingly resents this insult. 
 
 11 vous a scrvi avcc zele dans cette affaire, 
 He lias served you with zeal in this busi- 
 ness. 
 Servcz-vous de mon cheval, je vous le prete, 
 Alakc use of my horse, I lend it to you. 
 
148 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Sortir^ 
 
 To go out. 
 
 JRessortivy 
 
 To go out again. 
 
 Ne «or^ez -pas avant que de me parler, 
 Do not go out before you speak to me. 
 Si vous ressortezj je vous punirai, 
 If you go out again, I will punish you. 
 
 Note. When ressortir is used as a law term, it implies, in 
 the English acceptation, to be within the jurisdiction of a court, 
 and is conjugated like fiunir ; so are 
 
 Assortir, to match. 
 
 Refiartir, when it signifies to distribute. 
 
 Asservir, to enslave a nation. 
 
 FOURTH REGULAR CONJUGATION IN ENIR, 
 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN TENIR, TO HOLD. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To hold, Tenir, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 To have held, Avoir tenu. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Holding, Tenant, 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 I Held, Tenu, 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je tiens. 
 
 I hold, I do hold or 
 I am holding 
 thou boldest, tu tiens, 
 he or she holds, il ou elle tieni, 
 one, any body, &c. holds, on 
 ticnt. 
 
 We hold, M)us tenons, 
 you hold, vous tenez, 
 they hold, its ou elles tiennent. 
 people, we, they, Stc. hold, on 
 
 tient. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 
 tcriais. 
 
 I did hold 01 
 
 I was hokli 
 
 thou didst hold, tu tenuis, 
 
 he did hold, il ttnait. 
 
 V/e did hokl, J^ous tenions. 
 you did hold, vouh teniez, 
 ihey did hold, ils tenaient. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. U9 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 I held, Je tins, 
 thou heldest, tu tins, 
 he held, il tint. 
 
 We held, JVbus ttnmes, 
 you held, vous tintes, 
 they held, ils tinrent. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 I shall or will hold, Je tiendrai, 
 thou shalt hold, tu tiendras. 
 he shall hold, il tiendra. 
 
 We shall hold, M)U8 tiendrons, 
 you shall hold, vous tiendrez, 
 they shall hold, ils tiendront. 
 
 PAST. 
 I have held, J* ai tenuy &g. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 I had held, J' avais tenu, &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 I had held, J* eus tenu^ &c. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 I shall have held, J* aurai tenu, &c. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 I have just held, Je viens de tenir^ &c. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 I am to hold, Je dots teni?-, &c. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 I am going to hold, Je vats tenir, &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Hold (thou), Tie7is. 
 let us hold, tenons, 
 hold, tenez. 
 
150 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I should, 8cc. hold, Je tiendrais, 
 thou shouldst hold, tu tiendrais, 
 he should hold, il tiendrait, ' 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We should hold, JVbus tiendHons» 
 you should hold, vous tiendriez, 
 they should hold, Us tiendraient, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I should have held, &c. J* aurais tenu, Sec. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 T/iat I may hold. Que je tienne, 
 that thou mayst hold, que tu tiennes, 
 that he may hold, qu' il tienne. 
 
 That we may hold. Que nous tenions, 
 that you may hold, que vous teniez, 
 that they may hold, qu' ils tiennent, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might hold. Que je tinsse. 
 that thou mightst hold, que tu tinsses. 
 that he might hold, qu' il tint. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 That we might hold. Que nous tinssions, 
 that you might hold, que vous tinssiez, 
 that they might hold, qu' ils tinsseni. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 That I may have held, Que 7' ate tenuy &c. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 151 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That I might have held, Quey' eusae tenu, &c. 
 
 N. B. The scholar will exercise himself in conjugating the 
 Verb Venir^ so useful an auxiliary in the French conjugation. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS ARE CONJUGATED LIKE TENIR. 
 
 S' abstenir^ 
 To abstain. 
 Jpfiartenir, 
 To belong to. 
 Contenir, 
 To contain. 
 Detenir, 
 To detain. 
 Antrctenir, 
 
 To keep up or en- 
 tertain. 
 S' entretenir, 
 
 To converse. 
 
 ^Maintenir, 
 
 !'o maintain. 
 
 ICbtenir, 
 
 'o obtain. 
 
 letenir, 
 
 .'o retain. 
 ^Soutenir, 
 
 'o support. 
 
 IVenir, 
 ''o come. 
 
 henir, 
 
 'o happen. 
 ^irconverdry 
 
 'o deceive. 
 IConvenir, 
 [To agree. 
 
 II s' en est abstenu pendant long-tems, 
 He abstained from it a great while. 
 Ce bien lui a appartenu autrefois, 
 This estate formerly belonged to him. 
 Tout ce qui est contenu sous les cieux, 
 All that is contained under the heavens. 
 Nous r avons detenu comme (ouen) otage, 
 We have detained him as an hostage. 
 Je les ai entretenus a mes frais, pendant 
 
 un an, 
 I have entertained or kept them up for a 
 
 year at my expense. 
 Je nie suis entrttenu avec elle toute la 
 
 soiree, 
 
 I have conversed with her the whole even- 
 
 ing. 
 
 II a ete maintenu dans sa charge, en depit 
 d' eux, 
 
 He has been maintained in his office, in 
 
 spite of them. 
 II n' a pas ohtenu ce qu' il demandait, 
 He has not obtained what he asked for. 
 Nous 1' avons retenu hier a souper, 
 We retained him yesterday to supper. 
 Je r ai soutenu dans toutes ses enireprises, 
 
 I have supported him in all his undertak- 
 
 ings. 
 Ne suis-je pas venu a votre secours ? 
 Have I not come to your assistance ? 
 
 II est ave7iu ce que j' avais pens6, 
 What I had thought happened. 
 Le voleur a circonvenu les juges, 
 Ihe thief has deceived the judges. 
 Nou ne sommes point convmus du prix, 
 We did not agree about the price. 
 
152 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Convenir, 
 
 To suit. 
 
 Devenir, 
 
 To become. 
 
 Redevcnir-t 
 
 To become again. 
 
 Disconvenir^ 
 
 To deny. 
 
 Parvenir^ 
 
 To attain. 
 
 Pr&vemr^ 
 
 To anticipate. 
 
 Pravenir, 
 
 To come from. 
 
 Se ressouvenirf 
 
 To recollect. 
 Reveniry 
 
 To come back. 
 5e souvenir, 
 
 To remember. 
 Subvemr, 
 To relieve. 
 Survcnir, 
 
 To come unex- 
 pectedly. 
 
 Cette maison ne m' a pas convenu, 
 
 That house did not suit me. 
 
 A force d' etudier, il est devenu savant, 
 
 By dint of study, he is become a learned man. 
 
 II ne redeviendra jamais ce qu' il a 6te, 
 
 He will never become again what he was. 
 
 II n* en est jamais disconvenuy 
 
 He has never denied it. 
 
 II est parvenu aux premieres charges de la 
 
 Republique, 
 He has attained the first offices of the Re- 
 public. 
 Dans les hommes extraordinaire s 1' age 
 
 est firevenu par les talens. 
 In extraordinary men age is anticipated by 
 
 talents. 
 Cette maladie est provenue du sang. 
 This disorder is come from the blood. 
 II ne s' est pas ressouvenu de ce que je lui 
 
 avais dit, 
 He did not recollect what I had told him. 
 Vous n' etes pas revenu a 1' heure conve- 
 
 nue, 
 Youdidnotco7ne6acX:atthe appointed hour. 
 Votre sceur ne s' est pas souvenue de sa 
 
 promesse, 
 Your sister did not remember her promise. 
 J' ai subvenu aux besoins de votre ami, 
 I have relieved your friend in his wants. 
 Des renforts sont survenus pendant la ba- 
 
 taille. 
 Reinforcements came unexpectedly during 
 
 the battle. 
 
 FIFTH REGULAR CONJUGATION IN EVOIR, 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT, 
 To receive, Recevoir. 
 
 PAST. 
 To have received. Avoir requ. 
 
OI^ LANGUAGE. 153 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Receiving, Recevant* \ Received, Rezu, 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I receive, I do receive or I am receiving, Je recois, 
 
 thou receives!, tu repots. 
 
 he or she receives, il ou elle rec^oit. 
 
 one, any body, &c. receives, on reqoit, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We receive, JVous recevons. 
 
 you receive, vous recevez, 
 
 they receive, //* ou elks re^oivent, 
 
 people, we, they, 8cc. receive, on re^oit. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 > Je rccevats. 
 
 I did receive or 
 
 I was receiving, 
 
 thou didst receive, tu recevais, 
 
 he did receive, // recevait. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We did receive, Mms recruions, 
 you did receive, -vous receviez, 
 they did receive, ils recevaient. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I received, Je rectus. 
 thou receivedst, tu rectus, 
 he received, il recent. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We received, J^ous reclames. 
 you received, vous recutes, 
 they received. Us re(^urent, 
 
 VOL. II. X 
 
154 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR, 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I shall or will receive, Je recevrai, 
 thou shalt receive, tu recevras, 
 he shall receive, il recevra, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We shall receive, JVous recevrom, 
 you shall receive, voiis recevrez, 
 they shall receive, Us recevrcmt, 
 
 PAST. 
 I have received, J* ai re^u, Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR, 
 I had received, J* avals re^u, &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 I had received, J* eus re(^Uy &c. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 I shall have received, J' aurai re^Uf 8cp* 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 I have just received, Je viens de recevoir, Sec. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 I am to receive, Je dois recevoir, &c. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 I am going to receive, Je vais recevoir, 8cc. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Receive (thou), JReqois. 
 let us receive, recevons, 
 receive, recevez. 
 
O^ ^LANGUAGE. 155 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I should, &c. receive, Je reoevrais. 
 thou shouldst receive, tu recevrais. 
 he should receive, U recevrait. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We should receive, JVbus recevriom, 
 you should receive, vous recevriez* 
 they should receive, ils recevraient. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 1 should have received, J' aurais re^u, 8cc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 T/iat I may receive, Que je reqoive, 
 that thou may St receive, que tu re(^ives, 
 that he may receive, qu* il re(^oive. 
 
 That we may receive, Que nous rectrviona, 
 that you may receive, que vous receviez, 
 that they may receive, qu* ils rec^oivent, 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 T/mt I might 1 
 
 ?Aa^ thou mightst I. receive, 
 
 that he might J 
 
 That we might 1 
 
 that you might s receive, 
 
 t/tat they might J 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Que je re(^usse, 
 que tu re(^usse8, 
 qu' // re^iU. 
 
 Que nous req,u8sions, 
 que vous re(^ussiez» 
 qu' lis rec^ussent. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 That I may have received, Que / ale recu, &c. 
 
156 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That I might have received, Que y euase rec^u, See* 
 
 N. B. The scholar will exercise himself in conjugating the 
 Verb Devoir, an auxiliary in the French conjugation. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE RECEVOIR. 
 
 Ap-erce-voir, 
 To perceive. 
 Concevoir, 
 To conceive. 
 Decevoir, 
 To deceive. 
 Devoir, 
 To owe. 
 
 Devoir, 
 
 To be obliged, 
 
 Redevoir, 
 To owe still. 
 Percevoir, 
 To gather, \ 
 to collect. S 
 
 Je 1' ai afiero^ue le premier, 
 
 I have perceived her first. 
 
 Je ne conq,ois pas ce que vous me dites, 
 
 I do not conceive what you tell me. 
 Ses esp^rances ont ete de(^ues, 
 His hopes have been deceived, 
 
 II doit beaucoupd' argent a ses creanciers, 
 He owes a great deal of money to his cre- 
 ditors. 
 
 Tout citoyen doitoh^w aux lois de son pays, 
 Every citizen is obliged (or ought) to obey 
 
 the laws of his country. 
 II nous redoit environ cinq cents gourdes, 
 He owes us «?/// about five hundred dollars. 
 II est prepose pour percevoir les taxes. 
 
 He is appointed to collect the taxes. 
 
 The Verb Falloir (though irregular) occurring so fre- 
 quently in speech, we give here its conjugation. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 
 
 FJLLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY, NEEDFUL OR 
 
 REQUISITE, VIZ. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 To be necessary, Falloir, 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 157 
 
 PAST. 
 To have been necessary, Avoir fallu, 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 (None.) I Been necessary, Fallu, 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 It is necessary, Ilfaut, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 It was necessary, Ilfaltait, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 It was necessary, Ilfallut* 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 It will be necessary, Ilfaudra, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 It has been necessary, // a fallu, 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 It had been necessary, // av ait fallu, 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 It will have been necessary, // aura faUu, 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 It should be necessary, // faudrait. 
 
 PAST. 
 It should have been necessary, UauraitfaJhu. 
 
158 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 That it may be necessary, Qu' U faille, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 That it might be necessary, Qu' ilfaUM* 
 
 PAST. 
 That it may have been necessary, Qu' il aitfallu, 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That it might have been necessary, Qu' il eUtfallu* 
 
 SIXTH REGULAR CONJUGATION IN RE, 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN VEJVDRE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To sell, Fendre* 
 
 PAST. 
 
 To have sold, ^voir vendu. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Selling, Vendant, 
 
 Sold, Vendu, 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT- 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I sell, I do sell or I am sell- 
 ing, Je vends. 
 thou sellest, Sec. tu vends, 
 he or she sells, /// ou elle vend, 
 one, any body. Sec. sells, o«ven«/. 
 
 We sell, Nous vendons, \ 
 
 you sell, vous vendez, 
 they sell. Us ou elles vendent, 
 people, we, they, 8cc. sell, on 
 vend. 
 
OF LANGUA<&E. 159 
 
 PRESEWT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 We did sell, Mjils vendtcms, 
 you did sell, votes vendiez. 
 they did sell, ila vendaient. 
 
 ^^ X J 
 
 I did sell or I J ,. . 
 
 I was selling 
 
 thou didst sell, tu vendais 
 he did sell, ilvendait. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 I sold, Je vendis, 
 
 thou soldest, tu vendisi 
 
 hei sold, il vjsndit. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 We sold, n(ms vendtmes, 
 you sold, voiis vendites, 
 they sold, Us vendirent. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I shall or will sell, Je vendrai, 
 thou shalt sell, tu vendras^ 
 he shall sell, il vendra. 
 
 We shall sell, ACous vendrons. 
 you shall sell, vous vendrez, 
 they shall sell. Us vendront. 
 
 BAST. 
 
 I have sold, J^ ai vendu. Sec. 
 
 |»AST ANTERIOR. 
 
 I had sold, J* avaia vendii, Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 I had sold, J' eus venduy &c. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 
 I shall have sold, J' aurai vendu, &c. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 I have ,jus^ sold, Je.viens de vendre^^ &c. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 I am to sell, Je doia vendre, &c. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 I am goings to sell, Je vaia vendre^ 8cc. 
 
160 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Sell (thou), Vends, 
 let us sell, vendona, 
 sell, vendez. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I should, would or could sell, 
 
 Je vendrais, 
 thou shouldst sell, tu vendrais, 
 he should sell, U vendrait. 
 
 We should sell, JVbus vendrions, 
 you should sell, voiis vendriez, 
 they should sell, Us vendraient. 
 
 PAST. 
 I should have sold, J' aurais vendu^ &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may 
 
 that thou mayst J. sell, 
 
 that he may 
 
 } 
 
 That we may 
 
 that you may ^ sell, 
 
 that they may 
 
 } 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Que je "vende, 
 que tu vendes, 
 qu' il vende. 
 
 Que nous vendions, 
 que vous vendiez, 
 qu' Us vendent. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might ^ | Que^V vendisse, 
 
 that thou mightst isell, I que tu vendisses, 
 that he might J | qu' U vend it. 
 
 That we might 1 
 t/uit you might i-sell, 
 that they might J 
 
 Que nous vendissions, 
 que vous vendissiez, 
 qu' Us vendissent. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 161 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Tliat I may have sold, Que y ' aie vendu^ Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 That I might have sold, Que j' eusse venduy Sec. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE VENDEE. 
 
 jitte7idre, 
 To expect. 
 jittendre. 
 To wait for. 
 Battre*^ 
 To beat. 
 
 Abattre, 
 
 To pull down. 
 
 Combattre, 
 To fight. 
 Debattre^ 
 To argue. 
 Rabattrcy 
 To abate. 
 Descendre^ 
 To come down. 
 
 Condescendre^ 
 To comply. 
 Fondre^ 
 To melt, 
 Confondre^ 
 
 To confound. 
 
 Nous r attendons le mois prochain, 
 We ex fleet him next month. 
 Pourquoi ne m' avez-vous pas attends? 
 Why did you not wait for me ? 
 II a dit en ma presence qu' il le battrait. 
 He said in my presence that he would 
 
 beat him. 
 II a fait abattre tons les arbres du chemin, 
 He caused all the trees of the road to be 
 
 fiullcd down. 
 Nous combattimes toute la journee, 
 Wq fought the whole day. 
 La question a ete debattue hier au soir, 
 The question was argued yesterday evening. 
 J' en rabattrai dix pour cent, 
 
 I will abate ten per cent on it. 
 Dites-lui de descendre^ des qu' il aura fini, 
 Tell hiiTi to come down, as soon as he has 
 
 done. 
 
 II ne condescendra jamais a cela. 
 He will never comedy with that. 
 On a fait ybnrfre toutes les cloches. 
 They have caused all the bells to be molten, 
 II ne faut pas confondre V innocent avec le 
 
 coupable. 
 One must not confound the innocent with 
 the guilty. 
 
 * Battre and its derivatives have a trifli ag irregularity in their ortho- 
 graphy, as they lose one t in the three first persons of\the present of the 
 Indicative, and second person singular of t^ie Impera^ve: Example, je 
 bats, tu bats, il bat — bats. Rompre and its derivatives add t for the third 
 person singular of the IndicaUve present: Ex. il rompf, ccrrompf, &c. 
 
 VOL. II. y 
 
162 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Morfondre^ 
 To chill. 
 Tendre, 
 To stretch. 
 JEtendre^ 
 To spread. 
 Entendre^ 
 
 To hear. 
 Entendre.^ 
 To understand. 
 
 Dependre^ 
 To depend. 
 Susfiendre^ 
 To suspend, > 
 to hang. 5 
 Po7idre<f 
 To lay eggs. 
 Corresfiondre, 
 To correspond. 
 RefiondrCf 
 To answer. 
 Perdre^ 
 To lose. 
 Repandrcy 
 To spill. 
 RSjiandre, 
 To spread. 
 Romfire, 
 To break. 
 
 Corroinfire, 
 To corrupt. 
 Interromfire, 
 To interrupt. 
 Tondre^ 
 To shear. 
 Tordre^ 
 To twist. 
 Survcndre, 
 
 To oversell. 
 
 Ce vent du nord vous morfondra, 
 This north-wind will cM/ you. 
 Tendez la corde dans la cour, 
 Stretch the rope in the yard. 
 Etendez le linge dans le javdin, 
 Sjiread the linen in the garden. 
 Je n' ai pas entendu un mot de ce qu* il 
 a dit, 
 
 I did not hear a word of what he said. 
 
 II entend parfaitement bien le Fran^ais, 
 He understands the French language per- 
 fectly well. 
 
 Cela ne depend pas de moi, 
 That does not depend on me. 
 Suspendez mon manteau a un clou, 
 
 Suspend (or hang) my cloak on a nail. 
 
 Nos poules comraencent deja a pondre^ 
 Our hens already begin to lay eggs, 
 Je correspondrai volontiers avec lui, 
 
 I shall correspond willingly with him. 
 
 II n* a repondu a aucune de mes lettres,. 
 He has answered none of my letters. 
 
 II ^ perdu tout son argent au jeu, 
 
 He has lost all his money at play. 
 
 Vous avez repandu du bouillon sur la table, 
 
 You have spilled some broth on the table. 
 
 C est lui qui a repandu la nouvelle, 
 
 It is he who spread the news. 
 
 II a eu le bras rompu en deux endroits, 
 
 His arm has been broken (or broke) in 
 
 two places. 
 Le luxe corrompt les moeurs des nations, 
 Luxury corrupts the manners of nations. 
 II m' interrompit tout a coup, en disant — 
 He interrupted me suddenly, by saying — 
 Avez-vous fait tondre vos brebis ? 
 Have you had your sheep shorn ? 
 II a tordu phisieurs branches de 1' arbre, 
 He has twisted several branches of the tree. 
 II est de r ioteret d' un marchand de ne 
 
 jamais survendre^ 
 It is the interest of a shopkeeper never to 
 
 oversell. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. ^ 14)3 
 
 SEVENTH REGULAR CONJUGATION, IN UIRE, 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN TRADUIRE, TO TRANSLATE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 To translate, Traduire, 
 
 PAST. 
 To have translated, AvQir tradvit, 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Translating, Traduisant, | Translated, Tradvit, 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I translate, I do translate > r . j . 
 
 or I am translating, 3 
 thou translate st, tu traduia. 
 he or she translates, il ou elle traduit, 
 one, any body. See. translates, on traduit, ^ 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We translate, J\rou8 traduisona. 
 
 you translate, vous traduisez. 
 
 they translate. Us ou dies traduisent, 
 
 people, we, they, &c. translate, on traduit. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I did translate or 
 
 I was translating 
 thou didst translate, tu traduiaais. 
 he did translate, il traduisait, 
 
 > Je traduiaaia. 
 
164 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 TLURAL, 
 
 We did translate, JVbw* traduisions* 
 you did translate, vous traduisiez, 
 they did translate. Us traduisaient, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I translated, Je traduisis, 
 thou translatedst, tu traduisis, 
 he translated, il traduisit. 
 
 We translated, Nous traduisimes. 
 you translated, vous traduisites, 
 they translated, ils traduisirent. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 I shall or will "j 
 
 thou shalt J. translate, 
 
 he shall 
 
 } 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Je traduirai, 
 tu traduiras, 
 il traduira, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We shall or will 1 | JVbus traduirons, 
 
 you shall L translate, I vous traduirez. 
 
 they shall j | ils traduiront, 
 
 PAST. 
 ^ i have translated, J' ai traduit, Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 I had translated, J' avais traduit, 8cc. 
 
 ^ST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 I had translated, J' eus traduit, Sec. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 I shall have translated, J' aurai traduit, Sec. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 165 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 I have just translated, Je viens de traduire^ &c. 
 
 people, they, &c. have just translated, on vient de traduire, 
 
 FUTURE. 
 '^ I am to translate, Je dots traduire, &c. 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 I am going to translate, Je vazs traduire, &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Translate (thou) Traduis. 
 let us translate, tradidsons, 
 translate, traduisez, 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I should, could or'^ 
 
 thoTshouldst Wanslate, 
 he should J 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Je traduirais. 
 tu tradtdrais, 
 il traduirait. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We should "J 
 
 you should i. translate, 
 
 they should J 
 
 JV0U8 traduirions, 
 VOU8 traduiriez* 
 ils traduiraient. 
 
 PAST. 
 I should have translated, J* aurais traduit, &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may 
 
 that thou mayst ^ translate, 
 
 that he may 
 
 ] 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Que je traduise, 
 que tu traduises, 
 qu' // traduise. 
 
166 
 
 PHILOSOPPIY 
 
 That we may "J 
 
 that you may K translate, 
 
 that they may J 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Que nous traduisions, 
 que votis traduidez, 
 qu' Us traauisent* 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SlJrCULAR. 
 
 That I might "J 
 
 that thou mightst L translate, 
 
 that he might J 
 
 Que je traduisisse* 
 que tu traduisisses, 
 qu* il traduisit. 
 
 That we might 1 
 
 Ma/ you might V translate, 
 
 that they might J 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Que nous traduisissions, 
 que vous traduisissiez» 
 qu* zV* traduisissent. 
 
 PAST. 
 7%a/ I may have translated, Sec Quey' aie traduity &c. 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That I might have translated. Sec. Que J' eusse traduit, See. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE TRADUIRE. 
 
 Conduire^ 
 To conduct. 
 Econduire, 
 
 To refuse, (applied 
 to persons only). 
 
 Reconduire, 
 
 To wait upon one 
 back. 
 
 Construire^ 
 
 To build. 
 
 Cuire, 
 
 To bake. 
 
 Recuire, 
 
 To bake again. 
 
 Conduisez'le a la ville. 
 
 Conduct him to town. 
 
 Je lui avais fait une demande, mais il m* 
 
 a econduit, 
 1 had asked him a favour, but he has re- 
 
 fused m.e. 
 Je la reconduisis chez elle, 
 
 I waited upon her, back to her house. 
 
 Sa maison n' est pas encore construite. 
 
 His house is not yet bidlt. 
 
 Ce boulanger cuit beaucoup de pain tous 
 
 les jours. 
 This baker bakes a great deal of bread 
 
 every day. 
 
 II faut faire recuire cette viande, 
 This meat must be baked again. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 167 
 
 Deduire, 
 To deduct. 
 Detruire, 
 
 To destroy. 
 JSnduire, 
 To plaster. 
 Induire, 
 To excite. 
 
 Jnstruire, 
 To instruct. 
 Introduire^ 
 To introduce or 
 
 to bring into. 
 Lvire^ 
 To shine. 
 Reluire, 
 To glitter. 
 Niiire, 
 To hurt or 
 
 wrong 
 Produire, 
 To produce 
 
 Reduire, 
 To reduce. 
 Seduire, 
 To seduce* 
 
 to do 
 
 II faut deduire ce que vous avez depense, 
 You must deduct what you have spent. 
 Le terns ditruit les batimens les plus 
 
 solides, 
 Time destroys the most solid buildings. 
 Je ferai enduire les murailles de platre, 
 
 I will get the walls filastered. 
 
 Ne 1' ecoutez pas, il vous induira a mal faire, 
 Do not listen to him, he will excite you to 
 
 do wrong. 
 On commence abien instruire la jeunesse, 
 They begin to instruct youth well. 
 
 II introduisit les ennemis dans la place. 
 
 He brought the enemy into the place. 
 
 Le soleil n' a pas lui (no t) aujourd' hui, 
 
 The sun did not shine to day. 
 
 Tout ce qui reluit n' est pas or, 
 
 All that glitters is not gold. 
 
 Je n' ai jamais nui (no t) a personne, 
 
 I have never done ivrong to any body. 
 
 Mon argent ne me jiroduit aucun interet, 
 My money does not produce me any in- 
 terest. 
 Cette famille est r6duite a la mendicite, 
 This family is reduced to beggary. 
 
 II la seduisit par ses promeses. 
 He seduced her by his promises. 
 
 EIGHTH AND LAST 
 
 REGULAR CONJUGATION, IN INDRE, 
 ^' EXEMPLIFIED IN CRMMDRE, TO FEAR. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 To fear, Craindre, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I To have feared, Jvoir craint. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRE8ENT. PAST. 
 
 .Fearing, Crargnam. \ Feared, Craint. 
 
168 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I fear, I do fear or I am fearing, Je crains, 
 
 thou fearest, tu crains, 
 
 he or she fears, il ou elle craint. 
 
 one, any body, &c. fears, on craint, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We fear, JSfous craignons, 
 you fear, nous craignez, 
 they fear, ils ou elles craignent, 
 people, they, Sec. fear, on craint. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 I did fear or ^ r • • 
 T r • r ^e craignais, 
 
 I was fearing, 3 ^ 
 
 thou didst fear, tu craignais. 
 
 he did fear, // craignait. 
 
 We did fear, JVous craignions, 
 you did fear, vous craigniez, 
 they did fear, ils craignaient. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL 
 
 I feared, Je craignis. 
 thou fearedst, tu craignis, 
 he feared, il craignit. 
 
 We feared, JSTous craignimes, 
 you feared, vous craignites, 
 they feared, ils craignirent. 
 
 PRESENT POSTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I shall or will fear, Je craindrai, 
 thou shalt fear, tu craindras, 
 he shall fear, il craindra, 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We shall fear, J\fous craindrons, 
 you shall fear, -vous craindrez, 
 they shall fear, ils craindront, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I have feared, J' ai craint, Sec. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 169 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 I had feared, J^ avais craint, &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 I had feared, J' eus craint^ &c. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR. 
 I shall have feared, /* aurai craint^ &c. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 I have just feared, Je viens de craindrey See. 
 one has just feared, on vient de craindre, 
 
 FUTURE. 
 I am to fear, Je dots craindre^ Sec 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 I am going to fear, Je vais craindre, Sec. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Fear (thou), Grains, 
 let us fear, craignons, 
 fear, craignez. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I should fear, Je craindrais. 
 thou shouldst fear, tu craindrai&t 
 he should fear, il craindrait. 
 
 We should fear, JVous craindrions, 
 you should fear, vous craindriez, 
 they should fear, iU craindraient* 
 ▼OL. II z 
 
tTO PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PAST. 
 I should have feared, J' aurais craint^ &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I may fear, Que^V craigne. 
 that thou mayst fear, que tu craignes, 
 that he may fear, qu' il craigne. 
 
 That we may fear, Que nous craignions, 
 that you may fear, que vous craigniez. 
 that they may fear, qu' Us craigncnt, 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 That I might fear, Que je craignisse. 
 that thou mightst fear, que tu craignisses, 
 that he might fear, qu' il craignft. 
 
 That we might fear. Que nous craignissions, 
 that you might fear, que vous craignissiez. 
 that they might fear, qu' ils craignissent, 
 
 PAST. 
 That I may have feared, Que j' aie craint^ &c. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR. 
 That I might have feared. Que / eusse craint, &c. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 AEE CONJUGATED LIKE CRAINBRE. 
 II m' a astreint a le faire, 
 
 Astrnndre^ 
 
 To oblige, 
 
 to force 
 
 .1 
 
 He has obliged {or forced J m.e to do it. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 in 
 
 Ceindrey 
 To gird. 
 JEnceindre, 
 To inclose. 
 
 Contraindrey 
 To force. 
 £nfrdndrey 
 To infringe. 
 Feindrey 
 To pretend. 
 Joindrcy 
 To join. 
 Dejoindrey 
 To disjoin. 
 
 Enjoindrey 
 
 To order. 
 
 Pehidrey 
 
 To draw, to paint. 
 
 * Restrdndrcy 
 To limit. 
 Teindrcy 
 To dye. 
 iSe deteindrcy 
 To lose colour. 
 
 Eteindrcy 
 To put out. 
 AtteindrCy 
 To reach. 
 
 Vous ne savez pas ceindre une epee, 
 You do not know how to^/rc?on a sword. 
 II a fait enceindre ses champs de fosses, 
 He caused his fields to be inclosed with 
 
 dlitches. 
 Je le contraignis k m' obeir, 
 \ forced him to obey me. 
 lis ont les premiers enfrdnt le traite, 
 They have first infringed the treaty. 
 Zt,feignais de ne point 1' ecouter, 
 I pretended not to listen to him. 
 J' ai entendu dire qu' il n' avait pu lejoindrey 
 I heard that he could not Join him. 
 Ces planches sont toutes dejointesy 
 These boards are quite disjoined (or dis- 
 jointed), 
 Je lui enjoignis de garder le silence, 
 
 I ordered liim to be silent. 
 
 II a /leint toute la famille, 
 
 He has draivn (or painted) the whole fa- 
 mily, i 
 
 Je r ai restreint un peu dans sa depense, 
 
 I have limited him a httle in his expenses. 
 
 Je ferai teindre cet habit en noir, 
 
 I will have this coat dyed black. 
 
 Ne craignez-vous pas qu' il ne se dSteigne? 
 
 Are you not afraid that it will lose its co- 
 lour ? 
 
 N' eteignez pas encore la chandelle, 
 
 Do not yet put the candle out, 
 
 Je pe saurais 1' atteindrey 
 
 I cannot reach it. 
 
\7i 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 THE FOLLOWING ARE THE 
 EIGHT CLASSES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 FIRST CLASS, AS OFFRIR, TO OFFER. 
 
 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 To offer, Offrir. Offenng, Offrant. Offered, Oifert. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Je tu il oil elle, 
 
 y offr-e, es, e. 
 
 offr-ais, ais, ait. 
 
 offr-is, is, it. 
 
 offr-irai, ras, ra. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 JVbus vous Us ou elks, 
 
 Offr-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 offr-ions, iez, aient. 
 
 offr-imes, ites, irent. 
 
 offr-irons, irez, iront. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 Offre, I OfFr-ons, ez. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Offri-rais, rais, rait. | Offr-irions, iriez, raient. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Offr-e, es, e. I Offr-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 offr-isse> isses, It. | offr-issions^ issiez, issent. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE OFFRIR. 
 
 MSsoffrir, 
 
 Vous n* aiirez pas ce drap, vous en me- 
 soffrez trop, 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 .73 
 
 To undervalue. 
 
 Coiwrir, 
 
 To cover. 
 
 Decouvrir, 
 To discover. 
 JRecouvrir^ 
 To cover up. 
 Ouvrir, 
 To open. 
 JEntr* ouvrir, 
 
 To open a little. 
 
 Rouvrir^ 
 
 To open again. 
 
 Souffrir^ 
 
 To suffer. 
 
 You shall not have this cloth, you under- 
 
 value it too much. 
 Les charpentiers n' ont pas encore convert 
 
 ma maison, 
 The carpenters have not yet covered my 
 
 house. 
 On a decouvert son dessein a tems, 
 They have discovered his design in time. 
 Recouvrez-\G, ou bien il se refroidira, 
 Cover it w/s or else it will get cold. 
 Je vous defends de lui ouvrir la porte, 
 I forbid you to open the door to him. 
 J' avais laisse une des fenetres de la salle 
 
 cntr' ouvertCy 
 I had left one of the parlour windows o/ien 
 
 a little, 
 Je n' ai jamais pu r ouvrir le buffet, 
 I could never often the cupboard again, 
 Vous avez eu tort de souffrir une pareille 
 
 insolence. 
 You were wrong to suffer such a piece of 
 
 insolence. 
 
 SECOND CLASS, AS COURIR, TO RUN. 
 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 To run, Courir. Rmnningy Courant. Run, Couru. 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 . 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 Je 
 
 tu 
 
 // 
 
 ou elle. 
 
 M)U8 
 
 vous iU 
 
 QU elles 
 
 Cou-rs, 
 
 rs. 
 
 
 rt. 
 
 Cour-ons, 
 
 ez. 
 
 ent. 
 
 cour-ais, 
 
 mis. 
 
 
 rait. 
 
 cour-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 aient. 
 
 cour-us, 
 
 us. 
 
 
 ut. 
 
 cour-iimes, 
 
 Cites, 
 
 urent. 
 
 cour-rai, 
 
 ras. 
 
 
 ra. 
 
 cour-rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 Cour-i-ais, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 Cours. I Cour-ons, ez. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 rais, rait. | Cour-rions, riez, raient. 
 
174 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Je 
 
 Cour-e, 
 cour-usse, 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 tu ilonelle. 
 
 es, 
 usses, 
 
 e. 
 
 ut. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Mu8 vous lis ou elles, 
 
 Cour-ions, iez, ent. 
 cour-ussions, ussiez, ussent. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE COURIR. 
 
 Accourir, 
 To run to. 
 Concourir^ 
 To concur. 
 
 Discourlr^ 
 To discourse. 
 
 Encourir, 
 To incur. 
 
 Parcourivy 
 
 To over-run. 
 
 Recourir^ 
 
 To have recourse 
 
 to. 
 Secdurir^ 
 To succour. 
 
 II accourut en hate a son secours, 
 
 He ran in haste to his assistance. 
 
 Tout a concouru a sa perte, 
 
 Every thing concurred to his loss {or dis- 
 advantage). 
 
 II discourut sur 1' immortalite de 1* ame, 
 
 He discoursed on the immortality of the 
 soul. 
 
 II a encouru la peine prononcee par la loi, 
 
 He has incurred the penalty pronounced 
 by the law. 
 
 II fiarcourra toute 1' Europe, 
 
 He will over-run all Europe. 
 
 Je ne recourrai pas a lui dans mon malheur, 
 
 I will not have recourse to him in my mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 II faut secourir ses amis dans le besoin, 
 We must succour our friends in want. 
 
 THIRD CLASS, AS CONKAITRE, TO KNOW. 
 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 To knotV) Connaitre. Knowing.) Connaissant. Knoivn^ Connu* 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Je tu il OU elle. 
 
 Conn-ais, ais, ait. 
 
 conn-aissais, aissais, aissait. 
 
 conn-us, us, ut. 
 
 Gonn-aitrai, aitras, aitra. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Abws vous its ou ellea. 
 
 Conn-aisso.ns, aissez, aissent. 
 
 conn-aissions, aissiez, aissaient. 
 
 conn-umes, utes, urent. 
 
 conn-aitrons, aitrez, aitront. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 175 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Jt tu il ou elk, Mus vous ils ou eUes* 
 
 Conn^is, I Conn-aissons, aissez, 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Conn-aitrais, aitrais, aitrait. | Conn-aitrions, aitriez, aitraient. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Conn-aisse, aisses, aisse. I Conn-aissions, aissiez, aissent. 
 conn-usse, usses, ut. | conn-ussions, ussiez, ussent. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE CONNAITRE. 
 
 Crotire, 
 To grow. 
 j^ccroitre. 
 
 To increase. 
 
 Z) ecroitrCy 
 To decrease. 
 Faraiire, 
 To appear. 
 Dis/iaraftre, 
 To disappear. 
 
 Co?nf2arattre, 
 To appear. 
 Meconnaitre, 
 
 Not to know 
 again, to for 
 Reconnattrey 
 To remember 
 Reconnaitre^ 
 
 w > 
 
 •get. 5 
 
 To acknowledge, 
 
 Cette pluie a bien fait croitre les bles, 
 This rain has made the com^row very fast. 
 II a par son economie accru de beaucoup 
 
 son revenu, 
 He has by his economy increased his in- 
 come much. 
 Les jours commencent d^ja a decroitre, 
 The days begin already to decrease. 
 Dieu apparut plusieurs fois d Moise, 
 God appeared several times to Moses. 
 II disparut aussitot de la ville, 
 He immediately disappeared from the 
 
 town. 
 II n' a pas ose comparaitre devant ses juges, 
 He did not dare to oppearhtiove. his judges. 
 II est devenu si gros que tout le monde 1* 
 
 a fneconnu, 
 He is become so fat that no body k-new 
 
 him again, 
 Je r ai reconnu du premier abord, 
 I remembered him at first sight. 
 Toute r Europe reconnut Y independancc 
 
 des Etats-Unis, 
 All Europe acknowledged the independence 
 
 of the United States. 
 
176 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 FOURTH CLASS, AS METTRE, TO PUT. 
 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 To put, Mettre. Putting, Mettant. Put, Mis. 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 PLURAL* 
 
 
 • 
 
 Je 
 
 tu il 
 
 ou elk. 
 
 JVbus 
 
 vous 
 
 Us 
 
 ou elks 
 
 Me-ts, 
 
 ts, 
 
 t. 
 
 Mett-ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 
 ent. 
 
 mett-ais, 
 
 ais, 
 
 ait. 
 
 mett-ions. 
 
 iez, 
 
 
 aient. 
 
 m-is, 
 
 is, 
 
 it. 
 
 m-imes, 
 
 ites. 
 
 
 irent. 
 
 ^lett-rai, 
 
 ras, 
 Mets. 
 
 ra. 
 iMPERi 
 
 mett-rons, 
 
 \TIVE. 
 1 Mett-ons, 
 
 rez, 
 ez« 
 
 
 ront. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Mett-rais, rais, rait. | Mett-rions, riez, raieht. 
 
 Mett-e, 
 r»-isse. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 es, 
 isses, 
 
 e. 
 
 it. 
 
 Mett-ions, 
 m-issions, 
 
 lez, ent. 
 issiez, issent. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE METTRE. 
 
 Admettre, 
 
 To admit. 
 
 Commettre, 
 To commit. 
 
 Coinpromettre, 
 
 To compromise, ^ 
 to expose one. 5 
 
 II a ete adjnis dans la Societe Royale de 
 
 Londres, 
 He has been admitted into the Royal Society 
 
 of London. 
 Vous commites une grande faute en le lui 
 
 disant. 
 You committed a great fault by telling it to 
 
 him. 
 Je ne vous comfiromettrai pas, comptez sur 
 
 ma parole, 
 I will not expose you, depend on my 
 
 word. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 177 
 
 lie dSmcttre^ 
 I To resign. 
 S' entremeCtrey 
 To mediate. 
 jPermettre, 
 To permit. 
 Ometire, 
 
 To omit. 
 
 Prometire, 
 
 \ To promise. 
 
 Remettrey 
 To deliver. 
 
 Remettre^ 
 To replace. 
 Soumettre, 
 
 To submit. 
 
 Transmettre^ 
 
 To transmit. 
 
 II se demit aussitot de sa charge, 
 
 He immediately resigned his office. 
 
 Je me suis entremis pour les accorder, 
 
 I mediated to make them agree. 
 
 Lui avez-vous fiermis de venir ? 
 
 Did you permit him to come ? 
 
 Je n' ai omis aucune des particularites de 
 cette affaire, 
 
 I omitted none of the particularities of this 
 business. 
 
 On lui a promis une belle recompense, s' il 
 reussissait, 
 
 A handsome reward has been promised 
 him, if he succeeded. 
 
 Lui avez-vous remis le paquet & les plumes ? 
 
 Have you delivered him the bundle and 
 the quills ? 
 
 Avez-vous remis les livres a leur place ? 
 
 Have you replaced the books ? 
 
 Je ne me soumettrai jamais a des condi- 
 tions si inhumaines. 
 
 I will never submit to such brutal condi- 
 tions. 
 
 Les sciences nous ont ete tranamises par 
 les Grecs &c par les Romains. 
 
 The sciences have been transmitted to us 
 by the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 ) FIFTH CLASS, AS PREJVDRE, TO TAKE. 
 
 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 To take, Prendre. Taking, Prenant. Taken, Pris. 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAF 
 
 . 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 Je 
 
 tu 
 
 il 
 
 ou elle. 
 
 JVous vous 
 
 ils 
 
 ou elles 
 
 Pren-ds, 
 
 ds. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 Pren-ons, ez. 
 
 
 ent. 
 
 pren-ais, 
 
 ais. 
 
 
 ait. 
 
 pren-ions, iez. 
 
 
 aient. 
 
 pr-is, 
 
 is, 
 
 
 it. 
 
 pr-imes, ites, 
 
 
 irent. 
 
 prend-rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 
 ra. 
 
 prend-rons, rez. 
 
 
 ront. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Frends. | Prcn-ons, 
 
 A a 
 
in 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Je tu il ou elle, 
 
 Prend-rais, rais, rait. 
 
 JLTJRAL. 
 
 K(ms V0U8 Us 011 elles, 
 
 I Prend-rions, riez, raient. 
 
 Prenn-e, 
 pr-isse, 
 
 es, 
 isses, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Pren-ions, 
 pr-issions, 
 
 lez, nent. 
 issiez, issent. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE PRENDRE. 
 
 yljifirendre, 
 
 To learn. 
 
 Comprendre^ 
 To understand. 
 Desafiprendre, 
 To unlearn. 
 Emtreiirendre, 
 To undertake. 
 Se mejirendre^ 
 To make a mis- 
 take. 
 Reprcndre^ 
 
 To take back. 
 Refirendre^ 
 
 To blame, to cen- 
 sure. 
 Surjirendre, 
 
 To surprise. 
 
 Combien y a-t-il que vous apfirenez \t 
 
 Francais ? 
 How long have you been learning French ? 
 Avez-vous comfiris ce qu' il a dit ? 
 Did you understand what he said ? 
 Vous desafifirenez au lieu d' apprendre. 
 You unlearn instead of learning. 
 Vous entrefirenez trop de choses a la fois. 
 You undertake too many things at once. 
 Vous vous etes mefiris sur son compte. 
 Y ou have made a mistake about him. 
 
 J' ai refiris mon argent Sc lui ses marchan- 
 dises, 
 
 I took my money back and he his goods. 
 
 II a ete refiris severement par un conseil 
 de guerre, 
 
 He was severely blamed (or censured) by 
 
 a court martial. 
 Vous nae surfirenez d' agir comme vous 
 
 faites. 
 You surprise me to act as you do. 
 
 SIXTH CLASS, AS FAIRE, TO DO OR TO MAKE. 
 
 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 To do, Faire. Doing, Fesant. Done, Fait. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 17^ 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 Je 
 
 tu 
 
 il 
 
 ou elk. 
 
 JV0U8 
 
 vous 
 
 Us 
 
 ou eiles 
 
 F-ais, 
 
 ais, 
 
 
 ait. 
 
 F-esonSj 
 
 aites, 
 
 
 ont. 
 
 fes-ai^j 
 
 ais, 
 
 
 ait. 
 
 fes-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 
 aient. 
 
 f-is, 
 
 is, 
 
 
 it. 
 
 f-imes, 
 
 ites, 
 
 
 irent. 
 
 fe-rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 
 a. 
 
 fer-ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 
 ont. 
 
 Fe-rais, 
 
 Fass-e, 
 f-isse, 
 
 Fais. 
 
 rais, 
 
 es, 
 isses, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 I F-esons, aites. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 rait. I Fe-rions, riez, raient. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 e. I Fass-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 it. f-issions, issiez, issent. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING "^ERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE FAIRE, 
 
 Contrefaire^ 
 
 To counterfeit. 
 
 Defaircy 
 To undo. 
 Defaire, 
 
 To defeat. 
 
 Refaire^ 
 
 To do again. 
 
 Satisfairey 
 
 To please. 
 
 Sotisfaire^ 
 
 To satisfy. 
 
 Surfaire^ 
 
 To ask too much. 
 
 II a ete pendu pour avoir contrcfait des 
 
 billets de banque. 
 He was hanged for having counterfeited 
 
 bank notes. 
 Vous defaites tout ce que je fais, 
 You undo all that I do. 
 Nous dejimes T ennemi avec un grand 
 
 carnage. 
 We defeated the enemy with great slaugh- 
 ter. 
 II est inutile de le refaire. 
 It is useless to do it again, 
 C est un homme qui satisfait tous ceux 
 
 qui ont affaire avec lui, 
 He is a man \who pleases all those who 
 
 deal with him. 
 II n' a satisfait aucun de ses creanciers, 
 He has not satisfied any of his creditors. 
 Ce marchand vous a surfait de moitie, 
 This shopkeeper asked you too much by 
 
 half. 
 
180 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 SEVENTH CLASS, AS ECRIRE, TO WRITE, 
 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 To write ^ ecrire. Writing, ecrivant. Ifritten, ecrit. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 . 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 Jc 
 
 tu 
 
 il 
 
 ou efle. 
 
 JVbus 
 
 vous 
 
 ils 
 
 ou elles 
 
 Ecri-p, 
 
 s, 
 
 
 t. 
 
 Ecri-vons, 
 
 vez. 
 
 
 vent. 
 
 ecriv-ais, 
 
 ais, 
 
 
 ait. 
 
 ecriv-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 
 aient. 
 
 ecriv-is, 
 
 is, 
 
 
 it'. 
 
 ecriv-imes, 
 
 ites. 
 
 
 irent. 
 
 ecri-rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 
 ra. 
 
 ecri-rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 
 ront. 
 
 Ecri-rais, 
 
 Ecriv-e, 
 ^criv-isse, 
 
 Ecris. 
 
 rais, 
 
 es, 
 isses, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 I Ecriv-ons, 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 rait. I Ecri-rions, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 ez. 
 
 riez. 
 
 raient. 
 
 Ecriv-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING VERBS 
 ARE CONJUGATED LIKE ECRIRE 
 
 Circonscrire, 
 
 To limit, to cir- 
 cumscribe. 
 
 D ecrire^ 
 
 To describe. 
 
 Jnscrire, 
 
 To set down, 
 to enter. 
 
 Prescrire, 
 
 To prescribe. 
 
 Dieu ne se peut circonscrire ni paries lieux 
 
 ni par les terns, 
 God cannot be circumscribed either by place 
 
 or time. 
 II a fort bien decrit ce pays, 
 He has described this country very well. 
 Je vous inscrirai sur mon livre, 
 
 I will set you doivn (or enter) on my book. 
 
 Frescrivez-moi ce que vous voulez que je 
 
 fasse, 
 Prescribe to me what you wish me to do. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 SI 
 
 Froscrire, 
 
 To proscribe. 
 
 Recrire, 
 
 To write again. 
 
 Souscrire, 
 
 To subscribe. 
 
 Transcrire, 
 To transcribe. 
 
 II a 6te proscrit pendant la tyrannic de 
 
 Robespierre, 
 He was proscribed during the tyranny of 
 
 Robespierre. 
 Dites au commis de lui recrire^ 
 Tell the clerk to write to him again. 
 Je souscrivis pour dix exemplaires de cet 
 
 ouvrage, 
 I subscribed for ten copies of this work. 
 Avez-vous transcrit toutes mes lettres ? 
 Did you transcribe all my letters ? 
 
 EIGHTH AND LAST CLASS, 
 EXEMPLIFIED IN DIRE, TO SAY OR TO TELL. 
 
 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 
 To say, Dire. Saying, Disant. Said, Dit. 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 . 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 Je 
 
 tu 
 
 il 
 
 ou elle. 
 
 JV0U8 
 
 voua 
 
 il3 
 
 OM elUs 
 
 Di-s, 
 
 s. 
 
 
 t. 
 
 Di-sons, 
 
 tes, 
 
 
 sent. 
 
 dis-ais, 
 
 ais, 
 
 
 ait. 
 
 dis-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 
 aient. 
 
 di-s, 
 
 s, 
 
 
 t. 
 
 d-imes, 
 
 ites, 
 
 
 irent. 
 
 di-rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 
 ra. 
 
 di-rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 
 ront. 
 
 Di-rai s, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 Dis. I Di-sons, 
 
 CONDITIONAL, 
 rais, rait. | Di-rions, 
 
 tes. 
 
 riez, raient. 
 
 Dis-e, 
 
 d-isse. 
 
 isses, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 e. 
 
 it. 
 
 Dis-ions, 
 d-issions, 
 
 lez, cnt. 
 issiez, issent. 
 
inoi 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The following are conjugated like Dire, except the 2d 
 person plural of the Indicative present and the saipe 
 person of the Imperative of the seven first Verbs, where 
 isez instead of ites is the termination. 
 
 Con/ire., 
 
 To pickle. 
 Coil/ire^ 
 
 To preserve. 
 
 Contredircy 
 To contradict. 
 Se dedire, 
 
 To disown, 
 to recant. 
 Interdire, 
 To forbid. 
 
 Medire, 
 To slander. 
 Fredire, 
 To foretell. 
 Redire, 
 To tell again, 
 to repeat. 
 
 Avez-vous con^t des concombres cette an- 
 
 nee-ci ? 
 Did you pickle any cucumbers this year ? 
 Elle est occupee maintenant a confire du 
 
 fruit, 
 She is now busy about preserving fruit. 
 Vous me contredisez toujours. 
 You always contradict me. 
 Les temoins se sont dedits de ce qu' ils 
 
 avaient dit d'abord. 
 The witnesses have disowned (or recanted) 
 
 what they had said first. 
 On lui a interdit T entree de la ville, 
 They have forbid him from entering the 
 
 city. 
 Vous inedisez trop de votre prochain. 
 You slander your neighbour too much, 
 Je lui ai predit ce qui lui est arrive, 
 I hsiVt foretold him what has befallen him. 
 Redites ce que vous avez entendu, 
 Repeat (or tell again) what you have heard. 
 
 OF THE IRREGULAR VER^S THAT COULD 
 NOT BE CLASSED. 
 
 WE present the scholar with the respective conjuga- 
 tions of those Verbs already mentioned, that, from their 
 extreme irregularity, would not admit of being classed 
 among the Verbs, whose conjugations we have just ex- 
 hibited. In order to take up as little room as possible, 
 we shall only give the tenses that are chiefly formed by 
 a deviation from analogy ; of each of those in which this 
 law is observed, we need only mention the first person, 
 as the pupil will certainly be able, from the knowledge he 
 has now acquired of the French conjugation, to supply the 
 persons omitted. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 183 
 
 Acquerir, to acquire^ 
 acquerant, acquis. 
 
 Assaillir, to assault^ 
 assaillant, assailli. 
 
 rj' acqu-iers, iers, iert; 
 
 < nous acqu-erons, ez, acqui- 
 
 |_ erent. 
 
 J' acquerais.— J' acquis. 
 J' acquerrai. — J' acquerrais. 
 
 TQue J* acqu-iere, ieres, iere ; 
 ■< que nous acqu-erions, eriez,- 
 
 (^ ierent. 
 Que j' acquisse. 
 
 Are conjugated alike ; 
 Conquerir, to conquer* 
 requerir, to require, 
 s' enquerir, to inquire, Ex. 
 
 Je me suis enquis de sa sante. 
 
 I inquired after his health. 
 
 J' assaill-e, es, e ; 
 
 nous assaill-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 J' assaillais. — J' assaillis. 
 J' assaillirai. — J' assaillirais. 
 Que j' assaill-e, es e ; 
 que nous assaill-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Que j' assaillisse. 
 
 /* conjugated alike; 
 TressaiUir, to start, Ex. 
 II tressaillit de peur, 
 He started for fear. 
 
 S' assoir, to sit down^ 
 s* assoyant, assis. 
 
 Boire, to drink^ 
 buvant, bu. 
 
 f Je m' assois, tu t' assois, il s' 
 
 I assoit ; 
 <{ nous nous assoyons, vous 
 
 I vous assoyez, ils s' assoi- 
 
 L ent. 
 
 Je m' assoyais. — Je m' assis. 
 Je m' assoirai. — Je m' assoirais. 
 
 fQue je m' ass-oie, oies, oie; 
 -< que nous nous ass-oyions, 
 
 (^ oyiez, oient. 
 Que je m' assisse. 
 
 Are conjugated alike ; 
 Se rassoir, to-sit donvn agaiii, 
 sursoir, to adjourn or fiOHthone 
 
 (a law term). 
 
 Je bois, tu bois, il boit ; 
 
 nous buv-ons, ez, boivent. 
 
 Je buvais. — Je bus. 
 
 Je boirai. — Je boirais. 
 
 Que je boiv-e, es, e ; 
 
 que nous buv-ions, iez, boivent. 
 
 Que je busse. 
 
184 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Bouillir, to boil^ 
 bouillant, bouilli. 
 
 Conclure, to conclude. 
 concluant, conclu. 
 
 C Je bous, tu bous, il bout; 
 
 \ nous bouill-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je bouillais. — Je bouillis. 
 Je bouillirai. — Je bouillirais. 
 
 5 Que je bouill-e, es, e ; 
 
 \ que nous bouill-ions, iez, ent. 
 Que je bouillisse. 
 
 N. B. This Verb, as well as 
 its derivative rehoviUir^ to boil 
 again, is seldom used except 
 in the /w/?mV2Tye or third person 
 of its tenses : to supply the 
 persons corresponding to the 
 English we employ the Verb 
 /aire: Ex. I 6oz7 that, Jtfais 
 bouillir cela. 
 
 CJe 
 ^no 
 
 concl-us, us, ut ; 
 nous conclu-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je concluais. — Je conclus. 
 Je conelurai. — Je conclurais. 
 
 CQue je conclu-e, es, e; 
 I que nous conclu-ions, iez, ent. 
 Que je conclusse. 
 
 IC?^ Exclure its only deri- 
 vative may make in the Past 
 Participle either exclu or ex- 
 clus for the masculine, and of 
 course exclue or excluse for 
 the feminine. 
 
 Coudre, tc sew^ 
 cousant, cousu. 
 
 Fair, to jly^ 
 fuyant, fui. 
 
 Oe 
 ^noi 
 
 cou-ds, ds, d ; 
 nous cous-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je cousais. — Je cousis. 
 Je coudrai. — Je coudrais. 
 C Que je cous-e, es, e ; 
 \ que nous cous-ions, iez, ent. 
 Que je cousisse. 
 
 Note, Decoudre, to uns^iv ; 
 and recoudre, to sew again j i\.vQ 
 conjugated in the same man- 
 ner. 
 
 Je fu-is, is, it ; 
 
 nous fu-yons, yez, lent. 
 
 Je fuyais. — Je fuis.* 
 
 Je fuirai. — Je fuirais. 
 
 Que je fuy-e, es, e ; 
 
 que nous fuy-ions, iez, fuient. 
 
 Que je fuisse.* 
 
 * Instead of using ^Vy^/z* and 
 gtie Je fuisse^ we say now a- 
 days je pria la fuite and que 
 je firisse la Jhdte, 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 185 
 
 Hair, to hate^ 
 haissant, hai. 
 
 Lire, to ready 
 lisant, lu. 
 
 r Je hai-s, tu hai-s, il hai-t. C Je 1-is, 
 < Nous haiss-ons, vous haiss- \ nous lis 
 (^ ez, lis haiss-ent. 
 
 IS, It J 
 
 lis-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je lisais. — Je lus. 
 Je lirai. — Je lirais. 
 The irregularity of this Verb K Que je lis-e, es, e ; 
 is only in the three Jirst per- \ que nous lis-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 sons singular of the Indicative, 
 and the second sinp^ular of the 
 Imfierative, in which it is de- 
 prived of the dots placed over 
 its i. As to the other tenses, 
 it is conjugated like fiunir^ 
 
 Que je lusse. 
 
 Derivatives, 
 Elire, to elect, 
 Relire, to read again. 
 
 Moudre, to grinds 
 moulant, moulu. 
 
 Mourir, to die^ 
 mourant, mort. 
 
 J Je mou-ds, ds, d ; 
 
 \ nous moul-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je moulais. — Je moulus. 
 Je moudrai. — Je moudrais. 
 
 C Que je moul-e, es, e ; 
 
 \ que nous moul-ions, iez, ent. 
 Que je moulusse. 
 
 Derivatives, 
 Emoudre, to whet, 
 Reraoudre, t9 grind again. 
 
 C Je meur-s, s, t ; 
 
 \ nous mour-ons, ez, meurent. 
 
 Je mourais. — Je mourus. 
 
 Je mourrai. — Je mourrais. 
 "Que je meur-e, es, e ; 
 
 que nous mour-ions, iez, 
 meurent. 
 
 Que je mourusse. 
 
 This Verb is sometimes 
 used rejlectirvely, as se mourir, 
 to be dying, Ex. Je me meurs, 
 / am dying. 
 
 VOL. II 
 
 9 b 
 
186 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Mouvoir, to move, 
 mouvant, mu. 
 
 Naitre, to be born or to arise, 
 naissant, ne. 
 
 C Je meu-s, s, t ; 
 
 l nous mouv-ons, ez, meuvent. 
 Je m >uvais. — Je mus« 
 Je mouvrai. — Je mouvrais. 
 
 TQue je meu-ve, ves, ve ; 
 < que nous mouv-ions, iez, 
 
 (^ meuvent. 
 Que je musse. 
 
 Derivative* 
 
 T^ . C ;o move, 
 
 Emouvoir, ^^^^^.^J^_ 
 
 IC Je nai-s, s, t ; 
 \ nous naiss-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je naissais. — Je naquis. 
 Je naitrai. — Je naitrais. 
 C Que je naiss-e, es, e ; 
 \ que nous naiss-ionS) iez, ent. 
 Que je naquisse. 
 
 Its derivative renaitre, to 
 rise again, is defective in the 
 past participle and present an- 
 terior of the Indicative, 
 
 Plaire, to please, 
 plaisant, plu. 
 
 Pleuvoir, to rain, 
 pleuvant, plu, 
 
 5 Je plais, tu plais, il plait ; 
 
 ^nous plais-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je plaisais. — Je plus. 
 Je plairai. — Je plairais. 
 
 C Que je plais-e, es, e ; 
 
 \ que nous plais-ions, iez, ent. 
 Que je plusse. 
 
 Are conjugated alike, 
 Deplaire, to disJUease, 
 Taire, to conceal. 
 Se taire, to be silent. 
 
 II pleut. 
 
 il pleuvait. 
 
 il plut. 
 
 il pleuvra. 
 
 il pleuvrait. 
 
 qu' il pleuve* 
 
 qu' il plut. 
 
 il a plu. — II avait plu, &c. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 J87 
 
 Pouvoir, to be able^ 
 pouvant, pu. 
 
 Resoudre, to resolve^ 
 resolvant, resolu. 
 
 rje p-uis, eux, eut; 
 
 < nous p-ouvons, ouvez, eu- 
 
 (_ vent. 
 
 Je pouvais. — Je pus. 
 Je pourrai — Je pourrais; 
 
 C Que je puiss-e, es, e ; 
 
 \ que nous puiss-ions, iez, ent. 
 que je pusse. 
 
 This Verb can have no /m- 
 fierative. 
 
 C Je res-ous, ous, out ; 
 ^nous resolv-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Je r^solvais. — Je resolus. 
 
 Je resoudrai. — Je resoudrais. 
 cQue je resolv-e, es, e ; 
 Cque nous resolv-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Que je resolusse. 
 
 Absoudre, to absolve^ 
 
 Dissoudre, to dissolve^ 
 are conjugated in tne same 
 manner, the Participle Past 
 excepted which is 
 
 absous, dissous^ m, 
 
 absoute, dispute, f. 
 
 Rire, to laughy 
 riant, ri. 
 
 Savoir, to know, 
 sachant, su. 
 
 Je ri- 
 
 s, t; 
 
 ^nous ri-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je riais. — Je ris. 
 Je rirai. — Je rirais. 
 
 5Que je ri-e, es, e; 
 
 I que nous ri-ions, iez. 
 Que je risse. 
 
 Sourire, to smile, is conju- 
 gated in the same manner. 
 
 Je s-ais, ais, ait; 
 nous sa-vons, vez, vent. 
 Je savais. — Je sus. 
 Je saurai. — Je saurais* 
 Que je sach-e, es, e ; 
 ent. ^ que nous sach-ions, iez, ent. 
 Que je susse. 
 
 Im^ier* Sach-e, ez j sachons. 
 
ia« 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Suffire, to suffice^ 
 suffisant, suffi. 
 
 Suivre, to follow^ 
 suivant, suivi. 
 
 C Je suffi-s, s, t ; 
 
 ^nous suffis-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je suffisais. — Je siiffis. 
 Je suffirai. — Je suffirais. 
 
 C Que je suffis-e, es, e ; 
 
 \ que nous suffis-ioiis, iez, ent. 
 
 This Verb is often used im- 
 personally as il suffit^ &c. 
 
 CJe su-is, is, it; 
 cnous suiv-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Je suivais. — Je suivis. 
 
 Je suivrai. — Je suivrais. 
 
 {Que je suiv-e, es, e ; 
 que nous suiv-ions, iez, ent. 
 Que je suivisse. 
 
 Poursuivre, to pursue^ is con- 
 jugated in the same manner. 
 
 Vaincre, to vanquish^ 
 vaincant, vaincu. 
 
 Valoir, to be worthy 
 valant, valu. 
 
 C Je vain-cs, cs, c ; 
 
 I nous vainqu-ons, ez, ent 
 Je vainquais. — Je vainquis. 
 Je vaincrai. — Je vaincrais. 
 
 r Que je vainqu-e, es, e ; 
 
 < que nous vainqu-ions, iez,* 
 
 I ent. 
 Que je vainquisse. 
 
 Convaincre, to convince^ is 
 thus conjugated. 
 
 C Je v-aux, aux, aut ; 
 c nous va-lons, Iez, lent. 
 
 Je valais. — Je valus. 
 
 Je vaudrai. — Je vaudrais. 
 
 Que je v-aille, ailles, aille ; 
 
 que nous v-alions, aliez, ail- 
 lent. 
 
 Que je valusse. 
 
 Equivaloir, to be equivalent^ 
 is thus conjugated — Prevaloir, 
 to fircvail., makes preva/e in- 
 stead of pr6vaz7^(? in the Present 
 of the Subjunctive. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 189 
 
 Vetir, to clothe^ 
 Vetant, vetu. 
 
 Vivre, to livcy 
 vivant, vecu. 
 
 C Je vet-s, s, il vet ; 
 
 \ nous vet-ons, ez, ent. 
 Je vetais. — Je vetis. 
 Je vetirai. — Je vetirais. 
 Que je vet-e, es, e 
 
 {Je vi-s, s, t; 
 nous viv-ons, ezj ent. 
 Je vivais. — Je vecus. 
 Je vivrai. — Je vivrais. 
 C Que je viv-e, es, e ; 
 
 \ que nous vet-ions, iez, ent. \ que nous viv-ions, iez, ent. 
 Que je vetisse. Que je vecusse, 
 
 JC/* The singular person of 
 the Indicative and Imfierative 
 are now seldom used. 
 
 It is used most commonly 
 with the Personal Pronouns 
 and signifies to dress one's s^lf, 
 
 Ex. Vous etes long-tems a 
 vous -vetir^ You are long dress- 
 ing yourself. 
 
 Voir, to see^ 
 voyant, vu. 
 
 Vouloir, to be willingy 
 voulant, voulu. 
 
 C Je v-ois, ois, oit ; 
 
 \ nous v-oyons, oyez, oient. 
 Je voyais. Je vis. 
 Jei verrai. Je verrais. 
 
 TQueje voi-e, es, e; 
 
 i que nous v-oyons, oyez, 
 
 (^ oient. 
 Que je'visse. 
 
 Its derivatives are, 
 Entrevoir, to have a gUmtiseoJ. 
 Pre voir, to foresee, 
 Pourvoir, to provide, 
 
 Prevoir, makes je pret'ozrai, 
 — ^je prevofrais instead of je 
 prei^errai — je pret^errais. 
 
 Pourvoir, makes je pourvw*, 
 — ^je pourvozrai — je pourvoerais 
 instead of je pourvf*—- je pour- 
 Vfrrai — ^je pourverrais. 
 
 Je veu-x, X, t ; 
 
 nous voul-ons, ez, veulent. 
 
 Je voulais. — Je voulus. 
 
 Je voudrai. — Je voudrais. 
 
 Que je veuill-e, es, e ; 
 
 que nous voul-ions, iez, veuil- 
 
 lent. 
 Que je voulusse. 
 
 This Verb has no Impera- 
 tive. 
 
190 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 We conceive the following Table, which contains the termi- 
 nations of every Verb, may be useful to the Scholar, as a Me- 
 morandum and even a Shield to guard his Orthografihy from the 
 blunders so often made by the English Learners in writing the 
 Verbs. 
 
 A TABLE 
 OF THE TERMINATIONS OF EVERY FRENCH VERB. 
 
 MOODS. I 
 
 TKNSES. 
 
 NUMBKRS. 
 
 PERSONS, 
 
 > 
 
 H 
 U 
 
 D 
 
 >-» 
 
 CO 
 
 Present. 
 
 Present Anterior. 
 
 Present Anterior Periodical. 
 
 Present Posterior.< 
 
 •J 
 < 
 
 O 
 Q 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 Present, 
 
 Present.* 
 
 < 
 
 Present Anterior.< 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Who could fail, in the above Table, not to know the Verb etre placed, as 
 ve have shown, at the eiid of every French Verb ? 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 191 
 
 CONVERSATION X. 
 
 FIKAL REMARKS OA' TUE FREJSTCH COM/UGJl'IOM 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 WHAT more have you to say on French conjugation ? 
 Master. 
 
 I have to acquaint you with the remaining tenses that 
 may be formed with the auxiliaries Vtnir^ Devoir^ and 
 Aller (which we have introduced in the French conju- 
 gation), and to give you an idea of the tenses denominat- 
 ed Comparative^ I have deferred making known to you 
 all those various tenses until the present time ; as I now 
 perceive with inexpressible satisfaction, that you can, 
 with facility, conjugate every French Verb. My motives 
 for postponing it, were to ease your memory, which 
 would, in the first instance, have been burthened with a 
 number of tenses, some of which are seldom used in 
 French or English : which last would not only have per- 
 plexed you, but would have impressed your mind with 
 the erroneous notion that our system of conjugation was 
 more difficult than the old, where many of our tenses 
 have been, with much impropriety entirely concealed 
 from the knowledge of the scholar.-j- 
 Scholar. 
 
 Please to let me know the tenses formed by Venire 
 with which I am unacquainted. 
 Master. 
 
 There are six more past tenses ^w*^ elapsed^ which arc 
 as follow, viz. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 Venir de porten-, To have just carried. 
 
 t For instance, I have met with many pupils, who, after several years 
 instruction, were unacquainted with the Past Just Elapsed, Je viens dcy 
 &c. (which occurs so often in speech, a-id is besides an idiom J ajid al- 
 ways translated it by / comefroTn, Sec. which implies lumsense in this case. 
 
192 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 Je venaia de fiorter^ Sec. I had just carried, £cc. 
 
 PAST POSTERIOR JUST ELAPSED. 
 Je viendrai de fiorter, Sec. I shall have just carried, Sec. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 Je viendrais de Jiortcr^ Sec. I should have just carried, Sec. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PAST JUST ELAPSED. 
 
 Que je vienne de porter^ Sec. That I may have just carried, Sec. 
 
 PAST ANTERIOR JUST ELAPSED. 
 Que ye vinsse de porter^ Sec. That I may have just carried. Sec. 
 
 You may easily supply the persons not expressed in 
 the above tenses. 
 
 Scholar, 
 I should be happy to acquire the same knowledge of 
 the other tenses formed with Devoir and Aller* 
 Master. 
 Those tenses are all futures. 
 
 FUTURES EXPRESSED BY DEVOIR. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Devoir porter ^ To have to carry. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 Devant porter, Having to carry. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 19! 
 
 INDICATIVE. ' 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je devais fiorter^ &c. I was to carry, Sec. 
 
 FUTURE POSTERIOR. 
 
 Je devrai fiorter, Sec. I shall have to carry, Sec. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je devrcUs fiorter, 8cc. I should have to carry, See. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 Que je doive porter^ &c. That I may have to carry, &c. 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 QueyV dusse fiorter^ &c. That I might have to carry, &c. 
 
 FUTURES OF ALLER. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 J* allais fiorteV) &c, I was going to carry, &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE. 
 
 "Que / aille porter^ &c. I must soon carry, &c. 
 
 INSTANT FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Que j* allasse porter^ &c. I was obUged to carry, &c. 
 VOL. II. cc 
 
104 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Scholar. 
 What are the Comparative tenses \ 
 
 Master. 
 They are all past tenses, but properly termed Compara' 
 the^ because they exhibit an anterior event compared 
 with an event which is also anterior^ yet not so much so 
 as the Jir8t. They are formed with the radical tenses 
 of Avoir and its past participle e%i placed before the 
 past participle of another Verb. — Example. 
 
 Quand J' ai eujini men ouvrage, votre frere est entre. 
 
 When I had [_just] done my work, your brother came in. 
 
 In the above sentence you perceive clearly that the 
 Comparative tense y* ai eu Jini is used merely to acquaint 
 you with the precise time your brother came in, — It is 
 of course supposed you know when my work was done ; 
 for two unknown epochs instead of one would be present- 
 ed to your view. — The Comparative tense may, therefore, 
 with propriety, be compared to a kind of measure or 
 needle which, on the dial of human actions, shows point- 
 edly the very instant of the existence of an action un- 
 known till then. 
 
 The Comparative tenses are chiefly used in plays, 
 epistolary correspondence, and novels. Eminent French 
 writers on subjects of general utility to society, furnish 
 us with but few examples of their use. The reason, 
 I believe, why they are used so seldom by them, is owing 
 to the epochs of the subjects they treat on, which do not 
 require to be determined with that precision which the 
 common incidents, related in the works before mention- 
 ed, demand. 
 
 A VIEW 
 OF THE COMPARATIVE TENSES, 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Avoir eu porte^ To have [had] carried. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Ayant eu porte^ Having [had] carried. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PAST COMPARATIVE. 
 J* ai eu portcy Sec. I have [had] carried, Sec. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 195 
 
 PAST COMPARATIVE ANTERIOR. 
 
 y arvais eu fiortd, Sec. I had [had] carried, &c. 
 
 PAST COMPARATIVE ANTERIOR PERIODICAL. 
 
 y eu8 eu fiortey 8cc. I had [had] carried, &c. 
 
 PAST COMPARATIVE POSTERIOR. 
 
 J' aurai eu fiorte, &c. I shall have [had] carried, 8cc. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PAST COMPARATIVE. 
 
 J" auraia eufiorte^ &c. L should have [had] carried, &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PAST COMPARATIVE. 
 
 Que j'aie eu parte ^ Sec. That I may have [had] carried, &c« 
 
 PAST COMPARATIVE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Que y eusse eu fiortey Sec. That I might have [had] carried, &c. 
 
 CONVERSATION XL 
 
 OF PREPOSITIOjYS, 
 
 Scholar. 
 WHAT is a Prepesition? 
 
 Master. 
 It is a word placed between two other words, to point 
 out or express a relation between the ideas denoted by 
 those two words* 
 
 Scholar. 
 What do you mean by a relation between two ideas ? 
 PP Master. 
 
 ' I mean to say, in other words, that the two ideas have 
 
 a correspondence together : this correspondence or rela- 
 
196 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 tion, which renders them mutually necessary to each other, 
 is pointed out by the term called Preposition. When I 
 say, for instance, Alexander was the son of Philip ; in this 
 sentence, there is evidently a relation between Alexander 
 and Philip, which is, that t\i& former is the son of the lat^ 
 ter. The Preposition o/' points it out. 
 
 The relation, which the mind perceives between ideas, 
 has its foundation, or prototype, in nature, the objects of 
 which are dependent upon one another, thus : The uni- 
 verse supposes a Creator; a mother awakens the idea of 
 a husband^ children^ education^ &c. as Pope so elegantly 
 expresses in the following lines : 
 
 <* Nothing is foreign ; parts relate to whole. 
 One all-extending — all-preserving soul ! 
 Connects each being, greatest with the least. 
 Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast. 
 All serv'd, all serving — Nothing stands alone. 
 The chain holds on, and v^^here it ends, unknown.'* 
 
 The relations between objects being various, have given 
 rise to different Prepositions to distinguish them. 
 Scholar. 
 
 Could not man have communicated his sentiments with- 
 out Prepositions ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 Yes he might, with the help of unconnected sentences ; 
 but how poor would that language have been, which could 
 only express ideas in a slow and circuitous manner, with- 
 out any of those shades and lively gradations, that render 
 them at once so impressive, so elegant, just, and tractable. 
 
 Man's reason being created and improved by his use 
 of languagef, he was no longer satisfied with solely com- 
 paring the object with the quality ; ambitious of emerg- 
 ing, from such a narrow sphere, and observing the rela- 
 tion of one idea to another, of one action to another, he 
 soon felt the necessity of expressing his enlarged views, 
 and the existence of the relations he discovered in the va- 
 rious objects of nature : it was then he resorted to Prepo- 
 sitions ; so termed from the Latins, to imply that they 
 are placed before the words tliey govern. 
 Scholar. 
 
 How did man proceed in the invention of those new 
 words ? 
 
 •f See Hobbes and Conclillac. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. ' 197 
 
 Master. 
 
 On this occasion he made use of the Adjectives and 
 
 Nouns his language was already composed of; which tends 
 
 to confirm our fundamental principle on the formation of 
 
 language, that every part of speech sprung from a Noun. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 I do not find, however, among those laconic terms de- 
 nominated Prepositions^ many traces or features of their 
 origin. 
 
 Master. 
 
 It is because they have been reduced by constant use ': 
 you have seen in my preliminary discourse that the mind 
 is in perpetual need of such words to manifest its ideas. 
 Terms so often employed, could not remain long entire ; 
 they were gradually worn out (if I may be allowed the 
 expression) by the friction of speech, and many of them 
 became mere monosyllables, apparently devoid of a pri- 
 mitive meaning ; just as a piece of gold coin, by a rapid 
 and continued circulation, diminishes in weight and re- 
 tains but faint marks of its effigy and stamp. 
 
 An English philosopher, armed with great courage, and 
 supported by the intuitive suggestions of genius, conceiv- 
 ed that those ^r/^ expressions, now void of signification, 
 had once a real import, concealed now from our intellec- 
 tual view, by our ignorance of their origin, and that they 
 were nothing but abbreviations of Nouns or Verbs-}-. To 
 ascertain these points, he consulted the most ancient 
 works of the different languages, from which the English 
 language emanated, and discovered, to a certainty, by 
 the help of his discriminating powers, that Prepositions 
 are, in fact, nothing more than abbreviations of the two 
 parts of speech above mentioned, to wit. Nouns and Verbs, 
 This holds good for all languages, as it is founded in the 
 nature of things, and in the simplicity of the means, which 
 nature suggested to man in his formation of language. If 
 you wish to extend your ideas of grammar, and to be 
 convinced of this truth, read the Diversions of Purley^ by 
 Home Tooke» 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Are there as many Prepositions as there are relations? 
 Master. 
 
 No : Flor the same Preposition is often used to express 
 different relations : the same relation is also sometimes 
 
 t That is to say, of Adjectives in our System of Granimar. 
 
19d PHILOSOPHY 
 
 expressed by different Prepositions. These circumstances 
 have induced me to present to your view, at the end of 
 this conversation, a table that will give you an idea of the 
 proper use of Prepositions in the French language ,* as 
 it contains, in alphabetical order, the Preposition-i^ with 
 the various relations shown by them, exemplified in a se- 
 ries of familiar phrases. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Is the Preposition always placed between two words ? 
 
 Master. 
 It should be so ; as the Preposition has been introduced 
 to serve as a canal of communication between two words 
 reciprocally necessary to each other, for the complete 'ex- 
 pression of the thought. However exceptions have been 
 made in favour of poetical harmony and brevity of lan- 
 guage. This accounts for the Preposition being separat- 
 ed from, or deprived of, its first term, which is called An- 
 tecedent^ to denote its place. In French poetry, -s ou will 
 often meet with the Preposition separated from its Ante^ 
 cedent^ as in the two following lines : 
 
 Aux etres sans raison le Ciel par indulgence, 
 De leur derniere fin cache la connaissance. 
 
 To each unthinking being, Heav'n, a friend, 
 Gives not the useless knowledge of its end. 
 
 The antecedents of the Preposition a (aux put for a lesy 
 and dcy are the words cache and connaissance. 
 
 In the following inscription on the statue of Maffei^ at 
 Verona^ viz. 
 
 a Scipion MafFei, vivant. 
 
 To Scipio MafFei, during his life. 
 
 The antecedent words statue consacree are understood. 
 
 On the direction of letters, for instance, 
 
 a Messieurs Brugiere & Co. a Philadelphie. 
 To Messrs. Brugiere & Cq. at Philadelphia. 
 
 The words cette leitre sera rendue^ this letter will be 
 delivered, are understood. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Is the second term of a Preposition always expressed 
 in French? 
 
OF LANGUAGE. \99 
 
 Master. 
 
 No. There are seven Prepositions, after which, it may 
 be understood, viz. auparavant^ before ; depuis^ since ; 
 dehors^ out; alentour^ roimd; dedans^ within ; defisus^ over 
 or above ; and dtssous^ under, exemplified in the follow- 
 ing phrases : 
 
 Ce n'est pas d'aujourd'hui que je le sais, il me Tavait 
 dit auparavant^ 
 
 It is not to-day that I know it, he had told it me before. 
 
 Si vous vous plaisez dans ma bibliotheque, restez de- 
 dansy or, in better terms, restez, y. 
 
 If you are pleased in my library, stay within it. 
 
 Au lieu de mettre les souliers sous la table, il les a mis 
 dessus^ 
 
 Instead of putting the shoes under the table, he put 
 them over (or on it.) 
 
 II s' est trompe s' il les a mis dessus j il aurait du les 
 mettre dessous^ 
 
 He made a mistake if he put them on the table ; he 
 should have put them under it. 
 
 On m'a refuse I'entree du jardin ; pour m' en dedomma- 
 ger, je me suis promene akntour^ 
 
 They refused me entrance into the garden; to make up 
 for it, I took a walk round it. 
 
 Vous le vites 1' annee derniere, mais ne 1' avez vous paa 
 vu depuis? 
 
 You saw him last year, but have you not seen him since f 
 
 The words aujourd^hui, chambre^ bibliotheque^ table ^ jar- 
 din^ V annee derniere^ are understood. We call such words 
 the consequents or complements* of a Preposition. 
 
 * We observe here, once for all, that in this treatise the word complement 
 of which we alread/ gave an idea in treating on the adjective, means, as in 
 the Grammars of Beauzee, Sicard, &c. that which is added to a word to 
 determine its signiucation m any manner whatever. 
 
 There are two sor:s of words the signification of which may be deter- 
 mined by complements ; 1st, all those that have a general signilication sus- 
 ceptible of ditiereni: degrees ; 2d, all those that have a signiucation relative 
 to any term whatever. 
 
 Those of the first class are nouns cotnm.on and every aujecti've and adverb, 
 Tfhich, impl^'ing in their sigiuucaciou au idea susceptible of quantity, arc 
 
200 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Are Prepositions useful only to express relations be- 
 tween objects and qualities ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 They possess a very important property in forming the 
 derivatives of Verbs. You have seen instances of it in 
 our conjugation in the derivatives of mettre^ venir^ Sec. 
 
 Here follow those in use for that purpose, many of which 
 are borrowed, in that instance, with a slight alteration, 
 from the Latin. — Ad on A : mettre, admettre; prendre, ap- 
 prendre* — Con^ com^ contre: courir, concourir ; battre, com." 
 battre; venir, contrevenir, — De^ dis: faire, d^faire; paraitre, 
 dtsparaitre, — E^ en^ em, entre, ex: puiser, epuiser; trainer, 
 entrainer; porter, emporter; prendre, entreprendre; traire, 
 extraire. — In, im, inter: disposer, indisposer ; poser, im- 
 poser ; rompre, interrompre* — Me, W2az^: connaitre, mecon- 
 naitre; dire, maudire. — Ob: tenir, obtenir. — Par, per, prey 
 pro, pour: venir, parvenir ; mettre, permettre ; munir, 
 premunir; poser, proposer ; suivre, poursuivre, — Re, re: 
 commencer, recommencer ; former, reformer, — Se, sou^ 
 stir, sus: courir, secourir ; tenir, soutenir ; T^YQudrt, sur- 
 prendre ; pendre, suspendre, — Trans : porter, transporter* 
 
 An accurate knowledge of the meaning of the Preposi- 
 tions and primitive Verbs, will, in general, lead you to that 
 of the derivatives. 
 
 You are now to commit to memory the following table, 
 subjoined to this conversation. You will find the Preposi- 
 tions sufficiently exemplified in it, to direct you in their 
 use and application. 
 
 themselves susceptible of what is called degrees of signification ; and finally 
 every verb the individual idea of which may also receive those various degrees. 
 
 Those of the second class are several nouns common, several adjectives, a 
 few adverbs, every active verb as well as some others, and every preposition. 
 
 If we abstain from giving examples, it is in order not to swell this note, 
 and because the doctrine of complements has been treated in a masterly- 
 manner by Beauzee, to whom we refer all those whom a love for Gram- 
 jnatical science wculd induce to explore that delicate part of Grammar, 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 201 
 
 AN ALPHABETICAL TABLE 
 OF RELATIONS, 
 
 COMMONLY EXPRESSED BY PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Relations, 
 
 Prepositions, \ 
 
 Kxevifilifications, 
 
 Addition.< 
 
 outre. 
 
 Approximation.<v 
 
 Assimilation.< pour. 
 
 COutre mon cheval je lui ai 
 
 t' donne cent ecus, 
 Besides my horse I gave him 
 one hundred crowns. 
 
 Nous avons fait environ deux 
 
 lieues, 
 We have gone about two 
 
 leagues. 
 
 \ 
 
 Je me suis trompe, j' alpris 
 
 r un pour V autre, 
 I have made a mistake, I took 
 
 one yor the other. 
 
 Attribution.< 
 
 concemant. 
 
 de. 
 
 Comparison. 
 
 pour. 
 
 de. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 {Rendez c Cesar ce qui est it 
 Cesar, 
 Restore to Caesar what is 
 Caesar's. 
 J' ai quelque chose a vous dire 
 
 concemant cette affaire, 
 I have something to tell you 
 
 concerning that business. 
 J' ai re9u de Monsieur un tel, 
 
 I have received of Mr. such 
 a one. 
 
 Ce n' est pas pour vous qu' il 
 
 r a fait. 
 It is not jbr you that he hai 
 
 done it. 
 
 II est phis grand que vous de 
 trois pouces, 
 
 He is taller than you by three 
 inches. 
 Dd 
 
202 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Relations, j Prcjioisitiom^,- \ 
 
 Exemp.lifications, 
 
 Composition.< 
 
 Conformity .< 
 
 de. 
 
 selon. 
 
 suivant. 
 
 Consequence. <{ attendu 
 
 .1 
 
 Contiguity.< 
 
 Distance of 
 place. 
 
 attenanti 
 
 joignant. 
 
 depuis. 
 
 loin. 
 
 j[ires* 
 
 On le trouva enseveli sous un 
 
 tas de blesses, 
 They found him buried under 
 
 a heap of woundedo 
 
 "II faut raisonner aelon Locke 
 
 & Condillac, 
 We must reason according to 
 
 Locke and Condillac. 
 J' ob6is suivant vos ordres, 
 
 I obey according to your or- 
 ders. 
 
 11 fut exempte de la milice, 
 
 attendu son age, 
 He was exempted from the 
 
 militia, oiving to his age. 
 
 r Son jardinesta^;en«w?dumienj 
 •< His garden is contiguous to 
 (^ mine. 
 
 II demeure joignant V hotel 
 monnaie, 
 
 res adjoirdng the mint. 
 
 (^ mme, 
 fll deme 
 -j de la 
 (.He lives 
 
 1" 
 
 riu 
 
 ai voyage avec lui de/iuii 
 Paris jusqu' a Lyon, 
 j X have travelled with him from 
 [_ Paris to Lyons. 
 II demeure a trois millesd' ici, 
 [e lives three miles from 
 hence. 
 C Vous etes loin de lui, 
 J You are far from him. 
 5 Venez demeurer /ii'es de moi, 
 ^ Come and live near me. 
 
 Dist^ance of^ 
 time. 
 
 de/iuis. 
 
 'II ne m* a pas ecrit dejiuis 
 
 quatre ans, 
 He has not written to me 
 
 these four years. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 20: 
 
 Relations, | Prefiositions. | 
 
 Exemplifications, 
 
 Distance of 
 order. 
 
 deiiids. 
 
 1 
 
 II a visile les rnalades depuis 
 le premier jusqu* au der- 
 nier, 
 He has visited the patients 
 from the first to the last. 
 
 Division.< 
 
 rVous coiiperez les pommes 
 
 I en trois. 
 ^' "S You will cut the apples in 
 
 L three. 
 
 fLa viande a ete coup6e par 
 J morceaux, 
 par, <^ r^^^ meat has been cut in 
 
 l_ pieces. 
 
 Duration.< 
 
 durant. 
 
 fiendant. 
 
 II etait triste durant la fete, 
 
 He was sad during the enter- 
 tainment. 
 
 II a plu pendant toute la jour- 
 nec, 
 
 It has rained during the whole 
 day. 
 
 Exchange.< pour> 
 
 y ai echange ma jument /?owr 
 
 une meilleure, 
 I have exchanged my mare 
 
 for a better one. 
 
 Exclusion.^ 
 
 ivation.< 
 
 Privation 
 
 excepte. 
 
 hormis. 
 
 de. 
 
 ril travaille toute la semaine, 
 J excefite le dimanche, 
 I He works the whole week, 
 1^ Sunday excepted, 
 II aime tons les hommes hor- 
 mis les ingrats, 
 He loves all men except the 
 ungrateful. 
 
 "Le ministre 1* a prive de sa 
 
 place, 
 The minister has deprived 
 
 him o/" his office. 
 
204 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Relations* j Prefiositions, | 
 
 Mxemfilifications. 
 
 Extension. 
 
 jusque. 
 
 "Je r ai cherche depuis la cave 
 
 jusqu' au grenier, 
 I looked for it from the cellar 
 
 to the garret. 
 
 Habitation. 
 
 chez. 
 
 Venez loger chez moi, 
 Come and live at my house. 
 
 Imitation." 
 
 a/ires* 
 
 rCe tableau est peint d' afires 
 J Rubens — d' a/ires nature, 
 \ This picture is painted after 
 L Rubens — -from the life. 
 
 Matter. < de. 
 
 Mannerofliving J 
 dressing, Sec. ] 
 
 I 
 
 { 
 
 Manner. < avec. 
 
 Means. 
 
 avec. 
 
 par. 
 
 inoyennant. 
 
 J' ai perdu ma tabatiere d* or, 
 I have lost my gold snuff-box. 
 
 "11 vit a la Fran9aise, s* habille 
 a V Anglaise, 8c couche sur 
 un lit a la Turque, 
 He lives after the French 
 
 I fashion, dresses after the 
 
 I English, and sleeps in the 
 
 L Turkish mode* 
 
 rComportez-vous avec pru- 
 
 i dence, 
 
 (_ Behave "iVith prudence. 
 
 { 
 
 L 
 
 f J' en V 
 
 tnant 
 I will 1 
 ofy. 
 
 II s' est tue avec son epee. 
 He killed himself with his 
 
 sword. 
 II r a attendri en pleurant. 
 He softened him by shedding 
 
 tears. 
 II r obtiendra/zar 1' entremise 
 J de cette femme, 
 ', He will obtain it through the 
 l^ medium of this woman, 
 f J' en viendrai a bout moyen- 
 nant votre secours, 
 
 bring it about by means 
 our assistance. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 205 
 
 Relations, J Prefiositions, 
 
 Exemplifications, 
 
 Measure.*^ 
 
 L 
 
 Mixture. 
 
 Motion.< 
 
 Motive. 
 
 Opposition.< 
 
 Order.< 
 
 parmi. 
 
 de. 
 
 sur. 
 
 contre. 
 
 apres. 
 
 < 
 
 Vous a-t-il vendu son drap a 
 
 r aune ? 
 Did he sell you his cloth by 
 
 the yard? 
 
 C On le tvovivdiparmi les morts, 
 \ He was fouud among the dead. 
 
 C II est alle ^ la Chine, 
 \ He is gone to China, 
 f Je croyais que vous veniez dc 
 Portugal, 
 I thought you came/rom Por- 
 tugal. 
 
 en 
 
 i 
 
 ril est resolu de passer t 
 
 < Espagne, 
 
 (^ He is resolved to go to Spaii 
 
 go to Spain. 
 
 {Bonaparte se porta sur Man- 
 toue, 
 Bonaparte directed his march 
 toward Mantua. 
 Nous fimes voile vers les In- 
 
 des, 
 We sailed towards the Indies, 
 
 5 II r a fait par crainte, 
 hi' 
 
 { 
 
 {" 
 
 He did it through fear, 
 etudie pour s' instruire, 
 
 He studies in order to get in- 
 struction. 
 
 "II ne faut pas disputer contre 
 
 lui, 
 You must not argue against 
 him. 
 
 {Les soldats defilerent deux a 
 deux, 
 The soldiers filed off two by 
 two. 
 f lis out passe les uns ajires les 
 autres. 
 They have passed one after 
 another. 
 
 I 
 
20« 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Relations* j Prefiositions. j 
 
 JExenipUfications, 
 
 Origin, cause.- 
 
 de. 
 
 par. 
 
 Passage. <^ ;fiar. 
 
 Pkce.- 
 
 afires* 
 
 derriere. 
 
 devani. 
 
 'II descend d' une famille il- 
 
 lustre, 
 He descends/rom an illustri- 
 ous family. 
 fL' armee conibinee fut vain- 
 J cue /mr les t ran^ais, 
 j The combined army was de- 
 L feated dy the French. 
 
 Ne passezplus /ar ma cham- 
 
 bre, 
 Do not pass any more through 
 
 my room. 
 
 rVous trouverez a/ires le ves- 
 
 J tibule un magnifique salon, 
 
 I You will find after the entry 
 
 1^ a magnificent parlour. 
 
 'Cachez-vous derriire la tapis- 
 
 serie, 
 Hide youYseli behind the hang- 
 inc^s. 
 
 ril vit en sa propre mai- 
 •< son, 
 
 {_ He lives in his own house. - 
 5 Mettez cela devani \t feu, 
 I Put that before the fire. 
 
 Possession. 
 
 de. 
 
 fVoila le tombeau d' Henri 
 J quatre, 
 
 ^ That is the tomb of Henry 
 l^ the fourth. 
 
 Price. 
 
 t 
 
 'Ce ble s' est vendu a deux 
 
 ecus le boisseau, 
 This corn sold /or ten crowns 
 
 a bushel. 
 
 Relation be- 
 tween persons. 
 
 envers. 
 
 11 a ete ingrat envers son bien- 
 
 faiteur, 
 He has been ungrateful to- 
 
 ivards his benefactor. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 207 
 
 Relations, \ Prepositions, \ 
 
 Exemfilijications, 
 
 Resistance." 
 
 malgre. 
 
 nonobstant. 
 
 r/ 
 
 entrerai malgre vous, 
 ■will enter in s/iite of you. 
 
 lis ont ete faits prisonniers 
 nonobstant leur defence cou- 
 rageuse. 
 
 They have been made prison- 
 ers notivithstanding their 
 courageous defence. 
 
 Situation.-< 
 
 entre. 
 
 J Vous prendrez a gauche au 
 lieu de prendre a droite, 
 You will take ofi the left in- 
 stead of taking on the right. 
 Ne vous placez pas tnire lui & 
 
 moi, 
 Dont place yourself between 
 him and me. 
 r Je 1' ai trouve cache sous le lit, 
 
 < I found him concealed under 
 I the bed. 
 
 r Vous le placerez vers la porte, 
 
 < You will place it about the 
 (^ door. 
 
 Species." 
 
 State. 
 
 Time 
 
 J 
 
 de, 
 en. 
 
 C II lui faut un habit de cheval. 
 l He wants a riding-habit. 
 C Ce livre est relJe en veau, 
 ^ This book is bound in calf. 
 
 / 
 
 II est en bonne sante, en belle 
 humeur, 
 j He is in good health, in good 
 1^ humour. 
 
 r Son vignoble est deja en fleur. 
 < His vineyard is already in 
 (_ blossom. 
 
 II partira a la fin du mois, 
 he will set oft' at the end of 
 
 the month. 
 II est arrive vers V heure du 
 
 dine, 
 He arrived about dinner time. 
 
20« PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CONVERSATION XII. 
 
 OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 Scholar. 
 WHAT is an Adverb? 
 
 Master. 
 It is a word which serves to modify the quality inter' 
 woven with the very existence of the Verb^ or separated 
 from it when the generating Verb to be itself is used. 
 Scholar. 
 What do you mean by the expressions to modify the 
 quality f 
 
 Master. 
 I mean to express that the quality, with the help of this 
 new word, undergoes a change in its primitive acceptation, 
 and is thereby fitter to represent the light in which it is 
 instantly viewed by the mind. 
 
 Scholar. 
 I believe I shall understand you better if you have re- 
 course to an example. 
 
 Master. 
 Well, let it be so : When I say, for instance, this man 
 speaks, or rather is speaking elegantly^ I intend to ex- 
 press , 1st, that the man is speaking; 2dly, that to his 
 quality of speaking I add that of elegance; it is to convey 
 this last idea that I make use of the word elegantly^ which 
 modifies the quality of speaking, (implying neither ek" 
 gance nor inelegance in itself), and represents it in such a 
 manner as it makes an impression upon me. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Most grammarians appear to differ very widely from 
 you ; for they say, among other things, in their definition 
 of the Adverb^ that this part of speech is thus called from 
 being placed close to the Verb which it modifies. Tou 
 make it modify the quality and they th^ Verb: What a 
 difference in opinion ! 
 
 Master. 
 
 The grammarians you allude to, havir^g given us false 
 and erroneous notions of the other parts of speeph, and 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 209 
 
 especially of the Verb, it was not to be expected they 
 should be right in treating of the Adverb. To prove it 
 I might here analyse several of their definitions, but as it 
 would be wasting time to little purpose, I will, therefore, 
 for your satisfaction only, consider that definition of the 
 Adverb you oppose to mine. 
 
 If you have now present to your mind our definition of 
 the Verb^ the truth of which I am daily more and more 
 convinced of, you will immediately perceive the defect 
 of that definition, for as the Verb expresses nothing but 
 existence^ it cannot be modified, nor can we say of a thing 
 that it exists more or less. By simply existing, it exists 
 as much as it possibly can exist. The Verb being unmo- 
 difiable in its own nature, apply what they say of the Verb 
 to the quality^ and you will have the true definition of the 
 Adverb. I will conclude these remarks by observing, that 
 the denomination given to that part of speech, derived 
 from its local situation with respect to the Verb, rather 
 than from its function, is on that account extremely erro- 
 neous. I would propose to have it termed Super'attribute ; 
 in fact the Adverb is to the Attribu- e, what the Adjec- 
 tive is to the Noun. The Adjective would have been pro- 
 perly denominated Super-noun^ as it may be said to cover 
 the Noun^ as a man's coat covers his body. The Adverb 
 being in the same manner placed on the Attribvite, no de- 
 nomination appears to suit better than that I propose. 
 Urbain Domergue^ a member of the National Institute, 
 and author of several valuable treatises on grammar, for 
 the above reasons, calls it, in French, Siir-attributtf^ which 
 is the very equivalent of Super-attribute. 
 Scholar. 
 
 In lieu of saying this man speaks elegantly^ in the ex- 
 ample you have chosen to illustrate your definition of the 
 Adverb^ I believe you might have said, with equal pro- 
 priety, this man speaks xvith elegance. This Adverb may 
 then be rendered by a Preposition and its complement. 
 
 If this is the case with every Adverb^ why then invent 
 an useless word, since others already in circulation might 
 supply its place. 
 
 Master. 
 
 Admitting there should be no difference with respect 
 to meaning between the Preposition and its complement^ 
 and the Adverb, an elliptical term containing in itself the 
 value of a Preposition with its complement, certainly for 
 the sake of brevity, as v/ell as to prevent a disagreeable 
 
 VOL. II. EC- 
 
210 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 monotony in speech by the frequent return of the same 
 Prepositions, the Adverb would well deserve to be intro- 
 duced in language. 
 
 Some reflections on the province of these two parts of 
 speech, will make you sensible, that, though they have 
 similar functions, yet they are not quite the same ; for the 
 Preposition and its complement cannot always be render- 
 ed by an Adverb. In the following sentence for exam- 
 ple ; He brought it about by his perseverance. No Ad- 
 verb in any language could replace the Preposition by 
 and its complement. 
 
 Such a substitution may take place only when the rela- 
 tion exists between an object and a quality. Thus cou- 
 rageously could be substituted in lieu of -with courage; 
 quickly in lieu of xvith quickness. 
 
 However should we, in the expression of our thoughts, 
 aim at as great a degree of accuracy as language can ad- 
 mit of, we should not when the above substitution can 
 take place, even use indistinctly one for the other ; for to 
 express that the quality modified is habitually so, the Ad- 
 verb is more properly used than the Preposition with a 
 complement. 
 
 The Preposition or adverbial phrase, on the contrary, 
 is better used to modify a simple act of it ; with propri- 
 ety we may say, a man who conducts himself ruisely^ 
 cannot promise himself that all his actions will be done 
 xvith -wisdom; un homme qui se conduit sagement ne pent 
 pas se promettre que toutes ses actions seront faites avec 
 sagesse : an author who does not write elegantly^ may, 
 however, now and then express his thoughts -with elegance; 
 un auteurquin' ecrit pas elcgamment^t\\X.X.o\xtQ.{o\s rendre 
 de tems en tems ses pensees avec elegance: resist xuith cou- 
 rage this temptation, and always follow courageously the 
 road to virtue ; resistez avec courage a cette tentation hi 
 suivez toujours courageusementle chemin de la vertu. The 
 fundamental principle, that no perfect synonymy exists 
 between different expressions, has induced me to think 
 that it might be in English as it is in the French language, 
 where exists the difference we have noticed between the 
 Adverb, the Preposition or adverbial phrase. 
 
 I hope that your doubts concerning the propriety of in- 
 troducing the Adverb into language are now removed. 
 Scholar. 
 
 In English we forro the greatest part of our Adverbs 
 by adding to our Adjectives the termination ly : What 
 termination answers to it in French I 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 311 
 
 Master. 
 
 The termination ment^ which you may have noticed in 
 the preceding examples. In subjoining that termination 
 to an Adjective, to make it an Adverb, the three follow- 
 ing rules are to be observed : 
 
 1st. When the Adjective ends with a vowel you have 
 only to add ment to it ; thus honnete^ aise^ poli^ ingenii. will 
 give the Adverbs : honnetewe"/*?, SLisime?2t, ]^c\ime}it, in- 
 gGnu?7ient. 
 
 The Adjectives aveugle, commode^ conforme^ enorme^ 
 incommode^ opinidtre^ when transformed into Adverbs, 
 agreeably to the above rule, will require an accent on 
 their e mute, thus : aveuglewze/^^, commodemen^, &c. 
 
 Note — The Adjective hnpuni giving the Adverb hnpunement instead of 
 itnpujihnent, is the only exception to this rule. 
 
 2dly. Adjectives ending in nt change that termination 
 into mment^ thus inechanty ardent^ will give mecha?«we/2/, 
 ^rdemment. 
 
 Note — Lent and present are to be excepted, since they produce the Ad- 
 verbs \&w\.t'ment, presentewe?/^. 
 
 3dly. Adjectives ending in consonants require the ad- 
 verbial termination ement to be added to their feminine 
 gender; thus, grand^ ^S^U ^c. will give grand^men/, 6gale- 
 ment^ &c. 
 
 The Adjectives commun^ confus^ expres, importun^ ob- 
 scur^ precis^ profond^ require the acute accent on the e 
 mute of their termination feminine before ment is added 
 to it, as commune/we«^, confuse'/ne/^^, &c. 
 
 Note — The Adjective gentil that gives the Adverb genti-me/z^ instead of 
 gentille^ricwf, is the only exception to this rule. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 How many classes of Adverbs are reckoned ? 
 Master. 
 
 They have been variously calculated, but I think nine 
 classes will comprehend them all ; for we may say that 
 there are Adverbs of manner — time — place — quantity — 
 number — comparison — interrogation — affirmation and ne- 
 gation — doubt and reasoning. The following is a list of 
 a few of each class to establish your ideas on that subject. 
 But I consider with Beawzf-e ^w(i\v classifications as objects 
 rather of curiosity than real utility. 
 
213 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES 
 
 OF MANNER. 
 
 Sagement^ firudemment^ confonnement^ bien^ maly a la hdte^ 
 fieu a jieu^ &c. 
 
 OF TIME. 
 
 Quand, combien de te7ns, autrefois, dernierement, hicr, au- 
 jourd^hui, demain, alors, &c. 
 
 OF PLACE. 
 Ouy icij lay y-i en, ailleurs, aufires, autour, &c. 
 
 OF QUANTITY. 
 Combien, beaucoufi, assez, fieu, davantage, mediocrement, See. 
 
 OF NUMBER. 
 Souvent,rarement, firemierement, &c. une fois, deux, foia &c* 
 
 OF COMPARISON. 
 Autant, plus, moins, tres, fort, aussi. Sec. 
 OF INTERROGATION. 
 Fourquoi, comment, quand? Sec. 
 
 OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 Certainement, vraiment, sans doutc, mdlement, point du tout, &c. 
 
 OF DOUBT AND REASONING. 
 
 Peut-etrc, ainsi, consequemment, pareillement, 8cc. 
 
 Scholar. 
 You said in the beginning of your account of the Adverb, 
 that this part of speech was an elliptical term containing 
 the value of a Preposition and a complement, that is to say, 
 as you spoke in general terms, that any Adverb may be 
 solved by a Preposition and a complement, as it is the 
 equivalent of both. I believe there are Adverbs that 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 21^ 
 
 would puzzle you to show it ; such as the following : y^ 
 en, aupr^s, aiitour, hier, aujourd'hui, demain. 
 Master. 
 
 I shall endeavour to show you : 1st, that y and en, which 
 are indeed very ellyptical expressions, are the equivalent 
 of a Preposition and a complement* The fir^ is derived 
 from the Latin word hic, which was itself the ellipsis of 
 the phrase in hoc loco,* meaning in that place, dans ou a ce 
 lieu, according to circumstances. Thus y stands in French 
 for the Prepositions dans or a with a complement. — Ex- 
 amples : j' y vais, I am going there, stands for je vais dans 
 or a ce lieu. J' y pense, means, according to circumstances, 
 je pense d lui, d eux, d elks, d cela, d cette chose, d ces 
 choses. 
 
 En is derived from the Latin word inde ; we can re- 
 solve it by the Preposition de and a complement, — Exam- 
 ples: J' en viens, I covat from there, is, according to local 
 circumstances, for Je viens de ce pays^ de cette ville, de ce 
 village, de cet endroit. Sec. 
 
 J' en parle, is for Je parle de moi, de nous, de toi, de voits, 
 de htiy d"* eux, d* elle, d"* elks, de cela, de cette chose, de ces 
 choses^ de Phomme qui, &c. 
 
 You see by the above analysis of y and en, how erro- 
 neous v/as the opinion of grammarians, that made Pro^ 
 nouns of them. Without it, indeed, the bare recollection of 
 our principles on the nature and functions of the Pro- 
 noun, would have been sufficient to guard you against 
 this error. 
 
 Autour and aupres indicate themselves sufficiently their 
 adverbiality, bemg composed of the Preposition d, the Ar- 
 ticle indicative le, and the '^own pres, or tour ; from d le 
 pres, d le tour^ they gradually and naturally became aupres, 
 autour ; the first is an Adjective taken substantively, and 
 signifies a neighbouring place ; the second is a Noun, 
 meaning the roundness of a thing. 
 
 You might perhaps have mentioned some Adverbs that 
 would have puzzled me to find an equivalent to them in 
 a Preposition and a complement, without invalidating 
 our general principle, that an Adverb stands for a Prepo- 
 sition and its complement ; for as Des Brosses observes in 
 his ingenious and learned work, entitled, De la Forma' 
 tion mecanique des Laiigues, 
 
 See Gebelin. 
 t 
 
214 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 " La preuve connue d' un grand nombre de mots d'une 
 " espece, doit etablir un prccepte general sur les autres 
 " mots de meme espece a P origine desquels on ne peut 
 " plus remonter. On doit, en bonne logique, juger des 
 *' choses que P on ne peut connaitre, par celles de meme 
 " espece qui sont bien connues, en les ramenant a un prm- 
 " cipe dont Pevidence se fait apercevoir partout ou la vue 
 '• peut s' etendre." 
 
 I will conclude my answer to your remark, by observing 
 that the words hier^ aujourd''hui^ demain^ v>^hich we have 
 ranked among the Adverbs, are truly Nouns; an undenia- 
 ble proof of it, is, that they are the complements of various 
 Prepositions ; in the following examples, taken from the 
 Dictionary of the French Academy : d'^hier en huit jours, 
 from yesterday week ; la journee d^ auJQiird''hui est plus 
 belle que celle d'^hier^ this day is finer than that ofyester- 
 day; Paffaire est remise a demain^ the affair is postponed 
 until to-morrow. Besides, these words may be modified 
 by Adjectives^ which still more forcibly proves them to be 
 real Nouns. — Examples: tout aujourd'hui, the whole dayj 
 hier passe^ yesterday past^ &c. 
 
 When the above expressions are used by themselves 
 after the Verb, the Preposition, with the help of which 
 they would modify the quality, is understood* ; this acci- 
 dental circumstance, by which they are stript of the acci- 
 dents of Nouns^ renders them Adverbs^ as they fulfil the 
 functions thereof. Losing sight, therefore, of the other 
 circumstances where they play the part of liouns, we 
 might, without deviation from our general principle, give 
 them, with other nouns having similar properties, a place 
 among the Adverbs, 
 
 * See Beauzee, Grammaire Generale. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 2U 
 
 CONVERSATION XIII. 
 
 OF THE CONJUJ^CTIOK. 
 
 Scholar. 
 WHAT is a Conjunction ? 
 
 Master. 
 A Conjunction is a word which serves to connect PrO' 
 positions with one another, in order to make them repre- 
 sent the better judgments which are connected together 
 in the mind, and thereby renders language fitter to repre- 
 sent the unity of thought. 
 
 Scholar. 
 What do you mean hy judgment and Proposition? 
 
 Master. 
 A definition of either is prefixed in a note to the first 
 conversation, to which I refer you. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Could not man, strictly speaking, have dispensed with 
 Conjunctions f 
 
 Master. 
 
 Yes, he might; but mark the consequence: Speech de- 
 prived of the conjunctive or connective words would be a 
 skeleton without colour and life, while conjunctions ren- 
 der it not only lively and interesting, but even precise, 
 concise, and energetic. — It was not, therefore, luxury that 
 introduced those terms into language, but the necessity 
 of clearly and speedily manifesting one's thoughts. Do 
 you wish to be firmly convinced of their useful and 
 interesting functions? Well, take off the Conjunctions of 
 any well written piece, of Burke's speeches for instance, 
 and you will see all their masterly eloquence, and sublime 
 energy, suddenly vanish. 
 
 Scholar. 
 How many Conjunctions^ or kinds of Conjunctions do 
 you admit in French? 
 
 Master. 
 You will be surprised, to know that there exists but one 
 fundamental Conjunction^ through which alone the other 
 words (so called) exist. 
 
2\^ PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Scholar. 
 This is so much the more surprising to me, indeed, that 
 I have not long ago perused several grammars highly- 
 esteemed, such as Harris's, wherein is given a very ex- 
 tensive list of Conjunctions, carefully divided into classes 
 denominated as follows: — Adjunctive^ dlsjiinciive^ subdis' 
 jtinctwe, copulative, continuative, subcontinuative, positive^ 
 suppositive, collective^ effective, approbative, discretive, pre-- 
 sumptive, preventive, illative, suspensive, conclusive, abne- 
 gative, casual, hypothetical, &c. &c. — What will become of 
 all those classes in your system of grammar? 
 
 Master. 
 
 I will, like Home Tooke, send them back to the chaos 
 from which these insignificant terms should never have 
 been brought. 
 
 It behoves me now to explain to you my system, which 
 is founded on the nature of language and things. We will 
 acknowledge, in order to establish ideas, three kinds of 
 Conjunctions : 
 
 The elementary Conjunctions, at the head of which the 
 fundamental Conjunction we have just spoken of will be. 
 
 The ellpitical Conjunctions, and the combined Conjunc- 
 tions. 
 
 The fundamental Conjunction answers to the Verb Stre 
 that generated all other Verbs, as we have shown. — The 
 elliptical Conjunction to our Adjective Verbs. — The com- 
 bined Conjunctions to the Verbs called passive, in French 
 or English, by Latino-English — or Latino-French gram- 
 marians. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 I am anxious to know th:it fundamental Conjunction. 
 
 Master. 
 It is et : It draws its origin from the Verb etre. Dont 
 you perceive a family resemblance between et and estP 
 Well, as striking a resemblance may be observed in the 
 functions they perform — est is placed between a Noun 
 and its Adjectives, to signify the qualities are brought 
 back on the objects from which the mind had, by abstrac- 
 tion, separated them, in order to consider them apart, or 
 in other w^ords to connect in speech, as are in nature, the 
 qualities with the objects in which they coexist — et is also 
 iplaced between two Propositions to connect them in 
 speech, as the judgments which they portray are connect- 
 ed in the mind. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 217 
 
 If you recollect our principles on language, that words 
 could not have been chosen in an arbitrary manner, you 
 will not be surprised after what has been said, that esf, 
 which is the link-xvord^ should have been the natural ge- 
 nerator of the Conjunction et; and if a trifling difference 
 is observed in their pronunciation, it arises from that na- 
 tural propensity of mankind to variety, and their aversion 
 to a dull and fatiguing uniformity. 
 Scholar. 
 
 What are the other Conjunctions which, with the first, 
 form the class denominated by you elementary P 
 Master. 
 
 They are only the following three: ^le^ that, than, or 
 how ; ?ii, neither, nor ; and on, either, or. 
 
 QUJl. 
 
 Jc crois qti* il est malade. 
 Le soleil est plus grand que la lune. 
 ^/e vous etes boime & ainiable ! 
 ^ae It ciel comble vos vu;ux ! 
 
 I believe that he is sick. 
 The sun is larger than the moon. 
 Ilcrw good and amiable you are ! 
 May heaven fulnl your vows ! 
 
 A'l. 
 
 That Conjunction implying a denial, demands, accord- 
 ing to the sense, to be preceded or followed by the nega- 
 tive ne. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ke prenez iii cette fleur-ci , ni celle la. 
 Ni Tor 111 les grandeurs iie nous ren- 
 dent heureux. 
 
 Take neither this flower Jior that. 
 Neither gold nor greatness make us 
 happy. 
 
 But though ni is repeated in an enumeration as often 
 as there are things to which the denial is applied, ne is 
 used but once. 
 
 // n' enteiid ni les vents qui grondent sur sa tete^ 
 Ni le bruit des rochers battus par la tempete, 
 Ki *e* tristes parens de douleur ^perdus, 
 tV\ son aiiianie, be las/ qui tneurt, *' il ne 'uit plus. 
 
 DELILE. 
 
 Ni /' ardeur dont tu sais queje I* ai recherchie, 
 Ni uejci sur son front via couronne attach^e, 
 Ni cet atile Dteine oil je la fais garder , 
 Ni tiion juste corroux n' ont pu t' intivxider. 
 
 RACINE. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 Ff 
 
218 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 OU, 
 
 This Conjunction leaves the liberty of choice, and it is 
 used in doubt. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C'est OU moi, ou vous, oii lui. | It is either I, or you, or he. 
 
 Enjiii voire rigueur ernporta la balance 
 Vgus stttes m' iniposer /' exil ou le silence. 
 
 RACINE. 
 
 Dernainf attends la baine ou lajaveiir des homines, 
 Le nam, de parricide ou de liber ateur ; 
 Cesar, celiii de prince ou d' wi* usurpateitr. 
 
 CORNEILLE. 
 
 Selon que vous serez plus ou tnoins miserable, 
 Les jugemens de cour vous rendront blanc ou noir. 
 
 LA FONTAINE. 
 
 ^lelque sujet qii' on traite ou plaisant ou sublime 
 ^e toujours le botts sens .s' accorde avec la rim,e. 
 
 BOILEAU. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What difference do you discover between que and et? 
 Master. 
 
 I perceive a great analogy of functions between them; 
 and your surprise will cease when you are told their ori- 
 gin is the same, ^le^ as well as et^ draws its conjunctive 
 force from the link-word est^ which is represented by e, the 
 very name for connection or life itself, united with qu an 
 ancient word, the origin of which cannot, owing to its an- 
 tiquity, be satisfactorily ascertained ; the difference, how- 
 ever, observable between the two expressions is, that que 
 serves to connect two Propositions, the first of which 
 leaves the mind in suspense without the second one, 
 which is absolutely necessary to complete the thought; 
 while et connects two Propositions, the first of which 
 offers a complete sense without the second one. 
 
 In the first sentence abovementioned, " Je crois qu^ il 
 est malade" Je crois and // est malade are both united by 
 que : The Proposition which follows that qiie^ serves evi- 
 dently to render more complete, or determine, the sense 
 begun by the Proposition which precedes it. 
 
 * It is to complete the metre that un is used. D'usurpateur (alone) should 
 have been used ; for the epithets of parricide, and usurpateur, are applied in 
 a general sense. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 219 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Is the que denoting comparison, and the que denoting 
 admiration or desire, of the same species witli the que 
 just mentioned ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 Exactly so. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 I am not altogether sensible of it, for instance ; in " Je 
 crois qu* il est malade," I clearly see two Propositions, 
 but in " Le soleil est plus grand que la lune ; ^le vous 
 etes bonne & aimable ! ^le le ciel combie vos voeux !" 
 I see but one Proposition in each of these sentences : 
 those que must, therefore, certainly be of different species 
 with your first que^ which serves to connect two Proposi- 
 tions. 
 
 Master. 
 
 I am so much the more pleased with your remark, that 
 you furnish me with an opportunity of speaking to you 
 about the ellipsis^ which is nothing but a suppression or 
 an omission of words, which man, with the help of an ac- 
 tive imagination, discovered he might dispense with in 
 the expression of his sentiments, in order to come the 
 more speedily to the manifestation of them before his 
 hearers. The ellipsis, which is very frequent in language, 
 has been one of the chief causes of the innumerable er- 
 rors of grammarians. 
 
 The sentence " Le soleil est phis grand que la lune^'' 
 stands for that other " Le soleil est plus grand que la lune 
 7z' est grande^'' in which you may perceive the whole part 
 of the second proposition which the que was designed to 
 unite with the first Le soleil est plus grand, 
 
 T ^1 ^ r ^ue vous ctes bonne & aimable ! 
 
 In the sentences i > i • i , , • 
 
 (^ i^ie le ciel combie vos vceux I 
 
 the whole of the first Proposition is suppressed : It is for 
 the former, such a one as. Oil ne peut repHer assez que, 
 &c. one cannot repeat enough, how^ &c. It is for the 
 latter ye desire que, &:c. I wish that^ &c. 
 
 From the above, I have a right to conclude that the 
 comparative, exclamative, and admirative que, are nothing 
 but the conjunctive que. We will treat in the next con- 
 versation of the two kinds of Conjunctions wiiich I call 
 elliptical and combined. 
 
220 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Before we begin that conversation, please to acquaint 
 me with the origin of ni and ou» 
 Master. 
 
 Ni* is formed from the negative 7ie : the latter was gene- 
 rated by the nasal ??, which is pronounced by driving the 
 air with force through the nostrils, n was therefore of all 
 sounds the fittest to represent negative which is always 
 forbidding. Hence came the ne and non of the Latins, 
 which are common to our modern languages formed from 
 theirs. This n preceded by e or ei formed the word ain^ 
 which is the negative of the eastern nations, and from 
 which sprung the negative in of the Latins which is kept 
 up in its primitive pronunciation ain in the French words 
 in-c/?77, m-jii'-ite^ m-cGiiatcmt^ &c. 
 
 Ou^ which designates an opposition between two objects, 
 comes therefore from the primitive word oii^ by means 
 of vv hich one designated a place different from that where 
 one was, and beings different from those that had just 
 been the subject of conversation ; it was, therefore, op- 
 posed to jE, which designated the place itself where one 
 is J and of course, properly devised to designate objects 
 opposed or placed in opposite directions. Hence was 
 formed the name of ou-^.9^ (west) which signifies, word 
 for word, opposed to est^ (east) 8ic. 
 
 The two Conjunctions ni and on maybe considered ra- 
 ther as words devised to give variety and conciseness to 
 speech, than as v. ords of primary necessity ; as they can 
 both be supplied by the conjunctive et ?.nd other words. 
 
 iV/, for instance, can be expressed by et and a negative, 
 thus : *' H n' a ni vice ni vertu" may be rendered by " II 
 71' a point de vice £if il tz' a point de vertu." 
 
 On is used for et and the Preposition entre; v/hen for 
 instance, one leaves you the choice and says, "choisissez 
 ]ia paix ou la guerre ;" it is the same as if " choisissez 
 entre la paix 8? entre la guerre" had been said. 
 
 * See Graniniaire Universelle. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 221 
 
 CONVERSATION XIV. 
 OF ELLIPTICAL AJVD COMBINED COjYJUjYCTIOJ^S. 
 
 Scholar. 
 HOW many elliptical Conjunctions do you admit in 
 French ? 
 
 Master. 
 Four: viz. Si^ if; maisy but; ccrr, for; or, which is 
 wanting in English; and donc^ therefore. 
 Scholar. 
 Please to show me what suppressed expressions these 
 elliptical Conjunctions stand for. 
 Master. 
 With infinite pleasure — Si comes from the Latin sit^ 
 which means qu^ il soit, and whereas some Verb was un- 
 derstood before qu* tl^ as no phrase could begin with it; 
 it follows that */, stands for, or is the abridgement of, that 
 long conjunctive phrase, as, jfe suppose qu' il soit vrai qiie^ 
 I suppose it is true that. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ponsez bien & parlez peu, si vous 
 voiilez qu' on vous regarde comme 
 iin homme d' esprit. 
 
 Think well and speak little, if you 
 wish to be looked upon as a man 
 of understanding. 
 
 Si tnoti coeur, de Unit te^ns, facile a tes desirt. 
 IP ajainais d' tin vionieut differe tea plaisirs ; 
 Si, pour te prodiguer vies plus tendres caresses, 
 ye m' at point exige ni sermens ni promesses ; 
 Si, toi sen I a tnon lit, eiifin, eus tnujours part, 
 Differe an nwins d' un jour ce fuucste depart. 
 
 BOILEAU. 
 
 MyllS 
 
 is a word that once signified plus (in French) as may be 
 ascertained principally by the works of the old French 
 romance writers where this expression occurs often: 
 Nov^, that it is used to connect a phrase with another, it 
 has preserved a part of its ancient meaning, and signifies 
 that " quelque chose de phis que^'' something more than 
 has been said, is going to be said, that will fix the ideas 
 
222' 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 completely about the subject of the discourse. It may 
 also be solved by the expressions et de plus. Mais is, there- 
 fore, to all intents and purposes, an elliptical Conjunction. 
 Mr. HoRNE TooKE, who has cleared so much ruboish 
 out of grammar, proves that by its origin, the Conjunc- 
 tion hut^ which corresponds to our mah^ instead of inti- 
 mating a stop, as some grammarians had thought, always 
 intimates something to follow, or an addition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La satisfaction qu' on tire de la ven- 
 geance, ne dure qu' un moment; 
 mais celle que 1' on tire de la cle- 
 mence, est eternelle. 
 
 The satisfaction we derive from re- 
 venge, lasts, but one moment ; but 
 that we derive from clemeiicy, is 
 eternal. 
 
 Louis du haul des cieux lui pretait son appui, 
 Mais il cachait le bras qui combattait pour lui. 
 
 VOLTAIRE. 
 
 il cherit la critique, 
 
 Vous avez sur ses vers u?i powvoir despotique ; 
 Mais tout ce beau discours dont il vient vous flatter, 
 N* est rien qu* un piege adroii pour vous les reciter. 
 
 BOILEAU. 
 
 CAR 
 
 is an elliptical Conjunction, used to account for a Propo- 
 sition brought forward. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je ne pourrai y aller, car je suis re- 
 tenu au lit par uue fievre ardente. 
 
 I shall not be able to go thither, for 
 I am confined to my bed by an 
 ardent fever. 
 
 Tout ce que les mortels o?it de plus redoutable, 
 Semble «' etre assemble contre nous par hasard; 
 ye veux dire la brigue 8c /' eloquence, car: 
 jD' un cote le credit du dcfunt wi' epouvante. 
 
 RACINE. 
 
 In the above sentences car stands very clearly for par 
 la raisofi que; it is therefore an elliptical Conjunction. 
 
 OR, 
 
 This Conjunction, which, as we have said, is wanting 
 in English, designates the actual existence of a condition 
 without which what one is speaking about could not take 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 223 
 
 place; it is derived from the Latin word hora which be- 
 came hor then or in French. Here is an application of 
 this Conjunction. 
 
 Tons les hommes sont mortels. 
 Or vous etes hoJunie. 
 Done voiis etes 7norteL 
 
 Or stands for those expressions : d cette heurcy d pre- 
 sent^ dans ce momefit, 
 
 no JVC, 
 
 which generally follows that Conjunction, may accord- 
 ing to SicARD, be analysed thus : 
 
 " Tous les hommes sont mortels." 
 or vous etes homme. 
 
 De ce la vient. 
 De la vient. 
 
 D' ou vient. 
 
 De unde venit quod, 
 De un venit q. 
 D ON C 
 
 DONC. 
 
 Thus the word donc contains in itself the value of 
 the Preposition de^ the Latin Adverb, undc^ and the La- 
 tin word qnod* In French, donc is the equivalent of these 
 words : De Id vient que. Every body knows that the gut- 
 tural, c, replaces y, and reciprocally ; it is, therefore, 
 easy to find in the word donc the representation of the 
 four Latin words de unde venit quod. 
 
224 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 What are the combined Conjunctions ? 
 Master. 
 
 They are the following, which we have divided into two 
 classes, according as they govern the indicative or sub- 
 junctive : They are called combined^ because the Conjunc- 
 tion que which gives them a conjunctive property is com- 
 bined with some of the other parts of speech. They have, 
 owing to that circumstance, with some propriety, been de- 
 nominated conjunctive phrases. 
 
 COMBINED CONJUNCTIONS GOVERNING THE 
 
 INDICATIVE, EXEMPLIFIED. 
 
 Ainsi que, 
 As, as well as. 
 Aussi que. 
 
 As as. 
 
 Aussi peu que, 
 
 As little as. 
 Aussi tot que, 
 
 As soon as. 
 Aussi bien que. 
 
 As well as. 
 Autant que. 
 
 As much as. 
 
 Apres que. 
 
 When. 
 
 Attendu que (sel- 
 dom used), 
 As, because. 
 
 Je I'ai fait ainsi que je vous I'ai promis, 
 I have done it as I have promised you. 
 Une place aussi forte que V etait cette 
 
 ville, n' aurait pas du etre prise, 
 A place as strong as that city was 
 
 should not have been taken. 
 Vous en prendrez aussi peu qu! il vous 
 
 plaira, 
 You will take as little of it as you please. 
 Je suis arrive aussitot qiC il m' a ete 
 
 possible, 
 
 I arrived as soon as I could. 
 
 II est en etat de le faire aussi bien que 
 vous. 
 
 He is able to do it as well as you. 
 
 II aime la lecture autant que vous aimez 
 
 le jeu. 
 He loves reading as much as you love 
 
 play. 
 Nous sortirons apres que vous aurez 
 
 dine, 
 We will go out rvhcJi you have dined. 
 Je I'ai puni attendu qui! il avait tort, 
 
 I punished him because (or as^ he was 
 in the wrong. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 225 
 
 A (a) ce que, 
 By, according as. 
 A (a) mesure que^ 
 In proportion as. 
 
 A {a) cause que, 
 
 Because. 
 
 A ia) condition 
 
 que. 
 On condition 
 
 that. 
 A (a) la charge 
 
 que. 
 On condition 
 
 that. 
 Bien entendu que. 
 
 Provided. 
 
 Cest pour cela 
 
 que. 
 It IS for that. 
 
 Des que, 
 
 As soon as. 
 
 Depuis que, 
 
 Since. 
 
 De maniere que. 
 
 So that. 
 
 De sorte que, 
 
 So that, inso- 
 much. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 A ce que ']t vois, vous ne P aurez pas a 
 
 terns, 
 By what I see, you will not have it in 
 
 time. 
 A mc^ure qu* ils paraissaient, ils etaient 
 
 accables d' une grele de balles. 
 In proportion as they appeared, they 
 
 were overpowered by a shower of 
 
 balls. 
 Faut-il qu* il soit insolent, a cause qu* il 
 
 est riche ? 
 Must he be insolent, because he is rich? 
 J' y consens, a condition qu* il viendra^ 
 
 I agree to it, oil condition that he will 
 
 come. 
 Je vous loue cette maison, a la charge 
 
 que vous I'entretiendrez, 
 I let this house to you on condition that 
 
 you'll keep it in repair. 
 Je vous Paccorde, bien entendu que voms 
 
 tiendrez parole, 
 I grant it to you, provided yow will keep 
 
 your word. 
 C* est pour cela que je nc lui ai pas ac- 
 cord ■ sa demande, 
 It is for that I did not grant him his 
 
 request. 
 Des que la paix sera faite, je partirai 
 
 pour 1* Europe, 
 As soon as peace is made, I shall set 
 
 off for Europe. 
 Qu'avez-vous fait, depuis que vous etes 
 
 ici ? 
 What have you done since you are 
 
 here ? 
 De maniere qiC il n'etait pas content du 
 
 tout. 
 So that he was not pleased at all. 
 
 De sorte qu? il n' a pu en venir a bout, 
 
 So that he could not bring it about. 
 
226 
 
 De fa^on que, 
 
 So that. 
 
 Lorsqucy 
 
 When. 
 
 Parceque^ 
 
 Because. 
 
 Pendant que. 
 
 While. 
 
 Puisque, 
 
 Since. 
 
 Shot que. 
 
 As soon as. 
 
 Tandls que, » 
 
 While. 
 
 Tant que. 
 
 As long as. 
 
 Tellement que. 
 
 So that. 
 Tellement que. 
 
 So very that, 
 
 Vu que, 
 
 Seeing that, con- 
 sidering. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 La nuit vint, de fav.on que je fus con- 
 
 traint de me retirer, 
 Night came on, so that I was obliged 
 
 to retire. 
 Lorsqu' il apprit cette fatale nouvelle, il 
 
 partit sur le champ, 
 When he learned this fatal news, he set 
 
 off immediately. 
 Je vous reprends de vos fautes, par- 
 
 ceqw je vous aime, 
 
 I chide you for your faults, because I 
 love you. 
 
 Pendant que vous jouez, il etudie sa 
 
 lecon. 
 While you play, he studies his task. 
 Puisgue vous le voulez, cela m' est egal, 
 Since you will have it so, it is all one 
 
 to me. 
 Shot que j' eus re^u le paquet, je le lui 
 
 adressai. 
 As soon as I had received the bundle, 
 
 I forwarded it to him. 
 Tandis que vous causez, le chat empor- 
 
 te la viande. 
 While you prate, the cat carries off the 
 
 meat. 
 Tant que j' aurai de V argent, vous n' en 
 
 manquerez pas, 
 As long as I have money, you shall not 
 
 want any. 
 Tellement que vous ne voulez pas me 
 
 repondre, 
 So that you refuse to answer me. 
 
 II est tellement occupe qu"* il ne re^oit 
 personne. 
 
 He is so very busy that he admits no- 
 body. 
 
 II ne le fera pas, vu qu* on le lui a de- 
 fendu, 
 
 He will not do it, seeing that it is for- 
 bidden to him. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 227 
 
 COMBINED CONJUNCTIONS GOVERNING THE 
 SUBJUNCTIVE, EXEMPLIFIED. 
 
 A Dieu ne plaise que j' en aie envie, 
 
 A (a) Dieu ne 
 
 plaise que^ 
 God forbid. 
 Ajia que. 
 
 That, to the end 
 
 that. 
 A (a) moins que. 
 
 Unless. 
 
 Avant que, 
 
 Before. 
 Au cas que, 
 
 In case, if. 
 
 En cas que. 
 
 In case, if. 
 
 A (a) la bonne 
 
 heure que, 
 I, &c. agree. 
 
 Bien 
 
 que. 
 
 Tho', altho'. 
 Encore que, 
 
 Tho', altho'. 
 
 Ce n^ est pas que, 
 
 It is not that. 
 
 De peur que, 
 
 For fear, lest. 
 
 God forbid 1 shoidd wish for it. 
 Je suis sa caution, ajin qu' il soit mis 
 en liberte, 
 
 I am his surety, that he may be set at 
 liberty. 
 
 Vous ne F aurez pas, d moins que vous 
 
 n' en payiez la moitie, 
 You shall not have it, unless you pay 
 
 the half of it. 
 
 II est entre avant que nous fussions 
 leves, 
 
 He came in before we were up. 
 
 II faudra nous retirer, au cas que cela 
 
 arrive, 
 We must withdraw, in case it should 
 
 happen. 
 En cas qu' elle vienne, dites-lui que je 
 
 suis sorti, 
 If she comes, tell her I am gone out. 
 A la bonne heure qu^ il sorte, pourvu qu' 
 
 il revienne bientot, 
 
 I agree he should go out, provided he 
 
 soon comes back. 
 
 II est honnete homme, bien qu' il soit 
 pauvre, 
 
 He is an honest man, tho* he be poor. 
 Encore qu' il soit riche, il n' en vaut 
 
 pas mieux, 
 Allho^ he be rich, he is not a bit the 
 
 better for it. 
 Ce w' est pas que je croie un mot de ce 
 
 qu' il dit. 
 It is not that I believe one word of what 
 
 he says. 
 II a fait son testament, de peur qu'*\\ ne 
 
 mourut. 
 He made his will, for fear or lest he 
 
 should die. 
 
22S 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 De crainte que* 
 
 For fear. 
 
 Loin que^ 
 
 Far from. 
 Moyennant que, 
 
 Provided that. 
 
 No7i que ou non 
 
 pan qjei 
 Not that. 
 Pliit a DieU) 
 
 Would to God. 
 
 Pour que, 
 
 To the end that. 
 
 Pour peu que, 
 
 If ever so little. 
 
 Pourvu que, 
 
 Provided. 
 
 ^loique, 
 
 Tho'. 
 
 Sans que, 
 
 Without. 
 
 Soxt que, 
 Whether. 
 Suppose que, 
 
 Supposing that. 
 
 Depechez-vous, de crainte que V heure 
 
 ne soit passee, 
 Make haste, for fear the hour be over. 
 Loin qu* il fasse du bruit, il est tran- 
 
 quiile, 
 Far from making a noise, he is quiet. 
 II 1' aura, moyennant qu' il en paye la 
 
 valeur, 
 He shall have it, provided that he pays 
 
 its value. 
 Non que (ou non pas que) j ' y pr6- 
 
 tende, 
 Not that I should pretend to it. 
 Plut a Dieu que les hommes entendis- 
 
 sent leurs vrais interets ! 
 Would to God that men should under- 
 stand their own interests ! 
 II faut un autre gouvernement, j&owr que 
 
 j'aille en France, 
 To the end that I may go to France, 
 there must be another government. 
 II le fera, pour peu que vous lui en par- 
 
 liez, 
 He will do it, {/'you speak to him ever 
 
 so little about it. 
 lis travailleront j pourvu qu' on les paye 
 
 bien. 
 They will work, provided they are well 
 
 paid. 
 Sa philosophie fut adoptee, quoi qW on 
 
 s' y opposat d' abord. 
 His philosophy was adopted, tho' they 
 
 opposed it at first. 
 Cela pourrait arriver, sans qu' il m6ri- 
 
 tat des reproches, 
 That might take place, without his de- 
 serving reproaches. 
 Soit qu' il parte ou qu' il demeure. 
 Whether he sets out or remains. 
 Quel fruit en retirerez-vous, suppose 
 
 qiC il y consente ? 
 What will you gain by it, supposing that 
 he consent to it ? 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 22^ 
 
 Note. ...The following modes of expressions having de instead 
 of que, require the Verb in the hi/iniiive only. 
 
 A (a) la charge de^ 
 On condition of. 
 AJin de^ 
 In order to. 
 De crainte de. 
 Lest, for fear of. 
 De peur de. 
 Lest, for fear of. 
 
 Je lui ai vendu ma terre, a la charge de 
 payer mes creanciers, 
 
 I sold him my estate, on condition of 
 his paying my creditors. 
 
 II est alle le trouver, a fin df'obtenir sa 
 grace. 
 
 He called upon him, in order to obtain 
 his pardon. 
 
 Les troupes se fortifierent, de crainte d* 
 etre surprises. 
 
 The troops fortified themselves, for 
 fear of being surprised. 
 
 Nous avons fait venir du ble, de peur s 
 d' en manquer. 
 
 We ordered corn, for fear of want- 
 ing it. 
 
 OF THE INTERJECTION. 
 
 Scholar. 
 What are the Interjections ? 
 
 Master. 
 They are sounds which serve to portray in a lively 
 manner the affections of the soul, whether in joy, pain, 
 trouble, despair, indignation, admiration, surprise, &c. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Why do you not call them words, instead of sounds, 
 as you called the other parts of speech ? 
 
 Master. 
 Because, their functions are very different from words. 
 A word is the sign of an idea — an Interjection is that of a 
 scn'iation. The difference is, therefore, very great, and as 
 the sensation has generated the idea which is the effect of 
 it ; so has the Interjection generated words, the signs of 
 our ideas and thoughts. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Permit me then to express my surprise to you, for not 
 having treated of them first of all. 
 
230 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Master. 
 
 I did not, because it would have been of no use to you ; 
 the Interjections having no influence on the other parts 
 of speech, and being a kind of strangers among them ; 
 they must, of course, be presented the last to the investi- 
 gation of grammarians ; whilst they must, first, be pre- 
 sented to the eyes of the etymologist, whose business is 
 to search the origin and filiation of words deduced from 
 one another. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Please to acquaint me with the principal French Inter- 
 jections, exemplified in French sentences. 
 
 Master. 
 With pleasure. They are as follow : Ah! ha! die! eh! 
 he! Ji! O! oh! ouf! him! horn! hon! he las ! hi, hi^hi! 
 
 Ah ! expresses remorse, wrath, admiration, or joy. 
 
 Ah ! si tu I'avais vu le poignard dans le sein, 
 S' attendrir a la vue de son lache assassin! 
 
 Voltaire. 
 
 Ah ! que ton imprudence excite men courroux ! 
 
 Racine. 
 
 Ah ! qu* il t' en coutait pen pour charmer Heloise ! 
 Tu parlais, a ta voix tu me voyais soumise. 
 
 Colardeau. 
 
 Ah ! je respire ; enfin nous remportons : 
 Vous devenez un homme raisonnable. 
 
 Voltaire. 
 
 Ha! expresses nothing but surprise, and is used only 
 in this sense: 
 
 Ha ! vous voila. 
 
 Aie! expresses pain. 
 
 Aie! Aie! voila mes douleurs qui me reprennent. 
 
 Eh ! expresses mercy, pity, or tenderness. 
 
 Jouis— je le ferai— Mais quand done ? Des demain — 
 Eh ! mon ami, la mort te pent prendre en chemin : 
 Jouis des aujourd'hui. 
 
 La Fontaine. 
 
 Eh ! seigneur, excusez sa ieunesse imprudente. 
 
 ° ^ Voltaire. 
 
OF LANGUAGE. 231 
 
 Eh ! mon pere, oubliez votre rang a ma vue. 
 
 Racine, 
 
 He ! serves chiefly to call. — It is used also with bien in 
 interrogation, and when it expresses no passion. 
 
 He^ Petit- Jean, Petit- Jean ! 
 
 Racine. 
 
 He bien^ ton maitre, enfin, a-t-il trouve sa botte ? 
 
 Regnard. 
 
 He bien, ma chere soeur, quel soin ici t'amene ? 
 
 Regtiard. 
 
 Fi ! expresses contempt, or disgust. 
 
 fi du plaisir 
 
 Que la crainte pent corrornpre ! 
 
 La Fontaine. 
 
 ! expresses inward and profound grief, despair, love, 
 or indignation. 
 
 O douleur, 6 regrets ; 6 vieillesse pesante ! 
 O vengeance, 6 tendresse, 6 nature, 6 devoir! 
 
 Voltaire. 
 
 O ciel ! il est done vrai que mon am ant me fuit ! 
 
 Colardeau. 
 
 douce volupte ! plaisirs ou je me noie ! 
 
 Colardeau. 
 
 O jour I jour execrable ! 
 Jour affreux ! ou 1' acier, dans une main coupable, 
 Osa 
 
 Colardeau, 
 
 Oh I expresses surprise, as in, 
 
 Oh ! oh ! je n' y prenais pas garde. 
 
 Oh I expresses affirmation, as in. 
 Oh I parbleu, je vous liens. 
 
 Oh I expresses indignation, as in. 
 
 Oh .' vieillesse facile ! Oh .' Jeunessc imnrudente ! 
 Oh ! de mes cheveiix gris, honte trop eviclcnte ! 
 Est-il dessous le ciel, pere plus malheureux ? 
 
 Cresset. 
 
232 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Oh ! is sometimes followed by que^ then it expresses 
 desire, as, 
 
 Oh t que le ciel soigneux de notre poesie, 
 Grand Roi, ne nous fit-il plus voisins de 1' Asie ! 
 
 Boileau. 
 
 Oh ! que si cet hiver un rhume salutaire. 
 
 Boileau. 
 
 Oufl expresses suffocation, excess of fatigue. 
 
 Oufl ne m' etrangle pas — Oufl je n' en puis plus. 
 
 Htm^ hom^ hon^ express doubt, interrogation, and aston- 
 ishment. 
 
 Hon I que dites-vous la ? 
 
 HSlas ! expresses grief, complaint, 
 
 Helas I plus je lui parle, & plus il m' interesse. 
 
 Voltaire. 
 
 Helas I petits moutons, que vous etes heureux ! 
 
 Madavfie Deshoulieres. 
 
 Hi.f hi, hi, expresses laughing. 
 
 Hiy hi, hi, comme vous voila bati I Vous etes si plaisant 
 que je ne saurais m' empecher de rire, hi, hi, hi, 
 
 Moliere. 
 
SECTION 11. 
 
 OF SYNTAX. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE FIRST. 
 
 Scholar. 
 WHAT is the meaning oi Sifntaxt 
 
 Master. 
 Syntax is the right ordering of words united to express 
 thoughts, and is founded on the polite custom of the lan- 
 guage of which it treats. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Instead of so many words and phrases, why did you 
 not first teach me the laws and rules of Syntax, accord- 
 ing to the plan chalked out by every writer on French 
 grammar for the use of the English pupil ? 
 Master. 
 For one reason only, and this is irresistible. — Those 
 very words and phrases you mention, constitute the lan- 
 guage with which I wished you to be acquainted, while 
 all the rules of the language put together do not in the 
 least. 
 
 Scholar. 
 What then are the rules of a language ? 
 
 Master. 
 They are the result of observations on a language ; and 
 as observations on a language cannot be the language it- 
 self, a language must necessarily be learned before the 
 rules thereof can be taught. 
 
 Those principles have guided me in the course of your 
 instruction in French. What is the consequence ? You, 
 now, owing to the numerous -phrases and modes of ex- 
 pression with which your memory is stored, and which, 
 I trust, are correct, are not only able to speak and under- 
 stand French grammatkallif't but even to understand and 
 vol. II. 'nh 
 
234 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 relish the poets^ although three moifths ago, you knew 
 not a single word of that language. 
 
 Moreover, behold from the plan pursued with you, be- 
 sides the advantage of acquiring, in an amazing short 
 space, a sufficient knowledge of the French language, you 
 have derived another one equally precious, though unper- 
 ceived at present, that of improving the faculty of think- 
 ing; nor is this to be at all wondered at, if it be consider- 
 ed that the true teachers of all things, Nature and Analy- 
 sis have been our only guides. 
 
 The part of my work intitled '' 1/ie Philosophy of Lan- 
 guage^'' is a treatise on Logic (in disguise), which as it 
 rests on the same basis (the origin and generation of ideas, 
 and the use of general and abstract terms in language,) 
 will enable you easily to understand the works of the best 
 metaphysicians such as Locke, Condillac, &c. 
 
 Before closing this conversation, I cannot avoid giving 
 you some interesting advice on the mode of conducting 
 your studies. If you have in view to improve in know- 
 ledge, I would recommend to you the study of mefMphysics^ 
 and particularly of the works of Condillac, in French : 
 as metaphysics is the basis of all science, an acquaintance 
 with the writings of this celebrated author, who has fallen 
 into very few errors, v/ill pave your way to the greatest 
 progress in all your future studies. — Nor need you be 
 surprised at this, as metaphysics is the science of ideas^ 
 and teaches how to govern the mind in the search of 
 truth and useful discoveries; which knowledge, indeed, 
 is so much the more necessary, in the present age, as, 
 without it, one would easily become the dupe of writers, 
 who, assisted by abstract terms which they only abuse, en- 
 deavour to seduce the morals or corrupt the politics of 
 their readers. 
 
 My heart groaning under the most poignant wounds of 
 affliction, cannot, in proof of what is here advanced, avoid 
 recurring to the late ever deplorable revolution in France. 
 — How many millions of men have been the dupes of the 
 words LIBERTY, EQUALITY, PHILOSOPHY! 
 Had the individuals to whom those lofty terms were in- 
 cessantly sounded, been able to analyse or reviev/ in their 
 mind the abstract ideas of which they are the signs, these 
 deluded people would soon have discovered that instead 
 of liberty they Vvcre in fact presented with nothing but fet- 
 ters, that the boasted equality was an absurd chimer?, and 
 that vain sophistry was die philosophy of the day. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 235 
 
 INSTRUCTIO:^f THE SECOND. 
 ON THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Master. 
 The rules concerning the Article being many, and it 
 being contrary, in almost every instance, to the genius of 
 the French language, to use a JSfoun as subject or object in 
 a sentence, without preceding it by the Article^ I shall 
 begin with it. Please, therefore, to give particular atten- 
 tion to the following rules. 
 
 RULE L 
 
 The Article^ though it may be omitted in English, in 
 French precedes every Noun, and accords with it in 
 gender and number. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La crainte de la mort est na- 
 turelle a 1' homme. 
 
 La paix vamene /f repos, la 
 tranquillite Sc les richesscs. 
 
 II apprend le dessin, la dance 
 Sc les mathematiques. 
 
 Z' ignorance est la mere de /' 
 admiration, de I' ei-reur, du 
 scrupule,f/(? /' irresolution, c/e 
 la superstition, dea ridicules 
 8c des preventions de toute 
 espece. 
 
 Les Egyptiens accoutumaient 
 leurs enfans a /' obeissance, 
 au travail, a la sobriete, au 
 desinteressement, a /'amour 
 des arts ou des lettres Sc au 
 desir de V honneur. 
 
 Apportez moi un essuie-main, 
 un verre, un couteau, une 
 fourchette, une assictte Sc 
 une serviette. 
 
 J' ai besoin d' un manteau, d' 
 un parapluie 5c d' une paire 
 dc liottes. 
 
 The fear of death is natural to 
 man. 
 
 Peace brings back rest, tran- 
 quillity and wealth. 
 
 He is learning drawing, danc- 
 ing, and mathematics. 
 
 Ignorance is thi: mother of ad- 
 miration, error, scruple, ir- 
 resolution, superstition, ridi- 
 cule, and prejudices of all 
 kinds. 
 
 The Egyptians trained up their 
 children to obedience, labour, 
 sobriety, disinterestedness , 
 the love of arts or letters 
 and thirst of honour. 
 
 Bring me a towel, tumbler, 
 knife, fork, plate and nap- 
 kin. 
 
 I v/ant a cloak, umbrella and 
 a pair of boots. 
 
236 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Although proper names of men and cities^ in general, 
 require not the Article^ proper names of countries^ seas^ 
 rivers, and mountains always admit it before them. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La France est au nord de la 
 M6diterranee. 
 
 J' ai passe par la Hollande, 
 /'Allemagne, Sc la Pologne. 
 
 J' ai traverse plusieurs fois la 
 Tamise en bateau. 
 
 Le Parnasse, le Pinde, & 1' He- 
 licon, sent les montagnes 
 favorites des Poetes. 
 
 La cime du Mont-Blanc a 2400 
 toises au-dessus du niveau de 
 la mer. 
 
 France lies to the north of the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 I have passed through Hol- 
 land, Germany, and Poland. 
 
 I have crossed the Thames se- 
 veral times in a boat. 
 
 Parnassus, Pindus, and Heli- 
 con are the favorite moun- 
 tains of poets. 
 
 The top o/ Mont-Blanc is 4800 
 yards above the level of the 
 sea. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE ABOVE RULE. 
 
 Some provinces and' kingdoms having the same names 
 with the capital cities thereof, always dispense with the 
 Article. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Miples est un pays delicieux. 
 Valence est une des plus agre- 
 ables provinces d'Espagne. 
 
 JVafiles is a delightful country. 
 
 Valence is one of the most 
 
 agreeable provinces of Spain. 
 
 To or in when followed by the name of a country of 
 Europe, is expressed by the Preposition en, and from by 
 de ; but when followed by the name of any of the four 
 
 Quarters of the world, from is better expressed by the 
 'reposition and Article de l\ 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J' ai dessein d' aller en Italie, au 
 
 printems. 
 J' ai voyage en Angleterre, en 
 
 Ecosse Sc en Irlande. 
 Comptez-vous resterlong-tems 
 
 en Prusse ? 
 P' ou venez-vous ? Je viens 
 
 rf' Espagne, de Portugal, &c. 
 
 y arrive c/^ /' Europe, (f<? /'Asie, 
 de r Afrique & de I' Ameri- 
 cjue. 
 
 I intend going to Italy, in the 
 
 spring. 
 I have travelled in England, 
 
 Scotland, and Ireland. 
 Do you intend to stay long in 
 
 Prussia ? 
 From whence do you come ? 
 
 I come from Spain, Portu-^ 
 
 gal. Sec. 
 I arrive from Europe, Asia, 
 
 Africa, and America. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 237 
 
 But when the country mentioned is out of Europe and 
 not generally known or of little importance, then the Ar- 
 ticles <2W, a la^ aux ; du^ de la^ des^ instead of the Preposi- 
 tions en or de^ should always precede. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II m' a dit qu' il devait aller au 
 
 Mexique, au Bengal, a la 
 Flo ride, au Fcloponese, au 
 Milanais. 
 II vient d' arriver du Mexique, 
 du Bengal, de la Floride, du 
 Peloponese, du Milanais. 
 
 He told me he was to go to 
 Mexico, Bengal, Florida, 
 Peloponnesus, Milaneze. 
 
 He is just arrivedyrom Mexico, 
 Bengal, Florida, Peloponne- 
 sus, Milaneze. 
 
 RULE IIL 
 
 When national or nominal Adjectives of European na- 
 tions or of the four quarters of the globe are used, in 
 English, before a Noun denoting some commodity ^ produc- 
 tion or peculiarities relative to that country, or city, the 
 Adjective is translated, in French, by the name of the 
 country itself icad placed after the Noun oi commodity^ &c. 
 which is immediately followed by the Preposition de. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les fruits de France valent 
 mieux que ceux d' Angle- 
 terrc, 
 
 Le drap d* Espagne est excel- 
 lent. 
 
 Labiere de Flandres W est pas 
 aussi bonne que celle dc HoL- 
 lande, 
 
 Les vins d* Asie sont fort es- 
 times. 
 
 La pourpre de Tyr etait fort 
 recherchee. 
 
 Les cotes d' Angle terre sont 
 bien defendues. 
 
 The French fruits are better 
 than the English, 
 
 Spanish cloth is excellent. 
 
 Flemish beer is not so good as 
 the Dutch, 
 
 Asiatic wines are highly es- 
 teemed. 
 
 The Tyrian purple was much 
 sought after. 
 
 The English coasts are well 
 defended. 
 
 Remark, although we may say, with equal propriety, 
 la noblesse Fran(^aise^ or la noblesse de France^ the 
 French nobility, we cannot say, le Roi Francois^ but le 
 Roi de France^ the French king. 
 
238 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 If the national Adjectives of countries out of Europe, or 
 those of countries not generalh/ known, be used, the Arti- 
 cle du, de la &c. should be used, instead of the Preposition 
 de, ^ 
 
 • EXAMPLES. 
 
 L' or du Perou fit commettre 
 
 bien des crimes aux Espag- 
 
 nols. 
 Les mouchoirs de V hide sont 
 
 a present tres a la mode. 
 Les vins dii Mantouan sont 
 
 fort bons. 
 
 Peruvian gold induced the 
 
 Spaniards to commit a great 
 
 many crimes. 
 Indian handkerchiefs are now 
 
 much in fashion. * 
 
 Mantuan wines are very 
 
 good. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Do proper names of individuals and cities ever take 
 the Article P 
 
 Master. 
 
 Yes, in particular cases : 1st. We can place the Article 
 plural before the names of great men^ as it has been re- 
 marked in a former part of this work, to which you are 
 referred (page 45). 
 
 2d. Before the name of a woman^ (in the singular 
 only), by way of derision or contempt. 
 
 3d. It may sometimes be used before the names of 
 play-actresses. 
 
 La Brinvillicrs etait une fa- 
 mcuse empoisonneuse. 
 
 La Saint-Huberti a charme 
 tout Paris par la melodic de 
 sa voix. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 The Brinvilliers was a famous 
 
 poisoner. 
 The Saint-Huberti charmed 
 
 all Paris by the melody of 
 
 her voice. 
 
 N. B. Before the proper name of the first example, 
 the words femme appelee^ a woman called ; and before 
 that of the second, the words actrice appelee^ an actress 
 called, are understood. 
 
 The Article is also placed before some originally Italian 
 names such as Le Tasse, Le Ca.rrache, &c: before the first, 
 the word po'ete^ and before the second, the word peintre^ 
 are understood. Proper names of cities take the Article, 
 only when they have kept up their original appellative sig- 
 nification, as, le Chdtelet (for le petit chateau) la Rochelle — 
 k Havre — le Caire (la ville, in Arabian) &c. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 239 
 
 Remark, the Article may be used in French before AdjeC' 
 tives^ Prepositions^ Adverbs^ Conjunctions^ and the Infnitives 
 of some Verbs, which thereby become so many Nouns. As 
 we have attended before (in page 44) to this property of 
 the Articles^ the learner is there referred for examples. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 The Indicative Article, instead of the declarative^ as in 
 English, is used, in French, before Nouns of measure^ 
 weighty and number, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 MESURE. 
 
 Le drap vaut tant la verge. 
 
 Le charbon se vend trois che- 
 lings le boisseau. 
 
 POIDS. 
 
 Les chandelles se vendent 
 
 quinze sous la livre. 
 I^e foin coute a present une 
 
 demi-guinee le quintal. 
 
 KOMBRE. 
 
 Les oeufsse sont vendusjusqu' 
 a vingt sous la douzaine — 8c 
 les choux jusqu' a deux 
 gourdes le cent. 
 
 MEASURE. 
 
 Cloth is worth so much a 
 
 yard. 
 Coals sell (or are sold) at three 
 
 shillings a bushel. 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 Candles are sold at fifteen 
 
 pence a pound. 
 Hay costs now half a guinea a 
 
 hundred. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 Eggs have been sold as high 
 as twenty-pence a dozen — 
 and cabbages as much as 
 two dollars a hundred. 
 
 Remark, that in the following examples and the like, 
 the Article indicative is elegantly rendered by the Prepo- 
 sition /?ar. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 EUe donne a son maitre de 
 musique une guinee Jiar 
 leQon. 
 
 Je prends trois lemons d'armes 
 par semaine. 
 
 She gives her music master a 
 guinea a or per lesson. 
 
 I take three lessons in fencing 
 a week. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Whenever the word some be expressed or understood, 
 in English, before a Nciiny singular or plural, or an Adjec* 
 
340 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 the preceding a Noun, in the singular only, it is rendered 
 in French, by du, de la^ de l\ or des^ and accords with the 
 gender and number and the initial letter of the Sub- 
 stantive. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 FOR THE NOUN, SINGULAR OR PLURAL. 
 
 Envoyez-moi du poisson, de 
 V ail, de I* huile, de la mou- 
 tarde & des anchois. 
 
 J'ai achete du papier, de la cire 
 a cacheter, de /' encre Sc des 
 plumes toutes taillees. 
 
 Send me some fish, some gar- 
 lic, oil, mustard, and ancho- 
 vies. 
 
 I have bought paper, seahng- 
 wax, ink, and some ready 
 made pens. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 FOR THE ADJECTIVE, IN THE SINGULAR. 
 
 Du bon pain 8c de la bonne 
 
 viande suffisent a 1' homme 
 
 temperant. 
 II nous a envoye de /'excellent 
 
 fromage, mais du mauvais 
 
 beurre. 
 
 Good bread and meat suffice 
 a temperate man. 
 
 He sent us excellent cheese, 
 but bad butter. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 If the word some be placed or understood before one of 
 those Adjectives, whose correspondents, in French, are 
 put before their Nouns, and are in the plural number, the 
 preposition de alone must be placed before the former — 
 If the Adjective be one of these that may change place 
 and come so immediately after the Noun, de is changed 
 for des (*). 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a de beaux chevaux dans son 
 
 ecurie. 
 Ce boulanger fournit de bons 
 
 pains ^ ses pratiques. 
 J'ai vu de bonnes viandes, a la 
 
 boucherie. 
 De celeb res auteurs (* ou des 
 
 auteurs celebres) pensent 
 
 ainsi. 
 
 He has fine horses in his sta- 
 ble. 
 
 This baker supplies his custo- 
 mers with good loaves. 
 
 I saw good meats, at the mar- 
 ket. 
 
 Celebrated authors think so. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 241 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 You appear to differ very widely in opinion with the 
 writers of French grammars for the use of Englishman. 
 They all maintain invariably that de (preposition), answer- 
 ing to some expressed or understood, must always be used 
 before an Adjective, whether singular or plural, when pre- 
 ceding its Noiiri', for instance ; insteadof saying with you, 
 " du bon pain & de la bonne viande suffisent, " &cc. they 
 would, according to their rule, say, " de bon pain & de 
 bonne viande suffisent," &c. 
 
 Master. 
 
 This impropriety of expression struck, not long ago, 
 some of our best grammarians, who maintained, that a 
 preference should be given to the mode of expression I 
 recommend, and which now begins to be also sanctioned 
 by polite custom. In fact, when you say, " de bon pain 8c 
 de bonne viande suffisent, " owing to the pronunciation, 
 which is the same, in both cases, one cannot discriminate, 
 whether you do mean, de bom- pain^ &: de bonne* viande* 
 suffisent, &c. the meaning of which is very different. 
 
 By analysing those two modes, it might easily be proved 
 that not only perspicuity, but logic entitles our mode of 
 expression to a just preference. Nor am I deficient in 
 the best authorities on my side of the question ; such are, 
 DoMERGUE, Fabre, and Sicard. 
 
 Please to give your attention to the following rule, 
 which is rather difficult, and has been very wrongly ex- 
 plained in such French grammars as have fallen into my 
 hands. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 When a French Noun is accompanied by several AdjeC' 
 tiveSy the Article must be repeated before each of them, if 
 they do not qualify the same object individually, although 
 the same Noun maybe qualified — But, should the Adjec- 
 tives qualify both the Noun and an object which is the 
 same individually, the repetition of the Article may be dis- 
 pensed with. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 WITH THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 Le bon Sc le mauO CThe good and bad 
 
 vais fruit, ou I ne sont pas en- J fruits are not yet 
 Le bon fruit &: /e f core cueillis j gathered, 
 mauvais. J L 
 
 VOL. II. I i 
 
242 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 LesYieux ^les nou- 
 veaux soldats, ou 
 
 Les vieux soldats Sc 
 les nouveaux. 
 
 ^The old and new 
 firent des merveil-J soldiers did won- 
 les. \ ders. 
 
 \ 
 
 In the above examples it is evident that the sense re- 
 quires the repetition ol the Article ; as bon £^ mauvai.s can- 
 not q&alify the same object ; for a thing cannot be good 
 and bad at the same time, which would imply a contra* 
 diction — Two kinds of fruit must, therefore, be contrasted 
 together ; one good and the other bad — The Article must 
 then be repeated^ as there are two nouns implied, though 
 one only be expressed. The same reasoning applies to the 
 second example as well as to all others oi the same kind, 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 WITHOUT THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 La sage Sc belle femO 
 
 sage 
 
 me, ou 
 La femme 
 belie. 
 
 La chaste 
 
 bergere, ou 
 La bergere chaste 
 
 limide. 
 
 CThe wise and hand- 
 ( que vous avez J some woman you 
 & \ epousee. j have married. 
 
 J L 
 
 & timide 
 
 "^ CThe chaste and bash- 
 
 ! qui conduit son J ful shepherdess who 
 & I troupeau. \ teuus her flock. 
 
 In the preceding examples the two Adjectives concur 
 to qualify an object which is the same tndividualh,^ us 
 there is but one woman who is both sage and bellc^ ana one 
 shepherdess who is both chaste and bashful, 
 
 I shall conclude, by observing, that the manner in 
 which the above rule is treated ot in French gi'ammars, 
 will not shelter the scholar from making blunders j for, 
 in them, it is generally thus explained, 
 
 *•• If a Substantive be accompanied by several Adjectives., 
 *' the Article is to be repeated before both Adjectives, when 
 *' they, each of them, imply opposite qualities; otherwise 
 ^' the Article is used before the jirst Adjective only." 
 
 According to this rule we could not say, in French, 
 
 Les beaux Sc ks jolis objets 
 n'inspirent pas les memes 
 scntimens. 
 
 Handsome and pretty objects 
 do not inspire the same feel- 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 243 
 
 For beaux ^nd jolis are nearly synonymous terms : but lo- 
 gic, which binds more than the rules of grammar, would 
 reprove this construction ; and though the two epithets 
 be nearly synonymous^ yet, as the matter does not relate 
 to objects altogether, beaux ^ndjoiis^ but to some that are 
 exclusively btuux, and some that are exclusively ^o/av, it 
 requires that the Article be repeated. Our rule, being 
 founded on a distinctron of objects (which distinction pre- 
 cludes any error) must, of consequence, be more correct 
 than theirs, which is founded only on the vague and many 
 time?, fanciful comparison oi opposite or synonymous mean- 
 ing of Adjectives. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 Whenever a Noun' is preceded by an Adjective, in the 
 superlative^ the Article is used but once. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 WITHOUT THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Les plus habiles gens font 
 quelquefois les plus gros- 
 siei'cs fautes. 
 
 II parle d* un des plus savans 
 horn me s. 
 
 Les plus siirs moyens ne sont 
 pas toujours permis. 
 
 Les plus pi'ofondes pensees & 
 les plus brillantcs idees sont 
 toujours les fruits du genie. 
 
 The most skilful men some- 
 times commit the grossest 
 blunders. 
 
 He speaks of one of the most 
 learned men. 
 
 The surest means are not al- 
 ways lawful. 
 
 The most profound thoughts 
 and most brilliant ideas are 
 always the fruits of genius. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 But should the Adjective be placed after the Noun^ the 
 Article is repeated immediately before the Adjective. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 WITH THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Les gens les plus habiles font quelquefois les fautes les 
 plus grossieres. 
 
 II parle d' un des hommes les plus savans, 
 
 Les moyens les plus siirs ne sont pas toujours permis. 
 
 Les pensees les plus profondes 8c les idecs Its plus bril- 
 lantcs sont toujours les fruits du genie. 
 
'2U 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Master. 
 Though it must appear to you that the French delight 
 in often using the Article where it might be dispensed 
 with, as is done, in English, in corresponding cases, yet 
 they suppress it in several cases, where, in English, it 
 must be expressed. Your attention to the following, con- 
 cerningthe suppression of the Indicative Article^ will serve 
 effectually to secure you, in such cases, from Anglicisms. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 The /72^/c«^/t;e Article le Sec is not expressed, in French, 
 before Ordinal numbers ; 1st. When the preceding Noun 
 is mentioned with a view of quoting it, or as a title of a 
 book : 2dly. When they are annexed to proper names, to 
 distinguish the same proper names from one another. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Livre premier^ chapitre second, 
 paragraph e trois^ section 
 six, 
 
 George premier, second, trois, 
 
 Louis seize, Roi do France, fut 
 assassine le vingt-un Janvier, 
 mil sept cent quatre-vingt- 
 treize. 
 
 Book the first, chapter the se- 
 cond, paragraph the third, 
 section the sixth. 
 
 George the first, the second, the 
 third. 
 
 Lewis the sixteenth, king of 
 France, was murdered the 
 twenty-first of January, one 
 thousand seven hundred and 
 ninety-three. 
 
 RULE XL 
 
 The Indicati'de Article is also suppressed in the follow- 
 ing modes of expressions and the like. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Mieux vous etudiez, mieux 
 
 vous apprenez. 
 Plus une chose est difficile, 
 
 plus elle est honorable. 
 Plus une femme est belle, plus 
 
 elle doit etre modeste. 
 
 Moins on est riche, moins on a 
 
 d' embarras. 
 Plutot vous aurez ecrit votre 
 
 devoir, plutdt vous sortirez. 
 
 The more you study, tife more 
 
 you learn. 
 The more difficult a thing is, 
 
 the more honourable it is. 
 The more handsome a woman 
 
 is, the more modest she 
 
 ought to be. 
 The less rich one is, the less 
 
 trouble one has. 
 The sooner you have written 
 
 your exercise, the sooner you 
 
 will go out. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 245 
 
 RULE XII. 
 
 Before a Noun common^ modifying and immediately fol- 
 lowing one preceding it, the Indicative and Declarative 
 Articles are suppressed. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Voltaire est ne a Paris, ville 
 capitale de France. 
 
 Guiilaume Bingham, Ecuyer, 
 mourut a Bath, ville d' An- 
 gle terre. 
 
 J'ai Ui la Vengeance, tragedie 
 ceiebre du Dr. Young, & la 
 Femnie Jalouse, comedie 
 excellente de Colman. 
 
 Telemaque, flls d' Ulysse, Roi 
 
 d' Ithaque. 
 Marie-Therese, Imfieratrice d' 
 
 Allemagne. 
 Le Due d' i ork, Prince du sang 
 
 Iloyal d'Angleterre. 
 
 Voltaire was born at Paris, the 
 cafiital of France. 
 
 WiUiam Bingham, Esquire, 
 died at Bath, a city of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 I have read the Revenge, a 
 celebrated tragedy of Dr. 
 Young, and the Jealous Wife 
 an excellent comedy of Col- 
 man. 
 
 Telemachus, /f/^e 5072 of Ulysses 
 King of Ithaca. 
 
 Maria-Theresa, the Empress of 
 Germany. 
 
 The Duke of York, a Prince 
 of the Royal blood of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 RULE XIIL 
 
 Nouns common stand without Articles, when an appeal 
 is made, or an exclamation used. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 O heros de la France ! C' est a 
 
 toi de retablir la religion de 
 
 nos peres. 
 Roisl soyez attentifs. PeufilesI 
 
 pretez 1' oreille. 
 Courage ! Matelots^ a I'abor- 
 
 dage. 
 
 O hero of France ! It becomes 
 
 thee to restore the religion 
 
 of our forefathers. 
 Kings I be attenUve. Nations ! 
 
 listen. 
 Courage I Sailors, let us 
 
 board. 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 The Article may also be omitted in the enumeration of 
 objects, in the most general sense, or for the purpose of 
 rendering the diction more lively. 
 
146 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Femmes, enfans^ vieillards^ trou- 
 peaux^ cabannes^ inaisons^pa- 
 lais^ tout fut englouti par bt- 
 flots de la nier. 
 
 Cet hommc ii'a ni vice m vertu \ 
 ni talcns ni defauts ; ni pas- 
 sions d' aucune especc. 
 
 iVomen, children^ old mrn^ huts^ 
 Jiocks^ houses^ Jialaces, all was 
 svvallowed up by the waves 
 of the sea. 
 
 This man has neither vices 
 nor virtues ; neither talents 
 nor defects ; nor passions of 
 any kind. 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 No Article is used after the Preposition en and other 
 Prepositions, when they, with the following Noun, li^ive 
 the sense of an Adjective^ or of an Adverb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II regarde tout le monde en 
 
 pitie. 
 II me re^ut avec amitie. 
 
 II est sans amis. 
 
 He looks on every body nvith 
 
 contempt. 
 He received me kindly (or, 
 
 with kindness.) 
 He is without friends. 
 
 Note^ a number of French verbs will admit of no Arti' 
 tie between them and the follow^ing Noun, which is their 
 complement — A list of such of them that occur more 
 frequently in conversation, is subjoined at the end of this 
 
 instruction* 
 
 RULE XVL 
 
 The Declarative Article used, in English, after the Verb 
 to be^ before a Noun expressing title^ profession^ trade, 
 coitntrif^ or other attribute of the preceding Noun, is 
 omitted, in French — but should etre be preceded by ccy 
 then the Declarative Article must be used. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II est marcliand ou 
 marchand. 
 
 est un j He is a shop-keeper. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 247 
 
 On in'a dit qu'il 6t?iit negociant 
 ou que c' etait un ne^oci- 
 ant. 
 
 II se vante que son pere est 
 noble, Sc moi, je crois qu' il 
 est roturier ou que c' est un 
 roturier. 
 
 II est ou Fran^ais, ou Italien, 
 ou EspagDol ou c' est ou 
 un I rar^ais, ou un Ittilien, 
 ou u?i Lspagnol. 
 
 I was told he was a merchant. 
 
 He boasts of his father being 
 a r.obieman, and I believe 
 he is a plebiean. 
 
 He is either a Frenchman, an 
 Italian, or a Spaniard. 
 
 RULE XVII. 
 
 In the following cases, the Declarative Article is not ex- 
 pressed in French : 1st, Before a Noun beginning an in- 
 cidental phrase, which is a reflection on what has been 
 precedently said. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cet artiste a obtenu cinq cents 
 guinees : recompense qu' il 
 meritait bien. 
 
 Fontenelle etait membre de 
 r Academic Fran^aise, Sc de 
 celle des Sciences : Jireuve 
 de runiversaiite de ses ta- 
 lens. 
 
 This artist has obtained five 
 hundred guineas : a reward 
 he weH deserved. 
 
 Fontenelle was a member of 
 the French Academy, and 
 that of the Sciences: a proof 
 of the extent of his ta- 
 lents. 
 
 Sdly. Before the title of a book, or any other per- 
 formance. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Dictionnaire Critique de la 
 
 langue Fran^aise. 
 Hhtoire d' Angleterre, par 
 
 Hume. 
 Plan de la ville de Philadel- 
 
 phie. 
 
 A Critical Dictionary of the 
 French Language. 
 
 The History of England, by 
 Hume. 
 
 A Flan of the city of Philadel- 
 phia. 
 
 3dly. After the word queU &:c. (what) when used to ex- 
 press surprise. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quel homme vous etes ! ] What a man you are ! 
 
 Quel tintamarre vous fuites I I What a thundering noise you 
 
 I make ! 
 
248 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Quelle nouvelle vous m' appre- 1 What a piece of news yoy tell 
 
 Master. 
 
 Your particular attention is now required to a mode of 
 expression, which, as it is truly idiomatical for the French 
 themselves, must appear very strange to you. The fol- 
 lowing rule5 will explain it. 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 
 Whenever ttoo Nouns are joined together, in English, 
 if the first adjectively modify the second, and, without 
 trespassing on sense, may be transposed after the second, 
 by placing the Preposition wzVA, or such an equivalent as 
 havings containing^* &c. before it ; then, in French, the 
 first Noun is put last^ and is joined to the second by the 
 Preposition and Articles— aw, a /', a /a, awA;*, according to 
 circumstances of gender and number. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Appelez r homme cT/beiirre — 
 aux huitres — a la volaille — 
 a I' habit gris — au chapeau 
 rond — ail cou tors — a la fi- 
 gure rubiconde — awgrosnez 
 — Sc a la mine patibulaire. 
 
 Je prefere la sauce a7^jrcapres 
 u celle au vinaigre — aux 
 ceufs ou a V oignon. 
 
 On nous servit de la soupe au 
 vermicel — au riz — aux pois 
 — aux choux — uii poulet a 
 la crapaudine Sc une tourte a 
 V anguille. 
 
 Elle vend dans sa boutique de 
 la poudre a /' ceillet — a la 
 rose — &: du chocolat a la 
 vanilie. 
 
 *I1 demeure aumarche au foin, 
 ou a la poissoniierie. 
 
 II a casse le pot a /' eau 2^ la 
 bouteille a /' encre. 
 
 Call the butter-xci2LXi \ the oys- 
 ^er-man ; the poultry -v(\2Ci\ ; 
 the man nvith a grey-coat ; 
 nvith a round hat ; ivith a wry 
 neck ; nvith a claret face ; 
 tvith a big nose ; ivith a gal- 
 lows look. 
 
 I prefer the c«//er-sauce to the 
 vinegar^ the egg or onion 
 sauce. 
 
 They served us with vermicel- 
 lif with ricc^ with pease^ 
 with cubbage--AOU\), a. bar- 
 6(?"WcY/-chicken, and an eel^ 
 pye. 
 
 She sells in her sliop pink-scen- 
 ted^ roue-scented powder and 
 xJCwzY/a-chocolate. 
 
 He lives at the hay ov Jish-mar- 
 
 ket. 
 He has broken the water-pot 
 
 and the ink-bottle. 
 
SYNTAX MAD£ easy. 
 
 24^' 
 
 Note, that, in French, the Preposition and Article are 
 eometimes rendered by the Preposition a alone, instead 
 of auy a la, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Voulez-voiis coucher dans le 
 
 grenier a foin ou dans celui 
 
 able? 
 Ilsuivait lavoiture a huit places 
 
 dans un cabriolet a deux 
 
 chevaux. 
 Sa boite a mouches est dans la 
 
 boite a poudre. 
 On servit sur la table a dix 
 
 converts unecafetiere a vingt 
 
 tasses. 
 
 Will you lie in the hay -loft or 
 
 in the corn-loft ? 
 
 He followed the eight-seat 
 coach in a two-horse chaise. 
 
 Her patch-box is in the powder- 
 box. 
 
 They served on the table for 
 ten persons a twenty-dish 
 coffee-pot. 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 An English Adjective expressing the idea of pattern or 
 resemblance is rendered, in French, in the same manner 
 as the first Noun in the preceding rule ; it becomes then 
 feminine, in the singular, and is substantively taken. 
 
 EXAMPLES- 
 
 Les habits a la Fran^aise sont 
 
 a present aiamode. 
 J'aitroque ma sellea/'Anglaise 
 
 pour une a la Prussienne. 
 II porte un manteau a /'Espag- 
 
 nole Sc des bottes a /' 
 
 Americaine. 
 
 French coats are now fashion- 
 able, or in fashion. 
 
 I bartered my English saddle 
 for a Prussian one. 
 
 He wears a Spanish cloak and 
 American boots. 
 
 RULE XX. 
 
 When the words Jit, good are understood, in English, 
 before the second Noun when transposed as above, they 
 are rendered by the Preposition a. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je voudrais avoir une terre a 
 
 bois 8c une a ble. 
 LacolUne est couverte de mou- 
 
 lins a vent, 8c la vallee de 
 
 moulins a eau. 
 
 YOL. II. 1^ k 
 
 I wish I had some wood land 
 and some corn land. 
 
 The hill is covered with wind- 
 mills and the yalley with 
 water-mills. 
 
250 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE XXI. 
 
 When, in English, the/; a^? Participle of a Verb is pre- 
 ceded by the Infinitive to be^ and such Adjectives as Jitj 
 good^ in French, the Adjective fit and Infinitive to be are 
 both rendered by the Preposition a, and the past Partici- 
 ple is rendered by the Infinitive of the corresponding 
 Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 C*est une fille a marier. 
 
 Voild du bois a coufier 8c des 
 
 arbres a planter 
 C est un homme a mepriser. 
 C est un coquin a fiendre* 
 
 She is a girl fit to be married, 
 
 or, she is a marriageable girl. 
 
 That wood is fit to be cut, and 
 
 those trees to be planted. 
 That is a man^; to be despised. 
 That scoundrel is Jit to be hung. 
 
 Master. 
 
 I 'have not yet made any mention of the Preposition 
 de which sometimes must be placed between the two 
 French Nouns, instead of c, aw, a la 8cc. To prevent 
 mistake, I hasten to acquaint you with the following 
 
 RULE XXIL 
 
 When two Nouns come together, in English, and the 
 second is said to be composed or made of the materials 
 expressed by the Jirst^ the first is, in French, transposed 
 after the second^ with the Preposition de preceding. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II aperdusatabatiere rf' or, sa 
 montre d' argent, sa chaine 
 f/' acier 8c sa bague de dia- 
 mans. 
 
 II demeurait dans une maison 
 de pierre, a present il de- 
 meure dans une maison de 
 brique. 
 
 J'ai besoin de six paires de bas 
 de soie, de quatre de laine, 
 de dcux de coton &: d'une 
 ds fii. 
 
 He ha* lost his gold snufF-box, 
 silver watch, steel chain and 
 diamond ring. 
 
 He lived in a stone house, now 
 he lives in a brick house. 
 
 I want six pair of silk stock- 
 ings, four worsted, two cot- 
 ton and one thread. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 51 
 
 II porte un habit de velours 
 noir, un gilet d' ecarlate Sc 
 une culatte de casimir bleu. 
 
 He wears a black velvet coat, 
 a scarlet jacket and blue 
 cassimere breeches. 
 
 Master. 
 
 The words for which the following table is intended^ 
 always require the Preposition de after them, as, 
 
 Genre, m. 
 II mene un genre de vie qu*on 
 ne saurait approuver. 
 
 Espece, f. 
 
 Quelle eajiece d' homme nous 
 avez-vous amene la ? 
 SortCy f. 
 On voyait toute sorte rf' ani- 
 maux dans la menagerie du 
 Roi. 
 
 Melange, f. 
 La jalousie est un melange 
 d' amour & de haine ; de 
 crainte 8c de desseix)ir. 
 Compose, m. 
 Cette femme est un com/wse de 
 bonnes 8c de mauvaises 
 qualites. 
 Ne pas ou ne point (the latter mcrre 
 
 forcible). 
 II n* Sifias ou /loint de pain, de 
 vin, de viande, d* argent, d' 
 amis. 
 
 ( Ne) jamais. 
 JVe me parlez jamais de ces 
 chose s-la, ni de ce coquin de 
 valet. 
 
 Abondance, f. 
 ll est dans /* abondance de'toM- 
 tes choses. 
 
 Nombre, m. 
 J* ai \\i nombre de sots 8c de 
 fats, qui se croyaient de 
 grands personnages. 
 
 ^antite, f. 
 
 II a recueilli cette annee une 
 grande quantite de ble, de 
 foin 8c de fruit. 
 
 Kind. 
 He leads a kind of life one 
 cannot approve. 
 
 Kindy species. 
 
 What kind of a man have you 
 brought us here ? 
 
 Sort. 
 
 All sorts o/* animals were seen 
 in the king's menage. 
 
 Mixture. 
 Jealousy is a mixture of love 
 and hatred ; of fear and de- 
 spair. 
 
 Compound. 
 This woman is k comfiound of 
 good and bad qualities. 
 
 Noy not. 
 
 He has no bread, 720 wine, no 
 meat, no money, no friends. 
 
 Never. 
 JSTever speak to me about those 
 things nor that rascally ser- 
 vant. 
 
 Plenty. 
 
 He \s3J& plenty of every tiling. 
 
 Number or many. 
 I have seen many fools and 
 coxcombs who took them- 
 selves to be great people. 
 
 Numbery quantity. 
 
 He has had this year a large 
 quantity of com, hay and 
 fruitn 
 
25S 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 J' ai rencontre guantite de ca- 
 briolets, de voitures, de car- 
 rosses, de phaetons, Sc di 
 beaux chtvaux de selle. 
 ^lelque chose, m. 
 II a tou jours quelqiie chose dc 
 jol^, rf* agreable ^ de gra- 
 cieiix a dire aux gens. 
 ( i^e) rien, n). 
 II 77,' y a rien dc plus insolent 
 qu 'un parvenu. 
 Pen. 
 Donne z-moi un peu de biere 
 
 ou de cidre. 
 Je vous dirai en fieu de mots 
 toute I'afiaire. 
 Assez. 
 II y a assez de terns que je vous 
 attends. 
 
 Plus, tnolns. 
 II a plus dc talens & de merite 
 que son frei'e ; mais 7nGins 
 de savoir-vivre & d* usage 
 du monde. 
 
 Autatit. 
 EUe a autant de vertu que de, 
 douceur dans le caractere. 
 Tunt. 
 II est doue de tarit d* esprit 8c 
 de sagesse qu' il reussira, Sc 
 il a tavt ^'amis qu'il ne nian- 
 quera jamais de rien. 
 
 Trop. 
 
 Cet auteur embrasse tro/i de 
 matiereS) de faits 8c de de- 
 tails. 
 
 Cpmbien. 
 
 Combien de fromages avcz- 
 vous achetes ? combien de 
 livres de chandelle avez-vous 
 apporlees ? 
 
 II y avait je ne sais combien de 
 gens. 
 
 %e / 
 
 ^Quede sang repandu danscette 
 fatale que re lie I 
 
 Que de chagrins vous aurez a 
 souffrir ! 
 
 I met a number of chairs, car- 
 riages, coaches, phaetons 
 and fine saddle horses. 
 
 Something. 
 Ke has always something pret- 
 ty, agreeable and kind to tell 
 people. 
 
 Nothmg. 
 
 JSTothirig is more insolent than 
 an upstart. 
 
 Little, afev}. 
 Give me a little beer or cider. 
 
 I will tell you in a few words 
 the whole of the matter. 
 Enough. 
 I have been waiting for you 
 long enough. 
 
 More, less. 
 He has more talents and merit 
 than his brother, but less 
 good breeding and habit of 
 company. 
 
 As 7nuch as. 
 She has as much virtue as mild- 
 ness in her temper. 
 So much, so onayiy. 
 He is endowed with so muck 
 understanding and wisdom 
 that he will succeed, and he 
 has so many friends that he 
 will never want any thiiig. 
 Too WACch, too onany. 
 This author embraces toow.uch 
 matter, too many facts and 
 particulars. 
 
 Havi much, how tnany. 
 How much cheese have you 
 bought ? how many pounds 
 of candles have you brought ? 
 
 There were, I do not know, 
 
 how many people. 
 
 Hitvj 'much, hovj many ! 
 How 7nuch blood was spilt m 
 
 this fatal quarrel ! 
 How many sorrows you'll have 
 
 to bear I 
 
i 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 253 
 
 ^loi ! 
 Quoi deplus agreable pour des 
 parens, que des enfans ver- 
 tueux & bien eleves ! 
 Beaucmp. 
 II y a beaiicQufi de bien, mais 
 ils sont bmucoup. rf' heritiers 
 a partager cette succession. 
 
 What! 
 What is more agreeable for 
 parents than to have virtuous 
 and well bred children ! 
 Much, Tnafiy'M 
 There is much property, but 
 this estate is to be divided 
 among ?nany heirs. 
 
 EXCEPTION. 
 
 Bien when it means much or many, in English, is an exception; for in- 
 stead of the Preposition de alone, it must be followed by that Preposition 
 and the Article Indicative. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 du monde a la 
 
 II y avait bien 
 
 comedie. 
 II y a bien des gens cfui 
 
 croient ainsi. 
 
 le 
 
 There were fnany people at the 
 
 play. 
 There are many people who 
 
 believe it so. 
 
254 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 255 
 
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256 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
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SYNTAX MADE EASY, 
 
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 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 
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SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
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 SYNtAX MADE EASY. 
 
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SYNTAX MAD£ EASY. 
 
 261 
 
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262 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
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SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 263 
 
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264 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
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 SYNTAX MADE EASY 
 
 265 
 
 
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 VOL. II. 
 
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266 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY, 
 
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SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 267 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE THIRD. 
 
 OF THE JVOUJV. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 When two Nouns in English are joined merely by a Pre^ 
 position, or a Preposition and Article, either of these are 
 generally rendered by de with the Article Indicative, or 
 by the Preposition and Article contracted, according to 
 circumstances of gender and number. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L' ^tude de la geometi'ie est 
 
 fort utile. 
 L' eglise est batie sur le som- 
 
 met de la colline. 
 La grandeur des vues & la pro- 
 
 fondeurrfesidees, annoncent 
 
 r homme de genie. 
 
 The study o/* geometry is very 
 
 useful. 
 The church is built on the top 
 
 of the hill. 
 Greatness o/'Tievvs, and deptli 
 
 of ideas, bespeak the man 
 
 of genius. 
 
 Remark, that when two Nouns, in English, are united 
 by « with an apostrophe (thus '*), in French, the first 
 Noim is to be placed last, and the Preposition de with the 
 Article, or the contraction thereof, between the two Nouns. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J* ai vu les chevaux du Roi & 
 les appartemens de la Reine. 
 
 Le premier soin d' un homme 
 est d' eviter les reproches de 
 sa conscience, ^^ son second, 
 la censure du monde. 
 
 La soeur de la femme de 
 chambre de la favorite de la 
 Reine, vient de se marier. 
 
 I saw the King's horses, and 
 the Queen's apartments. 
 
 A man's first concern, is to 
 avoid the reproaches of his 
 conscience, and his second, 
 the world's censure. 
 
 The Queen's favorite's cham- 
 bermaid's sister is just mar- 
 ried. 
 
 But, if the first Noun, in English, were preceded by an 
 Article demonstrative or possessive, or were it a proper 
 name, the Preposition de should then stand alone without 
 the Article. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le langage de cet homme est I This man's language is inde- 
 indecent. I cant. 
 
26S 
 
 STNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Avez-vous vu la bibliotheque 
 
 4(^mon pere? 
 J' ai troiive 1' eventail Sc les 
 
 gantb de Julie. 
 Avez-vous re9U le billet de 
 
 Madcmoiseile K I 
 
 Did you see my father's li- 
 brary ? 
 
 I have found Julia's fan and 
 gloves. 
 
 Did you receive Miss K '* 
 
 note? 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 When Nouns of measure such as inch, foot', fathom, e/l, 
 yard, are followed, in English, by Adjectives of dimension 
 such as lonj, wide, he. or their abstract Nouns, length, 
 width, &c, then the abstract Nouns of dimension are used, 
 in French, with the Preposition de preceding them, which 
 must also be placed before the numerical Article specify- 
 ing the number of times that the Noun of the measure is 
 understood, 
 
 EXAxAlPLES. 
 
 J' ai saute un fosse de trente 
 pieds de largcur. 
 
 C est une riviere de quinze 
 brasses de profondeur. 
 
 II me faut des planches de 
 vingt sept poucesr/e longue- 
 ur & de quatre d' epaisseur. 
 
 Voila \m clocher de trois cents 
 pieds de hauteur. 
 
 I jumped over a ditch thirty- 
 feet wide or in width. 
 
 it 13 a river fifteen fathoms 
 deep. 
 
 I v/ant boards twenty-seven 
 inches in length and four in- 
 ches in thickness. 
 
 That is a steeple three hundred 
 feet high. 
 
 Observe 1st, that when two dimensions, belonging to 
 the same object, are mentioned, the Preposition sur will 
 elegantly replace the Conjunction £9* and the Preposition 
 de; so we may well say, 
 
 Les murs d' Alger ont seize 
 pieds d' epaisseur sur trente 
 de hauteur. 
 
 The walls of Algiers are six- 
 teen feet thick, and thirty 
 feet high. 
 
 2d, If, as in the examples following, the verb to be, be 
 used, the Preposition de should be omitted before the mi- 
 merical Article, and etre rendered bv avoir. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 2«y 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Kotre jardin a cent cinquanteN 
 
 pieds de longueur & qua- 1 Our garden is one hundred 
 rante huit dc largeur, ou V and fifty feet long, and Ibrty 
 
 Notre jardin a 150 pieds rfe I eight feet wide, 
 longueur, .swr A^ de largeur.y 
 
 L' eglise de St. Paul a 500 
 pieds aV longueur en dedans ; 
 100 de largeur a V entree ; 
 mais 249 d' un portique a 
 1' autre. 
 
 St. Paul's church is 500 feet 
 long within ; 100 feet front; 
 but 249 from the porticos. 
 
 Master. 
 Though it be more elegant, in French, to use the ab^ 
 stract Nouns of dimension than the Adjectives^ yet the lat- 
 ter may also be used, as you will see in the following 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J' ai achete un tapis lo^ig de 
 six verges & large de deux. 
 
 On a bati une murailie e/iaisse 
 de douze pieds. 
 
 I bought a carpet six yard's 
 
 lo7ig^ and two wide. 
 They have built a wall twelve 
 
 feet thick* 
 
 RULE III. , 
 
 When the titie^ rank, or degree of kindred of a person 
 in a high or respectable station, is mentioned, polite cus- 
 tom often requires that such expressions as, Blonseigneur^ 
 Monsieur^ Madame or Mademoiselle^ should be pronounced 
 before the name of the indivicKial entitled to that distinc- 
 tion. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Monseigneiir le Prisce de Gal- 
 les est r heritier presomp- 
 tif de la courronne d' An- 
 gle ter re. 
 
 Monsieur le Colonel Williams 
 b' est marie hier au soir. 
 
 J' ai cause au bal avec Ma- 
 dame votre tante &; danse 
 avec Mademoiselle sa fille. 
 
 The Prince of Wales is the 
 heir-apparent of the crown 
 of England. 
 
 Colonel Williams was married 
 
 last evening. 
 I conversed at the ball with 
 
 your aunt and danced with 
 
 her daughter. 
 
 Remark, that, when we speak oiour own relations, then^ 
 as tenderness should prevail over formality, such expres* 
 sionij as above stated, are omitted. 
 
uro 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Master. 
 
 We are now come to a very nice point in the French 
 language ; it relates to the law of accord or of concordance: 
 and, as the observance thereof, together with its excep- 
 tions, constitute some of the principal difficulties of the 
 French language, I advise you to give particular attention 
 to the following rules. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 The A^oun imposes its inflections on all its correspond- 
 ents, viz. on the Article, which determines it; op the Ad^ 
 jective and Participle, which qualify it ; on the Pronoun, 
 which recalls it to the mind ; and on the Verb, which an- 
 nounces the object which the Noun denominates, as ex- 
 isting. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le plaisir, qui ne laissc apres 
 soi que des remords, est de- 
 fendu aux homines, parce 
 qu' it est criirdneL 
 
 Lcs consolations Ics plus t07i- 
 chanti's sojit cclles qui nous 
 ^ont offertea par la Religion. 
 
 Ames donees Sc paisibies, qui 
 ne voulcz que dcs joins se- 
 reins £c des senlimens agre- 
 ablesj ne desirez pas les 
 hautes places. 
 
 Pleasure, which leaves behind 
 it nothing but remorse, is 
 forbidden to man, because it 
 is criminal. 
 
 The most striking consolations 
 are offered to us by Reli- 
 gion. 
 
 Gentle and peaceful souls, nvho 
 only want serene days and 
 agreeable feelings, do not 
 wish for high stations. 
 
 You see that in the first of the above sentences, the 
 Noun, plaisir, makes the words in Italics assume the m- 
 Jlections they are liable to, viz. the Articles and Adjec- 
 tives, \K.^ gender, which is mascidiney and its number, which 
 is singular ; and the Verb, the third person singular, be- 
 cause that Noun is the thing spoken of. 
 
 In the 5(?cc72^ example, the Noun, consolations, be'in^ plu- 
 ral femifiine, the Articles and Adjectives become so, while 
 the Verb is in the third person plural. 
 
 In the thJrd example, a?Jtes being in the second person 
 plural, the Verbs vaulez and desirez, its correspondents, 
 are also put in the second person pluraL 
 
SYNTAX MADE JIASY. 
 
 271 
 
 If you reflect that an object could not be denominated 
 under a gender and number, and be announced, qualified, 
 recalled, and presented as existing by its correspondents 
 under a different gender and number, without producing 
 a shocking oddity that would render vague and doubt- 
 ful the relations of words with the ideas they are de- 
 signed to portray, you will easily conceive why all the 
 words we have just noticed should appear with these in- 
 flections ; and this more necessarily, as such a character of 
 uniformity can alone manifest their dependence upon the 
 Hero of the phrasei(the Noun) for the sake of which they 
 are used. — However rational this rule of concordance may 
 appear, it is still liable to many exceptions, which custom^ 
 that imperious lav^-giver to language, and to whom even 
 philosophers must often bow, has introduced. — Of these, 
 without entering into any superfluous logical details, I will 
 inform you ; my design, in this Section, being to acquaint 
 you solely with the particulars of the French syntax. 
 
 REMARK I. 
 
 Several Nouns sw^Vcf 5, occurring in a sentence, although 
 singular and of diff'erent genders, impose on their corres- 
 pondents the plural number and masculine gender. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le merite 8c la vertu sont seuls 
 fails pour plaire toujoiirs. 
 
 Le mari 8c la femme sont tou- 
 jours malheureuxy lors qu' il 
 ne regne pas entr' eux V 
 union la plus parfaite. 
 
 Notre valet & notre servante 
 sont fiaresseux^ impertincnSy 
 8c raisonneurs. 
 
 Merit and virtue are alone Jit» 
 ted Lo be always pleasing. 
 
 A husband and wife are alwa)^ 
 iinhafipy, when the most per- 
 fect harmony does not reign 
 betv.een them. 
 
 Our man and our maid are 
 lazy^ impn'tiiienty Z-Tidi fond of 
 retorting. 
 
 But, should the Nouns be objects instead of being «/^ 
 jects^ then the correspondent should follow in number and 
 gender those of the last Noun. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cette femme a 1* air & la phy-") 
 
 sionomie spirituelk^ ou I This woman has a ^fing-Mp 
 
 Cette femme a la physionomie [ air and countenRnce. 
 
 & 1' air filuritueU J 
 
273 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Jl avail la bouche &c les yeux" 
 ouvertsi ou 
 
 II avait les yeux 8c la bouche 
 ouvefte. 
 
 Cetacteur joire avec uii gout Sc" 
 une noblesse charmante^ ou 
 
 Cet acteur joue avec iine no- 
 blesse 8c un gout cha'^mant^ 
 
 II a la tete 8c les pieds nus^ ou 
 
 II a les pieds 8c la tete nue. 
 
 He had his eyes and mouth 
 ofieiu 
 
 This actor performs with tast& 
 and a cliarming dignity. 
 
 His head and feet are naked. 
 
 REMARK 11. 
 
 Nouns, of number expressing a quantity or multitude of 
 objects characterised by another Noun^ require their fol- 
 lowing correspondents to agree in gender and number with 
 this last^ v/hich is always preceded by the Preposition de^ 
 except v/hen la plupnrt is used, which last, like bien^ re- 
 quires the Preposition and Article du, de le, &c. after it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Une douzaine d' cnians fure?it 
 
 tues le meme jour. 
 Une centAine de femmes fa- 
 rent ensevelies sous les 
 
 mines. 
 Le peu de forces qu' avait ce 
 
 malade ne so7it pas perdues. 
 La moitie de ses forces lui re- 
 
 stent fideles. 
 II n' est sorte de soins qui ne 
 
 lui soient rendus par le peu 
 
 d^ amis qui ne 1' out pas 
 
 abandonne. 
 tJne foule de monde s' est 
 
 trou-ue a ce spectacle, 
 yne foule de soldats 072t ete 
 
 fusilles. 
 Une infinite de monde est in- 
 
 qidei sur son sort. 
 Une infinite de personnes en 
 
 s(jnt instruiies, 
 Un grand nombre de person- 
 ' nes onf ete meconte'ntes. 
 Une grande quantite de dames 
 
 cimnit presentes u ce bal* 
 
 Twelve children were killed the 
 same day. 
 
 A hundred women iuer£ bu- 
 ried under the ruins. 
 
 The little strength which this 
 
 patient had, iswoi destroyed. 
 The half of his troops remain 
 
 faithful to him. 
 Thei'e is no kind of attention 
 
 which is not fiaid him by the 
 
 few friends who have not 
 
 forsaken him. 
 A crowd of people luas at 
 
 that show or exhibition. 
 A great number of soldiers 
 
 ivcre alvA, 
 Vast numbers «rd' uneasy about 
 
 his fate. 
 Vast numbers are acquainted 
 
 ivith it. 
 A great num.be r o/" people have 
 
 been discontented, 
 A great number o/" ladies were 
 
 present at that ball. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 273 
 
 Toute sorte dc livres ne sont 
 pas egalement Boris. 
 
 11 n' est- sorte de demonstra- 
 tions de politesse qu' il ne 
 lui ait faites, 
 
 Une partie dea arbres qui me 
 
 restent sont charges de fruits. 
 
 Une troupe de Nyniphes cou- 
 ronnees de fleurs etaicnt as- 
 sises aupres d' elle. 
 
 La plupart du monde s* endort 
 sur ses propres interets. 
 
 La plupart t/f* femmes ont plus 
 d' esprit que de savoir. 
 
 All kind of books are not 
 equally good. 
 
 There are no demonstrations 
 q/* politeness whatever which 
 he has not shown him or 
 her. 
 
 A part of the trees which I 
 have remaining are loaded 
 with fruit. 
 
 A choir of Nymphs croiimed 
 with flowers were seated 
 near her. 
 
 The greatest part of the peo- 
 ple neglect their own inter- 
 ests. 
 
 The greatest part of women 
 have more wit than learning. 
 
 Y"ou will see by the above examples that the law of con- 
 cordance is not observed with regard to ihe Noun of quan- 
 tity, the subject of the phrase, but with regard to the Noun 
 vf\{\c\\ follows it. The grammatical concordance is there- 
 by violated ; but logic requires it should be so ; and, if 
 correspondence appears to be infringed in respect to these 
 words, in the above phrases, it is not so in respect to the 
 ideas where it is faithfully observed. 
 
 In fact, the ideas expressed by the corresponding words 
 are not suited to the quantity^ but to the objects presented 
 under that quantity. Let us take, for example, the first sen- 
 tence; *-'' Une dotizaine d"* enfansfurent tues le meme jour,"*"* 
 It is not a do%en that we wish to represent as killed, but 
 children^ tv/elve in number. It is, therefore, with children^ 
 that the Verb and Participle must agree ; because, that 
 Noun, presenting the principal idea of the subject of the 
 phrase, must receive the attributions — a dozen is but a sub- 
 ordinate idea, •and a mere complement^ though, by consi- 
 dering only the grammatical form of the phrase, it is the 
 principal word. 
 
 Observe, however, that there are circumstances when 
 correspondents may assume the inflections of some of 
 those Nouns of quantity; instances thereof are pretty of- 
 ten met with in the poets, who may claim more indulgence 
 in that respect. — The attentive reading of good authors, 
 hov/ever, will make you sensible which of the two con- 
 structions ought to be preferred in certain cases. 
 
 VOL. II. N n 
 
2^4 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 REMARK III. 
 
 The words of quantity, beaucoiipt peu^ assez, moi7is^ plus^ 
 trop, tant^ combien^ & que in the sense oi co7nbien^ exercise 
 no influence on the Verb and the Adjective which may 
 follow the subject, the totality of which they help to form ; 
 for the Verb and Adjective receive the law, as in the pre- 
 ceding rule, from the Noun that follows those words of 
 quantity^ 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 pe r Sonne s vous 
 
 BeaucQup de 
 
 aiment. 
 Peu de vin siiffit a 1' homme. 
 
 Feu de soldats courageux suffi- 
 sent pour remporter une 
 victoire. 
 
 Assez d'ambitieux recherchait 
 les places. 
 
 Moins de gens que vous ne pen- 
 sezj vous ajijirouvent. 
 
 Plus de sagesse vous eut pre- 
 serve de tomber dans de 
 grandes fautes. 
 
 Plus de fous que de sages am- 
 bitionnent les grands em- 
 plois; ^ro/i d'ignorans les ob- 
 tiennent, 
 
 Tant de soldats defendent nos 
 foyers, que les efibrts de nos 
 ennemis seront nuls. 
 
 Combien de heros combattirent 
 aux Thermopyles ? Autant 
 que de soldats. 
 
 Que de gens sans moeurs oc- 
 cupent des places ou la vertu 
 est plus necessaire que les 
 taleiis ! 
 
 A great many people love you. 
 
 A little wine is sufficient for 
 
 man. 
 A few courageous soldiers are 
 
 sufficient to obtain a victory. 
 
 Enough of the ambitious seek 
 after places. 
 
 Less people than you think aji- 
 prove of you. 
 
 More wisdom would have pre- 
 served you from falling into 
 great faults. 
 
 More fools than wise men are 
 desirous of great employ- 
 ments (or offices) ; too many 
 ignorant obtain them. 
 
 So many soldiers defend our 
 firesides, as will render the 
 efforts of our enemies abor- 
 tive. 
 
 Hoiv many heroes fought at 
 Thermopyle ? As many as 
 soldiers. 
 
 Hoio many people without mo- 
 rals occupy posts where vir- 
 tue is more necessary than 
 talents ! 
 
 REMARK IV. 
 
 Nouns collective^ that is to say, representing several 
 persons or things under a Noun singular^ such as rjuilti- 
 tude^armee^foret^ Uc. require that their correspondents 
 should be in the singular* 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 srt 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La multitude des etrangers rend 
 les denrees 8c le pain ex- 
 tremcment cher. 
 
 L' ai^nee des Puissances com- 
 binees a ete taillee en pieces. 
 
 La trouble des comediens est 
 
 arrivee. 
 La foret des Ardennes est au 
 
 couchant du Luxembourg. 
 La Jiotte des Allies a mis a la 
 
 voile pendant la nuit. 
 Le Senat des Etats-Unis a ra- 
 
 tifie le traite pour la Loui- 
 
 siane. 
 La Convention- J^ationale etait 
 
 presque toute composee de 
 
 brigands 8c de scelerats. 
 
 The multitude of strangers 
 
 makes provisions and bread 
 
 excessively dear. 
 The army of the combined 
 
 powers has been cut to 
 
 pieces. 
 The company of players have 
 
 come. 
 The forest of Ardennes is to 
 
 the west of Luxemburg. 
 Th^Jieet of the Allies set sail 
 
 during the night. 
 The Senate of the United 
 
 States have ratified the 
 
 treaty of Louisiana. 
 The National Convention was 
 
 almost entirely comfiosed of 
 
 banditti and villains. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Why do not the correspondents of the collective Noun, 
 when it is followed by a Noun in the plural^ agree with 
 this last, as in the examples you stated before ? 
 
 Master. 
 Because those words of quantity and the plural follow- 
 ing them, which you refer to, are but an expression, while 
 the Noun collective presents an idea independent of what 
 may follow. — An example will make you sensible of this : 
 I uppose that, instead of writing "L'armeedes Puis- 
 sances combinees a ete taillee en pieces,'' one would write, 
 " L' armee des Puissances combinees ont ete taillees en 
 pieces ;" wouldnotyoualmostexclaimthen,thatpeacemust 
 inevitably be the consequence, because you infer, though 
 the sentence of the writer be defectiye, that it is the Puis^ 
 sances combinees that have been cut to pieces, as taillees^ 
 by assuming the gender and number of Puissances^ relates 
 to them. But, upon reflecting on the construction of the 
 sentence, you will perceive that it is the arjny only, and. 
 not the powers themselves, that have been cut to pieces ; 
 while you would discover that the defect of the above sen- 
 tence lies in the Verb and the Adjective (the correspon- 
 dents oiarmee^ which are plural, when they should be sin' 
 gular^ and you would, therefore, correct them. 
 
2r6 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 REMARK V. 
 
 The Noun gens exercises a very strange influence on 
 the Adjective^ as it is always put in the feminine^ when 
 the Kd^tctive precedes it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ce sont de fort dangercuses 
 
 gens. 
 Toutes les vieilles gens, toutes 
 
 les sottes gens Sc toutes les 
 
 mechantes gens V ont d6sap- 
 
 prouve. 
 
 They are very dangerous peo- 
 ple. 
 
 ML the old people, all Xh^ fool- 
 ish people, and allxho. toicked 
 people have disapproved of 
 it. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 We say tons les gens and not toutes les gens, all peo- 
 ple ; Example j 
 
 lous les gens d' honneur & de 
 probite V estiment. 
 
 Ml people of honor and pro- 
 bity esteem him. 
 
 We also say, contrary to the rule, 
 
 Tous les honnStes gens 8c tous I Ml honest people and all skil- 
 les habiles gens 1' honorent. | ful people honour him. 
 
 Because the Adjectives honnete and habile have the 
 same termination for both genders ; but, should the Ad- 
 jective/o/Zowthe word gens^ the rule is very precise, as it 
 is invariably of the masculine gender. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ce sont des gens fort dange- 
 
 reux. 
 Ce sont des ^tns fiolis 8c /iru- 
 
 dens, 
 II ne faut pas vous fier a des 
 
 gens indiscrets. 
 
 They are very dangerous peo- 
 ple. 
 
 They are polite and prudent 
 people. 
 
 You must not trust indiscreet 
 people. 
 
 REMARK VI. 
 
 ^lelque chose always requires that its correspondents 
 should be in the masculine singular. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 277 
 
 11 a toujours guelque chose de 
 merveillaix a raconter. 
 
 On ni' a dit quelque chose qui 
 est trcs-filaisant. 
 
 Je sais quelque chose qui n' est 
 pas fait pour vous rejouir. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 He has always something won- 
 
 derful to relate. 
 I have been told something very 
 
 comical, 
 I know something which is not 
 
 ca/cw/arc Jto make you merry. 
 
 REMARK VII. 
 On and ^ikonque commonly require their correspon- 
 dents to be in the masculine gender. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 On est venu vous demander. 
 On n' est ni vertueux ni me- 
 
 chant a demi. 
 QuiconqueidXiXt^ mal en tst /iuni 
 
 tot ou tard. 
 Quiconque parlera Anglaii sera 
 
 Tnis a 1* amende. 
 
 Somebody is come to ask foryou. 
 One is neither virtuous nor 
 
 nvickecl by halves. 
 Whoever does hdsiw'is fiunished 
 
 for it sooner or later. 
 Whosoever speaks English 
 
 shaU ht fined. 
 
 But, should the above words pointedly refer to women, 
 the feminine must always be used. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 On doit toujours etre soumise 
 a son mari. 
 
 Quand on est belle,' on ne 1' ig- 
 nore pas. 
 
 Quand on est jolie, on n' est 
 pas la demiere a le savoir. 
 
 Quiconque est enceinte doit etre 
 attentive a sa sante. 
 
 Quiconque de vous, Mesde- 
 moiselles, seraassez zm/i7'z/- 
 dente pour le faire, sera 
 punie. 
 
 One (or a woman) should al- 
 ways be obedient to her hus- 
 band. 
 
 When one (or a woman) is 
 handsome, one (or she) is not 
 ignorant of it. 
 
 When a wonmn is pretty, she 
 is not fAe /a*; to know it. 
 
 Whoever is pregnant must be 
 attentive to her health. 
 
 Whichsoever of you, young la- 
 dies, will be imprudent 
 enough to do it, shall be 
 punished. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Have you no further observations to make on on ? 
 
 Master. 
 Several more: 1st, When on is repeated in a sen- 
 tence, it must refer to the same Noun. 
 
278 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 On veut ^tre instruit Sc V on ne 
 veut prendre aucune peine 
 pour r etre. 
 
 On croit soiivent etre aime & 
 P 071 est ha 1. 
 
 Peq/2/ewish to be enlightened, 
 and yet will take no trou- 
 ble for it. 
 
 Peofile often believe themselves 
 to be beloved, while they are 
 hated. 
 
 2d, We use /' on instead of on^ in order to avoid a dis- 
 agreeable clashing of Vowels, or the tedious repetition 
 of the same sound ; therefore, /* on ought to be prefer- 
 cd. after the following words, et^ si, ou^ & que, especially 
 when on precedes a word beginning with com^.^con..., 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quand on pardonne on en est 
 plus grand, 8c /' on s' abaisse 
 en se vengeant. 
 
 Si /' on veut voir la fin d' un 
 proces, il faut sou vent le com- 
 mencer dans sa jeunesse. 
 
 C est par la vertu qu' on lutte 
 avec tranquillite centre les 
 passions des hommcs, Sc que 
 /' on coxmcdi le contentement 
 au milieu deleurs injustices. 
 C est par elle qu' on voit 
 venir la defaite sans abatte- 
 nient, & que /' on conserve 
 encore du courage aprts la 
 disgrace. 
 
 Dites moi si /' on danse ou /' 
 on dine ? 
 
 When one forgives, he be- 
 comes the greater for it, and 
 one degrades himself by 
 revenge. 
 
 If one wishes to see the end of 
 a law-suit, it is often neces- 
 sary that it should be begun 
 in one's youth. 
 
 It is by the help of virtue one 
 struggles, with tranquillity, 
 against the passions of men, 
 and enjoys self-content 
 amidst their injustice. It is 
 through her one sees defeat 
 come without being dis- 
 courag'd, and one keeps still 
 good heart after an over- 
 throw. 
 
 Tell me if they dance where 
 they dine ? 
 
 Observe, that, if on be followed by an / in the next 
 word, the / should be omitted before it ; therefore, do 
 not say, " & /' on 1' entendit....si /' on le voit....ou /' on le 
 cherche, &c." but & on V entendit....si on le voit....ou on 
 Ic cherche &c. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 Are there not some difficulties in the French language 
 concerning the use of the word Personne P 
 Master. 
 
 Yes ; I w^ill explain them to you : when this word is pre- 
 ceded by an Article, it implies an individual of the hu- 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 270 
 
 man species, and requires that the Adjective correspon- 
 dent be always feminine. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J' ai rencontre la personne que 
 
 vous avez trouvee si ennu- 
 
 yeiise, 
 Mille or aucune personne n' est 
 
 assez sottc pour le croire. 
 II n' y avait pas une personne 
 
 qui n' en fut fachee. 
 
 I met with the person you 
 found so tedioiLs. 
 
 M) one is foolish enough to be- 
 lieve it. 
 
 There was not one person but 
 was sorry for it. 
 
 If Personne be alone^ and not preceded by an Article, it 
 requires that its correspondent should be masculine^ and 
 is then used to express any human being whatever. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Personne n' est assez sot pour 
 
 le croire. 
 II n' y avait personne qui n' en 
 
 fut trts-fdche. 
 
 No body is foolish enough to 
 
 believe it. 
 There was no body who was 
 
 not very sorry for it. 
 
 Hence it is, that the presence or absence of the Article 
 before it, makes all the difference in its use. It is 
 necessary to observe here, with the French Academy, that 
 such modes of expression as une jolie — une charmante — 
 une belle he. personne are never used but for women. 
 Scholar. 
 
 You have asserted in mentioning the rule of concord- 
 ance, that the Noun always regulated its correspondents. 
 As you point out no exception to that rule, I must take it 
 for granted that there are none : however, I have heard 
 of one, and this is a very remarkable one. 
 Master. 
 
 You will oblige me to mention it ; for, I confess, it has 
 entirely escaped my notice ; though I cannot help ex- 
 pressing some surprise at it, as the Noun is the supreme 
 power to which every other part of speech pays homage, 
 it appears to me inconsistent that it should receive the law 
 from its subordinates. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 My authorities are Professors of Languages and Au- 
 thors of Grammars themselves. 
 
 One of them says that he is " Professeiir des Langues 
 Espagnole ^ Franchise," — The other says '•'' ShC il en- 
 
2S0 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 setgne par principes les iangues Anglaise, Allemande i^ 
 Suedoise.'*'' I see in the above examples, that two Ad- 
 jectives, in the singular^ require the corresponding Noun 
 to be plural; is not that receiving law instead of imposing 
 it t What say you now ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 I say, that the two sentences you mention are incorrect ; 
 and, that the master v/ho teaches so well par principes^ 
 teaches par de faux principes^ and when he teaches, he had 
 better leave his principles alone. The first should have 
 said, he was Professeur delanguQ Espagnole ^ Frangaise — 
 and the second, qic* it emeignait la langue Anglaise^ V Alk' 
 mande ^ la Suedoise. Our rule will stand for ever, with- 
 out any exception, as it is founded on common sense, and 
 a sense of due subordination between the parts of speech. 
 Those Professors had no idea that such modes of expres- 
 sion are elliptical^ and that the words de langue^ placed in 
 the first phrase before the feminine Adjective Espagnoie^ 
 are understood before that of FraiK^aise^ and so on, if there 
 were any number more of such Adjectives ; and in the 
 second phrase, the word langue is also understood before 
 each of the feminine Adjectives Alle?nande and Suedoise, 
 
 I cannot conclude the Syntax of the Noun, without de- 
 scanting upon particulars attending the gender of some 
 Substantives ; but, as these are not so important as the 
 other points, you are yet unacquainted with, you will de- 
 fer attending to them, till you have run over the whole 
 of this Syntax. 
 
 A TABLE OF NOUNS, 
 
 WHOSE GEJVDER VARIES ACCORDIJ\rG TO THEIR 
 
 JVUMBER, ACCEPTATION, Isfc. 
 
 The Nouns amour, delice, orgue, are masculine in the 
 singular, and feminine in the plural, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 AMOUR, S. >!. 
 
 II est epris d,' un amour vio- 
 lent. 
 
 He is intoxicated with violent 
 love. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 381 
 
 AMOUES, PL. F. 
 
 r There are no ugly loves^ or 
 II n' y a point de hides amour8.< there is nothing ugly, or no 
 
 (^ ugliness in love. 
 
 But observe that amour is masculine, in the plural, when 
 it means graces personified, or those small figures which 
 serve as emblems in painting and sculpture. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 AMOURS, PL. M. 
 
 Little loves are cruel tyrants. 
 
 He caused several pretty little 
 loves to be carved round his bed 
 
 Les fietits amours sont de cru- 
 
 els tyrans. 
 II a fait sculpter de jolis petits 
 
 amours autour de son lit. 
 
 DELICE, SIN. M. 
 
 La promenade est un delice I Walking is a delight, or a luX' 
 pour moi. j ury to me. 
 
 DELICES, PL. F. 
 
 L' 6tude fait toutes mes delices, | Study is my sole delights 
 
 ORGUE. SIN. M. 
 
 Voila un bel orgue. | That is a fine organ, 
 
 ORGUES. PL. F. 
 
 Ce sont de fort belles orgues, \ They are very fine organs. 
 
 Aide is feminine when it signifies succour, assistanccy 
 or the person who gives it ; But, it is masculine, in the 
 sense of being under the command, direction, &c, of a su- 
 perior. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Donne z-lui une aide prompt e, 
 Vous etes toute mon aide. 
 
 Give him speedy help. 
 
 You are all my help, or support. 
 
 Le General Washington lui 
 envoy a son aide de camp. 
 
 Avez-vous besoin d' un aide 
 de cuisine ? 
 
 Non, il me faut un aide a ma- 
 9on. 
 
 General Washington sent him 
 
 his oz'c^-de-camp. 
 Do you want an under-cook ? 
 
 No, I must have a mason's asr^ 
 sistarit. 
 
 Aigle is feminine, in aigle ImpSriale Imperial eagie ;— 
 aiide Romaine, Roman eagle ; — aigle, a constellation : 
 under many other circumstances it is masculine* 
 
 VOL. II. o o 
 
2»3 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 AIGLE, 
 
 II est chevalier de 1' aigle blanc, 
 
 8c de r aigle noir. 
 Li* aigle courageux n' engendre 
 
 point la timide colombe. 
 
 He is a knight of the ivhite ea- 
 gle^ and of the black eagle. 
 
 The courageous eagle does not 
 beget the timid dove. 
 
 Couple^ when signifying number, is feminine. 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Envoyez-moi une coufile d' 
 ceiifs — une couple de poulets, 
 & une couple de dindons. 
 
 COUPLE, F. 
 
 Send me a couple of eggs — a 
 couple of chickens, and a 
 couple of turkeys. 
 
 But, vy^hen it is said of two persons united by the ties 
 of love-, or hymen^ it becomes masculine, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 COUPLE, M. 
 
 Voila un couple bien uni, bien 
 
 assorti. 
 Couple heureux, pu'issent vos 
 
 jours etre longs ! 
 
 There is a couple happily 
 
 united^ well matched, 
 Happy couple, may your days 
 
 be long ! 
 
 Note... .Observe, you are never to use the above ex- 
 pression to designate two things made to go together j in 
 this case the word pairs must be used. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 PAIRE, F. 
 
 Pretez-moi une. paire de cis- Lend me a pair of scissars — 
 
 eaux — une paire de bas de a pair of silk stockings, and 
 
 soie Sc une paire de gants a pair of leather gloves, 
 de peau. 
 
 Echo is masculine when it signifies the repetition of sound. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 ECHO, M. 
 
 L' echo repond seul a ma I The echo alone answers to my 
 voix. I voice. 
 
 It is feminine when it designates the Nymph of that 
 name. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 283 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 ECHO, F. 
 
 ^ Echo etait amour euse de Nar- I Echo was in love with Narcis- 
 1 H cisse. I sus. 
 
 Enseigne is masculine only when it signifies a standard- 
 bearer in a regiment. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 ENSEIGNE, M. 
 
 Cet enseigne a merite d' etre [ This ensign has deserved to be 
 fait capitaine. j. made a captain. 
 
 Exemple is feminine only when it signifies a ci?/>j/ of 
 •writing, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 EXEMPLE, F. 
 
 Les exemples de ce maitre d* I The co/2?>s of this writing-mas- 
 ecriture sont bien faites. | ter are well ivritten. 
 
 Garde is masculine when said of a keeper of any thing. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 GARDE, M. 
 
 On avait place en sentinelle un 
 garde du corps, un garde du 
 roi, un garde Frangaise & un 
 garde Suisse. 
 
 Le ^arrfe-njagasin s' est evad6. 
 
 They had placed at centry a 
 king's Hfe guards a king's 
 guard, a French guards and 
 a Swiss guard* 
 
 The keefier of the magazine has 
 made his escape. 
 
 It \s feminine in every other acceptation. 
 Guide is masculine when it means a conductor, 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 GUIDE, M, 
 
 Fiez-vous a lui, c' est un bon I Trust him, he is a good guide, 
 guide. I 
 
 BvLtfeminine when it means a rein* 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 GUIDE, F. 
 
 La guide du cote droit de cette I The rein on the right side of 
 bride s' est romjiue. this bridle has been broken. 
 
M4. SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 However, in this last sense, it is more frequently used 
 in the plural, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 GUIDES, F. 
 
 Les guides lui echapperent de 
 la main, elles etaient trop 
 courtes. 
 
 The reins slipt from his hand, 
 they were loo short. 
 
 Ilymne \^ feminine when we speak of the hymns sung 
 in church. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 HYMNE, F. 
 
 Santeuil a fait les plus belles I Santeuil has written the most 
 hymnes Latines. \ beautiful Latin hymns. 
 
 In otjier circumstances it is masculine^ 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 HYMNE, M. 
 
 Je chante) TOlympe m'ecoute ; 
 & mon hymne immor t el st'^oute 
 un plaisir aux plaisirs des 
 Dieux. 
 
 I sing, Heaven listens to me ; 
 and my immortal hymn adds 
 pleasure to th& pleasures of 
 the Gods. 
 
 Manciuvre is masculine when speaking of a man. 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 MANOEUVAE, M. 
 
 C est wn manoeuvre laborieux. | He is a laborious workman. 
 But feminine in its other acceptations. 
 
 Remark, with the French Academy, that the w^ord ma- 
 nceuvre, a workman, is used only in speaking of un aide 
 a ma(^on^ an help or assistant mason ; un aide a couvreury 
 an help or assistant tiler. The word manouvrier is used 
 to designate those who work with their hands and by the 
 day. 
 
 Oeiivre is masculine^ in the singular., only when it means 
 the philosophical stone^ and then the epithet grand is al- 
 ways prefixed to it. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 OEUVRE, M. 
 
 C'estunadepted'w^ra«cffl??/i;r^, | He is an adept in Alchymy* 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 285 
 
 It is also masculine when applied to the works of a mw- 
 sician. 
 
 Je voudrais avoir le troisihne 1 I wish I had the third ivork of 
 ceuvre de ce musicien. | this musician. 
 
 In its other applications it is feminine, both in the sin* 
 gular and plural, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 OEUVRE, F. 
 
 L* ceuvre de la creation fut 
 achevee en six jours. 
 
 C est une bonne ceuvre que vous 
 ferez. 
 
 The ^vork of the creation was 
 
 done in six days. 
 You will do a good action. 
 
 Office^ when applied to the part of a house appropriated 
 to preparing of desserts and containing linen and plates, 
 is 2i\wsiys feminine, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 OFFICE, F. 
 
 Cette office est placee commo- I This buttery is conveniently «'- 
 dement. | tuated. 
 
 In all its other acceptations it is masculine' 
 
 Parallele is feminine when applied to signify a straight 
 Une parallel to another. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 PARALLELE, F. 
 
 Ces deux fiarallcles sent egales I These two parallels are equal 
 en longueur. | in length. 
 
 But masculine when it is intended to express a circle paral* 
 lei to the Equator, or (figuratively) a comparison between 
 two objects. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 PARALLELE, M. 
 
 Ceux qui sont sous le m^me pa- 
 rallele ont la meme latitude. 
 
 Montesquieu a fait le parallele 
 de Caton avec Ciqeron. 
 
 Those that are under the same 
 parallel have the same lati- 
 tude. 
 
 Montesquieu has drawn a pa- 
 rallel between Cato and Ci- 
 cero. 
 
S8fi SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Pendule is masculine when used hi relation to a dock. 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 PENDULE, M, 
 
 Les vibrations de ce iiendule I The motions of this fiendulum 
 sont tres-rapides. j are very rapid. 
 
 When it signifies a clock it is then feminine* 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 PENDULE, F. 
 
 Combien voulez-vous de cette [ How much do you ask for this 
 fiendideZ | clock? 
 
 Periode is feminine when alluding to grammatical lan- 
 guage. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 PERIODE, F. 
 
 C est une fieriode nombreuse & I It is an extensive fieriod ex^ 
 confine en termes bien ar- j pressed in terms well ar- 
 ranges. I ranged. 
 
 It is also feminine when it signifies the revolution of a 
 celestial body, or the crisis of a fever. 
 
 EXAMPLES, 
 
 PERIODE, F. 
 
 La lune fait sa fiSHode en vingt- 
 neuf jours ,& demi. 
 
 La fievre quarte a ses fieriodes 
 reglees. 
 
 The moon completes her pe- 
 riodical revolution in twenty- 
 nine days and a half. 
 
 The quartan ague has its re- 
 gular periods. 
 
 But it is masculine when it signifies the highest degree 
 of any thing, or the hightst point one may reach. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 PERIODE, M. 
 
 Demostliene Sc Ciceron ont 
 porte r eloquence a son plus 
 haut periode. 
 
 de sa vie. 
 
 Demosthent^s and Cicero have 
 carried eloquence to its 
 
 highest pitch. 
 
 II est dans le dernier periode ■ He is at the last period of his 
 
 life. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 28f 
 
 Pdque^ without an *, signifies the Passover of the Jews, 
 and is feminine, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 PAQUE, F. 
 
 Notre Seigneur a celebre la I Our Lord celebrated the fiast- 
 pdque avec ses disciples. j over with his disciples. 
 
 But, when signifying the Easter of the Christians, and 
 spelt with an 5, it is masculine^ and admits of no Article. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 PA<iUES, M. 
 
 Quand fidques sera venu^ je 
 regie rai mon compte avec 
 vous. 
 
 When Easter comes, I will 
 settle my account with you. 
 
 When Pdques is used in the plural, it takes on the fe' 
 minine. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 PAQ,UES, F. 
 
 Cette vieille, devote ne fait 
 point de bonnes fidques. 
 
 This old devotee does not per- 
 form her Easter duty con- 
 scientiously. 
 
 There are Nouns that, under the same acceptation, 
 adopt either gender, according to the choice of him who 
 speaks ; such are, automne and Duche-pairie. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 AUTOMNE, M. & F. 
 
 f/nde/automne, (masc. after the Adjective. > ^^«<r > . 
 Une automne filuvieuse, (fem. before the 3 ^ rainy 3 -^^^^^,"' 
 Adjective). 
 
 DUCHE-PAIRIE, M. & F. 
 
 Z7«, ou une duche-pairie, (the masculine 5 ^ d 1 d 
 is more generally used). \ 
 
 Foudre^ in its primary acceptation, without epithet, is 
 feminine^ in the singular. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 FOUDRE, F. 
 
 II a ete frappe de la foudre, \ He was struck by thunder. 
 
 But, if you add an epithet to it, or if it be plural^ it is 
 indifferently of either gender. 
 
288 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 FOUDRE, M. 8c r. 
 
 Lefoudre vengeur, ou "> j^^ ^ .^^ ^Avenging thunder has 
 Lafoudre vengeresscS ^ ' C punished them. 
 
 FOUDRES, M. & F. 
 
 Les foudres imfiuissans s' eteigneiit dans les airs. 
 Je pourrais t' ecraser 8c \t^ foudres sont fireies. 
 
 Foudre is masculine in the following ^^wra'/u^ mode of 
 expression. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 FOUDRE, M. 
 
 Cet orateur est un foudre d' 
 
 eloquence. 
 Ce guerrier est U7i foudre de 
 
 guerre. 
 
 This orator is a thunder-bolt of 
 
 eloquence. 
 This warrior is a thunder-bolt 
 
 of war. 
 
 It is also masculine when used to signify an amazing 
 large vessel for liquids. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Le fameux foudre d* Heidel- 
 berg contient, dit-on, plus de 
 cent bariques de vin. 
 
 The famous tun of Heidelberg 
 contains, they say, above one 
 hundred hogsheads of wine. 
 
 Pleurs^ tears, is, always masculine. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 PLEURS, M. 
 
 Le ciel dans tons leurs fdeurs ne m* entend point nommer. 
 Voila les premiers fileurs qui coulent de mes yeux. 
 Cesse tes pleurs^ Alzire, Us outragent ton pere. 
 
 There are some nouns^ which, under the same inflec- 
 tion and gender, designate two sexes, such are, auteur^ 
 docteur, Scrivain^ garant, temoin, medecin^ orateur, peintre, 
 soldat, po'ete, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 This ivoman is author of seve- 
 
 C^tte femme est auteur de plu- 
 sieursbonsouvrages — c' est 
 un charmant ecrivain — un 
 poece ele:;ant^ — un excellent 
 peintre — en un mot, c' est 
 un amateur eclaire de tous 
 ks beaux arts. 
 
 ral good works — she is a 
 charming 'writer — an ele- 
 gant//od'? — an excellent/zam- 
 ter — in a word, she is an en- 
 lightened amateur of the fine 
 arts. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 289 
 
 Ilypparchia, femme Grecque, 
 etait firofeaseur de philoso- 
 phic 8c orateur, 
 
 Cette dame est ausi bon me- 
 decin Sc aussi grand dacteur 
 que son mari. 
 
 La fameuse Madame D' Eon 
 etait un brave soldat, 
 
 Cette fcmme est un temoin ir- 
 recusable dans cette affaire. 
 
 Hypparchia,a Grecian woman, 
 was a professor of philoso- 
 phy and an orator* 
 
 This lady is as good a fihysi- 
 cian, and as great a doctress 
 as her husband. 
 
 The famous Madame D' Eon 
 was a brave soldier. 
 
 This woman is an unobjec- 
 tionable witness in this bu- 
 siness. 
 
 I will conclude by making some remarks on the man- 
 lier of forming the plural of compound Nouns. 
 
 1st, When a Noun is composed of a Substantive and an 
 Adjective^ both take the termination of the plural. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 SINGULAR, 
 
 tJn arc-boutant, 
 un bout-rime. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Des arc«-boutan*. 
 des bout«-rime5. 
 
 2d, When compound Nouns are formed with a PrepO' 
 sit ion, or a Verb and a Noun, the Nouji alone, can be 
 made plural. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Un avant-coureur. 
 un entre-sol. 
 un abat-vent. 
 un garde-fou. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Des avaftt-coureur*. 
 des entre-sol«. 
 des abat-vent«. 
 des garde-fou*. 
 
 3d, When a word is formed by uniting two Nouns by 
 means of a Preposition, the first of the two Nouns alone 
 takes the inflection of the plural. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Un arc-en-ciel. 
 un chef-d' oeuvre. 
 un cul-de-lampe. 
 un coq-a-l' ^ne. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Des arc«-en-ciel. 
 des chef«-d' cjeuvre. 
 des cul5-de-lampe. 
 des coq«-a-r ane. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
29o: 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Nouns borrowed from foreign idioms, without being 
 ^allicised, are written in the plural as in the aingular ; 
 thus we say in French^ 
 
 {alibi, 
 alinea. 
 ave. 
 auto-da-fe. 
 errata. 
 
 fopera. 
 
 \ numero. 
 Let csetera. 
 
 The words y^c^wOT, debet ^ and placet are an exception, for 
 to these the French Academy add an s in the plural. 
 
 Proper names used in a figurative sense, admit of the 
 plural final. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les Racines & les Vohaire* 
 sent des hommes rares. 
 
 Les Lockes & les Montes- 
 quieus ont ete les vrais le- 
 gislateurs du monde. 
 
 The Racines and the Voltaire* 
 are rare men. 
 
 The Lockes and the Monte s- 
 quieus were the true legis- 
 lators of mankhid. 
 
 Proper names of persons, serving only to distinguish 
 people by their name, though applied to several, do not 
 assume the plural. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les deux Corncille se sent dis- 
 tingues dans la republique 
 des lettres. 
 
 Les trois Bernard ont ete 
 ch antes par Voltaire. 
 
 The two Corneilles have dis- 
 tinguished themselves in the 
 republic of letters. 
 
 The three Bernards have been 
 sung by Voltaire., 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 291 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE FOURTH. 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE AND NUMBERS, 
 
 Master. 
 The Adjective, being the most intimate correspondent 
 of the Noun from which it originated, must always, as we 
 have already shown, agree with it in gender and number. 
 — Having in the first part of this volume acquainted you 
 with what relates to the gender and number of Adjec- 
 tives, I will now proceed to trace out some difficulties 
 of the French language, relative to the place which the 
 Adjectives ought to occupy either, before or after the 
 Noun, when they are not attributes in a sentence. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Several kinds of Adjectives, in French, are always 
 placed after their Noun : 1st, Adjectives formed of the 
 present or past participles of the Verbs, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C est un ouvrage divertia- 
 
 sant, 
 Vous lui donnez la une preuve 
 
 convaincantc d' amitie. 
 Le medecin m' a dit que 
 
 c' etait un homme mqrt, 
 Une belle pensee embrouillee 
 
 est un diamant couvert de 
 
 boue. 
 
 It is an entertaining work. 
 
 You give him there a coniyinc- 
 
 ing proof of friendship. 
 The physician told me he was 
 
 a dead man. 
 A fine thought when confused 
 
 is a diamond covered with 
 
 mud. 
 
 There are only few exceptions where Adjectives formed 
 of the Participles present can be put before the Noun. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le plus decidant personnage 
 n* est pas toujours le mieux 
 instruit. 
 
 La campagne offre mille rian- 
 tes images. 
 
 The most fiositive man is not 
 always the best informed. 
 
 The country affords a thousand 
 delightful prospects. 
 
292 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 ^dly, Adjectives that denote figure^ colour^ taste^ sounds 
 or relate to the sense of feeling. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II me faut une table ronde, 
 J' ai achete une tabatiere car- 
 
 ree, 
 Je prefere le vin blanc au vin 
 
 rouge* 
 II porte des bas ^wirs avec un 
 
 habit vert, 
 Le medecin lui a ordomi^ de 
 
 boire une decoction d'herbes 
 
 ameres, & de manger des 
 
 fruits aigrese 
 Au dernier concert, il joua sur 
 
 un violon sonore ; Sc elle en- 
 
 chanta tout le monde par sa 
 
 voix harmonieuse. 
 La nuit passee, j'ai couche sur 
 
 un lit dur, 
 A dine, on nous servit une vo- 
 
 laille iendre k des oeufs mol- 
 
 lets. 
 Nous passames par plusieurs 
 
 chemins rahoteux. 
 
 I want a round table. 
 
 I bought a square snuif-box^ 
 
 I prefer ivhite wine \.q red. 
 
 He wears black stockings with 
 a green coat. 
 
 The physician has ordered 
 him to drink a decoction of 
 hitter herbs, and to eat aour 
 fruits. 
 
 At the last concert, he played 
 on a sonorous violin ; and 
 she charmed every one by 
 her harmonious voice. 
 
 Last night I slept on a hard 
 bed. 
 
 At dinner, they sei'ved us up a 
 tender fowl and soft eggs. 
 
 We passed through several 
 roup-Ji roads. 
 
 3dly, Those relating to matter or spirit^ or that e^;:- 
 press any kind of operation. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La partie at^ueusc du sang est 
 
 la plus considerable. 
 Lcs esprits aeriens n' existent 
 
 que dans une imagination 
 
 super stitieuse, 
 Cette substance contient bien 
 
 des parlies salinrs, 
 Je cherche par tout un domes- 
 
 tique actij. 
 Get ecrivain se sert toujours 
 
 de mots cxpressifs. 
 
 The aqueous part of the blood 
 is the most considerable. 
 
 Aerial spirits exist only in the 
 imagination of the su/iersti- 
 tious. 
 
 That substance contains many 
 saline parts. 
 
 I look every where for an ac- 
 tive servant. 
 
 This writer always uses ex- 
 presdve words. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 :^3 
 
 4thly, Those expressing a quality relative to the na- 
 ture or species of a thing. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cet avare n' a jamais eprouve 
 
 de plaisir rSel. 
 L' ordre logique doit passer 
 
 avant 1' ordre grammatical. 
 La philosophic a banni pour 
 
 toujours les qualites occul- 
 
 tes. 
 
 This miser never experienced 
 any real pleasure. 
 
 Logical order must go before 
 grammatical order. 
 
 Philosophy has forever banish- 
 ed occult qualities. 
 
 5thly, Adjectives ending in esque^ ic, ique, zl, z//, ier. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Scarron excellait dans le style 
 
 burlesque, 
 Tous ceux qui voyagent en 
 
 Suisse, en admirent les vues 
 
 pittoresques, 
 Le bien jiublic est preferable 
 
 a r miGYtt particuliej', 
 Ce souverain a 1' esprit /laci- 
 
 Jique, 
 On lui a fait present d' un ca- 
 
 rosse magnijique, 
 Cet homme a la conversation 
 
 jiuerile Sc la conduite iiicivile, 
 
 Je ne crois pas que cette fem- 
 me soit credule. 
 
 Scarron excelled in the bur- 
 lesque style. 
 
 All those who travel in Swit- 
 zerland admire its romantic 
 landscapes. 
 
 Public good is preferable to 
 private interest. 
 
 This s: v'creign has a jiacijic 
 mind. 
 
 He or she has been presented 
 with a splendid coach. 
 
 This man has a childish con- 
 versation and impolite con- 
 duct. 
 
 I do not .believe she is a credif" 
 lous woman. 
 
 6thly, Adjectives of Nations, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L' Iliade & V Eneide sont les 
 
 tableaux du peuple Grec Sc 
 
 du peuple Romain, 
 Ce seigneur Kusse a un cuisi- 
 
 nier Franc^ais 8c un valet de 
 
 chambre Italien, 
 La constitution yy/r^mcfir/we est 
 
 un chef-d' oeuvre de sagesse 
 
 humaine. 
 
 The Iliad and ^Eneid are pic- 
 tures of the G?'ee/candRoma?i 
 people. 
 
 This Russian lord has a French 
 cook and an Italian valet de 
 chambre. 
 
 The American constitution is a 
 master-piece of human wis- 
 dom. 
 
294 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY 
 
 Note, that adjectives chiefly relating to moral qualities 
 good or bad, are in general indifferently placed either 
 before or after their Substantives, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 She is a charming woman. 
 
 You will find in him 2i faithful 
 
 friend. 
 She reprimanded him severely. 
 
 This young man has detesta- 
 ble maxims. 
 
 C est une femme charmante^ ou 
 
 C estirnc charmante femme. 
 
 Vous trouverez en lui un ami 
 Jidele^ ou \mfidele ami. 
 
 Eile lui a fait de severes repri- 
 mandes, ou des reprimandes 
 severes, 
 
 Ce jeune homme a des max- 
 imes detestablcs^ ou de de- 
 test ables maximes. 
 
 Notw^ithstanding the above rules, harmony, taste, and 
 poetical language countenance a deviation from them. 
 Therefore, an attentive reading of good authors, or prac- 
 tice in the conversation of the well-informed of the French 
 nation, will be the best guides for English or American 
 pupils. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 In English txvo Adjectives may qualify a NouHy with- 
 out being united by a conjunction ; but the conjunction is 
 absolutely indispensable in French. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 She is a good^ virtuous woman. 
 He is a sober^ charitable man. 
 
 C est une femme bonne 8c ver- 
 tueuse. 
 
 C' est mi homme sobr eh. charit- 
 able, 
 
 I will observe, that, though the English learner might 
 sometimes place both Adjectives thus united by the Con- 
 junction before the Noun, yet, to prevent mistakes, I ad- 
 vise him to place the two Adjectives always ajter the 
 Noun. 
 
 Remark, that if three or more Adjectives should qualify 
 one Noun, the Conjunction is then placed bctxveen the two 
 last^ and theAdjectives must always be put after the Noun. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cc sont des lecons tongues^ en- 
 nuyeuses Sc enibarrassantesi 
 
 Un ami constant^ sincere Sc de- 
 sinteresse est rare. 
 
 These are long^ tedious and/iei'- 
 plcxing lessons. 
 
 A constant^ sincere and disin- 
 terested friend is rare. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 295 
 
 Observe, that custom will sometimes allow ^ne of tlxe 
 Adjectives to precede the T^oun, while the other ^ or others, 
 should follow. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C est une grande femme 
 
 blonde. 
 C est un fietit homme, sec & 
 
 robuste. 
 
 She is a re//, fair woman. 
 
 He is a small^ raw-boned^ robitst 
 man. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 The Preposition by^ when used, in English, before a 
 word or words expressing proportion^ by which one sub- 
 ject exceeds another, is always rendered, in French, by 
 the Preposition de. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je suis plus grand que vous de 
 
 toute la tete. 
 II est plus age que moi de six 
 
 ans. 
 Cette allee est plus etroite que 
 
 r autre de deux pieds Sc 
 
 demi. 
 C etait trop cher de moitie. 
 
 I am taller than you by the 
 
 whole head. 
 He is older tlian I by six 
 
 years. 
 This alley is narrower than 
 
 the other by two feet and a 
 
 half. 
 It was too dear by half. 
 
 Observe, that when, in English, than precedes num- 
 bers^ it is also rendered, in French, by de. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J' ai ]^rdu au jeu plus rfecent 
 
 guinees. 
 Elle n' a pas plus de dix-sept 
 
 ans. 
 Je r ai vu plus c?' une fois. 
 
 I lost, in playing, more tha7i 
 one hundred guineas. 
 
 She is not more than seven- 
 teen. 
 
 I saw him more then once. 
 
396 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 When than^ in a comparative sense, precedes a Verb^ it 
 is rendered, in French, by que ne, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 He is wiser than you think. 
 
 II est pKis sage que vous ne 
 
 pensez. 
 Je suis plus fort que je n' etais 
 
 1' annee passee. 
 Vous ecrivez mieux que vous 
 
 ne fesiez. 
 
 I am stronger tlian I was last 
 
 year. 
 You write better than you did. 
 
 EXCEPTION I. 
 
 • If the Verb following than be in the Infiriitive mood, que is followed by 
 de instead of ne. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II est plus noble de pardonner 
 
 que de se venger. 
 II est plus aise d' obeir que de 
 
 commander. 
 
 It is more noble to forgive than 
 to revenge one's self. 
 
 It is easier to obey than to 
 command. 
 
 But, when the French comparative Adjective requires 
 the Preposition a before the jftrst Infinitive, than is then 
 expressed by qu^ a, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II est plus dispose a vous nuire 
 
 qu* a vous obliger. 
 II est plus sujet a medire qu* a 
 
 bien faire. 
 
 He is more inclined to hurt 
 
 than to oblige you. 
 He is more addicted to slander 
 
 than to do well. 
 
 EXCEPTION II. 
 
 The word than is rendered by que only when a CoTijicnction, or connective 
 word, is placed between thati and the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Vous vous retablirez plutot 
 que si vous etiez a la viile. 
 
 Elle est plus belle que quand 
 je la vis. 
 
 You will recover sooner than 
 if yow were in the country. 
 
 She is handsomer than when 
 I saw her. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 297 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 When the Superlative does not imply any comparison 
 (although it relate to a 'N own feminine singular or plural) 
 /^, instead of la or les^ must invariably precede plus, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La lune ne nous eclaire pas 
 
 autant que le soleil, lors 
 
 meme qu* elle est le plus 
 
 brillante. 
 La lune n' est pas, a beaucoup 
 
 pres, aussi eloignee de la 
 
 terre que les autres aslres, 
 
 lors meme qu' elle en est le 
 
 plus eloignee. 
 Nous ne pleurons pas toujours 
 
 quand nous sommes le plus 
 
 affliges. 
 
 The moon does not enlighten 
 us as much as the sun, even 
 when she shines the bright- 
 est. 
 
 The moon is not by much as 
 distant from the earth as the 
 other celestial bodies even 
 when she is the most distant 
 from it. 
 
 We do not always shed tears, 
 when we are the most af- 
 flicted. 
 
 It is very easy to see in the above phrases, that no ob. 
 jects are designed to be contrasted or compared Xo^tXhtT, 
 RULE VL 
 
 The Preposition in which sometimes follows a Superla* 
 tive, in English, is always rendered by de, dii, or de l\ &c, 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C est la plus grande coquette 
 
 de Philadelphie. 
 C est le meilleur homme du 
 
 monde. 
 La France est le pays le plus 
 
 peuple de /' Europe. 
 
 She is the greatest coquette in 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 He is the best map in the 
 
 world. 
 France is the most populous 
 
 country in Europe. 
 
 RULE VIL 
 
 When a Superlative is connected with a Verb by means 
 of the words qui, que, oh, it requires that Verb to be in 
 the Subjunctive* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C est la plus belle fille qui 
 
 ait jamais existe. 
 C est r homme le plus fort 
 
 que j* aie vu. 
 C est une des affaires les plus 
 
 desagreables ou jamais un 
 
 honnete homme se &oit trou- 
 
 v6 engage. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 She is the handsomest girl 
 
 that ever existed. 
 He is the strongest man I ever 
 
 saw. 
 It is one of the most disagreea* 
 
 ble affairs in which an honest 
 
 man was ever engaged. 
 
 ^q 
 
'^f8 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Master. 
 I have acquainted you, in the Conversation on the Ad- 
 jective^ of what was meant by the regimen or complement 
 thereof. My object, now, is to acquaint you what kind 
 of Adjectives require the Preposition de before their 
 complementary word, and what others require the Preposi- 
 tion a. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 French Adjectives expressing plenty^ satisfaction^ de- 
 sire^ knowledge^ &c. as well as Adjectives having a con- 
 trary signification ; and, in general, those followed, in 
 English, by the Prepositions offrom^ <^fttr^ withy by^ Sec. 
 require the Preposition de after them. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a ete comble de politesses. 
 Je suis prive de tout. 
 II est tres-avide de richesses. 
 II est charge de dettes. 
 Vous n' etes pas capable d' 
 
 expliquer cet aiiteur. 
 EUe est incapable dc mensonge. 
 Je suis content de votre re- 
 
 ponse. 
 II est mecontent de sa femme. 
 
 Je suis ravi de son retabliss- 
 
 ment. 
 Je suis exempt de crainte Sc de 
 
 dangero 
 
 He was loaded wzV/z kindnesses. 
 
 I am deprived (/every thing. 
 
 He is very greedy a/?er wealth. 
 
 He is deeply in debt. 
 
 You are not able to construe 
 this author. 
 
 She is incapable of a lie. 
 
 I am satisfied with your an- 
 swer. 
 
 He is discontented ivith his 
 wife. 
 
 I am overjoyed at his recovery. 
 
 I am ivGtfroin fear and danger. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Adjectives which denote aptness^ fitness^ inclination^ 
 conformity y habit^ disposition^ &c. require the Preposition 
 a after tliem. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II est propre a tout. 
 Eile n' est propre a rien. 
 Cela est nuisible a la sante. 
 Cela est aise a dire Sc mal-aise 
 a faire. 
 
 He is ntfor anything. 
 She is unfit/or any thing. 
 That is hurtful to health. 
 This is easy to say and diffi- 
 cult .-"o do. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 299 
 
 II est adonne a V ivrognerie. 
 Cela est-il conforme a la 
 
 verile i 
 
 est semblable au 
 
 Le votre 
 
 mien. 
 Je suis sensible a vos bontes. 
 
 II est insensible a toutes les 
 remontrances de ses amis. 
 
 Ce negociant est tres-exact a 
 ses engagemens. 
 
 II est habile a tout faire. 
 
 II est zele a remplir ses de- 
 voirs. 
 
 He is addicted to drunkenness. 
 Is that conformable to truth ? 
 
 Yours is like mine. 
 
 I am sensible of your kind- 
 nesses. 
 
 He is insensible to all the re- 
 monstrances of his friends. 
 
 This merchant is very punc- 
 tual in his engagements. 
 
 He is skilful in doiag every- 
 thing. 
 
 He is zealous in discharging 
 his duty. 
 
 Observe, that a fexv Adjectives are often followed, in 
 French, by the Preposition envers^ which is then rendered, 
 in English, by to. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 II faut etre poli envers tout le 
 
 monde. 
 Ce maitre est tres-bon envers 
 
 ses esclaves. 
 Ce capituine de corsaire est 
 
 tres-cruel envera ses prison- 
 
 niers. 
 
 One must be polite to every 
 
 body. 
 This master is very good to his 
 
 slaves. 
 This captain of a privateer is 
 
 very cruel to his prisoners. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 When numbers are followed by a Noun and 2i past Par- 
 ticiplc^ in English, the Preposition de must be put, in 
 French, betxvcen the Noun and Participle^ which agrees 
 with the former in gender and ?iumber» 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Dans le dernier incendie, il y 
 eut vingt-sept maisons de 
 brulees, plus de cinquante 
 personnes d' etouffees par 
 les flammes, & un grand 
 
 . Tiombre d' ensevelics sous 
 les mines. 
 
 Cette fregate a eu, dans le 
 combat, soixante hommcs de 
 tues Sc quatre-vingt de bles- 
 ses. 
 
 In the last fire, there were 
 twenty-seven houses burnt ; 
 more than Jlftij jieofile smo- 
 thered by the flames, and a 
 great many buried under the 
 rubbish. 
 
 This frigate had, in the en- 
 gagement, siicty men killed 
 and eighty wounded. 
 
3bo 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Scholar. 
 Att there not some difficulties concerning the Adjec- 
 tives feUj nuy and grand? 
 
 Master. 
 Yes : 1st, The Adjectivey^-w preceded by the Article la 
 is Jeminine^ but when it precedes that Article it is mascu' 
 line. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Feu la reine, ou la Jeue reine, I The late queen was an accom- 
 etait une femme accomplie. | plished woman. 
 
 Observe, that this Adjective has no plural* 
 
 2d, The Adjective ww, when it precedes a Noun^ is 
 invariable, but when it follows agrees with it in gender 
 and number » 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 11 lui parla nw-tete, ou la tete 
 
 nue. 
 11 va m^-pieds, ww-jambes, ou 
 
 il va les picds nus, les jambes 
 
 He spoke to him or her, bare- 
 
 headed. 
 He goes ^are-footed, bare-\e^- 
 
 ged. 
 
 3d, Grande^ feminine, sometimes loses its e in pronun- 
 ciation and in writing, before a few Nouns beginning with 
 a consonant^ which is signified by an Apostrophe being 
 put over the place where the e should be. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II est entr6 dans la grand ' 
 
 salle du palais. 
 Ce n' est pas grand ' chose. 
 Cette nouvelle lui fera grand ' 
 
 peine. 
 II eut grand * peur Sc moi 
 
 aussi. 
 V avals grand' ioAva Sc lui 
 
 aussi. 
 Avez-vous fait grand ' chere ? 
 
 11 herite de sa grand ' mere Sc 
 
 de sa grand* tante. 
 La grand ' ftiesse dura plusde 
 
 quatre heures. 
 
 He entered the large hall of the 
 
 court. 
 'Tis no great matter. 
 This piece of news will grieve 
 
 him or her very much. 
 He was very much afraid and 
 
 I also. 
 I was very hungry and he too. 
 
 Had you a plentiful entertain- 
 ment ? 
 
 He inherits from his grand 
 mother and aunt. 
 
 High mass lasted above foui* 
 hours. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 301 
 
 I conclude the Syntax of the Adjectives by informing 
 you, that Adjectives used in the place of Adverbs^ never 
 vary. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cet orateur demeura court 
 
 contre son usage. 
 L' ainee de ces demoiselles 
 
 chanteyz^re,lacadette chante 
 
 faux, 
 Vous parlez trop vite & trop 
 
 bas pour moi. 
 
 This orator stopped short con- 
 trary to his custom. 
 
 The eldest of these young la- 
 dies sings trucy and the 
 youngest sings/a&f . 
 
 You speak too fast and too low 
 for me. 
 
 RULE XL 
 
 In speaking of Sovereigns and Princes^ the cardinal nutin- 
 bers are used, in French, instead of the ordinal^ as in 
 English, except in alluding to the two Jirst of the Dynas- 
 ty^ when the ordinal number must be used. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Louis premier y fils de Charle- 
 magne, fut surnomme le 
 debonnaire. 
 
 Jacques second mourut en 
 France, le quatorze Septem- 
 bre, mil sept cent un. 
 
 George trois fut couronne, le 
 vingt-deux Septembre, mil 
 sept cent soixante & un. 
 
 Henri qvutre^ roi de France 
 mourut assassine. 
 
 Charles cing^ roi de France, 
 fut surnomme le sage. 
 
 Lewis the firsts son of Charle- 
 magne, was surnamed the 
 meek. 
 
 James the second died in France 
 on* the Uth of September, 
 1701. 
 
 George the third was crowned 
 on* the 22d of September 
 1761. 
 
 Henry the fourth, king of 
 France, was murdered. 
 
 Charles theffthy\An% of France, 
 was surnamed the wise. 
 
 Observe, that, when speaking of Charles the fifth. Em- 
 peror of Germany y and Pope Sextus the fifth, we say, 
 Charles-yw/72? & Sixte-yz/i/z^, instead of Charles cinq and 
 Sixte GiJiq. 
 
 * On is never expressed in French. 
 
302 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 We also make use of the cardhialnumbQY instead of the 
 ordmaly in speaking 6f all the days of the month, the first 
 excepted. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 La Societe s' assemblera le 
 firemier^ le deux, le dix-sept 
 & le vingt-un de juin. 
 
 The Society will meet on the 
 Jirst^ the second, the seven- 
 teenth and the twenty-first 
 of June. 
 
 I hav6 now to make but a few remarks concerhing the 
 numbers. 
 
 1st. Unieme, first, is used only after vingty trentCy qua- 
 rante^ cinquaiite^ soixante, quatre-vingt, cent & niilley as is 
 exempli^ed in the following example : 
 
 C est la Vm^t-unieme fois que 
 je lui ecris. 
 
 It is the iwGr\\.y -Jlrst time 
 write to him. 
 
 2d. We may say either vingt-un or mngt £sf un ; trente- 
 nn or trente ^^ un, and so on to quatre-vingt ; but it is cus- 
 tomary now to suppress the Conjunction for the follow- 
 ing numbers, and say, for instance, vingt-deux, etc. trente- 
 deux, &C. 
 
 3d. They said formerly septante for soixanie-dix ; hui' 
 tante for quatrc-vingt, and nonante for quatre-vingt-dix. 
 Those expressions have been very improperly banished 
 from the language, as they keep up analogy in the forma- 
 tion of numbers and thereby facilitate the exercise of the 
 memory in numbering them. The first of these is now 
 used only when speaking of the translation of the Bible, 
 by seventy great Interpreters ; which we call la versiofi 
 des Septante. The last is in use in Geometry only. 
 
 4th. Cent in the plural is invariable when followed by 
 another number. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 lis etaient trois cent vingt. I They were three hundred and 
 
 I twenty. 
 
 But when it is preceded by a number, without being fol- 
 lowedby another, it then takes an *, the mark oitht plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 11 y en eiit trois c^uts de tues. 
 
 There were three hundred of 
 them qf killed. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 303 
 
 Vingt^ in quatre-vingt, is invariable, when followed by 
 another number. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Cette montre me coute guatre- [ This watch cost me eighty-si's. 
 
 vingt'Six guinees. 1 guineas. 
 
 But should it be followed by a Noun then it also 
 
 takes an s, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 La mienne ne me coute que I Mine cost me only eighty 
 quatre-vingts p-uinees. | guineas. 
 
 Milk never takes the mark of the plural, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Dix mille hommes d' infanterie I Ten thousand infantry and four 
 & quatre mille de cavalerie. | thousand cavalry. 
 
 In the marking of dates we only write miU 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 L* an mil huit cent trois sera a 
 jamais cclebre clans les 
 Etats-Unis d' Amerique,par 
 r acquisition de la Louisi- 
 ane. 
 
 The year one thousand eight 
 hundred and three %vill be 
 forever celebrated in the 
 United States, for the acqui- 
 sition of Louisiana. 
 
 The ordinal and collective numbers will take the mark 
 of the plural, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Les quatre firemieres douzaijiea 
 d' ceufs ne valent Hen ; mais 
 les vingt demieres sont ex- 
 cellentes. 
 
 The four Jirst dozen of eggs 
 are gocd for nothing; but 
 the tvventv last are excellent. 
 
 5th, Onze does not require the elision of vowels before 
 it, nor to be connected v/ith the final consonant of the pre- 
 ceding word, as it is gently aspirated. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 De o7ize enfans qu' ils etaient, 
 il en est mort quatre. 
 
 De vingt il n' en reste plus 
 (me onze. 
 
 Out of eleven children, as they 
 were, four of them are dead. 
 
 Out of twenty, eleven only re- 
 main. • 
 
 Le onze) du onze, au onze de Septembre. 
 
304 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 lis etaient onze — J* irai le voir 
 sur les onze heures. 
 
 They were eleven — I shall go 
 and see him about eleven 
 o'clock. 
 
 Une^ in that mode of expression, sur les une heure, 
 about one o'clock, is likewise aspirated like onze. 
 
 I here conclude the Syntax of the Numbers. Our next 
 care will be to acquaint you with the use of some of the 
 remaining Articles. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 I find that in the course of this Instruction you have 
 said nothing about the word demi. 
 
 Master. 
 
 I had forgot it probably, because it is a fractional num- 
 ber, but this does not excuse me, as nothing useful should 
 be omitted ; demi is masculine^ when it precedes a Noun 
 feminine ; but it takes the feminine^ when it comes after 
 a Noun of that gender : so they say, une ^(em/-heure, half 
 an hour ; une heure & demie, an hour and a half 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE FIFTH. 
 
 0^ THE POSSESSIVE ARTICLES, 
 
 Master. 
 
 The French language and the English exhibit per- 
 haps no greater opposition or difference in any part of 
 their Syntax^ than in that of the Possessive Articles^ on 
 which, in French, there are some very difficult and intri- 
 cate rules, totally foreign to the idiom of the English 
 language. It will be, therefore, expedient to make these 
 rules the object of your most attentive study. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 305 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Possessive Articles must, like all other Articles, be 
 repeated before each Substantive, according to the gender 
 and number thereof. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Mon pere, ma mere, mes freres 
 & mes scEurs sont a la cam- 
 pagne. 
 
 J' ui parle a son maitre, a sa 
 maitresse & a ses camarades 
 d' ecole. 
 
 Ne sortez pas sans voire para- 
 sol, vos gants & votrc taba- 
 tiere. 
 
 My father, mother, brothers 
 and sisters, are in the coun- 
 try. 
 
 I spoke to his master, mistress 
 and schoolmates. 
 
 Dont go out without your um- 
 brella, gloves and snuff box. 
 
 Observe, that though a Noun be feminine^ the posses- 
 sive Article masculine singular, mon, ton, son must be 
 respectively used before it, instead of ma, ta, sa, should it 
 begin with a vowel or h mute (see examples thereof 
 page 50). 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 Possessive Articles which agree, in English, with the 
 possessor, must, on the contrary, agree, in French, with 
 the gender of the thing possessed* 
 
 EXAMPLES, 
 
 Ramassez son mouchoir. 
 Ramassez son mouchoir. 
 Connaissez-vous son mar 
 J' ai dans6 avec sa filje. 
 
 Take up his handkerchief. 
 Take up her handkerchief. 
 Do you know her husband ? 
 I danced with his daughter. 
 
 RULE IIL 
 
 In French, the possessive Article must be used, when 
 we speak or answer to relations, friends^ &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 Mon cousin, apportez-moi ce 
 que vous m' avez promis. 
 
 Ma tante, irez-vous ce soir a 
 la comedie ? 
 
 Non, mon neveu, car j' ai pro- 
 mis d' aller a un bal. 
 
 Mo?i frere, prctcz-moi voire 
 plume. 
 
 VOL. II. R r 
 
 Cousin, bring me what you 
 
 promised me. 
 Aunt, will you go to the play 
 
 this evening ? 
 No, nefiheiv, for I promised to 
 
 go to a ball. 
 Brother, lend me your pen. 
 
306 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY, 
 
 car j' 
 
 Je ne puis, ma sceur^ 
 
 ecris mon theme. 
 Mon a?7iiy approchez-vous de 
 
 moi. 
 Mon ca/iitaine, je siiis pret a 
 
 vous obeir. 
 Mon camarade, 6tiez-vous a ce 
 
 combat san giant ? 
 
 I cannot, sister^ for I am writ- 
 ing my exercise. 
 Frknd) come near me. 
 
 Captain^ I am ready to obey 
 
 you. 
 Comrade^ were you at that 
 
 bloody engagement? 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 When, in English, the possessive Articles its^ their^ 
 relating to inanimate objects, can be rendered by of it, 
 of them, or thereof they are always expressed in French, 
 by the Adverb en ; otherwise they are expressed by 
 son, sa, ses, leurs respectively, as will appear in the 
 following 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La Delaware -^st une belle 
 riviere ; le lit en est assez 
 profond pour admettre de 
 gros vaisseaux. 
 
 Comment trouvez-vous sa mai- 
 son de campagne ? La situa- 
 tion n' en est-elle pas char- 
 man te ? 
 
 Cette affaire est delicate ; ie 
 succes en est douteux. 
 
 Cette simple est fort com- 
 mune ; cependant je n' en 
 connais pas les vertus. 
 
 Avez-vous lu mon livre ? Le 
 caractere n' en est il pas bien 
 beau ? 
 
 II y a un tres-grand verger 
 derrierc sa maison ; les ar- 
 bres en sont tres-bien plantes; 
 les fruits en sont excellens. 
 
 La Tamise est sortie de son 
 lit. 
 
 C est une petite maison qui a 
 sea commodites. 
 
 The Delaware is a fine river ; 
 its cl)annei is deep enough 
 to admit of large vessels. 
 
 How do you like his country 
 seat ? Is not the situation 
 thereof pleasing ? 
 
 This business is delicate ; its 
 
 success is doubtful. 
 This plant is very common ; 
 
 yet I do not know its pro- 
 perties. 
 Have you read my book ? Is 
 
 not the type thereof very 
 
 beautiful ? 
 There is a very large orchard 
 
 behind his house ; the tree* 
 
 of it are very well planted ; 
 
 the fruits Me/To/" excellent. 
 The Thames went out of its 
 
 channel. 
 it is a small house which has 
 
 its conveniencies. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 307 
 
 Philadelphie a scs beautes ; J' 
 admire la regularite & la 
 proprete de ses rues. 
 
 Voila des arbres qui etendent 
 leurs branches bien loin. 
 
 Philadelphia has its beauties ; 
 I admire the regularity and 
 cleanliness of its streets. 
 
 Those trees spread their 
 branches very far. 
 
 Observe, that in matters of science, custom authorises 
 the use of the possessive Article, though it might be ren- 
 dered, in English, by of it ; and so, in speaking of a tri- 
 angle, we may say ; ses angles valent cent quatre-vingt 
 degres, its angles are equal to one hundred and eiglity 
 degrees. In speaking of a grammar, we may say ; ses 
 regies sont trop compliqu^es, its rules are too compli- 
 cated, he. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 The English possessive Articles my, thy, his, her, &c. 
 are rendered, in French, by the passive personal Pronoun^ 
 and the Articles Indicative le, la, les', when the Verb, 
 which precedes them, denotes an action over any part of 
 the body, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Vous lui avez roinpu le bias. 
 Vous m' avez marche sur le 
 
 pied. 
 II faudra lid couper la jambc. 
 Vous me blessez la main. 
 II ne peut sortir ; la goute lui 
 
 a enfie les jambes. 
 Je 7ne suis fait couper les che- 
 
 veux. 
 
 You broke her arm. 
 You trod on my foot. 
 
 His \ft^ must be cut off. 
 
 You hurt my bund. 
 
 He cannot go out ; the 
 
 has swelled his legs. 
 I had my hair cut. 
 
 gout 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 P Wlien, from the Indicative Article being inadequate to 
 
 1; the removal of equivocality of expression, the passive 
 
 \ I Pronouns cannot be used, the English Articles posses- 
 
 ■ sive are rendered, in French, by their correspondents. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je vois que ynon bras enfle. 
 Penscz-vous que sa blessure 
 se gu6risse jamais ? 
 
 I see that my arm is swelling. 
 Do you believe his v/ound will 
 ever be cured ? 
 
50» 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASV 
 
 Elle lui donna sa main a bai- 
 
 ser. 
 Elle donna hardiment son bras 
 
 au chirurgien qui devait la 
 
 saigner. 
 
 She gave him her hand to 
 
 kiss. 
 She boldly gave her arm to the 
 
 surgeon that was to bleed 
 
 her. 
 
 But observe, that, as soon as the Article^ ov^ring to the 
 perspicuity of the sentence, may be used without appre- 
 hension of equivocation^ the Article ««, a la^ &c. is sub- 
 stituted to the Article possessive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J' ai mal a /' oreille Sc aux 
 
 yeux. 
 J' ai grand mal a la gorge. 
 N* avez-vous jamais eu mal 
 
 aujc dents ? 
 Non ; mais j' ai fort sou vent 
 
 mal a P estomac. 
 J* ai eu mal au ' coeur u T 
 
 eglise. 
 J' ai mal a la tete, au cote & 
 
 aux reins. 
 
 My ears and eyes ache, or are 
 
 sore. 
 I have a violent sore throat. 
 Have you never had the tooth- 
 
 ach? 
 No ; but I have often a pain in 
 
 my stomach. 
 My heart was faint at church. 
 
 I feel a pain in rny head, side 
 and loins. 
 
 RULE VIL 
 
 The elliptical term mine^ le mien, 8s:c. in French, must 
 agree, both in gender and number^ with the Noun to which 
 they relate. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quand vous m' aurez dit votre 
 sentiment, je vous dirai k 
 mien. 
 
 Songez-y de votre cote ; J' y 
 songerai ausi du mien, 
 
 Sa voiture Sc la mienne sont 
 arrivees. 
 
 Ses amis & Ics miens s' en sont 
 meles. 
 
 J* ai perdu mon canif, prttez- 
 moi le -votre. 
 
 Leur maison est presque vis-a- 
 vis de ia notre. 
 
 Le Roi etait dans son carrosse, 
 & la Reine dans le siem 
 
 When you have told me your 
 opinion, I will tell you mine. 
 
 Think about it, on your part ; 
 
 I will on mine. 
 His carriage and mine are 
 
 come. 
 His friends and mine have 
 
 meddled with it* 
 I have lost my pen-knife, lend 
 
 me yours. 
 Their house is almost opposite 
 
 to ours. 
 The King was in his coach 
 
 and the Queen in her^. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 509 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 When, in English, mine^ &c. are preceded by of^ then 
 they are rendered by the Article possessive mon^ &c. in 
 such occasions as the following 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Un de mes parens vient d' ar- 
 
 river des Indes. 
 C est une de mes connais- 
 
 sances. 
 Deux de sea domestiques 1* ont 
 
 vole. 
 Un de leurs chevaux boite. 
 
 A relation of mine is just arriv- 
 ed from the Indies. 
 He is an acquaintance of mine. 
 
 Two servants of his robbed 
 
 him. 
 A horse of theirs is lame. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Should any of the Possessive Articles be preceded by 
 the Verb to be, having for its subject a Noun or the Pro- 
 nouns it, they. Sec. they are expressed, in French, by a 
 moif d toi^ d soi^ d lui, d elle, d euXy d elies. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ce livre est-il a vous ? Non, il 
 est a lui, ou d elle. 
 
 Cette prairie est d nous & ce 
 bois est d eux. 
 
 La terre etait a moiy a present 
 elle est d toi. 
 
 On m' a dit que c' etait d lui ; 
 s' il etait d moi, je m' en de- 
 ferais le plus promptement 
 possible. 
 
 S' ils etaient d moiy je les gar- 
 de rais. 
 
 Is this book yours ? No, it is 
 A/«, or hers. 
 
 This meadow is ours, and this 
 wood is theirs. 
 
 The land was mine, now it is 
 thine, 
 
 I have been told that it wasAw?; 
 if it were mine, I would get 
 rid of it as quick as possi- 
 ble. 
 
 If they were mine, I would 
 keep them. 
 
310 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE SIXTH. 
 
 ON THE DEMONSTRATIVE ARTICLE, ^t 
 
 Master. 
 
 It is useless to repeat what has ah-eady been said, con- 
 cerning the gender and number of this Article, in the Jirst 
 part of this work, to which you may have recourse : I 
 will merely observe that, like all others, it must be re- 
 pealed before every Substantive with appropriate gender 
 and number, as is exemplified in the following beautiful 
 passage from Racine's Berenice, 
 
 " De cette nuit, Phenice, as-tu vu la splendeur ? 
 Tes yeux ne sont-ils pas tout pleins de sa grandeur ? 
 Ces flambeaux, ce bucher, cette nuit enflammee, 
 Ces aigles, ces faisceaux ; ce peuple, cette armee, 
 Cette foule de Rois, ces Consuls, ce Senat, 
 Qui tous de mon amant empruntaient leur eclat ; 
 Cette pompe, cet or que rehaussait sa gloire, 
 Et ces lauriers encore, temoins de sa victoire." 
 
 In or-der to render the above words more fully deter- 
 minative of the object spoken of, we often, in familiar 
 language, add the small words ci and Id, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cct homme-w est honnete ; 
 
 mais cct homme-/a est un 
 
 coquin. 
 Cette amee-a ne nous a pas 
 
 ete favorable. 
 Ces plumes-c7 sent meilleures 
 
 que cellf-S-ld. 
 Cdie maison-cz est a vendre & 
 
 cdle-la est a louer. 
 
 This man is honest; but that 
 man is a rogue. 
 
 This year has not been favora- 
 ble to us. 
 
 'These pens are better than 
 those, 
 
 lids house is to be sold, and 
 that is to be let. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY 
 
 11 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The words this and that^ when used to point at some 
 object, without naming it^ are rendered, in French, by 
 ceciy cela, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ceci est bon, cela est mau- 
 
 vais. 
 Donnez-moi ceci & envoyez- 
 
 lui cela, 
 Ceci est plus surprenant que 
 
 cela, 
 Ceci fut approuve de quelques- 
 
 uns ; mais cela deplut a 
 
 toute la compagnie. 
 
 T/iis is good, t/iat is bad. 
 
 Give me tMs, and send him 
 
 t/iat. 
 This is more surprising than 
 
 that. 
 This was approved by a few ; 
 
 but tluit displeased the whole 
 
 company. 
 
 '^ RULE n. 
 
 That rohich is rendered, in French, by ce qiii^ ce que^ 
 and xvhat by ce qui only : ce qui is used as subject^ and 
 ce que as object in a sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ce qui le fache, c' est de n' 
 avoir pas reussi. 
 
 Ce qui me rejouit, c' est de 
 voiis avoir vu &c toute votre 
 famille en bonne sante. 
 
 Ce qui me plait, vous deplait. 
 
 Ce qui lui est arrive, est bien 
 
 triste. 
 Ce qui est agreable au gout, 
 
 est souvent contraire a la 
 
 santc. 
 Ce que je vous dis, est vrai. 
 Je sais ce que vous pensez de 
 
 cela. 
 Avouez franchement ce que 
 
 vous avez fait. 
 
 That which grieves him, is to 
 have not succeeded. 
 
 That which rejoices me, is to 
 have seen you and all your 
 family in good health. 
 
 Tliat which pleases me, dis- 
 pleases you. 
 
 That which happened him, is 
 very melancholy. 
 
 That which is agreeable to the 
 taste, is often prejudicial to 
 health. 
 
 That which Itell you, is true. 
 
 I know what you think of it. 
 
 Own candidly what you have 
 done. 
 
313 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY, 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 Whenever ce qui^ ce qiie^ or ce dont (de quoi) hce a quoi 
 begin a sentence composed of two members, ce must be 
 repeated^ in French, before the Verb Stre^ which begins 
 the second member, provided it be followed by another 
 Verby a Noun plural, or a Pronoun, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ce qui m' amuse, c' est d' ap- 
 
 prendre ma lecon. 
 Ce qui me chagrine, c' est de 
 
 n* avoir point d' occupation. 
 Ce que je crains le plus, ce sont 
 
 les trahisons. 
 Ce que je deteste le plus, ce 
 
 sont les injuslices. 
 Ce que j' aime le mieux, c' est 
 
 d' etre seul. 
 Ce dont je me plains, c' est qu' 
 
 il soit soi-ti sans permission. 
 
 Ce a quci V avare pense le 
 moins, c' est de jouir de ses 
 richesses. 
 
 Ce qui m' attache a la vie, c* 
 est vous. 
 
 That which diverts me, is to 
 learn my lesson. 
 
 That which vexes me, is to be 
 without employment. 
 
 That which I fear most is trea- 
 son. 
 
 That which I hate most is in- 
 justice. 
 
 That which I like best, is to be 
 alone. 
 
 That of which I complain, is 
 that he is gone out without 
 leave. 
 
 That of which a niibcr thinks 
 the least, is to enjoy his 
 riches. 
 
 That which keeps me attached 
 to life, is you. 
 
 But, should the Verb etre be follovy^ed by a Noun^ sin- 
 gular, instead of a Verb^ then ce may, or may not, be re- 
 peatedy according to the choice or taste of the writer, 
 which circumstances ought to regulate. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 That which provokes me is m- 
 
 justice. 
 That which I say is the truth. 
 
 That which I hate in a young 
 man, is laziness. 
 
 Ce qui m' indigne est, ou c* est 
 
 1' injustice. 
 Ce que je dis est, gu c' est la 
 
 verite. 
 Ce que je hais dans un je une 
 
 homme, est, ou c' est la pa- 
 
 ressc. 
 
 Cc should be omitted before rtre^ if it be followed by 
 an Adjective or a pmt Participle. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ce qu: 11 dit, cat fait pour vous | That which he says, is calculat- 
 ed to highten you. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 313 
 
 Ck que vous venez de m' ap- 
 prendre, est bien facheux. 
 
 Ce dont j* avals peur est ar- 
 rive. 
 
 •Ce que j* ai mange etait deli- 
 cieux. 
 
 That of which you have just 
 been informing me, is very- 
 unfortunate. 
 
 That of vjhich I was afraid 
 has happened. 
 
 That ivhich I ate was delici- 
 ous. 
 
 ' Scholar. 
 
 I have observed that many Americans make blunders 
 in the use of ce qui, ce que, in French, by erroneously 
 substituting one for the other ; which mistake appears 
 so much the more natural, as the two expressions above 
 are rendered, in English, by the same words that which. 
 Could not you give me such rules, as to effectually pre- 
 vent these mistakes ? 
 
 Master. 
 
 I assigned the real difference between ce qui and ce que, 
 when I first mentioned these idiomatical terms : I will 
 now speak a language more mechanical. — When that 
 vjhich is, in English, placed immediately before a Verb, 
 it is rendered, in French, by ce qui, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Ce qui coute peu est trop cher. That nuJdch costs cheap is too 
 des qu' il n' est pas neces- dear, when it is not neces- 
 saire. sary. 
 
 Should a Pronoun intervene between that •which and 
 the Verb, that which is always rendered by ce que, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Nous ne devrions jamais par- 1 We ought never to speak of 
 ler de ce que nous ne savons J that which we don't know. 
 
 pas. 
 Ce que vous proposez la pour 
 le guerir, n* est que de 1' 
 onguent miton-mitaine. 
 
 That ivhich you pro]X)se to cure 
 him is mere powder of post. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 This, that, these, Jh9s.e, when used in order to avoid 
 the repetition of the Noun they relate to, are rendered, iu 
 French, by celui, s. m. celle, s, f. ceux, PL. m. ceiles, PL. f. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II depense tout son bien & ceiui | He is spending all his estate 
 de sa femme. 1 and that of his wife. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 s s 
 
514 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Cette maison est plus petite 
 que celle de votre frere. 
 
 Ses chevaux sont plus beaux 
 que ceux du Roi. 
 
 Mes vaches donnent plus de 
 lait que celles de mon voisin. 
 
 This house is smaller than 
 tJmt of your brother. 
 
 His horses are finer than those 
 of the King. 
 
 My cows give more milk than 
 those of my neighbour. 
 
 Observe, that ci and la are annexed to the above words, 
 in pointing or alluding to the contrast or comparison of 
 objects. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Voila plusieurs draps ; choisis- 
 sez celui'Ciy ou celui-la, 
 
 Je ne veux ni de celui-ci ni de 
 celui-la. 
 
 La vertu & le vice produissent 
 des effets diff6rens ; celui-ci 
 cause le malheur de V horn- 
 me, celle -la le rend heureux. 
 
 Voila des poires & des abricots; 
 ceux-ci sont murs, celles-/a 
 ne le sont pas encore. 
 
 Le corps perit, 1' ame est im- 
 morttlie ; cependant nous 
 negligeons celle-ci & nous 
 sacrifions tout pour celui-la. 
 
 There are several cloths ; chuse 
 this or that* 
 
 I will have neither this one nor 
 that. 
 
 Virtue and vice produce differ- 
 ent effects ; this causes the 
 misery of man, that makes 
 him happy. 
 
 Here are pears and apricots ; 
 these are ripe, but those arc 
 not yet so. 
 
 The body perishes, the soul is 
 immortal ; nevertheless, wa 
 neglect this and sacrifice 
 every thing for that. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Such expressions as he toho^ she who^ they whOy that 
 who^ that whichj those who^ such as, &c. are expressed, 
 in French, by ceiui qui, s. m. celle qui, s. f. ceux qui, pl. 
 M. celies qui, PL. f. — he whom, ££?c. that which (being ob- 
 jects) are rendered by celui que, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Celui qui ne sait pas garder un 
 secret, est indigne de con- 
 fiance. 
 
 Celle qui vient de passer, est 
 mariee. 
 
 Ceux qui sont paresseux, ne 
 connaissent pas le prix du 
 tems. 
 
 He who does not know how to 
 keep a secret, is unworthy 
 of confidence. 
 
 She ivho just went by, is mar- 
 ried. 
 
 Such as are idle, know not the 
 value of time. 
 
 1 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 315 
 
 Ccux qui sont contens de leur 
 
 sort, sont heureux, 
 Celles qvi ont le mieux danse, 
 
 ont ete recompensees. 
 On doit encourager les efforts 
 
 de ceux qui s' applique nt 
 
 aux arts & aux sciences. 
 
 Celui que vous voyez a man- 
 que d' etre pendu. 
 
 Ceux que vous protegez, vous 
 trahissent. 
 
 Those ivho are contented with 
 
 their condition, are happy. 
 Those who have danced the 
 
 best, have been rewarded. 
 We ought to encourage the 
 
 efforts of those who apply 
 
 themselves to the arts and 
 
 sciences. 
 He whom you see, had like to 
 
 be hanged. 
 They whom you protect, betray 
 
 you. 
 
 Observe, 1st. That qui may be separated from celui ; 
 in that case la is joined to it ; so instead of saying, 
 
 Celui qui medit de son pro- 
 chain est un mechant hom- 
 me, 
 
 jy^wAo slanders his neighbours 
 is a wicked man, 
 
 We may say, 
 
 Celui-la est un mechant homme 
 qui medit de son prochain. 
 
 He\s2i wicked man, who slan- 
 ders his neighbours. 
 
 And instead of 
 
 Ceux qui negligent de payer | These who neglect to pay their 
 leurs dettes, se preparent I debts,provide for themselves 
 bien des chagrins, I much care, 
 
 We may say, 
 
 Ceux'la se preparent bien des 
 chagrins, qui negligent de 
 payer leurs dettes. 
 
 They provide for themselves 
 much care, who neglect to 
 pay their debts. 
 
 2d. If a question be asked by the English relative 
 which, it is, in French, rendered, in the answer, by celui 
 qui^ celle qui, &c. in such occasions as the following 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 LaqueUe de ces deux oranges 
 voulez-vous ? Celle qui vous 
 plaira. 
 
 Which of these two ornnge? 
 will you have ? Which you 
 please. 
 
116 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 Ce joined to the Verb Stre requires it should accord 
 with the Substantive that follows. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C est votre tems, ce sont vos 
 soins^ vos affections, c' est 
 vous-meme qu' il faut don- 
 ner a votre ami. 
 
 Si ce n' est pas la religion, ce 
 sont les coutumes qu' on y 
 revere au lieu de lois. 
 
 Sont-ce la Tos gens ? 
 
 Ce furent ces associations qui 
 firent fleurir si long-terns la 
 Grece. 
 
 Ce furent les Francais qui pri- 
 rent la place d' assaut. 
 
 It is your time, it is your cares 
 and affections, it is yourself 
 you must bestow on yom* 
 friend. 
 
 If it be not religion, it is cus- 
 tom that is venerated there 
 instead of the law. 
 
 ^re these your people ? 
 
 It was those associations that 
 made Greece flourish so 
 long. 
 
 It was the French who took 
 the place by storm. 
 
 The poets and some prose-writers often, with elegance, 
 deviate from the above rule. 
 
 Observe, that if etre be followed by several Nouns, in 
 the singular, it remains in the singular, though those 
 Nouns united be equivalent to ?i plural. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C est votre frere & votre ami, 
 qui vous demandent. 
 
 Ce qui fait le triomphe d' une 
 femme, c' eM la vertu & i' 
 esprit. 
 
 It is your brother and your 
 friend who ask for you. 
 
 That which makes the triumph 
 of a woman is virtue and un- 
 derstanding, 
 
 RULE vn. 
 
 Should the Verb she be followed by a plural Pronoun, 
 it remains notwithstanding in the siiigular, except that 
 Pronoun be of the third person plural \ and then it as- 
 sumes the number corresponding thereto. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C est nous qui avons enleve 
 le drapeau. 
 
 It is we who have carried the 
 colors off. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 3ir 
 
 £si-ce nous qui 1' avons 
 
 oublie ? 
 Cefut nous qu' on choisit pour 
 
 cette expedition. 
 C* est vous, Messieurs, qui en 
 
 etes cause. 
 Est^ce vous, Mesdames, qui 
 
 avez danse les premieres ? 
 Ce sont eux qui lui apprendront 
 
 la vraie maniere de se bien 
 
 conduire dans le monde. 
 Est'CC eux qui s' y oppo- 
 
 sentj *. 
 C* etaient elles qui fesaient les 
 
 honneurs de la maison. 
 
 Is it we who have forgot it? 
 
 It was w£ that were chosen 
 
 for that expedition. 
 It is you, Gentlemen, who arc 
 
 the cause of it. 
 Is it you, Ladies, who danced 
 
 the first ? 
 It is they who will teach him 
 
 the true manner of behaving 
 
 in the world. 
 Is it they who are against it ? 
 
 It was they who did the honors 
 of the house. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 When a question is asked, in French, by e^t-ce la; 
 sont-ce la, &c. if it relate to a thing, the answer, in the 
 affirmative is, oui^ ce P est ; if to several ; oui ce les sont ; 
 but if to persons, the proper Pronouns are used and placed 
 after the Verb etre* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Eat-ce La la maison de votre 
 
 pere ? Oui, ce V est, 
 Est<e la votre mouchoir ? Oui, 
 
 ce I' est — M)n, ce ne /' est 
 
 pas, 
 Sont-ce la vos gants ? Oui, ce 
 
 les sont — jyon ce ne les sont 
 
 pas, 
 Sont-ce la ses amusemens? Oui, 
 
 ce les sont, 
 Est-ce la leur maitre de Fran- 
 
 ^ais ? Oui, c' est lui. 
 
 Old, 
 
 Etait-ce la sa 
 
 c' etait elle, 
 Sont'Ce Id vos amis ? Oui, ce 
 
 sont eux, 
 Sont-ce Id vos parentes ? Oui, 
 
 ce sont elles. 
 
 Is this your father's house ? 
 
 Yes, it is. 
 Is tliat your handkerchief? 
 
 Yes, it is — JVo, it is not, 
 
 Are these your gloves ? Yes, 
 they are — A^o, they are not. 
 
 Are these his amusements 
 
 Yes, they are. 
 Is that their French master 
 
 Yes, it is he. 
 Was tfiat his, or her sister 
 
 Yes, she was. 
 Are these your 
 
 they are. 
 Are these your 
 
 Yes they are. 
 
 friends ? Yes, 
 kinswomen ? 
 
 * In an interrogation sont-ce eux ? would be too grating to the ear, the 
 singular e^t-ce tux ? though it jnilitut<;s against the above rule, i« preferred. 
 
318 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Observe, 1st, When such an indeterminate question 
 as, sont'Ce des homjnes que je vols ? are those I see men I 
 is asked : the answer is, c' en est j yes, they are : one can- 
 not answer c' en sont^ which would be quite as harsh as 
 sont'CC eux P 
 
 2d, The answer to such a question as est-ce la nos gens P 
 are these our people ? (which can be resolved, in French, 
 by cela est-il nos gens ? is that our people ?) is, oui^ c' est 
 eux; that is to say, cela est eux — But, if the question was 
 expressed tlms, which is the' most correct, sont-ce la nos 
 gens l the answer would be, ce aont eux. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE SEVENTH. 
 
 OjY the CONJUJ^CTIVE elliptical words QUIy 
 QUE, efr. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Who^ that and which, not acted upon by a Preposition, 
 are expressed, in French, by qui, which, when these words 
 are placed before a Ferb, in English, if some one of the 
 active Pronouns /, thou, he, be not interposed between 
 either of them and the Verb, is appropriate to a?2y object 
 to be determined. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1/ homme gid parle, est un de 
 mes amis. 
 
 La demoiselle qui me parle, a 
 etc dangereusement ma- 
 lade. 
 
 La fern me qrd prend soin de 
 son menage est estimable. 
 
 Vo3^ez-vous ccs chevaux qui 
 courent ? 
 
 Pasaez-moi le plat gid est sur 
 la table. 
 
 The man 'w/io speaks, is a 
 
 friend of mine. 
 Thie young- lady ivho speaks to 
 
 me, has been dangerously 
 
 ill. 
 The woman who takes care ot 
 
 her house is estimable. 
 Do you ^i'G those horses that 
 
 run ? 
 Hand me the dish which is on 
 
 the table. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 319 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 When whow^ that, or xvhich are placed before a Verb 
 attended by eitlL?r of the a<5?/?;^ Pronouns /, thou, &c. they 
 are translated, in French, by que> 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La dame que vous avez vue, 
 
 doit se luaiier la semaine 
 
 prochaine. 
 Est-ce la le chapeau neuf que 
 
 vous avez achet^ ? 
 La le9on que j' ai apprise, est 
 
 loneue Sc difficile. 
 
 The lady ivhom you have seen, 
 is to be married next week. 
 
 Is that the new hat 'o^hich you 
 
 bought ? 
 The lesson "Mich I learnt, is 
 
 long and difficult. 
 
 EXCEPTION. 
 
 Who or wboju, though placed before an active Pronoun, when it is meant 
 to express lubat person, must be translated by qui. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je sais qui vous voulez dire. 
 Devinez qui j' aime. 
 Je ne saurais deviner qui vous 
 aimez. 
 
 Ehbien I vous ne saurez 
 mais qui c* est. 
 
 ja- 
 
 I know ii'honi you mean. 
 
 Guess w/wm I love. 
 
 I cannot guess lukom you love. 
 
 Well I you will never know 
 who it is. 
 
 RULE IIL 
 
 Of whom^ of whichy or whose are generally expressed 
 by dont^ for all sorts of objects (singular or plural, mas- 
 culine or feminine) when the Noun they relate to, is the 
 subject or object of a sentence. Of xvhom^ or whose^ re- 
 lating to persons only, may also be rendered by de qui» 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Dieu de qui ou dont nous ad- 
 
 iTiirons les ceuvres. 
 C est rhommerfe quioudoni, 
 
 je vous ai parle. • 
 Les heros de qui ou dont il 
 
 tire son origine. 
 
 God wh^se works we admire. 
 
 It is the man of whom I spoke 
 
 to you. 
 The heroes of ivhom he drav.s 
 
 his oriyjir. 
 
.'?20 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Est-ce la k cheval dont vous 
 venez de faire V acquisition ? 
 
 Le moyen dont il s* est servi, 
 
 n' est pas honnete. 
 C est une maladie dont on ne 
 
 connait point la cause. 
 C* est un evenement dont il n' 
 
 est point fait mention dans 
 
 I'histoire. 
 
 Is that the horse of which you 
 have just now made a pur- 
 chase ? 
 
 The means of which he made 
 use, is not honest. 
 
 It is an illness the cause of 
 which is unknown. 
 
 It is an event of which no ac- 
 count is given in history. 
 
 Observe, that, from whom is always rendered by de qui 
 •and never by dont, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le jeune homme de qui j' ai 
 
 re9U une lettre, il y a quel- 
 
 que terns, est mort. 
 Le negociant de qui vous re- 
 
 clamez cet argent, vient de 
 
 faire banqueroute. 
 Les gens dc qui vous attendez 
 
 tant de services, vous trom- 
 
 pent. 
 
 The young man from whom I 
 received a letter, some time 
 ago, is dead. 
 
 The merchanty7-om whom you 
 claim that money, has just 
 been a bankrupt. . 
 
 The people from whom you 
 expect so many services, de- 
 ceive you. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Instead of donty we use, in French, 1st, de qui in. & f. s. 
 8c p. or duquel, m. s. de laquelle^ f. s. &c. for persons ; and 
 2dly, duquel^vs\, s,delaqiielleyLs,^c. (and never <3^^ qui) 
 for things^ when the sense or construction of the phrase 
 admits of a Nguji acted upon by a Preposition placed 
 between them and the Noun it relates to. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1st, 
 
 C est un homme a la prudence 
 de qui ou duqucl vous pou- 
 vez vous lier. 
 
 II me faut une fenime de 
 chambre sur la conduite de 
 qui ou de laquclle il n' y arien 
 a redire. 
 
 Je chercbe un negociant sur 
 r honneur &: la probite de 
 qui ou duquel il ne pent y 
 avoir de doute. 
 
 1st, 
 
 He is a man to whose prudence 
 or to the prudence of whom 
 you may trust. 
 
 I want a chambermaid mw/wse 
 behaviour, or in the behav- 
 iour of whom, there is no- 
 thing to censure. 
 
 I am looking after a merchant 
 of the honor and probity of 
 whom there is no doubt. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 321 
 
 2d, 
 La Seine, dans le lit de laquelle 
 viennent se jeter plusieurs 
 rivieres, arrose la Cham- 
 pagne, r Islede France &;c. 
 
 Voila un regiment a la valeur 
 duquel V ennemi H' a pu 
 resister. 
 
 Les passionsviolentessont des 
 maladies aux progres des- 
 quelles on ne saurait appor- 
 terdetrop prompts remedes. 
 
 2d, 
 
 The Seine, in the channel of 
 nuhich several rivers empty 
 their waters, runs through 
 Champaign, the Isle of 
 France, &:c. 
 
 There is a regiment whose va- 
 lor the enemy could not 
 resist. 
 
 Violent passions are ills to the 
 progress of w/iic/i oi\q cannot 
 apply too quick remedies. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 When whom and which are governed by the Preposi- 
 tions to^ on, in, &c. the former, applying to persons or 
 personijied beings only, is translated by qui; and the latter, 
 applying to things or animals, by lequel, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1st, 
 
 Votre pere est un homme a 
 qui j' ai beaucoup d' obliga- 
 tions, en qui j' ai mis ma 
 confiance, 8c sans qui je se- 
 rais mort a present. 
 
 Le negociant fiour qui je tiens 
 les livres est tres-opulent. 
 
 Les amis sur qui vous comp- 
 tez vous abandonneront. 
 
 Dieu vers qui vous tournez vo- 
 tre coeur vous aidera. 
 
 La Mort a qui tout cede n' 
 effraye pas le sage. 
 
 2d, 
 Et cette mort d laqudle vous 
 
 ne vous attendiez pas vous 
 
 a effraye. 
 Le cheval auquel vous avez 
 
 donne a manger n' est pas 
 
 a moi. 
 Le plaisir auquel vous vous 
 
 livrez estnuisible a la sante. 
 
 VOL. II. '] 
 
 1st, 
 
 Your father is a man to who7n 
 I am much obliged, in ivhom 
 I have put my confidence, 
 and ivithout nuhom I should 
 have been now dead. 
 
 The merchant for whom I 
 keep accounts is very wealthy. 
 
 The friends on who?n you de- 
 pend will forsake you. 
 
 God towards whom you turn 
 your heart will help you. 
 
 Death to whom every thing 
 yields does not frighten the 
 sage. 
 
 2d, 
 
 And that death which you did 
 not expect has frightened 
 you. 
 
 The horse to which you gave 
 some feed is not mine. 
 
 The pleasure to which you de- 
 vote yourself is dangerous 
 to health. 
 
 t 
 
022 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 La chose a laquelle je pense 
 est fort iiiteressjinte. 
 
 L' emplacement sur lequel je 
 veux batir est tres-grand. 
 
 Voila les raisons sur ksiuelles 
 je me fonde. 
 
 The thing of which I am think- 
 mg is very interesting. 
 
 f he lot on nvhich I intend to 
 build is very large. 
 
 These are the reasons ufion 
 which I rest. 
 
 Some authors of French Grammars will h^ve it, that 
 quoiy with the Prepositions a, sur^ &c. may apply to inani' 
 mate objects ; for instance ; instead of saying, les raisons 
 sur ies(/uellesj &c. they maintain that one might equally 
 well say, les raisons sur qiioi. 
 
 The fact is, that polite custom is against using quoi at 
 all, in such cases and the like. There are circumstances 
 in which a qiioi and de qiioi are used, when they allude to 
 things : for example ; a quoi is used when to he is follow- 
 ed by a Verb or Adjedlivc^ requiring after it the Preposi- 
 tion to^oY any other rendered in French by a, before the 
 words that which, zvhich or that^ what. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C* est « quoi je m* applique. 
 C etait a quoi je ne pensais 
 
 pas. 
 C etait a quoi elle 1' exhortait. 
 
 Vous devriez payer vosdettes ; 
 
 c' est a quoi cependant vous 
 
 ne pensez gviere. 
 II n' y a rien a quo' je ne sois 
 
 dispose. 
 
 It is to that I apply myself. 
 It was that which I did not 
 
 think about. 
 It was what she exhorted him 
 
 to. 
 You should pay your debts ; it 
 
 is, however, that which you 
 
 dont think much of. 
 There is nothing which I am 
 
 not disposed to. 
 
 De quoi is used when Stre, to be, is followed by a Verb 
 or Adje6lhe^ the correspondent of which requires quoi to 
 be acted upon by de. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C* est de quoi je m' occupe 
 
 sans cesse. 
 C est dc quoi je vous assure. 
 C est de quoi je^ suis tres-me- 
 
 content. 
 
 It is that I am always occupy- 
 ing myself adow^ 
 
 It is that I assure you of. 
 
 It is tfmt I am very dissatisfied 
 of' 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 323 
 
 De quoi signifies also something in itself that may^ &c. 
 as in the following phrase, 
 
 Une juste louange a de quoi 
 flatter un homme sensible. 
 
 A just praise has something in 
 itself that ?nay flatter a man 
 of feeling. 
 
 De quoi signifies also, according to the sense, sufficient 
 cy or abundance* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 He is a man who has where- 
 
 with to live upon. 
 L%^s. told that this young lady 
 
 was r/cA. 
 
 C* est un homme qui a de quoi 
 vivre. 
 
 On m' a dit que cette demoi- 
 selle avait de quoi. 
 
 But, if rien^ nothing, be used after Stre^ dont must be 
 preferred to de quoi, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II n' y a rien au monde dont 
 Dieu ne soit 1* auteur. 
 
 II n* y a rien dont ce coquin ne 
 
 soit capable. 
 II n* y a rien dont il se plaigne 
 
 davantage. 
 
 There is nothing in the world 
 of which God is not the au- 
 thor. 
 
 There is nothing that this ras- 
 cal is not capable of 
 
 There is nothing that he com- 
 plains more of 
 
 RULE VL 
 
 ^oi may be acted upon,by other Prepositions in French 
 when it corresponds to the English that, what or whichy 
 meaning, in general, that thing, what thing* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je ne vois ^2iSsurquoi ses pre- 
 tentions puissent etre fon- 
 dees. 
 
 Faites le ; mns quoi vous n' y 
 parviendrez pas. 
 
 Dites-moi avec quoi vous pre- 
 tendez en venir a bout. 
 
 Avec la prodigalite, vous serez 
 g6nereux pendant six mois ; 
 apres quoi, vous ne poui'rez 
 plus r etre. 
 
 I dont see u/ion what his pre- 
 tensions are grounded. 
 
 Do it ; without that you will 
 
 not succeed in it. 
 Tell me by w/iat means you 
 
 pretend to bring it about. 
 With prodigality, you will bfr 
 
 generous for six months ; 
 
 after which^ you cannot be 
 
 so any longer. 
 
324 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 Should zuhom^ that^ or which be understood, in English, 
 iis in the following phrases and the like, they must, in 
 French, absolutely be expressed. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La demoiselle que vous avez 
 rencontree est Fran9aise. 
 
 L' arbre que vous voytz la-bas 
 a ete frappe de la foudre. 
 
 La compagnie yw* il frequente 
 n' est pas honnete. 
 
 C est a vous que j' en veux. 
 
 C* est a lui que je parle & non 
 
 pas a vous. 
 C est de moi qu' il se plaint. 
 C est contre eux que j' ecris. 
 Je connais la personne avec 
 
 qui vous causiez. 
 L' homme de qui ou dont vous 
 
 avez le^u vos marchandises 
 
 est parti pour France. 
 
 The young lady you met is 
 
 French. 
 The tree you see yonder has 
 
 been struck with lightning. 
 The company he keeps is not 
 
 honest. 
 It is against you I have a 
 
 grudge. 
 It is to him I am speaking and 
 
 not to you. 
 It is of me he complains. 
 It is against them I write. 
 I know the person you were 
 
 conversing with. 
 The man you received your 
 
 goods from has set off for 
 
 France. 
 
 Master. 
 
 There are some particular cases wherein, to prevent 
 amphibology^ Itquel^ &c. is prefered to quiy even in the 
 circumstances expressed by Rule I. as in the following 
 examples : 
 
 La fille de votre -ami, laquelle 
 est infiniment agreable, est 
 venue vous demander. 
 
 C est un effet de la provi- 
 dence, lequel convaincra les 
 incredules. 
 
 The daughter of your friend, 
 ivho is infinitely agreeable, 
 is come to demand you. 
 
 It is an effect of Providence, 
 which will convince the in- 
 credulous. 
 
 Should one, in the first sentence, put qui instead of la- 
 quelle^ it would not be determined, whether it be intended 
 to signifythat the friend^ or his daughter'^ is infinitely agree- 
 able ; and, in the second, w^ere it not for kqud^ it could not 
 be determined, whether it be Providence^ or its ejffeSl^ 
 that will convince the incredulous* 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 ;25 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 When things are spoken of, and followed by in whichy 
 in xuhaty to whick^ at what^ from which^ through whichy 
 &c. in the sense of where^ wherein., whereat ; these, if the 
 Noun to which they relate, metaphorically, imply some 
 kind of motion^ or resty may be rendered elegantly, in 
 French, by lequel, m. s. laquelk, f. s. lesquek., M. PL. 
 lesquelles^ f. pl. duquel, ^c. par lequely i^c. vers /e- 
 quel^ £sPc. instead of ow, d^ cru^ par oh* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Voyez le mauvais etat ok ou 
 dans lequel vous 1' avez lais- 
 see. 
 
 Le siecleoM ou dans leqitel nous 
 vivons. 
 
 Le danger oh ou dans lequel il 
 se trouve. 
 
 Voilale but oii ou vers lequel il 
 tend. 
 
 Je me suis rendu a la maison 
 oil ou dans laquelle elle de- 
 meure. 
 
 Philippe dit a son fils Alex- 
 andre, en lui donnant Aris- 
 tote pour precepteur ; " ap- 
 prenez, sous un si bon mai- 
 tre, a eviter les fautes ou 
 ou dans lesquelles je suis 
 tombe." 
 
 Je connais le principe d' ou ou 
 duquel decoule votre sys- 
 teme. 
 
 Voila les raisons d' oic ou des- 
 quelles je conclus. 
 
 Henri quatre regardait la 
 bonne education de la jeu- 
 nesse, com me une chose 
 d' oil ou de laquelle depend 
 la felicite des roignaumes 
 Sc des peuples. 
 Voila le chemin par oii ou par 
 
 lequel j' ai passe. 
 Je sais les moyens par oii ou 
 par lesquels il parvint a ses 
 fins. 
 
 See the bad state in which you 
 left her. 
 
 The age we live in. 
 
 The danger in which he finds 
 
 himself. 
 That is the end he aims at, 
 
 I have repaired to the house 
 in luhich she lives. 
 
 Philip said to his son Alexan- 
 der, in giving him Aristotle 
 for his preceptor : " learn 
 under so good a master to 
 avoid the faults into which I 
 have fallen." 
 
 I know the principles from 
 which your system is deriv- 
 ed. 
 
 These are the reasons from 
 which I conclude. 
 
 Henry the fourth looked upon 
 the good education of youth 
 as a thing upon which the 
 felicity of kingdoms and na- 
 tions depends. 
 
 There is the road through 
 
 which I passed. 
 I know the means by which he 
 
 gained his point. 
 
J26 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE EIGHTH. 
 
 OF THE ELLIPTICAL TERMS, :^D/, LE^EL, &c. 
 USED INTERROGATIVELY. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Who^ is translated, in French, by qui^ or qui esUce qui, 
 in the ifamiliar language relating to persons only. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Qui OU qui est-ce qui va la ? 
 Qui OU qui est-ce qui est venu? 
 Qui OU qui est-ce qui osera le 
 
 faire ? 
 Qui OU qui est-ce qui en veut ? 
 
 Who goes there ? 
 
 Who is come ? 
 
 Who will dare to do it4 
 
 Who wants some of it ? 
 RULE IL 
 
 Whom^ not being acted upon by a Preposition^ is ren- 
 dered, in French, by qui^ or qui est-ce que ; if by qui, the 
 Pronoun must be placed after the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Qui poursuivez-x'ows si vive- 
 
 ment ? 
 Qui decouvrez-Tyows la-bas ? 
 Qui siimez'vous le mieux ? 
 
 Whom do you pursue so close- 
 
 ly? 
 Whom do you descry yonder ? 
 Whom do you love best ? 
 
 If it be rendered by qui est-ce que^ the Pronoun must, 
 on the contrary, precede the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Qui est-ce que vous poursuivez si vivement ? 
 Qui est-ce que vou^ decouvrez la-bas ? 
 Qui est-ce que voug aimez le mieux ? 
 
 RULE IIL 
 
 When whom is acted upon by a Preposition it is render- 
 ed, in French, by qui, acted upon by an appropriate Prepo- 
 sition, and not so well by qui est-ce que, acted upon by the 
 same Preposition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 De qui vous entretenez-vous ? | Of nvhom do you converse ? 
 De qui tenez-vous cette nou- I From whom have you this piece 
 velle ? I of news ? 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 327 
 
 A qui ecrivez-vous ? 
 Avec qui demeure-t-elle ? 
 Sur qui comptez-vous le plus ? 
 
 Pour qui travaillez-vous ? 
 
 To ivhom do you write ? 
 With nvhom does she live ? 
 Upon ivhom do you rely the 
 
 most ? 
 For ivhom do you work ? 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Whose, interrogatively used, is rendered, in French, 
 by a qui, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J qui est cette belle maison ? 
 A qui est ce ruban bleu ? 
 A qui est cette cle ? 
 A qui sont ces bas de sole ? 
 A qui sont ces boucles d' 
 
 acier ? 
 A qui sont ces jolies boucles 
 
 d* oreille ? 
 
 Whose fine house is that ? 
 Whose blue ribbon is this ? 
 Whose key is this ? 
 Whose silk stockings are these ? 
 Whose steel buckles are these ? 
 
 Whose pretty 
 these ? 
 
 ear-nngs are 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Whichy relating to persons, or things, is rendered, in 
 French, by lequel, m. laquelle, f, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Lequel de vos freres est eleve 
 
 de la marine ? 
 Laquelle de ces demoiselles 
 
 veut-il epouser ? 
 Lequel de ces tableaux me con- 
 
 seillez-vous d* acheter ? 
 Laquelle de ces deux oranges 
 
 souiiaitez-vous ? 
 De ces editions, a laquelle dois- 
 
 je donner la preference ? 
 
 Des romans que je vous ai 
 achetes, lesqu^ls trouvez- 
 Tous les plus amusans ? 
 
 Which of your brothers is a 
 midshipman ? 
 
 Which of these young ladies 
 does he wish to marry ? 
 
 Which of these two pictures 
 do you advise me to buy ? 
 
 Which of these two oranges 
 will you have ? 
 
 Of these editions, to which 
 ought I to give the prefer- 
 ence. 
 
 Of the novels 1 bought for 
 you, ivhich do you think 
 the most entertaining ? 
 
328 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 What, when applying to persons or things, used znter- 
 rogatively and followed by a Substantive, is translated, in 
 French, by queJ, m. quelle, f. Sec. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quel capitaine commandait ce 
 
 jour la ? 
 A quel homme pensez-vou3 
 
 avoir affaire ? 
 De quel Monsieur parlez- 
 
 vous ? 
 De quels Messieurs avez-vous 
 
 re9U cet argent ? 
 Quel profit vous en revient- 
 
 il? 
 Quelle toile avez-vous ap- 
 
 port6e ? 
 Quelles chemises porte-t-il ? 
 
 En quelle monnaie vous a-t-il 
 
 pay6 ? 
 A quel jeu jouerons-nous ? 
 Voici mon avis; quel est le 
 
 votre ? 
 C 6tait son sentiment, quel 
 
 etait le leur ? 
 Voilamon opinion ; savez-vous 
 
 quelle est la sienne ? 
 
 What captain commanded on 
 
 that day ? 
 What man do you think you 
 
 have to deal with ? 
 What Gentleman do you speak 
 
 of? 
 Of nvhat Gentlemen did you 
 
 receive that money ? 
 What profit do you receive 
 
 by it? 
 What linen have you brought ? 
 
 What sort of shirts does he 
 
 wear ? 
 In what coin has he paid 
 
 you ? 
 What game shall we play at ? 
 This is my advice; ivhat is 
 
 yours ? 
 It was his sentiment, what was 
 
 theirs ? 
 That is my opinion ; do you 
 
 know nvhat is his ? 
 
 RULE VIL 
 
 What, signifying xvhat thing, not acted upon by a 
 Preposition, when it is the object of the Verb, is rendered, 
 1st, by que, or qu"* est-ce que ; if que be used, the Pro- 
 noun active folloxvs the Verb, as is generally done in in- 
 terrogations. But, if, on the contrary, qu* est-ce que be 
 preferred, the Pronoun active, as in affirmation, precedes 
 the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Que dites-vous, or qu' est-ce 1 What do you say 
 que vous dites ? 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 329 
 
 Que craignez-vous, ou gu' est- 
 ce que vous craignez ? 
 
 Que cherche-t-elle, ou qu' est- 
 ce qu' elle cherclie ? 
 
 What do you fear ? 
 What does she look for ? 
 
 2d, By que, or qui est-ce qui, when it is the subject 
 of the Verb ; in using ^we, the Pronoun active will be neces- 
 sary as in the foregoing examples; in \xsm^ qui esUce quiy 
 no Pronoun active will be required ; the Pronoun passive^ 
 if any be used, will, as a matter of course, precede the 
 Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 What has happened ? 
 What happened to him ? 
 
 Qu' cst-il arrive, ou qu' est-ce 
 qui est arrive ? 
 
 Que lui est-il arrive, ou qu* est- 
 ce qui lui est arrive ? 
 
 Remark, that why, implying for what reason, and at- 
 tended by a Negative^ may be translated by que followed 
 by ne, instead oi pourquoi and the Negative ne pas» 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Que ne le -corrige-t-il, ou /wur- 
 quoi ne le corrige-t-il pas ? 
 
 Que w' attendez-vous ? 
 
 Que n' est-il venu plutot ? 
 
 Que n* est-il plus soigneux de 
 ses affaires ? 
 
 Que 71* y va-t-il lui-meme ? 
 
 Que ne faites-vous ce qu* on 
 vous dit ? 
 
 Why does he not correct him ? 
 
 Why dont you wait ? 
 
 Why is he not come sooner ? 
 
 Why is he not more careful of 
 
 his business ? 
 Why does he not go thither 
 
 himself ? 
 Why dont you do what you 
 
 are told of ? 
 
 ^le, in a very few phrases, may be used without the 
 Negative. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Que tardez-vous ? 
 Que differons-nous ? 
 
 Why do you stay ? 
 Why do we delay ? 
 
 Remark, that it is safer, in such cases, to use pourquoi, 
 as, by this means, no room for error is left. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 u u 
 
330 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 What, implying what thing, acted upon by a Preposi- 
 tion is rendered, in French, by quoiy with an appropriate 
 Preposition before it. ^ 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 De quoi vous accuse-t-on ? 
 De quoi parle-t-on ? 
 En quoi est-elle coupable ? 
 Sur quoi en etiez-vous quand 
 
 je suis entre ? 
 A quoi attribuez-vous la faute ? 
 
 What do they accuse you of? 
 What do they talk of? 
 In what is she guilty ? 
 What were you talking about 
 
 when I came in? 
 To what do you impute the 
 
 fault ? 
 
 Observe, 1st, That, if what be not acted upon by a 
 Preposition, its correspondent giioi may be so, in French, 
 owing to the French Verb requiring a Preposition, while 
 the English Verb does not. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 De quoi s' agit-il ? 
 
 A quoi peut-il s' attendre ? 
 
 What is the matter ? 
 What can he expect ? 
 
 2d, That why is sometimes rendered, in French, by 
 quoi, preceded by a Preposition* 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 De quoi vous melez-vous ? 
 A quoi bon tant de facons ? 
 
 Why do you concern your- 
 self ? 
 Why so much ado ? 
 
 3d, How, generally rendered, in French, by comment, 
 or de quelle maniere, is sometimes translated by quoi, 
 preceded by a Preposition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 A quoi passez-vous votre tems, 
 
 a la campagne ? 
 A quoi nous amuserons-nous 
 
 ce SOU' r 
 
 How do )'ou spend your time 
 
 in the country ? 
 Hoiv shall we divert ourselves 
 
 this evening ? 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 331 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE NINTH, 
 
 OF THE ACTIVE FROJYOUJVS. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The Pronouns active of the first and second persons, 
 if their Verbs be in different tenses, must be repeated he- 
 fore every Verb of the sentence in which they are found* 
 Should the Verb be in the same tense, the Pronoun may 
 or viay not be repeated (according to fancy or taste),, 
 though it is most advisa,ble to repeat them. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Jff pense & je penserai toujours 
 la meme chpse. ' 
 
 Vous V avez vue &c voua la ver- 
 rez encore. 
 
 JVous pech.ons a present, & nous 
 avons dessein d' aller a la 
 chasse cette apres midi. 
 
 Je dis 8c declare, ouje dis &yV 
 declare, que cela est ainsi. 
 
 / think and shall always think 
 the same thing. 
 
 You have seen her and will see 
 her again. 
 
 We are fishing now, and intend 
 to go shooting this after- 
 noon. 
 
 / say and declare that it is so. 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 The Pronouns active of the third person are not to be 
 repeated before Verbs^ when ^hose Verbs are in the same 
 tense. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 La bonne grace ne gate rien ; 
 elle ajoute a la beaute, releve 
 la modestie, & y donne du 
 lustre. 
 
 Good grace spoils nothii^g ; it 
 adds to beauty, heightens 
 modesty, and gives it a lus- 
 tre. 
 
 Levizac, who gave in his grammar the above rule, 
 justly remarks : " Clearness requires the repetition of 
 the Pronoun, when the second Verb, besides the Coxif 
 
552 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 junction et, is preceded by a Preposition, which, with its 
 regimen {complement), forms a long incidental phrase, as, 
 
 // fond sur son ennemi, Sc afires 
 V avoir sai'si d" unt main vic- 
 torieuse, il le renverse, com- 
 me le cruel aqiiilon abat les 
 tendres moisons qui dorent 
 la campagne. 
 
 He rushes on his enemy, and 
 after having taken hold of 
 him nvith a victorious hand, 
 throws him down, as the 
 ruthless north wind crushes 
 the tender harvests that gild 
 the field. 
 
 Should those Verbs be in a different tense, one may 
 either repeat the Pronouns, or not ; yet, we advise to re* 
 peat them. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Elle est vertueuse Sc elk le sera 
 
 toujours. 
 II n' a jamais rien valu 8c ne 
 
 vaudra jamais rien. 
 
 She is virtuous and will always 
 
 be so. 
 He never was good for any 
 
 thing nor ever will be. 
 
 On must always be repeated. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 On parle d' une maniere Sc /' on 
 agit souvent d' une autre. 
 
 On dit, on ecrit, & /' on assure, 
 que la paix sera bientot sig- 
 nee. 
 
 On epie la fortune, on travaille, 
 on se fatigue, on cherche 
 tous les moyens de la fixer ; 
 Sc, apres bien des soins, le 
 tombeau s' ouvre, Sc /' on s' 
 aper^oit trop tard que tout 
 ici bas n' est que vanite. 
 
 They speak in one way and of- 
 ten act in another. 
 
 Theij say, write, and assure, that 
 peace will soon be signed. 
 
 We watch fortune, we labour, 
 ive exhaust ourselves, we try 
 all means to fix her ; and, 
 after much anxiety, the grave 
 opens, and when too late, it 
 is discovered that all here 
 below is only vanity. 
 
 RULE in. 
 
 A&ive Pronouns, of whatever persons they be, ought to 
 be repeated before the Verbs to which they relate. 
 
 1st, When we pass from negation to affirmation, or fron^ 
 affrmation to negation* 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 833 
 
 2d, When the Verbs are connected by a Conjun6lion* 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Vous voulez 8c vgus ne voulez 
 
 pas tour a tour. 
 // ne parle pas quand il le faut, 
 
 & // parle quand il ne le faut 
 
 pas. 
 Elle n' est pas riche, mais elle 
 
 est jeune & belle. 
 Kous le recevons chez nous, 
 
 cependant nous ne pouvons 
 
 pas le souffrir. 
 
 You will and will not by turns. 
 
 He does not speak when it is 
 
 necessary, and speaks when 
 
 he should not. 
 She is not rich, but*^e is young 
 
 and handsome. 
 We receive him in our house, 
 
 yet nve cannot bear him. 
 
 Et and iii (when the Verb 
 an exception among the Conj 
 the suppression of the adlive 
 wKizh. follow. 
 
 is not used negatively) are 
 unctions ; for they require 
 Pronouns before the Verbs 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Vous aimez les complimens 8c 
 
 les entendez toujours avec 
 
 plaisir. 
 //donne & depense tout son 
 
 argent. 
 Je ne bois ni ne mange. 
 // n' invite ni ne revolt person- 
 
 ne chez lui. 
 
 You love compliments and al- 
 ways hear thenj with plea- 
 sure. 
 
 He gives and spends all his 
 money. 
 
 / neither drink nor eat. 
 
 //e neither invites nor receives 
 any body at his house. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 The aSlive Pronouns occurring without a mark of In- 
 terrogation, are in the three following cases, placed after 
 the Verb. 
 
 Ist^ They are placed after the seven following Verbs, 
 when they are joined with them only by way of pare fit he- 
 sis ; viz : dire^ repondre^ repliquer^ repartir^ continuer^ 
 poursiavre, «' eerier, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 \ ous voyez, dit-il, V etat af- 
 freux ou je suis reduit. 
 
 Pourquoi,lui re/iondis-jey neme 
 r avez-vous pas dit plutot ? 
 
 Je ne pouvais vous 1' apprendre 
 aiiparavant, lui re/iliquai-je. 
 
 You see, said he^ the frightful 
 condition I am reduced to. 
 
 Why, answered I to him, have 
 you not told it me sooner ? 
 
 I could not inform you of it 
 before, replied I to him. 
 
334 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Cependant, Im re/iartis-je brus- 
 quement, vous m' avez vu 
 plusieurs fois. 
 
 Oh ! continua-t-ilt je n' ai ja- 
 mais os6 le faire. 
 
 II fallait, poursuivis-je^ avec 
 chaleur,avoir plus de courage 
 avecle meilleurde vos amis. 
 
 Ah ! s' ccria-t-il^ avec 1* accent 
 de lapKisvivereconnaisance, 
 vous m' avez rendu trop de 
 services, pourqvie j' osasse 
 vous en demander un nou- 
 veau. 
 
 However, retorted /, you have 
 seen me many times. 
 
 Oh ! continued he^ I never 
 dared to do it. 
 
 You should, pursued 7, with 
 warmth, have more courage 
 with the best of your friends. 
 
 Ah ! exclaimed he^ with ex- 
 pressions of the liveliest 
 gratitude, you have rendered 
 me too many services, for 
 me to presume to ask a new 
 one. 
 
 2d, Principally after such expressions, as dusse-je^ 
 dut'il^hc, fussi'je^ fussieZ'Vous^ &c. puisse-t-il^ puissieZ' 
 vous, &c. in the Subjunctive, 
 
 Je r entreprendrai, 
 echouer. 
 
 II partira cette nuit, dut-il ^tre 
 assassine. 
 
 X>ussiez-vous m* en vouloir, je 
 vous dirai ma fa9on de pen- 
 ser. • 
 
 Fusse-je le seul de cette opin- 
 ion, cela ne m' empechera 
 pas de la manifester. 
 
 Fussiez-vous plus nombreux, 
 vous eprouverez de la resis- 
 tance. 
 
 Puisse-t-il se guerir de sa ma- 
 ladie Sc vivre encore long- 
 tems pour votre bonheur ! 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 dusse-je 
 
 I will undertake it, though I 
 should miscarry. 
 
 He will set off to night, though 
 he should be murdered. 
 
 Though you should bear me a 
 spleen, I will tell you my 
 way of thinking. 
 
 Though I ivere the only one of 
 that opinion, it will not pre- 
 vent me from manifesting it. 
 
 Though you nvere more nume- 
 rous, you will experience 
 resistance. 
 
 May he be cured of his illness 
 and yet live long for your 
 happiness ! 
 
 Remark, that if the subject were not an aSlhe Pronoun, 
 it should also be placed after the Verb, as in the two cases 
 above. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Rien n' est plus commun que 
 de prendre un engouement 
 passager pour de 1' amitie. 
 II faut, {dit Plutarque) avoir 
 mange un minot de sel avec 
 celui qu' on veut aimer. 
 
 Nothing is more common than 
 to take a momentary infatu- 
 ation for friendship. — We 
 must {says Plutarch) have 
 eaten three bushels of salt 
 with him we wish to love, 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY 
 
 155 
 
 Puissent tons les vrais citoyens 
 se reunir contre les mal-in- 
 tentionnes! 
 
 May all true citizens be united 
 against evil-minded people \ 
 
 3d, When the Verb is preceded by any of the follow- 
 ing Conjunctive words aussi^ peut-etre, autant, du moms, 
 au moins, en vain, encore, a peine. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La rose est la reine des fleurs ; 
 
 aussi Qst-elle V embleme de 
 
 la beaule. 
 II lui a manque essentielle- 
 
 ment ; aussi est-z7 tres-fa- 
 
 che. 
 Si vous allez chez lui a pre- 
 sent, peut-etre le trouverez- 
 
 -oous occupe. 
 Autant vaudrait-?/, une bonne 
 
 fois, lui dire ce qu' il en est. 
 
 On le soup^onnait d' etre le 
 chef de la conspiration, du 
 moins Gst-il certain qu' il 
 etait instruit du complot. 
 
 En cela, an moins ou du moins 
 diwiQZ'Vous raison. 
 
 En vain Iuip6rta-t-z7sesplain- 
 tes ; tout cela ne lui servit a 
 rien. 
 
 II a ete long-tems a se faire 
 prier, encore ne 1' a-t-f/ ac- 
 corde que de mauvaise 
 grace. 
 
 A peine Cesar fut-z7 entr6 au 
 Senat, que les conjures se 
 jeterent sur lui & le poign- 
 arderent. 
 
 The rose is the queen of floAV- 
 ers ; therefore it is the em- 
 blem of beauty. 
 
 He affronted him grossly ; 
 therefore he is very angry. 
 
 If you go to his house now, 
 perhaps you will find him en- 
 gaged. 
 
 /if would be as nvell, once for 
 all, to tell him how the mat- 
 ter stands. 
 
 They suspected him to be the 
 head of the conspiracy, at 
 least it is certain he was ac- 
 quainted with the plot. 
 
 In that, at k as t, you were yevy 
 right. 
 
 In vain did he lay his com- 
 plaints before him ; all that 
 was of no service to him. 
 
 He has been a long time en- 
 treated, yet he granted it 
 with a bad grace. 
 
 Scarce Cxsar had entered the 
 Senate, when the conspira- 
 tors rushed on and stabbed 
 him. 
 
 Remark, that in some of the above examples the Eng- 
 lish construction might have been safely followed, but at 
 much expense of the grace aud energy of the sentence. 
 
536 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY^ 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 The active Pronouns which are considered useless, in 
 English, in an Interrogation^ in which a Noun is the sub- 
 jedl of the Verkf must, in French, always be expressed. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 V^otre maitre est-z7 au logis ? 
 Mes souliers sont-z'/sdecrottes ? 
 Mesbas sont-z7s raccommodes ? 
 Votre montre va-t-^/Ze bien? 
 Votre soeur dessine-t-e//e bien ? 
 Ces demoiselles ont-elles un 
 
 maitre de musique ? 
 Le tailleur a-t-// apporte men 
 
 habit neuf ? 
 Votre marchande de modes a- 
 t-eile regu les nouvelles modes ? 
 Votre frere n' est-z7 pas arrive 
 
 des Indes ? 
 
 Is your master at home ? 
 
 Are my shoes cleaned ? 
 
 Are my stockings mended ? 
 
 Does your watch go well ? 
 
 Does your sister draw well? 
 
 Have these young ladies a mu- 
 sic-master ? 
 
 Has the tailor brought my new 
 coat ? 
 
 Has your milliner received the 
 new fashions ? 
 
 Is not your brother arrived 
 from the Indies ? 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 If the Verb used interrogatively were in the Jirst per- 
 son, and ended in ^, feeble, this e should be made open^ 
 by placing over it an accent aciitey owing to the weak syl- 
 lable je that follows it. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Reve-je ? Pens<?-je ? Dusse-je ? 
 
 Do I dream? 
 Should I ? 
 
 Do I think? 
 
 Should the Verb in the Jirst person be a monosyllable^ 
 terminated by two consonants^ the Pronoun ^^ cannot yb/- 
 low it ; thus you will avoid saying, dois-je ? mens-je P 
 sers-je ? Instead of it, you will place, to ask the question, 
 est-ce qu^ before the Verb preceded hy je and say : 
 
 JS.8t-ce que je sors ? Est-ce que 
 je mens ? Est-ce que je sers ? 
 
 Do I sleep ? Do I lie ? Do I 
 
 serve 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 137 
 
 Observe, that est-ce que^ which is a very familiar mode 
 of expression among the French, is applicable, in the 
 same manner, to other persons and temes of the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Est-ce que vous ecrivez ? Est- 
 ce que vous n' ecrivez pas ? 
 
 Est-ce qiC ii est venu ? Est-ce 
 qu' il n' est pas venu ? 
 
 Est-ce que votre frere obtiendra 
 permission ? 
 
 Do you Avrite ? Dont you 
 
 write ? 
 Is he come ? Is he not come ? 
 
 Will your 
 leave ? 
 
 brother obtain 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE TENTH. 
 OF THE PASSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULE L 
 
 PassheVroT\o\xns^ in French, 1st, immediately precede 
 the Verb. 2d, They must be repeated before every 
 Verb, in the sentence to which they belong. 
 
 EXAMPLES, 
 
 st, 
 
 II m' a dit cela — Je ne -vous ai 
 jamais dit cela. 
 
 Je vous apporte des fruits murs 
 — II nous ennuie beaucoup— 
 Je lui parlerai en particu- 
 lier — Je leur ferai entendre 
 raison. 
 
 2d, 
 
 Je vous aime & vous estime — 
 L' idee de ses malheurs le 
 poursuit, le tourmente &c /' 
 accable — Un fils bien eleve 
 ne s' arme jamais con t re 
 sonpere ; il/' aime, /'honore, 
 Sc /crespecte — On nous veille 
 & on nous observe. 
 
 1st, 
 
 He told me that — I never told 
 ijQu that. 
 
 I bring you ripe fruits — He 
 tires us much — I will speak 
 to him in private — I shall 
 make them listen to reason. 
 
 2d, 
 I love and esteem you — The 
 idea of his misfortunes pur- 
 sues, torments, and over- 
 whelms hiin — A son well 
 educated never rebels against 
 hisfadier ; he loves,honours, 
 and respects him — They 
 watch and observe us. 
 
 N. B. To the above rule. Verbs in tbe Imperative afford 
 an exception ; for which, see Rule IV. 
 
 VOL. II. XX 
 
358 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 If a Ferb be attended by two passive Pronouns, they 
 must both precede the Verb ; and the one affected by the 
 Preposition a (understood) corresponding to to expressed 
 {j)r understood) in English, should precede. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II me r a promis — Je vous la 
 montrerai.! — Elle nous les 
 renverra — Je crois qu' elle 
 ne -vous les renverra pas. 
 
 He promised it to me — I will 
 shew her or it to you — She 
 will send them back to us — • 
 I believe she will not send 
 them back to you. 
 
 RULE IIL 
 
 Should the two Pronouns belong both to the third per- 
 son, the contrary of what is required by the preceding 
 rule, takes place ; that is to say, the Pronoun before which 
 the Preposition a is understood, should follow the one 
 unattended by it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Nous le lui dirons— Vous les 
 leur avez promis — Je vous 
 assure que je ne les leur ai 
 pas promis — Je la lui pre- 
 senterai — Elle ne veut pas 
 que vous la lui presentiez. 
 
 We will tell it to him — You 
 have promised them to them 
 — I assure you that I have 
 not promised them to them 
 — I will introduce her to 
 him or to her — She will not 
 have you to introduce her 
 to him or to her. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 When either of the Pronouns k^ la^ les^ attended by thef 
 Pronouns disjunctive wo/, i^/,725z/5,?^ (??/*, /w/, or /ewr, become 
 the object of the Imperative unaccompanied with a nega^^ 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 339 
 
 the, ie, h, les should always respectivelj^^ precede the Pro- 
 nouns disjunctive and all of them be put after the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Donnez-/e moi — Envoyez-/<2 lui 
 — Pretez-/t « leur — Apporte z- 
 Us nous — Assurez-/es vous. 
 
 Give him or it to me — Send 
 her or it to him or to her— 
 Send thera to them — Bring 
 them to us — Make sure of 
 
 them* 
 
 It is to be noticed, that moi and toiy become me and te^ 
 when they are linked with en. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 en— Donne 
 de garde. 
 
 Cherchez-m' en— Donne-/' en ] Hunt some for we— Beware 
 
 I of it. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 When two Imperatives, without a negative, accompa- 
 nied by Pronouns, follow one another, we place xh^Jirst 
 Pronoun after the^mt Verb, and the ^ecowflf Pronoun be- 
 fore the second V^rb, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cherchez-/e & ltd dites que je 
 
 r attends. 
 Levtz-vow« 8c vous appretez a 
 
 sortir. 
 Pretcz-Ie moi ou me le vendez. 
 
 Look for him and tell hi?n I am 
 
 waiting for him. 
 Rise and make ready to go out. 
 
 Lend or sell it to me, 
 
 RULE VL 
 
 Should the Imperative be attended with a negative, the 
 Pronouns then occupy their natural place before the Verb, 
 in the same order as they do in the other tenses of the 
 Verb, and moi^ toi, become fne-, te, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ne me trompez pas — Ne te \ Dont deceive mc — Dont flatter 
 
 flatte pas ainsi. I thyself xhws, 
 
 Ne me le renvoyez pas encore, j Dont send it back to me yet. 
 
340 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Ne me la refusez pas, je vous 
 
 en conjure. 
 Ne nous le dites pas — Ne la 
 
 lui garde z pas. 
 Ne les leur accordez pas. 
 
 Dont refuse it to me^ I entreat 
 
 you. 
 Dont tell it to us — Dont keep 
 
 it for him or her. 
 Dont grant them to them. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 The elliptical terms y and en precede immediately the 
 Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR F. 
 
 y travaille depuis le matin 
 jusqu' au soir — N' y tra- 
 vaillez plus — Je vous y me- 
 nerai, si vous voulez — Non, 
 ne m' y menez pas — 'Y est- 
 il a cette heure ? — F reste- 
 xez-vous long-tems ? 
 
 I work at it from morning till 
 evening — Work at it no 
 more — I will take you there 
 if you chuse — No, dont take 
 me there — Is he there at 
 this time ? — Shall you stay 
 in it long ? 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR EJV. 
 
 Qu' en dites-vous maintenant ? 
 Il ne s' en repent point — II 
 avait-deux fils ; il lui en est 
 mort un — Combien e7i vou- 
 lez-vous ? — J' en veux seule- 
 ment trois douzaines — Ne 
 m' en apportez plus — Je ne 
 leur en demancle pas^ — En 
 venez-vous ? — ^Oui, j' en 
 viens. 
 
 What do you say to it now ? — . 
 He does not repent of it — 
 He had two sons, one of 
 them died — How many do' 
 you want of them ? — Three 
 dozens only — Dont bring me 
 any more of them — -I dont 
 ask any of them-—Do you 
 come from hence ? — Yes I 
 do. 
 
 Observe, that when y and en meet in the same phrase, 
 the former is alv^rays put jirst. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 N' t/ en a-t-il pas suffisam- 
 
 ment ? 
 Vous n' y en avez pas trop 
 
 mis. 
 Y en a-t-il qui le sachent ? 
 Je vous y en ferai tenir. 
 
 II vous y en portera davantage, 
 si nog,s le souhaitons. 
 
 Is there not plenty of it ? 
 
 You did not put too much of it 
 
 in it. 
 Is there any one that knows it l 
 I will forward some to you 
 
 there. 
 He will bring us some more 
 
 thither^ if we desire it. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 341 
 
 Remark, that in the Imperative, without a negative, y or 
 en follow the Verb ; and if they meet with a Pronoun,, they 
 are put after it. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR r. 
 
 Allez-y — Menez-nous y — Con- 
 duisez-les y — Rendez-vous 
 y — Fiez-vous y. 
 
 Go thither — Take us thither-"^ 
 Conduct them thither — Re- 
 pair thither — Trust to him 
 OY to it. 
 
 We dont say, however, as it would be too harsh, me- 
 nez-moi y, envoy ez-moi y ; but by placing y before, menez- 
 y moty envoyez-y vioi. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR EM 
 
 Donnez-lui en — Envoyez-nous 
 en — Gardez-vous en bien. 
 
 Give him some — Send us some 
 — Beware of it. 
 
 We do not say however for the same reason as with re- 
 gard to y^ donneZ'tnoi en, envoy ez-moi en, apportez-moi en ; 
 but donneZ'ra' en, envoyeZ'trC en, apportez-m! en, as has 
 already been noticed. 
 
542 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 O cS r- 
 ^ M ^ -^ 
 5« "^ Ph ^ «? 
 
 
 <l> 
 
 CO 
 
 03 
 
 3 
 
 <u 
 
 CO 
 
 CO ^ T3 
 Pi C! •*«* 
 
 Oh G ^ 
 
 :3 <" a 
 
 CO ^ § 
 
 -M bo . 
 
 ^ ^ t ^ 
 
 >^ ^ 
 
 ^ CO 
 
 ^ S ^ K 
 
 w cJ ^ S 
 
 (U '-v d c> 
 
 yj 03 5-1 •*-» 
 
 <^ .-^ ^ -Wi 
 
 
 o ^ 
 
 Ch^ 
 
 Pi u 
 
 
 fl o 
 
 • ^ n 
 
 
 S o u = 
 
 
 ,_ O 
 
 'r^ O 
 
 ,„ . ^ CO - 
 
 <^ ."S ^ r^ ^j (U 
 
 «u ?^ tf o ^ 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 
 -, 
 
 
 cS 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 c< 
 
 
 • 4-> 
 
 
 ^ vW 
 
 
 fi "^ 
 
 
 a> 
 
 
 tji C3 
 
 
 v« S 
 
 «-• 
 
 />.. T3 CO 
 
 . ^ 
 
 ^ « '^«; S, 
 
 to Ph 
 
 2-.^ ":0 S ^, 
 
 onnera. 
 nverra. 
 nerai-je ? 
 errai-je ? 
 
 * donne pas 
 
 * enverra p 
 donne rai-je 
 
 * enverrai-je 
 promet; il s' 
 procura; il 
 ** prometto 
 ne ** donne 
 1 ver rai-je ? 
 
 xJ <u c: > * * ^ 
 
 11* * ^^>^^11^^* 
 
 a . c ^ c 
 
 "^ A a ^ 
 en C *^ flj . .. 
 
 g !>. (3 !> CO CO CO 
 
 fi fl "ij w fi c > 
 
 VOU 
 
 s' e 
 s'y 
 lui. 
 leur 
 leui 
 
 « ^ co^ 
 
 
 "^ t^ S r. ^ ^ -Ji 
 
 ^^ ^^^S 
 
 <U ~ -^ >- = 5 ^ 
 c c D « 2 ° 
 
 S "7! CO CO CO 
 ^ ^ I0 ^ ii ii 
 
 >^ 
 
 tA 
 
 t»~. »> ^ CO ^ 
 
 CO ^ >-» 
 
 ^ CO ^SS^ 
 
 w ►^^ sT t. 
 
 d V r> »5 _, ^ ^^ 
 
 "^ ^ CO .^ ;3 3 
 
 '^ '-* OS a; ^ "^ CO 
 
 tn a :2 <u Hi 
 
 a> a> ^^ "^ ? 2 '^ 
 
 3 ""^ ■— ' I^ 1— H 1-i! 
 
 S Siiii S § ^ 
 
 ^ s^ ^^^^ 
 
 
 
 - >^ - 
 
 >^ ^>^ 
 
 ^ !^ ^ ^S :ii ii 
 
 " - ^ s- t. 
 
 
 '— >>.-r p p 
 
 ^ :U 2J - CO to CO 
 
 g <u ;^ -2 -^ ^ 
 
 ^^ ^^ -^ -^ 3 :3 p 
 
 JJ Ji <u u 
 
 '^ aj oj aj 1) 
 
 > C/: C/i H^h-U 
 
 ^.SHh;z;:;2;> 
 
 Uf: 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 34S 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE ELEVENTH, 
 
 OF THE DISJVKCTIVE PROJVOUJSTS. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The disjunctive Pronouns moi^ toiy luiy &c. are used in 
 the following circumstances. 
 
 1st, Before the words qui, que^ or seul 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Moi qui vous parle, je 1' ai vu 
 
 Lui seul etait present. EUe 
 
 seule r a fait. 
 Tot que j' aime & que je re- 
 
 specte. 
 
 / wAo speak to you, have seen 
 
 him or it. 
 He alone was present. She 
 
 alone has done it. 
 Thou whom I love and respect. 
 
 2d, After etre used affirmatively or interrogatively, 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Vous voulez absolument que 
 
 ce soit elle ou nous. 
 C est lui qui le dit & non pas 
 
 moi. 
 Non ; je vous assure que ce 
 
 w* est pas lui ; qui done ? 
 C est ou elle ou vous ou eux, 
 Est-ce toi ou moi ? parle. 
 
 You will have it absolutely that 
 
 it should be he or nve. 
 It is he nvho says so and not I. 
 
 No ; I assure you that it is 
 
 not he \ who then ? 
 It is either she^ you or they. 
 Is it thou or / ? speak. 
 
 3d, Before a Noun^ or a Verb used in opposition^ or 
 distinction to the first, and to enumerate the various parts 
 different persons had in a transaction* 
 
 Vous aimez la peche, & moi la 
 
 chasse. 
 Vous preferez 1' etude, lui 
 
 le jeu, & elle la danse. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 You love fishing, and / hunt- 
 ing. 
 
 You prefer study, he gaming> 
 and she dancing. 
 
344 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Lespassans Sclechirurgien ont 
 secouru le blesse ; eujc V 
 ont releve £c lui V a panse. 
 
 The by-passers and the sur- 
 geon assisted the wounded 
 man ; they raised him and 
 he dressed him. 
 
 Observe, that before je^ tu^ nous^ vous^ il, &c. the 
 corresponding Pronouns wzo/, toi, ?ious, vous, lui^ &c. may 
 be used in cases in which it is wished to give the sentence 
 great energy and precision ; and in these, taste, circum- 
 stances, and good writers, are the best guides. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Nous avons 1* un 8c 1' autre des 
 motifs puissans de 1' obli- 
 ge r ; moi^ je lui dois de la 
 reconnaissance pour des bi- 
 enfaits recus, Sc vous^ vous 
 esperez en recevoh*. 
 
 Toij tu oserais le faire ! Je n' 
 en crois rien. 
 
 JVous^ nous pensons ainsi ; mais 
 /wz, il pense tout autrement. 
 
 We have both powerful mo- 
 tives to oblige him ; / owe 
 him gratitude for benefits 
 received, and you hope to re- 
 ceive some from him. 
 
 Thou would st dare to do it I I 
 believe nothing of it. 
 
 We think so, but he thinks 
 quite differently. 
 
 4th, When they are united to Nouns or Pronouns by a 
 Conjundlion. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Mon domestique & moi^ nous 
 nous y rendrons sur le 
 champ. 
 
 Ma soeur & moz, nous y etions. 
 
 My domestic and /shall repair 
 thither immediately. 
 
 My sister and / were there. 
 
 5th, After a Preposition, as has already been noticed 
 in the first part of this volume, see page 59. 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 When a Verb relates to subjects of different persons, 
 the Pronouns siibjeSl are disjwiSiivc, and the Verb agrees 
 with the j^rs? person in preference to the second ^ and 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 347 
 
 with the second^ in preference to the third. The active 
 Pronouns must attend the Verb^ though they be omitted 
 in English, and we, through politeness, first name the per- 
 son to or of whom we are speaking, while we always 
 name ourselves last. 
 
 EXAI.IPLES. 
 
 Vous & moi nous sommes 
 
 bons amis. 
 Lui, votre frere, Sc moi, nous 
 
 lision s ensemble la no uve lie 
 
 brochure. 
 E!le 8c moi, nous sortimes pour 
 
 aller nous promener. 
 Vous, votre ami, £: son cousin, 
 
 vous viendrez me trouver. 
 
 You and I are good friends. 
 
 He, your brother, and I were 
 
 reading together the new 
 
 pamphlet. 
 She and I went out to take a 
 
 walk. 
 You, your friend, and his cousin 
 
 will call upon me. 
 
 It is natural to suppose that when superiors, such as a 
 father or a master, mention what they have done in con- 
 junction with a child or a servant, the Pronoun of the 
 first person is mentioned first^ which forms an exception 
 to the above rule ; so we may say : 
 
 Mot 8c mon fils. 
 
 Moi 8c mon domestique. 
 
 / and my son. 
 / and my servant. 
 
 It is essential to observe, that, if the subjects relating to 
 the Verb^ are all of the third person^ the Firr^, then, is not, 
 as in the above cases, preceded by a Pronoun active. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Lui Sc eux ne partiront point, 
 j' en suis sur. 
 
 Lui Sc ce monsieiLr que vous 
 voyez la-bas sont associes. 
 
 Lui 8c son frere apprennent le 
 Francais, V Aliemand, la 
 danse, 1' escrime, le dessin, 
 la tenue des livres, 8c les 
 mathematiques. 
 
 He and they will not set off, I 
 am sure. 
 
 He and that gentleman you see 
 yonder are partners. 
 
 He and his brother are learn- 
 ing French, German, dan- 
 cing, fencing, drawing, book- 
 keeping, and mathematics. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 Yy 
 
348 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE TWELFTH. 
 
 OF THE USE OF THE PRONOUNS LUI, EUX, ELLEy 
 ELLES, SE, LUI-MEME, SOL 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The personal Pronouns leur and /wi, eux^ elle^ elles^ act- 
 ed upon by a Preposition^ canwo^, in general, be used for 
 ajiimals or things^ but, when both the Pronoun and Pre- 
 position, cannot be rendered by any of the Adverbs and 
 Prepositions en, 2/, dessusy dedans^ aupres. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 La fortune de son frere va bi- 
 
 entot augmenter la sienne ; 
 
 il ne devait pas y compter 
 
 sitot, (and not) II ne devait 
 
 pas compter sitot sur elle. 
 En traversant le desert, j' en 
 
 avais grand' peiir, (and not) 
 
 j' avais grand' peur d' eux, 
 y en ai ete content, (and not) 
 
 j' ai ete content de lui, 
 Je m* en approchai, (and not) 
 
 je m' approchai d' elle, 
 Je m' y suis assis ou je mesuis 
 
 assis dessiis, (and not) je me 
 
 suis assis sur elle, 
 y y HI compte ou 'y ai compte 
 
 dessus^^'dud not)j' aicompt6 
 
 sur lui. 
 11 faut y opposer de la resis- 
 « tance, (and not) il faut leu?- 
 
 opposer, &CC. 
 J* y donne mon consentement, 
 
 (and net) jc lui donne, he, 
 ^lon bonheur en depend, (and 
 
 not) depend de luL 
 
 The fortune of his brother will 
 directly hicrease his own ; he 
 should not have counted on 
 it so soon. 
 
 In crossing the desert, I was 
 very much afraid of them-^ 
 (tygers). 
 
 I have been pleased with it — 
 (a poem). 
 
 I came near it, — (a table). 
 
 I sat upon it — (a chair). 
 
 I relied 2</io;2 it — (fair weather). 
 
 We must oppose resistance to 
 them — (beasts). 
 
 I give my consent to it — (a 
 
 proposition). 
 My happiness depends upon it | 
 
 — (a law suit). 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 349 
 
 Ne vous y fiez pas, (and not) 
 
 ne vous fiez pas a lui. 
 Servez-vous en, (and not) ser- 
 
 vez-vous de lui, 
 Ne crachez pas dessus, (and 
 
 not) ne crachez pas sur hd, 
 Ne montez pas dessus^ (and 
 
 not) ne montez pas sur luL 
 Je ne m' en suis pas encore 
 
 servi (and not) je ne me suis 
 
 pas encore servi de lui. 
 Nous allames camper aufires, 
 
 (and not) pres d' elle, 
 Vous pouvez etre sur que 1' 
 
 oiseau n' y est plus ou n* est 
 
 plus dedans, (and not) dans 
 
 elle. 
 Voyez-vous cette maison ? II 
 
 demeure vis-a-vis, (and not) 
 
 vis-a-vis d' elle* 
 
 Dont trustee 2V-*-(a bad bridge). 
 
 Make use of it — (a stick). 
 
 Dont spit ufion it-— {9. carpet). 
 
 Dont get on him — (a horse). 
 
 I have not yet made use of him 
 — (a horse). 
 
 We went to encamp near them 
 
 — (the army). 
 You may be sure that the bird 
 
 is no longer in it — (the 
 
 cage). 
 
 Do you see that house ? He 
 lives over against it* 
 
 After the Prepositions sans, avec or apres, the above 
 Pronouns acted upon by them, may be always properly 
 used for animals or things. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Elle en raffole, elle ne saurait 
 faire un pas sans lui. 
 
 On m* a dit qu' il ne sortait ja- 
 mais sans ses pistolets ; ce- 
 la est vrai, il ne sort jamais 
 sans eux. 
 
 Ce torrent est si rapide qu' il 
 entraine avec lui tout ce qu' 
 il rencontre ; il ne laisse 
 apres lui que du sable & des 
 cailloux. 
 
 Les plaisirs ne laissent sou- 
 vent apres eux que des re- 
 grets. 
 
 She dotes upon him, she can- 
 not go a single step without 
 him — (a lap dog). 
 
 I have been told that he never 
 went out without his pistols ; 
 it is true, he never goes out 
 without them. 
 
 This torrent is so rapid, that it 
 carries with it every thing 
 it meets with ; it leaves 
 nothing behind it but sand 
 and pebbles. 
 
 Pleasures often leave nothing 
 after them but regret. 
 
 In many other cases which custom alone can point out, 
 the above Pronouns may be used for things with other 
 Prepositions. 
 
 1st, With the Preposition a, in speaking of an enemy's 
 arniy, we say ; nous marchames d elle, wq marched up 
 
350 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY 
 
 to it : this is even the most proper way of expressing that 
 idea, in French. 
 
 2d, With de ; as, ces choses sont bonnes ^' elks memes^ 
 these things are good in themsehes, 
 
 3d, With pour ; as, J^ ainie la verity au point que je 
 sacrifierais tout pour elle^ I love truth to that degree that 
 I would sacrifice every thingybr it, 
 
 4th, With en ; as, ces raisons sont solidcs en ellcs 
 memes^ these reasons are solid in themselves, 
 
 Lui and leur^ without a Preposition, may apply to 
 animals or things^ as in the following phrases, and the 
 like. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ce cheval a faim, donnez-/za" 
 
 a manger. 
 Cette plante 8c ces Grangers 
 
 ont besoin d' eau ; il faut 
 
 leur en donner. 
 
 This horse is hungry, give/«/;z 
 'Something to cat. 
 
 That plant and these orange- 
 trees want water; 
 to be given to than 
 
 it ought 
 
 A man very fond of a house which he has embellished, 
 may say. 
 
 y ai fait de grandes depen- 
 ses; mais elle m' en dedom- 
 mage bien ; car je lui dois 
 toute ma sante Sc mon bien- 
 etre ; Je ne vivrais pas sans 
 elle. 
 
 I have there been at much ex' 
 pense ; but it has well in- 
 demnified me for it ; for to 
 it I owe my health and my 
 comfort ; I could not live 
 without it. 
 
 Onp may also say with great propriety. 
 
 Ce chien 8c ces oiseaux font 
 tout mon plaisir ; Je n' aime 
 qu' eiix } eux seuls font tout 
 mon amusement ; Je ne 
 songe qu' a cuoc. 
 
 This dog and these birds are 
 all my pleasure ; I love no- 
 thing but the-ai ; they alone 
 are my diversion ; I think 
 of nothino: else but them. 
 
 The English compound Pronouns, himself., herself it- 
 self themselves., are rendered, in French, when they serve 
 to make a verb reflected^ by .v^, as it has been evidenced 
 in the conjugation of .9' habiller, to dress onc^s self — But, 
 when they do not render the Verb refected^ they are ex- 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY 
 
 pressed by lid or lui'triSme; die or elle-meme; eux or eux^me'- 
 mes; elles or elles-memes, according to gender and number. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 He always speaks of himself 
 and never of others. 
 
 He told me he had spoken to 
 herself, to themselves. 
 
 II parle toujours de lid ou de 
 
 lui me7nc Sc jamais ties au- 
 
 tres. 
 II m' a dit qu' il avait parle a 
 
 elle meme, a eux-memes, a 
 
 elles memes. 
 
 One's self, himself, and herself, in the singular, used in 
 a vague and indeterminate sense, or after the indetermi- 
 nate words, one, people, every body, no body, rvhoever, &c. 
 and itself, applying to things determinate or indetermi- 
 nate, are rendered, in French, by soi. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 On doit travailler non seule- 
 ment pour soi, mais aussi 
 pour la societe. 
 
 Chacun pour soi, dit V egoiste. 
 
 Personne n' est sur de soi, 
 
 L' homme qui n' aime que 
 soi, ne se fait point d* amis. 
 
 Quiconque ne pense qu' a soi, 
 
 est indigne de vivre. 
 La vertu est aimable de soi. 
 L' aimant attire le fer a soi. 
 
 Cela est bon en soi. 
 
 One should not only work 
 for one's self, but also for 
 society. 
 
 Every one for one's self, says 
 the man who cares for no- 
 body but himself. 
 
 Nobody can answer for hi?n- 
 self . 
 
 The man who loves nobody 
 but himself, does not make 
 friends. 
 
 Whoever thinks only of him- 
 selfj is unworthy of living. 
 
 Virtue is amiable oi itself. 
 
 The loadstone attracts iron to 
 itself. 
 
 That is good in itself 
 
 Observe, that in speaking of persons, me?ne is very 
 commonly, and sometimes indispensably fl<f^e<5f to 5d?/, as 
 in the following examples : 
 
 Il ne faut pas se louer soi- 
 
 meffie, 
 II faut se rendre compte a soi- 
 
 meme. 
 Avoir un ami c' est avoir un 
 
 autre soi-meme. 
 
 One must not praise one's self 
 
 One should count with one*s 
 
 self 
 To have a friend is to have 
 
 another self. 
 
552 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE THIRTEENTH. 
 
 OF SOME DIFFICULTIES IN THE FRENCH 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 FIRST DIFFICULTY. 
 
 The word le is used, in French, to represent — 1st, A 
 part of a phrase or even a whole one — 2d, An Adjective 
 or Substantive taken Adjectively — 3d, A Substantive or 
 Adjective masculine taken Substantively. 
 
 In the two jirst instances le is an Adverb^ and of course 
 can suffer no alteration. In the third^ as it represents 
 a Suhstanthe or a Nouriy it is subject to the laws of con- 
 cordance, which require it should assume the gender and 
 number thereof. 
 
 1st, Le representing part of a phrase, or a whole Pro- 
 position. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Can you go to New Orleans? 
 
 If the public has had some in- 
 dulgence for me, I owe it 
 to your protection. 
 
 Fouvez-vous aller a la Nouvelle 
 Orleans ? Oui, je It puis. — 
 {^Le is used instead of y aller, 
 which is understood). 
 
 SJ le public a eu quelque in- 
 dulgence pour moi, je le 
 (dois a votre protection. — 
 (Je le dois is clearly equiva- 
 ient to, je dois que le public 
 ait eu quelque indulgence 
 pour moi). 
 
 " Si Rome a souvent meme estime mes efforts, 
 *VC* est u vous, ombre illustre, a vous que je le dois." 
 
 2d, Le representing an Adjective, or a Substantive taken 
 Adjectively. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Madame, etes-vo\is malade ? I Madam, are you sick I Yes, I 
 Oui, je le suis. | am (so). 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 359 
 
 Mesdemoiselles,^tes-vous mu- 
 
 siciennes? Oui,nous le som- 
 
 mes. 
 Messieurs, etes-vous hferitiers 
 
 du defunt ? Oui, nous le 
 
 sommes. 
 
 Young Ladies, arc you musi- 
 cians ? Yes, we are. f^oj. 
 
 Gentlemen, are you heirs of 
 the deceased l Yes, ive are 
 (so). 
 
 Passant I c' est un enfant, ton maitre. 
 II /' est, le fut, gu le doit etre, 
 
 Zaire es-tu Chretienne ? 
 
 Oui, Seigneur, je le suis. 
 
 N> B* In the above phrases the Adverb le is the corres- 
 pondent of the Adverb so^ which is understood in Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 3d, Le^ la^ or /e?, representing a Noun or an Adjective 
 taken Substantively^ according to circumstances of gender 
 and number. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Monsieur, etes-vous le mede- 
 
 cin ? Oui, je le suis. 
 Madame, etes-vous la malade ? 
 
 Oui, je la suis. 
 Mesdemoiselles, etes-vous les 
 
 musiciennes ? Oui, nous les 
 
 sommes. 
 Messieurs, etes-vous les heri- 
 
 tiers du defunt ? Non, nous 
 
 ne les sommes pas. 
 
 Sir, are you the physician? 
 Yes, I am. 
 
 Madam, are you the patient ? 
 Yes, I am. 
 
 Young Ladies, are you the mu- 
 sicians ? Yes, we are. 
 
 Gentlemen, are you the heirs 
 of the deceased ? No, we 
 are not. 
 
 N, B. In the Jirst example, le^ instead of being used 
 for an Adverb, is used to avoid the repetition of the 
 Noun medecin : it is the same in the other examples with 
 regard to la or les, 
 
 SECOND DIFFICULTY. 
 
 The words chaciin and leur present great and numer- 
 ous difficulties. But we shall not enter into a critical 
 investigation of the opinions of different grammarians 
 on that head ; for we cannot see what advantage could 
 be derived to the Scholar, to compensate for the e?inui 
 that might attend such a discussion. We shall, there- 
 fore^ pass on, and only give a few phrases wherein chacun 
 
354 SYNTAX MADE EASY 
 
 is put in its proper place, in order that they may serve as 
 a model for forming others similar thereto. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Chacune de ces charrettes a 
 
 perdu son essieu. 
 Chacune de ces femmes est 
 
 tres-attach6e a son mari. 
 
 Que chacun de nous prenne 
 
 son chapeau. 
 Que chacun de nous s' en ai- 
 
 lle chez soi. 
 Chacun s' en alia chez soi. 
 
 Each of these carts has lost its 
 axle-tree. 
 
 Each of these women is very 
 much attached to her hus- 
 band. 
 
 Let each of us take his hat. 
 
 Let each of us go to his house. 
 Every one went to his house. 
 
 Instead of the above phrases, the following less cor- 
 rect ones are frequently used in conversation and even in 
 'writing, 
 
 "Ces deux charrettes ont perdu chacune leur essieu (ou 
 
 leurs essieux). 
 Ces femmes sont tres-attachees chacune a kur mari (ou 
 
 a leurs maris). 
 Prenons, chacun notre chapeau (ou nos chapeaux). 
 AUons-nous en, chacun chez nous, 
 lis s' en allerent, chacun chez eux»" 
 
 It must strike every one who w ill reflect on the above 
 modes of expression, that leur or leurs^ elliptical terms 
 for ^' eux or d' elles^ relating to one of the three persons 
 plural^ can never be used after the distributive term 
 chacun^ because the latter, dividing by unities the Sub- 
 stantive which precedes it, will not allow the Substantive 
 which follows, to be construed with a word that imposes 
 upon it a relation in appertenance to a plurality^ which in 
 the hypothesis cannot exist any longer, since it has been 
 divided by unities : the foregoing phrases are, therefore, 
 contrary to sound Logic. 
 
 We will remark, with a judicious grammarian, that, 
 though one can never use leur^ lenrs^ after chacun^ it does 
 not follow one always can use son^ sa^ ses^ es one can by 
 no means, say ; ^' lis ont apporte chacun son offrande* This 
 is the rule — One cannot use son^ sa, ses^ whenever that 
 which precedes chacun^ does not offer a complete and 
 finished sense : whenever one cannot make out of what 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 355 
 
 precedes chacun^ a phrase from which, what follows this 
 distributive Article be independent. — One can only use 
 son^ sa^ ses, after chacun^ but when the latter is the sub- 
 ject of the phrase in which these possessive A.rticles are ; 
 It is, therefore, necessary that what precedes chaciin^ be 
 a complete phrase ; because one does not begin a new 
 phrase, till the preceding one is completed : therefore we 
 cannot say, 
 
 Ces deux charrettes ont perdu chacune son essieu. 
 Ces femmes sont tres-attachees chacune a son mari. 
 Prenons chacun son chapeau. 
 
 fCes deux charrettes ont perdu 
 
 because < Ces femmes sont tres-attachees 
 
 (^ Prenons 
 
 are not complete phrases : every Verb which terminates 
 them is in want of a complement* — But on the contrary, 
 one may say. 
 
 lis ont tous apporte des of- 
 frandes, chacun selon ses 
 moyens. 
 
 lis ont tous juge differemment, 
 chacun selon ses intercts. 
 
 lis passerent tous en revue de- 
 vant r Inspecteur, chacun a 
 son tour. 
 
 Elles partirent pour Paris, 
 chacune dans sa voiture. 
 
 They have all brought offer- 
 ings, each according to his 
 means. 
 
 They have all judged differ- 
 ently, each according to his 
 interests. 
 
 They were reviewed by the 
 Inspector, each in its turn. 
 
 They all set off for Paris, each 
 in her coach. 
 
 J C lis ont tous apporte des offrandes- 
 
 \ lis ont tous juge differemment — 
 
 are complete phrases : the words following chacwi are not 
 necessary to the fulness of the sense thereof; chacun be- 
 gins a new phrase, to express a circumstance of the action 
 which is expressed in the first. — This circumstance is 
 necessary to the full expression of the thought ; but it is 
 not so to fix the just signification of the words which 
 precede this distributive Article. 
 
 lis ont tons apporte des ojfrandes an temple, chacun selon 
 ses moyens. — That is to say, 
 
 lis ont tous apporte des offran- 
 des au temple, £c chacun en 
 a apporte selon ses movons. 
 
 They have all brought offer- 
 ings to the temple, and 
 every one has brought some 
 
 VOL. II. Z 2 
 
 according to his means. 
 
356 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY* 
 
 We might here, indeed, indulge ourselves with some 
 criticisms on the modes of expression relative to chaciin^ 
 used by several writers : — But, after what has already been 
 said on this subject, it would be rather a matter of gram- 
 matical curiosity than of real utility ; for the above rules, 
 supported by practice, will solve, I believe, every diffi- 
 culty concerning chacun, 
 
 THIRD DIFFICULTY. 
 
 ^elque^ signifying tho*^ altho*^ -whatever^ whatsoever^ 
 however^ or howsoever^ in English, is an Adverb^ when it 
 is placed before an Adjective separated from its Noun^ 
 and is, therefore, invariably quelque : — It always requires 
 the Verb in the subjunctive preceded by the Conjunction 
 que. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quelque riches gu' ils soient, 
 ils ont toujours peur de man- 
 que r. 
 
 Quelque bonnes que soient vos 
 raisons, on ne les ecoutera 
 pas. 
 
 Quelque ruses qu' ils parais- 
 sent, ils sont quelquefois 
 trompes. 
 
 Though they be ever so rich, 
 
 they are always afraid of 
 
 being in want. 
 yllt hough your reasons be ever 
 
 so good, they will not be 
 
 heard. 
 However cunning they appear, 
 
 they are sometimes taken 
 
 in. 
 
 *' Quelque brillans que soient les dons de la fortvme, 
 " La vertu les efface, elle seule a du prix. " 
 
 But, if quelque^ with the same meaning as above, be 
 placed before a plural Noun, either by itself or joined 
 to an Adjective^ it takes the mark of the plural^ as it then 
 becomes an Adjective, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quelques fautes qu^ il ait com- 
 mises, je lui pardonnerai. 
 
 Queljuen heurcux talens que 
 vous ayez vous ne reussi- 
 rcz jamais sana applica- 
 tion. 
 
 V/hatever faults he may have 
 committed, I will forgive 
 him. 
 
 IVhatever happy talents you 
 may have, you v/ill never 
 succeed without application. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY, 
 
 35r 
 
 ^lelque is followed by qui with the subjunctive in the 
 following examples and the like : 
 
 Quelques avantages qui lui 
 soient offerts, il ne les ac- 
 ceptera pas. 
 
 Whatever advantages may be 
 offered to him, he will not 
 accept of them. 
 
 " Quelques prix glorieux qui lui soient proposes ; 
 " Quels lauriers me plairont de son sang arroses ?" 
 
 In the French language, when the Verb etre is used, 
 the construction of the phrase will not admit, sometimes, 
 of a Noun or Adjective being interposed between quelque 
 and the Verb ; then quelque becomes quel que governing 
 the subjunctive^ and quel is liable to gender and number. 
 
 The following examples will point to the scholar in 
 what circumstance that mode of expression may be used, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II ne veut entendre parler 
 
 d' aucun accommodement, 
 
 quel qu* il puisse etre. 
 Quelles que soient les nouvelles, 
 
 faites m' en part. 
 Envoyez-moi ces marchan- 
 
 dises, quelles qiC elles soient. 
 Quels que soient vos amis, 
 
 vous ne 1' obtiendrez pas. 
 Quelle ywesoit cette demoiselle, 
 
 elle est bien mal-honnete. 
 Je ne me soucie pas de lui, 
 
 quel qu^ il soit. 
 
 He will not hear of any ac- 
 commodation, nvhatever it 
 may be. 
 
 Whatever the news may be, 
 impart it to me. 
 
 Send me those goods, nvhat- 
 ever they may be. 
 
 Whoever your friends may be, 
 you will not obtain it. 
 
 Whoever this young lady be, 
 she is very impolite. 
 
 I do not care for him, ivhoever 
 he may be. 
 
 " Mais quel que soit 1' etat ou ton penchant t' appelle, 
 " Que la probite soit ta compagne fidelle.'-' 
 
 " Quel que soit V interet qui fait parler la reine, 
 
 " La reponse. Seigneur I doit-elle etre incertaine ? " 
 
 FOURTH DIFFICULTY. 
 
 Tout^ when it corresponds to the Adverbs* quite, en- 
 tirely^ or the Conjunctions tho\ altho\ &:c. is invariable ; ex- 
 cept when it precedes an Adjective feminine beginning 
 with a consonant, or h aspirated, as custom requires, that 
 it should then assume the inflection of the Adjective, 
 
35S 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Observe, that when tout corresponds to the above con- 
 junctions, the Adjective is follow edhj que ^ which governs 
 the Verb in the indicative. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cette femme fut toute sur- 
 prise. 
 
 Elle a la figure toute halee. 
 
 Elles furentifow/espenetrees de 
 douleur. 
 
 Elle etait toute honteuse. 
 
 Toute charmante qu^ elle est. 
 
 Toute malade qu' elle etait, 
 elle est parfaitement guerie. 
 
 Toutes hardies qiC elles sont. 
 
 Toute femme que je suis. 
 
 Toute voire amie qu' elle est. 
 
 This woman was quite sur- 
 prised. 
 
 Her face is quite sunburnt. 
 
 They were quite overwhelmed 
 with grief. 
 
 She was quite ashamed. 
 
 Although she is charming. 
 
 Sick as she was, she is per- 
 fectly cured. 
 
 Although they are bold. 
 
 Although I am a woman. 
 
 Although she is your friend. 
 
 But, before a vorvcl or an h mute^ and before an Adjec- 
 tive masculine plural, it remains invariably tout. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Elle fut to7it etonnee. 
 
 Elles etaient tout habillees de 
 
 blanc. 
 lis etaient tout interdits. 
 
 lis etaient tout mouilles. 
 Tout innocente qu* elle etait. 
 Tout humble qu' elle est. 
 Tout airQables qu' elles sont. 
 Tout sages qu* ils sont. 
 Tout charmans qu' ils parais- 
 sent etre. 
 
 She was quite astonished. 
 
 They were entirely dressed in 
 white. 
 
 They were quite thunder- 
 struck. 
 
 They were quite wet. 
 
 Although she was innocent. 
 
 Although she is humble. 
 
 Though they are amiable. 
 
 Although tliey are v/ise. 
 
 Although they appear to be 
 charming. 
 
 The Adjective tout, on the contrary, is always obedient 
 to the laws of concordajice. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Elles furent toutes etonnees. 
 Elles etaient ^3w;c5 habillees de 
 
 blanc. 
 lis etaient tous interdits. 
 Ils furent tou^ mouilles. 
 
 They were all astonished. 
 They were all dressed in white. 
 
 They were all thimder-struck. 
 They were cdl wet. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 359 
 
 FIFTH DIFFICULTY. 
 
 Meme^ a Pronoun singular, after moi^ toi, soi, hit, ellcy 
 takes the mark of the plural^ after nous^ votis, euxy elles; 
 and is always joined to the above Pronouns hy^i hyphen: 
 it is used to give more energy to the expression. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Moi-m<?me, tdi-meme, soi-me/ne, lui-nieme, elle-meme, nous- 
 memesj Yous-memes, eux-?nemes, e\\es-?neme8. 
 
 " Soyons vrais ; de nos maux n' accusons que nous- 
 memes, ** 
 
 When meme answers to same^ it is an Adjective^ and, of 
 course, is liable to all the accidents thereof. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le meme homme ; la meme 
 
 femme. 
 Les memes sentimens ; les 
 
 mejnea raisons. 
 
 The same man ; the same wo- 
 man. 
 
 The same sentiments ; the 
 same reasons. 
 
 Meme answering to eiien is an Adverb^ and, therefore, 
 does not vary. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 " L* estime & le respect sent les justes tributs 
 
 " Qu' aux cceurs meme ennemis arrachent les vertus. '* 
 
 Observe, that memc^ same, in a comparative sense, re- 
 quires que : therefore, St. Evremond, in speaking of the 
 Romans, instead of saying, 
 
 Les esclaves s' animaient du 
 meme esprit de leur maitre, 
 
 The slaves were animated 
 with the same spirit as their 
 master, 
 
 Should have said, 
 
 " Les esclaves s' animaient du 77ie7)ic esprit gue leur 
 maitre." 
 
!60 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 SIXTH DIFFICULTY. 
 
 L* un r autre, P unc /' autre ; les uns Ics autres, ^c. an- 
 swering to o?ie another, in English, is used whenever the 
 Verb reJleElivc becomes reciprocaU 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 lis s' alment /' un V autre de- 
 
 piiis leur enfance. 
 Nous devons nous aider les uns 
 
 les autres. 
 
 They love one another since 
 
 their youth. 
 We should help one another* 
 
 " En ce monde, il se faut V un V autre secourir." 
 
 When a Preposition is to affect one another, V un 1' au- 
 tre, it is, in English, placed before it ; but, in French, it 
 is placed between /' un and /' autre. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 lis se sont donne le mot les 
 
 uns auoo autres. 
 lis travaillerent comme a 
 
 r envi r un de 1' autre. 
 
 lis briilerent les vaisseaux les 
 ims (lea autres. 
 
 They gave the word to one 
 
 another. 
 They worked as if it were 
 
 through emulation of one 
 
 another. 
 They burnt the vessels o/'each 
 
 other. 
 
 SEVENTH DIFFICULTY. 
 
 V un & /' autre, both, requires the Verb which re- 
 lates to it always in the plural, notwithstanding the au- 
 thority of some Grammarians, who, countenanced by 
 some writers and even by the French Academy, pretend 
 that the Verb may be either singular ov plural ; but Logic, 
 stronger than all grammatical authorities put together, 
 joined to polite practice, reproves the latter construction, 
 and only admits* the former now. 
 
 L* un Sc r autre voii'i o7it 
 
 oblige. 
 L' un Sc i' autre sent mau- 
 
 vais. 
 L' un & r autre ont ete 
 
 payes. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Both have obliged you. 
 Each of them are bad. 
 They tvere both paid. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 361 
 
 / 
 Remark, that the Preposition, which in /' un P autre 
 can only affect /' autre^ affects both /' un and /' autre. 
 
 II est ami de V un &; de V 
 
 autre. 
 J' ai parle a 1' un & a 1' 
 
 autre. 
 EUe n' a voulu ni des uns ni 
 
 des autre s. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 He is a friend to both. 
 
 I spoke to both. 
 
 She would have none o/'them. 
 
 Ni r un ni /' autre, neither, follows the same syntax with 
 /' un &. /' autre^ 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ni r un, ni 1' autre ne vie7i- 
 
 dront. 
 Ni r un, ni 1' autre ne vous 
 
 ont trompe. 
 Je n* ai parle ni a V un ni a 
 
 V autre. 
 
 Neither of them nvill come. 
 
 Neither of them has deceived 
 
 you. 
 I spoke to neither q/*them. 
 
 Observe, that /' un ou P autre^ either, requires the Verb 
 should be in the aingular : and the same Preposition should 
 be used before both /' un and /' autre. 
 
 Scholar. 
 To say that a woman appears to be good ; which of th J^ 
 two following modes of expression must be used in 
 
 French t 
 
 Cette femme a 1' air bon, ou I This woman has a good-natur- 
 Cette femme a 1' air bonne. \ ed countenance. 
 
 Master. 
 
 As the Verb a and /' air^ though constituting a com- 
 pound expression, express but the single idea which may 
 be represented by the Verbs semble, parait ; and as the 
 Adjective bon is not used to qualify merely the rt/r, but 
 the -woman herself; whose air announces the moral quality 
 which is affirmed of her : I think that a preference must 
 be given to " Cette femme a I' air bonne^"* though almost 
 every Grammarian be in favour of the other mode of ex- 
 pression. 
 
 If, instead of saying, " cette femme a /' air," you had 
 said, "cette femme azmair, Sec." ^o^J instead of ^57i/]^ must 
 
3G2 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 necessarily be used, because the qttalit^ is no longer af- 
 firmed of the woman, but of the air itself. 
 
 Observe, one should not confound " avoir 1' air man- 
 vais,^^ to look ill-natured, with " avoir mauvais air," to 
 have a mean appearance ; as the former relates to the 
 moral character of a person, and the latter to appearance. 
 Also, that the former mode of expression requires before 
 air the Article, which the latter does not admit. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Cleon, lorsque vous nous bravez, 
 
 En demontant votre figure, 
 Vous n' avez pas 1' air mauvais; je vous jure, 
 
 C est mauvais air que vous avez. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE FOURTEENTH. 
 
 OJ\r THE USE OF THE TEJVSES AJVD THEIR COR- 
 RESPOJVDEJVCE WITH EACH OTHER. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 This tense is used, 1st, to denote an actual state, as, 
 
 Je suis fache de tout ce qui I I am sorry for all that has hap- 
 vous est arrive. | pened to you. 
 
 2d, It is used in propositions of eternal truth, as. 
 
 Dieu seul est tout puissant. 
 Les trois angles d' un triangle 
 valent deux angles droits. 
 
 God alone is almighty. 
 The three angles of a triangle 
 are equal to two right angles. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 363 
 
 3d, It is used in lieu of the future in the following 
 phrase and the like. 
 
 Je fiars demain pour la Nou- I J ^et out to-morrow for New- 
 velle-York. p York. 
 
 It is here proper to mention, that " je pars demain and 
 je partirai demain" do not convey exactly the same idea ; 
 the latter meaning, that one intends or one is disposed to 
 set off, while the former expresses along with it a de- 
 gree of impatience that the circumstance should take 
 place. 
 
 The same difference also exists, but rather in a more 
 pointed manner, between the two modes of expression. 
 
 Finissez-VQXMs, bientot ? and, 
 Finirez-yovi% bientot ? 
 
 Do you finish soon ? 
 Will )'OU soon hfrve done ? 
 
 The first expresses a fit of impatience^ while the second 
 may be dictated by mere curiosity* 
 
 4th, It is often used in the recital of an event instead 
 of the past tense — The present^ by rendering the event 'in 
 some degree visible, highly enhances the interest it may 
 inspire, and makes the hearer feel, at least, a part of the 
 sensations he would have experienced, had he been a 
 spectator. 
 
 Here is an instance of the present., being used for the 
 past^ taken from Telemachus. — Adoam^ after having re- 
 lated various circumstances attending the death oi Pyg- 
 malion^ goes on in the following manner. 
 
 Cependant tout la palais est 
 plein d' un tumulte affreux ; 
 en entend par-tout les cris 
 de ceux qui disent : le roi 
 est mort. Les uns sont ef- 
 frayes, les autres convent eux 
 armes ; tous paraissent en 
 peine des suites, mais ravis 
 de cette nouvelle. La re- 
 nommee la fait voler, de 
 bouchc en bouche,danstoute 
 la grande villa de Tyr, Sc il 
 ne se trouvc pas un seul 
 homme qui regrette le roi : 
 sa mort est la dalivrance Sc 
 la consolation de tout le 
 peuple. 
 
 VOL. II. A 
 
 In the mean time, the palace 
 /* in the utmost confusion, 
 and on all sides are heard 
 the cries : the king is dead. 
 Some are terrified ; others 
 run to arms ; and all seem 
 in pain for the consequen- 
 ces, but overjoyed at the 
 news. Fame carries it from 
 mouth to mouth, throughout 
 all the great city of Tyre, 
 and there is not a single 
 person who laments the 
 king : his death is the de- 
 liverance and consolation of 
 all the people. 
 
 a a 
 
J64 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 But, it is in Poetry, that the present animates with a 
 peculiar degree of energy, and graces the recital of a trans- 
 lation : witness the following magic lines of the immor- 
 tal Racine, wherein Th^ramene relates to Theseus the 
 death of his son HyppolituS* 
 
 « Un effroyable cri, sorti du fond des flots, 
 
 Des airs, en ce moment, a trouble le repos ; 
 
 Et, du sein de la terre, une voix formidable 
 
 Repondy en gemissant, a ce cri redoutable. 
 
 Jusqu* au fond de nos coeurs notre sang s' est glace. 
 
 Des coursiers attentifs le crin s' est herisse. 
 
 Cependant, sur le dos de la plaine liquide, 
 
 S' Sieve a gros bouillons une montagne humide. 
 
 U onde approche^ se brise^ & vomit a nos yeux, 
 
 Parmi des flots d' ecume, un monstre furieux. 
 
 Son front large est arme de cornes menacantes ; 
 
 Tout son corps est convert d' ecailles jaunissantes. 
 
 Indomptable taureau, dragon impetueux, 
 
 Sa croupe se recourhe en replis tortueux ; 
 
 $es longs mugi&semensybw; trembler le rivage. 
 
 Le ciel avec horreur voit ce monstre sauvage. 
 
 La terre s' en emeut^ V air en est infecte, 
 
 Le fiot qui 1' apporta recule epouvante. 
 
 Toxxifidt ; Sc, sans s' armer d' un courage inutile, 
 
 Dans le temple voisin chacun cherche un asile. 
 
 Hippolyte lui seul, digue fils d' un heras, 
 
 ^Irrete ses coursiers, .sa^'s^V ses javelots, 
 
 Pousse au monstre, &, d' un dard lance d' une main sure, 
 
 11 lui fait dans le ftanc une large blessure. 
 
 De rage & de douleur le monstre bondissant 
 
 Vient aux pieds des chevaux tomber en mugissant, 
 
 Se roule^ & leur presente une gueule enflammee, 
 
 Qui les couvre de feu, de sang Sc de fum6e. 
 
 La fiayeur les emporte / &, sourds acette fois, 
 
 lis ne reconnaissent plus ni le frein, ni la voix. 
 
 En efforts impuissans leur maitre se consume. 
 
 lis roiigisseJit le mords d' une sanglante ecume. 
 
 On dit qu' on a vu meme, en ce desordre aifreux, 
 
 Un dieu qui d* aiguillons pressait leur flanc poudreux- 
 
 A travers les rochers la peur les precifiite, 
 
 L' essieu crie & se rompt, L' intrepide Hippolyte 
 
 Voit voler en eclats tout son char fracasse. 
 
 Dans les renes lui-meme il tombe embarrasse. 
 
 Excuse z ma douleur. Cette image cruelle 
 
 Ssra pourmoi de pleurs une source eternclle* 
 
 J' ai vu, Seigneur, j' ai vu votre malheureux iils 
 
 Traine par ks cbevuux que sa m:>in a nourris. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 365 
 
 II veut les rappeller, & sa voix les effraie» 
 
 lis courent. Tout son corps n' est bientot qu' une plaiee. 
 
 De nos cris douloureux la plaine retentit, 
 
 Leur fougue impetvieuse enfin se ralentit, 
 
 lis 6-' arretent^ non loin de ces tombeaux antiques, 
 
 Ou des rois ses aieux sont les froides rcHques. 
 
 Je cours^ en soupirant, & sa garde me suit, 
 
 De son genereux sang la trace nous conduit, 
 
 Les rochersen sontteints ; les ronces degouttantes 
 
 Portent de ses cheveux les depouilles sanglantes. 
 
 J' arrive^ je T afifielle ; 5c me tend ant la main, 
 
 Jl ouvre un ceil mourant qu' il referme soudain." 
 
 Phedre, Acte V. Sc. VI. 
 
 The following tenses correspond with the Present of 
 the Indicative. 
 
 f Vous partez, aujourd hui, pour Rome. 
 Vous partirez, demain, 
 ^"ous partiez, hier, quand je vous rencontrai, 
 
 On dit que< 
 
 Vous partitcs, hier 
 Vous etes parti, ce matin. 
 Vous etiez parti, hier, avantmoi. 
 
 Vous fussiez parti, plutot, si 
 
 Vous partiriez, aujourd'hui, si 
 
 .Vous seriez parti, hier, si 
 
 OBSERVATION. 
 
 The same correspondence takes place when the sentence 
 is negative^ except in the present of the Indicative which 
 is supplied by the present of the Subjunctive ; example : 
 On ne dit pas que vous partez aujourd'hui, would be a 
 discordance in grammar ; the genius of the French lan- 
 guage requires that we should say, On ne dit pas que 
 vous partiez aujourd'hui. We shall soon treat more at 
 length on that subject. 
 
 PRESENT ANTERIOR. 
 
 This tense, as well as the Present anterior periodical, 
 has been, in treating on the Verb, so clearly characterised, 
 with regard to the functions it performs, that I could say 
 but little here without repeating what has already been 
 said. We shall, therefore, only mention here the tenses 
 which correspond with it. 
 
366 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 They are the Present Anterior^ the Present Anterior 
 Periodical, and the Past of the Indicative. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je lisais, quand vous entriez. 
 
 Je lisais hier quand vous entrdtes. 
 
 Je lisais, il n* y a qu' un instant, quand vous etes entre. 
 
 THE PAST ANTERIOR. 
 
 This tense corresponds with the Past, Present Anterior 
 Periodical, Past Anterior Periodical, and Present Anterior 
 of the Indicative. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 f quand vous etez entre, 
 T, • / J quand vous entrdtes, 
 
 ] quand vows jutes entre. 
 
 The Past Anterior Periodical corresiponds w^ith the Pre- 
 sent Anterior Periodical of the same mood. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quand j' ens dit ma le9on, 
 
 vous commenc^dtes, 
 Apres que j' eus aime les jeux 
 
 d' enfant, je m* afifiliquai a 
 
 des choses plus importan- 
 
 tes. 
 
 When I had said my lesson, 
 you began. 
 
 After I had loved children's 
 plays, I afiplied myself to 
 things of more importance. 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 
 
 Those tenses, though seldom used, are necessary, how- 
 ever, to express with all possible precision the moment 
 when an action (the existence of which is yet unknown) 
 began. 
 
 I refer you for further information on that subject to 
 page 194. 
 
 They are exemplified as follows : 
 
 rj' ai (?M ^ r 
 
 Quand < J' eus eu L dine, X vous entrdtes. 
 
 vous etez entre, 
 vous entrdtes, 
 (^J' Uurai eu J (_vous entrerez. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 367 
 
 Apres que j' ai eu fait mon 
 dernier voyage, je me sids 
 mis a r etude des langues 
 vivantes, par necessite. 
 
 S' il avait eu aime V art mili- 
 taire, avant de s* y engager, 
 il aurait fait plus d' ex- 
 ploits. 
 
 After I had performed my 
 first voyage, I betook my- 
 self to the study of the liv- 
 ing languages, through ne- 
 cessity. 
 
 Had he have loved the military 
 art before he engaged in it, 
 he ivould have done greater 
 exploits. 
 
 THE CONDITIONAL. 
 
 This tense in the Present corresponds to the Present 
 Anterior of the Indicative. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Vous sortiriez, si je 1* exigeais. 
 
 You nvotUd go out, should I re- 
 quire it, or if I should re- 
 quire it. 
 
 In the Pasty it corresponds to the Past Anterior of the 
 Indicative^ or to the Past Anterior of the Subjunctive. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Vous lui auriez accorde cette 
 grace, s' il 1' avait, ou s* il 
 r eUt demoTidee 
 
 You would have panted him 
 this favor, if he had asked it. 
 
 In the Past comparative, it corresponds to the Past an- 
 terior of the Indicative or that of the Subjunctive. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 J' aurais eu fni long-tems 
 avant vous, si je n' avais 
 pas ete interrompu, ou si je 
 n' eusse pas ete interrompu. 
 
 I should have done long before 
 you, had I not been inter- 
 rupted. 
 
 • The following tenses correspond to the Conditional 
 Past. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je croyais 
 J' ai cru 
 Je crus 
 J' avais cru 
 J' aurais cru 
 
 que vous «e- 
 riez parti. 
 
 I did believe 
 I have believed 
 I believed 
 
 I had believed ^have set off 
 I would have ( 
 believed. J 
 
 that you wow/rf 
 
S€8 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE FIFTEENTH. 
 
 Oj\r THE SUBJUJVCTIVE. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES, NOUNS, AND VERBS, WHICH IMPOSE 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE FORM TO THE NEXT VERB. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 ^h ^"^? ^"7 sei'ving to connect a Verb with 
 pcrlative^ impose the Subjunctive form to the Verb* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 su^ 
 
 C est le pcrsonnage le plus 
 
 suffisant que y aie jamais 
 
 rencontre. 
 C est r homme le plus obiige- 
 
 ant dont j' aie jamais qui 
 
 parler. 
 Ce sent les plus belles marchan- 
 
 dises qui aiejit ete envoyees. 
 Voila bien le meilleur vin que 
 
 j' aie jamais bu. 
 C est le combat le plus meur- 
 
 trier ou cet officier ait com- 
 
 mande. 
 
 He is the most conceited man 
 I ever met with. 
 
 He is the most obliging man 
 
 ever hecLrd of. 
 
 that 
 
 They are the finest goods 
 have been sent. 
 
 That is, indeed, the best wine 
 I ever drank. 
 
 It is the most bloody battle in 
 which this oSicer command- 
 ed. 
 
 RULE 11. 
 
 ^/, que, oh, generally govern the Subjunctive after 
 the words seul, unique, premier, dernier, pas un, aucun, per- 
 so7ine, rien, peu, qui que ce soit, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C est le sctd ami qui ^^us 
 
 soit reste fidele. 
 C est le seul, V unique souvenir 
 
 qui puisGc nous consoler. 
 
 He is the only friend that re- 
 mained faithful to you. 
 
 It is the 07ily, the sole remem- 
 brance that can console us. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 ;69 
 
 Cet auteur est le premier qui 
 en fasse mention. 
 
 La lettre du Dr. Priestely a 
 Jacques Logan, Senateur 
 des Etats-Unis, est une des 
 demiere8 que ce grand hom- 
 me ait ecrites. 
 
 II n' a trouve fiaa un^ ou aucun 
 domestique qui veuille le 
 servir. 
 
 Je ne connais ^<?r«'072we qui vous 
 8oit plus bincerement at- 
 tache. 
 
 Y a-t-il rien qui soit plus in- 
 decent que r habillement 
 des femmes d* aujourd' hui. 
 
 n est fieu de plaisirs qui ne 
 aoient suivis de quelques re- 
 mo rds. 
 
 A qui que ce soit que vous vous 
 adreasiez^ parlez hardiment. 
 
 This author is the ^rat that 
 mentions it. 
 
 The letter of Dr. Priestley to 
 James Logan, a Senator of 
 the United States, is one of 
 the last this great man nvrote. 
 
 He could not find any servant 
 that would wait upon him. 
 
 I do not know of any body^ 
 who is more sincerely at- 
 tached to you. 
 
 Is there any thing more in- 
 decent than the dress of the 
 women now-a-days. 
 
 There are fenv pleasures that 
 are not followed by some re- 
 morse. 
 
 Whomsoever you address your- 
 self to, speak boldly. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 When after s/, que is used, instead of repeating */, it 
 then imposes the Subjunctive form on the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 «S' il arrive en Angleterre, 8c 
 qu* il veuille y faire quelque 
 sejour, il faudra qu' il obti- 
 enne 1' agrement du Gou- 
 vemement. 
 
 Si vous venez dans notre pays 
 8c que vous y demeuriez quel- 
 que tems, j' espere que nous 
 aurons souvcnt le plaisir de 
 vous voir. 
 
 If he arrive in England and 
 wish to sojourn there some 
 time, he must obtain the 
 consent of Government. 
 
 If you come in our country 
 and live there some time, I 
 hope, that we shall often 
 have the pleasure of seeing 
 you. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 After all Verbs, which express dcubt^ fior^ desire^ uri' 
 certainty^ the action of commanding^ aupposing ; some 
 paaaiQUy aff'edlion ; or, in a more general terms, that belong 
 
oro 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY, 
 
 to the dominion of the heart or the will ; quE, imposes 
 the subjunHive form on the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je veux qu' il s' y rende sur le 
 
 champ. 
 Je doute qu' il y aille. 
 Su/ifiosons que la flotte soit 
 
 battue, que deviendront les 
 
 envahisseurs ? 
 Jg pretends qu' ils s' y soumet- 
 
 tent sans hesitation. 
 II ne fiermet pas que je m' en 
 
 serve, 
 Et vous soiiffrez qu' il vous 
 
 ecrive I 
 V exige qu' il vous obeisse 
 
 com me amoi. 
 J' ap/irouve qu' il le lui defende, 
 
 Je suis fdche 8c surf iris qu' il 
 
 soit venu. 
 J' ignore qu' il ait vc(^\x votre 
 
 lettre. 
 
 I nvill have him to refiair there 
 
 immediately. 
 I doubt that he ivill go there. 
 Let us sufifiose that the fleet be 
 
 beaten, what will become of 
 
 the invaders ? 
 I pretend that they should sub- 
 mit to it without hesitation. 
 He does not permit I should 
 
 make use of it. 
 And you do suffer him to nvrite 
 
 to you ! 
 I require that he should obey 
 
 you as well as me. 
 I approve he should forbid it to 
 
 him. 
 I am sorry 8c surprised thai he 
 
 is come. 
 I do not know that he has re> 
 
 ceived your letter. 
 
 Observe, that some of the Verbs called Impersonals^ 
 govern also the Subjundlive mood. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 llfaut qu' elle le sac he un jour 
 
 ou r autre. 
 Faut-W que je sorte sur le 
 
 champ ? 
 II faudra bien que vous cnpas- 
 
 siez par la. 
 II vaut mieux que vous vous y 
 
 trouviez, 
 II vaudra mieux que vous y 
 
 consentiez, 
 II convient que vous lui disiez 
 
 votre fci9on de penser. 
 11 importe fort que vous 1' en 
 
 preveniez, 
 II est necessaire qu' il fanse 
 
 sembUnt de 1' ignorer. 
 
 She must knonv it one day or 
 
 other. 
 Must I go out immediately ? 
 
 It ivill be necessary for you to 
 
 abide by it or to submit to it. 
 
 It is better you should be there. 
 
 It ivill b£ better you should con- 
 
 sent to it. 
 It becomes you to tell him your 
 
 mind. 
 It is of the utmost consequence 
 
 you should inform him of it. 
 It is necessary that he shoidd 
 
 pretend to be ignpraut of it. 
 
 ^ 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 371 
 
 II est surfirenant qu' elle sc sx)it 
 
 mariee. 
 II est douteux qu' il en vienne a 
 
 bout. 
 II est fiossible que vous 1' ob- 
 
 t^niez, 
 II est im/iossidle qu' on \tpaije. 
 
 II est a profios que vous 1' 
 avertissiez» 
 
 II semble (without a comple- 
 ment) que vous n* ayez ja- 
 mais rien vu. 
 
 II est juste qu' il soit rembourse 
 de toutes ses depenses. 
 
 It is surlirising that she should 
 
 have got married. 
 It is doubtful whether he unll 
 
 bring it about. 
 It is possible that you may ob-^ 
 
 tain it. 
 It is impossible he should be 
 
 paid. 
 It is Jit that you give him 
 
 iva7viing. 
 It seems that you have never 
 
 seen any thing. 
 
 It is Just that he should be 
 reimbursed for all his ex- 
 penses. 
 
 N, B. Take notice, that after Verbs which express 
 neither doubt nor Jear, but which, on the contrary, an- 
 nounce certitude^ persitasion^ &c. in a word, after all Verbs 
 which rather belong to the judgment, understanding, 8cc. 
 the Conjunction que imposes the Indicative form on the 
 Verb following. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je crois qu' il y est, 
 
 'Jg pense qu' il s' est mepris. 
 
 y apprends que vous lui avez 
 
 ecrit. 
 Vous jugez que cela lui ap- 
 
 partitnt, 
 II affirmera qu' il 1' a vu. 
 Je dis^ yt soutiens^ je prouve 
 
 que cela est ainsi. 
 Viparait qu' il va se marier. 
 
 II sem.ble (with a complement) 
 
 a un aveugle que tout est 
 
 tenebreux. 
 II me semble qu' il est nialade. 
 II y a apparence que vous le 
 
 recevrez sous peu. 
 II est certain qu' il a perdu le 
 
 pari. 
 II est vrai qu' il a teuii ce pro- 
 
 pos. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 I believe. he is there. 
 
 I think- he is mistaken. 
 
 I learn that you have written 
 
 to him. 
 You Judge that it belongs to 
 
 him or her. 
 He will affirm that he sav) him. 
 I saij^ 9naintain^ prove it is so. 
 
 It appears he is going to be 
 
 married. 
 It seems to a blind man that all 
 
 is dark. 
 
 It seems to me that he is sick. 
 It is likely that you vjill receive 
 
 it before long. 
 It is certain that he has lost the 
 
 bet. 
 It /* true he used that expres- 
 
 si on. 
 
 hb 
 
372 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Should any Verb whatever be used either negatively ot 
 interrogatively^ que always imposes the Subjunctive form 
 on it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 PenseZ'Voua qu* il fiarte bien- 
 
 tot? 
 Non, je ne crois pas qu' il le 
 
 faBse^ 
 On ne dit pas que cela soit 
 
 ainsi. 
 II ne par ait pas que vous le 
 
 connaiasiez* 
 Est-il siir qu' il soit exile ? 
 
 II 7C est-pas sur qu' il revienyie 
 cet hiver. 
 
 Y a-t4l apparence qu* elle 1' 
 ait jamais aime ? 
 
 II ne semble pas qu' elle ait ja- 
 mais voulu de lui. 
 
 Do you think he nmll soon set 
 
 off? 
 No, I dont believe he nviU do it. 
 
 They do not say that it is so. 
 
 It dont seem that you knoiv him. 
 
 /* it sure that he is banish- 
 ed ? 
 
 It is not certain that he nvill 
 come back this winter. 
 
 Is it likely she ever lovedhim^ 
 
 It does not seem that she ever 
 would have him. 
 
 It is worthy of observation, tha.tque sometimes does not 
 govern the SubjunSlive, even after a Verb used interroga- 
 tively with a negative » This deviation from the above 
 Rule, requires some explan^ition. 
 
 If the interrogation expresses either dotcbt or uncertainty^ 
 que imposes the Subjunctive on the Verb following — But, 
 if the interrogation does not express it, the Indicative is to 
 be used. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Croyez-vous que Jean est a la campagne ? 
 Croyez-vous que Jean soit a la campagne ? 
 Ne croyez-vous pas que Jean est a la campagne i" 
 Ne croyez-vous pas que Jean soit a la campagne t 
 
 The sense of the j^r^i phrase is, 
 
 Je sais que Jean est a la cam- 
 pagne ; ne croyez-vous pas 
 qu' il y soit? 
 
 I know that John is in the 
 country J dont you believe 
 he is ? 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 373 
 
 That of the second is, 
 
 Je ne sais si Jean est a la cam- 
 pagne ; ppuvez-vous me V 
 apprendre ? 
 
 I dont know whether John be 
 in the country ; can you in- 
 form me of it ? 
 
 That of the third is, 
 
 Jeanestcertainementdlacam- I John is certainly in the coun- 
 pagne ; pourquoinevoulez- | try ; why wont you believe 
 vous pas le croire ? I it ^ 
 
 That of the fourth is. 
 
 Je doute que Jean soit a la 
 campagne ; qu' en pensez- 
 
 vous r 
 
 I doubt whether John be in the 
 country j what do you think 
 of it? 
 
 One may plainly see, that the construction ofsuchphrases 
 as those depends entirely on the sense which is intended 
 by the person who speaks. If it be not possible to judge 
 of it by the preceding discourse, one must examine whe- 
 ther the person who speaks, be not in douht^ then que 
 governs the Subjun6live : if, on the contrary, the persoij 
 affirms^ the Indicative after que is indispensable* 
 
 In order to guide you in the SubjimSlive^ (a very nice 
 and difficult point in the French language), we shall ob- 
 serve, that, whenever the Article conjunctive qui serves as 
 a link to ttvo phrases, the first of which we shall call^r/w- 
 cipal^ and the second complementary y because it serves to 
 complete the thought began by the first, it is necessary to 
 examine whether it be intended to express something 
 positive or determinate, or, on the contrary, something 
 dubious or indeter?Jiinate* 
 
 In the first instance, the Verb of the complementary 
 phrase must be expressed in the Indicative; and in th^ 
 second, it must be expressed in the Subjunclive. 
 
>r4 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 The following phra'ses will completely establish and fix 
 your ideas on that head. 
 
 PHRASES EXPRESSING SOMETHING PO^iT/r^. 
 
 Je lui donnerai des raisons qui /lourront le conVaincre. 
 
 Je veux epouser une fcmme qui me /iknt infiniment. 
 
 J' aspire a une chari^e qui est agrealjle. 
 
 Montrez-moi le chemin qui conduit a Philadelphie. 
 
 Donnez-moi le raouchoir qui est blanc. 
 
 Preferez ces expressions ou la naivete est unie a la clartc. 
 
 PHRASES EXPRESSING SOMETHING DOUBTFUL. 
 
 Je lui donnerai des raisons qui puissent le convaincre, 
 
 Je veux epouser une femme qui me plaise infiniment. 
 
 J' aspire a une charge qui coit agreable. 
 
 Montrez-moi un chemin qui cojididse a Piladelphie. 
 
 Donnez-moi un mouchoir qui soit blanc. 
 
 Preferez des expressions ou la naivete soit unie a la clarte. 
 
 Master. 
 As it is important you should know what tense of the 
 Subjunctive to use, in French, in the complementary 
 phrase, I desire you to fix your attention on the follow- 
 ing rules. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 When the Verb of the principal phrase is expressed in 
 the present or future of the Indicative^ that of the comple- 
 mentanj phrase must be in the present of the Subjunctive, 
 if it be meant to express a present or a future, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je crains qu' elle ne vicnnc 
 WJaut que vous passicz chcz 
 
 lui. 
 II craindra qu' elle ne s' en 
 
 afieri^oive* 
 Wfaudra que vous \\x\ parliez. 
 
 \fear lest she should come. 
 You wust call upon him. 
 
 lie ivill fear that she should 
 
 take notice of it. 
 It Toill be necessary for you to 
 
 speak to him. 
 
 RULE VIL 
 
 Though the Verb of the pi incipal phrase be in the pre- 
 sent or future of the Indicative^ yet the Verb of the com- 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 375 
 
 pkmentnry phrase, if it be intended to express a past^ 
 must be in the Subjunctive past^ instead of the Subjunc- 
 tive present^ as above. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je ne crois pas qu' il ait eu 
 
 autant de succes qu' il le 
 
 dit. 
 On ne me persuadera jamais 
 
 qu' il ait apfiris le ^Frangais 
 
 en si peu de tems. 
 
 I dont believe he has had as 
 much success as he says. 
 
 Nobody will ever persuade me 
 he has learned French in so 
 short a time. 
 
 RULE VIIL 
 
 Though the first Verb of the complementary^ phrase be 
 in the present^ the second is put in the Present Anterior^ 
 or Past Anterior of the Subju?ictive, when some condition 
 expressed follows it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Crot/e^z-vous qu' ils me refu- 
 sasscnt, si je les en priais ? 
 
 II ii' est point d' horn me qui 
 ne fut iY^s-ynortife, s' il sa- 
 vait tout ce qu' on pcnse de 
 lui. 
 
 Je doute que votre frere eut re- 
 ussiy sans votre secours. 
 
 Je siiis persuade qu' il ne s' en 
 fut jamais tire, sans 1' eritre- 
 mise de son ami. 
 
 Do you think they would refuse 
 me, if I should beg it of 
 them ? 
 
 There is no man that woidd 
 woi/eel very much mortified^ 
 were he to know all what 
 people think of him. 
 
 I doubt whether your brother 
 would have succeeded, had 
 it not been for your assist- 
 ance. 
 
 I am persuaded that he would 
 never have extricated him- 
 self, had it not been for the 
 interference of his friend. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 When the tense of the Verb of the principal phrase is 
 no longer in the present of the Indicative, but either in the 
 Present Anterior, the Present Anterior Periodical, or 
 any of the two first pasts of that mood, or the co7iditional^ 
 then the Verb of the complementary phrase must be put 
 
nre 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 in the Present Anterior of the Subjunctive^ if it be intend- 
 ed to speak of futurity. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je voulais 
 Je voulus 
 J' ai voulu 
 
 J' aval s voulu 
 
 Je YQudrais 
 
 J* eusse \"ouKi 
 
 que vous par- 
 [> tissiez avant 
 lui. 
 
 Je craignais 
 J' ai craint, 
 Sec. J 
 
 que vous ne 
 vinssiez trop 
 tot. 
 
 I was willing 
 
 I have been 
 
 wilUng 
 I had been wil- 
 ling 
 I should be 
 
 willing 
 I might have 
 beenv/illing 
 I was afraid 
 I have been 
 afraid, Sec 
 
 that you irdght 
 set q^ before 
 him. 
 
 lest you should 
 come too 
 
 soon. 
 
 But should we wish to express an idea of time pastj 
 while the Verb of the principal phrase remains in either 
 of the tenses just noticed, the Verb of the complementary 
 phrase must be put in the Fast Anterior of the Subjiinc- 
 five, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je ne croyais pas — Je n' ai pas 
 cru, Sec. qu' elle etlt chante 
 la veille. 
 
 J'^vais craint qu' ils n' eussent 
 pas. voulu y consentir, avant 
 que j' eusse rei^u leur lettre. 
 
 have not 
 
 had sung" 
 
 I did not believe — I 
 believed that she 
 the day before. 
 
 I have been afraid lest they 
 should have refused to con- 
 sent to it, before I received 
 their letter. 
 
 Master. 
 
 I have not given you a list of the Conjunctions that im- 
 pose the Subjunctive form on the Verb which they pre- 
 cede, as it would be repeating what has been said already 
 in the Conversation on the Conjunction^ to which I refer you. 
 
 Though this instruction, on the Subjunctive^ will appear 
 to some very extensive, yet, I must tell you, that I am 
 far from believing that the subject has been completely 
 exhausted ; several more exceptions might have been no- 
 ticed, and perhaps new rules discovered; but, as the cases 
 which they embrace are not common, I trust that custom, 
 acquired b)^ reading good authors, will acquaint you with 
 those niceties, which are peculiar to the French language. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 s7r 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE SIXTEENTH. 
 
 Of/ THE COMPLEMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 ABive Verbs, such as aimer, estimer^ &c. require the 
 word representing the object to which the action is extend- 
 ed, (and such as we call its complement^ as it is necessary 
 to complete the sense) to be united to them without the 
 intervention of a Preposition. 
 
 y admire le genie de Shak- 
 
 spear. 
 Aimez-vous les legumes Sc les 
 
 fruits ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I admire Shakspear's genius. 
 Do you like greens and fraits ? 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 When Ailive Verbs have txuo complements instead of 
 one, the one which is the obje5l of the action they express, 
 may be called direct, and is placed immediately before xh^ 
 Verb, when it is a Pronoun, or immediately after, when 
 it is a Noun: the second, which may be called indireSl, 
 is expressed either by a Preposition and its Noun which 
 follows immediately the first complement of the Verb, or 
 by a Pronoun (before which the Preposition a is under- 
 stood) which precedes the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Tout le monde accuse cette 
 
 femme d' un crime. 
 Tout le monde /' accuse du 
 
 crhrte. 
 Le maitre pardonne la faute 
 
 a /' Scalier. 
 Le maitre hit pardonne sa 
 
 fame. 
 
 Every body accuses that «'o- 
 
 man of a crime. 
 Every body accuses her of 
 
 the crime. 
 The master forgives the fault 
 
 to the scholar. 
 The master forgi^'es him his 
 
 fault. 
 
378 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Master. 
 
 You have probably already taken notice, that the com- 
 plement indlrefl of some Verbs, is formed with the Pre- 
 position de and its complement^ while that of others is 
 formed with the Preposition a and its complement. In 
 order to prevent you from falling into an error concern- 
 ing the proper Preposition to be used, you will find here- 
 to subjoined a list of the principal Verbs which require 
 the Preposition de &c. after them ; and of those which, 
 on the contrary, demand the Preposition a &c. 
 
 You will exercise yourself on them by forming phrases 
 of your own coining, which will insure you a facility and 
 readiness in using the true Preposition. 
 
 A LIST OF ACTIVE VERBS WHICH REQUIRE DE BEFORE 
 THEIR COMPLEMENT INDIRECT, 
 
 Absoudre^ 
 
 Accahler^ 
 
 Accepter^ 
 
 Accuser^ 
 
 Avertir, 
 
 Bannir^ 
 
 Bldmer^ 
 
 Chasser^ 
 
 Corriger^ 
 
 Debusquery 
 
 DegoHtcry 
 
 Delivrer-f 
 
 Detourner^ 
 
 Dissuader, 
 
 to absolve, 
 to overwhelm, 
 to accept, 
 to accuse, 
 to warn, 
 to banish, 
 to blame, 
 to expel, 
 to correct, 
 to drive out. 
 to disgust, 
 to free, 
 to divert, 
 to dissuade. 
 
 Enfreindrc^ 
 
 Exclure^ 
 
 Jixpulscr-f 
 
 Flechir^ 
 
 Implorer^ 
 
 Informer^ 
 
 Louevy 
 
 Menacery 
 
 Obteniry 
 
 Priver^ 
 
 Recevoivy 
 
 Soup^on?ier» 
 
 to fill. 
 
 to transgress, 
 to exclude, 
 to turn out. 
 to move, 
 to implore, 
 to inform, 
 to praise, 
 to threaten, 
 to obtain, 
 to deprive, 
 to receive, 
 to suspect. 
 
 A LIST OF ACTIVE VERBS WHICH REQUIRE A BEFORE 
 THEIR COMPLEMENT INDIRECT 
 
 Accordevy 
 
 to grant. 
 
 Covjicr, 
 
 to trust. 
 
 Adresser, 
 
 to direct. 
 
 Conseillevy 
 
 to advise. 
 
 Aniioncery 
 
 to announce. 
 
 Declarer^ 
 
 to declare. 
 
 Apfmrtevy 
 
 to bring. 
 
 Dedler, 
 
 to dedicate 
 
 Atlribuery 
 
 to attribute. 
 
 Demandti'y 
 
 to ask. 
 
 Avoucvy 
 
 to own. 
 
 Devoir^ 
 
 to OAve. 
 
 Conununijuer-) 
 
 to communi- 
 
 Dire, 
 
 to tell. 
 
 
 cate. 
 
 DonneVy 
 
 to give. 
 
 Ccnjcsser, 
 
 to confess. 
 
 Ecrire^ 
 
 to write. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 ' 37a 
 
 Enseigner^ 
 
 to teach. 
 
 Promettre^ 
 
 to promise. 
 
 Envoyer^ 
 
 to send. 
 
 Raconter, 
 
 to relate. 
 
 Exfiliquer, 
 
 to explain. 
 
 Rapfiorter, 
 
 to bring back. 
 
 Oter, 
 
 to take 2£way. 
 
 Refuser^ 
 
 to refuse. 
 
 Pardonner, 
 
 to forgive. ' 
 
 Rendre^ 
 
 to return. 
 
 Predire^ 
 
 to foretell. 
 
 Renvoyevy 
 
 to send back. 
 
 Preferer, 
 
 to prefer. 
 
 R6j[i6ter, 
 
 to repeat. 
 
 Presenter^ 
 
 to present. 
 
 Refirocher^ 
 
 to reproach. 
 
 Preterm 
 
 to lend. 
 
 Reveler, 
 
 to reveal. 
 
 Procurer^ 
 
 to proc\ire. 
 
 Fendre, 
 
 to sell. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 When the Verb etre is joined to the past Participle of 
 an aSlive Verb, and any complement follows, it is generally 
 composed of the Preposition de and its complement. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 He is esteemed by all men of 
 probity. 
 
 She is beloved by all her rela- 
 tions. 
 
 II est estime de tous les gens 
 de bien. 
 
 Elle est cherie de tous ses pa- 
 rens. 
 
 Observe, that the Preposition par (by) is generally used 
 in speaking of physical actions. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a ete tue par des voleurs de 
 
 grand chemin. 
 La ville fut pillee par les sol- 
 
 dfits. 
 
 He was killed by highway- 
 men. 
 
 The city was pillaged by the 
 soldiers. 
 
 However, par^ though used after Verbs expressing 
 physical actions, should be used after Verbs expressing 
 the actions of the mind^ when an adverbial phrase or an 
 Adverb has been previously used. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Je m' attends que mon ouv- 
 rage sur fa vi*aie maniere 
 d' enseignerl^lesJ^ langues, 
 sera critiqii'^ avec acharne- 
 ment par les maitres qui 
 sont servilement attaches 
 aux vieilles routines, qu* ils 
 ont la bonte de regarder 
 comme autant de methodes 
 d' instruction. 
 VOL. II. c c c 
 
 I expect that my work on the 
 true manner of learning the 
 languages, will be criticised 
 ivith fury by the masters 
 who are servilely attached 
 to ancient rotes, which they 
 are good enough to consider 
 as so many methods of in- 
 struction. 
 
uo 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 A LIST OF STAT'IONART VERBS WHICH SHOULD BE FOL- 
 LOWED BY A AND ITS COMPLEMENT. 
 
 Afijilaudir^ 
 
 Consentir, 
 
 Contrevenir, 
 
 ContribueVy 
 
 Dejilaire, 
 
 Desobeir, 
 
 Insulier, 
 
 Obeir, 
 
 Obvier, 
 
 Fardonnery 
 
 Parvenir, 
 
 Fenser, 
 
 to applaud, 
 to consent, 
 to infringe, 
 to contribute, 
 to displease, 
 to disobey, 
 to insult, 
 to hurt, 
 to obey, 
 to obviate, 
 to forgive, 
 to attain, 
 to think of. 
 
 Persuader, 
 
 Plaire, 
 
 Renoncer, 
 
 Rerfiedier, 
 
 Ressembler, 
 
 Sesister, 
 
 Rever, 
 
 Sanger, 
 
 Subvenir, 
 
 Succeder, 
 
 Survivre, 
 
 Travailler, 
 
 to persuade, 
 to please, 
 to renounce, 
 to remedy, 
 to resemble, 
 to resist, 
 to dream, 
 to think of. 
 to relieve, 
 to succeed, 
 to outlive, 
 to work. 
 
 A LIST OF SUCH REFLECTED VERBS AS REQUIRE THE 
 PREPOSITION A AND ITS COMPLEMENT. 
 
 S^ abandonner, to abandon 
 
 one's self, 
 accustom 
 
 one's self. 
 S^ adonner, to addict one's 
 
 self. 
 S*amusei', to amuse one's 
 
 self. 
 S' apfdiquer, to apply one's 
 
 self. 
 «S' attendre, to hope for. 
 .S' apfireter, to dispose one's 
 
 self. 
 «S' arreter, to stop. 
 *S' attacher, to stick to. 
 <S' adresser, to apply one's 
 
 self. 
 
 Se determiner, to resolve upon. 
 Se disposer, to prepare one's 
 
 self. 
 S* endurcir, to inure one's 
 
 self. 
 S' engager, to engage. 
 5' exfioser, to expose one's 
 
 self. 
 Sejier, to trust. 
 
 6" habituer, to accustom 
 
 one's self. 
 jS" obstiner, to be obstinately 
 
 resolved. 
 S* ofiinidtrer, to be obstinate. 
 iS" occufier, to employ one's 
 
 self. 
 <S' opjioaei', to oppose one's 
 
 self. 
 
 OBSERVATION. 
 
 "With regard to the remainder of refie fled Verbs (w^hich 
 form a more numerous class than the above) when they 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 381 
 
 should have a counplement^ they require the Preposition de 
 and its complement. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Croyez-vous qu' il se repente 
 
 de sa faute ? 
 II se prevaut de vos bontes. 
 
 II ne s' apergoit pas du tour qu' 
 
 on lui joue. 
 Vous ressouvenez-vous de cet- 
 
 te anecdote ? 
 
 Dou you believe that he rcr 
 pentso/'his fault? 
 
 He takes advantage of your 
 kindnesses* 
 
 He does not perceive the trick 
 which is played upon him. 
 
 Do you remember this anec- 
 dote ? 
 
 OBSERVATION. 
 
 When the Verb jouer is intended to signify to play oa 
 some musical instruments, it is necessary it should be fol- 
 lowed by the Preposition de ; but when it is intended to 
 signify to play at some game^ it requires the Preposi- 
 tion a. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ma sceur joue de la guitare, de 
 la harpe, & du forte-piano ; 
 & mon frere joue de la flute, 
 du violon, & de la clarinette. 
 
 y aime mieux jouer aux car- 
 tes qu' a la boule, aux quil- 
 les, au palet ou a la paume. 
 
 My sister plays on the guitar, 
 the harpsichord and piano- 
 forte ,• and my brother plays 
 on the flute, the violin, and 
 the clarionet. 
 
 I had rather play at cards than 
 at bowls, nine-pinS) quoits 
 or at tenis. 
 
383 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE SEVENTEENTH. 
 
 o^r THE iJVFimTirE. 
 
 Master. 
 
 French Infinitives may be preceded by either of the 
 Prepositions de, a, pour^ or sans^ as is shown by the fol- 
 lowing rules. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The Preposition de is used before the Infinitive of Verbs 
 in the following cases. 
 
 1st, When the Injinitive is preceded by a Houn that 
 demands de after it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Croyez-vous qu* il ait eu le 
 
 terns d' y aller ? 
 II est sur le point de mourir. 
 
 Je ne 1' ai point trouve en etat 
 de faire une si longue route. 
 
 Do you believe he had time to 
 
 go there ? 
 He is on the point o/* death, or 
 
 very near dying. 
 I did not iind him in a state to 
 
 perform so long a journey. 
 
 2d, Before the Infinitive of Verbs to which are join- 
 ed certain Nouns without an Article^ of which a list of the 
 Principal was given in treating of the Article. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 N' avez-vous pas envie de faire 
 un petit tour de promenade ? 
 Prenez garde de lui deplaire. 
 
 Have you not a mind to take a 
 
 little walk ? 
 Take care to displease him, or 
 
 her. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. S83 
 
 3d, Before the Infinitive of a Verb preceded by the 
 Verb etre^ to be, and the greatest number of French Ad- 
 jectives. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Qu' il est heureux de ne pas 
 etre oblige de travailler ! 
 
 II est incapable de faire tort a 
 qui que ce soit. 
 
 Je suis las de vous repeter tou- 
 jours la meme chose. 
 
 How happy he 
 
 obliged to work 1 
 He is incapable of wronging 
 
 any body whatever. 
 I am tired q/" repeating always 
 
 the same thing to you. 
 
 4th, Before the Infinitive of a Verb following any of 
 the Verbs mentioned in the preceding Instruction^ with 
 de^ &c. foT their ccmplement. 
 
 We trust that the following List of Verbs, which fre- 
 quently occur and are followed by ^e? before another Verb 
 in the Infinitive^ may be of service to you. 
 
 Accuser, 
 
 Affecter, 
 
 Avertir, 
 
 Bldmer, 
 
 Cesser, 
 
 Commander, 
 
 Coniurer, 
 
 Conseiller, 
 
 Craindre, 
 
 Detourner, 
 
 Defendre, 
 
 Differer, 
 
 Dire, 
 
 Disfienser, 
 
 Dissuader, 
 
 Ecrire, 
 
 Empecher, 
 
 Enjoindre, 
 
 Entrep-rendre, 
 
 Essayer, 
 
 Feindre, 
 
 Finir, 
 
 Mcnacer, 
 
 to accuse, 
 to affect, 
 to advise* 
 to blame, 
 to cease, 
 to command, 
 to intreat. 
 to advise, 
 to fear, 
 to deter, 
 to forbid, 
 to differ, 
 to tell, 
 to excuse, 
 to dissuade, 
 to write, 
 to hinder, 
 to enjoin, 
 to undertake, 
 to try. 
 to feign, 
 to finish, 
 to threaten. 
 
 Meriter, 
 
 JVe^lig-er, 
 
 Offrir, 
 
 Omettre, 
 
 Ordonner, 
 
 Oublicr, 
 
 Parler, 
 
 Permettre, 
 
 Persuader, 
 
 Plaindre, 
 
 Prescire, 
 
 Presser, 
 
 Prier, 
 
 Promettre, 
 
 Proposer, 
 
 Refuser, 
 
 RefTiercier, 
 
 Resoudre, 
 
 Sommer, 
 
 Sou/iconner, 
 
 Su/ijilier, 
 
 Tdchers 
 
 to deserve, 
 to neglect, 
 to offer, 
 to omit, 
 to order, 
 to forget, 
 to speak, 
 to permit, 
 to persuade, 
 to pity, 
 to prescribe, 
 to urge, 
 to pray, 
 to promise, 
 to propose, 
 to refuse, 
 to thank, 
 to resolve, 
 to summon, 
 to suspect, 
 to beg. 
 to endeavour. 
 
 f ;' It is proper to observe, that, in general whenever in- 
 
 stead of the Preposition to with the Infinitive, in English, 
 either of the Prepositions of, from, by or with, and the 
 
184 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Participle present are used, the French make use of de 
 and the Infinitive of the corresponding Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Finissez de jouer. 
 
 II m* a empeche de V acheter. 
 
 Make an end 0/ playing. 
 He prevented va^from buying 
 it. 
 II est accuse de V avoir assas- | He is charged ivith murdering 
 
 sine. 
 
 hun. 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 The Preposition h is generally put before an Infinitive. 
 1st, Ahtr Adje^ives denoting aptness^ fitness, unfitness^ 
 incUnation, repugnancijj and particularly after the follow- 
 ing. 
 
 Jdroit, 
 
 dexterous in. 
 
 Enclin, 
 
 inclined to. 
 
 Affreux, 
 
 dreadlnl to. 
 
 Exact, . 
 
 exact in. 
 
 Agr cable ^ 
 
 agreeable to. 
 
 Facile, 
 
 easy to. 
 
 Jise, 
 
 easy to. 
 
 Habile, 
 
 skilful in. 
 
 Ardent^ 
 
 eager in. 
 
 Lent, 
 
 slow in. 
 
 Assidu, 
 
 assiduous in. 
 
 Forte, 
 
 inclined to. 
 
 Beau, 
 
 fine to. 
 
 Le Fremier, 
 
 the first to. 
 
 JBOtly 
 
 good to. 
 
 Le Dernier, 
 
 the last to. 
 
 Charinanty 
 
 charming to. 
 
 Fret, 
 
 ready to. 
 
 Curicuxy 
 
 curious to. 
 
 Frompt, 
 
 quick in. 
 
 Diligent, 
 
 diligent in. 
 
 Siijet, 
 
 liable to. 
 
 Disclose, 
 
 disposed to. 
 
 Terrible, 
 
 dreadful to. 
 
 Desagreable, 
 
 disagreeable to. 
 
 
 
 2d, The following Verbs also require the Infinitive 
 with a. 
 
 Admettre, 
 
 to admit. 
 
 Encowrager, 
 
 to encourage 
 
 Accoutumer, 
 
 to accustom. 
 
 Engager, 
 
 to engage. 
 
 Aider, 
 
 to help. 
 
 Exhorter, 
 
 to exhort. 
 
 Aimer, 
 
 to like. 
 
 Inviter, 
 
 to invite. 
 
 Autoriser, 
 
 to authorise. , 
 
 Fenser, 
 
 to think of. 
 
 Chercher, 
 
 to endeavour. 
 
 Fersister, 
 
 to persist in. 
 
 Condamner, 
 
 to condemn. 
 
 Forter, 
 
 to induce to. 
 
 Consister, 
 
 to consist. 
 
 Fousscr, 
 
 to excite to. 
 
 Disfioser, 
 
 to dispose to. 
 
 Fester, 
 
 to stay. 
 
 Donner, 
 
 to give. 
 
 Travailler, 
 
 to work. 
 
 Enrjiloyer, 
 
 to employ. 
 
 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 385 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 The Verbs commencery continuery discontinuery contram- 
 dre^ engager, s' engager ^ exhorter^ forcer^ s* efforcer^ man- 
 finer^ obliger^ tdcher & tarder require the Infinitive with 
 de or a, as may be most agreeable to the ear or to the 
 sense. 
 
 A peine a-t-on commence a vivre 
 qu' il faut songer a mourir. 
 
 II avait commence (T ecrire sa 
 lettre quand je suis entre. 
 
 Je ne pus 1' emfiecher de conti- 
 nuer a nous debiter ses ex- 
 travagances. 
 
 II voulut continuer de faire 
 
 guerre. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Scarcely has one begun to live 
 than one must think of dy- 
 ing. 
 
 He had begun to Avrite his 
 letter when I entered. 
 
 I could not prevent Ynm from 
 continuing to utter his ex- 
 travagancies to us. 
 
 He would continue to carry on 
 the war. 
 
 la 
 
 With these Verbs they use a especially, to avoid the 
 repetition of de ; and de is reciprocally used, to avoid the 
 repetition of a or the collision of several vowels, — So they 
 will say, 
 
 II commence a descendre de 
 
 sa chambre. 
 II commencait a demander de 
 
 vos nouvelles. 
 II avait commence de changer 
 
 de conduite. 
 II me for^a c/'abandonner cette 
 
 entreprise. 
 Cela les obligea de camper a 
 
 quelques lieues plus loin. 
 
 He begins to come down from 
 his room. 
 
 He began to enquire about 
 you. 
 
 He had begun to alter his con- 
 duct. 
 
 He forced me to abandon this 
 undertaking. 
 
 That obliged them to encamp 
 a few leagues farther. 
 
 N» B. II commence de </^scendre — il commencait de 
 ^/emander, de &c. would produce a very uncouth and bar- 
 barous pronunciation. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1st, When commencer signifies to begin by^ it is follow- 
 ed by par* 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Assezde gens sem^lent de re- 
 former le monde; maispres- 
 que personne ne commence 
 par se reformer soi-meme. 
 
 People enough meddle with 
 reforming the world ; but 
 almost nobody begins by re- 
 forming himself. 
 
385 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 2d, The Verbs engager^ s' engager^ exhorter^ are more 
 often constraed with a, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je 1' ai engag6 a venir nous 
 
 voir. 
 II s' engage a descendre le 
 
 premier. 
 
 I invited him to come and see 
 
 us. 
 He .engages to come down 
 
 first. 
 
 Hovt^ever, de may be used to avoid the repetition of a 
 or the collision of several vowels, 
 
 3d, iS' efforcer^ when it signifies to make use of all one'^s 
 strength, or to strain, requires the Preposition a before 
 the next Infinitive. 
 
 EXAMINEE. 
 
 II s* est efforce d courir. | He strove to run. 
 
 But when it signifies to endeavour, to make use of one'' ^ 
 industry, it requires the Preposition de* 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Chacun doit s' efforcer de croi- 
 tre en sagesse. 
 
 Every one ought to endeavour 
 to grow in wisdom. 
 
 4th, The Verb manquer requires the Preposition de 
 when it is used negatively, or when it signifies to be near, 
 to have like. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les malheureux n' out jamais 
 manque dc se plaindre. 
 
 Je manquai de tomber— c/c me 
 casser le bras. 
 
 The unfortunate have never 
 
 failed to complain. 
 I had like to fall — to break 
 
 my arm. 
 
 But manquer without a negative, is commonly construed 
 with a. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 J' ai manque a faire ce que je I I failed doing what I had pro- 
 vous avais promi*. | mised you. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 387 
 
 5th, When tdcher signifies to aim^ it requires the Pre- 
 position d before the Infinitive. 
 
 Vous tachez a m' embarras 
 
 ser. 
 II tache d me nuire. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 You aim to puzzle me. 
 He aims to hurt me. 
 
 But, when that Verb signifies to endeavour^ to use one*s 
 utmost endeavours^ it requires the Preposition de» 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Je tacherai de vous faire ob- 
 tenir ce que vous desirez si 
 ardemment. 
 
 I will endeavour to make you 
 obtain what you so ardently 
 wish for. 
 
 6th, Tarder^ when it means to tarry ^ to delai/ &c. re- 
 quires d, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ne tardez pas d revenir. 
 Pourquoi tardez-vous d y al- 
 ter ? 
 II ne tarda gueres d le punir. 
 
 Do not delay coming back- 
 Why do you delay going thi- 
 ther ? 
 He did not long put off his pu- 
 nishment. 
 
 But, if it signify to long^ it requires de, and is used im* 
 personally then, only in the third person singular of each 
 tens^. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 U me tarde de revoir mon pays 
 
 natal. 
 II nous tardait d' arriver. 
 
 I long to see my native coun- 
 try. 
 We longed to arrive. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 When to (the sign of the Infinitive) is used to denote 
 the end or design for which a thing is done, and in gene- 
 ral, every time to can with equal propriety be rendered 
 VOL. II. ^ D d d 
 
188 
 
 SYISTTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 by in order to, it is translated, in French", by pour placed 
 before the Inpnitive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les honimes sont nes pour 
 s' entr' aimer &c s' entr' 
 aider. 
 
 Je suis venu pour vous voir. 
 
 Je ferai tout pour vous obliger. 
 
 II ne 1' a pas dit pour vous 
 
 faire de la peine. 
 Pour etre heureux, il faut 6tre 
 
 content. 
 
 Men are born to love and 
 help one another. 
 
 I came to (or in drder to) see 
 
 you. 
 I will do every thing to oblige 
 
 you. 
 He did not say so to make you 
 
 uneasy. 
 To, (or in order to) be happy, 
 
 one must be contented. 
 
 Observe, that after the words assez, trop, suffire, suffl- 
 sant, the following Verb requires pour before its Infinitive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 11 n' est pas assez sot poi^r y 
 
 ajouter foi. 
 II a trop d' esprit pour se fa- 
 
 cher d' une piaisanterie in- 
 
 nocente. 
 Son revenu ne suffit pas pour 
 
 payer ses dettes. 
 Trente hommes sont suffisans 
 
 pour defendre ce pont. 
 
 He is not foolish enough to 
 give credit to it. 
 
 He has too much understand- 
 ing to get angry at an inno- 
 cent joke. 
 
 His income does not suffice to 
 pay his debts. 
 
 Thirty men are sufficient to de- 
 fend that bridge. 
 
 In the following phrases and the like, the Preposition 
 de must be used, instead of pour, after the above words. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ce sera assez de ni' en ccrire. 
 
 Ce serait trop, en verite, de le 
 recevoir d' une inaniere si 
 distinguee. 
 
 11 siijpra de V tU prevcnir. 
 
 It will be enough to write to 
 me about it. 
 
 It would be too much, indeed, 
 to receive him in so distin- 
 guished a manner. 
 
 It will suffice to forewarn him, 
 or her. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 3B9 
 
 In the following phrases and the like, the Preposition 
 is suppressed before the Infinitive following the words 
 assez & trop» 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C est assez danser, en verite. 
 C* etait aussi trc^i exiger d€ 
 lui. 
 
 It is dancing enough^ indeed. 
 It was though requiring too 
 much of him. 
 
 RULE V. • 
 
 A Verb in the Participle present^ in English, preceded 
 by without^ is rendered, in French, by the Infinitive pre- 
 ceded by the Preposition sans. x 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a bu tout son vin sans y 
 
 mettre de 1' eau. 
 II paile souvent saris savoir ce 
 
 qu' il dit. 
 
 He di^nk all his wine toiihrnt 
 
 /tutting water in it. 
 He often speaks ivithout knoiv- 
 
 ing what he says. 
 
 NoTE....That for^ coming before a Participle present^ 
 in English, is translated by pour^ with the Infinitive pre- 
 sent of the Verb, if it has reference to a present or a fu- 
 ture time ; or the Injinitive past^ if it has reference to a 
 past time. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Combien me demandez-vous 
 
 pour Tcmfaire un habit ? 
 II fut pendu pour avoir vole. 
 
 How much do you ask /or 
 making me a suit of clothes ? 
 He was hanged ^br robbing. 
 
 RULE VL 
 
 These Verbs admit of no Prepositions after them, be- 
 fore the Injinitive of the succeeding Verbs. 
 
 Aller, 
 
 to go. 
 
 Envoyer, 
 
 to send. 
 
 Croire^ 
 
 to believe. 
 
 Esperer, 
 
 to hope. 
 
 Daigner^ 
 
 to deign. 
 
 Faire, 
 
 to do. 
 
 Declarer^ 
 
 to declare. 
 
 Falloir, 
 
 to be requisite 
 
 Desirer^ 
 
 to wish. 
 
 Laisser, 
 
 to let. 
 
 Devoir, 
 
 to owe. 
 
 Mer, 
 
 to deny. 
 
 Entendre, 
 
 to hear. 
 
 Oser, 
 
 to dare. 
 
390 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 
 Pavattrt^ 
 
 to appear. 
 
 Souhaiter^ 
 
 to wish. 
 
 Pretendre, 
 
 to pretend. 
 
 Souteniry 
 
 to maintain* 
 
 Pouvoir^ 
 
 to be able. 
 
 Feni?', 
 
 to come. 
 
 Savoir^ 
 
 to know. 
 
 Voir, 
 
 to see. 
 
 Sembkry 
 
 to appear. 
 
 Vouloir, 
 
 to be willing. 
 
 I will observe here, that the Infinitive Is also often sub- 
 stantively used, without being acted upon by a Preposi- 
 tion^ as appears by the following phrases, whereon it re- 
 presents a Noun as subject of the Proposition, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Mentir (le mensonge) est in- 
 digne d' un galant homme. 
 
 Trop parkr (trop de paroles) 
 TiUit souvfent. 
 
 Jimer (1' amour de) notre pro- 
 chain est notre premier de- 
 voir. 
 
 Lire (la lecture) est une occu- 
 pation utile. 
 
 To lye, or lying is unworthy of 
 
 a gentleman. 
 To speak too much is often 
 
 hurtful. 
 To love Olio's neighbour is one's 
 
 first duty. 
 
 To read is an useful occupa- 
 tion. 
 
 I conclude by observing, that the French language de- 
 rives a gi'eat deal of beauty and elegance from the man- 
 ner in which this tense is applied, as will be seen in the 
 following elegant verses from Bajazet, one of Racine's 
 tragedies, in which Prince Bajazet clears himself of Pox- 
 ana's reproach of ingratitude. 
 
 " Deja plein d* un amour, des I' enfance form6, 
 A tout autre desir mon cceur etait ferme ; 
 Vous me vintez oj[frir, et la vie, et 1' empire ; 
 Et meme votrc amour, si j' ose vous le dire, 
 Consultant vos bienfeits, les crut, et, sur leur foi, 
 De tous mes scntimens vous repondit pour moi. 
 Je connus votre erreur; mais que pouvais-jcya/r(?.<^ 
 Je vis, en meme terns, qu' elle vous etait chere. 
 Combien le trone tente un coeur ambitieux ! 
 Un si noble present me fit ouvrir les yieux. 
 Je cheris, j' acceptai, sans parler davantage, 
 -X.' heureuse occasion de ^ortir d' esclavage, 
 D' autant plus qu' il fallait 1' accepter owperir : 
 D' autant plus que vous-memc, ardente a me 1' offrir, 
 
 \ 
 
SYNTAX MADE lEASY. 591 
 
 Vous ne craigniez rieii tant que jd' etre refiisee ; 
 
 Que meme mes refus vous auraient exposee ; 
 
 Qu' apres avoir ose me voir & me parlevy 
 
 II etait daiigereux pour vous de reculer. 
 
 Cependant je n' en veux pour temoins que vos plaintes, 
 
 Ai-je pu vous tromfier par des promesses feintes ?" 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE EIGHTEENTH. 
 
 REMARKS ON COMPLEMENTS. 
 
 FIRST. 
 
 IN order that a complement may be under the depen- 
 dence of several words, at the same time, it is neces- 
 sary that every one of the latter should require the same 
 kind oi complement ; thus one may say, 
 
 Ne voyez que les personnes qui vous estiment ; les autres 
 jne vous entourent que pour connattre & publier vos defauts. 
 
 Je serai docile 8c Jidele a vos oi*dres. 
 11 se plaint &c s' ennidc de tout. 
 
 because connaitre and publier both govern in 2Ldirect man-* 
 ner j — ^because docile and fidele require equally the Prepo- 
 sition d — and se plaindre and 5' ennuyer the Preposition d6* 
 
 But one cannot say, 
 
 C est par la vertu qu' on chei-it 8c qu' on dent a ses devoirs 
 
 sans effort. 
 C est par la vertu qu' on ainie 8c qu* on se pluU dans ses 
 
 sacrifices. 
 Je fus trcs-sensible Sc trts-mecontent de ce procede. 
 
 because one cannot say, cherir a ses devoirs, as one says, 
 tenir d ses devoirs — aimer dans ses sacrifices, as, se plaire 
 dans ses sacrifices — ^tres-sensible de ce procede, as, tres- 
 niecontent de ce procede. One must, in that, case, have 
 
392 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 rec^rse to y and en or to Pronouns and say, for in- 
 stance : 
 
 C est p*ar la vertu qu' on cherit ses devoirs & qu' on y tient 
 
 sans effort. 
 C' est par la vertu qu' on se plait dans ses sacrifices 8c qu'on 
 
 les aune, 
 Je fus tvcs-sensible a ce proc6de Sc j' enfus tr^s mecontent. 
 
 The folloviring phrase is incorrect. 
 
 II «' est trompe lui-meme & tous ceux qui 1' ont cru. 
 
 It should be as follows, 
 
 II 6-' est trompe Sc a trompe avec lui tous ceux qui 1' ont 
 cru. 
 
 because the Verb etre cannot replace the Verb avoir in 
 that case. 
 
 The following phrase is incorrect. 
 
 II se vint presenter & dire qu* il n' etait point coupable. 
 
 It should be as follows, 
 
 II vint se presenter Sc dire qu' il n' etait point coupable. 
 
 because one cannot say, il se vint dire, as one says, il se 
 vint presenter. 
 
 The following phrase is incorrect. 
 
 II .V* est attire 1' estime publique Sc rendu celebrc. 
 
 It should be as follows, 
 
 II s' est attire T estime publique & «' est rendu celebre. 
 
 because se meaning, in the first instance, a soi^ and in the 
 second, soi^ cannot be at the same time both a direct and 
 an indiredl complement. 
 
 SECOND. 
 
 When the same word has several particular compkfnents 
 coupled together by a ConjunSiion, they should be ex- 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 393 
 
 pressed by words of the same species ; hence the follow- 
 ing modes of construction are incorrect, 
 
 II aime le jeu Sc a danser, 
 
 II se plait au spectacle & a se fir<xmener^ 
 
 Je crois vos raisons bonnes & que vous le convaincrez. 
 
 They should be thus, 
 
 II aime le jeu 8c la danse. 
 II se plait au spectacle & a /a promenade. 
 Je crois que vos raisons sont bonnes & que vous le con- 
 vaincrez. 
 
 THIRD. 
 
 When a word has several different complements^ the 
 shortest should be expressed Jirst ; say, 
 
 Le terns seul assure au genie dcs hommages Sc des parti- 
 sans. 
 
 Le roi ne confie pas a des incrcdules le commandement de 
 ses armees & de ses flottes. 
 
 And not, 
 
 Le tenis seul assure des hommages Sc des partisans au 
 
 genie, 
 Le roi ne confie pas le commandement de ses armees & 
 
 de ses flottes a des incredules. 
 
 The reason of this mode of construction is, that, if the 
 shortest were not placed first^ it would be separated from 
 the Verb by a complement expressed by many words, 
 which would weaken the connection between the Verb and 
 the shortest complement : — But, should the complements 
 be of equal length, the direct complement comes Jirst. 
 
 II faut precher la di/igcnce aux paresseux Sc la moderation 
 
 aux emportes. 
 Le roi ne confie pas le commandement de ses armees a des 
 
 hommes qui sont sans religion. 
 
394 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE NINETEENTH. 
 
 ON THE PARTICIPLE PRESEJ^T, 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 THE Participle present is always indeclinable, that is to 
 say, it ends invariably in ant, whether relating to a Noun 
 of the masculine or feminine gender, or to a Noun singu- 
 lar or pluiraU 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les hommes alliantlo. courage Men uniting courage to pru- 
 
 a la prudence sent rares — Sc dence are rare — and women 
 
 les femmes joignant les joining the graces of their 
 
 graces de leur sexe aux ver- sex to the virtues and talents 
 
 tus Sc aux talens du noire of ours are still more rare, 
 sont encore plus rares. 
 
 "Et c' est la que fui/ant V orgueil du diademe, 
 Lasse de vains honneurs & me cherchant moi-meme j 
 Aux pieds de T eternel je viens m' humilier.'* 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 When the Participle present by qualifying an object 
 completes a Verb at the same time, it is generally preced- 
 ed by en, which answers in English to hij, in, oYwhilst» — 
 The Participle present is a complement to the Verb, when- 
 ever it expresses a means, circumstance, or the 7node of the 
 adlion expressed by the Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Nou-s avons obtenu la paix en 
 
 fesant de grands sacrifices. 
 On acquiert plus de gloire tn 
 
 defendant qu' en accusant 
 
 ses concitoyens. 
 II mourut en dejeunant. 
 Diogene dit, un j-our, en dinant 
 
 avec ses amis : 6 mes amis ! 
 
 il n* est plus d' amis. 
 
 We have obtained peace by 
 nuiking great sacrifices. 
 
 More glory is acquired by de- 
 fending than by accusing 
 one's fellow-citizens. 
 
 He died in eating his breakfast, 
 
 Diogenes said, one day, ivhilst 
 he dined with his friends : 
 O my friends ! there is no 
 longer any friend. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. > 3^^ 
 
 " Des trompeuses grandeurs le sage se console : 
 En cultivant en paix les arts, la verite, 
 11 ennoblit son etre & sert T humanite." 
 
 " Le peuple ail6 des bois, s' essayant dans les airs, 
 D* un vol timide encor rase les champs deserts. 
 II s' anime, il s* egaie, & d' une aile bardie 
 II s' elance, en chantant, vers 1' astre de la vie." 
 
 " II dompte, en se jouant, ce taureau mena9ant, 
 Qui r^siste avec crainte Sc cede en mugissant.** 
 
 " Pauvre Didon I ou t' a reduite 
 De tes maris le triste sort ? 
 L' uri, en mourant^ cause ta fuite ; 
 \J autre, en fuyant^ cause ta mort." 
 
 There are many cases in which the Participle qualify- 
 ing and completing all at once, is not preceded by the 
 Preposition en ; as in the following phrase. 
 
 Comment voulez-vous que n' I How is it possible that not stu- 
 etudiant pas, on devienne I f/z/zw^, one becomes learned? 
 savant ? I 
 
 savant ? 
 
 Etudiant both qualifies and completes : it is as if there 
 was, 
 
 Comment voulez-vous que, lorsqu' on n' etudie pas^ on devi- 
 enne savant. 
 
 Note, in general, that whenever the sense would be 
 equivocal or ambiguous without ^;/, it must be expressed. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 When a Participle present is employed solely to qualif^' 
 a Substantive and not to complete a Verb, it ought not to 
 be preceded by the Preposition en — and it fulfils this duty, 
 when it can be rendered by qui^ &c. and the Indicative oi 
 the Verb ; which construction is generally preferable to 
 
 VOL. II. E e e 
 
 m 
 
396 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 the Participle present^ especially if the Participle present 
 has a reference to a Noun acted upon by the Preposition a. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J' a vu voire frere courant ou 
 
 qui courait a toutes jambes. 
 Apercevez'vous les matclots 
 
 ramant ou qui rament vers 
 
 la cote ? 
 C* est une femme aimant ou 
 
 qui aime son mari. 
 
 I saw your brother running 
 
 with full speed. 
 Do you perceive the sailors 
 
 rowing towards the coast ? 
 
 She is a woman loving her 
 husband. 
 
 In the first place, courant merely qualifies the Noun 
 frtre^ and does not complete^ at the same time, the Verb 
 y at VII ; because one may say, " J' ai vu votre frere qui 
 courait a toutes jambes." 
 
 By placing, therefore, en before courant, the sense of 
 the phrase would change — The Participle would qualify 
 the Pronoun y>, and would complete, at the same time, the 
 Verb f ai vu — '' ^ ai vu votre frere, en courant a toutes 
 jambes," that is to say, "J' ai vu votre frere, lorsque je 
 cournis a toutes jambes." 
 
 As you might be apt to impose gender or number on 
 the Participle present, as beginners often do, owing to 
 many Adjectives ending in ant,* such as charmant, obli' 
 geant, soitffrant, &c. which assume gender or riumber, as 
 the Nouns to which they are subject, require it ; it is ne- 
 cessary for me to establish the material difference which 
 exists between the real Participle present and the Adjec- 
 tive in ant. — The former is a Verb, because it has either 
 a complement or expresses a circumstance of time ; and 
 the latter has no complement, at least direct, and expresses 
 no circumstance of time. 
 
 It is true, those Adjectives were formerly Participles 
 present and w^ere then liable to gender or number, as may 
 be noticed in some law terms, such as : Les gens tenants 
 notre cour ; la rendante compte ; but, as the French lan- 
 
 * Of all the Participles in ant^ only those of the Neuter or Stationary 
 Verbs may vary— so one may say, " une hmnem repugnante i la mienne , 
 ■» — une ctoffe apprcchante de la \6 re,'' — But this rule is far from being ge- 
 neral, as one could not say, " des tilles travaillantes a la terre ; des 
 personncs arrivantes de campagwc." — One might find in some of our best 
 j)oet:?, instances of Participles present both of Active and Stationary Verbs 
 Ttiade variable ; but this licence has not been fully granted to them by t.sage. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 397 
 
 guage has since acquired a fixed character, by which the 
 Participle present is invariable^ we must conform to it. — 
 In a word, to distinguish the Participle present from the 
 AdjeSlive^ which has the same termination, it suffices to 
 know that the Verb etre connects itself well with the Ad- 
 jeSiive ending in ant^ but can/jo?, by any means, with the 
 Participle present. 
 
 We may say 1 
 
 'Je suis preve- 
 
 nant, 
 Tu es cfiar- 
 
 mant, 
 II est sedui- 
 
 sant. 
 
 Je svAslisant. 
 
 Wecannotsay,^ Ta^^c3_ ..„- 
 
 II est ser- 
 ■vant. 
 
 I will inform you, that almost every grammarian, be- 
 sides the Participle present^ admits of a gerund^ which is 
 nothing but the Participle present preceded by the Pre- 
 position en. This denomination appearing to us, after 
 mature consideration, quite superfluous, we have not 
 adopted it, and leave it, with pleasure, to the Latin gram- 
 marians, who wanted it. I conclude. this account of the 
 Participle present by observing that ayant and etant very 
 seldom admit the Preposition e-^z before them. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE TWENTIETH. 
 
 OJV THE DECLIJVJBIIITY OR IJVDECLIJVJBILITY 
 OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Master. 
 
 THE question when the past Participle of a Verb is 
 declinable^ or when it is indeclinable^ involves many diffi- 
 culties ; as even the first rate grammarians appear di- 
 vided among themselves on some points it involves ; while 
 they have all supported their opinions by very ingenious 
 reasons ; our opinion on this subject will, I think, be 
 
:v98 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 found ,conformable to strict logic, an^ our principles ade- 
 quate to the solution of the difficulties alluded to. — If I 
 should not always impart my motives for adopting one 
 opinion and rejecting another, it is merely owing to the 
 long process of reasoning necessary to support our doc- 
 trine or refute theirs ; as I could not presume to adopt 
 an opinion different from those of Vaugclas, Regnier^ Con- 
 dillacy Wailli}^ &c. without assigning reasons at full length 
 for it. — Besides, upon the whole, I consider, that however 
 interesting these discussions may be to a critic^ or a philolo- 
 gist^ or ?i professed grammarian^ they are by no means so to 
 the learner, who cannot discover in them the least utility 
 to compensate the loss of time he might have so much 
 better employed, and the difficulty he experiences in the 
 investigation of the subject. 
 
 Xp proceed with a degree of regularity and simplicity, 
 at the same time, I will consider the past Participle con- 
 jugated, 
 
 1st, with etre. 
 
 2d, with avoir. 
 
 3d, with the ReJleSlive Verb. 
 
 1st, Of the Participle past^ conjugated with etre» 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The past Participle conjugated with Hre^ always agrees 
 in gender and number with the subjedl of the Verb, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le crime est detcste ; mais la 
 
 ■vertu n' est pas toujours 
 
 aimee, 
 Elle 6tait, dans sa jeunesse, 
 
 douee d' une beaute ravis- 
 
 sante. 
 Les hoinmes vertueux sont es- 
 
 times meme cles mechans. 
 Les feinmes vertueuses sont 
 
 respiectees de tout le monde. 
 
 Crimes ave detented ; but virtue 
 is not always loved. 
 
 She was, in her youth, endowed 
 with ravishing beauty. 
 
 Virtuous men are esteemed even 
 
 by the wicked. 
 Virtuous women are respected 
 
 by every body. 
 
 " O toi qui vols la houte oixje suis descendue, 
 Impbtcable Venus 1 suis-yV assez confondue? 
 Tu ne saurais plus loin pousser ta cruaute, 
 Ton triomphe ^^iparfait^ tes traits out tous porte." 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 399 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 When ete joined to one of the tenses of ccuoir is fol- 
 lowed by another Participle, the latter is declinable* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cette actpice a et^ afifilaudie du 
 parterre & des loges. 
 
 Nous avons ete trains par ceux- 
 meme a qui nous avions et^ 
 recommandea. 
 
 This actress has been afifilaud^ 
 ed by the pit and boxes. 
 
 We have been betrayed even 
 by those to whom we had 
 been recommended. 
 
 JMaster. 
 
 As the declinability or indeclinability of the past Parti- 
 ciple in the examples that will now follow, depends upon 
 its being preceded by its direct complement, or upon its 
 preceding its indireSl complement ; I now give you a list 
 of the complements direB^ and another of the comple- 
 ments indiredl that always precede the past Participle. 
 
 The complements direSl are ffteen in number ; viz. 
 
 me. 
 
 te, 
 
 se, 
 
 nous. 
 
 vous, 
 
 k. 
 
 la. 
 
 les 
 
 . I which may be 
 . ^ rendered by 
 
 "moi. 
 
 
 que. 
 
 toi. 
 
 
 que de ! 
 
 soi. 
 
 
 combien de ? 
 
 nous 
 
 and < 
 
 quely s. M. 
 
 vous 
 
 
 quelle, S. F. 
 
 lui. 
 
 
 quels, PL. M. 
 
 elle. 
 
 
 jquelles, PL. F 
 
 .eux. 
 
 
 
 The complements indireSl are seven in number : viz. 
 
 7ne. 
 
 te. 
 
 se. 
 
 lui. 
 
 leur. 
 
 nous. 
 
 vous. 
 
 a moi. 
 
 
 a toi. 
 
 
 a soi. 
 
 
 a lui, on a 
 
 elle. 
 
 a eux, ou 
 
 a elks. 
 
 i nous. 
 
 
 Ji vous. 
 
 
400 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 2d, Of the past Participle, conjugated with avoir. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The past Participle is indeclinable^ when it precedes its 
 direct complement. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Elle a regu des nouvelles. 
 Nous avons trouve cette piece 
 
 interessante. 
 Ces hommes ont rendu leurs 
 
 talens celeb res. 
 
 She has received news. 
 
 We found this piece interest- 
 ing. 
 
 These men have rendered th^xv 
 talents celebrious. 
 
 " Manes de mon amant, j' ai done trahi msijbi.' — 
 " C en est fait 8c Gusman regnc a jamais sur moi.' 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 The past Participle is declinable, when it is preceded hy 
 its direSl complement, even when it is followed by an 
 Adje&ive or another Participle past, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les nou-vclles qu' elle a recues. 
 
 La piece que vous avez trouvSe 
 
 interessante. 
 Les hommes que leurs talens 
 
 ont rendiis celeb res. 
 II n' a pas eu le tems de faire 
 
 reponse aux lettres que vous 
 
 lui avez ecrites. 
 
 The news which she has re- 
 
 ceived* 
 The piece which yon found en^ 
 
 tertaining. 
 The men whom their talents 
 
 have rendered ctlebrious. 
 He had no time to answer the 
 
 letters you wrote him. 
 
 " Quels charmes ont pour vous des yeux infortun6s 
 " Qu' 1 des pleurs eternels vous avez condajnnes .'" 
 
 On m' a blame de /' en avoir. 
 prevenue. 
 
 I have been blamed for inform- 
 ing her of it. 
 
 " Seigneur, vous ttc avez 'uue attachee a vous nuire ; 
 *' Dans le fond de iPion cosur vous ne pouviez pas lire. 
 
 Le malheur t' a livree-> 6 reine 
 courageuse, dans les mains 
 de tes bourreaux I 
 
 Misfortune has given thee up, 
 O courageous queen,into the 
 hands of thy murderers I 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 401 
 
 « Que je crains mais, dis-moi, Bajazet ^'a-t-il -oue ? " 
 
 II nous a rei^us avec beaucoup I He received us with much po- 
 d' honnetete. | liteness. 
 
 " Je reconnais 1' erreur qui nous avait seduits," 
 
 Je ne vous avais pas aper(^ue, 
 Madmne^ lorsque vous /' avez 
 rencontrSe* 
 
 I had not perceived you, Ma- 
 dam^ when you met her. 
 
 « Oui, Roxane, il est vrai que je vous ai trompee.'' 
 
 Y a-t-ll long-tems que vous ne ( How long is it since you satv 
 les avez vu^ ? \ them ? 
 
 " De soins plus importans je /' ai vue agitee. 
 " Je i" ai rmdue horrible a ses yeux inhumains. 
 " Le bruit de nos tresors les a tous attires**^ 
 
 Que de peines ne me suis-je 
 pas donneea pour vous ! 
 
 Que de fatigues n' a-t-il pas 
 soutcnu'S ! 
 
 Que deioXits n' a-t-il ^2i?,faite8! 
 
 Combien d' arpens de terre 
 avez-vous achctes ? 
 
 What trouble did I not give 
 
 myself for you ! 
 What hardships did he not 
 
 bear ! 
 What pranks did he not play ! 
 Hotv jnany acres of land have 
 
 you bought ? 
 
 " Pendant ces derniers terns, combien en a-t-on vus^ 
 " Qui, du soir au matin, sont pauvres devenus ? 
 " Pour vouloir trop tot etre riches." 
 
 Quelle maison avez-vous bdlie? 
 Quelles dames avez-vous co7i- 
 nues ? 
 
 What house have you built ? 
 What ladies did you know ? 
 
 " Quels assauts, quels combats j' ai tantot soutenus*^ 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 The Participle pa!it is indeclinable^ when preceded by 
 its complement direct, and followed by an Infinitive im- 
 plying adlion on individuals mentioned in the phrase. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les soldats que j' ai vu desar- 
 
 mer. 
 Les vertus que j' ai enicndu 
 
 louwr. 
 
 The soldiers I savj disarmed. 
 The virt;"s I heard praised. 
 
402 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Les jeunes gens que j' ai vou- 
 lu instruire, ne m' ont pas 
 6coute. 
 
 Je /' ai vu peindre. 
 
 Je /' ai entendu chanter. 
 
 Je /' ai vu batir. 
 
 Je les ai entendu reciter. 
 
 Je les ai vu porter. 
 
 The young men I nvished to 
 instruct, paid no attention to 
 me. 
 
 I saw her picture drawn. 
 
 I heard it sung, (a song). 
 
 I saw it built, (a house). 
 
 I heard them recited, (lines). 
 
 I saw them carried, (goods). 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 The Participle past is declinable^, when preceded by its 
 complement direSt^ and followed by an Infinitive express- 
 ing an action done by the person or thing spoken of. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je /' ai vue tomber. 
 
 Je /' ai entendue chanter. 
 
 Je les ai entendus reciter. 
 
 Je les ai vues danser. 
 
 Je les ai vus jouer. 
 
 Les soldats que j' ai vus desar- 
 
 mer. 
 Les courtisans que j' ai entcn- 
 
 dus louer. 
 
 I saw it fall, (a house). 
 
 I heard her sing. 
 
 I heard them recite. 
 
 I saw them dance. 
 
 I saw them play. 
 
 The soldiers I saw disarming. 
 
 The courtiers which I heard 
 praising. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 The past Participle is indeclinable^ when preceded by 
 its complement dire8t^ and immediately followed by the 
 Preposition a or dc before an Injinitive^ we cannot^ by 
 suppressing the complement direSl^ place the subject of 
 the proposition after the Participle. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 L* histoire que j' ai commence 
 
 a lire est tres-amusante. 
 La femme qu' il a cherche a 
 
 seduire lui a resiste. 
 Les hon\me.'j que nous avons 
 
 craint d' aborder, etaient des 
 
 voleurs. 
 La demoiselle que vous avez 
 
 cesse de voir, est fort spiri- 
 
 tuelle. 
 
 The history which I began to 
 read is very entertaining. 
 
 The woman he sought to seduce 
 has resisted him. 
 
 The men whom we feared to 
 come up with, were thieves. 
 
 The young lady whom you de- 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 403 
 
 It is contrary to the genius of the French language 
 to say, 
 
 J' ai commence V histoire a lire. 
 II a cherche la femme a seduire. 
 Nous avons craint les homines d' abordcn 
 Vous avez cesse la demoiselle de voir* 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 The past Participle is declinable^ when preceded by its 
 complement direSl^ and immediately followed by the Pre- 
 position a or de before an Infinitive^ we can^ by suppress- 
 ing the complement direct^ place the name of the object 
 spoken of after the Participle. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les ouvriers qu' \\ a obliges 
 a. travailler, ne sent pas con- 
 tens de lui. 
 
 Les femmes que nous avons 
 instrultes a feindre, nous ont 
 surpasses. 
 
 Les hommes que nous avons 
 convaincus d' avoir vole, sont 
 en prison. 
 
 La simplicite que j' ai eue de 
 les croire, est la cause de 
 tout mon nralheur. 
 
 The workmen ivhom he obliged 
 to work, are not pleased with 
 him. 
 
 The women ivhom we have in- 
 structed to dissemble, have 
 surpassed us. 
 
 The men whom we have con- 
 victed of robbery, are in 
 goal. 
 
 The simplicity that I had to 
 believe them, is the cause 
 of all my misfortunes. 
 
 " Vous me donnez des noms qui doivent me surprendre, 
 " Madame ; on ne w' a point instruite a les entendre." 
 
 One can say, agreeably to the genius of the French 
 language, 
 
 II a oblige les ouvriers a travailler. 
 Nous avons instruit lesfem?nes a feindre. 
 Nous avons convaincu les hommes d' avoir vole. 
 J' ai eu la simplicite de les croire. \ 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 f f 
 
404 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 The Participle pasty preceded by the relative Adverb 
 en^ without being first preceded by the complement diredl^ 
 is indeclinable > 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a fait lui seul plus d' ex- 
 ploits que les autres n' en 
 ont lu. 
 
 y ai maintenant plus de sante 
 que je n' en ai jamais eu, 
 
 y ai dessine plus de paysages 
 que vous n' en avez vu. 
 
 De deux filles, la mere en 
 avait/azV une Religieuse. 
 
 He has perfomed alone more 
 exploits than the others 
 have read, 
 
 I have at this time more health 
 
 > than I ever had, 
 
 I have designed more land- 
 scapes than you have seen. 
 
 Of two daughters, the mother 
 had made one a Nun. ' 
 
 It is evident that que^ in the sentences above, is not the 
 complement direSl of the Participle past; it is nothing 
 but a Conjun&ion^ taken in an adverbial sense, which does 
 not, of course, receive the injluence of the Participle, so 
 aitto become its complement direSl. 
 
 RULE VIIL 
 
 The past Participle is declinable^ when preceded by en 
 and its complement direSl, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les en avez-vous prevenus? 
 Les femmes q^ie j* en ai con- 
 
 vaincues, 
 Vous parlez de ses fautes ; 
 
 combien n' en a-t-il pas com- 
 
 mises I 
 
 Have you informed them of it. 
 The woman which I have con- 
 vinced of it. 
 You speak of his faults; hoiu 
 mamj has he not committed I 
 
 -Dejd la renommee 
 
 " Par d' etonnans recits m' en avail informee.** 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 When the past Participle is followed by que, it is al- 
 ways indeclinable. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Terminez les affaires que vous I Put an end to the business which 
 Si\Qzp7'evu que vous auriez- j youyore^azy you should have. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 405 
 
 Les bijous que j* ai ordonne 
 
 qu* on m' envoyat. 
 Les depenses qu' ils ont cru 
 
 que je ferais. 
 Les terres qu' il aurait desire 
 
 que j' eusse achetees. 
 
 The jewels that I ordered to be 
 sent to me. 
 
 The expenses which they 
 thought I would incur. 
 
 The lands he would have de- 
 sired I should have bought. 
 
 3d, Of the past Participle of Reflective Verbs. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The past Participle of RefleBive Verbs is always de^ 
 dinabley when attended by its complement direSl. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les Amazones se sont con- 
 
 vertes de glorie. 
 Ils se sont decides a lui faire 
 
 un proces. 
 Elle s* est avisee de me donner 
 
 un soufflet. 
 Elle *' est assise aupres de 
 
 moi. 
 Ils se sont rendus formidable s. 
 
 jEUe *' Gt^iit Jlat tee de reus sir. 
 
 The Amazons covered them' 
 
 selves with glory. 
 They have determined to sue 
 
 him. 
 She took it into her head to 
 
 give me a box on the ear. 
 She sat by me. 
 
 They have rendered themselves 
 
 formidable. 
 ShGjlattered herself she would 
 
 succeed. 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 The past Participle of ReJieSlive Verbs, when attended 
 by a complement indiredl^ is indeclinahle. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Lucrece «* est donne la mort. 
 Elle s* est mis des chitneres dans 
 
 r esprit. • 
 
 Les Amazones se sont acquis 
 
 de la gloire, 
 Vous vous etes dit des honne^ 
 
 tetes^ 
 
 Lucretia killed herself. 
 
 She has stored chimeras in her 
 
 head. 
 The Amazons have acquired 
 
 glory to themselves, 
 Yoxis/ioke to one another civilly. 
 
406 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 lis se sont firSfiarS bien des I They have firefiared for them- 
 fieines, \ selves much trouble. 
 
 " Deux fois nos tristes yeux se sont vu retracer^ 
 <« Ce meme enfant toujours tout pret a me percer." 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 The past Participle of RejieElive Verbs, when attended, 
 at the same time, by two complements, one direSl^ and 
 the other indireSl^ is declinable, 
 
 5:XAMPLES, 
 
 La mort que Lucrece s' est 
 
 donnee. 
 Les chimeres qu' elle s' est 
 
 mises dans 1' esprit. 
 La gloire que se sont acquise 
 
 les Amazones. 
 Les honnetetes que vous vous 
 
 etes dites, 
 Les peine s qu* ils se sont fire- 
 
 parees. 
 
 The death that Lucretia ga-me 
 
 herself. 
 The chimeras that she put into 
 
 her brains. 
 The glory which the Amazons 
 
 acquired. 
 The civil speeches you made 
 
 one to another. 
 The trouble they prepai-ed for 
 
 themselves. 
 
 Scholar. 
 
 You have said nothing concerning the declinability of 
 the past Participle of Stationary Verbs, construed with 
 
 Avoir, J 
 
 Master. 
 
 For a good reason: you have seen in all the above ex- 
 amples concerning the past Participle, that, to be declina^ 
 hie, it must be preceded by a complement dire& ; and, as 
 the Stationary Verbs have none, their past Participle 
 must necessarily be indeclinable, when construed with 
 Avoir, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 On pourrait compter par les 
 bienfaits de cet homme 
 rare les jours qu' il a vecu. 
 
 II faut retrancher de la vie les 
 heures qu' on a dormi. 
 
 Wfe may estimate the good 
 deeds of that rare man by 
 the days he has lived. 
 
 We should deduct from life 
 the hours we slept. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 401 
 
 In the two above examples que is not a complement ; it 
 is used in the first instead oi pendant lesquels ; and in the 
 second instead of pendant ksquelles* 
 
 The past Participle of Stationary Verbs, is, on the 
 contrary, always declinable^ when construed with etre. 
 
 » 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 EUe est venue me parler. 
 
 EUe s' est allee baigner. 
 
 Les navires sont alles se briser 
 
 a la cote. 
 Cette femme est arrives a cinq 
 
 heures & est rejiartie a sept. 
 
 She came and spoke to me. 
 She ivent to bathe herself. 
 The vessels went and bilged 
 
 on the coast. 
 This woman arrived at five 
 
 o* clock and set off again at 
 
 seven. 
 
 I conclude this account of the declinability of the past 
 Participle by observing, 
 
 1st, Th^xX. fait is indeclinable^ as well as some other 
 past Participles, when used in an abstraH sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le pluie qu' il ^fait m' a em- 
 
 pcche de sortir. 
 Les troupes qu' il a fallu leur 
 
 envoyer ont affaibli I* armee. 
 
 La depense qu* il y a ew clans 
 cette maison est effroyable. 
 
 The rain which \i2L% fallen pre- 
 vented me from going out. 
 
 The troops, which it has been 
 necessary to send them, have 
 enfeebled the army. 
 
 The expense, that there has 
 been in that house, is horri- 
 ble. 
 
 2d, That fait of all the past Participles, which maybe 
 united to the Infinitive of ASlive, or Stationary Verbs, is 
 the 07ily one diat always rernains indeclinable. 
 
 Les chemises que j' 
 faire. 
 
 Voila les livres que j' ai fait 
 venir de France. 
 
 Je 1' ^ifait entrer avec beau- 
 coup de difficulte. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ai fait 
 
 The shirts that I caused to be 
 
 made. 
 There are the books I ordered 
 
 from France. 
 I made her come in with a great 
 
 deal of difficulty. 
 
408 SYNTAX MADE EAS\. 
 
 But if fait has the sense of fabriquer^ creer^ former ^ 
 produire^ &c. it is declinable. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les bottes qu' il m' difaites sont 
 trop etroites. 
 
 The boots he made for me are 
 too tight. 
 
 3d, That when the past Participle has after it an Lifi- 
 nitive understood, it is then indeclinable, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J' ai cite les plus beaux traits 
 
 que j' ai /iie» 
 Elle a dit toutes les plaisante- 
 
 ries qu' elle a voulu, 
 y ai fait toutes les demarches 
 
 que j' ai diu 
 
 I have quoted the noblest traits 
 
 I could. 
 She said all the pleasantries 
 
 she would, 
 I took all the steps I should, 
 
 or ought. 
 
 The Infinitives citer^ dire, & faire are understood in 
 the above phrases. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE TWENTY-FIRST. 
 
 ON THE PROPER CHOICE OF THE JUXILIJRY, 
 
 Master. 
 
 YOU have undoubtedly observed in the course of this 
 work, that the Participles past oiadlive Verbs having a di- 
 reSl complement, are combined with the auxiliary etre, 
 in order to give a passive sense to the phrase, as in the 
 following line j 
 
 " Tout mortel est charge de sa propre douleur." 
 
 est charge, is used in a passive sense, because one may 
 say, charger quelqu' un. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 409 
 
 Also, that all our Rejiedlhe Verbs, contrary to the ge- 
 nius of the English, are conjugated with Hrc in their 
 past tenses ; as, 
 
 " Je suis pere, &: ce coeur qu' on tel arret dechire, 
 
 " S' en est dit cent fois plus que tu ne peux m' en dire." 
 
 There are some Verbs, which, without being used /?^^- 
 sivelij or reJleElivelij^ take the auxiliary ctre ; as, 
 
 Aller^ arriver^ deceder^ dcchAr^ entrer^ mourir^ naitre^ fiartir^ 
 rester^ sortir^ tomber-i -venir and its compounds, devenir^ inter- 
 venir^ parvenir^ revenir, and survcnir. 
 
 REMARK ON ALLEU, SORTIR, AND 10MBER. 
 
 ALLER. 
 
 We always make use of Stre^ when aller is conjugated 
 with its own Participle : so they say, " il est alle^ il Halt 
 aUe/^ but should the word ete be substituted for the word 
 alU^ then the auxiliary avoir must be substituted for the 
 auxiliary etre: so they must say, in the sense of aller ^ 
 " il a ete^^ instead of ^' il est eie^"* which is a barbarism 
 in French. — There is a very nice distinction between 
 " il est alle^"* and " il a ete,'''* for they are by no means 
 synonymous : the former meaning that the person is gone 
 and is not yet returned ; while the latter means that he is 
 returned from the place where he had been, or where he 
 had lived. — From this remark it is evident that aller, 
 conjugated with the Verb etre, cannot be used for the 
 first nor the second person, but only, for the third, 
 
 SORTIR. 
 
 This Verb first takes the auxiliary avoir, to express 
 that somebody who was out returned : so we say of some- 
 body that has returned, " il a sorti ;" but should he not 
 be returned yet, we would say, " il est sorti." 
 
 Sortir is also conjugated with avoir, when it is follow- 
 ed by a complement. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 Le palefrenier fl-t-il sorti mes 
 
 chevaux de 1' ecurie ? 
 Remerciez-le de vousat'ozV sor- 
 
 ti d' une affaire si facheuse. 
 
 Has the ostler taken my horses 
 out of the stable ? 
 
 Thank him for /ww;^ extricat- 
 ed you from so unpleasant an 
 affair. 
 
10 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 TOMBER, 
 
 This Verb never admits for the conjugation of its past 
 tenses, of any other auxiliary than etre : so we must say, 
 " Je suis tombe, — J' etais tombe >" but never " J' «i 
 tombe, — J' avais tombe," which is a mistake into which 
 a great many French are liable to fall j even Voltaire^ the 
 most correct, perhaps, of our writers, has committed it 
 in the following lines. 
 
 " Ou serais-je, Grand Dleu ! si ma credulite 
 " £{ii tombe dans le piege a mes pas presente." 
 q;^ Fut should have been used instead ci tut. 
 
 The Verbs Suh'-jcnir^ Apparaitre, Comparaitre^ Ap- 
 procher^ are always conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 On a subvenu a tous les be- 
 
 soins les plus urgens. 
 11 croit que 1' ombre de sa 
 
 maitresse lui a apparu en 
 
 songe. 
 V 6tais sur qu' il n' cut point 
 
 comparu devant les Juges. 
 
 The most urgent wants have 
 
 been all relieved. 
 He believes that the ghost of 
 
 his mistress has appeared to 
 
 him in a dream. 
 I was sure that he would not 
 
 have made his appearance 
 
 before the Judges. 
 
 " Vieillards, femmes, enfans, troupeau faible Sc timide 
 " Dont n' a point approche cette guerre homicide." 
 
 The Verbs Adourir^ Dlsparaitre^ CrcUre^ Decrottrey 
 Contrevenir^ are conjugated with either of tliese auxiliary 
 Verbs. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J' ai accouru ou Je sids accou- 
 
 ru au bruit. 
 La riviere a cru ou est crue. 
 Les aux ont bien decru ou sont 
 
 bien decrues. 
 11 pretendait n* avoir point 
 
 centre venu oti n' etre point 
 
 contrevenu a la loi. 
 Je n' ai fait que tourner la tete, 
 
 elle a disparu ou elle est dis- 
 
 parue. 
 
 I ran to the noise. 
 
 The river has increased. 
 
 The waters have much de- 
 creased. 
 
 He pretended not to have con- 
 travened the lay,'. 
 
 I did but turn my head, and 
 she disappeared. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 411 
 
 Perir is generally ranked by all grammarians {Restaut 
 excepted) among the Verbs which admit equally well of 
 either auxiliaries. The distinction which the latter makes, 
 having appeared as delicate as it is judicious, I shall 
 insert his remark on the use of this Verb. 
 
 " It is probable that the auxiliary Avoir suits better, 
 when the Verb has a general and indeterminate sense ; 
 as when we say, Les enfans du Grand Pretre (High 
 Priest) ont peri miserablement. — And that the auxiliary 
 Hre is preferable, when the Verb is attended by particular 
 circumstances, as in the following phrases : 
 
 Les habitans de Jerusalem sont peris ^ar lefer ^ fiar le feu, 
 \J armee de Pharaon est perie dans les eaux de ki mer rouge.'* 
 
 The Verbs following change their meaning by a change 
 of auxiliary — viz. 
 
 Accoucher, when conjugated with avoir ^ means to dC" 
 liver. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cette sage-femme a accouche 
 
 Madame une telle. 
 Quel est le chirurgien qui vous 
 
 a accouche ? 
 
 This midwife has delivered 
 
 Mrs. such-a-one. 
 Who is the surgeon who de^ 
 
 livered you ? 
 
 When conjugated with stre^ it means to bring forth^ to 
 be delivered. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Cette femme est accouchee hier 
 de deux jumeaux. 
 
 Elle etait accouchee d' un en- 
 fant male. 
 
 Vous ne la verrez pas qu' elle 
 ne soit accouchee. 
 
 This lady brought forth yes- 
 terday two twins. 
 
 She ivas delivered of a male 
 child. 
 
 You shall not see her, till she 
 has brought forth. 
 
 Cesser is always conjugated with avoir ^ when it has a 
 complement ; it then means to leave off^^ to cease, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a cess6 ses filaintes. I He has ceased his complaints, 
 
 II a cesse de Jileurer. \ He has left off lueeping. 
 
 VOL. II. CJgg 
 
412 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 The same Verb is conjugated with either of the auxi- 
 liaries, when it has no complement ; it means to be over^ 
 to have ceased. 
 
 EXx\MPLE. 
 
 Sa iievre a cesse ou est cessee. | His fever is over. 
 
 Convenir when it is conjugated with avoir^ means etre 
 cofivenable, to suit ; and when it is conjugated with etre^ 
 it means demeurer d"* accord^ to agree. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Cette maison m' a convenu Sc I This house suited me and I 
 je suis convenu du prix. j agreed for the price. 
 
 Demeurer when it is conjugated with avoir y means to 
 reside or to tarry, to stay a long while. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 y ai demeure pres de onze ans 
 
 a Philadelphie. 
 Sa plaie a demeure iong-tems a 
 
 se fermer. 
 
 I have resided near eleven years 
 
 in Philadelphia. 
 It ivas a long time before his 
 
 wound was healed. 
 
 But, when this Verb means to remain, it requires etre, 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 11 est demeure deux mille hom- I Two thousand men remained 
 mes dans la place. \ in the place. 
 
 Racine has therefore committed a fault, when he said 
 
 Ma langue embarrassee 
 
 Dans ma bouchc vingt fois a demeuree glacee. 
 Est should have been used instead of a. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 41: 
 
 Monter and Descendre admit oi either auxiliary ; though 
 etre should be preferred. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Our Lord ascended to heaven. 
 
 Notre Seigneur est monte au 
 
 ciel. 
 II a ou il est monte a cheval. 
 II etait Enseigne ; il a monte a 
 
 la Lieutenance. 
 Le ble a ou est monte jusqu* a 
 
 vingt francs le septier. 
 II est descendu de sa chambre. 
 La Justice a descendu dans ce 
 
 lieu. 
 
 He went on horseback. 
 
 He was an Ensign ; he has been 
 
 promoted to a Lieutenancy. 
 Corn Jias risen to twenty francs 
 
 the twelve bushels. 
 He came doivn from his room. 
 The Officers of Justice went in 
 
 that place. 
 
 But, should those Verbs have a diredl complement, the 
 auxiliary avoir only should be used. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 II a monte un sufierhe cheval, 
 II a descendu les degres avec 
 firecifiitation. 
 
 He mounted a superb horse. 
 He came down stairs with pre- 
 cipitation. 
 
 Passer^ when followed by any complement^ is conjugat- 
 ed with avoir, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a passe le long de la Dela- 
 ware, 
 II a passe par tous les grades, 
 
 EUe a passe comme une chan- 
 dclle qui s* eteint. 
 
 He has passed along the Dela^ 
 
 ware. 
 He has passed through all the 
 
 degrees. 
 She went off just like a candle 
 
 that's burnt out. 
 
 On these lines of Boileau, 
 
 " Si leur sang tout pur, ainsi que leur noblesse, 
 
 Est passe jusqu' a vous de Lucrece en Lucrece." 
 
 D^ Olivet observes that, " a passe'' would be better ; but 
 should that Verb close the phrase, the auxiliary etre should 
 be used. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L' annee est pass6e, 
 
 Mes beaux jours sont passes. 
 
 The year is elapsed. 
 My happy days are past. 
 
fU SYNTAX MADE EASY, 
 
 We say, however, " ce mot a passe" to intimate that 
 it has been admitted — and " ce mot est passe," to assert 
 that it is 110 longer in use, 
 
 Echapper is conjugated with avoir ^ when it is attended 
 by a direcl complement. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a echappe la cdie, le danger^ 
 
 la fiotence, 
 Vous pouvez vous vanter que 
 
 vous 1* avez echappe bctle. 
 
 He escaped the coast, the dan- 
 ger, the gallows. 
 You may boast that you had a 
 
 narrow escajie* 
 
 Except in the above cases, it takes either of the aux- 
 iliaries. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a echappe des mains du 
 
 guet. 
 II est echappe du feu, des ga- 
 
 leres. 
 Le cerf a ou est echappe aux 
 
 chiens. 
 
 He escaped from the hands of 
 
 the watch. 
 He escaped from fire, from the 
 
 galHes. 
 The stag //as escaped from the 
 dogs. 
 
 I 
 Courir^ signifying to rwn, admits of the auxiliary avoir 
 only, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 J* y ai couru aussitot avec em- I I ran there immediately with 
 pressement. | eagerness. 
 
 Racine^ has, therefore, committed an error in the fol- 
 lowing line : 
 
 " II en etait sorti lorsque j' y siiis couru." 
 
 I believe the above list comprises all the Verbs of 
 which custom has justified the conjugation occasionally, 
 either with one or both of the auxiliaries. — Should 
 any Verb have escaped our inquiries we must refer 
 you to the reading of good authors, which cannot fail 
 to establish the habit of applying the proper auxiliary 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 411 
 
 to the Stationary Verbs. But I will here give you a rule 
 discovered by Restaut, .which, I think, is pretty accurate 
 in general. 
 
 " All neuter Verbs (stationary')^ whose past Participle 
 is declinable^ are conjugated with the Verb etre ; the 
 neuter Verbs, whose past Participle is indeclinable^ 
 ought to be conjugated vf'ixh. avoir. Thus, since we may 
 say, " un homme tombe ; une femme arrivee^^ we ought 
 to conjugate tomber and arriver^ with the Verb etre ; but, 
 as we cannot say, " un homme dormi ; une femme reg' 
 wee," one cannot conjugate donnir and regner, with the 
 Verb etre; they must be conjugated with avoirJ*^ 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE TWENTY-SECOND. 
 
 OJ\r THE PREPOSJTIOJV. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The Preposition a, de^ or en^ must be repeated in a 
 sentence, before each complement of theirs. 
 
 EXAMPLE^ FOR A, 
 
 Le jargon supplee a V esprit, a 
 la raison, a la science dans 
 les personnes qui ont un 
 grand usage du monde. 
 
 Jargon supplies the place of 
 wit, reason, and science, in 
 people who have a great 
 intercourse with the world. 
 
 " Je r apporte en naissant, elle est ecrite en moi, 
 
 Cette loi qui m' instruit de tout ce que je doi 
 
 ji men pere, a men fils, a ma femme, a moi-merae." 
 
416 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR DE, 
 
 Sa gaite est un peu bruyante, 
 il est vrai ; mais il a tant de 
 franchise, de naturel & de 
 bonhomie qu' il est impossi- 
 ble de le trouver importun. 
 
 His gaiety is rather boisterous, 
 it is true ; but he has so much 
 openness, ingenuousness, Sc 
 good nature, that it is im- 
 possible to find him impor- 
 tunate. 
 
 " Eh I Que vois-je par tout ! La terre n' est couverte 
 Que de palais detruits, de trones renverses. 
 Que de lauriers fletris, que de sceptres brises." 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR Em 
 
 La conversation d' aujourd'hui 
 est toute en saillies — en me- 
 nus propos — en equivoques 
 — en calembours — en jolis 
 riens. 
 
 The conversation of now-a- 
 days is all in sallies — in tri- 
 fling talk — in equi vocals — 
 in puns — in pretty trifles or 
 nonsense. 
 
 " En Asie, en Afrique, en Europe & par-tout 
 
 La vertu ne peut rien ; & c* est 1' or qui peut tout." 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 FIRST. 
 
 Other monosyllabic Prepositions must, in general, be 
 also repeated before each complement of theirs. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le jargon, ce ramage de so- 
 cietcjconsiste dans des tours 
 de phrases particuliers ; 
 da7is un usage bizarre des 
 mots ; dans V art de relever 
 de petites idees par des ex- 
 pressions recherchees ; on 
 peut le pardonner aux fem- 
 mes, mais il est indigne d' 
 un homme. 
 
 Les Ministres de la Religion 
 se regardent comme les 
 docteurs, les peres 8c les 
 medecins des ames, fiour les 
 instruire de la pure doctrine 
 du salut; pour pourvoir a 
 tous leurs besoins ; fiour 
 guerir leurs maux, ou fiour 
 les prevenir. 
 
 Jargon, this warbling of soci- 
 ety, consists in particular 
 turns of phrases ; in a 
 whimsical usage of words ; 
 in the art of setting off* tri- 
 fling ideas by means of af- 
 fected expressions : it may 
 be forgiven to women, but 
 it is unworthy of men. 
 
 The Ministers of Religion look 
 upon themselves as doctors, 
 fathers, and physicians of 
 souls, to instruct them in the 
 pure doctrine of salvation ; 
 to provide for all their wants; 
 to cure their sores, or to pre- 
 vent them. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 417 
 
 L' homme poli est patient, in- 
 dulgent, gcn6reux sans iv- 
 resse d* amour-propre ; sans 
 ecarls ridicules de vanite; 
 sans humeur. 
 
 A polite man is patient, indul- 
 gent, generous ivithout the 
 intoxication of self-love ; 
 without ridiculous flights of 
 vanity j without ill humour. 
 
 " Comment opposerais-je au reste des humains 
 Un stupide sauvage errant, a 1' aventure ; 
 A peine de nos traits con servant la figure ; 
 Un miserable peuple, egare dans les bois, 
 Sans maitre, sans etats, sans villes & sans lois." 
 
 Prepositions of more than one syllable are seldom re- 
 peated, if the Nouns complementary, or the ideas they 
 express, be ever so little synonymous or congeniaL 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Aujourd' hui, pourvu qu' on 
 entre dans un cercle avec 
 un air d' importance & un 
 habit de godt, on est sur 
 d' etre bien accueilli. 
 
 Now-a-days, provided one en- 
 ters a circle with an impor- 
 tant air and a fashionable 
 coat, he is sure of being 
 well received. 
 
 But, should the complementary words have meanings 
 totally different^ the Preposition must commonly be re- 
 ptated, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Rien n' est moins selon Dieu 
 Sc selon le monde. 
 
 Nothing is less according to 
 God and according to the 
 world. 
 
 I conclude by observing, that custom alone will acquaint 
 you with every circumstance in which the Prepositions 
 must be repeated^ and when it is required that they should 
 be expressed only before the Jirst complement, as they are 
 all, except c, de & en^ liable to variations, which cannot 
 be embraced by any rule. 
 
4U 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 SECOND. 
 
 £n differs from dans, in this respect, that the ^rst is 
 always used in an indefinite sense, while the secgfid is 
 used in a definitive sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR EM 
 
 II loge en chambre garnie. 
 Elle est en pension chez Ma- 
 dame A 
 
 II est en chemin. 
 Elle est en ville. 
 II vit en liberte. 
 II entra en fureur. 
 
 He lodges in a furnished room. 
 She is at board with Mrs. 
 
 A 
 
 He is a coming. 
 She is abroad. 
 He lives at ease. 
 He got into a fury. 
 
 Vous le trouverez dans sa 
 chambre. 
 
 Elle est dans une pension. 
 
 II est dans le chemin. 
 
 Elle est dans la ville. 
 
 II vit dans une grande liberte. 
 
 II entra dans une fureur ex- 
 treme. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR DjIJ^S, 
 
 You will find him in his room. 
 
 She is in a boarding-house. 
 He is on the road. 
 She is m the city. 
 He lives in great liberty. 
 He got into an extreme pas- 
 sion. 
 
 From the indeterminate meaning of en you would na- 
 turally infer that it ought not to be followed by the Arti- 
 cle ; but exceptions have crept into a few familiar modes 
 of expressions such as the following : 
 
 Vous vous en allez a vue 
 d' oeil en V autre monde. 
 
 On r a bien re9u en V honneur 
 de vous. 
 
 ^n V honneur de quel saint 
 vous voit-on a cette heure ? 
 
 Je n* ai voulu lui parler qu' 
 en la presence de ses pa- 
 rens. 
 
 Je n' ai pas voulu la voir en 
 V absence de son mari. 
 
 You are visibly dying. 
 
 He has been well received in 
 honour of you. 
 
 Upon what account do we see 
 you at this time ? 
 
 I wanted to speak to him, but 
 in the presence of his re- 
 lations. 
 
 I would not see, or visit, her 
 in the absence of her hus- 
 band. 
 
SYNTAX MADE E ASY. 4 1 9 
 
 By attending to the following observations and re- 
 marks, you will become sensible of the difference in the 
 use of en^ dans^ and a. 
 
 First \ ^^ arrivera en trois jours. 
 ^ X II arrii 
 
 Tivera dans trois jours. 
 
 The jirst means that he will be three days coming. 
 
 The second means that three days will elapse before 
 his coming. 
 
 prison. 
 Second, 
 
 ril est a la prison 
 
 ,< II est tn prison. 
 
 (_I1 est dans la pri 
 
 The Jirst of the above cases, is construed to signify he 
 is voluntarily gone to the prison. 
 
 The second^ that he has been put there, without any re- 
 gard to his will. 
 
 The third is doubtful or equivocal. 
 
 Th* H S ^^^ officiers sont en campagne. 
 ' \ Les officiers sent a la campagne. 
 
 The Jirst^ means that the officers are on the field. 
 The second^ that they are in the country. 
 
 THIRD. 
 
 The Prepositions dessus and dessous, dedans^ and dehors^ 
 cannot be used by themselves, they must be construed to- 
 gether and have the sa?ne complement. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J' ai cherche dessus Sc dessous 
 
 la table. 
 La fievre jaune est dedans 8c 
 
 dehors la ville. 
 
 I look ufi07i and under the ta- 
 ble. 
 
 The yellow fever is within and 
 ivithout the city. 
 
 These Prepositions are in the following phrases, of 
 course, misapplied. 
 
 J' ai cherch6 dessus la table. 
 J' ai cherche dessous la table. 
 La fievre jaune est dedans la ville. 
 La fievre jaune est dehors la ville. 
 VOL. II. H h h 
 
420 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 To render those phrases correct, the Prepositions 5wr, 
 sous^ dans^ hors de^ must be substituted for those used. 
 
 The above abuse has even crept into the poetry of 
 Racine and Desbarreaux^ as in these lines, 
 
 -Ses sacrileges mains 
 
 " Dessous le meme joug rangent tous les humains.**^ 
 
 " Mais dessus quel endroit tombera ton tonnerre 
 " Qui ne soit tout couvert du sang de Jesus Christ." 
 
 :»r 
 
 In order that dessus^ dessous, dedans., dehors, may be 
 used correctly by themselves, they must be respectively 
 acted upon by another Preposition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a passe par dedans, ou par 
 
 dehors la ville. 
 II avait de V eau par dessus la 
 
 tete. 
 On r a tire de dessus les epines 
 
 — de dessous les mines. 
 On r a enleve par dessous les 
 
 bras. 
 
 He has passed within, or 'with- 
 out the town. 
 He had water over his head. 
 
 He was taken off o/' the thorns 
 — from under the mines. 
 
 They raised him by taking 
 him under the arms. 
 
 In the conversation on the Preposition, I have shown 
 you in what circumstance dessus, dessous, dedans, dehors, 
 might be used singly and without any complement; to 
 which, in order to avoid repetition, I now refer you. 
 
 FOURTH. 
 
 Durant & pendant, denote a duration of time, with this 
 difference, that durant, is applied to what lasts any illimit' 
 ed time — and pendant, generally, to what lasts but a short 
 time. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Nos ennemis ont reste en quar- 
 
 tiers d' hiver durant la cam- 
 
 pagne. 
 II est dangereux de sortir de 
 
 chezsoi pendant \q^ grandes 
 
 chaleurs. 
 
 Our enemies have remained 
 in winter quarters during 
 the campaign. 
 
 It is dangerous to go out of 
 one's house during the dog- 
 days. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 421 
 
 " Lc r6gal fut fort honnete ; 
 Rien ne manquait au festin ; 
 Mais quelqu' un troubla la fete, 
 Pendant qu' its etaient en train. 
 
 Durant is the only Preposition that can be placed after 
 its complement^ as in the following phrases. 
 
 On lui fait une rente sa vie 
 
 durant, 
 II a 6t6 absent six ans durant. 
 
 They pay bim an annuity dur- 
 
 ing his life. 
 He has been absent for six 
 
 years. 
 
 FIFTH. 
 
 The words proche^ pres^ hors, require the Preposition 
 de after them. — The only cases when it may be suppress- 
 ed, are, in directions to places or in conversation. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II lege proche le Palais. 
 
 A Monsieur un tel pres le 
 cimetiere des Innocens, a 
 Paris. 
 
 Cette maison est situee /lors 
 la ville. 
 
 He lodges near the Court- 
 house. 
 
 To Mr. such-a-one, near the 
 cemetery of the Innocents, 
 at Paris. 
 
 This house is situated out of 
 the city. 
 
 SIXTH. 
 
 Never make use of vis-a-vis in the sense of envers^ a 
 r egard &c. as a great many French people do : and in- 
 stead of saying, *' les torts que j' ai vis-a-vis de vous :" 
 say, 
 
 Les torts que j' ai envers vous, 
 ou a votre egard. 
 
 The wrongs I have towards 
 you, or with regard to you. 
 
 Keep vis-a-vis to express physical relations only ; as, 
 
 II demeure vis-a-vis de mes fe- I He lives opposite to my win- 
 netres. dows. 
 
423 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 SEVENTH. 
 
 In prose prefer avant de to avant que de ; but in verse 
 the measure will fix the choice. 
 
 " Ciel, ouvre-moi la tombe avant de m' avilir ; 
 De cent coups de poignard que T infidelle meure : 
 Mais, avant de frapper'-— ah ! cher ami, demeure." 
 
 " Vous etes citoyenne avant que d' etre mere." 
 EIGHTH. 
 Many people mistake the Preposition pres for the Ad- 
 jective prety s. M. prete^ s. F. hence a gross counter-sense 
 results ; as when they say, " il etait pret a tomber," for 
 " il etait pres de tomber ;" since prSt c, signifies dispose c, 
 ready to ; and pres de^ signifies, sur le point de, upon the 
 point of, near. 
 
 INSTRUCTION THE TWENTY-THIRD. 
 
 OJV THE ADVERB, 
 RULE I. 
 
 The Adverb must be, in general, placed in a sentence 
 before the Adjeclive or Fartk-lple which it modifies. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 We are easily taken up with 
 various prospects, when we 
 enter into the career of for- 
 tune : but when we have 
 reached the highest prefer- 
 ments, the pleasures of ima- 
 fc(uiation end there. — Such 
 we may represent those 
 navigators, who, after hav- 
 ing vainly tried to open to 
 themselves a passage to the 
 extremities of the world, 
 sadly return back, and con- 
 sidering, with a sullen and 
 languid look, the various 
 sights of nature by which 
 they had been so lively 
 struck, v/hen not long before 
 they crossed the seas with 
 a mind governed by curiosity 
 and hope. 
 
 On est nisement interesse par 
 des aspects divers, lors qu' 
 on entre dans la carriere de 
 la fortune : mais iorsqu' on 
 est arriv6 aux plus h antes 
 places, les plaisirs de 1' ima- 
 gination finissent avec elles. 
 — -Tels on croit voir ces na- 
 vigateurs qui apres avoir 
 vainement essaye de s' ouv- 
 rir un passage aux extie mi- 
 tes du monde, retournent 
 tristement sur leurs pas, & 
 considerant d' un ceil morne 
 Sclanguissant les divers spec- 
 tacles de la nature doiit ils 
 avaient ele si vivement fiap- 
 p^'s; lorsque iiaguere iks tra- 
 versuient les mers, 1' esprit 
 vivement emu par la curio- 
 site & par i' esperance. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 423 
 
 OBSERVATION. 
 
 There are circumstances in which taste alone can direct 
 the proper use of the Adverbs of quantity^ which may be 
 placed either befire or after the AdjeSlivt, — Thus, one- 
 may say with equal propriety, 
 
 „ \ , •.• f Bonaparte is openly am- 
 
 Bonaparte est < eux, ou ambitieux K- i^ijiQus. 
 (_ ouvertement, J 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 The Adverb is, in general, placed immediately <7/?er the 
 Verb, in its radical tenses ; or betzveen the past Participle 
 and the 'Auxiliary, in its compound tenses. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C'est le destin des choses hu- 
 maines de n' avoir qu' une 
 duree courte &c rapide, Sc de 
 tomber aussitot dans 1' eter- 
 nel oubli d' ou elks etaient 
 sorties. — Mais, votre Eglise, 
 Grand Dieu ! mais, le chef- 
 d' ceuvre admirable de voire 
 sagesse Sc de votre miseri- 
 corde en vers les hommes ; 
 mais, votre empire, Maitre 
 Souverain des cceurs 1 n' au- 
 ra point d' autres bornes que 
 celles de V eternite. — Tout 
 nous echappe, tout disparait 
 sans cesae autour de nous ; 
 c' est une scene sur laquelle, 
 a chaque instant, paraissent 
 de nouveaux personnages 
 qui ce remplacent ; 8c de 
 tons ces roles pompeux qu' 
 ils out joues, pendant le mo- 
 ment qu' on les a vus sur Icur 
 theatre, il ne leur reste a la 
 Jin que le regret de voir finir 
 la representation Sc de ne se 
 trouver redlement que ce qu' 
 ils sout devant vous. 
 
 It is the fate of human things 
 to have but a short lived and 
 rapid duration, and to fall 
 instantly into that eternal 
 oblivion from which they had 
 come. — But, your Church, 
 Great God ! but, the admi- 
 rable master-piece of your 
 wisdom and mercy towards 
 man ; but, your empire So- 
 vereign Master of hearts 1 
 will have no other limits but 
 those of eternity. — Every 
 thing flics from us ; all va- 
 nishes incessantly around us; 
 it is a scene on which every 
 instant new performers ap- 
 pear to succeed one another ; 
 and out of all those pompous 
 parts they have played dur- 
 ing the short period they 
 were seen on their theatre, 
 nothing remains to them, in 
 the end, but the rei^ret to see 
 the end of the representa- 
 tion, and to find thenjSclves 
 before yon, but \\hat they 
 really are. 
 
424 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 " II (Dieu) precede les terns ; qui dira sa naissance ? 
 Par lui r homme, le ciel, la terre, tout commence, 
 Et lui seul infini, n* 2i jamais commence." 
 
 EXCEPTION. 
 
 In the compound tenses of Verbs, one may, however, 
 sometimes, place the Adverb^ either before or after the 
 past Participle. — Custom alone will direct you in that 
 respect ; thus, one may say equally well, 
 
 Les femmes V ont firodigieuse- 
 ment gate, ou V ont gate pro- 
 digieusement. 
 
 Women have 
 spoiled him. 
 
 firodigioicsly 
 
 Remark, that we place either before or after the Verb 
 the Adverbs of order and ranky and those which denote 
 time in a determinate manner ; thus we may say, 
 
 Nous devons faire, premiere- 
 ment^ notre devoir ; secon- 
 dement^ chercher les plaisirs 
 permis. 
 
 Aujourd'hui il fait beau ; il 
 pleuvra, peut-etre, demain. 
 
 On servit d' abord la soupe Sc 
 le bouilli, ou d' abord on ser- 
 vit la soupe & le bouilli. 
 
 We ought, Jirst, to do our 
 duty ; secondly^ love lawful 
 pleasures. 
 
 To-day it is fine weather ; it 
 will rain, perhaps, to-mor- 
 row. 
 
 The soup and bouilli were 
 served w^Jirst, 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 FIRST. 
 
 DavantagCy which many people are apt to confound 
 with plus and use for it, is, by no means, a synonymous 
 expression with plus ; the following distinguishes it par- 
 ticularly from that expression. 
 
 1st, It will admit neither the Preposition de nor the 
 Conjunction que after it ; do not say therefore, 
 
 oi jc itai-c lui j' aurai davantage de plaisir. 
 II est aim6 davantage que vous.'' 
 
 ^* Si je reste ici 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 4%& 
 
 Instead of it in the above, use plus ; thus, 
 
 Si je reste ici, j' aurai filus de 
 
 plaisir. 
 II est filus aime que vous. 
 
 If I stay here I shall have 
 
 more pleasure. 
 He is more beloved than you. 
 
 2d, It is always placed after the word which it modi- 
 fies and answers, in English, to the more when the more 
 is not to be repeated ; say therefore, 
 
 II en sera aime davantage — 
 (and not) II en sera davan- 
 tage aime. 
 
 He will be the more loved for 
 it. 
 
 3d, It is never construed with an AdjeSllve ; therefore 
 do not say, 
 
 II est davantage prudent ou I He is more wise, 
 prudent davantage, \ 
 
 4th, It can never be used in the sense of le plus^ (the 
 most) as many French do ; therefore do not say, 
 
 De toutes les fleurs d* un par- 
 terre, la rose est celle qui 
 me plait davantage ; (but) I Of all the flowers of a parterre 
 
 De toutes les fleurs d' un par- ( the rose pleases me 7no8t, 
 terre, la rose est celle qui 
 me plait le filua, 
 
 SECOND. 
 
 Autant and aussi are often confounded in familiar dis- 
 course, as synonymous expressions, which is an error, as 
 they are not so. Some French people say for instance, 
 
 " Pierre est autant riche que Jacques ; ou, 
 Pierre est riche autant que Jacques." 
 
 While they should say, 
 
 Pierre est aussi riche que Jac- I Peter is as rich as James, 
 ques. I 
 
 Should it be required to establish ixcompa7'isonhetwttn 
 two qualities, we should also make use of aussi ; as, 
 
 II est aussi avare que soup^on- 
 neux. 
 
 He is as avaricious as suspi- 
 cious. 
 
426 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 In order that autant may be substituted for aussi in the 
 above phrase, it must be placed between the two Adjec- 
 tives and followed by que > as, 
 
 II est avare autant que soup- 
 ^onneux. 
 
 He is as avaricious as suspi- 
 cious. 
 
 " L' Anglais, independant &: libre autant que brave, 
 Des caprices de cour ne fut jamais esclave.'* 
 
 " Mais, Heleuus, sensible autant que genereux, 
 N' a jamais su, Seigneur, braver un malheureux.'* 
 
 Autant que may also serve as a connexion between two 
 phrases, as, 
 
 Je r estime autant que je T I I esteem him as w2z/€/^ as I love 
 aime. J him. 
 
 When autant serves to compare the merit oitxvo actions 
 expressed by the Infinitive of tvv^o Verbs, one must not 
 fail of joining the Preposition de to the que\Y\nch. precedes 
 the second action — Hence, the following phrases, where 
 this Preposition is omitted^ are incorrect. 
 
 II vaut autant ecrire que parler, 
 
 J' aime autant le faire tout a T heure que dilFerer. 
 
 One must say, 
 
 11 vaut autant ecrire que de 
 
 parler. 
 J* aime autant le faire tout a 
 
 r heure que de differer. 
 
 It is as well to write as to 
 speak. 
 
 I like as well to do it immedi- 
 ately as to procrastinate. 
 
 Autant does not modify an Adverb — Therefore the fol- 
 lowing sentence is incorrect. 
 
 lis les regalerent autant hien 
 que pouvait le permettre la 
 pauvrete de leurpays. 
 
 They treated them as well as 
 the poverty of their country 
 would allow. 
 
 From what precedes we shall establish as a principle 
 the difference between aussi and autant to be as follows ; 
 
 Aussi is the proper modificative of an Adverb^ and never 
 of the quality expressed in the Verb. Autant never modi- 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 43f 
 
 fies the Adverb, and seldom the quality ; and when it 
 does, it must be followed by que and placed between the' 
 two AdjeBives it modifies. Autant modifying the quality 
 expressed in the Verb, must be followed then by que de 
 or simply que^ according as the Verb is or is not in the 
 Infinitive mood. — When autant is used to express a compQ" 
 rison^ the que^ which, in the above cases, is inseparable 
 from autant^ is supplied by de^ and is placed between the 
 two objects compared, or relating to each other. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II a autant de vertu que de 
 talens. 
 
 Cette piece de vers offre autant 
 dc beaut6s qu* aucune piece 
 quelconque de Voltaire. 
 
 L' armee de Leonidas, com- 
 posee de trois cents hom- 
 mes, avait autant de heros 
 que de soldats. 
 
 He has aa much virtue as ta- 
 lents. 
 
 This piece of poetry offers as 
 many beauties as any piece 
 of Voltaire. 
 
 The army of Leoni'das, com- 
 posed of three hundred men, 
 had as many heroes as sol- 
 diers. 
 
 There are several authors that have made use of autant 
 commey instead of autant que* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 lis etaient courageux autant 
 comme les meilleurs soldats 
 de r Empire. 
 
 Le vrai brave conserve son 
 jugment au milieu du peril 
 avec autant de presence d' 
 esprit comme s* il n' y etait 
 pas. 
 
 They were as courageous 
 as the best soldiers of the 
 Empire. 
 
 The truly brave ' keeps up his 
 judgment amidst danger, 
 with as much presence of 
 mind as if he were not in it. 
 
 It is a mistake, and to rectify it, que must be substituted 
 for comme* It is also a mistake to use comme after aussl^ 
 as in the following sentence. 
 
 " Tant qu' a dure la guerre on m' a vu constamment 
 Aussi bon citoyen com?ne fidele amant." 
 
 ^ce should have been used instead of comme^ but the 
 line would be deficient in one svllable. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 I 1 1 
 
428 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 Instead of autant we make use of tant^ when there is no 
 
 comparison., as, 
 
 II a tant de richesses qu' on ne 
 
 saurait les compter. 
 Cette piece de vers offre tant 
 
 de beautes que je 1' aurais 
 
 crue de Voltaire. 
 
 He has so much wealth that 
 it cannot be reckoned. 
 
 This piece of poetry presents 
 80 many beauties, that I 
 would have thought it was 
 Voltaire's. 
 
 THIRD. 
 
 Si (so) is used to give some extension to a qualification 
 and not, in general, to express a comparison- 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 11 est si bon qu' il n^a pas son 
 
 pareil. 
 Un corps si faible ne saurait 
 
 resister a la fatigue. 
 EHe vous aime si tendrement 
 
 que vous ne pouvez vous de- 
 
 fendre du retour. 
 II n' est pas si fin qu' on ne 
 
 puisse bien le jouer. 
 
 He is so good that nobody is 
 like him. 
 
 So weakly a body cannot with- 
 stand fatigue. 
 
 She loves you so tenderly that 
 you cannot help loving her 
 in return. 
 
 He is not so cunning but some 
 tricks may be played upon 
 him . 
 
 In the above phrases it would be an egregious blunder 
 to use aussi instead of si — Aussi should be used only when 
 a comparison is made, and there is none in the above 
 examples. 
 
 Some authors, and the French Academy, are of opinion, 
 that si may be used as an Adverb of comparison^ when 
 attended with a negative : so that one may say with equal 
 propriety, 
 
 II «' est pas si ou aussi avance 
 
 qu' il le parait. 
 II n* est pas si ou aussi estime 
 
 que lui. 
 
 He is not so forward as he ap- 
 pears to be. 
 
 He is not as much esteemed as 
 he. 
 
 For my part, from attentive reading of the most polish- 
 ed writers, I have observed that many would prefer aussi 
 in the above examples. Several excellent grammatical 
 avithoritjes are also for giving a decided preferrence to 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 459 
 
 aussi, in the case of a comparison ; and for not using sty 
 when a comparison is expressed, which establishes a strik- 
 ing difference between aussi and si : the former being an 
 Adverb of comparison ; the latter an Adverb used only 
 when it is necessary to extend a qualiji cation. 
 
 FOURTH. 
 
 When we wish to raise a qualification by a comparison^ 
 sometimes we are at a loss whether to make use of 
 plus^ or mieux before it. In this case, the attention 
 ought to be directed to the qualif cation. If it be sus- 
 ceptible of extention, plus must be used. If it be suscep- 
 tible of improvement, mieux must be used. Thus, plus 
 is used in the following phrases, because the quality is 
 extended. 
 
 Guillaume est plus leger a la 
 
 course qu' Etienne. 
 Marie est filtcs laborieuse que 
 
 Sylvie. 
 
 William is more nimble in the 
 
 race than Stephen. 
 Maria is more industrious than 
 
 Sylvia. 
 
 And mieux, in the following phrases, because the quali- 
 ty is susceptible of perfeSlion, 
 
 Julie est mieux faite que 
 
 Jeanne. 
 Palmyre eist mieux mise qu' 
 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Julia is better made than Joan. 
 
 Palmyra is Ae/Zer dressed than 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 In the following sentence plus and mieux are both used 
 in their natural acceptation. 
 
 L' Abbe Prevot a fdus ecrit 
 que Fenelon ; mais Fenelon 
 a mieux ecrit que 1' Abbe 
 Prevot. 
 
 The Abbe Prevot has written 
 more than Fenelon ; but Fe- 
 lon has written better than 
 the Abbe Prevot. 
 
 In the frst member plus relates to the number of vo- 
 lumes ; and mieuxy in the second, relates to the perfedlion 
 of style. 
 
430 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 The following is to acquaint you with a mistake but too 
 common in French, against which you should take care 
 to guard. 
 
 J' ai gagne mieux de cent fiches 
 
 au jeu. 
 C est une terre qui vaut mieux 
 
 de cent mille livresde rente. 
 
 I have won viore than one 
 hundred fishes at play. 
 
 It is an estate which is worth 
 more than one hundred thou- 
 sand livres a year. 
 
 Plus must be substituted for mieux^ to render the above 
 J)hrases correct. 
 
 I will conclude by observing that w^hen better^ in Eng- 
 lish, is followed by two Infinitives, the Verb correspond- 
 ing to the second must be preceded, in French, by the 
 Preposition de. 
 
 La maxime des paresseux est 
 celle des habitans de 1' In- 
 dostan ; qu' il vaut misux 
 s' assoir que de marcher ; 
 se coiicher que de s' assoir; 
 dormir que de veiller ; Sc 
 mourir que de vivre. 
 
 The maxim of the lazy, is 
 that of the inhabitants of 
 Indostan ; that it is better 
 to sit down than to -walk ; 
 to lie down than to sit; to 
 sleep than to watch ; and to 
 die than to live. 
 
 FIFTH. 
 
 if que follows the Adverbs phiSy mains, mieux, pis, au- 
 trement ; the Adjectives meilleur, moindre, pire, autre', 
 the Verbs emp-cher, craindre, avoir-peur, apprehendtr, 
 prendre garde ; and the conjunctions de crainte que, de 
 peur que ; ne should always be placed between it and the 
 succeeding Verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Les louanges sont plus utiles 
 qu' on ne se 1' imagine : 
 comme le vin elles fortifi- 
 ent quand elles n' enivrent 
 pas. 
 
 Praises are more useful than 
 one thinks : like wine, they 
 are strengthening when they 
 do not intoxicate. 
 
 Voltaire has therefore committed a ?nistake, when, in 
 Orestes he makes Electra say to the Furies ; 
 
 " Accourez de 1' enfer en ces horribles lieuz, 
 En ces lieux/i/w« cruels he plus rempiis de crimes 
 Que vos gouffres profonds (*) regorgent de victimes." 
 
 * ^e should have been used here before regorgent ,- but the line would 
 have been dejicient in its measure. 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY 
 
 431 
 
 Les gens qui s' expriment avec 
 le plus de facilite, sont quel- 
 quefois souvcnt beaucoup 
 7wom«instruitsqu*onnepense 
 
 II se porte beaucoup mieiLv 
 qu' il ne fesait. 
 
 C est bien /lis qu' on ne V a 
 dit, ma foi ! 
 
 La chose est tout aut7'e?ne?it 
 que vous ne le croyez. 
 
 II n' est pas rneilleur ecolier 
 qu' il n* etait. 
 
 Cette somme n' est pas moin- 
 dre qu' elle n' etait. 
 
 Les passions nous font voir 
 souvent les objets tout au- 
 trea qu' ils ne sont. 
 
 Lorsqu' on vous flatte, afifire- 
 hendez qu' on ne vous trom- 
 pe. 
 
 Lors meme que vous louez un 
 homme vain, il est a crain- 
 dre qu' il ne soit tres-mecon- 
 tent de vous ; car si vous 
 restez en de9a de 1' opinion 
 qu' il a de lui-meme, il 
 oubliera ce que vous lui 
 avez dit, pour ne penser 
 qu' a ce que vous auriez du 
 lui dire. 
 
 Un homme d' esprit conseil- 
 lait k son ami de ne se faire 
 jamais attendre, de fieur que, 
 ou de crainte que-^ celui qui 
 r attendrait n' eut le terns 
 de faire 1' enumeration de 
 ses d^fauts. 
 
 People who express them- 
 selves with most ease, ar'e 
 sometimes much less en- 
 lightened than we think. 
 
 He is much better than he 
 was. 
 
 It is much ivorse than it has 
 been said, faith ! 
 
 The thing is quite otherivise 
 than what you believe. 
 
 He is not a better scholar 
 than he was. 
 
 This sum is not less than it 
 was. 
 
 Passions often make us see 
 objects quite different from 
 what they are. 
 
 When you are flattered, fear 
 lest you should be de- 
 ceived. 
 
 Even when you praise a vain 
 man, it is to be feared that 
 he will be very much dis- 
 pleased at you ; for, if you 
 fall short of the good opinion 
 he has conceived of himself, 
 he will forget what you have 
 told him, to think only of 
 what you should have told 
 him. 
 
 A man of understanding ad- 
 vised one of his friends 
 never to cause himself to be 
 waited for, yor fear, or lest, 
 he who would wait for him 
 should have time to make 
 an enumeration of dX\ his 
 defects. 
 
 It is essential to remark, that, if the above Verbs em," 
 pecher, &c. intervene between the negatives ne & pas, or 
 ne h point, the negative ne can no longer be used after 
 the que, — Hence Racine committed an error, when he 
 said, 
 
 " Vous souffrez qu' il vous parle Sc vous ne crai^ez pas, 
 Que du fond de 1' abyme entr' ouvert sous vos pas, 
 Il ne sorte a 1* instant des feux qui vous embrascnt, 
 Ou qu' en tombant sur lui, ces murs ne vous ecrasent.'* 
 
4S2 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 SIXTH. 
 
 Pas & point are suppressed — 1st, htiovt jamais^ gu^re^ 
 & plus^ when they are intended to express time; before nul^ 
 aucun, ricn, personne^ nullement^ and que^ in the expression 
 ne que, meaning seulement. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Un lache pent combattre ; im 
 lache pent meme vaincre ; 
 mais un lache ne \)twX. jamais 
 pardonner, dit Addison. 
 
 A coward may fight ; a cow- 
 ard may even conquer ; but 
 a coward can n€x>er forgive, 
 says Addison. 
 
 P en suis assez punie — II est done des forfaits 
 Que le courroux des Dieux ne pan^onneyamaz*. 
 
 i w' a guere d' argent a depen- 
 
 ser. 
 II w* a guere reste aupres de 
 
 vous. 
 II n' tst plus en ville, j' en suis 
 
 sur. 
 
 He has dui little money to 
 
 spend. 
 He did noi stay long with you. 
 
 He is no longer in town, I am 
 sure. 
 
 " C* en est fait, mes amis, il n' est plus de patrie, 
 Plus de honneur, plus de lois, Rome est aneantie.' 
 
 Ce n' est V opinion de nul d' 
 
 entr' eux. 
 e ne V ai communique a nul 
 
 de ceux qui pouvaient en 
 
 abuser. 
 Je ne connais aiicun de ces 
 
 Messieurs. 
 Qui n' a besoin de rien w' est 
 
 jamais pauvre. 
 
 It is the opinion of none of 
 them. 
 
 I have communicated it to none 
 of those who might have 
 made a bad use of it. 
 
 I know 71071C of those Gentle- 
 men. 
 
 He who wants nothing is 
 never poor. 
 
 There is an example of rien^ attended by its negative in 
 the following epitaph of La Fontaine, written by himself. 
 
 " Jean s' en alia comme il etait venu, 
 Mangeant son fonds apres son re venu, 
 Et crut les biens chose pen necessaire. 
 Quant a sort terns, bien sut le dispenser, 
 Deux parts en fit, dont il voulait passer, 
 L* une a dormir, & V autre a ne rien faire." 
 
SYNTAX MADE EASY 
 
 433 
 
 J' avoue que 'jene m' attendais 
 nulkment a cette bonne au- 
 baine. 
 
 Je ne vis fiersonne qui put en 
 venir a bout. 
 
 II faut, disait Chilon, oublier 
 le bien qu' on fait aux autres 
 & ne se ressouvenir que de 
 celui qu' on recoit. 
 
 I confess that I did not expect 
 that good luck in the least* 
 
 I saw nobody that could bring 
 it about. 
 
 We ought, said Chilon, to 
 forget the good we do to 
 others, and remember only 
 that which we receive. 
 
 2d, After the Verbs oser^ cesser^ pouvoir and sa- 
 voir followed by si. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Vos Saints, Grand Dieu ! ont 
 paru intrepides devant les 
 tyrans ; ils vous ont confesse 
 au milieu des roues 8c des 
 feux ; & je n' oserais vous 
 rendre gloire, au milieu de 
 votre peuple, par la crainte 
 de quelques censures ! Je 
 ne ccsserai de vous benir 
 publiquement, puisquc vous 
 ne cesaez vous-meme de me 
 combler de vos saintes bene- 
 dictions. C est vous pro- 
 mettre un culte aussi dura- 
 ble que votre eternelle pro- 
 vidence. Je ne fiuia rappe- 
 ler, Grand Dieu ! 1' exces 
 de vos mis^ricordes, sans 
 rappeler, en m^me terns, 
 r exces honteux de mes de- 
 sordres. 
 
 Je ne sals s' il ira vous voir. 
 
 Your Saints, Great God ! have 
 shown intrepidity before 
 tyrants ; they have avowed 
 you in the midst of fires and 
 tortures on the wheels ; 
 and 1 would not dare to glo- 
 rify you, in the midst of 
 your people, through the 
 fear of a few censures ! I 
 will not cease to bless you 
 publickly, since you do not 
 cease to load me with your 
 holy blessings. It is promis- 
 ing you a worship as lasting 
 as your eternal providence. 
 I cannot^ Great God I recall 
 the excess of your mercies, 
 without recalling, at the 
 same time, the shameful ex- 
 cess of my disorderly life. 
 
 I do not knoiu whether he will 
 go to see you. 
 
 I will conclude this account of the Adverb by observ- 
 ing that the negatives pas & point are not entirely syno- 
 nymous, and by establishing, with Girard, their true dif- 
 ference. 
 
 Pas expresses simply the negation. 
 
 Point expresses it in a strong and undeniable manner. 
 
 The former often denies the thing but partly^ or with 
 modification. The second denies it ahvays in an absolute 
 manner, totally^ and without reserve. — This is the reason 
 
4S4 
 
 SYNTAX MADE EASY. 
 
 why the one is very well placed before modifications, 
 while the other would appear there with a very bad grace. 
 
 Thus we can say with paSy 
 
 II n' a fias meme le neces- 1 He has not even a compe- 
 saire. j tency. 
 
 But if you would make use of pointy the modification 
 should be suppresned^ and you should say, 
 
 II n' a point le necessaire. 
 
 This is also the reason that pas is always used with 
 words which serve to express the degree of quality or 
 quantity; such as beaucoup^ fi^^t tres^ bien^ un and the 
 like. — That point suits better at the end of a sentence, 
 before the Preposition de^ with du tout^ which, instead 
 of limiting the negative, confirms the totality thereof. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR FJS, 
 
 Pour r ordinaire, il w' y a fiaa 
 beaucoup d' argent chez les 
 gens de lettres. 
 
 La plupart des philosophes ne 
 sont pas fort raisonnables. 
 
 Qm n* a pas un sou a depen- 
 ser, n' a pas un grain de me- 
 rite a faire paraitre. 
 
 Commonly, men of letters 
 have 7io£ much money. 
 
 The greatest part of philoso- 
 phers are not very reasona- 
 ble. 
 
 He has not a grain of sense to 
 show, who has ?iot a penny 
 to spend. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR FOIJSrT. 
 
 Si pour avoir du bien, il en 
 coute a la probite, je n* en 
 veux point. 
 
 II 7i' y a point de ressource 
 dans une personne qui n' a 
 point d' esprit. 
 
 Rien n* est stir avec les capri- 
 cieux : vous croyez etre 
 bien ; point du tout ; V in- 
 stant de la plus belle hu- 
 meur est suivie de la plus 
 facheuse. 
 
 If to obtain property, probity 
 must be sacrificed, I do not 
 want any. 
 
 There is no resource in an in- 
 dividual deficient in under- 
 standing. 
 
 Nothing is sure with caprici- 
 ous people : you think you 
 are on good terms; by nn 
 means: the moment when 
 they are in the best humour 
 is followed by the worst. 
 
 THE EJVD. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON, 
 
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 do. 
 
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 Georgetown, 
 
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 Charlestown, 
 
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 do. 
 
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 do. 
 
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 Pa. 
 
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 Pittsburgh, 
 
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 Ky. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.. 
 
 Buntin, Robert, 
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 Philadelphia, 
 
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 Germ an town. 
 
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 Montgomery cq. 
 
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 Canonsburg, 
 
 do 
 
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 Pittsburgh, 
 
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 do. 
 
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 do. 
 
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 Charlotte, 
 
 Va. 
 
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 Richmond, 
 
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 do. 
 
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 D. 
 
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 Williamsburg, 
 
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 Princeton, 
 
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 Fayetteville, 
 
 N.C. 
 
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 do. 
 
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 Chesterfield, 
 
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 Fairfax county, 
 
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 Savannah, 
 G. 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Ga. 
 
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 Md. 
 
 
 do. 
 
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 do. 
 
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 Annapolis, 
 
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 Washington city, 
 
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 New-York, 
 
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 Boston, 
 
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 Saundersville, 
 
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 Savannah, 
 
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 Philadelphia, 
 
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 Wilmington, 
 
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 do. 
 
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 Gibbes, Mrs. Ann, 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Grant, Ebenezer, 
 
 New-Brunswick, 
 
 do. 
 
 Grandmont, I. P. R. 
 
 Trenton, 
 
 do. 
 
 Garrett, Henry, 
 
 New-Brunswick, 
 
 do. 
 
 Guthrie, J. W. 
 
 Washington, 
 
 N.C. 
 
 Griew, Thomas, 
 
 Charlotte, 
 
 do. 
 
 Gibson, Patrick, 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 Va. 
 
 Grymes, P. jun. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Griffin, Hon. Thomas, 
 
 Yorktown, 
 
 do. 
 
 Gray, Hon. Edwin, 
 
 Jerusalem, 
 
 do. 
 
 Goodwin, Hon. Peterson, 
 
 Dinwiddie co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Garnett, James M. 
 
 Essex CO. 
 
 do. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 Garber, Mich. jun. 
 Girardin, L. H. 
 Grayson, Alfred Wm. 
 
 Graham, Rev. ■- 
 
 Gibson, John, sen. 
 Gibson, John, jun. 
 
 H 
 
 Hammond, W. 
 
 Holland, L. 
 
 Heeks, James, 
 
 Hanson, A. C. 
 
 Hayes, R. 
 
 Hintze, Chs. 
 
 Hampton, W. 
 
 Hughes, Peter, 
 
 Hamilton, Gen'l. Alexander, 
 
 Hagardon, John, 
 
 Hamilton, James, 
 
 Houston, Geo. Smith, 2 copies, 
 
 Howard, John, 
 
 Hastings, Hon. Seth, 
 
 Harris, Robert, jun. 2 copies, 
 
 Helfenstein, Rev. Samuel, 
 
 Hitchcock, Daniel, 
 
 Hall, John, 
 
 Hollinback, Alexander, 
 
 Hembel, William, 
 
 Hagenau, Heinrick, 
 
 Hoilingshead, Edmond, 
 
 Hovendon, R. P. 
 
 Huston, Mathew, 
 
 Hanna, Hon. John A. 
 
 Henderson, Angus, 
 
 Hamilton, Charles, 
 
 Hanson, Mrs. Susanna, 
 
 Hukell, Levi, 
 
 Hiley, WiUiam, 
 
 Hall, Ross, 
 
 Hutson, Thomas, 
 
 Hart, N. G. 
 
 Hughes, Christopher, 
 
 Hairston, R. 
 
 Habersham, Richard W. 
 
 Howard, Jn. E. 
 
 Hazard, Erskein, 
 
 Hanraham, Waiter, 
 
 Staunton, 
 
 Va. 
 
 Williamsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Lexington, 
 
 Ky. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Vincennes, 
 
 N. T. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 1. 
 
 Annapolis, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Washington City, 
 
 C. T. 
 
 Cayuga-Bridge, 
 
 N.Y. 
 
 New-York, 
 
 do. 
 
 Newport, 
 
 R.L 
 
 Columbia co. 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Augusta, 
 
 do. 
 
 Saundersville, 
 
 do. 
 
 Mendon, 
 
 Ms. 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 German town, 
 
 do. 
 
 Pittsburg, 
 
 do. 
 
 Canonsburg, 
 
 do. 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Newark, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 New Brunswick, 
 
 do. 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Washington, 
 
 N. C. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 Hanraham, W. jiinr. 
 
 Howard, J. H. 
 
 Hall, Thomas, 
 
 Hunter, Henry, 
 
 Harris, James, 
 
 Harris, Jonathan, 
 
 Hay, John, l. l. d. 
 
 Husk, John, 
 
 Hylton, Daniel, 
 
 Hags, Geo. 
 
 Heath, John, 
 
 Hord, Thomas, 
 
 Holslead, Richard, 
 
 Harrison, Edmund, 
 
 Haskens, Thomas, 
 
 Harrison, William, p. m. 
 
 Hieks, Thomas, 
 
 Holt, William C. 
 
 Harrison, Wm. Henry, govn. 
 
 Hamilton, Joseph, 
 
 Washington, 
 
 N. C, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Williamston, 
 
 do. 
 
 Charlotte, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 fayetteville, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 Va. 
 
 do. 
 
 do* 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Caroline co. 
 
 do. 
 
 New-Bridge, 
 
 do. 
 
 Amelia co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Prince Edward co* 
 
 do. 
 
 Genito Bridge, 
 
 do. 
 
 Bowling-Green, 
 
 do. 
 
 Norfolk, 
 
 do. 
 
 Vincennes, 
 
 N. T. 
 
 Jeflferson co. 
 
 T. 
 
 I. 
 
 IngersoU, Jos. Reed, 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Irwin, Jared, 
 
 Saunders ville. 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Irwin, John, 
 
 Westmoreland co. 
 
 Pa. 
 
 Irish, Willaim B. 
 
 Pittsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Jones, Morris, 
 
 J- 
 
 Tanneytown, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Johnson, Edward, 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 do. 
 
 Johnson, Chirstopher, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Johnson, Samuel, 
 
 Charleston, 
 
 S. G. 
 
 Johnston, Lewis, jun. 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Jacobs, W. S. M. D. 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 James, Thomas C. m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 John, Evangelist, 
 
 Pittsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Jones, Arnold E. 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Johnson, Thomas P. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Jones, David, m. d. 
 
 New-Bridge, 
 
 Va. 
 
 Johnson, Edward, 
 
 Powhatan co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Jamison, John, jun. 
 
 Staunton, 
 
 do. 
 
 Johnston, G. Washington, p 
 
 ,M. Vincennes, 
 
 N. T. 
 
 Johnson, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Jones, John Rice, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Jordan, Josh. p. m. 
 
 Lexington, 
 
 Ky. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 Lll 
 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 
 K. 
 
 
 Kirk, John R. 
 
 Elkton, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Kearnes, James H. 
 
 Washington City, 
 
 C. T. 
 
 King, Kicholas, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Kerr, William, 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
 Kii'kpatrick, Jacob, 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Kennedy, William, 
 
 Washington, 
 
 N. C. 
 
 Keais, William, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Kinney, Charles, 
 
 Staunton, 
 
 Va. 
 
 Kuikendall, Jacob, m. d. 
 
 Vincennes, 
 
 N. T. 
 
 Lockerman, Richard, 
 
 L. 
 
 Annapolis, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Lloyd, Edward, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Leclaire, Lewis, m. d. 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 do. 
 
 Lourcy, Robert R. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Lecler, Francis, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Lewis, William Y. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Lincoln, Hon. Levi, 2 copies, Worcester, 
 
 Ms. 
 
 Lillibridge, Thomas, 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Lackrider, Daniel Wm. m. 
 
 D. New York, 
 
 N Y. 
 
 Linn, William, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Livingston, John H. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Lee, Richard, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 L' Hotelier, E. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Livingston, John R. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Livingston, Brockhurst, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 La Roche, R. Dr. m. m. 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 Laval, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do, 
 
 Le Couteulx, 
 
 do. 
 
 do, 
 
 Lynch, Edward, 
 
 do. 
 
 do, 
 
 Lewis, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Lilly, Robert, 
 
 do. 
 
 do, 
 
 Logan, Thomas F. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Lucas, Hon. John B. C. 
 
 Pittsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Luther, Martin, 
 
 Harrisburg, 
 
 do. 
 
 Luff, Edward F. 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
 Lewis, Thomas L. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Landus, Jn. 
 
 Brandywine, 
 
 do. 
 
 Lee, Paul S. H. 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Lemmon, G. P. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Leroy, L. S. 
 
 Washington, 
 
 N. C, 
 
 Lyons, Peter, 
 
 Hanover, 
 
 Va, 
 
 Lewis, Francis, 
 
 Powhatan co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Lomax, Thomas, 
 
 Port Royal, 
 
 do 
 
 Lee, Arthur, 
 
 Norfolk, 
 
 do. 
 
 Lea, JamcS) 
 
 Cheeks Cross Roads, 
 
 T. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 M. 
 
 Merryman, Phillmond,, 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Mann, Anthony, m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Mattson, Caleb, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Manhorel, C. L. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Mitchell, Joseph, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Mitchell, Alexander, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 M'Cullock, Andrew, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Murdock, Addison, 
 
 Georgetown, 
 
 do. 
 
 McLaughlin, Charles, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Mecklin, Joseph, 
 
 Washington city, 
 
 C. T. 
 
 Merrik, Pliny, 
 
 Brookfield, 
 
 Ms. 
 
 Malbone, Rhod. 
 
 Newport, 
 
 R.I. 
 
 Moore, Hon. Thomas, 
 
 Spartanburg, 
 
 S. C. 
 
 Me rri wether, Hon. D. 
 
 Augusta, 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Mar Dent, Thomas, 
 
 Augusta CO. 
 
 do. 
 
 Meud, William M. 
 
 Augusta, 
 
 do. 
 
 Magnan, Claudius, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Minter, Morgan, 
 
 Saundersville, 
 
 do. 
 
 M'Dougall, Robert, p. m. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 M'Kinde, Joseph P. 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 do. 
 
 Mackay, R. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Minis, R. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 May, Ralph, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 M'Keen, Levi, p. m. 
 
 Poughkeepsie co. 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 Mynderse, W. 
 
 Cay uga-B ride, 
 
 do. 
 
 Marshall, Samuel, 
 
 New York, 
 
 do. 
 
 M'Knight, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Martin, J. 
 
 do- 
 
 do. 
 
 Messchert, M. H. 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 Mackenzie, William, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Mease, James, m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Monges, John A, m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 M'Call, Archibald, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 M'CuUy, William, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Mallon, James, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 M41henney, James, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Maxwell, James, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Maxwell, H. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 M'Millan, William, 
 
 Canonsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 M'Law, Allen, 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
 McLaughlin, Peter, 
 
 Lewistown, 
 
 do. 
 
 M'Callmont, James, 
 
 New-Castle, 
 
 do. 
 
 Maclean, John, m, d. 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Morgan, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Montgomery, Joseph, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Mo lie son, Joseph, 
 
 B. Brook, 
 
 do. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 Mawht)rten, Alexander, d. d. 
 Meroney, Wm. B. 
 M*Rae, Duncan, p. m. 
 M'Ciewan, Adam, 
 Magimsney, Wm. 
 M^Crane, Samuel, 
 M'Rae, Alexander, 
 Murdaugh, J. W. 
 Murray, William, 
 Muse, James W. 
 Mosely, Wm. 
 Mitchel, John, 
 Mercer, Charles Tenton, 
 Minor, Peter, 
 Marchall, Anthony, 
 M'Call, John, 
 Magruder, Allen B. 
 Mannharpz, C. L. 
 
 Neale, Benedict, 
 Norris, Nicholas, 
 Norris, William, 
 Nourse, Charles J. 
 
 Nazaret, m. d. 
 
 Newell, Thomas M. 
 Nash, M. 
 Neville, Fusley, 
 Newman, Thomas, 
 Newman, Daniel, 
 Noyan, Payen, 
 New, Joseph W. 
 Nelson, Nathaniel, jun. 
 Nicholas, Philip Norbornc, 
 Nichols, William, 
 
 O'Hara, William C. 
 
 Osborne, J. 2 copies, 
 
 O'Rielly, Robert, 
 
 Ott, John, 
 
 Osborne, Edwin Jay, l. l. d. 
 
 Oldham, Edward, 
 
 Newark, 
 
 do. 
 
 Fayetteville, 
 
 N. C. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Charlotte, 
 
 do. 
 
 Washington, 
 
 do. 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 Va. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Williamsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Amelia co. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do, 
 
 Powhatan co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Fredericksburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 London co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Louisa CO. 
 
 do. 
 
 Vincennes, 
 
 N. T. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Lexington, 
 
 Ky. 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Georgetown, 
 
 do. 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 Ga. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 New York, 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 Pittsburgh, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
 Bowling-Green, 
 
 Va. 
 
 Williamsburgh, ' 
 
 do. 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 do. 
 
 Newport, 
 
 R.L 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 New York, 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Georgetown, 
 
 do. 
 
 Fayetteville, 
 
 N. C. 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 Priestley, Joseph, l.l.d.f.r. 
 
 s. Northumberland, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 Poree J. B. 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 do. 
 
 Pearson, Isaac L. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Proudfit, James, m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do* 
 
 Physick, Philip, m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Pascalis, Felix, m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Pickering, Elihu, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Phillips, Z. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Pintard, Mrs. Eliza, 
 
 New York, 
 
 N.Y. 
 
 Proal, Peter, 10 copies, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Paterson, M. B. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Parkman, R. B. 
 
 Cayuga Bridge, 
 
 do. 
 
 Prestman, William, 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Potter, Nathaniel, m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Priestley, James, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Penniman, E. 8c W. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Purviance, James, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Perrigny, Geo. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Poole, Edward, 
 
 Annapolis, 
 
 do. 
 
 Peacock, Robert W. 
 
 Washington City, 
 
 C.T. 
 
 Paine, Hon. Nathaniel, 
 
 Brookfield, 
 
 Ms. 
 
 Paine, M. W. m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Peace, Mrs. Rebecca, 
 
 Newport, 
 
 R.T. 
 
 Peckman, Thomas, ]un. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Petit, de Viilers, 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Posey, John, H. 
 
 Saundersvillci 
 
 do. 
 
 Price, Rev. William, 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
 Peter, James, 
 
 Georgetown, 
 
 do. 
 
 Percy, Thomas G. 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Paterson, William, 
 
 New-Brunswick, 
 
 do. 
 
 Peyton, John. 
 
 Gloucester House, 
 
 Va. 
 
 Price, William, 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 do. 
 
 Price, John T. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Page, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Pollardy, Joseph, 
 
 Fredericksburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Pratt John, 
 
 Camden co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Parrott, T. A. 2 copies. 
 
 Natchez, 
 
 N.T. 
 
 Postlethwait, J. 
 
 Lexington, 
 
 Ky. 
 
 Quym, John, 
 
 Annapolis, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Rowland, Thomas, 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Ridgley, James, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Romain, Alexis, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 Rutter, Thomas, 
 
 Riddell, Robert, 
 
 Robins, James B. 
 
 Rind, William, 
 
 Richardson, R. 
 
 Roe, Alex. S. 
 
 Rutherford, John, 
 
 Rogers, William, 
 
 Robbins, Asher, 
 
 Richardson, Jacob, p. m. 2 cop. 
 
 Root, Hon. Erastus, 
 
 Riidd, Plieron, 
 
 Remmey, John, 
 
 Rutgers, Henry, 
 
 Rodgers, John, 
 
 Ronalds, John, 12 copies, 
 
 Rivardi, Mrs. Mary, 
 
 Rossetter, Rev. John, 
 
 Reynolds, James, m. d. 
 
 Roberts, Rev. George, 
 
 Roberjot, H. N. 
 
 Roberts, Georges, 
 
 Reid, Isaac, 
 
 Rodney, Hon. Cxsar A. 
 
 Riddle, John. 
 
 Read, G. 
 
 Read, G. jun. 
 
 Robinson, William H. 
 
 Rhea, Jonathan, 
 
 Rutherford, Robert W. 
 
 Ralph, John. 
 
 Ramsay, John. W. 
 
 Ridmond, James, 
 
 Robison, Robert, 
 
 Rooker, John, 
 
 Robinson, John H. 
 
 Roane, Spencer, 
 
 S. 
 
 Smith, Rev. Samuel Stanhope, "1 
 
 President of the College of [► Princeton 
 
 New Jersey, 2 copies, 
 Stockton, Edward, 
 Stryker, Christ. H. 
 Sartory, Jolm B. 
 Smith, Miles, 
 
 Stevenson, m. d. 
 
 Smith, James, m. d. 
 
 Baltimore. 
 
 Md. 
 
 Elkton, 
 
 do. 
 
 Snow-Hill, 
 
 do. 
 
 Georgetown, 
 Savannah, 
 
 do. 
 Ga. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Saundersville, 
 
 do. 
 
 Newport, 
 do. 
 
 R.I. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Delaware co. 
 
 N.Y. 
 
 Poughkeepsie co. 
 New York, 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 do. 
 
 Pa. 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Pittsburgh, 
 Wilmington, 
 
 do. 
 D. 
 
 New-Castle, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N. J. 
 
 Trenton, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Washington City, 
 Charleston, 
 
 C. T. 
 S. C. 
 
 Washington, 
 Charlotte, 
 
 N.C. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Staunton, 
 
 Va 
 
 Hanover, 
 
 do' 
 
 N.J. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Trenton, 
 
 do. 
 
 New Brunswick, 
 
 do. 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 Snyder, John, m. d. 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Salmon, Geo. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Sewell, Robert, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Spurrier, B. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Stirling, William, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Selshew, Campbell, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Scott, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Smith, Hon. S. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Smith, John S. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Smith, Miss M. B. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Spence, James R. 
 
 Snow Hill, 
 
 do- 
 
 Spence, John S. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Spence, Pornell S. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Skinner, A. 
 
 Columbia, 
 
 do. 
 
 Smith, William, 
 
 Georgetown, 
 
 do. 
 
 Shepley, William, junr. 
 
 Annapolis, 
 
 do. 
 
 Stone, Robert C. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Simmons, William, 
 
 Washington City, 
 
 C. T. 
 
 Skinner, Hon. T. J. 
 
 William ston. 
 
 Ms. 
 
 
 Harwich, 
 
 do. 
 
 Shrine, Benjamin, 
 
 Saundersville, 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Smith, Israel, 
 
 Cayuga-Bridge, 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 Smith, Reuben, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Schieffelin, E. L. 
 
 New York, 
 
 do. 
 
 Slocomb, Geo. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Stevens, Edward, m.d. 2copie 
 
 s Philadelphia. 
 
 Pa. 
 
 Stuart, James, m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Soullier, John M. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Simmons, James, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Simmons, John B. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Shaw, Thomas, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Shaw, William, m, d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Shoemaker, Abraham, junr. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Shoemaker, Benjamin, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Staunton, Rev. Geo. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Sulger, Jacob, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Sicard, A. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Salter, Samuel, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Smith, Thos. Aaron, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Sergeant, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Scull, John, 
 
 Pittsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Spear, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Sparr, Christian, 
 
 Cumberland co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Sherer, William, 
 
 New-Castle, 
 
 D. 
 
 Stanford, Hon. R. 
 
 Chapel-Hill, 
 
 N.C. 
 
 Stanby, James, 
 
 Newbei'n, 
 
 do. 
 
 Sims, John C. 
 
 Washington, 
 
 do. 
 
 Springs, John B. 
 
 Charlotte, 
 
 do. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS* NAME^. 
 
 Stelson, Benjamin, 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 Va. 
 
 Sniith, Geo. Wm. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Stanard, Larken, 
 
 Fredericksburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Scans, Wm. G. 
 
 Bowling-Green, 
 
 do. 
 
 Samuel, Philip, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Stribling, Erasmus, 
 
 Staunton, 
 
 do. 
 
 Stuart, Archibald, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Smith, Peter, 
 
 ' William sburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Scott, Thomas B. 
 
 Lexington, 
 
 Ky. 
 
 Sandford, Thomas, 
 
 Cincinnati, 
 
 N. T. 
 
 Smith, Hon. John, 
 
 'Ohio, 
 
 do. 
 
 Simpson, Patrick, 
 
 Vinncennes, 
 
 do. 
 
 Sevier, Valentine, 
 
 Greenville, 
 
 T. 
 
 1. 
 
 Teackle, Litt. D, p. m. 8 copies. Princess Anne co. 
 
 Md. 
 
 Thomas, E. A, 20 copies, 
 
 Charleston, 
 
 S. C. 
 
 Todd, James E. 
 
 Columbia co. 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Tenille, Francis, 
 
 Saundersville, 
 
 do. 
 
 Trott, G. Wm. 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 do. 
 
 Talineau, F. 
 
 Coosawhatchie, 
 
 do. 
 
 Taylor, Hon. John, 
 
 Port Royal, 
 
 Va. 
 
 Taylor, Bennett, 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 do. 
 
 Toushee, Wm. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Tompkins, Richard, 
 
 Bowling-Green, 
 
 do. 
 
 Tompkins, Robert, p. m. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Tennent, John, 
 
 Fredericksburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Turner, Reuben, 
 
 Caroline co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Thornton, Jolm A. 
 
 Culpeper co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Tremper, L. p, m. 
 
 Staunton, 
 
 do. 
 
 Turner, F. L. 
 
 Lexington, 
 
 Ky. 
 
 Telfair, Josiah, 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Tarascon, L. A. 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 Thomas, Jos. M. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Towers, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Turpin, Pierre, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Toland, lienry, jun. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Thouron, Peter, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Trevor, John B. 
 
 Canonsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Tinniswood, Samuel, 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 V. 
 
 do. 
 
 Vallon, Louis C. 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Pa. 
 
 Vanuxem, James, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 \ olozan, D. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Vernon, Wm. H. 
 
 Newport, 
 
 R. L 
 
 Vaughan, John, m. d, 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 Vining, Mrs. Mary, 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
 ViUard, A. J. 
 
 Washington city. 
 
 C. T. 
 
 Van Ness, John P. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Vankleeck, James L. m. d. 
 
 Poughkeepsie co. 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 Vatable, Mr. 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Vigo, Francois, 
 
 Vincennes, 
 
 N. T. 
 
 Vander Burgh, Henry, 
 
 do. 
 W. 
 
 do. 
 
 Woodberry, John, 
 
 Annapolis, 
 
 Md. 
 
 Wright, Robert, 
 
 Chestertown, 
 
 do. 
 
 White, Joseph, 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 do. 
 
 Weire, Charles, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wilkins, H. M. D. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Way, Andrew, jun. 
 
 Washington city, 
 
 C. T. 
 
 Wilson, James, p. m. 
 
 Worcester, 
 
 Ms. 
 
 White, William C. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Winn, Hon. Richard, 
 
 Winnsborough, 
 
 S. C. 
 
 Ware, Wm. F. p. m. 2 copies. Columbia c. h. 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Walton, George, 
 
 Augusta, 
 
 do. 
 
 Walker, James Saunders, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Walker, James, 
 
 Saundersville, 
 
 do. 
 
 Williams, Thomas F. 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 do. 
 
 Williams, Richard, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wilson, William, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Whitlock, Mrs. Eliza, 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 Wylie, Samuel B. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wistar, C. jun. m. d. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wachsmuth, John G. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Waughan, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wister, Charles, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wayne, C. P. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Watson, Thomas, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Woglom, John, 2 copies, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Walsh, Mich. B. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Westbay, Henry, p. m. 
 
 Canonsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Wallace, John, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wills, Butler, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wright, David, 
 
 Harrisburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Wilkins, John, jun. 
 
 Pittsburgh, 
 
 do. 
 
 Work, John, 
 
 Cumberland co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Webster, John, 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 D. 
 
 Wilson, James, 2 copies. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wilson, William, 
 
 Princeton, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Wesly, Richard, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Woolley, Abr. N. 
 
 Springfield, 
 
 do. 
 
 Williams, John, 
 
 Newark, 
 
 do. 
 
 VOL. II, 
 
 M m m 
 
 
SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES. 
 
 Weddigen, John C. 
 
 Washington, 
 
 N. C. 
 
 Wallis, James, 
 
 Charlotte, 
 
 do. 
 
 Williams, Wm.C. 
 
 Chesterfield, 
 
 Va. 
 
 Wise, N. 
 
 Alexandria, 
 
 do. 
 
 Williamson, Thomas, 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 do. 
 
 Watkins, Henry Wm. 
 
 Powhatan co. 
 
 do. 
 
 Woolfolk, John G. 
 
 Bowling-Green, 
 
 do. 
 
 Waugh, Rev. Abner, 2 
 
 copies. do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Waller, Absalom, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Warwick, Andrew, 
 
 Williamsburgh, . 
 
 do. 
 
 White, William, 
 
 Louisa CO. 
 
 do. 
 
 Wendel, David, 
 
 Cheeks Cross Roads, 
 
 T. 
 
 Wyly, Robert, 
 
 Greenville, 
 
 do. 
 
 Wyant, Christopher, 
 
 Vincerines, 
 
 N. T. 
 
 Xaupi, — ', 
 
 X. 
 
 Washington City, 
 
 C. T. 
 
 Yarrow, Thomas, 
 
 Y. 
 
 Christianna, 
 
 D. 
 
 Young, Thomas, jun. 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Zesline, Joseph, 
 
 Z. 
 
 Philadelphiaj 
 
 P^. 
 
 Zwiney, Hugh, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 
 C27 
 
 34 
 
 <29 
 
 
 C36 
 
 35 
 
 21 
 
 44 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 10 
 
 55 
 
 10 
 
 66 
 
 24 
 
 79 
 
 19 
 
 106 
 
 22 
 
 132 
 
 5 
 
 133 
 
 21 
 
 158 
 
 11 
 
 192 
 
 5 
 
 231 
 
 5 
 
 251 
 
 14 
 
 279 
 
 9 
 
 310 
 
 22 
 
 325 
 
 37 
 
 331 
 
 4 
 
 375 
 
 17 
 
 383 
 
 26 
 
 389 
 
 10 
 
 390 
 
 C27 
 ^34 
 
 391 
 
 125 
 
 393 
 
 19 
 
 394 
 
 25 
 
 395 
 
 2 
 
 405 
 
 11 
 
 411 
 
 8 
 
 41§ 
 
 1 
 
 ERRATA TO THE SECOND VOLUME. 
 
 for a read a. ^ 
 
 o-e read o-e. 
 
 complete read complete. 
 
 a read as. 
 
 There are however read There are. 
 
 moins, plus read plus, le plus. 
 
 two comparatives read two comparatives and two 
 superlatives. 
 
 modes read mode. 
 
 that read those. 
 
 la tiennes read la tienne. » 
 
 yourelf read yourself. 
 
 would read should. 
 
 Present Anterior Periodical and Present Posterior 
 read Present Anterior and Present Anterior Pe- 
 riodical. 
 
 coEclum read cadum. 
 
 habille ? read habill^ ? 
 
 se demetre read se d^mettre. 
 
 ill vend read il vend. 
 
 That I may read That I might. 
 
 maitre read maitre 
 
 dessepoir read desespoir. 
 
 fach^e read f ach^e. 
 
 am^e read ann^e 
 
 roignaumes read royaumes. 
 
 should the Verb read should the Verbs, 
 
 mortif(6 read mortifie. 
 
 prescire read prescrire. 
 
 II a read II a 
 
 vintez read vintes. 
 
 yieux read yeux. 
 
 temoins read t^moins. 
 
 tres read tres. 
 
 incredules read incredules. 
 
 dejeunant read d^jeunant. 
 
 verite read verity. 
 
 glorie read gloire. 
 
 Grand Pr^tre read Grand Pretre. 
 
 gaite read gaiete. 
 
'if 
 
 rt\ i,\ 
 
 t, .-i 
 
 1 
 
 fi 
 
 i 
 
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