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EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
FREDERICK B. ROBINSON, A.M., Ph.D.
Professor, Department of Public Speaking:,
The College of the City of New York
lasalle extension university
CHICAGO
1919
^
Copyrighted, 1914, 1015,
LaSalle Extension University
CONTENTS
I. ORGANIZATION
j^ 1. Introduction — Organization of Ideas 1
t J. General Plan of a Speech 17
^ 8. Purpose of the Introduction 31
- 4. Purpose of the Introduction (Continued) 49
* 5. Arrangement of ^Matter in the Body of the Speech 67
r 6. The Conclusion 85
II. DELIVERY
7. Physical Aspects of Delivery 105
* S. Subjective Aspects of Delivery 129
III. DETAILS OF COMPOSITION
T 9. Images and the ]\Iind of the Audience '. . 151
"^ 10. The Expression of Images — Vocabulary Luihling 171
— ' 1 1 . Vocabulary Building 193
-{'"■12. General Ideas or Concepts 211
13. Arguments and their Presentation 229
1 4. Inductive and Deductive Arguments 251
15. Argumentation, Briefing, and Floor Tactics 273
-^1 (5. The Appeal to Action 291
IV. PRACTICAL PR0BLE:\IS OF DELIVERY
17. Speech Material and Its Preparation 311
4-18. Attention of the Speaker and of the Audience 327
-^19. Purpose of a Speech 345
iv CONTEXTS
20. The Expressive Voire 363
21. Gestures 381
22. Hygiene for Public Speakers 399
V. PRACTICAL SPEECH DIRECTIONS FOR
SPECIAL OCCASIONS
23. Practical Speech Directions for Special Occasions.... 411
24. Practical Speech Directions (Continued) 427
25. Practical Speech Directions (Concluded) 443
EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
introduction
Efficiency, What It Is
Ours is the age of efficiency. Everywhere men are
devising the most efficient methods of performing the
operations of their callings. Business men seek the most
efficient system of filing and bookkeeping, the manufac-
turer organizes his labor force and machinery so that
every ounce of effort gives the greatest possible return
in goods. The railroads are replacing steam with electric
power, and surgeons spend many hours planning the best
way to remove an appendix in the shortest time.
Mechanical inventors speak of a machine as efficient
when it does its work without loss of power. If a hundred
pounds of steam pressure are applied to it, the full
hundred pounds are accounted for in valuable engine
power. There is no w^aste. Any instrument is efficient
when it gets the most work from a given amount of effort.
When we attempt to apply the idea of efficiency to
public speaking, wo find that it is best expressed by the
word ''effective." The two words ''efficient" and
"effective" have, to be sure, very much the same signifi-
cance. ' ' Effective, ' ' however, throws the emphasis a little
more upon the tangible result, upon the effect produced
by any instrument. Now speech is one of our most use-
1
2 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ful instruments. It is employed to cany messages from
one mind to many otliers. If it carries the message truly
and forcefully, it is effective; but if it loses part of the
message or gives it in such weak form that it does not
impress the other mind at all, it is ineffective. Speech,
U then, is an instrument through which one mind works
upon others. It ought to be made most effective.
Effective Speech, Thought, and Expression
Probably the most remarkable product of nature, in its
centuries of evolution, is the human mind ; and the second
wonder of the universe is the communication of the
thoughts and feelings of one mind to others by means
of the voice in speech and by means of the body in ges-
ticulation. Each man is limited in the position he may
assume in the world by the development of his mind. If
he has stored up in it a reliable memory of many experi-
ences, if his judgment is well trained, if his ideas are
good and his will is strong, then is he a source of tre-
mendous power. But to exert it upon others, to make
his ideas their ideas, to lead them to accept his judg-
ments, and to bend them to his will, his speech must be
efficient. It must transfer to others, without loss, the
complete creations of his brain.
Each of us is therefore a source of power. But we
are unable to get the full benefit of it unless we can ex-
press all our ideas well, '^^^lat good would it have done
the American people if Patrick Henry had felt immeasur-
able indignation at the wrongs England was heaping
upon the colonists, Imt had not been alile to give them
eloquent tongue in his famous *'Ap])eal to Arms"? A
business manager may kiicnv precisely how he can organ-
INTRODUCTION 3
ize liis corporation so that the community will benefit in
better commodities and the stockholders reap larger
dividends; but to put his ideas into operation, he must
first, by exposition and argument, win over the board of
directors. He must be able to make clear to the proper
people what is perfectly clear to him. In short, no argu-
ment is necessary to prove that a speaker who wishes
to influence others, either in conversation or conference,
in court of law or on pulpit or platform, must be able to
express his entire thought and purpose by means of
speech.
Natuke of These Lessons
The object of this course is to develop effective speech.
Incidentally the student will be led to improve his general
mental hal)its; he will be trained to systematic reading,
research, and thought. But the attention will be directed
primarily to the organization and delivery of speeches.
It would be ridiculous to suppose that a man who needs
training in speech-making can become eloquent merely
by spending a few minutes a day reading a book on pub-
lic speaking in the privacy of his home or office. Speech
is an art which can be mastered only by much practice
under competent direction. These lessons will give
simple explanations of the principles of speech-making
and they will outline practical directions for exercises;
but the student must do his own practicing ; he must actu-
ally make speeches as directed. There can be no doubt
that the best way to learn to speak is by daily lessons
under the direct, personal guidance of a teacher of the
art. But if a student who cannot follow the ideal course
will carefully carry out the written directions to be found
in these lessons, he ought steadily to improve. If he
4 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
perseveres, there will be no limits to his attainments
save those set by his own general capacity. The ancients
had a saying which is true, *'The poet is born, but the
orator is made." By patient j^ractice, you can make of
yourself a successful speaker.
In order that the student may have a general idea
of the development of effective speech, we shall enumerate
the broader requirements for success.
Qualities of Good kSpeakixg to be Developed
1. Clear .Oi:ganizafion of the ideas in the mind of the
speaker is the first necessity. The speaker has an object
to accomplish by his speech and he selects ideas and
gi'oups them so that they will be best understood and re-
tained by the audience which will act upon them.
3. Retention of the Well-Organized Ideas During De-
livery is next necessary. This is related to self-posses-
sion, ease, and confidence.
3. Mastery of Language. — Even though the ideas may
be clear and well organized in the mind of the speaker,
he must have a large vocabulary and skill in the choice
and arrangement of words to express his ideas.
4. Technical Control of Voice in Speech and of Body
in Gesture. — Some men cannot speak for more than a
few minutes without becoming hoarse or having their
voices "break." Their voices may be monotonous and
unexpressive or weak, without carrying power. Their
gestures may also be awkward. Such deficiencies must
be overcome.
All these excellencies cannot be attained at once. The
lessons begin with the matter of clear thinking and the
organization of ideas.
THE ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS 6
LESSON 1
the organization of ideas
Logical Grouping of Ideas
Not all tlie ideas wliicli fill our minds are clear. Fur-
thermore, tliey are not, as a rule, organized in logical
groups. If we wish to use some of them as speech mate-
rial, they must be clear and well arranged. When a man
plans to make a speech, he draws upon the full stock of
his mind, but he carefully tests his information to see if
it will have weight with his audience, and he arranges
it in the most convenient manner for their understanding.
Let us illustrate. If I were to ask you suddenly to tell
me immediately all your, ideas about trade unions, a
great unorganized number of impressions would seek
haphazard expression. You might say: "Labor unions
start strikes ; sometimes there is disorder and even blood-
shed ; they have walking delegates ; I know a union man
who received financial help from his organization wfeen
he was ill ; unions try to get more pay for their members ;
there is a local chapter of the building trades in my neigh-
borhood ; I visited one of their meetings once ; unions try
to get an eight-hour day, etc." But if you were given
some time for reflection, you would organize your
thoughts somewhat as follows :
1. Wliat labor unions are: They are organizations of
laborers for mutual protection and improvement.
2. What they seek to accomplish among their members:
(a) social improvement, (b) sick benefit, (c) life in-
- surance.
6 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
3. What they seek to exact from the employer: (a)
shorter hours, (b) better pay, (c) better working
conditions, such as ventilation, safeguarded ma-
chines, clean rooms, etc., (d) exclusion from thv
shop of non-union men.
4. Results of unionism: (a) good results, (b) bad results,
etc., (c) means they use to accomplish their objects.
5. Our consequent attitude towards unions.
Benefits of Grouping Ideas
Such an arrangement or organization of thoughts does
three things. First, it insures a thorough and clear grasp
of each idea by the speaker. We often let hazy and un-
trustworthy impressions hold sway in our careless think-
ing of every-day life. However, if an idea is to be put
into an organized plan, the very act of classifying it
makes us inspect it more closely. Therefore, careful,
organized thinking about a" topic leads to a clearer
understanding and approval of every idea involved.
Second, the plan puts the speech in an order easy for the
audience to grasp and retain. Ideas thrown out ha]j-
hazard do not form part of a well-arranged whole ; they
are confusing. Certainly all cannot be remembered.
Third, the organization helps the speaker himself to
stick to his topic and to develop all of it.
Exercise to Secure Organization of Ideas
To acquire the ability to organize readily, follow the
directions of this lesson most carefully, one step at a
Ihne before proceeding to the next. Read the whole
h'sson through before you attem])! any of the exercises
suggested.
THE ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS 7
1. Eead this passage from the speech which Henry
Ward Beecher delivered in Liverpool:
There are two dominant races in modern history: the Ger-
manic and the Romanic races. The Germanic races tend to per-
sonal hberty, to a sturdy individualism, to civil and pohtical
liberty. The Romanic race tends to absolutism in government;
it is clannish ; it loves chieftains ; it develops a people that
crave strong and showy governments to support and plan for
them. The Anglo-Saxon race belongs to the great German
family and is a fair exponent of its peculiarities. The Anglo-
Saxon carries self-government and self-development with him
wherever he goes. He has popular government and popular
INDUSTRY ; for the eifects of a generous civil liberty are not
seen a whit more plainly in the good order, in the intelligence
and in the virtue of self-governing people than in their amazing
enterprise and the scope and power of their industry. The
power to create riches is just as much a part of the Anglo-Saxon
virtues as the power to create good order and social safety.
Now^ read it again.
2. Turn this page over so that you cannot see the
passage and write in your own words the ideas
which Beecher conveyed to his English audience.
Do this even though the composition may be very
imperfect.
3. Now read the passage again with this plan in mind.
Beecher develops three ideas: (1) The character-
istics of the Germanic races, (2) the characteristics
of the Romanic races, (3) the way the Anglo-Saxon
carries the Germanic idea into industry as well as
government.
4. Consulting the following notes, once more write the
composition, in your own words. The notes are to
8 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKLXG
help you retain Beeclier's ideas but not his words
or forms of expression.
I. Germanic Races. II. Romanic Races.
1. Personal liberty. 1. Love chieftains.
2. Individualism. 2. Clannish.
3. Civil and political 3. Absolutism and showj
liberty. government.
III. The Anglo-Saxon belongs to the Germanic group
and shows its characteristics in industry as well
as in government.
5. Take the following more general outline. Memorize
it and then speak the development. In your oral
amplification, do not try to remember words which
Beecher used before. Merely keep your three ideas
in mind and develop them in the same way you
would make clear any thought of your own in con-
versation. Outline :
I. Characteristics of the Germanic Races.
II. Characteristics of the Romanic Races.
III. Place of the Anglo-Saxons.
AVlien you make your oral development, it is well to
have a real audience. If you could get a group to listen
to you, it would be well. Or in conversation with some
friend you might refer to the Anglo-Saxons and quote
the ideas of Beecher. You might also speak your ideas
out loud in a room, by yourself, but Ix'fore a mirror. In
this case, do not repeat or make false starts and go all
over again when displeased with a word. Go right ahead
without a l)reak, no matter how imperfect the perform-
ance is. Tli(M-e is no harm in going over the whole orally
many times, l)ut it is undesiraWo to l)reak off in the
middk'.
THE ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS 9
Exercise in Original Analysis for Thought Groups
Read the following i)iiragraplis from Henry W. Grady's
"The New South" (delivered before the New England
Society, December 22, 1886) and make your own top-
ical outline. Then write your own complete expression
of these same ideas. Preserve all of these exercises
carefully in your notebook. Also practice oral amplifi-
cation of a memorizeil outline. Follow directions given
in the preceding exercise.
Under the old regime, the negroes were slaves to the South ;
the South was a slave to the system. The old plantation, with
its simple police regulations and its feudal habits, was the only
type possible under slavery. Thus was gathered in the hands of
a splendid and ehivalric oligarchy the substance that should
have been diffused among the people — as the rich blood, under
certain artificial conditions is gathered at the heart, filling that
with affluent rapture but leaving the. body chill and colorless.
The old South rested everything on slavery and agriculture,
unconscious that these could neither give nor maintain healthy
growth. The new South presents a perfect Democracy, the
oligarchs leading in the popular movement, — a social system
compact and closely knitted, less splendid at the surface but
stronger at the core ; a hundred farms for every plantation ;
fifty homes for every palace and (instead of agriculture alone)
a diversified industry that meets the complex needs of this
complex age.
In making your notes, be sure to get the central
thought — the contrast between the old South and the
new South. In your development, do not make a running-
contrast; rather treat the old South fully, di'op it, and
then take up the new South for complete treatment.
Note the following difficult, running contrast, a form of
10 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
composition which shoukl not be attempted by the inex-
perienced speaker.
Talent is something, but tact is everything. Talent is serious,
sober, grave and respectable; tact is all that and more too. It
is not a sixth sense, but it is the life of all the five. * * *
Talent is power, tact is skill; talent is weight, tact is momen-
tum ; talent knows what to do, tact knoAvs how to do it ; talent
makes a man respectable, tact makes him respected; talent is
wealth, tact is ready money. — From the London Atlas.
Complete the Discussion of Each Topic
Such a running contrast is not the characteristic treat-
ment of a speaker; it is rather the product of a writer
wdio has time to meditate and arrange w^ords — even to
erase and rearrange. Most speakers would give a rounded
idea of tact first, then a thorough exposition of talent.
The contrast might be driven home by a few additional
remarks. There are some master speakers wdio might
carry the contrast along, but such a task is too difficult
for the beginner. His rule should be the clear develop-
ment of one idea at a time and an orderly arrangement
of those ideas in proper sequence.
Also, the audience gets more out of the simpler and
easier treatment. A speech like the passage above leaves
them with the impression that tact and talent are con-
trasted and that the speaker accomx^lished a brilliant
feat; but they do not carry away a satisfactory notion
of the nature of either tact or talent. The development
of one idea at a time makes for clearness and force
of impression.
THE ORGANIZATION OP^ IDEAS 11
Develop One Idea at a Time
Observe, in the following- x)assage from Abraham Lin-
coln's Eulogy of Henry Clay (delivered July 16, 1852,
in the State House at Springfield, Illinois), that one idea
is taken up at a time and developed fully. Furthermore,
nothing is introduced which does not contribute to the
amplification of the thought under immediate considera-
tion. It is just as important to keep out distracting mat-
ter as it is to put in that which contributes to the direct
expression of the central idea. A star is printed at the
beginning of each idea that Lincoln amplified.
* The spell, the long enduring spell with which the souls of
men were bound to him, is a miracle. Who can compass it?
It is probably true he owed his preeminence to no one quality,
but to a fortunate combination of several. He was surpass-
ingly eloquent; but many eloquent men fail utterly, and they
are not, as a class, generally successful. His judgment was
excellent; but many men of good judgment live and die
unnoticed. His will was indomitable ; but this quality often
secures to its owner nothmg better than a character for useless
obstinacy. These, then, were Mr. Clay's leading qualities. No
one of them is very uncommon; but all together are rarely
combined in a single individual, and this is probably the reason
why such men as Henry Clay are so rare in the world.
* Mr. Clay 's eloquence did not consist, as many fine speci-
mens of eloquence do, of tropes and figures, of antitheses and
elegant arrangement of words and sentences, but rather of that
deeply earnest and impassioned tone and manner which can
proceed only from great sincerity, and a thorough conviction
in the speaker of the justice and importance of his cause. This
it is that truly touches the chords of sympathy; and those who
heard Mr. Clay never failed to be moved by it, or ever after-
ward forgot the impression. All his efforts were made for
practical effect. He never spoke merely to be heard. He never
12 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
delivered a Fourth of July oration or a eulogy on an occasion
like this. * As a politician or statesman, no one Avas so habitu-
ally careful to avoid all sectional ground. Whatever he did,
he did for the whole country. In the construction of his
measures, he ever carefully surveyed every part of the field and
duly weighed every conflicting interest. Feeling as he did, and
as the truth surely is. that the world's best hope depended on
tho continued Union of these States, he was ever jealous of and
watchful for whatever might have the slightest tendency to
separate them.
* ]\Ir. Clay 's predominant sentiment, from first to last, was a
deep devotion to the cause of human liberty — a strong sympathy
with the oppressed everywhere, and an ardent wish for their
elevation. With him this was a primary and controlling pas-
sion. Subsidiary to this was the conduct of his whole life.
He loved his country partly because it was his own country, and
mostly because it was a free country; and he burned with a
zeal for its advancement, prosperity and glory, because he saw
in such the advancement, prosperity and glory of human liberty,
human right and human nature. lie desired the prosperity of
his countrymen partly because they were his countrymen, but
chiefly to show to the world that free men could lie prosperous.
.Exercise of Amplifying Simple Plans of Speech
In order to get practice in the amplification of a gen-
eral thought by the grouping of subordinate thoughts
around it, amplify orally the following outlines — all or
such as interest you. It might be well to jot down all
your information on the subjects before trying to or-
ganize the matter according to the outlines here sug-
gested. Then undertake the oral development as de-
scribed l)efore. Sul)stitute outlines of your own if you
prefer.
1. Washington was an ideal American gentleman,
(a) He was courageous.
THE ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS 13
(b) He was patient.
(c) He was courteous.
(d) He was sagacious.
(e) He was patriotic.
(f ) He was unselfish.
2. The Government should own the railroads.
(a) The whole people should j^rofit by the use of
the highways.
(b) Shippers and passengers would get fairer treat-
ment.
(c) Better service would be rendered.
(d) Money could be made to pay governmental
expenses.
3. Government ownership of railroads would be unde-
sirable.
(a) Railroading is a private business which should
be left to the enterprise of individuals.
(b) Government enteri3rises foster corruption and
graft.
(c) There would be no incentive to improve the
service.
(d) There would be a deficit which would have to
l)e met by heavier taxes upon the people.
4. Labor.
(a) What is labor?
(b) The necessity for labor.
(c) The unpleasantness of labor.
(d) The blessings of labor.
Observation and Criticism of the Grouping of
Other Speakers
At the next meeting you attend where someone speaks
at length (as in church, political meeting, or club meet-
14 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ing) take notes of the address. Put down the headiHgs
or topics which are treated in the address. Then ob-
serve how the speaker develops his topics. Does he
clearly hold one idea till it is fully expounded! Are all
his ideas clear f Do they follow each other in a natural
order? AVhat faults in grouping does the speaker have?
Is the speech so well organized that you can repeat its
essential message in your own words from the notes you
take? This criticism of other speakers is a great help
toward self -improvement.
Within the next three or four weeks, if you have the
opportunity, prepare carefully a detailed report of such
a speech which you heard. Append the outline and your
criticism. This exercise is optional.
General Suggestions
Get the Habit of Systematic Thouglit. — You must cul-
tivate the habit of orderly and systematic thought.
Carry this into your daily life. If you read the news-
paper, see if the writer of the article you are reading
holds to his topic or wanders. Analyze the magazine
articles you read. Even in conversation, organize your
expressions. If you say that President Wilson was right
in delaying intervention in Mexico, be able to amplify
thus: — because (a) reason one, (b) reason two, and (c)
reason three. Do not have slovenly opinions. Crystal-
lize all your thoughts. ' Put them to the test of organiza-
tion.
Indulge in Much Oral Practice. — You nuist indulge in
a great deal of oral expression. Speak in large gather-
ings whenever the opportunity arises. Always have
your thoughts organized ; do not let them come out in
HE ORGANIZATION OF IDKAS 15
"^ chance order or no order at all. At any rate do niucli
oral practice alone. No one ever became an effective
speaker without actually speaking.
Assignment of Work for Five Days
The written exorcises in tliis entire lesson should be
carefully worked out. Keej) copies of tlie written exer-
cises in your notel)ook.
First Day. — You have read through the first lesson. Now study
it again carefully, mastering its contents. Do not attempt
any of the special exercises in the first or second reading.
Second Day. — Write the exercises in connection with the
Beecher speech (p. 7), and criticize carefully your own work :
then rewrite it. Practice in your own words the oral re-
production of the Beecher speech.
Third Day. — Do the exercises in connection with the Grady
speech (p. 9). Prepare carefull}^ the outline and amplifica-
tion of the Grady speech and criticize and rewrite as sug-
gested in the work for the second day.
Fourth Day. — Fill out orally the outlines given which begin
with the character of Washington (p. 12). Make similar
outlines for matters of current interest which you read ahout
and concerning which you have formed opinions.
Fifllt Day. — Outline and criticize some speech you have heard.
Remember that criticism means appreciation as well as
adverse comment.
It is hoped that this lesson has impressed you with
the value of organized thought and given you suggestions
which will start you in the direction of a better organiza-
tion of your own thoughts. The second lesson will take a
nominating speech for its model and show how a long
speech is made up of certain great divisions, each one
of which contains its thought groups.
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
liis knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They
are suggestire merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in tlie
notebook for future reference.
I. State what efficienc}'- is. Give tlie best illustration of it
you know.
— 2. Why is effective a better word than efficient to apply to
public speaking?
3. What is the most effective speech you have ever heard?
Why?
4. What benefits of "grouping ideas" are discussed in the
lesson ?
5. AVhat are the four qualities of good speaking the student
should develop ?
6. AVhat is meant by the expression "develop one idea at a
time ' ' ?
7. What does Beecher's paragraph on "The Germanic and the
Romanic Races" illustrate as to the grouping of ideas?
8. What four ideas does Lincoln "develop one at a time"
about Henry Clay?
9. What are the main headings of an address you have re-
cently heard ?
10. In Henry W. Grady's paragraph, what are the chief points
of contrast between the Old and the Xew South?
II. What ideas have you about Clay's eloquence, from Liii-
eoln 's paragraph ?
12. In a conversation about "The kinds of men I work with,''
what would be the main lines of your talk ?
13. If you desire more practice, outline for a short talk one of
the following topics: Workmanship, Reliability, Woman's Suf-
frage, High License, Books I Like to Read, My Job, My Em-
ployer, My Ambition,
16
LESSON 2
THE GENERAL PLAN OF A SPEECH. THE DETAILED
TREATMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION
OF A NOMINATING SPEECH
All but the very simplest messages which we can
deliver in a speech are made up of several parts. This
was insisted upon in the first lesson when we discussed
the proper organization of those parts. A message was
considered well organized if the nature of each part was
clearly and forcefully presented and the relation of each
part to the whole was made evident. Consequently we
concluded that it is most necessary that we make a care-
ful analysis to determine just how our thoughts hang-
together before we try to impress them upon other people.
The Body of a Speech
Now let us suppose that you have a message to deliver
which summed up is simply this : The Democratic Party
ought to nominate Woodrow Wilson for president once
more. Upon analysis you discover ten good reasons for
this belief. You pass all these reasons in review before
you and find that they are well founded. Then you
17
18 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
organize them so that they Avill form a well-arranged
group, easy of comprehension and forceful in its combined
strength. An amplification of this will constitute the
body of a speech nominating your candidate for the office
of president.
The Introduction
Yet that does not exhaust all the planning for such a
speech, for you do not always wish to plunge imme-
diately into the bod^^ of an address. The audience may
not be ready to receive it. They may be so unfavorably
prejudiced against you that they will not listen to your
message till you woo them and win their favor. They
may have some preconceived notions against your candi-
date or the platform upon which he expects to stand. In
fact, a thousand and one untoward circumstances may
exist which will make necessary some preliminary efforts
to incline them to an impartial hearing of what may
be said. This portion of the general speech is called the
introduction. Its function is to prepare the way for
the most favorable recejjtion of the message proper.
There are other things besides prejudice and unfriendly
feeling which stand in the way of a good reception of
the message, but we shall not enumerate them in this
lesson. Whatever they are, the introduction is used to
clear them away.
The Conclusion-
Besides the introduction and body, a speech may have
a third part, the conclusion. The i)urpose of the conclu-
GENERAL PLAN: NOMLNATLXG SPEECH 19
sion is to gather together the combined force of all the
parts of the body of the speech and to drive home or apply
them. It has been said that every speech — no matter how
long or how short, no matter what the subject or the pur-
pose — must have three parts: an opening or introduc-
tion, a body or argument, and a conclusion. This is not
true, for sometimes the situation is favorable to an imme-
diate presentation of the message without preliminary
words and sometimes the speaker prefers the audience
to draw its own conclusions and to make its own applica-
tions. Yet it is well for the student to know the nature
and use of all these parts so that he can employ them
when desirable.
We shall later make a detailed study of the intro-
duction and conclusion and discuss when they may be
omitted. Just now we shall assume that a nominating
speech has these initial and terminal parts while we
attend primarily to the nature of the material used in the
body of the speech. Our study in this lesson will be the
organization of the body of a nominating speech.
Conklixg's Speech Nominating Grant for President,
1880
We take as our model Eoscoe Conkling's nomination
of General Grant for president, in the Chicago Conven-
tion of the Republican Party, 1880. It will be remem-
bered that Grant served as president for two terms (1868-
1876). He then traveled around the w^orld, visiting all
the civilized nations and receiving the homage of the
greatest men and rulers of the earth. Mr. Conkling
nominated him to run for a third time in the following
20 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
speech. Read the speech slowly and thoughtfully, trying
to sense its structure.
When asked what State he hails from,
Our sole reply shall be,
He comes from Appomattox,
And its famous apple-tree.
In obedience to instructions I should never dare to disregard,
expressing also, my own firm convictions — I rise to propose a
nomination with which the country and the Republican part}'
can grandly win. The election before us is to be the Austerlitz
of American politics. It will decide, for many years, whether
the country shall be Republican or Cossack. The supreme need
of the hour is not a candidate who can carry ^Michigan. All
Republicans can do that. The need is not of a candidate who is
popular in the Territories, because they have no vote. The need
is of a candidate who can carry doubtful States.
Not the doubtful States of the North alone, but doubtful
States of the South, w^hich we have heard, if I understand it
aright, ought to take little or no part here, because the South
has nothing to give, but everything to receive. No, gentlemen,
the need that presses upon the conscience of this Convention
is of a candidate who can carry doubtful States both North and
South. And believing that he, more surely than any other man,
can carry New York against any opponent, and can carry not
only the North, but several States of the South, Neiv York is for
UUjsses S. Grant. Never defeated in peace or in war, his name
is the most illustrious borne by living man.
His services attest his greatness, and the country — nay, the
world — knows them by heart. His fame was earned not alone
in things written and said, but by the arduous greatness of things
done. And perils and emergencies will search in vain in the
future, as they have searched in vain in the past, for any other
on whom the nation leans with such confidence and trust. Never
having had a policy to enforce against the will of the people,
he never betrayed a cause or a friend, and the people will never
desert nor betray him. Standing on the highest eminence of
GENERAL PLAN: NOMINATING SPEECH 21
human distint'tion, modest, tirm, simi)le and self-poised, having
filled all lauds with his renown, he has seen not only the high-
born and the titled, but the poor and the lowly in the uttermost
ends of the earth, rise and uncover before him. He has studied
the needs and the defects of many systems of government, and
he has returned a better American than ever, with a wealth of
knowledge and experience added to the hard common sense
which shone so conspicuously in all the fierce light that beat upon
"liim during sixteen years, the most trying, the most portentous,
the most perilous in the nation's history.
Vilified and reviled, ruthlessly aspersed by unnumbered
presses, not in other lands but in his own, assaults upon him
have seasoned and strengthened his hold on the public heart.
Calumny's ammunition has all been exploded; the powder has
all been burned once ; its force is spent ; and the name of Grant
will glitter a bright and imperishable star in the diadem of the
republic when those who have tried to tarnish that name have
moldered in forgotten graves, and when their memories and their
epitaphs have vanished utterly.
Never elated by success, never depressed by adversity, he has
ever, in peace as in war, shown the genius of common sense.
The terms he prescribed for Lee's surrender foreshadowed the
wisest prophecies and principles of true reconstruction. Victor
in the greatest war of modern times, he quickly signalized his
aversion to war and his love of peace by an arbitration of inter-
nal disputes, which stands as the wisest, the most majestic exam-
ple of its kind in the world's diplomacy. When inflation, at
the height of its popularity and frenzy, had swept both Houses
of Congress, it was the veto of Grant which, single and alone,
overthrew expansion and cleared the way for specie resumption.
To him, immeasurably more than to any other man, is due the
fact that every paper dollar is at last as good as gold.
With him as our leader we shall have no defensive campaign.
No! We shall have nothing to explain away. AVe shall have
no apologies to make. The shafts and the arrows have all been
aimed at him, and they lie broken and harmless at his feet.
Life, liberty and property will find a safeguard in him.
When he said of the colored men in Florida, "Wherever I am,
22 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
they may come also" — when he so said, he meant that, had he
the power, the poor dwellers in the cabins of the South should
no longer be driven in terror from the homes of their childhood
and the graves of their murdered dead. When he refused to
see Dennis Kearney in California, he meant that communism,
lawlessness and disorder, although it might stalk high-headed and
dictate law to a whole city, would always find a foe in him.
He meant that, popular or unpopular, he would hew io the line
of right, let the chips fly where they may.
His integrity, his common sense, his courage, his unequaled
experience, are the qualities offered to his country. The only
argument, the only one that the wit of man or the stress of poli-
tics has devised is one which would dumbfounder Solomon,
because he thought there was nothing new under the sun. Hav-
ing tried Grant twice and found him faithful, we are told that
we must not, even after an interval of years, trust him again.
My countrymen ! my country^men ! what stultification does not
such a fallacy involve? The American people exclude Jefferson
Davis from public trust. Why ? why ? Because he was the arch-
traitor and would-be destroyer; and now the same people are
asked to ostracize Grant and not to trust him. Why? why? I
repeat : because he was the arch-preserver of his country, and
because, not only in war, but twice as civil magistrate, he gave
his highest, noblest efforts to the republic. Is this an electioneer-
ing juggle, or is it hypocrisy's masquerade? There is no field
of human activity, responsibility, or reason in which rational
beings object to an agent because he has been weighed in the
balance and not found wanting. There is, I say, no department
of human reason in which sane men reject an agent because he
has had experience, making him exceptionally competent and fit.
From the man who shoes your horse, to the lawyer who tries your
cause, the officer who manages your railway or your mill, the
doctor into whose hands you give your life, or the minister who
seeks to save your soul, what man do you reject because by his
works you have known liini and found him faithful and fit?
What makes the Presidential office an exception to all things
else in the common sense to be applied to selecting its incumbent ?
Who dares — who dares to put fetters on that free choice and
GENERAL PLAxX : XO.MINATLXG SPEECH 23
judgment which is the birthright of the American people ? Can
it be said that Grant has used official power and place to per-
petuate his termf He has no place, and official power has not
been used for him. Without patronage and without emissaries,
without committees, without bureaus, without telegraph wires
running from his house to this Convention, or running from his
house anywhere else, this man is the candidate whose friends
Iiave never threatened to bolt unless this Convention did as they
said. He is a Republican who never wavers. He and his friends
stand by the creed and the candidates of the Republican party.
They hold the rightful rule of the majority as the very essence
of their faith, and they mean to uphold that faith against not
only the common enemy, but against the charlatans, jayhawkers,
tramps and guerrillas — the men who deploy between the lines,
and forage now on one side and then on the other. This Conven-
tion is master of a supreme opportunity. It can name the next
President. It can make sure of his election. It can make sure
not only of his election, but of his certain and peaceful inaugura-
tion. IMore than all, it can break that poAver which dominates
and mildews the South. It can overthrow an organization
whose very existence is a standing protest against progress.
The purpose of the Democratic party is spoils. Its very
hope of existence is a solid South. Its success is a menace to
order and prosperity. I say this Convention can overthrow that
power. It can dissolve and emancipate a solid South. 'It can
speed the nation in a career of grandeur eclipsing all past achieve-
ments.
Gentlemen, we have only to listen above the din and look
beyond the dust of an hour to behold the Republican party
advancing with its ensigns resplendent with illustrious achieve-
ments, marching to certain and lasting victory with its greatest
^larshal at its head.
Read the speech again, out loud witli all the enthusiasm
you can work up. If possibh?, read it to friends as an
example of convention oratory.
Now let us consider its plan.
24 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
A. Introduction (to the words "grandly win"), merely
to attract attention; very brief.
B. Body of the Speech.
1. The need of the party : to carry doubtful states,
will be met by Grant.
2. The virtues of the candidate.
(a) He is popular with all classes.
(b) His travels and studies abroad have im-
proved him.
(c) He has risen superior to all criticism.
(d) His acts show calm, common sense; policy
of peace ; money policy.
(e) He makes possible an aggressive campaign.
(f ) He was the courageous advocate of freedom
on several occasions.
3. Objections to him are ridiculous.
(a) The third-term objection is counter to the
practice in all walks of life where experi-
ence is a recommendation.
(b) Grant never used the power of place or pat-
ronage to get this nomination or election.
C. Conclusion of additional, reenforced enthusiasm.
1. Grant is the great Republican.
2. Opportunity of the convention to name a
president.
3. Denunciation of Democrats.
4. Prophecy of victory.
Tliis speech is not so well organized as it might be, yet
it serves very well as a model of enthusiastic nomination.
We shall now make a model plan for a nominating speech
wliich can l)e filled in on almost any occasion of nomina-
tion. AVe nnist call attention to one marked deviation
GENERAL PLAN: N0:\IINAT1NG SPEECH 25
from Coiikling's plan. As a rule it is best not to name
the candidate till well on in the speech. Sometimes it is
best to excite curiosity and arouse the audience so that
they are in a state of intense expectation when at last
you name the man. Conkling did not use this device,
because Grant was not a new man and it was well known
that Conkling was going to nominate him. But in most
cases it is well to describe the ideal man and show how
such a candidate will meet the needs of the hour ; then at
the climax of the virtues to be expected, name the man
who has them all. The plan which we therefore suggest
is the following:
Type Plan for Nominating Speech
A. Introduction (according to circumstances that arise
at the time of delivery).
B. Body of the Speech.
1. Need of the party, club, or organization.
2. The general characteristics a candidate should
have.
(a) Experience.
(b) Character.
(c) Popularity, etc.
3. The platform he will stand on. What he
pledges himself to do.
4. Name him who has all these in the highest degree.
5. Objections to him, if any, disposed of. Best not
mention these if they can be avoided. Take the
defens'-ve only when it is forced on you by the
situation.
6. Eulogy of the candidate.
(a) His past record.
(b) His present renown.
(c) His excellent qualities.
/
J
26 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
C. Conclusion. Prophecy of success, advancement, or
victory with him as the standard-bearer. Lan-
guage enthusiastic and treatment rapid.
Characteristic Features of the Nominating Speech
Style
Notice certain features in the style of the nominating
speech which spring from the purpose of the speaker and
the occasion on wdiich such a speech is delivered. The
meeting is one for quick decision rather than long or
careful deliberation. The candidates are not carefully
discussed. After one has been named, there is no system-
atic testing of all his points of strength and weakness.
No one cross-questions the nominator to see if his claims
are just ; no debate of a solid character is carried on.
So far as speaking is concerned, all that takes place is the
favorable naming and eulogizing of several men by their
friends. To be sure, there may be some quiet managing
on the floor of the convention, but the purpose of the
nominating speaker is to bring the delegates to a high
point of enthusiasm. He seldom offers proof, for close
reasoning is usually incompatible with high excitement.
From this it follows : /
1. The argTiments, if any, must be short and crisp.
There is no time for labored demonstration.
2. Striking statements form the major part of the
speech. These must be vivid. Bold figures of speech
are allowed. Notice ''Standing on the highest eminence
of human distinction, and having filled all lands with
his renown," "The ammunition of calumny had all been
exploded," ''General Grant's name will glitter as a
bright star in the diadem of the Republic," and other
sti'iking figures.
X
GEMiixvAi^ lUAX: XO:\riXATING SPEECH 2'<
3. The movement must be rapid.
4. Each sub-topic must be carefully worked out so that
no false or blundering step will be made. In this kind
of speech, there must be no confusion, repetition, or blur-
ring of the brilliant effect. Furthermore, the amplitica-
tion of each topic must be in the order of increasing
importance. The crowning glory must be named last so
as to draw forth applause. Thus the whole speech is a
series of smaller climaxes with a great one at the naming
of the candidate and a very great one at the end.
DiEECTIONS FOR ORIGINAL AVoRK
A. Select one or more of the following subjects for a
nominating address.
1. Colonel Goethals as the first governor of the
Panama Canal zone; delivered before the
United States Senate.
2. A neighbor of yours as candidate for your party
for state assemblyman ; delivered before a pri-
mary gathering in your district.
3. A man in the office in which you work for the
position of general manager ; delivered before
the board of directors or other body with ap-
pointing power. Make believe you are a mem-
ber of the board or are someone else who
might properly make such a nomination.
4. A fellow member of some society to which you
belong for the position of president or treas-
urer, etc. ; delivered before the members of the
society.
5. Theodore Roosevelt for president; delivered be-
fore the national convention of the Progressive
Party.
28 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
6. Any man for president; delivered before the
jjroper convention.
B. Make a note of all the ideas you can gather which
would contribute material for the speech. This
is your available storehouse of subject matter.
C. Plan the speech by grouping the matter under the
general heads suggested in our type plan. Ask
yourself "Just what points will reach that par-
ticular audience!" "What will influence them
so that they will agree with me?" Throw aside
all that does not meet your needs and arrange the
rest as recommended. Later you may vary from
the type and attempt an original order, but at first
it is best to follow the model form.
D. In amplifying the various points in the plan, use
the enthusiastic, nominating style already de-
scribed.
1. Amplify orally with the plan before you.
2. If you can do it, amplify orally with no notes
in hand but with the greater sub-topics memo-
rized. This must be done sooner or later. If
you do not succeed at first, keep on trying
Make the sijeech simple with but few sub-
divisions. When you can retain such a plan in
the memory and develop it orally, then make
the next one more elaborate.
3. Eeduce your amplification to writing.
Assignment of Work
The written exercist'^; in tliis entire lesson should he
carefully worked out. Keep eopies of the wiitten exer-
cises in your notebook.
First Day. — You luive read throuj^h the lesson. Now study it
again careCulIy. mastering ils contents. Do not atttMnpt any
GENERAL PLAN: NOMINATLNG SPEECH 29
of the (.'xercises until after the second reading. Read the
Conkling- speech orally.
Second Day. — Write a criticism of the Conkling speech. What
do you like about it ? Is there anything you dislike ? Why
does he devote so much space to the third-term idea 1 Do you
think it is wise for Conkling to speak slurringly of the Demo-
crats ? What does he gain by the verse at the opening ? Tell
why the first sentence is effectively written. INIake a list of
the references to definite services, like ' ' terms of Lee 's surren-
der," "veto of expansion in currency."
TJiird Day. — Make a simple outline of an original nominating
speech, taking one of the subjects suggested near the end of
this lesson. Write out the speech. Criticize and rewrite
carefully.
Fourth Day. — Imagine that you are to make an address following
the points in your outline. Develop them orally, as if talking
to an audience. Go through the entire outline in this way,
without stopping to repeat or to improve any parts.
Fifth Day. — If you contemplate making a real nominating speech
or any other kind of speech, prepare your outline carefully
as suggested, and criticize your own work severely.
Final AYord
In making these speeches, try to put yourself in a real
situation. Nominate men about whom you know and
about whom you are enthusiastic. In practice, throw
yourself fully into the subject; vividly realize the occa-
sion, living it all out in imagination. The speaker who is
thoroughly filled with his subject and who is in earnest
usually makes a good impression. Therefore, if you
master your message and determine to deliver it as
planned, you have to be exceedingly poor in speaking to
spoil the success of your speech. But remember, each
group of ideas must be well organized and the whole
speech must be planned along distinct, clean-cut lines.
30 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Without the reenforcement of such thorough preparation,
your enthusiasm will vanish and your earnestness will
give way to doubt and confusion. Prepare j'ourself well,
then speak to win.
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the stiulent to vise in testing
his knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They
are suggestive merely, dealing largely with tlie practical
application of the principles, and are to he ])laced in the
notebook for future reference.
-^ 1. What are the three major parts in the organization of a
speech ?
2. In your own writing and speaking, do you use the terms
'"first," "second," etc.. for the main divisions of your thought?
•'). Kecall some speaker whose thought seems confused. Recall
the speakers to whom it is easy to Hsten. Is not the important
difference between them in clearness of outline?
4. Remember an audience that was hostile to a speaker.
What was the hostility?
5. How did the speaker endeavor to overcome the hostility?
Did he succeed?
6. When may a speaker plunge into his topic without an
introduction?
7. Recall without consulting the text the main divisions of
Conkling's speech nominating Grant.
8. What was the greatest objection to the nomination of
Grant?
9. Wliy does Conkling leave that point until well toward the
end of his address?
10. Do you recall a recent national convention in which a
nominating speaker faced practically the same objection as
( 'onkling did?
11. Conkling's speech seems rather florid (flowery). When
is this style justifiable? In what kinds of addresses Is it
entirely out of place?
12. Reproduce from memory the general outline suitable for
most nonnnating speeches.
13. Recall some nominating speech you have heard. How
does it compare with Conkling's?
LESSON 3
THJS PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION
We have seen that a speech has for its central purpose,
the (leHvery of a certain body of information — the ex-
pression of a message in which the speaker believes and
with which he hopes to influence his hearers. That mes-
sage constitutes the bqd^ of the speech. It may have
many parts or subdivisions, but all of them, taken to-
gether, round out the message the speaker has to deliver.
We have briefly suggested that it is often wise to smooth
the way for this message by some introductory remarks.
It will be the aim of this lesson and the following one to
show some of the obstacles which must be smoothed away
by the introduction and to indicate the proper methods
of doing this. We shall consider the purpose of the intro- ^
duction under three heads: (A) To put the audience in
a state of favorable feeling; (B) to arouse interest and
secure attention; and (C) to prepare the audience to
understand the message. One caution must be given:
While planning the introduction and making a detailed
study of its particular functions, the whole speech must
be kept in mind all the time. All other parts merely set
the scenes, as it were, or throw a stronger light upon the
central theme.
(A) TO PUT THE AUDIENCE IX A STATE OF FAVOR-
ABLE FEELING
If the audience is well disposed to the speaker and his
subject, and if it is in a favorable emotional state — one
31
32 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
of good will or entliusiasm, tlien one of the services of
an introduction is unnecessary. That service is to render
the autlience favorable, from an emotional or feeling
standpoint, to the reception of the message. But if there
is the slightest ill will, bad temper, or even indifference,
something nnist be done to remove it before the main
business of the speech is taken up. We all know that our
enemies condenm our views before they are stated. Ill
feeling is transferred from the man to his ideas. Not
only are strong feelings of hatred a bar to a fair hearing,
but even a slight inditference is sufficient to stand in
the way of an unl)iased reception. Then also, .the deliv-
ery of a speech may be surrounded by special circum-
stances which will make the auditors inclined away from
rather than toward the speaker and his cause. Later in
this lesson we shall enumerate various unfavoi-able emo-
tional states, discuss the circumstances which give rise
to them, and indicate methods of offsetting them. Just
now, while Conkling's nomination of Grant is fresh in
your mind, we shall show how Garfield undertook to
counteract the enthusiasm it aroused, in order that he
might present the name of another candidate.
How Garfield Wox a Hearing
Imagine the high excitement which reigned in the con-
vention when Conkling finished and had been ably sec-
onded by Bradley of Kentucky. To stem this tide of
feeling was (Jarfield's first necessity. He wanted to nom-
inate Sherman of Ohio. It would have been foolish to
jidvance a single thought in the line of his pui-pose until
he had brought his hearers to a state of (';diH and had
PURPOSE OP THE INTKODUCTIOX 33
them forget, for a time at least, the words of Conkling.
Notice how he did it.
I have witnessed the extraordinary scenes of this conventioji
with deep solicitude. Nothing touches my heart more quickly
than a tribute of honor to a great and noble character; but as
I sat in my seat and witnessed this demonstration, this assein
blage seemed to me a human ocean in tempest. I have seen the
sea lashed into fury and tossed into spray, and its grandeui-
moves the soul of the dullest man ; but I remember that it is not
the billows, but the calm level of tVie sea, from which all heights
and depths are measured. When the storm has passed and the
hour of calm settles on the ocean, when the sunlight bathes its
peaceful surface, then the astronomer and surveyor take the
level from which they measure all terrestrial heights and
depths.
Gentlemen of the Conv(5ntion, your present temper may not
mark the healthful pulse of our people. When your enthusiasm
has passed, when the emotions of this hour have subsided, we
shall find below the storm and passion that calm level of public
opinion from which the thoughts of a mighty people are to be
measured, and by which final action will be determined.
Not here, in this brilliant circle, where fifteen thousand men
and women are gathered, is the destiny of the Republic to be
decreed for the next four years. Not here where I see the enthu-
siastic faces of seven hundred and fifty-six delegates, waiting
to cast their lots into the urn and determine the choice of the
Republic, but by four millions of Republican firesides, where
the thoughtful voters, Avith wives and children about them, with
the calm thoughts inspired by love of home and country, with
the history of the past, the hopes of the future, and reverence
for the great men who have adorned and blessed our nation in
days gone by, burning in their hearts, — there God prepares the
verdict which will determine the wisdom of our work tonight.
Not in Chicago, in the heat of June, but at the ballot-boxes of
the Republic, in the quiet of November, after the silence of
deliberate judgment, will this question be settled. And noAV,
gentlemen of the Convention, what do Ave want ? *
34 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Bear with me for a moment. "Hear me for my cause," and
for a moment "be silent that you may hear."
Twenty-five years ago, this Republic was bearing and wear-
ing a triple chain of bondage. Long familiarity with traffic in
the bodies and souls of men had paralyzed the conscience
of a majority of our people; the narrowing and disintegrating
doctrine of State sovereignty had shackled and weakened the
noblest and most beneficent powers of the national government ;
and the grasping power of slavery was seizing upon the virgin
territories of the West and dragging them into the den of eternal
bonda.ge.
At that crisis, the Republican party Avas born. It drew its
first inspiration from the fire of liberty which God had lighted
in every human heart, and which all the powers of tyranny
and ignorance could not wholly extinguish. The Republican
party came to deliver and to save. It entered the arena where
the beleaguered and assailed Territories were struggling for
freedom, and drew around them the sacred circle of liberty^
which the demon of slavery has never dared to cross. It made
them free forever. Strengthened by its victory on the frontier,
the young party, under the leadership of the great man who on
this spot, twenty years ago, was made its chief, entered the
national Capitol, and assumed the high duties of government.
The light which shone from its banner illumined its pathway to
power. Every slave-pen and the shackles of every slave within
the shadow of the Capitol were consumed in the rekindled fire
of freedom.
Our great national industries by cruel and calculating neglect
had been prostrated, and the streams of revenue flowed in such
feeble currents that the treasury itself was well-nigh empty.
The money of the people consisted mainly of the wretched notes
of two thousand uncontrolled and irresponsible state banking
corporations, which were filling the country with a circulation
that poisoned, rather than sustained, the life of business.
The Republican party changed all this. It abolished a
babel of confusion, and gave to the country a currency as
national as its fiag, bas(Ml upon the sacred -faith of the people.
It threw its protecting juiii ;i round our great industries, and
PURPOSE OP THE INTRODUCTION 35
they stood erect with new life. It filled with the spirit of true
nationality all the great functions of the government. It con-
fronted a rebellion of unexampled magnitude, with slavery
behind it, and, under God, fought the final battle of liberty until
the victory was won.
After the storms of battle, were heard the calm words of
peace spoken by the conquering nation, saying to the foe that
hiy prostrate at its feet: "This is our only revenge — that you
join us in lifting into the serene firmament of the Constitution,
to shine like stars for ever and ever, the immortal principles of
truth and justice : that all men, white or black, shall be free, and
shall stand equal before the law."
Then came the questions of reconstruction, the national debt,
and the keeping of the public faith. In tlie settlement of these
(luestions, the Rej^ublicau party has completed its twenty-five
> ears of glorious existence and it has sent us here to prepare it
for another lustrum of duty and of victory. How shall we
accomplish this great work? We cannot do it, my friends, by
assailing our Republican brethren. God forbid that I should
say one word, or cast one shadow, upon any name on the roll
of our heroes. The coming fight is our Thermopylae. We are
standing upon a narrow isthmus. If our Spartan hosts are
united, we can withstand all the Persians that the Xerxes of
Democracy can bring against us. Let us hold our ground this
one year, and then "the stars in their courses" will fight for us.
The census will bring reenforcements and continued power.**
But in order to win victory now, we want the vote of every
Republican — of every Grant Republican, and every anti-Grant
Republican, in America — of every Blaine man and every anti-
Blaine man. The vote of every follower of every candidate is
needed to make success certain. Therefore I say, gentlemen
and brethren, we are here to take calm counsel together, and
inquire what we shall do.
We want a man whose life and opinions embody all the
achievements of which I have spoken. We want a man who,
standing on a mountain height, traces the victorious footsteps
of our party in the past, and, carrying in his heart the memory
of its glorious deeds, looks forward proparod to meet the dangers
36 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
to come. We want one who will act in no spirit of unkindness
toward those we lately met in battle. The Republican party
offers to our brethren of the South the olive-branch of peace, and
invites them to renewed brotherhood on this supreme convic-
tion — that it shall be admitted forever, that in the war for the
Lnion we were right and they were wrong. On that supreme
conviction we meet them as brethren, and ask them to share with
us the blessings and honors of this great Republic.
Now, gentlemen, not to weary you, I am about to present a
name for your consideration, — the name of one who was the
comrade, associate, and friend of nearly all the noble dead,
whose faces look down upon us from these walls tonight ; a man
w ho began his career of public service twenty-five years ago, —
who courageously confronted the slave power in the days of
peril, on the plains of Kansas, when first began to fall the red
drops of that bloody shower which finally swelled into the deluge
of gore in the late rebellion. He bravely stood by young Kan-
sas, and, returning to his seat in the national legislature, his
pathway through all the subsequent years has been marked by
labors worthily performed in every department of legislation.
You ask for his monument. I point you to twenty-five years
of national statutes. Not one great, beneficent law has been
placed on our statute books without his intelligent and powerful
aid. lie aided in fornuilating the laws to raise the great armies
and navies which carried us through the war. His hand was
seen in the workmanship of those statutes that restored and
brought back "the unity and married calm of states." His
liand was in all that great legislation that created the war cur-
rency, and in all the still greater work that redeemed the prom-
ises of the government and made the currency equal to gold.
When at last he passed from the halls of legislation into a
liigh execntive office, he displayed that experience, intelligence,
firnniess, and poise of character, wliich liave carried us through
a stormy period of three years, with one-half the public press
crying, "Cracify him!" and a hostile Congress seeking to pre-
vent success. In all this he remained unmoved until victory
crowned him. The great fiscal affairs of the nation, and the vast
business interests of. the country, he guarded and preserved
PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTlOxX 37
while executing the law of resumption, and etfceted its object
without a jar and against the false prophecies of one-half of the
press and of all the Democratic party.
He has shown himself able to meet with calmness the great
emergencies of the government. For twenty-five years he has
trodden the perilous heights of public duty, and against all the
shafts of malice has borne his breast unharmed. He has stood
in the blaze of "that fierce light that beats against the throne";
but its fiercest ray has found no flaw in his armor, no stain upon
his shield. I do not present him as a better Republican or a bet-
ter man than thousands of others that we honor; but I present
him for your deliberate and favorable consideration. I nominate
John Shei-man of Ohio.^
Observations ox How Garfield Changed the Feelings of
AN Audience in an Unfavorable Emotional State
1. He does not harshly attack Grant or Conkling or
say anything to offend tliem or their friends.
2. He flatters the audience positively by such expres-
sions as ''this brilliant circle" and "delegates * * *
to determine the choice of the Eepublic."
In a somewhat negative way he appeases them by call-
ing their faults "enthusiasm" and comparing them in
grandeur with the ocean.
3. Only gradually does he bring about the feeling that
possibly a calmer frame of mind is necessary and prefer-
able to the tempest of enthusiasm (to point marked * on
page 33).
4. Then he holds them on another topic about which
all present agree, namely, the glories of the Republican
>V, 1 It is interesting to laiow that tliis speech won the nomination and
consequent presidency not for Sherman, but for Garfiekl himself. It
called attention to the availability of Garfield. The vote that nominated
Garfield was: Garfield, 399; Grant, 306; Blaine, 42; Washbourne, 5;
Sherman, 3. Necessary for choice, 378.
38 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
party from its birth all tlirough its legislative accomplish-
ments.
This was introductory and designed to efface the emo-
tions in which he found his audience. After that, he de-
livered a speech almost identical in form with that of
Conkling's speech. Compare the part from the two stars
(**) to the end, with the nomination of Grant. Garfield
gives virtues to Sherman similar to those already attrib-
uted to Grant, and the whole eulogy is as like the other
as two separate speeches could possibly be. But ob-
serve that he leaves the naming of his man to the end.
That was a wise course when we consider that Sherman
was a dark horse and' the eulogy was likely to strengthen
the name rather than the name secure favorable attention
to the eulogy.
Introduction is Used Whenever Any Change Whatso-
ever IS Wanted in the Emotional Set of the Audience
It must not be thought that the introduction to influ-
ence the emotional state of the audience is used only
when the audience is in a state of more or less violent
opposition ; it is of service whenever a change in the emo-
tional atmosjjhere (if we may use that expression) is
desirable. The little child acts this out when he resorts
to all sorts of blandishments before asking his mother
for money to buy candy. The travelling salesman knows
it when he tells innumerable funny stories before showing
his samples. The after-dinner speaker feels the need of
a favorable mood when he begins with puns and jokes.
Remembering that it is not wise to plunge into your
message until you get the audience in a favorable (-mo-
tional state, let us (without pi-etending to be exhaustive)
PURPOSE OF TIIP] INTEODUCTTON 39
cnumorate some of tlio typical situations to be faced and
suggest methods of meeting them.
How TO Meet Typical Intkoductory Difficulties
(a) Strong Enthusiasm fur Another Cause'^
Seek to get the audience into a state of calm; talk for
a while upon something about which all agree. Keep
this up until the first emotions are well in the background.
Then gradually introduce the new message and work for
your pwn effects.
(h) Direct Hostility
Strong feeling against you or your cause. The time-
honored example of this situation is the Liverpool speecli
of Henry Ward Beecher. He was in England to speak
for the Northern cause during the Civil War. Liverpool
was a great shipping center and did an enormous busi-
ness importing raw cotton from the Southern States and
exporting to them manufactured goods and machinery.
The people not only sympathized with the South and
hated th^ North, but they had been inflamed against
Beecher. He had been misquoted on public placards;
the words, attributed to him, made him the arch-enemy
of England. His character had been painted most black ;
he had been threatened with death. When he faced
his audience, he was greeted, with a roar of derision, cat-
calls, arid threats. For an hour and a half he worked on
the audience until he had a fair degree of sympathetic
attention; then he proceeded with his arguments. The
2 Illustratoil in the rfarfield speech.
40 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
following extracts from his introduction will indicate
his method.
For more than twenty-five years I have been perfectly famil-
iar with popular assemblies in all parts of my country except
the extreme South. There has not for the whole of that time
been a single day of my hfe when it would have been safe for
me to go south of the Mason and Dixon's line in my own coun-
try, and all for one reason : my solemn, earnest and persistent
testimony against what I consider to be the most atrocious thing
under the sun — the system of American slavery in a great, free
republic. * * * I have passed through the period when the
right of free speech was denied me. * * * Now since I have
been in England, although I have met M'ith greater kindness and
courtesy on the part of most than I deserve, yet on the other
hand I see that the Southern influence jirevails to some extent
in England. (Applause and uproar.) * * * One thing is
very certain — if you do permit me to speak, you will hear very
plain talking. (Applause and hisses.) * * * And if I do
not mistake the tone and temper of Englishmen, they had rather
have a man wlio opposes them in a manly way than a sneak who
agrees with them in an unmanly way. (Applause and "Bravo.")
If I can carry you Avith me by sound convictions, I shall be
immensely glad (applause) ; but if I cannot carry you with me
liy facts and sound arguments, I do not wish you to go wdth me
at all; and all that I ask is simply fair play. (A voice: "You
shall have it too.")
The method here is to make an open, manly appeal foi"
fair play. The manner should be conciliatory but not sub-
servieni Make it clear that fair play is expected from
such an audience. Get the personal good will of the
audience. Then treat some matters of general truth or
principle u])on which all will agree. Such ideals as those
of freedom, justice, honor, integrity, etc., may be used.
Then with these general matters of agreement as a point
of depai'ture, gradually shoAv the reasonaldeness of your
PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION 41
sjjecific message because it is in harmony with what they
already accept. Be most cautions and tactful as you pro-
ceed to new topics; never lose the grasp you obtain.
When the audience is with you from the start,l)C>tdness is
a virtue and you can carry all before you with a rush.
But when the audience is originally hostile, after securing
a hearing, proceed with great care.
(c) Indifference or Lack of Positively Favorable
Emotions
This is the condition in which most audiences are found.
They have not been excited in any definite direction be-
fore the speaker begins to address them. Whatever emo-
tions or moods exist, they are individual and not collect-
ive. One man may be happy and his neighbor depressed.
The speaker here seeks to create a general or common
emotional state favorable to the reception of the mes-
sage. Here we may well discuss those things in the
speaker or in the way he approaches his subject that al-
ways incline the hearer favorably toward him.
1. The Speaker Must Always Appear Modest. — Even
our friends are inclined to give us a rap or two if they
think us conceited. Those who are indifferent are turned
from us by a display of egotism, while our enemies openly
deride us for it. Therefore, a speaker must always be
modest. It is a noteworthj^ fact that this quality is evi-
dent in the opening remarks of over seventy-five per cent
of the speeches we have examined. Tlie manner, as well
as the actual words used, is of great importance. Indeed
the words without the manner is only mock-modesty, an
irritating and undesirable evidence of the greatest
egotism. The virtue of modesty must appear throughout
42 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
the speech, but a lack of it is more evident in the begin-
ning. Observe the following opening of John Hancock's
Oration upon the Boston Massacre (March 5, 1774).
The attentive gravity, the venerable appearance of this
crowded audience; the dignity which I behold in the counte-
nances of so many of this great assembly ; the solemnity of the
occasion upon which we have met together, joined to a consid-
eration of the part I am to take in the important business of
this day, fill me with an awe hitherto unknown, and heighten
the sense which I have ever had, of my unworthiness to fill this
sacred desk. But, allured by the call of some of my respected
fellow-citizens, wuth whose request it is always my greatest
pleasure to comply, I almost forgot my w^ant of ability to per-
form what they required. In this situation I find my only sup-
port in assuring myself that a generous people will not severely
censure what they^ know was well intended, though its want of
merit should prevent their being able to applaud it. And I
pray that my sincere attachment to the interest of my country,
and hearty detestation of any design formed against her liber-
ties, may be admitted as some apology for my appearance in this
place.
2. Sincerity is the next quality which must make its
impression upon the audience at the outset. It is some-
times thought that sincerity is a quality only displayed
in very serious speeches. But we do not limit ourselves
that way in our use of the term. A man may be sincerely
jolly as well as grave. By sincerity, we mean that a
person truly jentei's into the fegling which his words out-
wardly express. A speaker has impressed his sincerity
upon an audience when those in it believe that he is ^m-
self , expressing his own thoughts and f eeling s and not
})retending for the sake of effect.
Notice the sincerity as well as modesty in the example
r rCRPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION 43
just given and also in the following- from "The Claim
of Socialism," by William Morris:
I have locked at this elaiin by the light of history and my
owu conseieiiee, and it seems to me — so k)oked at — to l)e a
most just claim, and that resistance to it means nothing short of
a denial of the hope of civilization.
This, then, is the claim :
It is right and necessary that all men should have work
to do which shall be worth doing, and be of itself pleasant to
do : and which should be done under such conditions as would
make it neither over-wearisome nor over-anxious.
Turn that claim about as I may, think of it as long as I can,
I cannot find that it is an exorbitant claim; yet again I say if
Society would or could admit it, the face of the world would
be changed; discontent and strife and dishonesty would be
ended. To feel that we were doing work useful to others and
] leasant to ourselves, and that such work and its due reward
could not fail us ! What serious harm could happen to us then ?
Of course protestations of modesty and sincerity
should not be made in tiresome profusion. Booker T.
Washington began an address to the Harvard Alumni
as follows: "If through me, an humble representative,
the eight millions of my people in the South might be
permitted to bring a message to Harvard * * * that
message would be," etc. The aim is to be of gentle-
manly modesty and to avoid offensive cock-sureness.
Too great a display of confidence at the outset offends
most men. Flippancy also gives the impression of
shallowness and lack of sincerity. The following extract
shows an excellent blending of the qualities desired with
a winsome good humor. It is the beginning of John
Hay's speech on Omar Khayyam and Fitzg&rald, deliv-
ered before the Omar Khayyam Club of London,
December 8, 1897.
44 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
I cannot sufficiently thank you for the high and unmerited
honor you have done me tonight. I feel keenly that on such an
occasion, Avith such company, my plac^is below the salt; but as
you kindly invited me, it was not in human nature to refuse.
Although in knowledge and comprehension of the two great
poets whom you are met to commemorate I am the least among
you, there is no one who regards them with greater admiration,
or reads them with more enjoyment than myself. I can never
forget my emotions when I first saw Fitzgerald's translation of
the Quatrains. Keats, in his sublime ode on Chapman's Homer,
has described the sensation once for all:
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
When a new planet swims into his ken.
The exquisite lieauty, the faultless form, the singular grace of
those amazing stanzas were not more wonderful than the depth
and breadth of their profound philosophy, their knowledge of
life, their dauntless courage, their serene facing of the ultimate
problems of life and of death. — From Addresses of John Hay,
Century Co., 1906.
3. Add to the two (jualities mcntioiied personal atfracf-
iveness, composite of all those indescribable things
which make one person more universally liked than an-
other. Of course that cannot be prepared in a moment as
part of the introduction of a particular speech. The
whole life of goodfellowship, kindliness, and accomplish-
ments gradually builds it u]). A speaker can, however,
earnestly try to keep the w(dfare of the audience before
him and speak to them from the vantage point of high
ideals. If this be done, his best personality will show
through his words and live in every gesture.
There are other ways in which the introduction pre-
pares the wayjor the message proper, but they are not
matters of emotion or feeling. For instance, the intro-
PURPOSE OF THE IXTRODUCTrON 45
(luction servos to attract and hold the attention so that
the ideas will all be properly grasped; it x)i"fp<^i'es or edn-
cates the audience to an understanding' of the subseciuent
speech and it marks out the subject an 1 method of treat-
ment. But all these services are connected with the in-
tellectual or knowing aspect of speech-making and not the
emotional. In this lesson we confined ourselves to the
emotional side.
Summary
Let us sunnnarize our lesson in somewhat different
order and also add some directions.
1. Never attempt to deliver your message until there
is a favorable emotional "atmosphere."
2. Secure good will by being your best self and by being
truly well-disposed toward what is right. Be modest and
sincere.
3. Set out deliberately to secure a state of calm or a
removal of undesirable emotions. Then work to incline
the audience so as to receive your own message most
favorably.
4. Never forget that what is gained by the introduc-
tion in emotional favor nuist be maintained throughout
tlie speech.
5. The introduction may have to be made impromptu,
for it is not always possible to foresee just how the audi-
ence will be feeling when you meet them. If you have
planned an introduction which is found to be unhappy,
discard it and deal directly w4th the actual situation you
face. Of course it is often possible to prepare a perfectly
usable introduction beforehand. It is especially advis-
able to have in the introduction some reference or refer-
46 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ences to events that have happened, or words that have
been said, just before you begin to speak.
6. Always prepare the body of the speech before doing-
any work on the introduction.
7. Observe the manner of speakers you hear and deter-
mine what there is winsome or repulsive about their open-
ing remarks. Also note when and why a discordant note
is struck during the body of the speech. More can be
gained by observing real speakers than by reading books ;
most can be secured by much speaking on your own part.
These lessons serve to guide and direct, but The examples
of real life must be observed to make the subject live.
Assignment of Work
The written exercises in this entire lesson should be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in your notebook.
First Day. — You have read through the lesson. Now study it
again carefully, mastering its contents. Do not attempt any
of the exercises until after the second reading.
i^ccond Day. — Take a nominating speech such as you prepared
for the last lesson and write out an introduction Avhicli would
be appropriate when the audience is in a state of enthusiasm
for another nominee.
Third Day. — AA^rite out an introduction for one of the following
speeches :
1. In favor of the closed shop ; delivered before an employers'
association.
2. In favor of the open shop ; before a union which now tol-
erates only tlie closed shop.
3. Against child labor ; before a body of mill owners.
4. In eulogy of Abraham Lincoln ; before an audience in
Charleston, South Carolina.
5. In eulog}^ of Calhoun; before an audience in Boston.
6. In favor of woman's suffrage: delivered in New York.
PURPOSE OF THE IXTRODUCTIOX 47
7. Against woman's snffrage ; delivered in Illinois or some
other sntt'rage state.
Fourth Day. — Prepare a eomplete outline or plan of a speech
you might be called upon to make, and with it an
introduction written out fully. Append a note stating the
occasion of the speech and the nature of the audience.
Fifth Day. — Give this speech in full orally several times. Go
over the introduction often but do not memorize it. Let
what will, recur during the oral development, but make no
effort to remember exact words. Have the outline of the
body well in mind, and develop it by headings. Remember
to keep the headings well grouped. Amplify each heading
fully before passing to the next.
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
his knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They
are siigyestire merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in
the notebook for future reference.
1. How did Garfield endeavor to offset the intense enthusiasm
aroused by Conkling?
2. Do you recall any other speaker who used, for a similar
l)urpose, a striking figure of speech like Garfield's figure of the
storm-tossed ocean?
3. State for yourself the facts in regard to the formation of
the Republican Party as outlined by Garfield.
4. What elements in Garfield's speech may have helped win for
him the nomination he desired for Sherman! Do you remember
another speech which won a nomination for the presidency?
5. How could you introduce remarks complimentary to a gen-
eral audience in your town if you were pleading for money for a
new park?
6. What'are the features in the quotation from William ^Morris
which would tend to prepare the minds of the audience for a
favorable hearing?
7. "What elements in Beecher's introduction will always succ(^ed
in overcoming direct hostility on the part of an audience?
48 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
--. 8. Indifference is the diffieulty most speakers have to face.
What three qualities in the speaker himself will go far toward
removing indifference '?
9. Recall the speaker who seems to you the most sincere man
you have ever heard. How does this sincerity modify his
speaking ?
10. A very important point in this lesson is the wisdom of
referring in your introduction to something that has been said or
done or has happened just before you begin to speak. Plan some
such extempore remarks for the following situations :
(a) A preceding speaker has cast reflections on your sincerity.
(b) The presiding officer has referred to you as "eloquent."
(c) There has recently occurred a public disaster.
(d) A man in your town has received some merited public
honor.
(e) You are the memlier of a defeated faction in recent elec-
tion.
(f) The preceding speaker has taken a large part of your
time.
LESSON 4
THE PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION (Continued)
111 our last lesson, we dwelt upon the necessity of hav-
ing the audience well disposed. In this connection we
considered the first purpose of an introduction, namely,
to put the audience in a state of favorable feeling. All
hostile feelings must be overcome at the outset and a
strong effort made to secure the positive good will of
the hearers. But the student must not get the notion
that a few magic words in the introduction will establish
pleasant relations once and for all. Quite the contrary;
throughout the whole address, the speaker must, by his
frank, modest, and earnest manner, by his careful state-
ment of some things and his tactful avoidance of others,
preserve and cultivate the desired mood of his auditors.
Great trial lawyers have been known to labor with jury-
men for hours in order to touch the responsive chord
in each one. Such master-students of the human heart
are too wise to proceed with a contention until they are
sure that the hearers are in a s^Tupathetic emotional
state. And whenever new material is to be introduced
or a change of viewpoint is necessary, these men seek to
establish the new trend of thought without spoiling the
favorable attitude.
(B) TO AROUSE INTEREST AND SECURE ATTENTION
Besides this first purpose of creating friendly feelings
there are two other ends which the speaker muBt smi^mv
49
50 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
plish and toward wliicli he usually begins to work in the
introduction. One of these is to arouse the interest of the
auditors in order to secure their best attention. Although
related, it is distinct from the emotional set just consid-
ered. We need not demonstrate the necessity of atten-
tion. Without it, the speaker can no more hope to de-
liver his message than a telegraph sender can expect to
transmit a message with the receiver asleep at the other
end of the wire. The various devices to be used to gain
the attention may be classified under two main headings :
those which are of the nature of ah nipt shocks and those
which are promises of reward. The audience may be
thrilled into attentiveness or they may be won by the
expectation of hearing something of advantage to them.
Either or both of these kinds of artifices may be used.
By attention, we mean a state in which the hearer ex-
cludes other meditations and concentrates his mind upon
the words of the speaker. It is a condition of intellec-
tual acuteness.
The Striking Stim.ulus to Attention
As we have noted, the shock is one means of securing
attention. It is especially valuabh^ at the very begin-
ning of a speech, but it may be used at any place where
the speaker perceives that he is losing his griji ui)on
the audience. French orators are very fond of th(>
striking opening. Notice the effect of these words of
Victor Hugo, used at the beginning of liis defense of his
son:
Geiitk'UH'U of the jury, if there is a euljii'it here, it is not
my son, — it is myself, — it is I 1 1. who for these twenty-five
years have opposed capital pniiishuK^iit, — have contended for
PURPOSE OF THE INTKODUCTION 51
the inviolability of human life, — have committed this crime for
\\hich my son is now arraigned. Here I denounce myself, Mr.
Advocate General ! 1 have committed it under all aggravated
circumstances, deliberately, repeatedly, tenaciously. Yes, this
old and absurd lex talionis — this law of blood for blood — I have
combated all my life — all my life, Gentlemen of the Jury ! And
while I have breath, I will continue to combat it, by all my efforts
as a writer, by all my words and all my votes as a legislator !
1 declare it before the crucifix; before that victim of the penalty
of death, who sees and hears us; before that gibbet, to which,
two thousand years ago, for the eternal instruction of the gen-
erations, the human law nailed the Divine !
Robespierre began his last speech, delivered two days
before his death, with these words :
The enemies of the Republic call me tyrant ! Were I such
they would grovel at my feet. I should gorge them with gold,
I should grant them immunity for their crimes, and they would
be grateful. Were I such, the kings we have vanquished, far
from denouncing Robespierre, would lend me their guilty suji^
port. There would be a covenant between them and me.
Henry Ward Beecher is said to have begun a ser-
mon, one hot Sunday morning, while mopping his brow,
with the remark: "It is hotter than hell!" Naturally\ ,
tliis shocked his very moral audience into attention, and
be did not lose his initial hold on them until he had com-
pleted his talk on the punishment of sin. Once, when
he was to speak in the Broadway Tabernacle, on the
Death of John Brown, he waited in an ante-room, not
going to the platform until the very moment his lecture
was to begin. Then, suddenly opening the door, he
sprang to the platform, dragging a massive chain after
him. Facing the audience, he cried out: ''These
shackles bound the limbs of a human being ; I hate them ;
X
52 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
I trample them under foot!" and suited tlie action to the
word.
Henry AV. Grady, a Soutlierner, speaking before the
New England Society, in New York, introduced his ad-
dress on the New South as follows :
"There was a South of slavery and secession — that South is
dead. There is a South of union and freedom — that South,
thank God. is living, breathing, growing every hour."
These words, delivered from the immortal lips of Benjamin
II. Hill at Tammany Hall iu 1866. true then and truer now, I
shall take for my text tonight.
In all these examples, we see that an unusual or un-
expected thing was said. It forced attention. A i)ara-
dox, epigram, or striking sentiment may always be de-
pended upon to have the desired effect. But attention
attracted in such a way is, as a rule, momentary only.
If prolonged concentration is wanted, other agencies
must be used to sustain the interest.
Attextiox Tjirough Promised Gaix
The influence to be used to get and maintain more per-
manent attention is the promise of gain. The audience
must have some hope of reward. If all can be made to
believe that the speaker will treat a very vital subject
— one touching tlieii* welfare or affecting those enter-
prises in which tliey ai-e engaged, they will remain at-
tentive.
Pati'ick Henry, in his Appeal to Anns, ini))ressed the
lieai-ei-s with the iiiijtoi-taiice of tlie discussion not (udy to
tlieir own but also to the nation's (h'stiny.
Mr. I'r.'si.lciit Xd ..lie thinks m..iv liiulily llian 1 do of the
])atri()tisiii, as well as the al)iliti('.s. of the vrvy werlliy tiriil Iriiicii
PURPOSE OK TJIE INTRODUCTIOX 53
who have just addressed the house. But different men often
see the same subject in different lights; and, tlierefore, I hope
it will not seem disrespectful to those gentlemen, if, entertaining,
as I do, opinions quite contrary to theirs, I speak forth my
sentiments freely and without reserve. This is no time for
ceremony. The question before the house is one of awful mo-
numt to this country. For my part, I consider it as nothing
less than a question of freedom or slavery ; and in proportion
to the magnitude of the subject ought to be the freedom of
debate. It is only in this way that we can hope to arrive at
truth, and fultil the great responsibility which we owe to God
and our country. Should I keep back my opinions at such a
time as this, I should consider myself as guilty of treason toward
my country, and of an act of disloyalty toward the ^lajesty of
Heaven, which I revere above all earthly kings.
This part of Patrick Henry's speecli does not directly
promise a reward to his hearers for their attention, but
it strongly intimates that the discussion will help to
avoid impending- disaster, Edward Everett, in his ad-
dress before the scholarly Phi Beta Kappa society at
Harvard, after a few preliminary remarks, stated his
subject and aroused interest in it with these words :
But from the wide held of literary speculation, and innumer-
able subjects of meditation which arise in it, a selection must
be made. And it has seemed to me proper that we should direct
our thoughts not merely to a subject of interest to scholars, but
to one which may recommend itself as peculiarly appropriate to
us. * * * I shall need no excuse to a society of American
scholars, in choosing for the theme of an address, on an occasion
like this, the peculiar motives to intellectual exertion in Amer-
ica. In this subject, that curiosity which every scholar feels in
tracing and comparing the springs of mental activity, is height-
ened and dignified by the important connection of the inquiry
with the condition and prospects of our native land.
54 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Men in all walks of life and in varions organizations
have certain tastes and interests. If the speaker can
judge his audience aright and extend a promise that
their desires will be satisfied and their welfare consulted,
he has taken a step in the direction of securing their un-
divided attention. Once secured, it must not he lost. If
the attention falls off, it must be stimulated anew. Th(>
mental attitude of the speaker also must be one of alert-
ness, for if he observes any signs of inattention, he must
quicken his hearers to renewed application.
(C) TO PREPARE THE AUDIENCE TO UNDERSTAND
MOST THOROUGHLY
There is still another duty usually performed by the
preliminary portion of the speech; this third duty is to
prepare the way for an intellectual grasp or understand-
ing of the message. This is not a matter of feeling, but
of knowing. A man may like you ever so well, and in-
deed be anxious to hear and to appreciate all you care to
say; but if you inflict an argument upon him before ho
is acquainted with the facts of the case, he will not un-
derstand your reasoning any more than a stranger would
understand the charge of a judge to the jury if he should
enter the conrt after all the testimony has been taken.
We may put it directly by saying that an audience must
be educated up to understanding your argument.
To explain this matter concretely, let us suppose that
you had been asked to prepare a speech favoring reci-
procity with Canada, in 1911, when the question of
reciprocity was -before tlie two countries. Before you
could j)roceed witli your reasons for favoring the ar-
rangement, you would have to ex])1niii the situation — the
PURPOSE OF THE IXTRODrCTION 55
commercial relations of the two comitries, the nature of
the proposed measures, and the exact meaning of any
technical terms which might be used. Note the follow-
ing fragment as an appropriate introduction to such a
speech.
Ladies and Gentlemen :
As you already know, we are here tonight to discuss the
probable economic advantage which would be gained by the
Ignited States if the proposed reciprocity agreement with Canada
should be put into operation. Being a good Yankee, I am inter-
ested wherever my pocket-book is affected. It was probably this
sort of interest which led me to undertake a most careful study
of the trade agreement under consideration ; and I believe I
have delved deeply enough to be able to make it clear that you
and I will profit by the kind of reciprocity contemplated. There
is, in my mind, not the slightest doubt that the cost of living will
be reduced to an appreciable extent while our manufactures and
other industries will be stimulated.
Let us survey the situation which confronts the nation. The
United States and Canada are aliout equal in size, but very dis-
similar in development and wealth. That each derives some
benefit from the industry of the other is evident from the great
trade which now passes across the border. The United States
sells Canada nearly twice as much as Great Britain, our nearest
competitor for her trade, while we purchase from Canada almost
as much as does the mother country. Last year, Canada sent
us approximately $98,000,000 worth of goods, while she bought
about .$216,000,000 worth from this country. At present the
commerce is carried on under artificial and difficult conditions.
Each country imposes duties of varying severity upon the goods
of the other which seek entrance. For example, Canada charges
a duty of 25'/; of the value on all live cattle sold by American
ranchers to Canadians, 12 cents a bushel on wheat and 40 cents
a barrel on apples; while the United States shuts out the same
goods coming in from Canada by a tax of 27% on cattle, 25
cents a bushel on wheat and 25 cents a bushel on apples. It is
now proposed to remove these barriers to free trade between
56 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
the two countries, in the case of some articles and materially
to reduce it in the case of others. What would be the effect of
lowering the commercial wall, upon the welfare of the United
States, and therefore upon us?
What we mean by economic welfare or benefit may need some
slight explanation. The economic man of modern society does
two things; he produces goods which he expects the rest of
society to consume, and he consumes goods which he expects the
rest of society to produce. A country secures an economic
benefit whenever its citizens are given a larger opportunity to
use their productive powers to advantage and Avhen they are
enabled to consume to greater satisfaction. As producers, they
look for wider and more profitable markets; as consumers, they
seek cheaper and better commodities. I believe the proposed
arrangement will benefit us in just these two ways.
Before going into the details of the matter let us get a clear
idea of the general nature of the agreement. It is not to take
the form of a treaty, but both nations are to enact its various
schedules and provisions simultaneously as tariff laws. The
agreement provides that fishing privileges, hitherto denied, be
granted to American fishermen in Canadian waters and makes
tariff provisions for certain listed goods in four great schedules.
Schedule A enumerates a number of raw commodities such as
live animals, grain, fish, and dairy products, as well as a small
number of manufactured articles— all to be admitted to both
countries duty free. The articles in schedule B are either par-
tially the result of a manufacturing process, as meats and flour,
or they are wholly manufactured, as farm implements, cutlery,
and automobiles. At present both countries put very high duties
on these goods. Furthermore, the duties are not uniform. .The
proposal is that a reciprocal rate be put on every article men-
tioned so that each country has an equal chance at the market
of the other. This rate is, in most cases, lower than the one now
existing on cither side the lino. Schedule C contains Canadian
specialties tiiat are to have the American duty against them low-
ered though the Canadian rate is to remain unchanged. Sched-
-nle D does the same thing for American specialties that will
presumably be shipped to Canada. ^
PURPOSE OF THE IXTRODUCTTON 57
AVc slinll take up the agreenu'iit ai'ticlc l)y article and show
that tlie i)r()visioiis of the four selie(hih'S make for the eeoiiomic
advantage of the majority of the eitizens of the United States.
Read that passage again and note the following char-
acteristics :
1. The opening though apparently boastful is in real-
ity modest, for the speaker attributes his expert knowl-
edge not so much to personal superiority as to hard work
})rompted by money interest.
2. The attention of the audience is secured by appeal-
ing to their economic interest. This is reenforced at the
end of each paragraph.
3. Necessary information is given to prepare the way
for a later argument on details. Note the following de-
tailed arg-ument (taken from the body of the same
speech) in connection with Schedule D and see liow much
an understanding of it is helped by the general informa-
tion of the introduction.
The first thing to notice ahout this schedule is that it does not
affect the American tariff shutting out the Canadian goods. It
])rovides only that the enumerated American goods going into
Canada shall be let in at a reduced rate. Consequently the
lirmest Protectionist could not object to it. No intricate argu-
ment is needed to show that this lowering of the barrier will
( reate a wider and better market for American goods. Thus is
il a benefit to the United States as a producer; it will give more
work to labor, more profit to American managers and call into
use more American cnyntal. But besides the general advantage,
a knowledge of a typical article emphasizes the desirability of
this provision.
Portland cement is produced in the United States to a value of
about fifteen times the product of Canada (U. S., $55,900,000;
Canada, $3,700,000. See 1909 International Year Book). The
Itusiness, however, has been at a standstill since 1907, due to the
58 EFFECTIVE PFBLIC SPEAKING
failure of many concerns in the panic. The twelve per cent
reduction of the tariff on this commodity will give the producers
a better chance to sell in Canada^ Such an opening up of a
})etter market is just the sort of helj) the industry needs to put
it once more on the prosperous footing it had in 1906 and insure
its still greater development. Tlie next article for specific con-
sideration is l)ituminons coal. * * *
Tlie information in the introduction displays the rela-
tion between the two countries and outlines the proposed
change. Without this knowledge, the detailed argu-
ments coukl not be understood.
4. It defines the meaning of "economic benefit" and
exactly designates the agreement as "simultaneous
tariff laws" rather than "reciprocity treaty." This is
the definition of terms.
5. It tells the audience, in the last paragraph, the
plan of the entire speech.
6. It definitely states the proposition or object of the
speaker, namely, to demonstrate that the pro])osed
agreement will be of economic benefit to the United
States.
All this aids the audience to receive and understand
the message. Every speech, however, does not have
such material covering all these points and grouped to-
gether at the very beginning. We shall consider each
part of an introduction, to determine just how and when
information should be used and wdien omitted.
(d) Preparatory information is not necessary when
llic audience is as w^ell acquainted wdth the general field
"as yourself. For instance, if an army surgeon were to
read before a medical society a paper on the prevention
of typhoid by means of the new^ inoculation treatment,
he would not have to explain the nature of the illness
PURPO.se of the IXTRODrCTIOX 59
or the technique of iiiocukitiiig'. He coiiKl proceed im-
mediately to a discussion of the effect of the treatment,
knowing- that those listening- would have a good general
background of understanding. But if he were to make
an address to the soldiers themselves to convince them
that they ought to submit to inoculation, then he would
have to give them elementary information about medicine.
In his introduction he would have to offer a simple ex-
planation of the causes of typhoid and the manner in
which the disease runs its course. Then he would have
to tell how inoculation is accomplished and wdiat it is
supposed to do to the organism. After that the soldiers
might be expected to follow^ the arguments and under-
stand the statistics of successful treatment. In the pas-
sage about reciprocity, just quoted, we see a treatment
designed for a popular audience and not for a board of
specialists who are thoroughly familiar w^tli tariff
matters.
Then there is a second problem. Shall all the infor-
mation be given at the beginning or shall it be scattered
with the arguments throughout the body of the speech?
The advantage of the first is that it gives a good, com-
prehensive view of the whole subject. Its disadvantage
is that parts might be forgotten when the portions of
the development most related to them are reached. To
overcome this last objection and yet preserve the advan-
tage of the general view at the start, sometimes it is ad-
visable to repeat parts of the information — in less
extended form — when special points are reached which
call for their recollection. Notice how that course w^as
pursued in the detailed argument about Portland cement,
when the provisions of Schedule D were recalled
(page 57).
60 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(b) Definition of tenns also depends upon tlie famil-
iarity of the audience with the general field in ^YhLch the
speech is included. Yet to define terms at all times is
not a grave offense, and it sometimes proves a safeguard
against misunderstanding. A speaker (and especially
one who is arguing for a cause) must always have very
clear terms for his ideas, and he should be careful that
the audience gets his exact meaning. It is better to take
the chance of giving a definition when it is not absolutely
necessary than to omit it when it may be needed. Again,
the definitions may be all recorded at the beginning, or
they may be introduced in the discussion where they are
most needed.
(c) To announce the plan, or, as it is known in formal
argiunent, to state the issues, is a question of policy. The
advantage of the course rests in the fact that the audi-
tors are given an idea of the end in view and the road
by which it is to be reached. If they can be put in pos-
session of a simple, general plan, they are better able to
follow the amplification and at the same time keep the
whole message in mind. The ancient rhetoricians
called this part of the speech "the partition." Preachers
of the old school were very fond of it and used to depress^'
their congregations with an enumeration of the firstly,
secondly, thirdly, and so fortli, which were to be treated
in the sermon.
This last reference reminds us of the disadvantages of
the partition, or statement of points. It may discourage
the audience. In some cases, also, it may rob each later
portion of its freshness and charm. Certainly, the pos-.
sibility of surprise is diminished. Wherever the speaker
is addressing an audience which he knows is unfriendly
to his line of reasoning, he should not disclose his plan.
PURPOSE 01^^ THE INTRODUCTION 61
but should let it develop in their minds as he establishes
each point. A captain of industry trying to convince a
j;'roup of Socialist workmen of the reasonableness of
proiits — if such hardihood can be imagined — sliould keep
his plan to himself and endeavor to establish his con-
tentions point by point. So also, a Socialist trying- to win
over a hostile audience to his belief would be very foolish
to announce his plan of procedure beforehand. It would
arouse the opposition of his hearers before he had a
chance to give his reasons. From these illustrations we
see that the announcement of the plan is a device to pro-
mote a clear and unified grasp of the entire speech, but it
must be used with care; the speaker must put the gain
in intellectual grasp in the balance over again the pos-
sibility of arousing prejudice.
(d) The statement of the object or purpose of an ad-
dress may also be made only after careful consideration.
If the situation is favorable at the ouiset, to a confiding
of the purpose of the speaker, if it seems safe to state
his beliefs or subject before he proves its reasonableness,
then to do so makes for a clear grasp of the development.
Sometimes, a speaker reserves the purpose to be accom-
plished until the end of the address. Again, he may
never reveal it. One of the most powerful kinds of ad-
dress is that which influences the hearer by suggestion.
The mind is filled with the material which will work it-
self out in an action the speaker is wise enough to keep
to himself. But though not expressed, the purpose must
be very definitely in the thought of the speaker to guie.^
him at every stage.
62 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Summary of Introduction
(a) Part to secure good will — to get favorable emo-
tional state.
(b) Part to secure attention or concentration.
'^ (c) Part to prepare the mind to understand — in-
tellectual preparation.
1. General, preliminary information.
2. Definition of terms.
3. Partition or announcement of plan.
4. Statement of subject, purpose, or belief.
While it lias been made clear that these parts are not
always necessary to a speech, and while it has been
shown that they may not always be grouped together in
the beginning, nevertheless it is best for the novice to
follow the summary plan just given above. After he has
become somewhat proficient in accomplishing the pur-
poses here set forth, in a well-defined part of the speech,
lie may then exercise his individuality by variations. It
is true that few expert speech-makers follow a formal
plan with all these sub-divisions, but they probably did
so at first. Thorough drill of this sort insures coherence
and unity when flexibility comes as the fruit of experi-
ence. But the fluent and easy speaker who has no plan is
but a charming and ineffective rambler. He usually
leaves the audience with a general sense of pleasure or
stimulation but with no definite ideas.
In conclusion, we may say that, whether these parts
of the introduction are each taken up separately or not,
their functions must be performed somehow; no speaker
can impress his message upon the audience unless he has
rendered them favorable to himself and his message,
unless he has secured and held thcMr attention and uidess
PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION 63
he has given them an adequate preparation for the under-
standing of the speech.
Assign MEXT of AVokk
The writton exercises in this entire lesson sliould be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in your notebook.
First Day. — You have read through the lesson. Now studj^ it
again carefully, mastering its contents. Do not attempt any
of the exercises until after the second reading.
Second Day. — Write out a short, startling introduction to a
speech on one of the following topics :
1. The Rich Man in America.
2. The Practical Influence of the Church on Morality.
3. The United States in Mexico.
4. A Poor Plan's Club — the Saloon.
5. Napoleon.
At the same time, keep your introduction of a character to
incline the audience favorably toward you.
Third Day. — AVrite a short introduction on one of the topics
named in the second day's work or on some other topic of
interest to you, using the promise-of-gain method of securing
attention. State the kind of audience you imagine you are
addressing.
Fourth Z)« (/.^Reproduce orally the two introductions which you
wrote in the second and third days' work. Do it without
notes. Do not memorize.
Fifth Day. — AA^rite a full introduction, with all the type parts,
for a speech on a subject of interest to you. Use any one of
the following suggestions, or you may select a topic of inter-
est to you :
1. The laiited States ought to pay a sum to Colombia to
remove any ill-feeling which may have arisen in con-
nection with the acquisition of sovereignty over the
Canal Zone.
2. The Germans who fought in th(^ Civil War.
64 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
'A. The Freedom of Speech.
4. Patriotism.
5. Any technical subject on which you have special, knowl
edge ; the speech to be before a non-specialist, mixed
audience.
With your outline of this introduction liefore you, develop it
orally many times. Indeed, do the planning and oral amplifica-
tion before 3'ou write it out in final form in your notebook.
TEST Ql'ESTIOXS
These questions are for the stiuk'iit to use in testiii;jj
his kno\\ie(l<;-e of the ])rincipk's in this h-sson. Tliey
are siinr/rslirr merely, dealing largely with the ])raetical
application of the jirinci])les, and are to be ^'l^^'^^l ii^ ^^^6
notebook for future reference.
1. Imagine that you are addressing a small group of people.
Explain to them, so they will understand, the three major pur-
poses of an introduction.
2. Give your own definition of attention. Eecall an instance
in which, with relaxed attention, you have listened to a speaker.
Can you remember what he said ? What, then, is the relation of
attention to memory 't
3. Recall the astonishing exclamations of Beecher, and try to
remember speakers whom you have heard use similar devices.
•4. What other device is used to secure a different kind of
attention? What kind is it? What is its advantage?.
5. What is the appeal to gain in Patrick Henry 's introduction ?
6. (a) In a speech to sell goods, what might secure attention?
(b) In a letter applying for a position, what might secure
attention? (c) In a speech for the change of your city gov-
ernment to the commission form, what might secure attention?
7. What is meant by necessary preliminary information?
What effect has it upon the reception of the speaker's direct
message ?
8. You can see the necessity of this preliminary information
by imagining what preliminary questions you would ask a
speaker about such topics as Sixteen to One, Branch Banking,
Recognition of Panama, Paying Indemnity to Colombia, Asset
Currency, or any other suliject with which you are not familiar.
9. When is a careful definition of terms particularly necessary ?
10. Try to define for an average audience the following terms :
Efficiency, workmanship, courage, ledgers, balance slieet, sales
talks, etc. Take the technical terms of your own vocation witli
wliich the audience may not be familiar.
65
66 TEST QUESTIONS
11. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of
announcing the plan of the speech ?
12. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of
announcing the object or purpose of the speech?
13. Can you state any reasons why it would be tactful, in a
business conference with a manager, for you to introduce pre-
liminary information in the most unobtrusive way possible?
What risk would you run by leaving it out altogether ?
14. Suppose that you had been asked to prepare a speech
against reciprocity with Canada, in 1911, when the question was
before the two countries. Prepare your introduction.
LESSON 5
GENERAL BASES FOR THE ARRANGEMENT OF MATTER
IN THE BODY OF THE SPEECH
By this time, no doubt, the student has inferred that
a speech is always planned with the probable mental
state of the audience as a guide. If it is foreseen that
the audience is likely to be unfriendly or insufficiently
informed, the speaker casts about for the means of
remedying these deficiencies. Furthermore, if he dis-
covers any unforeseen barriers to the most favorable
reception of his message, when he faces the audience or
during actual delivery, he readjusts himself and mod-
ifies his statements so as to mould the auditors' minds
to a state of favorable feeling, acute attention, and intel-
ligent insight.
Since it is most generally probable that such efforts
must come at the very beginning, we have considered
them as natural parts of an introduction. Yet it is pos-
sible that the speaker cannot always prepare for every
portion of his entire address at the outset. He may
have to make many little or subordinate introductions to
new points as they arise during the course of the speech.
Still, even though scattered throughout the discourse,
these eiTorts are introductory in character, for they seek
to prepare the way for something which would not be
received without them. Understanding, then, that the
formal introduction, when used, may be re-enforced
throughout the body of the speech, let us leave the intro-
67
68 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(luction in order to consider the arrangement of the
body.
General Arrangement of the Body of the Speech
Naturally enough, the body of a speech differs with
every occasion and theme. It is extremely difficult to lay
down any but the most general rules for the arrange-
ment of the divisions of the message proper. In a later
lesson, we shall give directions concerning the details
of the body of the speech ; just now only the larger mat-
ters of general arrangement will be taken up.
If the address be very short, the problem is not a
serious one; but if it be long, much depends upon the
order in which the various points are presented. The
introduction may promote the most favorable emotional
response and prepare for the easiest intellectual grasp,
but the arrangement of the body must be depended
upon to preserve these desired ends. Therefore, in de-
termining the sequence of material in the body of the
speech, be guided by some plan which will dovetail with
the efforts of the introduction. Two principles for gen-
eral guidance suggest themselves :
(1) Follow^ the natural divisions of the subject which
exist because of the way things hang together in nature.
(2) Modify or adapt this order to meet the peculiari-
ties of the particular audience to be addressed.
The first of these, if it can be followed, insures a clear
grasp of the matter just as it is, irrespective of any-
one's bias. The second takes account of the truth that
all men are biased and must have their peculiar short-
comings made up by the skill of the speaker.
THE BODY OF THE SPEECH 69
(a) Natural Sequence in the Body of the Speech
All the things which a speaker may wish to include in
the body of his speech have a natural relationship; this
relationship should help to determine the order of pre-
sentation. Typical relationships are those of time,
place, magnitude, and causation. Let us make this
clear.
Relationship of time is the most simple. If we wish to
narrate a series of events which followed one after the
other, then the simplest arrangement of details is to
present them in the order of actual occurrence. Sup-
pose your speech to be a eulogy: A man's life is to be
reviewed and appreciated. There are two kinds of
ideas to be presented to the audience — the concrete facts
of the life and the abstract qualities or characteristics
which are to be appraised. Evidently the easiest order
in which to offer these things is to begin w4th the man's
ancestry, then tell of his birth, his childhood, his early
education, his young manhood, and his later career, and
then close with his death. This is simple, chronological
sequence.
The following extract from Carl Schurz's eulogy of
Charles Sumner, delivered in Boston Music Hall, April
29, 1874,^ will illustrate. After an introduction in which
he spoke of the nation's loss in the death of one of its
great senators, the orator mentioned his own friendship
for Sumner. Then, remarking that Americans usually
liked to speak of their heroes as self-made men, he said :
But not such a life was that of Charles Sumner. He was
descended from good old Kentish yeomanry stock, men stalwart
of frame, stout of heart, who used to stand in the front of the
1 Tn a memorial volume published hy order of the Commonwealth
ol Massachusetts, 1874.
70 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
fierce battles of Old England ; and the first of the name who came
to America had certainly not been exempt from the rough
struggles of the early settlements. But already from the year
1723 a long line of Sumners appears on the records of Harvard
College, and it is evident that the love of study had long been
hereditary in the family. Charles Pickney Sumner, the Senator 's
father, was a graduate of Harvard, a lawyer by profession, for
fourteen years high sheriff of Suffolk County. His literary
tastes and acquirements, and his stately politeness are still
remembered. He was altogether a man of high respectability. He
was not rich, but in good circumstances, and well able to give
his children the best opportunities to study, without working for
their daily bread.
Charles Sumner was born in Boston, on the sixth of January.
1811. At the age of ten, he had received his rudimentary training ;
at fifteen, after having gone through the Boston Latin School,
he entered Harvard College and plunged at once with fervor
into the classics, polite literature, and history. Graduated in
1830, he entered the Cambridge Law School. Now life began
to open for him. Judge Story, his most distinguished teacher,
soon recognized in him a young man of uncommon stamp ; and
an intimate friendship sprang up between teacher and pupil,
which was severed only by death.
He began to distinguish himself not only by the most ardu-
ous industry and application, pushing his researches far beyond
the text-books — indeed, text-books never satisfied him — but by a
striking earnestness and faculty to master the original principles
of the science, and to trace them through its development.
His productive labor began, and I find it stated that already
then, while he was yet a pupil, his essays, published in the
"American Jurist," were "always characterized by a
breadth of view and accuracy of learning, and sometimes by
remarkably subtle and ingenious investigation."
Leaving the law school, he entered the office of a lawyer in
Boston, to acquire a knowledge of practice, never much to his
taste. Then he visited Washington for the first time, little
dreaming what a theatre of action, struggle, triumph, and suf-
fering the Jiational city was to become for him; for then he
THE BODY OP" THE SPEECH 71
came only as a studious, deeply interested looker-on, who merely
desired to form the acquaintance of the justices and practicing
lawyers at the bar of tlie Supreme Court. He was received with
marked kindness by Chief Justice Marshall, and in later years
he loved to tell his friends how he had sat at the feet of that
great magistrate, and learned there what a judge should be.
Having been admitted to the bar in Worcester in 1834,
when twenty-three years old, he opened an office in Boston ; was
soon appointed reporter of the United States Circuit Court ;
published three volumes containing Judge Story's decisions,
known as ' ' Sumner 's Reports ' ' ; took Judge Story 's place from
time to time as lecturer in Harvard Law School ; also Professor
Greenleaf's, who was absent, and edited during the years 1835
and 1836 Andrew Dunlap's Treatise on "Admiralty Practice."
Beyond this, his studies, arduous, incessant, and thorough,
ranged far and wide.
Truly a studious and laborious young man who took the
business of life earnestly in hand, determined to know some-
thing, and to be useful to his time and country.
But what he had learned and could learn at home did not
satisfy his craving. In 1837 he went to Europe, armed with a
letter from Judge Story's hand to the law magnates of England,
to whom his patron introduced him as "a young lawyer giving
promise of the most eminent distinction in his profession, with
truly extraordinary attainments, literary and judicial, and a
gentleman of the highest purity and propriety of character."
This was not a mere complimentary introduction ; it was the
conscientious testimony of a great judge who well knew his
responsibility, and who afterwards, when his death approached,
adding to that testimony, was frequently heard to say, "I shall
die content, as far as my professorship is concerned, if Charles
Sumner is to succeed me. ' '
In England, young Sumner, only feeling himself standing
on the threshold of life, was received like a man of already
achieved distinction. Every circle of a society, ordinarily so
exclusive, was open to him. Often, by invitation, he sat with
the judges in Westminster Hall. Renowned statesmen intro-
duced him upon the floor of Parliament. Eagerly he followed
72 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
the debates, and studied the principles and practices of parlia-
mentary law on its maternal soil, where from the first seed-corn
it had grown up into a magnificent tree, in whose shadow a
great people can dwell in secure enjoyment of their rights.
Scientific associations received him as a welcome guest, and the
learned and great willingly opened to his winning presence
their stores of knowledge and statesmanship.
In France he listened to the eminent men of the Law School
in Paris, at the Sorbonne and the College de France, and with
many of the statesmen of that country he maintained instruc-
tive intercourse. In Italy he gave himself up to the charms of
art, poetry, history, and classical literature. In Germany he
enjoyed the conversation of Humboldt, of Ranke, the historian,
of Ritter, the geographer, and of the great journalists, Savigny,
Thibaut, and ^littermaier. * * *
He returned to his native shores in 18-10, himself like a
heavily freighted ship, bearing a rich cargo of treasures col-
lected in foreign lands.
He resumed the practice of law in Boston; but, as I find
it stated, "not with remarkable success from a financial point
of view." That I readily believe. The financial point of view
was never to him a fruitful source of inspiration. Again he
devoted himself to the more congenial task of teaching at the
Cambridge Law School and of editing an American edition of
"Vesey's Reports," in twenty volumes, M'ith elaborate notes
contributed by himself.
But now the time had come when a new field of action was
to open itself to him. On the Fourth of July, 1845, he delivered
before the city authorities of Boston, an address on the "True
Grandeur of Nations." So far he had been only a student —
a deep and arduous one, and a writer and a teacher, but nothing
more. On that day his public career commenced.
This chronological order is continued throughout the
long speech. But it must be noticed that Schurz is not
satisfied with a mere encylopedic statement of bare
facts ; he makes them render up their testimony concern-
ing the character of Sumner. Tliroughout the address,
THE BODY OF THE SPEECH 73
he makes them show that Sumner was a man of (a) dil-
igent application, (b) wide learning, and (c) high ideals
and that he viewed all problems from the lofty eminence
of those ideals.
This chronological order is the simplest possible; it
therefore imposes least upon the skill of the speaker.
But it has the danger l)TT5mig^~l3arreir^incl tiresome.
Too often a mere string of colorless happenings is re-
corded. Although the simple order may be followed,
use some judgment in the matter of emphasizing this
event and subordinating that, and of extracting an in-
terpretation of the spirit.
Place gives us the next hint of arrangement. Ob-
viously, it is useful only when dealing with things which
distribute themselves in space. Place dictates that when
describing a magnificent building, we begin, let us say,
from the top and proceed downward in treating the de-
tails, or that we begin at the bottom and go up. In either
case, there is an orderly and systematic succession of
details wdiich tends to bring about a unified grasp of the
whole.
Sometimes in memorial or historical addresses, the
sequence in time is set aside in favor of a grouping ac-
cording to place. Thus if one w^ere narrating the Civil
War campaign of 1863, instead of telling of each battle
on the date it occurred, he might well group the engage-
ments somewdiat as follows: (a) The campaign in the
East with its climax at Gettysburg, (b) the campaign
in the West with the taking of Vicksburg and the open-
ing of the Mississippi River, (c) the war in the middle
ground of Kentucky and Tennessee, including the en-
gagements at Chattanooga and Chickamauga and the
storming of IMissionary Eidge.
/ v_-
74 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Such an arrangement is a safeguard against confu-
sion. On the other hand, to enumerate the various en-
gagements of the year according to the calendar, now
one in the East, then two on the Mississippi, back again
to the East, then three in close succession in Kentucky,
and so on, would give only the perplexing impression of
a tangled mass of details. The suggested grouping
makes for a rational and clear grasp of each particular,
properly placed in an organized whole.
Magnitude is the qualitative or mathematical rela-
tionship. One of a group of similar things is smaller or
greater, less important or more important, than another.
Sometimes it is wise to group the details of the body of
a speech according to their magnitude. The climax is
such a grouping, for it begins with the least impressive
and then proceeds in an ascending scale to the most im-
pressive. Other variations based on a difference in
magnitude readily suggest themselves. AVe find a good
example of climax in Burke's speech impeaching War-
ren Hastings. The whole speech is too long to quote,
but this extract from the conclusion will indicate a plan
for use in the body of the address :
Therefore it is with confidence that, ordered by tlie
Commons^
I impeach Warren Hastings, Esquire, of high crimes and
misdemeanors.
1 impeach him in the name of the Commons, in Parliament
assembled, whose parliamentary trust ho has betrayed.
I impeach him in the name of all the Commons of Great
Britain, whose national character he has dishonored.
I impeach him in the name of the people of India, whose
laws, rights, and liberties he has subverted; whose properties
he has destroyed ; whose country he has laid waste and desolate.
THE BODY OF THE SPEECH 75
I impeach him in the name and by virtue of those eternal
laws of justice which he has viohited.
I impeach him in the name of hunuin nature itself, which
he has cruelly outraged, injured, and oppressed, in both sexes,
in every age, rank, situation, and condition of life.
Such a speech would proceed from the proof of rela-
tively minor matters of civil offense to a climax of crim-
inal outrage far beyond the pale of excuse or forgive- /
ness. _ /
Causation is the relation which exists between causes ^
and their effects. The arrangement may be, first the
causes and then the effects, or it may be reversed. In
the arguments of criminal lawyers, we often find the
body of the speech to be arranged as follow^s:
(a) Causes.
1. Motives.
2. Opportunity.
(b) Effect — the crime.
(c) Traces or evidence of the crime.
Nearly all the orators who spoke of the Boston Mas-
sacre, used the cause-and-effect arrangement. No doubt
the student will recollect the accounts of the quartering
of British troops in Boston in 1770. Between them and
the citizens there grew up a strong animosity which led
to minor disturbances and to frequent brawls. But on
the evening of March 5, 1770, a violent outbreak oc-
curred. The troops fired upon the citizens, killing sev-
eral. For a number of years, the anniversary of this
event was celebrated, one of the features of the day
being an oration. These exercises were kept up until
1783, when they were replaced by Fourth of July exer-
cises and orations. Most of the Boston Massacre
speeches discussed :
76 p:ffective public speaking
(a) Causes which led up to the massacre.
1. Acts of despotism, oppression, and taxes.
2. The quartering troops in the town.
(b) Immediate effect — the massacre.
(c) Final effect — the attitude of resentment on the
part of the colonies and a justification of senti-
ments of freedom.
While these four typical relationships of time, place,
magnitude, and causation are very fundamental, still
any other classification of the way your matter hangs
together in nature will serve as a basis for the arrange-
ment of the body of the speech. For instance, if you are
to support a bill, like the act favoring reciprocity with
Canada, mentioned in Lesson Four, you may take the
order of the provisions of the bill as the plan for the
body of your speech. In this case, the bill has four
schedules ; then you Uiay make the body of your speech
correspond to them in sequence by taking them up in
regular order — A, B, C, D.
Another point to be noted is that while the great di-
visions of 3^our discussion imxy follow one basis of
arrangement, any of the further subdivisions might
follow another. Thus in appealing to Congress to give
the Filipinos their independence, we might make a
primary arrangement as follows :
1. The Filipinos are now able to govern themselves.
2. To retain them longer is financially unprofitable.
3. To retain them opens us to easy attack in time of
war.
4. To retain them longer is a violation of our national
ideals of freedom.
This is an arrangement according to magnitude or
importance of the various considerations. But the sub-
THE BODY OP THE SPEECH 77
divisions under tliose heads niiglii follow one of the
other types. Take the first of these primary divisions
and notice the following sub-arrangement as a cause-to-
effect argument.
1. The Filipinos are now able to govern themselves,
because :
(a) Education (cause) has raised their general in-
telligence (effect) since 1898.
(b) English as a common language (cause) has
brought them to a state of harmonious co-
operation (effect).
(c) A measure of participation in the general gov-
ernment (cause) and complete control of
local governments (cause) has rendered
their leaders sufficiently expert to conduct
their own government in a state of freedom
(effect).
These and other plans may be followed in the arrange-
ment. Whatever type or combination you may select
to guide you in the ordering of details in the body of
the speech, let it be well defined and calculated to reveal
the truth as it actually exists.
(h) Modified Arranr/emenf to Suit a Particidar Audience
Yet the combination of things as they normally hang
together in nature is not always the best gTiide in arrang-
ing them for a presentation to a particular audience.
Sometimes a variation from the natural order will pro-
mote an easier understanding of the material. Thus,
in the reciprocity speech, from which extracts were pre-
sented in the last lesson, we find these words immediately
following the first quotation given :
78 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
But I shall not follow the order of the bill. It will be
simpler to begin with Schedule D, for that schedule is the
easiest to comprehend and analyze. Its provisions call for the
least change from the existing order of things. It enumerates
articles produced extensively in the United States and to a
considerably less degree or not at all in Canada. The artich^s
are cement, trees, condensed milk, biscuits, canned fruits, pea-
nuts, and bituminous coal. All together they constitute about
one quarter of the volume of the commodities to be affected by
the entire agreement. This estimate is based on last year's
exportation figures; but with the dropping of the Canadian
duty on them as proposed, no one can tell to what enormous
proportions their shipment may grow.
Then followed the second, detailed argument quoted
in the last lesson. Throughout the rest of this speech,
wdiicli is too long to be given complete, there is a modi-
fication of the order of the bill to promote clearness for
a popular audience.
Sometimes the diatural order is not the most tactful
when the prejudices or feelings of the particular lis-
teners are considered. In pleading for Filipino inde-
pendence, it might be wise to show first that their furthei-
retention would mean increased financial loss. If the
money side of such a question can be so disposed of, most
audiences are likely to respond to altruistic inducements.
Or, if you could not prove a financial advantage in giving
the Filipinos" their freedom, you might make military
safety your first issue. After that has been driven home,
the question of their fitness to govern themselves could
])e taken up. Naturally these modifications need not be
made if the audience is without bias, and the nature of
the modifications depends upon the nature of the exist-
ing bias.
Thus, in planning the body of his address, a speaker
THE BODY OF THE SPEECIT. / 79
endeavors to put himself in the phice of his hearers. He
tries to estimate their beliefs, their prejudices, their
feelings. He asks himself, "How should I want to be
approached upon this subject if I felt about if as these
people do \ ' '
Consider the following plan as illustrating how the
natural order may be varied to suit the prejudices and
the beliefs of the audience. A socialist is speaking in
behalf of his cause to an audience opposed to the socialist
program. An excellent order of procedure is as follows :
A. Introduction
Facts and figures showing the startling growth of
the socialist party in the United States. Con-
sequently it is to the interest of all citizens to
study a propaganda which is influencing the
political thought of the country.
B. Body
1. Answer to certain objections that lie in the mind
of the audience.
(a) Socialism does not propose to reduce all men
to a level of mediocrity.
(b) Socialism does not mean anarchism.
(c) Socialism does not mean agnosticism.
(d) Socialism does not propose to abolish pri-
vate ow^nership entirely.
2. The common nse by society of the fundamental
socialistic principles.
(a) They are used in charitable institutions.
(b) They are used in mutual insurance compa-
nies.
(c) They are used in public ownersliip of post
office.
80 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(d) They are used in profit-sharing e x p e r i -
nieiits.
3. The constructive program of socialism.
(a) Socialism aims to secure equality of oppor-
tunity.
(b) Socialism aims to give labor its share of the
profits of industry.
(c) Socialism aims to secure the public owner-
ship of the natural monopolies of produc-
tion and distribution.
C. Conclusion
Therefore it is advisable for all thoughtful citizens
to accept the doctrine or at least give it further,
careful consideration.
Naturally an opponent of socialism would take just the
reverse course.
SUMMAEY
Thus, we seek to plan the body of the speech so that
all its material will grow up in the mind of the hearer
in a manner most calculated to make him understand it
as it is understood by the speaker himself.
Careful arrangement is the device which he uses to suit
the limited understanding or the prejudiced feelings of
the auditors. It aims to preserve during the piecemeal
delivery of the message all the advantage gained by a
successful introduction. The type arrangements sug-
gested have been :
A. Follow the order of natural relationship:
1. According to time — esjiecially in narrative work.
2. According to place — especially in description.
3. According to magnitude or impressiveness — espe-
cially in appeals to action.
THE BODY OF THE SPEECH 81
4. According to cause and effect — especially in argu-
ment.
5. According to any special plan inherent in the topic.
B. Modify this order to accommodate the peculiarities
of the particular audience :
1. Peculiarities of limited understanding.
2. Peculiarities of bias or emotional opposition.
Assignment of Work
The written exorcises in this entire lesson should he
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in voui- notebook.
First Day. — Read the lesson again carefully to master its con-
tents. Answer the test questions appended, to determine
if you have grasped the ideas to be learned.
Second Day. — In the speech of Garfield (Lesson 3, page 33),
what type arrangement is used from the first star (*) to
the second stars (**) ? What tj^pe is used from the twci
stars to the end? Study the Conkling speech (Lesson 2,
page 20) again. Its body treats, first, a need, and, second.
a man to meet the need. What type plan is this? What
IS the plan of the subdivisions under the ma/i-division ?
Third Day. — Take the following plans; modify them to suit
some special audience ; add the necessary introductions and
develop them orally. Do this at first with the notes before
you and then with the outline kept in the mind only.
I. Abraham Lincoln.
(a) His physical nature.
(b) His mental nature.
(c) His spiritual nature.
II. The ]\riners' Strike in Colorado (1914).
(a) Causes of the trouble.
(b) Actions of both sides during the strike.
(c) A basis of settlement.
82 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
III. Reorganization of the department or business in which
you are employed. (Make your own plan through-
out.)
IV. Causes and Conduct of the Mexican War of 18-47.
Speech in commemoration of those who died in that
war. (Make your own plan throughout.) For ex-
ercise purposes, a brief account of the war can be
had in any good encyclopoedia. Consult one in the
nearest library. For a finished speech, the matter
should be read up most thoroughly.
Fourth and Fifth Days. — Taking as your model, the portion
of Schurz's "Eulogy of Sumner" in this lesson, construct
a eulogy of one of the following or of some other great man
with whose life you are familiar.
(a) Alexander Hamilton.
(b) Karl Marx.
(c) Henry George.
(d) Daniel Webster.
(e) Robert E. Lee.
Supplement the plan you construct with a statement of the
type followed. // ijou wish, you may also prepare an amplifica-
tion of the outline. But do not get the idea that all speeches
must be first written out. Rather cultivate the habit of
developing your outlines orally.
TEST QUESTIONS
Tlieso questions are for the student to use in testinji
liis knowle<l<ie of the principles in tliis lesson. They
are /iiififiesfirc merely, dealing largely with tlie practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. Why should the body of a speech be carefully planned?
2. What is there in the first paragraph of this lesson to lead
you to believe that no speaker can attain the highest success
unless he develops the power of easy, extemporaneous coni-
I)osition ? In what way is a man who is confined to what he has
memorized, limited?
3. How definitely can we lay down rules for the body of a
sp;ceh?
4. What is meant by the "natural order" of presentation?
5. Why are the relationsliips of time, place, magnitude, and
""causation called typical relationships?
6. Give orally a clear explanation of the meaning of each of
tliese four terms. Imagine that you are addressing an audience.
7. AVhat do you think of Carl Schurz's style? Is it flowery?
Is it clear? If it is a pleasing style, why?
8. Suppose that Schurz had taken magnitude of characteris-
tics as the basis of his plan so that it would be as follows :
I. Sumner was a man of pleasing presence.
II. He was always a most diligent student.
III. He was a man of high ideals.
lY. He made service to mankind, guided by these ideals,
his life work.
What would have been the basis for the arrangement of the
matter in each of the subdivisions?
9. What advantage is there in giving all the effects before
coming to the causes? What are the disadvantages? What
advantage is there in reversing the order? (The answer to this
is not expressed in the lesson-, it is just a question to set you
thinking.)
83
84 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
10. AVhat peculiarities of an audience soixietimes call for con-
sideration in planning the body of the speech? Recall the
outline for a Socialist address. How does the plan of the
speech suit peculiarities in the audience? How might you plan
a prohibition speech for a typical German audience? How
plan a "personal freedom" speech for an audience of clergy-
men ?
11. Describe some other specific speech occasions where the
speaker would have to modify his plan because of the nature
of his audience.
LESSON 6
THE CONCLUSION
Recapitulation of Other Divisions of the Speech
Having discussed the arrangement of the introduction
and of the body of a speech, we now come to the conclu-
sion. Possibly it might be well to pause for a time
to consider the origin of the standard divisions of a
speech and to exi:»lain some terms which are constantly
met in the literature on the subject.
History reports, as the first writer on public speaking,
one Corax who lived in Sicily'when that island was a
colony of ancient Greece. His book, known as "The
Art" {rexi'rj), appeared about 446 years before Christ.
It was he who first gave rules for the arrangement of
the parts of a speech. Although Aristotle and later
writers improved on his work, still through all the ages
his general ideas have been accepted. Modern students
have added to our understanding of why this or that
should be done in a speech, but they have contributed
but little to the hoiv.
Corax named five great divisions of a speech: (1)
the proem or opening; (2) the narration or statement
of facts; (3) the argument proper; (4) subsidiary re-
marks; and (5) the peroration, or close. Let us take
up these terms and see how they correspond with others
which are sometimes employed and most especially with
those which we ourselves use.
The Greek w^ord proem designates that part of our
85
86
EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
introduction which tries to get a favorable emotional
response, while the second division of Corax, the narra-
tion, is very similar to the portion which we look upon
as necessary to give facts to help the understanding
of the message proper. There is another word, more
common than proem, which is often used. It is the
Latin word exordium. It also carries with it the notion
of an opening which seeks pleasant relationships. It
does not designate the part with the educational func-
tion. Therefore our term, introduction, covers all that
is meant by proem and exordium, and more. The fol-
lowing comparison shows all the parts given by Corax
and the standard rhetoricians, as well as the simpler
treatment we have adopted :
Corax
Standard
Simplified
1.
Proem
1.
Exordium
A.
Introduction
2.
Narration
2.
3.
4.
5.
Narration
Partition
Definition
Statement of
Object
3.
Argument
6.
Argument
B.
Body
4.
Subsidiary i-e- 7.
Digression
marks
5.
Peroration
8.
Peroration
C.
Conclusion
Notice that we have not mentioned digression or sub-
sidiary remarks as a division of the speech. At best
such a portion is but a form of literary amplification or
relief which is included in tlie treatment of the body ol
the speech. It is not legitimately a main division of the
well-planned speech.
THE CONCLUSION 87
iNTRODUCnON TO THE StUDY OF THE CONCLUSION
Now Ave come to a detailed treatment of the last part
of the speech, or the conchision. To be sure, sometimes
there is no formal conclusion, for none is either neces-
sary or apin-oi)riate. In such a case, the speaker is
concerned only with the problem of saying his last words
gracefully and precisely and then sitting down. But
now we shall treat the conclusion as a definite division
of the speech where it is a necessary and eifective part.
The old term peroration suggests a highly emotional
flight of oratory. Sometimes such an outburst is a suit-
able and desirable form of ending, but the conclusion
should by no means always be of this character. Fur-
thermore, even when it may have such a nature, it may
also have something else connected with a ditTerent func-
tion. Just as the exordium, or feeling part, of the intro-
duction does not necessarily complete all the introduc-
tory effort, so the peroration, or fervid part, is not all
the conclusion.
General Purpose of the Conclusion
It has been well said that the last part of a speech to
be worked out is the introduction. We may add that
the first part to have in mind is the conclusion. It is
nearest to what you are aiming to accomplish ; it drives
home your purpose. Therefore, the conclusion is the
part you must conceive first ; you are building toward it
throughout your whole speech. The introduction is
farthest from your real object. It is put in as a neces-
sary concession to the peculiarities and prejudices of
your audience. From an ideal point of view — where
88 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
you proceed in the straightest line to the heart of your
purpose — the introduction is an unfortunate, though nec-
essary, waste of time.
A good conclusion should accomplish two things: (1)
it should concentrate all the impressions of the entire
speech so that the audience gets them in combined, uni-
fied force; and (2) it should apply the message in such
a way as to make the audience feel as you want them to
feel or do what you wan! them to do. It should act as a
burning glass to concentrate all the rays to a point
where they can do the maximum work and make the
deepest impression.
(a) The Conclusion as a Sunniiari/
Let us suppose that the speech has been a long, care-
ful, detailed argument. Every statement has been most
thoroughly backed up and proved. During the course of
the speech the listeners have been paying attention to
details. They have been saying to themselves: "Yes,
that is true"; "Well, he ought to give more evidence
there"; "Ah, noAv he has supported his statement";
and so on. They have been checking up the points as
they were presented and amplified. Such an attention
to details makes the hearer forget the general trend
of the arg-ument and even dims his recollection of the
details other than those in the focus of attention. Con-
sequently, at the end of such an argument, it is well to
gather together all the established conclusions, unclouded
by the details of proof, and ])resciit them grouped so
that their combined force is a])])arent. As the auditor
hears the great issues marshaled in review, his mind
interprets them and he accepts tln^n because of the
THE CONOLTTSION 89
proof previously applied. What was scattered, is now
c'oinbined.
The Formal Siimmary. — The formal summary corre-
sponds in content with the statement of plan or issues
in the introduction; it usually dilTers in stjde of treat-
ment. Thus, if one were to make a speech in favor of
the closed shop, he might say in his introduction: "I
intend to show three things : That the closed shop is
beneficial to workman inside and outside the union, that
the closed shop benefits the employer, and that it benefits
the consuming public." Then, after elaborately prov-
ing each item in detail, he might summarize in the con-
clusion as follows: "Therefore, the closed shop not
only changes workmen from machines to human beings,
but it makes them better agents of production, thus giv-
ing the employer more goods for each unit of labor he
hires. It raises the standard of employment and pay
for all men whether they be organized or not. The con-
suming public is able to purchase commodities of a
higher grade, produced in steady flow to meet the demand
and never interfered with by strikes or other disagree-
ments between the master and the man. All factors of
production and consumption working together in this
manner make for the happiness and progress of the
race. ' '
Notice the summary used by Burke in his speech
impeaching War: en Hastings, page 74 of Lesson 5.
The poorest k'nd of summary is the mere repetition of
the issues as given in the introduction. If such a state-
ment has been made in the introduction and a summary
seems desirable, then it should treat the considerations
from a different angle or light them up with feeling
90 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
which could not properly have been shown at the out-
set.
The following concluding v/ords of Wendell Phillips'
eloquent eulogy of Daniel O'Connell give an excellent
summary colored with feeling.
For thirty restless and turbulent years he stood in front
of them (the Irish people) and said, "Remember, he that com-
mits a crime, helps the enemy." And during that long and
fearful struggle, I do not remember one of his followers ever
being convicted of a political offence, and during this period,
crimes of violence were very rare. There is no such record in
our history. Neither in classic nor in modern times can the
man be produced who held a million of people in his right
hand so passive. It was due to the consistency and unity of
a character that had hardly a flaw. I do not forget your sol-
diers, orators, or poets, — any of your leaders. But when I
consider O'Connell's personal disinterestedness — his rare, brave
fidelity to every cause his principles covered, no matter how
unpopular, or how embarassing to his main purpose, — that
clear, far-reaching vision, and true heart, which, on most moral
and political questions set him so much ahead of his times; his
eloquence, almost equally effective in the courts, in the senate,
and before the masses; that sagacity which set at naught the
malignant vigilance of the whole imperial bar, watching for
thirty years for a misstep ; when I remember that he invented
his tools, and then measure his limited means with his vast
success, bearing in mind its nature ; when I see the sobriety and
moderation with which he used his measureless power, and the
lofty, generous purpose of his whole life, — I am feady to affirm
that he was, all things considered, the greatest man tlie Ii-ish
race ever produced.
The entire speech is too long to print here in full.
But the student would do well to read it all, if accessible,
as an example of eulogy and to note how the summary
THE CONCLUSION 91
just quoted drives home the combined impressions (>f
the whole speech.
The summary is usually more justitied if the issues
or plan have not been announced in the introduction. In
short speeches, it is obvious that a formal and detailed
summary is unnecessary. So also in humorous speeches
where the purpose is general good feeling rather than
concise grasp of an organized message, the summary
as illustrated may be omitted.
The Short, Crisp Summary. — Sometimes the formal
summary enumerating all issues is omitted, but a short,
crisp, or epigrammatic resume takes its place. Again,
the terse summary is used to supplement the formal one.
It puts the whole contention in a nutshell. After his long
argument about the actions, political and military, of
Great Britain, Patrick Henry crisply summarized his
call to arms (just before making the passionate appeal)
with the words : "We must fight! I repeat it, sir, we must
fight. An appeal to arms and the God of hosts is all
that is left us."
Senator Elihu Root summarized in a very terse and
effective way his speech advocating the repeal of the
bill giving United States coast-w^ise vessels an advantage
in Panama Canal tolls. After proving that such a pref-
erence to our vessels was in violation of our solemn
promises in two treaties with Great Britain — treaties
which we ourselves sought to contract, and after show-
ing that we have agreed to arbitrate such differences in
matters of treaty interpretation with Great Britain, he
said: "Mr. President, there is but one alternative con-
sistent with self-respect. We must arbitrate the in-
terpretation of this treaty or we must retire from the
position we have taken."
92 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(h) Conchision as an Application or Pcioratiun
But a summary of the contents of the speech is not
always the whole conclusion. Often one wishes to make
a general application of the message, draw a moral, or
bring the whole close to the life and feelings of the audi-
ence. This is bringing it home to them. Note the con-
clusion of Carl Schurz's speech on ''True Americanism,"
delivered at Faneuil Hall, Boston, in 1859.
Sir, I was to speak on Republicanism in the West, and so
I did. This is Western Republicanism. These are its principles,
and I am proud to say that its principles are its policies. These
are the ideas which have rallied around the banner of liberty
not only the natives of tlie soil, but also an innumerable host
of Germans, Scandinavians, Scotchmen, Frenchmen, and a
goodly number of Irishmen also. And here I tell you, those
are mistaken who believe that the Irish heart is devoid of those
noble impulses which will lead him to the side of justice, where
he sees his own rights respected and unendangered. (Applause.)
Under this banner, all the languages of civilized mankind are
spoken; every creed is protected; every right is sacred. There
stands every element of Western society, with enthusiasm for
a great cause, with confidence in each other, with honor to
themselves. This is the banner floating over the glorious valley
which stretches from the Western slope of the Alleghanies to
the Rocky ]\Iountains— that valley of Jehosaphat, where the
nations of the world assemble to celebrate the resurrection of
human freedom. (Tremendous rpplause.) The inscription on
the banner is not, "Opposition to the Democratic party for
the sake of placing a new set of men in office"; for this battle
cry of speculators, our hearts have no response. Nor is it
"Restriction of slavery and restriction of the right of suffrage,"
for this — l)elieve my words, I entreat you — this would be the
signal for deserved, inevitable, and disgraceful defeat. But the
inscription is "Liberty and equal rights, common to all as the
THE CONCLUSION 93
air of Heaven — Liberty and equal rights, one and inseparable."
(Prolonged cheers.)
AVith this banner we stand before the world. In this sign —
in this sign alone and no other — there is victory. And thus, sir,
we mean to realize the great cosmopolitan idea, upon which the
existence of the American nation rests. Thus we mean to ful-
fill the great mission of true Americanism — thus we mean to
answer the anxious question of down-trodden humanity —
■'Plas man any faculty to be free and to govern himself?" The
answer is a triumphant "Aye," thundering into the ears of
tlie despots of the old world that "a man is a man for a' that" —
proclaiming to the oppressed that they are held in subjection
on false pretenses, cheering the hearts of the despondent friends
of man with consolation and renewed confidence.
This is true Americanism, clasping mankind to its great
heart. Under its banner we march ; let the world follow.
Here the particular points which he developed in the
l)ody of his speech are applied and coupled with certain
ideals and sentiments in which Americans take pride.
The specific cases are dropped and the oratory branches
out into broad and almost poetic fields of universal and
undying interest. It is this tendency to look beyond the
narrow particulars of the immediate subject to its wider
applications, which makes perorations so poetic and so
attractive for declamatory purposes.
Sometimes, this broadening of the treatment takes the
form of leaving the details which go to make up the
opinion established by the speech and treating, in an
enthusiastic manner, the broad principles involved. In
his famous second reply to Hayne, Daniel Webster dealt
with specific acts and rules of constitutional law in the
body of his speech, but his peroration was as follows :
I profess, sir, in my career hitherto, to have kept steadily in
view the prosperity and honor of the whole country, and tha
94 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
preservation of our Federal Union. It is to that Union we owe
our safety at lionn', and our consideration anil dignity abroad.
It is to that Union that we are chiefly indebted for whatever
makes us most proud of our country. That Union we reached
only by the discipline of our virtues in the severe school of
adversity. It had its origin in the necessities of disordered
finance, prostrate commerce, and ruined credit. Under its
benign influences, these great interests immediately awoke as
from the dead, and sprang forth with newness of life. Every
year of its duration has teemed with fresh proofs of its utility
and blessings; and although our territory has stretched out
wider and wider, and our population spread farther and far-
ther, they have not outrun its protection or its benefits. It has
been to us a copious fountain of national, social, and personal
happiness.
I have not allowed myself, sir, to look beyond the Union, to
see what might lie hidden in the dark recesses behind. I have
not coolly weighed the chances of preserving liberty when the
l)onds that unite us together shall be broken asunder. I have not
accustomed myself to hang over the precipice of disunion, to see
whether, with my short sight, I can fathom the depths of the abyss
below ; nor could I regard him as a safe counselor in the affairs
of this government, whose thought would l)e mainly bent on con-
sidering, not how the Union may be best preserved, but how
tolerable might be the condition of the people when it should
l)e broken up and destroyed.
While the Union lasts, we have high, gratifying, exciting
prospects spread out before us, for us and our children. Beyond
that I seek not to penetrate the veil. God grant that, in my
(hiy, at least, that curtain may not rise! God grant that on my
vision never may be opened what lies behind ! When my eyes
shall be turned to behold for the last time the sun in heaven,
may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonored frag-
ments of a once glorious Union, on states dissevered, discordant,
belligerent; on a land rent with civil feuds, or di-enched, it may
be, in fraternal blood ! Let their last feeble and lingering glance
rather bcliold the gorgeous ensign of llic I'cpublic, now known
and honored lliroiigliout Ihc cj'.i'th, still full lii.uh advanced,
THE CONCLUSION 95
its arms and trophies streaming in their original luster, not a
stripe erased nor polluted, nor a single star obscured, bearing
for its motto no such miserable interrogatory as, '"Wliat is all
tills worth r' nor those other words of delusion and folly, "Lib-
erty first and Union afterwards"; but everywhere, spi-ead all
over in characters of living light, blazing on all its ample folds,
as they float over the sea and over the land, and in every wind
in the whole heavens, that other sentiment dear to every true
American heart — Liberty and LTnion, now and forever, one and
inseparable !
It is this tendency to take a universal point of vievv^ in
the peroration which has led many speakers to use not
only poetic diction and imagerj^ but even actual ex-
tracts from poetry itself. An example is to be found
in the peroration of Henry W. Grady's "New South,"
an oration often quoted.
Now what answer has New England to this message ? Will she
permit the prejudice of war to remain in the hearts of the con-
querors when it has died in the hearts of the conquered? Will
she transmit this prejudice to the next generation, that in their
hearts, which never felt the generous ardor of conflict, it may
perpetuate itself ? Will she withhold, save in strained courtesy,
the hand which straight from his soldier's heart. Grant offered
Lee at Appomattox ? Will she make the vision of a restored and
happy people, which gathered about the couch of your dying
captain, filling his heart with grace, touching his lips with praise
and glorifying his path to the grave ; will she make this vision,
on which the last sigh of his expiring soul breathed a benedic-
tion, a cheat and a delusion "? If she does, the South, never abject
in asking for comradeship, must accept with dignity its refusal ;
but if she does not — if she accepts with frankness and sincerity
this message of good will and friendship — then will the prophecy
of Webster, delivered in this very Society forty years ago, amid
tremendous applause, be verified in its final and fullest sense,
when he said: "Standing hand in hand, and clasping hands, we
shall remain united as we have l)een for sixtv vears, citizens of
96 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
the same country, members of the same government, united all,
united now, and united forever." There have been difficulties,
contentions and controversies, but I tell you that in my judgment,
"Those opposed eyes,
AVhich, like the meteors of a troubled heaven,
All of one nature, of one substance bred.
Did lately meet in th' intestine shock.
Shall now, in mutual, Avell-beseemiiig ranks
March all one Avav."
J •
V (c) The Peroration as an Appeal
When some action is sought, its necessity is driven
home in the appeal of the peroration. Of course, many-
actions might spring from feelings developed in the
concluding remarks just quoted from Schurz, Webster,
and Grady. But their application was very general. On
the other hand, a very definite act is sometimes sought
and deliberately urged in the peroration. Note this con-
clusion of Senator Root's speech looking toward the
repeal of the Canal Toll Bill.
Mr. President, there is but one alternative consistent with
self-respect. We must arbitrate the interpretation of this treaty
or we must retire from the position we have taken.
0, Senators^' consider for a moment what it is that we
are doing. We all love our country; we are all full of hope
and courage for its future; we love its good name; we desire
for it that power among the nations of the earth which will
enable it to accomplish still greater things for civilization than
it has accomplished in the noble past. Shall we make ourselves
in the minds of the world like unto the man who is known to
})e false to his agrt^ements, false to his pledged word ? Shall
we have it understood the whole world over that "you must
look out for the United States or she will get the advantage of
you"; that we are clever and cunning to get the better of the
other party to an agreement, and th;it at the end —
THE CONCLUSION 97
Mr. Brandegee: ''Slippery" would be a bettor word.
Mr. Root: Yes; I thank the Senator for tiie suggestion —
"Slippery." Shall we in our generation add to those claims
to honor and respect which our fathers- have established for our
country, good cause that we shall be considered slippery ?
It is worth while, Mr. President, to be a citizen of a great
country, but size alone is not enough to make a country great,
A country must be great in its ideals ; it must be great-hearted ;
it must be noble; it must despise and reject all smallness and
meanness; it must be faithful to its word; it must keep the
faith of treaties ; it must be faithful to its mission of civilization
in order that it shall be truly great. It is because we believe
this of our country, that we are proud, aye, that the alien, with
the first step of his foot on our soil, is proud to be a part of
the great democracy.
Let us put aside the idea of small, petty advantage ; let us
treat this situation and these obligations in our relation to the
canal in that large way which befits a great nation.
Mr. President, how sad it would be if we were to dim the
splendor of the great achievement of constructing the canal, by
drawing across it the mark of petty selfishness ; if we were to
diminish and reduce for generations to come, the power and
influence of this free Republic for the uplifting and advance
and the progress of mankind, by destroying the respect of man-
kind for us ! How sad it would be if you and I, Senators, were
to make ourselves responsi])le for destroying that bright and
inspiring ideal which has enabled free Amer^»a to hnid the
world in progress toward liberty and justice !
Here the appeal to action is on the ground that such
action will be in keeping with lofty ideals. Note the fol-
lowing appeal in Cnrran's speech in defence of Patrick
Finney, charged with liigli treason. It was made after
lie had analyzed the testimony in a thorough manner.
The character of the prisoner has been given. Am I war-
ranted in saying that I ani now defending an innocent and un-
fortunate fellow-subject, on the grounds of eternal justice and
immutable law ? On that eternal law, I do now call upon you to
98 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
acquit my client. I call upon you for 3'our justice ! Great
is the reward, and sweet is the recollection in tlie hour of trial,
and in the day of dissolution, when the casualties of life are
pressing close upon your heart, and when, in the agonies of
death, you look back to the justifiable and honorable transac-
tions of your life. At the awful foot of the Eternal Justice,^
I do, therefore, invite you to acquit my client ; and nuiy God,
of his infinite mercy, grant you that great compensation which
is a reward more lasting than the perishable crown we read
of, which the ancients gave to him who saved the life of a
fellow-citizen in battle.
In the name of public justice, I do implore you to interpose
between the perjurer and his intended victim ; and, if ever you
are assailed by the villainy of an informer, may you find refuge
in the recollection of that example, which, when jurors, you
set to those that might be called on to pass judgment upon your
lives; to repel at the human tribunal the intended effects of
hireling perjury and premeditated murder! If it should be
the fate of any of you to count the tedious moments of captivity,
in sorrow and in pain, pining in the damps and gloom of a
dungeon, recollect there is another more awful tribunal than
any on earth, which we must all approach, and before which the
best of us will have occasion to look back to what little good
he has done on this side the grave ; I do pray, that Eternal
Justice may record the deed you bave done, and give to you
the full benefit of your claims to an eternal reward, a requital
in mercy upon your souls!
Of course, an appeal is usually charged with emotion.
While it is best for the speaker to suppress feeling and
maintain an intellectual calm during his statement and
proof, he is justified in showing his feelings after a good
ground for them has been established. There is not
only the natural feeling of the speaker himself, but there
is a conscious attempt on liis part to (^xcite the ejiiotinus
of tlu^ audience, for action springs fi-om IVcliug. Notice
tluit Currau's ])eroratiou shows his own strong feelings,
THE CONCLITSION 99
works on the sympathies of the jury, and even arouses
fear of retribution if there be an unjust verdict.
A typical appeal is the one used by Henry Clay in
support of the New Army Bill, January 8, 1813, in the
House of Representatives. The war, declared in June,
1812, had been a failure and the administration had al-
most been defeated in the election by a ''peace candi-
date. ' ' In his speech. Clay tried, in general, to stir the
nation to renewed activity and, in particular, to pass the
proposed bill calling- for the organization of twenty new
regiments.
* * * ^jj honorable peace is attainable only by an effi-
cient war. ]\Iy plan would be to call out the ample resources of
the couutiy; give them a judicious direction; prosecute the
war with the utmost vigor ; strike wherever we can reach the
enemy, at sea or on land, and dictate the terms of peace at
Quebec or Halifax. We are told that England is a proud and
lofty nation, which, disdaining to wait for danger, meets it
ialf way. Haughty as she is, we once triumphed over her,
and, if we do not listen to the counsels of timidity and despair,
we shall again prevail. In such a cause, with the aid of
Providence, we must come out crowned with success; but if
we fail, let us fail like men, lash ourselves to our gallant tars,
and expire together in one common struggle, fighting for free
TRADE AND SEAMEN 's RIGHTS.
Naturally, there are as many different perorations as
there are different audiences, purposes, and occasions
for address. But these three general aims — to sum-
marize, tcuapply, and tp appeal — are very typical and
indicate the nature of the functions of the conclusion.
Preparation of the Conclusion
We cannot leave this topic without giving a practical
hint about the preparation of the concluding matter.
100 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Have it well prepared. Know just how you expect to
strike. Do not rise to begin a speech without knowing
precisely how you will end it. Too many speakers
ramble on and on, never knowing when or how to stop
and never driving home whatever of good they may have
said during the speech proper.
A necessary preliminary step is to determine clearly
just what great divisions of thought you will cover in
the body of the speech. Until you become very expert
and fully capable of changing plans in the midst of a
talk, it is well to have your points fully planned. Your
task is to treat Point A , Point B , and
Point C ; these and no more. Do not attempt to
deviate from or add to these points, but, having finished
the task assigned, conclude briefly and sit down. It is
evident that even if the conclusion is well thought out
and the speech proper poorly planned, the uncertainty
and rambling will take place.
If, perchance, you do find yourself wandering and at
a loss for further ideas, the safe thing to do is to pause,
and then summarise . Even though you may not be able
to make an application or appeal, the summary gives the
sense of completion and is therefore an acceptable con^
elusion. Furthermore, it may have the effect of enabling
you to collect yourself to make a peroration of the other
types. Never sit down when in the midst of wandering
or fragmentary remarks. Never say, with uncertainty,
"Well, I guess that is about all I have to say," and sit
down. Rather make a crisp, business-like summary.
That at least gives the impi-ession of completeness and
mastery.
A student, whether or not he becomes a master of the
poetic, tln-illiug ])er()ratioii and tlie appeal, must by all
I
THE CONCLUSION 101
means cultivate facility in terse and accurate summary.
No other single asset is so valuable to the speaker, es-
pecially to the speaker who has to reply to opponents or
has to address popular gatherings. In debate, the sum-
mary of what the antagonist has said is the logical
foundation of an attack upon his position. No one can
reply well unless he can analyze and summarize well.
So, also, in making your ow^n independent speeches, sum-
maries are necessary, not only at the end, but also to
recapitulate throughout the body of the address.
Assignment of Work
'i1i(' written exercises in this entire lesson sliould he
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the writtcMi exer-
cises in voiir notebook.
First Ddj). — You have read through the lesson. Study it care-
fully and test your mastery of its contents by answering the
appended questions (page 103). Eead aloud many times
and with the best effect possible all the conclusions quoted.
Throw yourself into the situation and read the matter with
enthusiasm.
Second Day. — Clip out an editorial from a current newspaper
or magazine. Analyze it, and tlien write the topics it treats,
thus :
A (giving the sense in a single sentence) .
B. . . (using a similar topic .sentence).
C
Then develop it orally, adding an original summary of
the ivliole. If you can make many analyses and summaries,
the work will be of great benefit to you.
Third Day. — Write perorations which take the ])roader and
loftier viewpoint, assuming that the speech preceding it has
proved.
1. Free public education has reduced crime.
102 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
2. Free public education has improved the economic effi-
ciency of the masses.
3. Free public education has elevated the intellectual
capacity of the nation.
4. Free public education has cultivated higher forms of
appreciation and amusement.
Make a similar topical outline or brief of any other sub-
ject, and write out in full the kind of peroration designed.
You should always develop your ideas orally several times
before writing them out. Oral composition should always
precede the written composition, especially when a man is
training to become a speaker.
Fourth Day. — Make a topical outline for the following speeches
and write out an appeal in full. Follow directions given
above for the third day.
1. To a church society, a speech requesting funds to establish
free-milk stations for babies in the slums.
2. To the mine owners of Colorado, a speech asking them
to arbitrate their differences with the miners.
3. To a large manufacturing board of directors, a recom-
mendation to make a whirlwind, advertising campaign.
■1. To the superintendents of education, a speech advocating
more vocational or trade schools.
5. A speech in the behalf of any cause in which you are
interested.
Work out other exercises on several similar topics.
Fifth Day. — Take a long newspaper article reporting a law
case, civil or criminal, and make a topical analysis. Then
write out (a) a formal summary, (b) a crisp summary to
re-enforce it, (c) an appeal for acquittal or conviction.
It might be well for the student to memorize one or two of
the peroratioiis given in this lesson. This is not intended to
get liim in the habit of speaking from memory, but to give him
permanent possession of one or two models and to give him
the spirit of tlie peroration.
TEST QUESTIONS
These qm-stions are for the student to use in testing
his knoAvU'djre of the principles in this lesson. They
are si)(/f/e.stivc merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. Corax made his type plan to meet the needs of citizens
who had to plead land-claim suits ; that is, in Sicily, when there
was a dispute over the title of a piece of property, each citizen
argued his own cause. Why do you think the arrangement
Corax made was a good one for the purpose ?
2. Why is it better to divide the speech into three parts —
introduction, body, and conclusion — than to enumerate five or
eight separate parts?
3. Did you ever hear a speaker who made a fairly good
speech but did not succeed in driving it home? What man
do you know who does drive home his ideas most thoroughly?
4. Why should the conclusion be in the mind from the start?
Why prepare the introduction last ?
5. Did you ever hear a long speech and find it impossible to
remember the message of the speaker ? Would a summary have
helped any? Why?
6. Why do you think a formal summary is more necessary
in a legal plea than in a eulogy? When is the service of a
formal summary indispensable ? When may it be omitted ?
7. What advantage has the crisp summary over the formal
summary? What disadvantage?
8. Were you ever repelled by a speaker who was highly
emotional at the very beginning? Were you ever "carried
away " by an emotional burst at the end ? Why do you tolerate
at the end what might be offensive at the beginning?
0. Why is it better to tell what you want the audience to do
in an appeal at the end than to tell it in a statement in the
beginning?
103
104 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
10. What is a good note of appeal to strike with most juries?
Why do lawyers defending murder cases often demand a
death sentence or acquittal, but not a compromise sentence
for a period of years?
11. What is a good note of appeal to be used with gatherings
of business men?
12. Do you think the poetical quotation at the end of Grady's
"New South" strengthens or weakens the effect?
13. Were you ever stirred by a speaker but were h?ft with
the feeling that while you would like to do something, you did
not know just what to do? Why should most appeals be very
definite ?
14. What is the effect on the speaker himself of uncertainty
concerning the ending of a speech ? What effect does rambling
have on an audience ?
15. Why is the summary an efficient means of stopping ram-
bling ?
LESSON 7
physical aspects of delivery
1. Introduction
Thus far we have spoken about the mental side of
speech-making: The clear thinking out of ideas, their
arrangement in the most effective order, their proper
introduction, their application and appeal — all these are
matters of mental exercise. But now we must turn for
a while to the physical side of the delivery of a speech.
A cornetist might have the most wonderful melodies in
his mind, but if he had no instrument and if his breath
were insufficient to make it produce sound, other people
would never get the benefit of his musical genius. The
body with its lungs, vocal cords, and tongiie is the in-
strument of the public speaker. Without a good control
of the body, there can be no adequate expression of
ideas by means of voice and gesture. Therefore, we
shall consider the most important of those physical
things which influence the effectiveness of a speaker.
We do not intend to give minute directions about the
way the finger should be pointed or the eyebrow raised.
We are not concerned with the conscious control of de-
tails of gesture or grimace. But we do face this situa-
tion: Some men get out of breath when they speak;
some become hoarse if they talk continuously for five or
105
106 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ten minutes; some sjjeak so poorly that they cannot be
heard even in a small hall; some have their voices
"break." All these are practical obstacles to efficiency.
We must show the student how to overcome or avoid
them.
But besides these very obvious weaknesses of most
untrained speakers, there are the less generally recog-
nized deficiencies of unpleasant tone, jerky delivery due
to poor breathing, and individual mannerisms. With
these, also, we must deal.
Fortunately, if the student will acquire a few simple
habits of posture and breathing, most of tlio matters of
voice range, quality, and ease will take care of them-
selves. These habits are to speaking what normal liv-
ing is to health. If one lives properly, he need never
attend to his health, for it will take care of itself, and
he need never consult a physician. So, also, the speaker
who habitually stands well and breathes properly will
unconsciously produce pleasant, strong tones and make
graceful gestures. Furthermore, easy posture and cor-
rect, deep breathing have a wonderful influence upon the
mental calm and effectiveness of the speaker. We shall,
then, devote this lesson to fundamental, physical consid-
erations which have a far-reaching effect upon the mind
and voice of the speaker.
2. Posture
By posture, we mean the way the speaker stands —
how he rests upon his feet, how he holds his trunk, or
torso, and the attitude of his head and arms. There is a
good posture which makes for efficiencv and there are
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 107
bad ones which interfore with delivery. The ideal pos-
ture shouhl do two things: (1) It shoukl be the most
comfortable position of rest from which the speaker may
make the most direct, easy, and graceful movements
when there is a natural impulse for him to do so; and
(2) it should be the best position to foster the kind of
breathing- which is most desirable for the public speaker.
(a) The Position of the Feet
The first and easiest thing to explain about posture
is the disposition of the feet. They should be placed
so as to support the body in easy balance, permitting the
simplest change of position when the speaker moves
about on the platform or shifts his weight in gesture.
There are, of course, many different attitudes which a
speaker may assume during an address. We shall de-
scribe now the normal posture, or standard position,
from which the speaker departs in assuming the others
and with wdiich others are compared.
Look at the outline picture of Demosthenes and note
the position of the feet. Y^ou will see that the right foot
is somewhat in advance of the left, thus bringing the
right hand, with which most men usually make the most
gestures, nearest the audience. (The Greek orator has
that arm free of drapery so that its movements will be
unhampered.) Neither foot points directly at the au-
dience, though the right foot comes nearer to doing so
than the left. If a line were drawn through the right
foot and back to the left foot, it would pass through the
left heel. The right foot is advanced so that the heel is
about as far forward as the toe of the left. The accom-
Figiiro 1
DEMOSTHENES
Statup in tho Vatican Museum
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY
109
panying diagram (Figure 2) shows the relative posi-
tions of the two feet and indicates that they are turned
at about an angle of 45 degrees.
(b) The Weight of the Body
It is from this normal position, as a point of de-
parture, that the speaker changes during the progress
of his speech. The feet having been so placed, the next
problem is the determination of the disposition of the
weight of the body. Look at the picture of Demos-
thenes. It shows a man in the normal position at rest.
You can imagine him just facing the Athenian audience
waiting quietly until their applause of greeting sub-
sides. His weight is almost entirely on the left foot and
the right knee is somewhat bent. But when he straight-
ens up to speak, the bend at the right knee will disap-
pear ; the shoulders will be thrown back and the weight,
though still more on the left foot than on the right, will
be almost equally borne by both. This is the nornud
position in action.
With the feet in the normal position, the weight may
be shifted so as to be almost wholly on the left foot, now
equally on both, and again all on the right. While wait-
ing, or in a retiring attitude, there is a normal tendency
^ rest easily on the back, or left, foot. In straightfor-
110 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ward, natural discourse, the weight is borne equally by
both feet. With increased energy, the weight shifts
more forward, and in very aggressive speech the weight
is almost entirely on the forw^ard foot. In great anima-
tion the speaker may even lean forward with the heel of
the left foot well oif the floor. Yet the normal position
for normal delivery calls for both feet placed firmly on
the floor ; their positions in relation to eacli other should
be as indicated in the diagram and the w^eight should be
carried almost equally. The legs are straight and the
body held upright.
(c) Practice
Assume the normal position at rest and as you say
these words, straighten up in action as described in the
paragraph above : ' ' Mr. President, I am pleased to ad-
dress the House on the question of the freedom of the
F'ilipinos." At this point, the weight is carried equally
l)y both feet. As you continue, shift a little more weight
to the right foot, saying, ''Where human liberty is to
be gained, there will I always take my stand."
Note that at rest, the body bends in somewhat at the
waist and the left hip sinks. In action, the body is erect.
In earnest address, it is more vigorously erect. Con-
tinue your exercise by improvising a number of quiet
openings which gradually change to more spirited ex-
pression. In each case, start from (1) the somewhat
subdued position of rest to (2) the easy balance of nor-
mal action, and {?>) the more tense posture of animated
delivery.
The student should continue his exercises witli the
view to securing easy balance in all positions and du-
ring the shifting of weiglit. Tlirongliout tlie actual de-
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 111
livery of a real speech, one does not attend to these
things; he either does them well or poorly, but he does
not consciously direct his body. The exercises we sug-
gest are to train the body so that it will take care of
itself when the mind is engaged in the business of send-
ing thoughts to the audience. Indeed, all mechanical
exercises in connection with speech are to be forgotten
during the delivery of the speech itself. It is hoped,
however, that their effects will be evident in excellent
performance.
(d) The Posture of the Trunk
We shall now consider the way the body from the
waist up should be held. Again we take a normal, or
standard, posture as the point of departure. We want a
posture which will be manly and pleasing and which will
facilitate good breathing. It is a well-known fact that
clerks who sit hunched over a desk do not fill their lungs
properly with air. Their posture prevents them from
doing so. In order to get a full breath, the shoulders
must be thrown back and the chest held high. Then, at
the same time, there must be freedom at the waist so that
a deep inlialation may be possible.
It will be clear, before we end this lesson, that if the
student can get the habit of standing with the shoulders
held properly, the back hollow, stomach in, and chest up,
he wHl be able to breathe in the proper, public-speaking
style. No doubt you have seen in drug stores the braces
which are advertised to '^make you breathe cor-
rectly." This indeed they do, for they draw the shoul-
ders back and force the body into the position just
described. The exercises we shall give will also force
you to breathe properly, because they will strengthen
112 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEi^ING
the muscles which must work to enable you to hold the
correct posture. It is better to strengthen the muscles
than to wear a band or brace.
(e) Exercise
(a) Stand in a military position and bring the two
fists together on the chest at the level of the shoulders.
(Fig. 3.) The thumbs and fingers face the floor. The
backs of the hands, the elbows, and the shoulders are all
in a straight line.
Figure 3
(b) Keeping the elbows steadily in position and using
them for a center, describe a quarter-circle with the
fists. The two thumbs face each other during the move-
ment. Do it with strong tension and resistance all the
time, so that the muscles feel the strain.
(c) When the fists have reached the top of the curve,
slowly twist them so that the thumbs turn away from the
face and the backs of the two hands are opposite each
other. Then continue the movement of the fists, describ-
ing the rest of a full half-circle. The two arms
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OP DELIVERY
113
are now fully extended at shoulder level with the thumbs
down toward the floor. The strain is continued through-
out.
(d) Now gradually bring the two fists forward, at
shoulder level, until they meet once more at the original
position on the chest (Fig. 4). All this time bear down
I
Figure 4 '•— •
strongly under the shoulder so that the greatest tension
is felt under the shoulder blades.
Maintain this position for a moment and notice that
the chest has been raised by the strong action of the
muscles of the back and shoulder. This is the West
Point ' ' high-chest. ' '
(e) Now drop the hands lightly to the sides, but main-
tain the chest posture by an effort under the shoulders
and in the back.
It will be noticed that the back is arched inwardly, or
is hollow^, and the chest is high. This is ideal for a big
lung capacity. Consequently, it is excellent for both
health and public speaking.
Repeat this exercise in your I'oom; do it often just
before starting for a w^alk. Get the habit of holding
1]4 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
the chest up. While walking, remember to maintain the
West Point chest. Even while sitting at the desk, main-
tain it. When you bend forward, let it be from the hip,
not from the ivaist. The line from the base of the back-
bone to the neck should be kept a hollow curve ; never let
the shoulders droop forward, the back bow out, and the
chest cave in. If these directions are followed, you will
cultivate the ideal posture of the upper body.
(f) Flexibility
While it is true that the chest must be held up, still
the student must not allow this to influence him to be-
come generally stiff and restrained in his movements.
Do not draw the chin in stiffly or keep the arms in a
muscular cramp. After taking the exercise just de-
scribed and while still holding the chest well up, allow
the head to roll limply from side to side. Then allow it
to circle around, with the jaw relaxed and the chin
dropped. Do this until you get the ability to hold the
chest well and at the same time move the head and jaw
with the utmost freedom. There must be no stiffness
in the speaker's jaw or throat.
Now do the same with the hands and arms. Keeping
the chest up, loosely swing the arms back and forth.
Then fling the hand out as in a greeting, saying, ''I
welcome you to our country place." Then wave the
hand to the side as though saying, "All these lands are
open to you." In short, see to it that while the chest
is kept high by the muscles under the shoulders and in
the ])ack, the rest of the body is flexible and unrestrained.
After a while, the pi'oper muscles wliich control the
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 115
chest posture will do their work without direction from
the mind. That is the goal toward which constant ex-
ercise and practice will lead.
3. Breathing
It would not have been safe to give the student breath-
ing exercises before he had mastered the correct posture
of the chest, for breathing under incorrect posture con-
ditions only fixes bad habits. It is unfortunate to give,
as many works on elocution do, numerous exercises on
the intake and outlet of air without first teaching pos-
ture. This we avoid ; we urge the student to get posture
as a necessary preliminary to correct breath control.
Breathing to sustain life differs somewhat from
breathing to supply the motor power for speaking. In
the former case we are mostly interested in a deep
inhalation to fill the lungs with oxygen and a quick
expiration to get rid of the devitalized air. But, in
speaking, we wish to regulate the expiration so as to
use the air slowly as it passes out, in much the same way
as steam is used to make an engine w^ork. Consequently,
we shall study with care, not only the best way to get
the greatest amount of air into the lungs, but also the
way to regulate its emission so that it will most effi-
ciently work to produce the sounds in speech.
(a) Inhalation
The lungs rest in the chest and are surrounded by the
ribs in all directions save the bottom. Here they rest
upon an extensive surface of muscle and tendon called
the diaphragm. This flexible wall of muscle is like a
116
EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
bowl turned upside down; and it separates the chest from
the abdomen (Fig. 5). The size of the chest can be in-
, ^
Figure 5
I — First rib.
II — Second rib, etc.
A — ^Voice box or larynx.
B — Wind pipe or tracliea.
C — Collar-bone.
I) — Lungs.
R — Breast-bone.
V — Diaphragm.
creased in two ways: (1) By raising the ribs so as to in-
crease the upper girth, and (2) by flattening the dia-
pliragm so as to increase the depth (Fig. 6).
The exercises for posture suggested in the first part
of this lesson are designed to raise the ribs and keep
them raised. Tliis gives a steady magnitude in the girth
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY
117
of the upper chest. Figure 6 indicates how the raising
of the ribs accomplishes the desired object. It is im-
portant to note the following points :
1. The bony framework of the chest should be stead-
ily held up by the muscles behind the shoulders. It
should not be raised by the inflation of the lungs. It
should hardly move at all during speaking.
2. The great movement during speaking should be
(a)
(b)
Figure 6
(a) Ribs and Spinal Column, sliowing 1st and Ttli ribs in position of relaxa-
tion and in "high chest" position when drawn up by muscles of the bacli and
shoulder.
(b) Scheme showing the chest walls and diaphragm with air expelled and
(dash outline) with a full breath; diaphragmatic, high chest combination.
just below the point at which the ribs meet the breast-
bone and on a level with the little, floating ribs.
The 7novement is caused hy the rise and fall of the
diaphragm.
This second observation brings us to a discussion of
the diaphragm. To appreciate its action for the first
118 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
time, it is best to lie fiat upon your bacli wlien you are
undressed and ready to retire for tlie night. While thus
reclining, the ribs, not being weighted down by the arms
and their own bulk, easily assume the correct position
of maximum girth. While lying on your back, place the
hand just below the breast-bone and take a good, deep
breath. Notice how that part of the body rises and falls
with the breathing. The reason for this is that the
diaphragm flattens so that its edges push out the lower
ribs on the sides and the upper abdomen in the front.
Feel the lower ribs on both sides wliile taking the
breath.
The great fault with most men is that they take too
shallow a breath and do not work the diaphragm enough.
Furthermore, they raise the shoulders and upper chest
when taking a breath and let the chest fall flat when they
exhale.
Now stand upright with the hand on the center of the
upper abdomen; concentrate the attention on that part
of the body; hold the chest high and take a deep breath.
Do this many times until you are able (1) to maintain a
motionless high chest, and (2) to breathe by the action
of the diaphragm. During actual speaking, one does not
attend to his movements. Furthermore, there will be
some slight activity of the upper chest. But try to keep
a steady upper chest during exercises consciously done.
(b) Exhalation
You will have noticed that the intake of breath with
central breathing as described above gives the sensation
of increased effort in the region of the diaphragm. The
deeper the breath, the stronger the sensation of tighten-
PHYSICxVL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 119
ing. During exhalation, there should be a gradual re-
laxation of that effort. To appreciate what is wanted,
take a slow, deep breath, feeling the effect grow stronger
and stronger. Then retain the air in the lungs by main-
taining the effort at the diaphragm. {Do not hold in
the air by constricting the throat. If there is any sensa-
tion in the throat, your method is wrong.) Now sound
S-5-5-.S-5 continuously and slowly by having the air pour
out smoothly. It is released from the lungs by a slow
and steady release of the muscular tension of the dia-
phragm. There must he central control of emission and
not throat control. It will be noticed at first that the air
and the sound of s will come out in spurts. This is be-
cause your control is not good. But constant practice
will give you such control that you can let the air out
at a sloiv and steady rate. It will also probably be
noticed that after a certain amount of the air is out
there is a tendency for all the rest to burst forth with a
rush. That is because the control becomes more difficult
as the diaphragm relaxes.
, (c) Breathing Exercises to Increase Capacity
1. Stand in the normal posture, but with the palms of
the two hands resting lightly on the upper chest. Breathe
through the nostrils. Slowly inliale with the dia-
phragmatic effort and gently pat the chest with the
hands. This tends to force the air into partially unex-
panded air cells.
2. Repeat exercise 1 and have someone else gently
tap you all over the back. Do not hit hard, but rapidly
and gently. •
120 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
3. Stand in tlie military position with the chest well
up and the hands at the sides. Then as you slowly in-
hale, raise the arms, fluttering the hands until the two
backs meet over the head. As you slowly exhale, let the
hands return to the original position at the side.
These three exercises are excellent for one who has
been standing in a poor posture and breathing incor-
rectly with the result that a great manj^ of the little air
cells of the lungs have remained undeveloped. The fol-
lowing exercises should be used after those given above
have been used for a few weeks.
4. Standing with the hands on the waist so that the
fingers lie along the abdomen and the thumbs are in the
hollow of the back, take a comfortable, full breath, ac-
cording to the method just described. Then, by an effort
of the diaphragm, draw in a little more and a little more
air until the absolute limit is reached. Expel quickly
through the nose. With this effort there must be no
"sipping" or "packing" in the throat. There must
indeed be no effort whatsoever at the throat; all the
strain should be on the diaphragm as it is forced flatter
and flatter and held so.
(d) Breathing Exercises for Control of Emission
5. Take a full, though comfortable, breath as de-
scribed. Then slowly and steadily count aloud, one, two,
three, four, etc., so that all the sounds are firm and of
equal force and clearness. They come at regular inter-
vals. As you proceed, there is a gradual relaxation of
the diaphragm, the steadiness and evenness of which
determine the character of the sounds. Do not attempt
I
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 121
long-distance records at first. Stop as soon as the
sounds lack firmness and precision.
6. Kead aloud anything you may select; try to
take as few breaths as possible, while maintaining a
strong and pleasing tone. Regulate as noted in Exer-
cise 5.
(e) Comhinafion Breathing Exercise
7. Assume the standard posture of the trunk;
breathe through the nostrils; (a) inhale slowly with
diaphragmatic effort as you silently count off three sec-
onds; (b) hold the breath by central (and not throat)
effort for three seconds; (c) exhale slowly for three sec-
onds; (d) rest for three seconds. Repeat this twelve-
second cycle for about ten minutes. If difficulty is ex-
perienced in keeping the three-second rest, leave it out
at first. Then introduce a rest of one second, then two,
then the full three seconds. The idea is to have regular,
i-hythmic breathing. While taking this exercise, move
the head about freely; also move the arms, for the whole
body should be perfectly flexible and at ease, and in no
wise hampered by the breathing.
An excellent application of this exercise may be made
during walking. Make each portion of the cycle four
])eats instead of three, for each step is likely to be
quicker than a second interval. While walking, with
the steps as the measure, do the cycle. Keep the arms
swinging freely and let the head move as when looking
about to observe surroundings. If you swing the Indian
clubs or use dumb-bells, the breathing exercise can be
performed during the regular and rhythmic moves of
your gymnastics. But above all, use your walking time
122 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
to improve yonr breathing; this is the best way to get
the iiecessaiy, constant practice.
(f) Conditions for Breathing Exercises
You may make as many combinations of the exercises
given above as you please; you may also add different
tricks of rapid or slow intake, explosive expulsion, sigh-
ing, sobbing, and yawning. But observe the following
conditions when taking the exercises:
1. Never exercise just before or just after a meal;
disturbances of the digestive process may result.
2. Have the windows open or be out of doors. You
ought to use only clean, fresh air.
3. Do not raise the shoulders, but maintain the
steady, high chest.
4. Have perfect freedom at the waist and at the
small ribs ; do not have clothes tight in this region.
5. All the breathing eiTort should be at the diaphragm
not at the throat.
4. CoNCLUDixG Remarks
Because these exercises are to be practiced carefully
and every movement is to be regulated by the mind, it
must not be thought that the speaker, while delivering
his address, stands and breathes by rule. On the con-
trary, all his physical acts should take care of themselves
while he centers his attention upon the audience and his
message.
The most effective state a speaker can be in is one of
earnestness, where he is driving straight onward toward
his object without giving thought to the physical means
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 123
he is using. But, nevertheless, those medianical parts
are the agencies tlirough which he readies the autlience,
and tliey nmst be cultivated so that during the act of
expression they will worthily represent the mind.
Nature has beneficently provided that good habits of
breathing and posture, once secured through training,
will take care of themselves while the mind is engaged
with ideas. Consequently, your effort in exercise will
not be lost even though, during speech, you forget Jioiv
you breathe or stand.
You should not despise good form and depend solely
upon ideas, for they cannot fully display themselves
if the form is poor. A novice will do well to see carefully
that his posture is good, at least at the beginning of a
speech. After he is once started, let the form take care
of itself. This it will do if the exercises have left their
traces in habitual movements.
In most cases, a good start will insure continued excel-
lence. On the other hand, a poor start is likely to estab-
lish an undesirable situation very difficult to overcome.
If you begin by slouching or with the hands in the
trousers pockets, you will find it difficult to change to a
less offensive attitude. Do not play with a spoon, a
_ glass, or a salt cellar on the table, or a book, or even a
watch charm or a button on the coat. Assume the
normal posture with the hands hanging easily and nat-
urally at the sides. As the speech proceeds, there will
be changes, but a good beginning helps toward making
the later movements simple, unembarrassed, direct, and
effective.
Often one is a little nervous just before beginning to
speak. It will usually be noticed that one of the symp-
toms of this nervousness is high, shallow breathing and
124 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
consequent unpleasantness in the throat. The remedy is
a few slow, deep, steady breaths of the diaphragmatic
type. Indeed, a sj^eaker may always do well to take a
few steady, deep breaths, not only as a means of having
sufficient air to begin with, but also as a calmer.
Even during the address, the speaker may notice that
he is becoming nervous, that his breath is shallow^ and
his rate too fast. The corrective is to pause, breathe
low, and then proceed more deliberately, even attend-
ing consciously for a time to the deep, diaphragmatic
breathing. Certainly this course nuist be pursued if
the speaker feels his voice weakening or about to
*' crack."
This matter of breathing and posture is most impor-
tant. It is at the very foundation of physical efficiency.
Actors have ruined plays by bad breathing; ministers
have driven people from their churches by bad breath-
ing; political campaigns have been lost by the bad
breathing of candidates; and thousands of voices have
been ruined by the same pernicious evil. We urge most
emphatically, therefore, that the student make his body
fit to carry out the orders of his mind. Only through a
harmonious development of the mind and body can the
highest efficiency be attained.
Assignment of AVork
Tlip written
■xcrciscs in
this
(Mitirt
lesson shoi
Id be
carefully worke
1 out. KtH'
) nip
cs of
tlie written
exer-
ciscs in voiii' n(
tfhook.
First Da!j. — You have n-ad tlu> lesson. Now read it more
slowly, performing all the exei-cises once, according to direc-
tion. Tlien read it a tliird lime so as to get a coherent grasp
of the \vlio](> h'S.son.
I
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 125
Second Day. — Exercise with the position of the feet. Although
this day is especially devoted to the position of the feet, keep
the correct trunk posture. Take the speech on page 2(3,
Lesson 2. Assume the normal posture of the feet and read
with animation. Note tliat the weight tends to swing for-
ward on the words, "The supreme need of the hour is
* * * ." Read this whole speech, holding the book in
the left hand and gesticulating as freely as you please with
the right. Do this before the mirror. Notice the constant
shifting of the weight. Do the same thing with the Garfield
speech, on pages 33-37, Lesson 3.
Third Day. — Do the exercise for trunk posture (page 112).
Add the following: Stand in an open doorwaj^ with the
hands shoulder-high against the two sides, keep both feet
together; now fall forward, bending at the ankles, until the
shoulders are further forward than the hands ; then, by push-
ing with the hands, come back to the original position. Take
any other exercises designed to draw the shoulders back and
consequently to raise the chest.
Standing in the normal, or standard, position, and with the
back well arched, develop orally an outline or two, such as
those suggested on page 12, Lesson 1. Prepare and organize
your thoughts carefully before trying to amplify them orally.
Never undertake to speak unless you have your matter well
prepared.
Fourth Day. — Do all seven of the breathing exercises carefully.
Try speaking aloud, first with shallow breathing and then with
the approved kind. Note the difference in the sound of the
voice. Note also the difference in sensation.
Carefully regulating your breathing, recite a passage j-ou
have memorized — the Webster or the Clay peroration, page 93
and page 99, respectively, of Lesson 6. Read all the conclud-
ing passages of Lesson 6, holding the book in the left hand
and gesticulating freely as you will with the right. Carefully
regulate the breathing.
Fifth Day. — Plan an entire speech with introduction, body, and
conclusion. The following topics are offered as suggestions:
(1) The rise of Japan.
126 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(2) Private Ownership of Laud.
(3) The Practieal Results of Social Legislatiou.
(4) Base Ball, the National Sport.
(5) The Right to Inherit Wealth.
Do not make more than three main points in the body of
the speech. While delivering the speech orally, observe your
breathing. This is for practice and instruction. When ad-
dressing a real audience, pay no attention to your breathing
unless you get into trouble, then use correct breathing as a
remedy.
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
his knowledj^e of tlie piiiiciples in this lesson. They
are siigfiestife merely, dealing largely' with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future leference.
1. AVhy should a speaker exercise so as to iini:)rove his posture
and breathing!
2. If a man has good ideas and is in earnest, does it nuike any
difference in his effectiveness as a speaker if he stands awk-
wardly and breathes poorly?
3. Have you ever observed a speaker whose voice was weak
and unpleasant to listen to ? How did it affect yon in listening to
his ideas?
4. The next time you hear such a speaker, watch him closely
and see if there is anything the matter with his trunk posture or
liis breathing. Do his shoulders rise and fall during his speak-
ing? Is he hunched over?
5. Did you ever observe the curve or line of the back of an
opera singer? Do singers who make full, carrying tones slouch,
or do the}^ stand erect with chest high? Have you noted the
place of greatest movement when they breathe? Observe the
men rather than the women, for the dress of the latter interferes
with their movements during breathing. How does a speaker
compare with a singer in the matter of producing sounds ?
6. When you take your breathing exercise, do you become
dizzy ? If you do, rest a moment or even slap the cheeks lightly
and the dizziness will cease. As you progress, this symptom
will disappear.
7. Does the deep breathing make you a bit tired? It will if
you have been breathing incorrectly hitherto. Practice will
strengthen the muscles inVolv(Ml and they will work without
weariness.
127
128 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
8. What are the two ways of increasing capacity mentioned in
the lessons"/
9. Why would it be bad to take breathing lessons to increase
capacity and control if the posture were poor?
10. Someone said of a great speaker, "He owes his success
to liis diaphragm." What does that mean? Could it be true?
Why?
11. Do you stand correctly? Practice the exercise given for
tlie second day and the exercise given on page 110, over and over
again. Do they help ?
12. Which breathing exercises do you find most helpful?
13. What is the normal position ?
14. Who was Demosthenes? AYhat are some of his famous
orations ?
15. What is the value of a "good start"? How can you over-
come nervousness?
LESSON 8
SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS OF DELIVERY
While the mechanical requirements of correct posture
and breathing must be met, there are also certain sub-
jective attributes which are essential to effective de-
livery. To insure success with audiences, attractive
personal qualities must exist in the speaker. These
qualities re-enforce the message itself, they add to its
weight, or they make its acceptance more agroealjle.
Because, of deficiency in these subjective attributes,
many a keen thinker is listened to stolidly, if not defi-
antl}^, and his fairest conclusions only grudgingly
granted. Yet, on the other hand, there are speakers
with whom audiences are glad to agree so long as their
ideas have the barest plausibility. Evidently something
in the speaker either helps or hinders the most favor-
able acceptance of his w^ords by the audience. It is the
purpose of this lesson to outline the inner or subjective
trnits which make for efficiency and suggest methods of
cultivating them in the speaker.
1. Personality
\
The broadest term we can use to designate the sub-
jective elements of charm, power, and attractiveness of
a speaker is personality. It sums up those genernl, ])er-
manent attributes which show through all his transitory
words and deeds. If that underlying, permanent self
129
130 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
appeals to us, we say that the man has a good person-
ality. Naturally all do not have the same taste in this
matter and a man may seem pleasant to one person and
be colorless or even repulsive to another. Indeed, as
widely as individuals differ, just so wide is the diver-
gence in response to personality. Yet there are certain
attributes which are quite universally looked upon as
positive elements in a good personality. Let us enu-
merate some of these features which are especially sought
for in a speaker.
(a) Magnetism
The term magnetism is often used instead of good
personality. It is peculiarly applicable to successful
speakers and directs attention not so much to what is the
source of the man's power as to the effect it has upon
others. By magnetism we mean a composite of personal
attributes which draws people to the speaker and tends to
incline them to sympathize with or rally around him.
An old gentleman once recounted to the writer the fol-
lowing incident in the life of Henry Ward Beecher.
The gentleman was from the British West Indies and
was visiting New York, just before the Civil War. All
his sympathies were with the South on the slavery ques-
tion and he could not understand why people like
Beecher should agitate for abolition. Yet, out of curi-
osity, he went one Sunday to the Broadway Tabernacle
to hear Beecher speak on slavery. In those days, such
special lectures were advertised by hand sticko-s or
posters slapped up against telegraph poles and walls.
On this occasion the announcement said, ** Henry Ward
Beecher will speak on Slavery, at the Broadway Taber-
SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 131
iiacle, " etc., etc. Tliere was in New York at that time
a volunteer fire company made up of ruffians who would
now be called election repeaters and strong-arm men.
It was led by a great bully and corrupt politician —
let us call him John Doe. The posters had not been
up long before there appeared, under the announcement
that Beecher would speak, the words, "Like Hell he
will. — John Doe." Consequently, those who attended
the lecture came expecting trouble and possibly blood-
shed. The gentleman from the West Indies was in the
front of the gallery. As he looked down, he saw there
on the ground floor, filling all the seats back from the
stage one-third into the house, a great number of the
red-shirted, volunteer firemen-ruffians. The leader stood
in front cursing and threatening in violent language
what he would do to Beecher. At the appointed time,
Beecher suddenly ascended the steps of the platform
and began to speak. There was a pause in the uproar
and then dead silence. Even John Doe and his follow-
ers were hushed. In that, moment Beecher became
master. The stranger in the gallery afterward said,
''If that red-shirted devil had dared to stir a finger to
harm Henry Ward Beecher, I'd have jumped down on
his neck and killed him." Others must have felt tlie
same way; even the would-be rioters were subdued by
the spiritual power of the speaker. This was a victory
of character, personality, and magnetism, quite inde-
pendent of ivhat Beecher said.
Possibly we do not often get such a dramatic proof of
the power of magnetism, but we have all experienced the
force which some men display in manner, attitude, and
presence — external signs of something permanent and
admirable within. Others, less fortunate, have to con-
132 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
tend not only with the audience but also against their
own unfortunate selves. Before enumerating some of
the foremost elements of a good personality or magnet-
ism, we may note two things: First, magnetism is
purely subjective — it resides in the speaker irrespective
of what he is saying at a given time ; second, it seems to
have a twofold source — mental and physical. We shall
list mental traits first.
1. Friendliness is the first attribute of a magnetic
speaker. His attitude toward those he addresses is one
of trustfulness. He approaches with a coiifiding air;
he treats them as friends. The opposites of this are
coldness, arrogance, superiority, and distrust. It is
well known that every speech occasion is made by the
audience as well as the speaker. He contributes to the
situation, but so do they. What they add depends
greatly upon the friendliness he displays. If they feel
his cordiality, they will respond and the very atmos-
phere will vibrate with stimulating good feeling between
the two.
The young speaker must not get the notion that he
can easily pretend to be friendly, that he can smile and
assume an agreeable air when delivering a particular
speech. All this may help, but the real spirit of uni-
versal friendliness must be a permanent part of his char-
acter. If such is not the case, isolated pretenses of
friendliness are apt to be patronizing performances
which repel by their conscious condescension. Now the
question arises, how can one develop this trait if it is
wanting or weak?
At all times, the speaker must be friendly in thought
and act. His daily intercourse with all people must be
frank, cordial, and interested. He must converse with
SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 133
the deck hand on the ferry boat, the conductor on the
car, and all classes of men. He must speak to them about
their affairs, their interests, and their views. In a sim-
ple and straightforward way, he must mingle with all
and enjoy the contact.
Examine yourself well and see if there is any shrink-
ing from your fellows, any awkwardness, any aloofness.
If it exists, set about to eradicate it; cultivate acquain-
tances, and make many friends. At least try to be
friendly; let your attitude be one of welcome and good
will.
2. Sympatliy is not identical with friendliness, though
it may be a consequent. We know many good-natured,
friendly people who never have any insight into our feel-
ings and wdio never understand us. They mean well, but
they have no penetration or understanding. The word
sympathy means to feel with another. A sympathetic
person is able to sense a situation, to enter into the feel-
ings of others, to appreciate their attitudes. One reason
why a great many well-meaning men can never become
successful speakers is that they are unable to get the other
fellow's point of view or to apprehend his joys and
pains. Edward Rowland Sill expressed it very well in
his Fool's Prayer when he said:
These clurasy feet, still in the mire,
Go crushing blossoms without end ;
These hard, well-meaning hands we thrust
Among the heart-strings of a friend.
The ill-timed truth we might have kept —
Who knows how sharp it pierced and stung ?
The word we had not sense to say —
Who knows how grandly it had rung?
134 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
The speaker must know, through sympathy, just
where the heart is sore and just what is the word to
cheer. One false step here may estrange individuals
and whole audiences to such an extent that nothing can
possibly be said to win their trust and support.
In political and social (economic) speeches, the matter
of sympathy with the hearers is very important. No
headway can be made when the apparently strange
point of view of the other fellow is not seen and under-
stood. Those who are well fixed with the world's goods,
speaking from pulpit and political platform, often fail
utterly to understand the dissatisfaction and bitterness
of the poor ; nor can they sympathize with the hot, blind
revolt against economic oppression and social inequality.
They are incapable of knowing the hearts they seek to
win. So, also, the rule works the other way. Often
labor agitators and social reformers, who seek perfectly
reasonable and laudable ends, fail when addressing a
cultivated audience because they are unable to sympa-
thize with the point of view which the ''upper half"
holds. It will not do to say, "Their view is wrong; I'll
have none of it." If the object is frankly to antagonize
and win through crushing force, very well; but few
movements can win through sheer, crushing, brute force.
Even though a speaker cannot approve the ideas, atti-
tudes, and feelings of his audience, he must be able to
put himself sympathetically in their place and work
around to new ideals, with that place as the starting
point. A good father understands the impulses of his
wayward boy ; it is that very thing which enables him
to deal effectively with his son.
Sympathy comes only from wide experience and the
*'rul)bing against" one's fellow-men. But even this is
SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 135
not enough; the student must forget himself for a time
and take an interest in the affairs of people apart from
his own, narrow interests. The best practical way to
get into this sympathetic relation with others is to do
them servi ces a nd sho w t heiii kindne sses. It is not
merely a piece of goody-goody advice to say to the
oratorical aspirant, "Forget yourself and become ab-
sorbed in acts of kindness"; for it is only through that
sort of intercourse that the heart of mankind becomes
as an open book. It is a wonderfully interesting book
which tells much to eyes sometimes blinded by tears,
sometimes hardened by glimpses of depravity, but far,
far more often lighted up by a thrilling insight into
unexpected, fundamental^ nobility.
It is difficult to say where sympathy does the speaker
the greater service — in the intelligent search for truth
or in the skilful imparting of it after it is found.
Through it, his understanding of all things is broadened
and deepened ; through it he makes it most acceptable to
the audience which he understands and knows how to
handle.
Again, let us give the warning that pretense will not
do; neither can it be worked up for special occasions.
Each address shows it as an individual exhibition of a
broad and permanent part of the speaker's character.
That character is built up day by day, hour by hour,
while speaking in public, in private conversation,
during personal observation and even in the silence of
meditation.
To speak this way of sympathy as an essential part
of a speaker's character does not imply that all speeches
should be mild in tone and of a gentle, pleading kind.
It does mean that the sympathetic speaker senses the
136 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING ♦
tone which will be most effective; he gets in touch with
the prevailing condition of the audience-mind. If some
thing must be vigorously denounced, by all means let
the speaker be vehement in his righteous indignation.
But let him not denounce what the audience is unpre-
pared to hear treated in that manner. Sympathy will
tell him where he must get them before opening the
attack.
3. Earnestness is next to be considered. In a sense,
it balances frieiidttness and sympathy, for while they
tend to make a man considerate, this characteristic
drives him right onward, sometimes even rough-shod,
to his object. Earnestness may be called the impelling
or motive force within the speaker which arises because
of his interest in the audience, his theme, or some object
he expects to accomplish. No man can be in earnest
who does not believe what he says or who is indifferent
to its effect upon his hearers. When the trait does
exist, it is of considerable weight, for earnestness covers
a multitude of the sins of bad delivery and poor
arrangement.
The road to earnestness is honesty. Say only what
you truly believe and say it for reasons which strongly
commend themselves to your judgment. Never speak
merely for the sake of saying something, but arise when
you have a real object before you and when you are sure
you have matter which is worthy of utterance and likely
to accomplish that object.
In Lesson 8, we spoke of sincerity as one of the qual-
ities of a speaker which, during tlie opening remarks,
win the good will of the audience. Sincerity and earnest-
ness are closely related and often go together. In fact,
sustained earnestness — intensitv of conviction and force
SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS OP DELIVERY 137
of expression — usually imply the existence of sincerity.
But earnestness is the broader term; it connotes not
only honest, straightforwardness but also steady, eager,
persistent etfort in the desired direction. Be earnest in
your research, earnest in your attention to plan and
organization, and above all, be earnest in your delivery.
This last will be most natural if the others exist first.
In short, keep your object before you from the very
beginning and strive toward it with all your might.
4. Cansd£jtw^_is a potent influence on personality.
We do not expect to treat it exhaustively here. But
this much can be said : If a man is advocating a cause
which is not approved by his conscience, his power w^ith
an audience is greatly reduced. Two classes of persons
make out successful cases — those of great virtue and
clear conscience and those immoral beings with no con-
sciences at all. But fortunately for the world, there are
very few^ of the latter. Most men, even wicked ones, have
consciences which can be abused.
This matter of conscience is not only a thing directly
connected with the object of a particular speech; it has
a wider bearing. We need not argue to prove that a
man is handicapped when he tries to present to an audi-
ence a case which he knows is false or "queer." But
we do wish to state a less obvious truth, namely, that a
man whose conscience is gnawing at him for any reason
whatsoever is thereby less capable to treat effectively
any subject, whether or not it is related to the thing-
bothering his conscience. For this inner embarrassment
interferes with his frank relations with men. He has
something to conceal, he is on the defensive, his air is
evasive. Meditation on this subject makes us realize the
deep significance of the statement concerning Sir Galahad
138 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
— that his strength was of a hundred men because his
heart was pure. Let no man try to move others while
his conscience is reminding him of his unfitness.
5. Physical Wcll-Being obviously augments magnet-
ism. Since speaking, in one way, is a physical feat, a
sound constitution is a necessary aid. The speaker's
lungs must be well developed, his throat and vocal ap-
paratus in good condition. We have already considered
the matters of posture and breathing; later we shall give
the general hygiene or health rules for a speaker.
But good health also has a psychological effect upon
audience and speaker. Men are drawn to the speaker
who is physically vigorous and in good tone. He need
not be exceedingly large (though that sometimes helps)
but the appearance of fitness attracts others.
The greatest influence that good health has is upon
the mind of the speaker himself. It makes him think
clearly and act with sureness and confidence. When
the physical tone is low, one becomes timid, querulous,
uncertain of himself. Physical well-being is the founda-
tion of mental balance.
6. Other Less General Contributions to Personality
Are to he Desired. While all men can cultivate to a
high degree, friendliness, sympathy, earnestness, con-
science, and physical fitness, by much the same methods,
tliere are other magnetic traits which are more individual
or particular. Among these are wit, humor, resourceful-
ness, breadth of information, and individual charms and
specialties. Here we can give no definite directions for
their cultivation though we fully recognize the power of
individuality. Later we shall me it this topic again. But
even at this point of development, the student may profit
by one hint: Whatever is lacking in individual magnet-
SUBJECTIVE ASI'ECTS OF DELIVERY 139
ism may be fostered and whatever exists to a small
extent, ^^•ill be augmented by much practice in actual
speech-making. To enlarge your individual powers,
practice.
2. Confidence
Whatever the general personality or magnetism of a
speaker may be, he must have confidence during the
actual delivery of a particular address. By confidence
we do not mean self-control, for one who is carried away
by his passions and loses his temper may be a man with
a great deal of confidence though of very little self-
control. We do mean by confidence a trait which en-
ables us to be natural — to be ourselves. One has con-
fidence when he has no fear or hesitancy when facing
an audience and delivering a speech. He may do poorly,
l)ut if he is confident, his shortcomings are due to his
limitations as a thinker, a speaker, and a man, and not
to a temporary apprehension or fear. Confidence, then,
is a steadying trust in self, ease of mind, freedom from
fear, and an assurance that all will be well.
The opposites of confidence are trepidation, fear,
panic, and nervousness. Let us suppose that a great
banker knows more about currency and banlving prob-
lems than any other man in the country. He is the
master mind in the field of finance. But all his life he
has been confined to his business and has never ad-
dressed large audiences. Suddenly he is called upon
to outline his plan for baulking reform before the legisla-
ture. Of what use is his great stock of knowledge to
him at this juncture, if the unusual situation of making
a speech to senators and congressmen throws him into
140 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
a panic? A better showing might be made and more
good accomplished by a professional speaker who had
crammed enough information to meet the immediate
needs of the occasion. Confidence, an ease which en-
ables us to use our powers to the full, is fundamental
to efficient speaking.
(a) Confidence — A Tiling to Be Preserved, not to Be
Acquired
Confidence is not so much a positive virtue as the
absence of weakness. Confidence is normal and lack of
it is abnormal. As a rule, men going about their regu-
lar business in life do so with confidence ; it is the unusual
or exceptional thing which suddenly robs them of it.
How, then, shall we preserve our usual equanimity, even
under the stress of public address? Our jjroblem is
not to create a new characteristic, but to prevent our
losing a good trait when making a speech. Let us
therefore see what are the things which pull our ease
and complacency from under us so that we fail, through
embarrassment.
The undertaking of something which is strange or
new, especially in the presence of others, tends to de-
stroy confidence. The uncertainty or newness of the
activity is the basic reason for loss of confidence, and
the presence of others is an additional aggravating or
embarrassing circumstance. School teachers who con-
duct their classes with the calm of a postmistress lick-
ing a postage stamp, report that they trembled with"
timidity the first time they faced a room full of pupils.
But repeating the performance made it commonplace
jind usual. The first safeguai'd against a loss of con-
SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS OB^ DELIVERY 141
fidence is much speaking in public. Begin modestly and
join in all the discussions of any club, order, or society
to which you may belong. Gradually lengthen your
contributions to discussion or debate, until the thing
becomes ordinary or usual. This matter of newness or
strangeness is the stumbling-block of inexperienced
speakers.
(h) Preparation and Confidence
The second destroyer of confidence is the knowledge
on the part of the speaker that he is poorly prepared.
This is the AVaterloo of the experienced speaker. Often
one who has had much practice as a speaker and who
has been successful attempts to speak impromptu on
subjects not properly mastered. Sometimes he makes
a strong beginning, but as he realizes that his material
is poor in quality and unorganized in arrangement, he
begins to flounder and his confidence leaves him. With
this, his panic increases and, unless he wisely cuts the
address short, he gets deeper and deeper into trouble,
making a most unfavorable exhibition of himself. It
naturally follows therefore that one should have ample
material well mastered not only as to content but also
as to arrangement. The ideas must be so thoroughly
mastered that the speaker will never be seized with the
apprehension that possibly he might be at a loss for
something to say. The greatest fear of the good speaker
is that he will be on his feet, before the audience, with
nothing to say. Yet it is the difficulty most easily pro-
vided against. Follow the simple rule "Never attempt
to speak impromptu at any length." If the speech be
written out and read, the preparation should be so thor-
142 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ough that the speaker has no fear that he will stumble
in the reading. If it be written and committed to mem-
ory, the memorizing should be perfect. If it be pre-
pared in thought but extemporaneous in form (as most
of the best speeches are), it should be thoroughly pre-
pared. It is to this last kind of preparation that we
pay most attention, for this is the style of address most
useful to the average man of affairs.
(c) Rules for the Preservation of Confidence
From the two principles of confidence through fa-
miliarity and confidence through preparation we get the
following practical rules :
1. Set yourself a definite task for each speech.
2. Have the task simple enough so that it is not beyond
a speaker at your stage of development.
3. Have it thoroughly planned and mastered.
4. Do not be tempted to go beyond tlie ])lan.
5. Sit down when through.
6. Do ALL OF THESE VERY OFTEN.
(d) Auto-Suggestion and Confidence*
It has been said by some who ought to know about
confidence (for they are in a sense, confidence men) tliat
it should be developed by a process of self-suggestion —
a sort of auto-hypnotism. Their practical direction is
that the speaker say to himself each day, words to this
effect: '^I am a powerful thinker; my ideas are pro-
found and I grow greater every day. I see myself sway-
ing audiences; I believe and know I am a convincing
speaker; the others believe it, too."
SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 143
The principle is true, but the suggestious are uot the
best. To a certain extent we grow into what we suggest
to ourselves we ought to be. It is also true that a good
opinion of one's^^^f soiiietinies fosters a like opinion
in others. Usuall}^ when it is empty conceit it has an
opposite effect. Therefore it is foolish to persuade your-
self that you are profound and eloquent when you are
not. Suppose a little peanut-head of an individual were
to succeed in convincing himself that he is a master
mind. Having no real attainments, he becomes an in-
sufferable pest because of his empty cockiness.
It is true, that if we face audiences with fear and
uncertainty, we are defeated before the battle begins.
It is also true that one who constantly depreciates him-
self will lose in impressiveness. But on the other hand,
our suggestions should be based on real merit and be
calculated to build up constantly not only confidence
but a just ground for it. Woe unto him of inflated con-
fidence when he gets before an audience and discovers
that he has nothing to deliver. Consequently we rec-
ommend that one do not suggest to himself that, in gen-
eral, he is a person of much weight; but rather that he
suggest,* before each specific task, that he is well pre-
pared and thoroughly fit to carry it out successfully.
The statements to be reiterated may be:
1. I have thoroughly prepared this matter.
2. I possess fully tested evidence that my ideas are
sound.
3. They are worth standing up for.
4. I will deliver them as prepared and then sit down.
5. Thus, certain of my thoroughly prepared and care-
fully arranged matter, I cannot fail; the audience will
agree with me.
144 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
If this be done each time any task is undertaken, gen-
eral confidence, resting on a sure foundation, will be
steadily built up.
3. Self- Control
A lack of self-control is the besetting sin of very
vigorous and enthusiastic speakers. These men often
work themselves up to a state of such excitement that
they (a) exaggerate, (b) say things they had not planned
or wanted to say, (c) forget to say what they wanted to
say, and (d) display feelings which they should have
restrained. Any newspaper reporter will tell you how
general is the fault of poor self-control. Public men,
because of it, make speeches for which thej are sorry
and sometimes, we regret to state, they brand a true
report of such an address as a lie. Newspapers are
blamed for ''misstatements" which in reality are the
true records of utterances made without self-control.
The most general precaution to insure self-control is
careful planning. The tendency is to adhere to a well-
made plan, while lack of preparation encourages the
pursuit of any chance fancy. Yet one may have the
opportunity to modify a plan successfully because of
some circumstance which emerges during the delivery
of the speech. If, in embracing such an opportunity, or
if the speaker realizes that, for any other cause, he is
not having himself well in hand, then a remedy must
be found.
The best retreat ^vhen self-control is beginning to slip
away, is to pause, go slowly, and cast about for a means
of retui'ning to the safe phm or of terminating the speech
SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 145
gracefully. Imitate the tortoise. When in troubl(>, he
stops, draws into his shell, and then goes ahead slowl}'.
4. Tact
Read once more the little extract about tact on ])age
10 of Lesson 1. It says that tact is not a sixth sense,
but the life of all five. A tactful person sees little things
hidden from others, he hears unspoken opinions, he
senses a situation. Volumes could be written on this
subject. AVe have time for but three brief remarks.
(a) Tact comes from much contact with other people.
This intercourse must be wide and intimate so that their
multitudinous peculiarities are impressed — sometimes
even without the student's being aware of it. Tact is
developed through mistakes. If one is pricked by an-
other's resentment, the lesson teaches him to avoid that
line of communication. The tact of a speaker is but a
complex combination attained after much intercourse
with individuals and many appearances before audiences.
(b) In speaking, tact is usually more a matter of know-
ing what not to say than what to say. People offend,
generally, when they grow expansive and over-amplify.
Sometimes a speaker will try to cram down the throats
of his audience what his judg-ment tells him they will not
tolerate. This is a great mistake. It is far better to
leave a thought unsaid than to say it when it is sure to
have a bad effect. Of course one cannot be instructed in
the details of tact, but a speaker will be working in the
right direction if he inclines to the side of brevity ratlier
than verl)osity.
(c) Tact is a general development which can be at-
tained through the cultivation of all the virtues men-
146 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
tioned in this lesson and through constant contact with
all sorts of people in all sorts of gatherings.
5. Conclusion
Character, personality, tact — in fact all virtues which
make for social (and that means oratorical) success are
the general results of many particular victories. No one
can have a pleasant disposition who has not thought
many pleasant thoughts and done many kind acts.
Masterful confidence is the result of a multitude of small
tasks successfully planned and carried out. General
earnestness grows out of interest in a number of worthy
objects. Therefore we suggest that each evening the
speaker set aside a "time for reflection" when he can
quietly review the details of the day's affairs. At such
a time he may take stock of Inmself, asking:
Reflection Hour
1. Did I make a new friend today!
2. Did I let pass an opportunity to make a friend !
(a) If so, why!
(b) Did pride stand in the way!
(c) Did selfishness!
(d) Did bashfulness!
(e) Did fear or cowardice!
(f) Did any bitterness or inner embarrassment!
(g) Then, what did?
3. Did I niako, oi- lei sli]), a chance acquaintance!
4. Did I do anything to mak(» some one happier!
5. Did I let slip such an opportunity? Why?
(). Did anvone coufide in me today !
SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS OF DELIVERY 147
7. Did I offend anyone today I
(a) If so, was it necessary!
(b) Did it serve any good purpose!
(c) Did I lose personally by itf
(d) What difference did it make in my temporary
mental quiet, in my general disposition, in
my actions!
(e) Did it, even for a time, make me less efficient
in the performance of some duty or less
pleasant to others with whom I had no
quarrel whatsoever!
8. Did I learn something new today that I can "pass
on" to others or that will increase my efficiency!
(a) AVhat from a book!
(b) What from the speech of others!
(c) What from personal observation!
9. Did I do or say something I cannot thoroughly ap-
prove! Something wiiich hurt someone? Is this
becoming habitual!
10. Is there something undone or unsaid which I ought
to have done or said or can yet do or say!
Note. — (Do it now, if possible; if not, make a memo-
randum which will be followed at the proper time.)
Assignment of Work
The written exercises in this entire lesson should be
carefully worked out. Koep copies of the written exer-
cises in your notebook.
First Day. — You have read through the lesson. Now study it
again carefully, niasteriug its contents. Do not attempt any
of the exercises until after the second reading.
^Second Day. — Select for a speech with at least three sub-topics,
one of the following subjects :
148 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
1. Tiie Federal Government should (or should not) regulate
"big business."
2. President Wilson is (or is not) right in his contention
that the slackness in business is psychological.
3. Workmen should (or should not) be compensated b}^ so-
ciet}^ according to their needs rather than their esti-
mated productivity.
4. The denial of the right of women to vote is in accordance
with (or counter to) the provisions of the Constitution.
5. Some other subject in which you are interested.
Devote this day to careful reading and note-taking on the
subject.
Third Day. — Further reading and note-taking. Whenever using
material not your own, be sure to label all material with
author's name and the place where found.
Fourth Day. — "Slake a plan of your proposed speech. Work it
out very carefully, using in the most effective way all your
personal knowledge and all the material you gathered.
Fifth Day. — Apply the list of rules on page 142 and statements
on page 143. Then commit your outline to memory and
orally develop your speech. Keep a list of all the sources
of information you consulted.
Final Word
From now on, keep the precautions on page 142 always
in mind when working on a speech.
Go over the list of assertions on page 143 every day
in connection with a speech or other task yon had to
perform.
Every evening indulge in the Eeflection Hour outlined
on page 146.
TEST QUESTIONS
Those questions are for the student to use in testing
his knnwletige of the principles in tliis h'sson. 'J'hey
iire siun/csfirc nu-rely, dealinji laroely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. What do we mean by a good personality? What is mag-
netism ?
2. Have you ever liad dealings with a man against whom you
had ])een prejudiced, but who won your respect? Can you tell
just what there was about him which impressed you?
3. What advantages could you gain as a speaker through
friendliness? What advantages in your usual lousiness? Coidd
you lose anything?
4. Is sympathy a sign of weakness or of strength ? What can
a speaker gain in preparing his matter through his ability to
sympathize? How does it help his delivery?
5. What do you mean by earnestness? How does it differ
from forwardness ? Is it ever apt to lead to forwardness ?
6. Have you ever had something on your conscience which
affected your thoughts on other topics, the tone of your voice,
and your attitude to individuals and groups?
7. Which is more important, intellectual equipment or
physical well-being? Are they related at all? Why should a
speaker be in especially good physical condition?
8. What is the difference between confidence and conceit?
Why do you dislike a conceited man? Why do you approve
a confident man?
9. Why must general self-reliance and confidence be sought
through particular, small deeds?
10. What are the two surest precautions to secure con-
fidence ?
149
150 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
11. Is it well to lie to other people ? Is it well to lie to your-
self about yourself? What kind of auto-suggestion is best to
help build up confidence?
12. Who is the most tactful person you know ? What seems
to be the secret of that person 's success ?
13. What do you think of the possible benefit to be reaped
from our Reflection Hour questions?
1-4. On the basis of 100 per cent for a "perfect" personality,
what would you grade yourself? Your best chum? Your boss?
A number of friends ?
15. What percentage in your good i)ersonality scale Avoiild
you give for perfection in the following lines :
Tact? Physical Weil-Being?
Magnetism? Wit?
Friendliness ? Education ?
Sympathy ? Resourcefulness ?
Earnestness? Self Control?
Confidence ?
What others would you add?
16. What are the rules given for the preservation of confi-
dence ?
17. What is the value of auto-suggestion?
18. Could you build up a "Reflection Hour" along the lines
of "personal efficiency" and daily work?
u
LESSON 9
IMAGES AND THE MIND OF THE AUDIENCE
In our first six lessons, we assumed that the speaker
had a purpose to accomplish through the delivery of a
mass of material, referred to as the message. Those
lessons were designed to indicate an effective way to
adjust the message as a whole to the mental condition
of the hearer. The principal means suggested was a
judicious organization of the main subdivisions of the
speech. But details of treatment, such as the choice
and arrangement of words, the description of scenes,
the narration of events, or the use of evidence in argu-
ment — all these were subordinated and, for a time, neg-
lected in order to focus attention upon the larger mat-
ters of planning. We shall now take up the study of
the details of speech composition.
1. Word-Painting, or the Representation of Images
(a) Images and Important Detail of the Organized
Whole
This does not mean that we are to set aside and for-
get the general principles of larger organization. The
perfection of a student in his treatment of details must
not be at the expense of good general planning. If the
structure of a whole speech is poor but some detail of
description is beautifully worked out, the effect is ridicu-
lous because a part attracts more attention than the
whole. Good organization i nsures tha t each detail used
in JJie_.de.Yelapinent_wilLJie_gi^:fiii_its just emphasis or
. JTnpnrt flTicp — no more and no less.
151
152 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Another good reason for keeping the principles of gen-
eral arrangement in mind is that they are useful guides
even in the treatment of details. For instance, just as a
favorable emotional set may be needed to pave the way
for an entire address, so also it is often desirable to pre-
pare the audience in a similar manner for the reception
of a particular incident. While interest and attention
must be secured in relation to the whole message, like
attitudes must always be maintained if a detail is to
make its own impression. Furthermore, it is almost as
important to plan the arrangement of minor descrip-
tions and to fit their new thoughts to the intellectual
capacity of the auditors as to make similar precautions
for the oration as a whole. Indeed, the same principles
are applied. The principles of favorable emotional set,
attention, interest, adjustment to previous knowledge,
and sequence of parts are so universal that they apply
first to the general plan, then to each division, and doAvn
to the smallest subdivision.
When we speak of the details which make up or com-
pose a message, we mean the smallest mental states
(thoughts, feelings, impressions, ideas, reasons, etc.)
which a speaker has in his own mind and which he seeks
to re-create in the minds of his hearers. For instance,
the speaker may have a clear impression of a great mul-
titude cheering one who speaks for freedom. He might
close his eyes and, in imagination, see the animated
orator, high above the crowd, his attitude majestic, his
face as one inspired, his gestures bold, and his voice like
the bugle call to battle. This picture we term a mental
image. He who experiences it wishes it to arise and be-
come just as vivid for each of his hearers as it is for
himself. He also wants them to' feel the same thrill
which he feels as he recalls the original, stirring scene.
Or, on the other hand, he may have in mind a recollection
IMAGES ■ 153
of the ideal of liberty which was behind the message of
the orator. Such an abstract notion we term a concept.
The speaker may want to expound the concept to those
about him. More intricate still, he may have an elabor-
ate line of argument to establish for their acceptance,
justifying the speech of his hero. These are typical
mental states which, more or less complex, are welded to-
gether as the details that go to make up the message of
the speaker. All of them must be reproduced in the
minds of the hearers, not only as they arise individually,
but also as they are integral parts of an organized whole.
Before we leave the topic of details of composition, we
shall treat the more important and clearly distinguish-
able mental states which a speaker may have and which
he may wish to transfer to the audience by means of
words. Just now^ we wish to confine ourselves to images,
or mental pictures. These are not abstract notions of
goodness or badness, right or wrong, beauty or ugli-
ness; they are vivid recollections of something actually
seen, heard, felt, or tasted. Their originals were real
persons, things, and events. They live in the mind of the
speaker and he seeks to re-create them for his hearers.
(h) Word-Pa lilting
One who can arouse vivid, concrete pictures by his
Y/ords is sometimes called a word-painter.
When Amruzail describes what he has seen,
Speaking of sands and flocks and hilltops green,
Such magic in his voice and language lies,
That all his hearers' ears are turned to eyes.
The ability to do this is one of the most fundamental
attainments necessary to the effectiveness of a speaker.
But just what does he paint? Some idea of the nature
of the mental image which he re-creates has already
154 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
been given. But we may well pause to make the subject
clearer by illustration.
Slowly and critically read the following passage from
Edward Everett's "The Glories of Morning."
The blue sky now turned more softly gray ; the great watch-
stars shut up their holy eyes ; the east began to kindle. Faint
streaks of purple now blushed along the sky ; the whole celes-
tial concave was filled with the inflowing tides of the morning
light, which came pouring down from above in one great
ocean of radiance ; till at length, as we reached the Blue Hills,
a flash of purple fire blazed out from above the horizon, and^
turned the dewy tear-drops of flower and leaf into rubies and
diamonds. In a few seconds the everlasting gates of the morn-
ing were thrown wide open, and the lord of day, arrayed in
glories too severe for the gaze of man, began his state.
Notice that Everett does not express any generaliza-
tions, such as ''The sunrise is most inspiring" or "The
first light of day is thrilling to the beholder." If he
had said such things, they might have been accepted as
true, but no strong realization of the picture of the sky
at sunrise would have been obtained. Instead he re-
vives the actual colors and brightness of the sky just as
they strike a beholder at a particular time and place.
He does not use such words as "pleasant," "soothing,"
or "beautiful" as he describes the first streaks of light;
nor does he label the last burst of sunlight as "thrill-
ing," "dazzling," or "inspiring." He simply re-cre-
ates the pictures and lets them make their own sub-
jective impressions on the hearers. This is objective
word-painting.
Now read the following from Victor Hugo's speech
in defense of his son on the question of capital punish-
ment. (The introduction to this speech has already
been given in Lesson 4, page 50.) Notice that Hugo also
re-creates an actual scene. But he colors it with his
own feelings. The object is not so much to make clear
IMAGES > . 155
his own horror as to fill the hearers with horror. Just
whether expressing his own feelings makes the impres-
sion deeper than it would be if the scene were objectively
presented to make its own appeal, is a difficult question
to settle. But this is a good example of an orator ^s at-
tempt, not only to re-create a scene, but also to express
the feeling it aroused in an original witness.
What are the circumstances? A man, a convict, a sentenced
wretch is dragged, on a certain morning, to one of the public
squares. There he finds the scaffold ! He shudders, he strug-
.gles, he refuses to die. He is young yet — only twenty-nine.
Ah! I know what you will say. ''He is a murderer!" But
hear me. Two officers seize him. His hands, his feet are tied.
He throws off the the two officers. A fearful struggle ensues.
His feet, bound as they are, become entangled in the ladder.
He uses the scaffold against the scaffold 1 The struggle is
prolonged. Horror seizes the crowd. The officers, — sweat and
shame on their brows, — pale, panting, terrified, despairing, —
despairing with I know not what horrible despair, — shrinking
under that public reprobation which ought to have visited
the penalty and spared the passive instrument, the execu-
tioner, — the officers strive savagely. The victim clings to the
scaffold and shrieks for pardon. His clothes are torn, — his
shoulders bloody, — still he resists. At length after three
quarters of an hour of this monstrous effort, of this spectacle
without a name, of this agony,— agony for all, be it under-
stood, — agony for the assembled spectators as well as for the con-
demned man, — after this age of anguish. Gentlemen of the
Jury, they take the poor wretch back to his prison.
The People breathe again. The People, naturally merciful,
hope that the man will be spared. But no, — the guillotine,
though vanquished, remains standing. There it frowns all day,
in the midst of a sickened population. And at night, the
officers, reenforced, drag forth the wretch again, so bound
that he is but an inert weight, — they drag him forth, haggard,
bloody, weeping, pleading, howling for life, — calling upon God,
calling upon his father and mother, — for like a very child had
this man become in the prospect of death, — they drag him
forth to execution. He is hoisted on the scaffold, and his head
falls 1 And then through every conscience runs a shudder.
These two selections illustrate the way a speaker may
want to present to an audience a picture of things just
156 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
as they occur in nature. The simplest mental state to
be re-created in the mind of the hearer is the objective
image, uncolored by the expression of the emotion it
aroused in the speaker. Psychologists would not agree
that the image is the simplest possible mental state.
They have, by analysis, classified the simplest intellec-
tual states as sensations. Thus, if the mind could be im-
pressed simply with the sensation of red without as-
sociating it with any object, such as an apple, a book, or
a dress, then it would experience a simple, isolated sen-
sation. But in adult life we seldom, if ever, experience
these simple sensations unrelated to an external cause of
them. We get our red along with a number of other sen-
sations of size, shape, taste, smell, etc., all joined to-
gether and coming from a recognized source, such as an
apple. This combination makes up our picture, or image,
of the apple. Even if a speaker did have a simple, unre-
lated sensation in mind, he would have little if any rea-
son for trying to convey it to an audience. But there are
many good uses for fully composed pictures, or images.
Most of the pictures which fill our minds and which
we may wish to re-create are far from simple. We see
our apples, of many hues of red and yellow, growing on
spreading trees with green leaves backed up by the blue
of the sky. And as we look, the leaves are lifted by the
wind so that they move and make a rustling sound, and
the breeze brings to our nostrils the scent of the grass in
the meadows and the ripening fruit in the orchard.
Consequently, though aware of the theoretical sensation
of scientific psychology, we shall consider a wJiole pic-
ture as the simplest mental possession which a speaker
may want to share with an audience. It is almost im-
possible to keep such a picture free from the feeling of
pleasure or aversion which naturally accompanies it. As
IMAGES 157
a result, the pure, objective image is less frequently used
than the image colored with subjective feelings.
(c) Pictures of Rest and of Action
The representation of images of objects at rest is some-
times called "description" by rhetoricians, while the
term "narration" is retained to designate the recount-
ing of a series of events. But both processes, so far as
the mental state of the hearer and the speaker is con-
cerned, are essentially the same. They necessitate the
re-creation of concrete, actual things, originally per-
ceived through the senses as parts of the world of fact.
Consequently, whether the speaker treats his audience
to an oratorical stereopticon view (one picture at rest)
or to a vitagraph reel (a number of pictures represent-
ing motion), his own mental work and his method of
treatment will be almost identical. In both cases he must
recall mental pictures; the first is a single one while the
second is a constantly changing series. Indeed, most
good narratives begin with a description as the starting
point, while the remainder of the discourse merely notes
the successive changes in the picture. The added feature
is that attention must be particularly paid to the change,
involving, as it does, sequence of events, interaction, rate
of movement, and conclusion.
Because of their essential similarity, we shall group
together all the impressions which the world of actuality
makes upon the mind in the form of images. To arouse,
by means of speech, like pictures for the hearer (without
attempting to explain or justify them) we call "word-
painting. ' '
Read the following selection slowly, pronouncing each
word to yourself carefully so that each image makes its
158 p EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPE AXING
3ail: impression. This will make clear the truth that a
narrative involves a succession of images.
Venerable men, you have come down to us from a former
generation. Heaven has bounteously lengthened out your
lives that you might behold this joyous day. You are now
where you stood fifty years ago, this very hour, with your
brothers and your neighbors, shoulder to shoulder, in the
strife for your country. Behold, how altered! The same
heavens are indeed over your head; the same ocean rolls at
your feet; but all else, how changed! You hear no roar of
hostile cannon ; you see no mixed volumes of smoke and flames
rising from burning Charlestown. The ground strewn with
the dead and dying; the impetuous charge; the steady and
successful repulse; the loud call to repeated assault; the sum-
moning of all that is manly to repeated resistance ; a thousand
bosoms freely and fearlessly bared in an instant to whatever
of terror there may be in war and death — all these you have
witnessed, but you witness them no more. All is peace. ^
2. The Use of Images in a Speech
The following are tAT)ical ways in which images may
be employed in a speech.
(a) Used for Their Intrinsic Worth as Information
We find this use mostly in geographical lectures and
travel talks. The modern use of a stereopticon or even
moving pictures has reduced the necessity for skillful
word-painting by the lecturer. But whether the words
of the speaker or the lantern slide is the means, the pur-
pose of the image is to make the auditor realize just how,
let us say, Mount Blanc or the Matterhorn — great Al-
pine peaks — looks. The lecturer is not especially con-
cerned as to whether you like the appearance or not. He
seeks first to show you nature as it is, whether you like
it or not. An engineer trying to make clear to a board
of directors the nature of a stretch of country through
'Webster's First Bunker Hill Address.
IMAGES 159
which he contemplates constructing a railroad might
find it useful to create a series of images of landscapes.
(b) Used to Convey Strong Emotional Appeal
We feel most strongly what we can actually realize
and we can realize concrete images better than general-
izations and abstractions. Eead once more all the ex-
tracts quoted thus far to illustrate this lesson. Notice
the emotional response you have to Everett's sunrise
scene and to Hugo 's guillotine scene. Contrast this with
the lack of emotion as you read the argument on Cana-
dian reciprocity on page 55 of Lesson 4. If one w^ere to
say, ''Public executions are repugnant to humanity,"
would it arouse so strong a feeling as the detailed imag-
ing of a single execution? The newspapers tell us that
ten thousand German soldiers fell before Liege. But we
cannot conceive the scene; we cannot realize the horrors
of the battlefield. Our sympathy, pity, and horror of
war's ruthless brutality come forth more readily as we
get a true picture of the suffering and death of a single,
brave, young soldier boy.
The following extract from Henry Clay's speech on the
war with England shows a skillful use of the concrete,
because of its emotion-producing power.
It is impossible that this country should ever abandon the
g:allant ta. - who have won it such splendid trophies. Let us
suppose that the Genius of Columbia should visit one of them
in his oppressor's prison and attempt to reconcile him to his
forlorn and wretched condition. She would saj' to him, in the
language of the gentlemen on the other side, "Great Britain
intends you no harm ; she did not mean to impress you, but one
of her own subjects; having taken you by mistake, I will re-
monstrate, and try to prevail upon her, by peaceful means, to
release you, but I cannot, my son, fight for you." If he did
not consider this mere mockery, the poor tar would address
her judgment and say, "You owe me, my country, protection;
160 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
I owe you, in return, obedience. I am no British subject ; I am
a native oi old Massachusetts ; where live my aged father, my
wife, my children. I have faithfully discharged my duty.
Will you refuse to do yours?" Appealing to her passions he
would continue: "I lost this eye in fighting under Truxton,
with the Insurgente ; I got this scar before Tripoli ; I broke this
leg on board the Constitution, when the Guerriere struck."
If she remained still unmoved, he would break out in accents
of mingled distress and despair —
"Hardj hard is my fate! once I freedom enjoyed,
Was as happy as happy could be !
Oh! how hard is my fate, how galling these chains!"
I will not imagine the dreadful catastrophe to which he would
be driveii, hy an abandonment of him to his oppressor. It will
not be, it cannot be, that this country will refuse him pro-
tection.
An emotion is a very vital thing. It is not the cool,
well-established sentiment of approval or disapproval
that we feel when balancing the pros and cons of a well-
worked-out argument. It is an impulsive flood of feel-
ing that rushes forth in the face of a lively, concrete ex-
perience. In order to be concrete and to succeed in
arousing the strongest emotions, a speaker often has to
limit the extent of the image he tries to re-create. If
one were master enough to make the Avhole, appalling im-
pression of a battlefield strike the hearer with all its
force, then the most powerful emotions of awe, dread,
terror, and revulsion would be stirred. But few are able
to conceive such a scene adequately, and even if they
could, their re-creations would be beyond the grasp of
the average audience. It is for this reason that most
orators limit their concrete images. This limitation en-
hances the probability of their being realizable, and in
proportion to the degree of reality is their emotional
effect.
IMAGES 161
(c) Used as Illustration of a Whole Class of Facts
It has already been pointed out that images make
deep impressions. General ideas make fairly deep im-
pressions only on a cultivated few and have next to no
influence upon the less-educated members of an audi-
ence. Thus, if you wished to make the generalization
that a college education tends tc improve the manners
and appearance of young men, you would not rest after
making the bare statement itself c The general notion 8
wrapped up in "manners'' and ''appearance" might
not be very clear to some of the hearers. You might
more profitably make a picture of young John Williams
as he appeared before the college board of entrance ex-
amination. Picture his clothing, his awkwardness, his
shyness, and his confusion; make the audience see a
whole-hearted but rough, country youth. Then draw an-
other picture of the calm, polished, self-possessed, and
correct John Williams on the commencement platform
delivering the valedictory address. These images will
not only give very definite meaning to the two words
mentioned but will give life to what might be a color-
less and but faintly apprehended, general truth.
The advertisers of patent medicines take advantage of
the force of images to represent a general argument.
They print a picture of James Smith before taking the
treatment and James Smith after taking the treatment.
The eye takes in at a glance more than a long, abstract
argument could ever supply.
Obviously, if the speaker intends, not only to elucidate
a general thought which is abstract and difficult until a
'specific instance is found to make it clear, but also to
clothe it with feeling, the image representation is most
desirable. In the following passage by the greatest
word-painter and prose poet who ever lived, Ingersoll is
162 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
trying to bear home the idea that the pomp and power
of the conqueror do not compensate for tlie loss of peace
and affection which the humblest peasant can have. But
notice how the concrete treatment enhances, not only
the thought, but also the feeling.
I thought of the orphans and widows he had made, of the
tears that had been shed for his glory, and of the only woman
who ever loved him, pushed from his heart by the cold hand
of ambition. And I said, "I would rather have been a French
peasant and worn wooden shoes. I would rather have lived
in a hut with a vine growing over the door, and the grapes
growing purple in the amorous kisses of the autumn sun. I
would rather have been that poor peasant, Avith my loving
wife by my side, knitting as the day died out of the sky, with
my children upon my knees and their arms about me. I would
rather have been that man, and gone down to the tongueless
silence of the dreamless dust, than to have been that imperial
impersonation of force and murder, known as Napoleon the
Great.2
But a word of caution must here be offered. If a spe-
cific instance is to be selected to make a general state-
ment more forceful and clear in thought and more pro-
vocative of emotion, it must be a fair example. During
the first two weeks of the great European War of 1914,
the papers in America got most of their news from anti-
German sources. One day there was a description of the
brutal treatment of some French civilians who were
caught in Germany before they could return to their own
country. The article was most graphic and had for its
climax the shooting of one young student who, after
many knocks and insults, cried, "Vive la France." Tt
is probable that no such scene took place. Furthermore,
if it did, it is hardly probable that it was at all typical
of what Germany as a whole was doing. We hold no
brief for Germany nor the German kaiser; we merely
point out that where a specific instance is supposed to
^Ingersoll, Robert G., Napoleon.
IMAGES 163
represent a number of cases or a general principle, the
speaker should exercise the greatest care to b i sure that
his example is truly representative. The very fact that
the particular case makes such a powerful impression
creates a strong responsibility to have that case a just
and typical one.
If ever you are opposing another who selects preju-
dicial instances, the revelation of his unfair bias is sure
to have an effect upon the audience.
3. The Senses and Image-Making
It will be noticed that a complete picture or image is
made up from the detailed report of the various senses.
Thus, Webster's picture of the British charge up Bunker
Hill gives the report of the eyes when it refers to the
sky above and the ocean rolling below, the men standing
shoulder to shoulder, and the ground strewn with the
dead and dying. The ear contribution is evident in the
'^roar of hostile cannon"; the senses of touch and mus-
cular effort are also there, certainly for the veterans to
whom Webster is speaking — men who had taken part in
the hand-to-hand struggle.
We may, therefore, say that knowledge of the world
comes through the senses and a remembered picture or
image is the recollected reports of the senses in certain
combinations. Now it has been discovered that some
people — in fact, most people — ^have one sense developed
above the others and possibly another one hardly devel-
oped at all. They, after an experience, such as the wit-
nessing of a boat race, might get clear eye impressions
while they respond but poorly to auditory impressions
and therefore have but hazy recollections of sounds. An
eye-minded person trying to describe the boat race would
report the impressions of the color of the river, the green
164 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
banks, the shining racing shells, the eight oars resting
on the out-riggers, the sun striking the bare shoulders
of the muscular rowers, the blue shirts of one crew and
the red of the other, and all along the course, he would
see again the hundreds of small boats and the many peo-
ple with their riot of vari-colored flags. But an ear-
minded person would recall the roar of the crowd, the
short, barking yells of small groups of students, the
crack of the starting gun, and the swish of the oars as
they feathered over the little waves.
It is highly desirable that a speaker should develop all
his senses to an excellent state of keenness. He should
see well and retain in his mind all his visual impressions ;
he should hear distinctly and have clear auditory images
or remembrances; he should distinguish smells, tastes,
and degrees of temperature as well as retain impressions
of motion and muscular effort. Only by developing all
the senses so as to get good, clear, and deep impressions
from them can the speaker hope to stock his mind wdth
complete and trustworthy pictures. One who has such a
stock to draw upon is said to possess a good imagination.
It is from such a stock that the poets, dramatists, and
novelists draw. The speaker or orator must also have
such a source of material.
Such a perfection of imagination is necessary to the
speaker, not only that the pictures for his own mental
use may be complete, but also that he may reach all his
hearers when he wishes to treat a concrete situation. If
his images were one-sided, all addressed to the ear, the
eye-minded auditors would get little from them. Lan-
guage expressing most perfect images of sight and smell
has no meaning or but a very hazy, general meaning to
an auditor who is almost entirely ear-minded. There-
fore, since people are strong in one sense and weak in
another, the orator must assail them through the chan-
IMAGES
165
nels of all the senses. The greatest orators have the
rounded development which makes their messages have
meaning and force to all classes of people. Naturally,
some pictures are distinctly for the eye while others are
essentially symphonies of sound. The most skilled
speaker brings out all that can be brought out in each
situation. Where it suits his purpose to emphasize one
or another aspect, he is equipped to do so.
Carefully read the illustrations of this lesson and note,
in a table such as the following, the nature and number of
sense impressions in each passage quoted.
Everett
Hugo
Webster
Clay
Ingersoll
~ Sight Images
- Sound "
- Taste "
Motion " '
Temperature
*-Smell. . . .
y
^^
\~
'^^'
'Touch
Effort
The test is to read carefully and try to see which of
your own senses is stimulated to reaction. Do you see
with your '' mind's eye," do you seem to hear a roar, do
you feel the effort or strain of conflict, etc. %
Now examine yourself and see if you are weak in re-
membering some of the sense aspects of some of your
own, original experiences. Go to your business some
morning a half hour earlier than the opening time. As
soon as you arrive at the office, sit down and write as
full a report as you can of the impressions of your car
ride during the last five blocks of travel. Eead your re-
port and see if it overemphasizes the eye element or the
ear element. Notice, during the actual writing, if certain
things which your reason tells you must have been experi-
enced have grown hazy in detail or been forgotten. Have
166 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
you failed to retain a picture of the woman opposite you
in the car — the color of her hat, dress, and shoes? On
the other hand, have you a clear realization of the sensa-
tion of motion or movement ? There is no doubt that you
will discover that you are weak in some respects and
strong in others. Then again you may have very clear
recollections of things but be unable to express them in
words. That is a language difficulty which we shall con-
sider in the next lesson. Just now we want to find out
which of your sense reports are weakest and least trust-
worthy, whether you can tell others about it or not.
From now on, make many observations of the kind jast
described and attend especially to the things which
should appeal to your weakest sense. That weak spot
nmst be built up by careful use. Just as one who begins
to play billiards is at first awkward and unskillful and
later acquires skill through use, so a sense may be
brought to a high point of discernment through constant
practice. After making your observations, try to repro-
duce them in words both orally and in writing.
Eeading books Avill do but little to develop your image-
making capacity in the places where it is weak. It may
add some individual pictures to your stock where the'
sense that appreciates them is strong. But literature
does not build up the weak sense, for the words of an
author who is creating an eye impression have no mean-
ing to one who is ear-minded and whose visual sense is
poor. The direct study of nature and man with your
own senses is the only foundation for image-making. Go
out into the fields and woods and observe with all the
senses, especially exercising those which self-examina-
tion has shown you are weak. In the city also, observe
streets and buildings, machines and men. Do not over-
look any detail. Crowd your mind with sense impres-
IMAGES 167
sions. You will find the game of observation a fascinat-
ing one and new delights will be opened to you as your
weaker organs of perception are gradually strengthened
and bring new treasures to the mind.
In the next lesson Ave shall speak of the way in which
one maj" best express his images for the benefit of others,
but first the speaker must have images in his own mind.
That means accurate and deep sense impressions through
careful observation and the faithful retention of the
combined impressions as a whole picture or image.
There is no other way to develop the imagination.
Assignment of Work
Tlie wiittcii cxiToises in this t-ntire lesson slioiil- lo
carefully \\ orked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in vour notebook.
First Day. — You have read through the lesson. Study it care-
fully and try to answer the test questions which follow.
During another painstaking reading, try to bring to mind
clearly all the images, or pictures, which are in the illus-
trating passages. Notice that the best results are attained
when your ivliole attention is upon the picture and your
reading is slow enough to allow each part to form itself
fully. Rapid and careless delivery interferes with clear
imagination.
Second Day. — Write out the three concrete pictures, with all
details of sense appeal, in one of the following groups :
(a) " The setting of the sun fills one with a sense of quiet
majesty."
"Niagara plunges on, a never-dying source of
power."
"The capitol at Washington is like a white coronet
upon the brow of the nation."
(b) Describe the gathering of a crowd.
Describe a fire.
Picture some thrilling exploit in a very concrete
way.
168 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Third Day. — Outline a speech on one of the following subjects,
making a picture the means of appeal :
(a) Better factory conditions for unskilled labor. Pic-
ture an individual worker in wretched surroundings.
(b) Floating hospitals for sick babies. Picture a suffer-
ing infant in a hot, crowded, squalid tenement.
(c) Railroad reform to benefit the farmer. Picture an
orchard with fruit rotting on the ground because
high rates and poor railroad service make it impos-
sible to market it.
(d) Any other subject which can be represented in ap-
peal by a vivid picture.
Fourth Dai/.— Develop orally one of the outlines of the third
day. Notice whether or not the image revives fully in your
mind. If it does not, your imagination needs further train-
ing through observation. Do you find the image clear but
experience difficulty in finding words to express it ade-
quately? In that case, either you are weak in vocabulary
or you have not planned the matter well.
Fifth Day. — During the first four days, be on the "look-out"
for a scene or event which is especially impressive and
worthy of expression to others. For this day 's work, care-
fully note down all the elements of sense impression it
liad — color, movement, sound, etc. Tabulate them all and
then write a r-omplete word-picture. (Append tlie tal)uhition
to the word-picture in your notebook.)
An expert speaker does not, as a rule, go through such a
laborious and painstaking preparation for his pictures, but
it is an exercise which will rapidly make its further use un-
necessary.
Additional Reminders
1. How is your breathing?"
2. Are you carrying yourself well?
3. Do you control your breath well during speaking?
4. Do you criticise and observe other speakers?
5. Are you keeping up the reflection hour?
6. Do you criticise your own speaking and keep notes
about it?
7. Are you observing irifh all your senses so to to fill your
mind with a wealth of images?
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
liis knowknlge of tlie ])rinoiph^s in this lesson. Tliey
are sufif/rstirr merely, dealinii' lar<rely witli the praetieal
applieation of the i)rineiples. and ar<' to lie placed in the
notehook for future reference.
J. Has the general mastery of speech-planning any value in
detail work?
2. What is meant by ** word-painting"? "Who is the best
word-painter you have ever heard? Who the best you have
read?
3. Why is a concrete picture stronger than an abstract state-
ment? Can an ignorant man usually grasp the concrete?
Does he have difficulty with the abstract? Would a highly-
educated man grasp both? Would he object to either?
4. What do we mean when we say that an image or picture
is "a combination of sensations"?
5. If a man were deaf from birth, what concrete experiences
would he fail to appreciate? If he were blind, what kind of
appeals would be lost upon him?
6. Are all normal people "in full possession of all their
senses"? What does the answer to this question suggest to
the speaker?
7. As you recollect an experience, which sense elements are
strongest ? Which weakest ? As you read or hear word-paint-
ings, which kind gets the best response from you? What use
of this self-analysis will you make as a speaker?
8. What are the uses of concrete images mentioned in this
lesson ?
9. Do you know why a concrete image will arouse strong
feelings when a clear statement in abstract form leaves the
audience cold?
10. What is an unfair use of a concrete image ?
169
170 TEST QUESTIONS
1 1 . What examples of good word-painting can you recall
from 3^our reading?
12. Who was Victor Hugo?
13. What is a " sense impression ' ' ?
14. What is the best procedure to develop ability in image-
making?
LESSON 10
the expression of images and vocabulary-building
1. The Expression of Images
Our last lesson introduced the subject of images, ex-
plaining their nature and use in public addresses and
outlining methods by which the student might stock his
mind with many complete and clear pictures.
(a) The Nature of Images
We may here add a word or two for the purpose of
removing some mistaken notions concerning image-
making, or imagination. Imagination is not a ''faculty"
or a special department of the mind, separated in some
mysterious way from another part called the "reason."
Indeed, the imagination is very closely related to rea-
son. Let us illustrate. Suppose you were trying to
reason out w^hich of two men would make the better
manager of a business. You would call up pictures of
each one in various activities and facing different prob-
lems. Then you would decide which set of impressions
was more favorable. Thus, to judge between two men —
to exercise reason, you first have to hold them clearly
in mind by an act of imagination. Just as every act
of reason carries with it some imagination, so also no
one could imagine, or revive, pictures unless he was able
to remember. You could not call up a picture of a pleas-
ant scene unless the mind had retained its impression.
The imagination, therefore, acts also hand in hand
171
172 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
with memory. The man who has many experiences and
who can retain and recall them is likely to be equipped
to appreciate all future experiences the better and to
reason more clearly. Consequently, exercises in memory
and imagination are of practical benefit for the whole
intellectual development.
Not only must we avoid the fallacy of considering
imagination a separate and independent department of
the mind, but we must also refrain from confusing it with
one of its by-products — the fancy. Let us consider the
difference betw^een the broad term imagination and the
narrower expression fancy. When we say that a man
has a good imagination, we have used the wrong word
if we mean to convey the notion that he is a mere
romancer who pictures forth 'the impossible and unbe-
lievable. Imagination, for the most part, deals with what
is real ; it reproduces, for further inspection, real things
which were once seen or heard. There are three ways
in which the real experiences of life are revived in image
form by an act of imagination.
First, there is the simple revival, or calling to mind,
of a scene or transaction just as it originally took place.
One says, ''I can close my eyes and see the whole thing
over again." This is simple imagination, or reproduc-
tion.
Second, there is the reproduction of parts of different,
real experiences in new combinations and relationships.
Here we have creative imagination. It is what enables
an artist who has seen one girl with sparkling eyes,
another with a blooming complexion, and a third with a
crown of golden hair, to combine all tlie best features
of the various individuals in one picture of an "imag-
inary," ideal girl. Creative imagination lies behind
every invention, for the inventor imagines old things
in new combinations — new arrangements which will give
IMAGES AND VOCABULARY-BUILDING 173
new benefits to man. The military strategist must imag-
ine his forces and those of the enemy in new positions.
The social reformer imagines the old elements of society
in new relations. In short; all progress depends on the
reasonable combination of existing tilings in new rela-
tionships through acts of creative imagination.
Third, past experiences or parts of experiences may be
revived in a whimsical rearrangement, so that the whole
reconstruction is ridiculous or impossible. This is the
amusing or freakish play of the imagination which we
call fancy. It uses real elements as its material but it
obeys no laws or probability in the new combinations it
produces. Here we have the fabulous creatures, half
man and half lion, the giants with eagle beaks, and all the
monsters and impossibilities of fairy tales. Often we
find the fancy playing an important part in humorous
addresses. The speaker provokes laughter by portray-
ing incongruous or ridiculously impossible situations.
Such a play of fancy, we note once more, is not to be con-
fused with the whole field of imagination. It is but a
small and relatively unimportant part of it. But all
forms of imaginative reconstruction rest upon initial
sense perception. We must make original observations.
We must come in touch with real life. Only in this way
can the mind be stored with a wealth of impressions
which may be recalled as a basis for new combinations.*
iQne might object to the statement that our imagination
must have real experiences to build upon, by saying that a
person can get pictures or images to draw upon simply by
reading many imaginative books ; that is, we can borrow from
the storehouse of the author. But what we read is only un-
derstood in so far as what we read comes within the limits of
what wf- have lived through. We can understand the novel com-
binations of a writer only if we have an experience-basis
which puts us in first-hand possession of the elements he uses
in fictitious combinations. It is well to read these books, but
there must be parallel observation and concrete experience.
174 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(6) Planning for Image Expression
Lesson 9 gave exercises to insure the existence of
images in the mind and only incidentally called for any
expression of the images. This lesson will pay particu-
lar attention to the problem of expression. Granted that
you have the pictures in mind, how will you make them
clear to the audience 1 Your first problem will be one of
planning and your second will be the selection of words.
This last leads us to the field of vocabulary-building.
We all know that a mountain viewed from a distance
of twenty miles makes a picture quite different from one
seen while standing at its base. There is a difference in
outline. There is also a great difference in color and de-
tail. A mountain from a great distance is a uniform
gray or green, let us say. Near by we see patches of bril-
liant green, earth color, and rock. Furthermore, great
masses which constitute the perceptible details in the
distant view are not seen at all as units when a person
stands at the very foot of the ascending path. Conse-
quently, in presenting an image to others, the first thing
to establish is the point of view. This viewpoint governs
the general outline and the refinement of details.
1. The Vieivpoint. — In the following passage from
Edward Everett's Three Pictures of Boston, observe the
manner in which he establishes the viewpoint and con-
sider how much he would lose in effectiveness if this ele-
ment were omitted.
To understand the character of the commerce of our own
city, we must not look merely at one point, but at the whole
circuit of country of which it is the business center. We must
not contemplate it only at this present moment of time, but
we must bring before our imaginations, as in the shifting
scenes of a diorama, at least three successive historical and
topographical pictures; and truly instructive I think it would
be to see them delineated on canvas. We must survev the
IMAGES AND VOCABULARY-BUILDING 175
first of them in the company of the venerable John Win-
throp, founder of the state. Let us go up with him on the
day of his landing, the seventeenth of June, 1630, to the
heights of yonder peninsula, as yet without a name. Landw^ard
stretches a dismal forest; seaward, a waste of waters, un-
spotted with a sail, except that of his own ship. At the foot
of the hill, you see the cabins of Walford and the Spragues,
who — the latter the year before, the former still earlier — had
adventured to this spot, untenanted else by any child of civi-
lization. On the other side of the river lies Mr.. Blackstone's
farm. It comprises three goodly, hills, converted by a spring-
tide into three wood-crowned islets ; and it is mainly valued
for a noble spring of fresh water, which gushes from the
northern slope of one of these hills, and which furnished, in the
course of the summer, the motive for transferring the seat
of the infant settlement. This shall be the first picture.
The second shall be contemplated from the same spot — the
heights of Charlestown — on the same day, the eventful seven-
teenth of June, one hundred and forty years later, namely, in
the year 1775. A terrific scene of war wages on the top of
the hill. Wait for a favorable moment, when the volumes of
fiery smoke roll away, and over the masts of the sixty-gun
ship, whose batteries are blazing upon the hill, you behold
Mr. Blackstone's farm changed to an ill-built town of about
two thousand dwelling houses, mostly of wood; with scarce
any public buildings, but eight or nine churches, the old State
House and Faneuil Hall ; Roxbury beyond, an insignificant
village ; a vacant marsh in all the space now occupied by Cam-
bridgeport, East Cambridge, Chelsea and East Boston; and be-
neath your feet the town of Charlestown — consisting in the
morning of a line of about three hundred houses, wrapped in
a sheet of flame at noon, and reduced at eventide to a heap
of ashes.
But those fires are kindled upon the altar of liberty. Ameri-
can independence is established. American Commerce smiles
on the spot ; and now from the top of one of Mr. Blackstone 's
hills, a stately edifice arises which seems to invite us as to
an observatory. As we look down from this lofty structure,
we behold the third picture — a crowded, busy scene. We see
beneath us a city containing eighty or ninety thousand in-
habitants, and mainly built of brick and granite. Vessels of
every description are moored at the wharves.
Notice how Everett changed his point of view from the
hill at Charlesto\^m to Boston State House, when he
176 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
wished to get a nearer view of the streets of the modern
city. Observe how he made his picture up of large
masses when he had the far view. Turn back to page 158
of Lesson 9 to note how Webster went into very full and
minute details when he described the battle on that same
hill. His is a near point of view^n the midst of the
fray.
After fixing your point of view, have the details scaled
in conformity to it.
2. Adapt the Details to iue Particular Audience. —
Always keep your whole image and the parts which go to
make it up well within the grasp of your audience. It
would be altogether unreasonable to expect a group of
untraveled farmers in New England or tbe Middle West
to realize a vision of the great Woolworth Building in
New York City, by merely saying, "There was the ma-
jestic, wlute building, fifty stories high, rising above the
surrounding structures." The past experience of such
men furnishes them with no recollections which will fill
out or enable them to appreciate the picture. Such an
audience must be approached so that the new can be
placed in relation to the old. The new must be brought
within their grasp. Say to them, "Think of your town
hall — a fine stone building four stories high. Suppose
that you were standing on the other side of the street
looking at it. Imagine that four more stories are added
to it so that you have to raise your eyes more to see the
edge of the roof. Now double this eight story building
so that you have to tilt your head back to see the win-
dows of the sixteenth floor. If by some magic, such a
building, snow white and capped with a pyramid, could
shoot up to yet again three times its height, so that you
would have to strain far back to get a glimpse of the
sky beyond its crest, you would be in much the position
of one who views the Woolworth Building from the other
IMAGES AND VOCABULARY-BUILDING 177
side of the street." Further impressive and important
points in the picture could be made clear in a similar
manner. The speaker must take the hints whicii are in
the very atmosphere during his speech and must use his
judgment in his adaptation to a particular audience.
3. Order of Details. — The rules laid down in the
earlier lessons (see particularly Lesson 4) concerning
the sequence of subdivisions of an entire speech apply
also to the order of details in presenting a picture. This
is true for descriptive image work or for narratives.
Just as a general plan may be announced for a speech,
so also a comprehensive outline of a picture may be given
to promote clearness. Observe once more how "Webster,
in his picture of the Battle of Bunl^er Hill (Lesson 9,
page 158), gives a comprehensive outline after he estab-
lishes his viewpoint. His general outline makes it clear
that instead of painting the scene as it now is, he will
present it as it was then. The particulars then follow.
In narrative work, we call the general outline by an-
other name — the forecast of the whole plot. To fore-
cast what is to happen, of course, promotes clearness, for
the audience stands ready to fit each detail into its proper
place as it comes along. The one drawback is that the
possibility of excitement and surprise is likely to be di-
minished by such a forecast.
As in the case of the whole speech, the details of a par-
ticular picture must be arranged according to an orderly
plan based on considerations such as time, place, magni-
tude, or cause and effect. (For a simpler explanation of
this, refer to Lesson 5.)
4. Degree of Refinement.— 1%\^ is a consideration
which arises especially in connection with the details of
an image. It embraces all those things which a speaker
will have in mind when he decides to cease giving further
details. It must have become evident to the student by
178 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
now that a subdivision of a whole speech will itself have
further subdivisions or details of its o-^vn ; while these, in
turn, may have more minute items of amplification, and
so on do^\^l the scale until individual words are reached.
The practical problem is to determine the degree of this
refinement. Just where should a speaker stop and re-
frain from giving further details? The general rule
should be, ''Stop as soon as further particulars will dis-
tract the attention from the whole impression you wish
to leave."
For instance, if you give a picture such as Ingersoll's
French peasant (Lesson 9, page 162), your whole pur-
pose is to contrast the love and contentment of the
French peasant with the restless coldness of Napoleon's
life. Obviously, certain things about the peasant were
better unsaid, for, although true, they would take the at-
tention from the essential contrast. You omit, therefore,
a description of the features of a particular peasant's
face, his likes and dislikes, his food, and the cut of his
jacket. Your purpose is to make a certain contrast, and
you give no details beyond those essential to that aim.
If, on the other hand, you should msh to make a hu-
morous sketch of a French peasant, you would create fun
by going into all the minutiae of his rustic awkwardness.
You would delineate every wrinkle in his weather-beaten
face, every trick of the shrewd eye, every act at the table,
even down to the skillful use of the knife to transfer
mashed potatoes to his mouth without the loss of blood.
Experience will tell when not to amplify further.
Sometimes a boldly sketched, fleeting image is all that is
wanted and a more carefully dra^\^l picture will delay or
destroy results. The ideal is to stop treating an image
when it has made its maximum impression for the pur-
pose for which it is used. Further time on it has the
IMAGES AND VOCABULARY-BUILDING 179
blurring effect of over-exposure to a photographic plate.
We want no fogged impressions.
The following image work is from Beecher's lecture on
Gambling and is the third of four scenes in the down-
ward path of the gambler. Notice how the point of view
is established and tlie general plan is sketched in the
first four lines. Then observe that the characters at the
card table are delineated in detail sufficient only to give
the impression of a nondescript, repulsive group in
wretched surroundings.
Go with me to that dilapidated house not far from the land-
ing in New Orleans. Look into the dirty room. Around a
broken table, sitting on boxes, kegs and rickety chairs, see a
filthy crew dealing cards smouched with tobacco, grease and
liquor. One has a pirate face, burnished and burnt with
brandy; a shock of grizzly, matted hair, half covering his vil-
lian eyes, which glare out like a wild beast's from a thicket.
Close behind him wheezes a white-faced, dropsical wretch, ver-
min covered and stenchful. A scoundrel Spaniard and a burly
negro (the jolliest of the four) complete the group. They
have spectators, drunken sailors and oggling, thieving, drink-
ing women, who should have died long ago when all that was
womanly died. Here, hour draws on hour, sometimes with
brutal laughter, sometimes with threat and oath and uproar.
The last few, stolen dollars lost, the temper also — each charges
each with cheating. High words ensue, and blows, and then
the whole gang burst out the door, beating, biting, scratching
and rolling over and over in the dirt and dust. The worst,
the fiercest and the drunkenest of the four is our friend who
began by making up the game.
This illustration reminds us of another matter related
to details. When you wish to pause, to hold up the move-
ment, and to appreciate some scene fully, give a wealth
of minutisp; but if you wish rapid movement, details
must be suppressed. To accelerate the movement, give
fewer and fewer details ; secure effects by broad strokes
and make a bold climax. Observe how Beecher pictured
the people at the card table and how he hastened the
180 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
movement after the quarrel began. From that point on
he ceased to consider individuals but, with a few quick
flashes or impressions, treated them all as a mob.
(c) Images by Suggestion
For every carefully worked-out image in a public
speech, there are usually about ten which are suggested
by single words or by brief expressions of two or three
words. The skillful speaker has acquired the knack of
revealing a whole picture by a short expression hitting
off some outstanding feature. Kead the following para-
graph from James G. Blaine's memorial address on Gar-
field.
As the end drew near, his early craving for the sea re-
turned. The stately mansion of power had been to him the
wearisome hospital of pain, and he begged to be taken from
its prison-walls, from its oppressive, stifling air, from its home-
lessness and its hopelessness. Gently, silently, the love of a
great people bore the pale sufferer to the longed-for healing of
the sea, to live or die as God should will, within sight of its
heaving billows, within sound of its manifold voices. With
wan, fevered face tenderly lifted to the cooling breeze, he
looked out wistfully upon the ocean's changing wonders — on
its far sails whitening in the morning light; on its restless
waves rolling shoreward to break and die beneath the noon-
day sun ; on the red clouds of evening arching low to the hori-
zon; on the serene and shining pathway of the stars. Let us
think that his dying eyes read a mystic meaning which only the
rapt and parting soul may know. Let us believe that in the
silence of the receding world he heard the great waves break-
ing on a farther shore, and felt already upon his wasted brow
the breath of the eternal morning.
Here Ave see a whole series of pictures, each suggested
just by a touch. Notice especially the effect of *'on its
far sails whitening in the morning light." Does not the
complete picture arise as clearly as it would had the ora-
tor carefully outlined the whole and filled in the details?
IMAGES AND VOCABULARY-BUILDING 181
While speaking of the Union soldiers in his Reunion
Speech at Indianapolis, Robert G. Ingersoll said : ''We
stand guard with them in the wild storm and under the
quiet stars." Does not a picture of the sentry, out be-
yond the lines, with the starry sky above him, come fully
to mind — invoked by a word ?
(d) Practice in Suggestive Use of Words
How shall the student acquire skill in using words ef-
fectively and economically? By first trying to grasp the
most essential part of a scene or situation and then usin.u
the word which designates that very characteristic part.
For instance, the striking thing about a sailboat on the
horizon is the white flash of the sail as it swings around
and catches the full beam of the sun. The most serene
and quieting thing at night, when one is alone, is the
glittering star. The effective use of words to give whole
pictures arises when one sees into the very heart of the
picture and reveals that only. That essential part car-
ries all the rest with it to the audience.
Let the student tell the essential thing, physical or
spiritual, in the following :
1. Cattle at noon under the trees.
2. A dreadnaught battleship coming head on at
full speed.
3. A fast torpedo boat in the same action.
4. A workman entering the room to tell his wife
that he has been laid off.
5. The sea on a clear night under a full moon.
6. A lake or river under the same circumstances.
7. A laborer opening a great furnace door in a
steel mill to rake the coals.
8. A man whom you admire, in a characteristic
attitude.
182 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
9.- The same for a man against whom you have a
justifiable aversion.
10. A drunkard staggering along the street.
The student should have a notebook in which to make
studies suggested by these exercises. Whenever a good
or interesting thing is met "hit it off" in the most con-
cise Avay possible. Then also work out the detailed and
thoroughly planned description or narrative. Whenever
you get a very apt expression in your reading, make a
note of it.
There are those who recommend that the student of
speaking have many such pet expressions memorized
and ready to draw upon when getting up a speech of his
own. The keeping of a notebook, however, is not val-
uable so much for this reason, but rather because the
process of culling out effective expressions and of record-
ing these, as well as original ones, will tend to develop
observation and expression. What we want to cultivate
in the speaker is the keen eye and the ready tongue which
will work together extemporaneously. If, however, you
find that the store of "canned" gems is of real help, it
would be foolish to set it aside. On the other hand, do
not use it to the exclusion of extemporaneous expression.
2. VOCABULAEY-BUILDING
The expression of images and especially the sketchy
use of one or two words to suggest a whole scene implies
a mastery of words. We shall consider, in the rest of
this lesson, the general principles of vocabulary-build-
ing. The next lesson will be devoted entirely to a system
of word-analysis and synthesis.
As would naturally be expected, writers from the
earliest times have pointed out the need of a large vo-
IMAGES AND VOCABULARY-BUILDING 18;j
cabulary for the speaker. Quintilian, the great Roman
rhetorician, gives over the first chapter of his tenth book
to this subject, under the title De Copia Verhorum {On
the Supply of Words). In stating the ideal to be at-
tained here, we may say that three things should char-
acterize the vocabulary of a successful speaker : (1) It
should be large; (2) it should be accurate; and (3) it
should be readily accessible. This last characteristic is
more essential to the speaker than to the writer. The
other two hold for the essayist as well as for the orator.
(a) Enlarging the Vocabulary
Nature provides that as a child matures, he shall fix
to the various experiences in life the words which those
around him usually employ to represent those experi-
ences. As the mother comes near the infant, she con-
stantly refers to herself as ' ' mother " or ' ' mamma. ' ' At
last, the child associates the two and the word will re-
call the person to his mind, or the presence or recollec-
tion of the mother will prompt the use of the word.
So on through life; wider knowledge brings mth it
wider language for expressional purposes. There is no
other way to enlarge the vocabulary. To be sure, by a
sheer feat of the memory one might acquire a parrot
control over a great list of words, but they will have no
expressional value unless they come with an intimate
knowledge of the things for which they stand. Conse-
quently, we would advise that the student study not only
the word but also the thing. If you hear or come across
a strange word, look it up not only in the dictionary but
also in the encyclopaedia, Establisli a memory of the
word itself and also a trustworthy knowledge of the
thing it expresses. The word then becomes alive; it is
184 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
not a dead and empty shell, increase your stock of live
WORDS.
The second care of the speaker is to observe carefully
the context in which his words are met. A word used in
one group may be different in meaning from the same
word used in another connection. Furthermore, two
words may have almost the same meaning — they may be
almost synonymous, but a certain context may call for
one of them and make the use of the other incorrect.
Consequently, one who would acquire a just sense of the
meaning of words should read widely and hear many ex-
cellent speeches. The only way to appreciate the exact
shades of meaning connected with a given word is to hear
it used in a general setting and to hear it often. To illus-
^'trate how one context calls for one word and another for
\ a different word, we can tell the old story about surprise
) and astonish. It is said that on coming do\\Ti stairs un-
expectedly one day, Noah Webster's wife caught him
when about to kiss the maid. "AVhy, Noah," she ex-
claimed, ''I'm surprised!" He replied, ''You are mis-
taken, my dear, it is I who am surprised ; you are aston-
ished."
Take the word liable. Many people use it interchange-
ably with apt or likely. Even Dr. Buckley, in his Ex-
temporaneous Oratory, in the chapter on "Words
and Their Proper Use," says: "A vocabulary of a
thousand words, correctly understood, is preferable to
one of five thousand, even though four-fifths of them are
properly used, if a part be misconceived. Many have no
power of intelligent selection, frequently using words
correctly, and by means of them truly expressing thv^ir
thoughts and feelings ; but having grasped many words
incorrectly, they are liable at any moment to fall into er-
ror." His thought here is commendable, but not his use
of the word liable to mean apt, prone, or likely. The
IMAGES AND VOCABULARY-BUILDING 185
word properly means open to responsibility or subject
to. Tims, in context we should find: "If your factory
is not in sanitary condition, you are liable to prosecution
and fine" or ''I hold you liable for this debt."
These two illustrations will indicate the value of con-
text in fixing meaning. It is not safe merely to consult a
dictionary. Some of the larger dictionaries are fairly
good, for they give the usual definitions and synonyms
and also a few illustrations to show the w^ord in context.
They are desirable and, to a certain extent, meet our
needs, but the smaller dictionaries, which give defini-
tions only, cannot be depended upon for much help. If
the student wishes to see the relation of the illustrations
to the definitions, let him look up the words restive and
transpire and then determine the exact meaning of the
following expressions: ''There was the restive steed"
and "After these things transpired, his conduct
changed."
To supplement the observation of words in connection
with real experience or in connection with the context of
other speakers and writers, the student may take up a
systematic study of word lists, sjmomans, antonyms, and
dictionaries. This is reversing the process from natural
use to word-study by making word-study precede use in
communication. In the next lesson we shall outline a
scientific method of word-study. Now, however, we shall
assume that the words are first met in (1) conversation,
(2) public address, or (3) reading, and that you expect
to use the dictionary as a check only. The following is a
good daily program.
{b) Vocabulary -Building from Context
1. Set aside a portion of the day or evening for good,
systematic reading. We may suggest the best way to be-
186 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
gin the best kinds of reading. We do not expect the
student to read all the following books, but we strongly
urge him to begin with those listed first. They are easy
and very interesting.
(a) Biography: Begin with Benjamin Franklin's
Autobiography and the Life of Benvenuto Cellini (a most
absorbing narrative, translated into English by Sy-
monds). These will interest you in biography. Then
read Carl Schurz's Life of Henry Clay, Boswell's John-
son, and the lives of other men in fields of work in which
you are interested.
(b) Good Oratory: The order of interest is Robert
Ingersoll, Wendell Phillips, Webster, Burke, and others.
Webster uses words most carefully and so does Burke,
but they are apt to be a bit ponderous at times. Inger-
soll and Phillips are both good and interesting. There
are many satisfactory collections of orations which may
be read for choice extracts from these and other orators.
(c) Good Fiction: For interest in excellent writing,
begin with Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter. Follow it with
Edgar Allen Poe's Short Stories and the works of Rob-
ert Louis Stevenson, Kipling, Dickens, Thackeray, and
George Eliot.
(d) Plays: Begin to read George Bernard Shaw's
The Doctor's Dilemma, Getting Married, and Fanny's
First Play. Then read his plays Pleasant and Unpleas-
ant. J. M. Barrie {Peter Pan) and Maeterlink {The Blue
Bird) and other modern dramatists may interest you and
prepare you for an appreciation of Ibsen {The Doll's
House, The Master Builder, Pillars of' Society, and
Hedda Gabler). These should be read before the plays
of Shakespeare. Of course, everyone should read these
last eventually.
(e) Poetry: The following sequence is recommended
for those who do not already care for poetry but who
IMAGES AND VOCABULARY-BUILDING 187
wish to have a taste for it developed: Scott {The Lady
of the Lake, Marmion, The Lay of the Last Minstrel) ;
Coleridge {The Ancient Mariner) ; AVilde {The Ballad of
Reading Gaol) ; Poe {The Raven and Annabel Lee) ;
Longfellow {Evangeline) ; Tennyson {Enoch Arden, The
Round Table Poems, Break, Break, Break, and In Memo-
riani). Then may follow readings in Palgrave's Golden
Treasury of English Verse, selecting Browning, Shelley,
and Keats. When the student loves Shelley, he loves
poetry.
2. During this reading and during all other incidental
reading, such as the daily perusal of the newspapers and
magazines, make a note of new words in a little book.
Also, copy longer expressions which are either new or
especially effective. Be sure to master the context in
every case-
3. ^ Note in a similar manner new or excellent expres-
sions heard in conversation or while list^.'ning to public
addresses.
4. Consult the dictionary and check up the meaning of
all these words.
5. Put them to the test of comparison and contrast.
The method is as follows : Write down the word in ques-
tion and then write as many words as you know which
stand for the same or nearly the same idea (synonjans) ;
next, add all you know which are of opposite meaning
(antonyms). After that, indicate fine distinctions. The
exercise about to be given is a very complete treatment
of the word discord. We do not expect a student to do so
well. If he has two "like" words and two "opposite"
words and one "distinction," he has enough for a be-
ginner.
A good book to consult in connection with this exercise
"is Roget's Thesaurus, a Treasury of the English Words.
188
EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Word
Like
Opposite
Distinction
Discord
Jarring note,
trouble, disagree-
ment, dissension,
cross- purpose,
breach, wrangling,
row, rumpus, Don-
nybrook Fair
Concord, h a r -
mony, sympathy,
agreement, peace,
reciprocity, concili-
ation
We speak of discord
when a slight lack of
harmony exists; but
breach indicates a
more serious separa-
tion of interests. We
have concord when all
work well together;
concihation exists if
that harmony was pre-
ceded by dissension.
Concihation also im-
pUes that the parties
involved have secured
the harmony by mu-
tual concessions
6. As words are mastered, put them into actual oral
and written use.
7. Practice the following substitution-of-missing-ex-
pression exercises:
(a) Take a magazine article or other piece of compo-
sition which you are willing to mutilate, and strike out
certain words and phrases. Note how it is done in the
following passage from an address on "Jesus as a Pub-
lic Speaker,"
Now, Jesus of Nazareth is the greatest name in history.
He has wielded an influence greater than any king, ppinoo
or wappiop. Was He an orator ?
One of the first roquiaitoo - of the orator is that he be a
well-informed popoon. He must know muoh of many thingo.
Particularly is it doairablo that he know and love * %otm' <»r or,
at least, have muoh of the po tic tompopamont. Moreover,
he must be a lioot> student of liiman nature. Do the Gospels
ascribe any or all of these attributes to Jesus? So precocious
was He that at the age of twelve He astonished the dootoru '
of the temple. His uttei-ances at thirty, when He met in
t
IMAGES AND VOCABULARY-BUILDING 189
keen nrgumont - priest, scribe, pharisee and lawyer, show Him
to have been master of the law. Can there be any doubt of
Ilis knowledge of and lovo for nature ? "I am the vine ; ye
are the branches." **A soAver went forth to sow." ''Do men
gather grapes of thorns or figs or thistles?" "Behold the
fowlci of the air, for they sow not, neither do they reap, nor
gather into bapno ; yet your heavenly f::tihoi' feedeth them."
' ' Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow ; they toil not
neither do they spin; and yet I say unto you, that even
Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these.
Wherefore, if God so clothe the grass of the field, w^hich
today is, and tomorrow is cast into the oven, shall He not
much more clothe you, ye of little faith ? ' '
Of course, you must obliterate the deleted expressions
completely. Set aside a number of such prepared pas-
sages until you have forgotten the words you crossed out.
Then take the sheet and read it through smoothly, sup-
plying at each gap, without hesitancy, an expression
which will be appropriate. You have tlie general pur-
pose and aim of the passage to guide you, but you must
supply, on the spur of the moment, a word which will
continue the sense.
This is an exercise in adaptation and application but
not one in acquisition. It is very valuable, for it dupli-
cates almost exactly the situation in which a speaker
finds himself when he tries to express, in an extempora-
neous manner, a thought which he understands and has
fully in mind. He must find adequate words promptly.
(b) Next make a list of words on which you wish to
practice. Then, in a rapid and extemporaneous manner
supply a number of s\Tionyms and antonyms ; draw dis-
tinctions. It is the rapid and oral carrying-out of what
was suggested on page 187 as a written means of acquisi-
190 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
tion. The following is a typical list with the first word
treated in the desired manner.
1. Relation, Relation is similar to con-
nection, the opposite of dissociation or differ-
ence; we may say that relation exists without
implying that there is harmony, for harmony
is only one kind of relation possible between
two or more things.
2. Symmetry
3. Domain
4. Regularity
5. Individuality
6. Eternity
7. Intelligence
8. Safety
9. Defiance
10. Amusement.
Take such a list and go through it rapidly. If you have
to pause and cannot promptly add the required amplifica-
tion, check the word and move immediately to the next
one. There must be no stop. After you are through go
back and make a careful study of the words you had to
check. Then add them to a new list to be used for exer-
cise at some other time. After a while, you will have
compiled a great many lists and have a considerable ad-
dition to your readily accessible vocabulary.
Thus, we have outlined the manner in which to make
all words with which you come in contact as living parts
of expression, a part of your own vocabulary. We have
outlined the way to check up their meaning, to study
them, and to exercise with them in actual application.
In the next lesson, we shall consider word-building so
as to indicate how the mastery of a comparatively small
number of root words and parts of words will give you
command over a much vaster vocabularv.
IMAGES AND VOCABITLARY-BUTLDTNG 191
Assignment of Work
The written exorcises in tliis entire lesson shonld bo
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in your notebook.
First Day. — Copy from some oration or writing a description
which you consider very good. Then make an analysis of
it, covering the following points :
1. Topic
2. Point of view
3. Comprehensive outline
4. Plan or basis of ordering details
5. Use of words
Second Day. — Make a similar study of a good piece of narra-
tive work.
Third Day. — Write out an original piece of description or nar-
ration, following an outline covering these points, and at-
taching the outline to your work.
Fourth Day. — Make an outline of this character for five or six
images and develop them extemporaneously. This is a most
important exercise.
Fifth Day. — Prepare a list of fifty short expressions which are
good and expressive by suggestion. Add twenty-five of
your own.
Additional Reminders
1. Is your posture good?
Are you improving in breath capacity and control?
3. Are you carefully criticizing your own organization of
thought in your conversations and public addresses?
4. Are you systematically criticizing others?
5. Have you found any one-sided development in your
perception and memory, that is, are you distinctly eye-minded
or ear-minded or motor-minded? What are you doing about it?
6. Be sure to work steadily to increase your vocabulary.
hi
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for tlie stiulont tn ust" in testing
iiis knowledge of the principles in tliis lesson. They
are sugfiestiue merely, dealing largely witli the practical
application of the principles, and are to he placed in the
notebook for futnie reference.
1. Does your own life show that there is a close relation be-
tween actual experience and imagination; Along what lii;,^
does your imagination work?
2. Why are self-made men very often successful business
executives, promoters, and advertisers?
3. What man of your acquaintance has the best reproduc-
ing imagination? Who the best creative imagination? Who
the best fancy? Has the mental characteristic of each any
connection with the work in which he is engaged?
4. What is meant by adaptation to the audience? Did you
ever see a speaker fail because of weakness in this respect?
5. Have you ever heard a man spoil a description oi" nar-
rative because of unorganized or poorly ordered details?
G. What is the effect upon an audience of over-refinement
and too much detail?
7. Will you not add to the list of subjects for word-paint-
ing on page 181 to be expressed by a few suggestive words?
What kind of images comes most readily to your mind?
8. What are the natural principles governing the enlarge-
ment of a vocabulary?
9. What do we mean by "increasing the stock of live
words ' ' ?
10. Why is context of great importance?
11. Which of your favorite authors has the largest vocabii-
lary? Which one uses his words most accurately?
12. Could you improve upon our plan of vocabuhrry-build-
ing? How? Can you suggest other interesting and effective
devices to fix the words and to give rapid command in speech ?
192
LESSON 11
vocabulary-building
1. Word Analysis
In the last lesson, we gave exercises designed to culti-
vate in the student exactness in the use of each word
added to his vocabulary. Exercises to insure facility or
prompt selection of the proper word at a given place
were also outlined. Finally, both precision and prompt-
ness were re-enforced by practice on synonyms and an-
ton^ans. If a student were to read a great deal, note each
new expression, find all its synon3ans and antonjans, and
then practice with his enlarged vocabulary after the man-
ner suggested in Lesson 10, he would soon have easy
command of wide language resources. But there is an-
other way to supplement the process as described so that
still greater returns may be reaped from a given amount
of effort. Such a further study — Avord analysis, as we
shall call it — we shall take up in this lesson. If one can
analyze properly a given number of words over which
he has complete command, he will thereby be given in-
sight into the meaning of two or three times as many
more. Furthermore, word analysis will make the con-
sultation of the dictionary a real pleasure and that dry
book will become attractive.
No doubt every student has noticed that certain of our
words are similar in some of their parts; for instance,
toiQgrapli, ])h.oj\o graph, hiography, umltigrapli, litho-
graph, grapliiiQ, and others have the common part,
-graph. This common element, of course, has a meaning
193
194 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
which helps to make up the total meaning of each word in
which it occurs. It is from the Greek word grapho (I
write). It is used w^ith other significant parts to make up
the meaning of the words mentioned above.
1. Telegraph (to write from a distance), from two Greek words,
tele (far or distant) and grapJio (I write). When a tele-
graph was first invented, it actually did write on a travel-
ing strip of paper and the operator did not have to de-
pend on sound as now.
2. PlionograpJi (a recorder or writer of sounds), from pJione
(sound) and grapJio (I write).
3. Biography (a record or history of someone's life), from
bios (life) and grapho (I write).
4. Multigraph (a machine to write many copies), from the
Latin word multi (many) and grapho (I write).
5. Lithograph (a print from a stone plate), from lithos (stone)
and grapho (I write). Many of our color pictures are
lithographs.
6. Graphite (a material with which we may record or write),
from grapho (I write) and -ite (of the nature of).
By studying the first and second words above (tele-
graph and phonograph), we see why a far-speaking or
far-sounding apparatus came to be called a "telephone."
This and many similar words bear evidence that the thor-
ough analysis of a comparatively small vocabulary leads
the way to the grasp of a far larger stock of words. Just
as we have made use of the graph-gvoui), so also we might
take the ^e/e-group and study the structure of ^e/ephone,
^e^egraph, ^e^epathy (mental influence from a distance),
^eZegraphone, ^e^epost, and many others which the stu-
dent, from this hint, may be able to look up in the dic-
tionary for himself. In this lesson we shall list the most
serviceable of the word parts which occur often in the
building-up of larger words.
Words like tele and grapho are called "root words."
In word-building, we use not only certain fundamental
roots, but also prefixes and suffixes. A prefix is a part
VOCABULARY-BUILDING 195
of a word which is put in front of a root word to make up
a larger, new word. A suffix is added after the root word
for a similar reason. Thus, to the root change we prefix
inter- and get interchange. Inter- means * 'between" or
"among." When I say, "I can change this article, " I
mean that for the article I may get another — no matter
what; hut if I say, "I can interchange these things," I
mean that the change must be within a definite group and
the substitution of one for the other must be among the
members of the group. The suffix -able has an obvious
meaning. Therefore, interchangeable means ''able to be
changed within a given set or number. ' ' Here we have
a root, a prefix, and a suffix. In analyzing words we look
for (1) roots, (2) prefixes, and (3) suffixes. A mastery
of a relatively small number of these parts will give
command over a large vocabulary.
2. Sources of English Words
Before listing certain serviceable roots, prefixes, and
suffixes, it may be well to mention briefly the way in
which the present English vocabulary was built up. It is
generally known that modern English is a composite of
many languages. Some of our words are of Greek origin,
some come from the Latin, some are of Germanic origin,
and others are from still other sources or are directly
borrowed from modern foreign languages. An example
of this last group is chic (pronounced " sheek"), a French
word used to mean "stylish," "pert," or "attractively
lively." Understanding that there are many sources of
vocabulary, we must nevertheless recognize three great
well-springs of modern English: Latin, Greek, and
Anglo-Saxon.
In very ancient times, a barbaric people lived in Eng-
land. They spoke a Celtic language. But these people
196 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
were conquered and pushed back into AVales, Scotland,
aiid Ireland by invaders from Scandinavia and Germany.
The conquerors may be considered the founders of our
language as we now have it. Though the old Celtic sur-
vives to a certain extent in parts of Scotland, Wales, Ire-
land, and Brittany, modern English has only a few of its
words. They are mostly the names of persons and places,
such as Cohb, Jones, Thames, and Kent. Of the common
names, the most important are darn, flannel, tartan,
plaid, gruel, and brand.
The incoming Anglo-Saxon language became the back-
bone of Old English and later modern English. We need
not go into the grannnatical form of this language and its
various changes. AVe are concerned mostly with its
words and their structure. They are simple, direct, and
forceful, usually representing concrete images and
strong emotions rather than generalizations and intel-
lectual refinements. Thus we find most of the natural phe-
nomena and objects in this tongue: hill, dale; sea, land;
ivood, ivater, stream; heat, cold; rain, hail, sleet, thunder;
sun, moon, stars; earth, fire; spring, winter, summer;
morning ^ noon, and night. Family life is also cared for:
father, mother, husband, tvife, ividow, son, daughter,
child, brother, sister, home, roof, fireside, hearth, etc.
The following are typical words expressing strong emo-
tions: love with its smile, anger and frown, shame and
blush, guilt and gloom, sorroiv and tears. This strong,
concrete language, drawing something from the Celtic,
became the language of England until the Norman inva-
sion in 1066.
It was through the Norman French tliat classical
(Latin and Greek) words were introduced. The Nor-
mans, under William the Conqueror, set about to replace
the English tongue witli their own language. But they
were by no means successful. The two peoples mingled
VOCABULARY-BUILDING 197
and the language which emerged in Shakespeare's time
and continues to the present was more Saxon in gram-
matical structure than Norman. But the Norman words,
of Latin and Greek origin, were added to the vocabulary.
As a result, we now look for Saxon, Latin, and Greek
prefixes, roots, and suffixes when we analyze most of the
words now in use.
(a) Latin Prefixes
For convenience, we shall begin with Latin prefixes
and treat some of them in pairs.
A-, ah-, or abs-, and ad-. — The prefix a-, ah-, or ahs-
means ''away" or "from." Thus abjure comes from ah-
(away) and jiiro (I swear) and means ''to swear away"
or "to forswear something previously acknowledged."
Abject comes from ah- and jectus (thrown) and therefore
means "throwm away" or "worthless" — carrying with it
the notion of "abased," "cast off," or "hopelessly low."
Look up the following words: avert, abhor, abduct, abnormal,
aboriginal, abrupt, abstain, abscond, abrogate. To these add others
which may occur to you or which you may look up in the dictionary.
Ad- means just the opposite, that is, "to," "at,"
"toward," or "for." Admire comes from ad- (at) and
miror (I wonder). Adore is from ad- and oro (I pray or
speak) and therefore means "to pray to" or "to wor-
ship." An advocate is one who calls out for {voco, I call)
or speaks for a cause.
Look up the following words: advent, admission, address, adept,
adhere, adjourn, adjust, administer, admit, adopt.
Sometimes the d in ad- is left out or assimilated to the
following letter, and we find aspire, ascribe, avow, accept,
affi<jo, annul, and attract.
Ante- and post-. — Ante- means "before" and post-
means "after." Thus we have antehellinn and postbel-
198 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
lum — "before the war" and "after the war." (Inciden-
tally helium is a root from the Latin and means "war";
we see it in rebellious, bellicose, rebel, belligerent, etc.)
Look up the following words: antecedent, antechamber, antedate,
antediluvian, anticipate, antiquity.
For post- as a prefix, note postscript, which means
"that which is written after" ; also note postpone, poster-
ity, postgraduate. This prefix is used in many compound,
technical words, such as post-natal, which means "havin*;'
happened after birth," and post-frontal, "back of the
frontal bone of the skull."
Look up the following words: anterior — posterior; anteprandial —
postprandial ; antemeridian — postmeridian.
Circum-. — Circum- signifies "about" or "around."
Circumambulate comes from circum- (around) and am-
hulo (I walk) and means "to walk around." Circumfer-
ence is from circum- (around) and fero (I bear or carry)
and means "that which is borne or carried around," as
the boundary of a circle. Circumstances are things which
stand about or around. A circumspect person is one who
looks {spec, look) all around a thing or problem before he
acts. We circumvent another when we get {ven, come)
all around him or his plans.
Look up the following words : circumlocution, circumscribe, circuni-
polar, circumnavigate.
Sub- and super-. — Sub- signifies "under"; super-,
"above" or "over." Thus we have subcellar and super-
structure. Subdue is from sub- (under) and duco (I
lead) ; consequently, subdue is almost identical in mean-
ing with overcome. It will interest the student to note
these two words, which mean about the same thing. The
Latin got the better of an enemy by the indirect method
of leading him under, as shown in subdue, while the
VOCABULARY-BUILDING 199
Saxon word, overcome, gives the feeling of beating one
directly by a strong, face-on attack.
The meaning of super- can be gathered from super-
abundance, which means "more than an abundance" —
"a generous plenty." Superfine is more than fine or
overfine, and superfluous is more than enough — to over-
flowing {fluo,li\ow).
Look up the following words: submarine, subterranean, subaerial,
subaltern, subconscious, subcontract, subdivision, subject (as a noun,
adjective, or verb), subjugate, submission, subordinate, subpoena.
It will be noted that often before c, f, g, m, p, and r, the
h is assimilated to the following letter. We find
succor (to run to a person, to come up as an aid or sup-
port), from suh- (under) and curro (I run) ; other exam-
ples are sufix, supplant, surreptitious.
Look up the following words: superficial, supernatural, supercil-
ious (a very interesting word), superintendent.
Sometimes super- is written sur-, as in surprise, sur-
round, surrender, survive, survey.
Trans-. — Trans- means "across." See transfer (to
bear or carry across).
Look up the following words: transcontinental, translate, trans-
form, transmigration, transcend, transfuse, transfix, transmit.
Inter-. — Inter- means "between" or "among." Thus,
intercollegiate means "between colleges," as used in
the expression, "intercollegiate football." Interrupt
means "to break in between." A rupture is a break of
any sort. Interchangeable parts are those which are
changeable among themselves.
Look up the following words : interact, interbreed, intercede, inter-
cept, intercommunicate, intercourse, interdict, interest, interfere, inter-
fuse, interjection, interlock, intermediate, intermission, interrogate,
intervene.
200 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Per-. — This prefix means "througli." Join it to the
Latin root, meare (to pass), and you get permeare (to
pass through). The English word is permeate. There-
fore permeate means "to pass through," "to fill the crev-
ices or pores and to pervade a thing. "
Look up the following words : pervade, perspiration, perpetrate,
perjury, permanent, permit, peruse, perverse, persist.
Ex- and m-. — Ex- means "out," while in-, as might be
guessed, means "in." Thus, we have export, which
means "that which is carried out," and import, "that
which is carried in. ' '
Look up the following words : expel, exact, example, exceed, except,
exchange, excite, expand; increase, incline, inclose, inception, incarna-
tion.
It will be noted that in- may also mean "not," as in
incautious (not cautious). See also improper {in- and
proper), incontestable, independent, and insufficient.
Other Important Latin Prefixes. — While we cannot
give so much space to all the Latin prefixes, the following
list may easily be studied by the student who follows the
method already suggested. Of course, the dictionary
must be consulted all the time.
1. C071- (together or with) , as in ' ' co^ttend, ' ' to strive with ;
" co?( vention," a coming together.
2. de- (down from), as in ''descend," to climb down.
3. re- (back or again), as in "recline," to lean back; "re-
turn, ' ' to turn again.
4. pro- (forward or ahead), as in "provide," to look
ahead ; ' ' promote, ' ' to move ahead or before.
5. pre- (before), as in "predict," to tell before; "pre-
lude," play before.
6. po.s'^- (after), as in "postpone," to place after; "post-
lude, ' ' play after.
7. non- (not), as in " 7ioneombatant " or ^'nonsense."
There are other Latin prefixes, but those are the most
important.
VOCABULARY-BUILDING 201
(b) Greek Prefixes
There are not, in English, so many prefixes of Greek
origin as of Latin origin, yet the following selected ones
do not exhaust the list.
1. a- or an- (not or without) , as in ' ' atheist, ' ' one without a
God; "achromatic," without color; "aphasia,"
lack of speech; "amnesia," lack of memory. An
anesthetic {an-, not, aistlietos, sensible) is some-
thing to take away sensation — chemicals like ether
and chloroform.
2. amhi- or ampM- (double), as in " amhidexivous," dex-
trous with both hands, as though having two right
hands; "amphibious," double-lived, as a frog,
which can live in water or on land. An amphi-
theatre was a place with a complete circle of seats
while the ancient theatre had but a half-circle of
seats; thus an amphitheatre was a double theatre.
3. ana- (back again), as in " a^i-alysis, " a tracing back
again; "anagram," something written (gram)
which may be rearranged, used anew, or used
again. The game of anagrams consists of rearrang-
ing the letters of one word so as to form as many
other words as possible.
4. ant- or aiiti- (opposite), as in "awf arctic," opposite the
arctic or north; "antipathy," an opposite or
antagonistic feeling.
5. di- or dia- (through or between), as in "cZiameter," the
measure through ; ' ' dialogue, ' ' speech between two
persons.
6. epi- (upon), as in "epidemic," upon the people — a sick-
ness upon the people.
7. hyper- (over or beyond), as in " hij percviticRl," over-
critical.
8. meta- (beyond), as in "wie^aphysics," a study beyond
the physical into the spiritual.
9. peri- (around), as in "perimeter," the measure around
— the circumference.
10. sy-, syn-, or sym- (together), "si/nchronous," together
in time — at the same time; "si/mpathy," fellow
feeling or suffci'ing together with another; "syr,i-
phony," blending together of sounds.
202 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(c) Some Saxon Prefixes
The Saxon prefixes are easy because most of them bear
the regular English meaning which they have as inde-
pendent words. The italicized parts of the following
words are such prefixes: doivnYight, midship), nothing
or nobody, offset, onset or onslaught, ow^bid or outr-an,
overflow, underlored, and npMt Note also the following :
1. a- (at, in, or on), as in "afar," at a distance; "afoot,"
on foot.
2. he- (to or on) , as in ' ' bestir, ' ' to stir ; ' ' &edrip, ' ' drip on.
3. for- (away or not), as in ''forgiYe," give away; "for-
get, ' ' not to get.
4. fore- ( before ) , as in ' ' foretell " ; " forewarn. ' '
5. mis- ( wrong) , as in ' ' wiisspell " ; " mistake " ; " mis-
state. ' '
6. n- ( not) , as in ' ' neither, ' ' not either ; ' ' ?iever " ; " none. ' '
7. un- (removal or not), as in "unhand''; "unjust."
8. with- (from or against), as in "withdraw"; "with-
stand. ' '
(d) Suffixes
There are a great number of Latin, though not so many
Greek, suffixes in our English vocabulary. We shall list
some of the most important. But -first note for yourself
the influence of a suffix. Take modest; now add -y as a
suffix and make up your mind what the -y stands for in
modesty. Take the ending -ry and note its influence when
added to hrave so as to form bravery. These suffixes
change adjectives which might be applied to one man
(that is, a man who is modest or brave) to the name of
the quality which that man possesses — in these cases,
"modesty" and "bravery." The Saxon suffix for the
same thing is -ness, as in "goodness"; " sweetl^e55 " ;
"brie;htwe55."
VOCABULARY-BUILDING 203
The simplest suffixes to understand are the Saxon. The
following is a representative list :
1. -dom (state or dominion), as in "kingdom" ; "free-
dom-' ' ; " ChristencZowi. ' '
2. -en (made of), as in "woole?i"; "wooden"; "leaden";
"brazen," made of brass.
3. -er (one who) , as in ' ' winner, ' ' one who wins ; ' ' singer, ' '
one who sings.
4. -em (towards or of), as in "norther?i," towards or of
the north.
5. -ess (female), as in "lioness."
6. -fid (abounding or full), as in "plenti/i^r' ; "beauti-
M"
7. -liood (state), as in " mother/ioocZ " ; " f ather/ioocZ " ;
' ' maiden/ioocZ " ; " knight/ioocZ. ' '
8. -isli (like or belonging), as in "yellowis/i"; "DamsTi."
9. -kin (small), as in "lambA'in," little lamb; "fir/cin, " a
small barrel or cask.
10. -ling (little or young), as in "diiGkling" ; "fledgZingr."
11. -like and -ly (manner), as in "womanlike" and "wo-
manly. ' '
12. -7iess (condition or quality), as in "happiness";
' ' brightness " ; " heal thi?( ess. ' '
13. -ock ( small or young) , as in " hillocfc " ; " huWock. ' '
14. -ship (state or office), as in " courtship" ; "steward-
s/up. ' '
15. -some (like or causing), as in "gladsome," causing
gladness; "wearisome"; "tiresome"; "irksome."
16. -ster (one who) , as in " spinster, ' ' one who spins ; ' ' song-
ster."
17. -ward (toward), as in " heavemoard " ; "southM;arcZ";
' ' iorward. ' '
18. -wise (way), as in "sideime," side way; " othermse " ;
' ' thusM^'ise. ' '
19. -y (little), as in "babi/," little babe.
A few of the classical suffixes are here given:
1. -ac (pertaining to), as in "cardiac," pertaining to the
heart.
2. -aceous (having the character of), as in "herbaceous."
3. -an or -iV/n (pertaining to or one who), as in "sylvan,"
pertaining to the woods ; ' ' christian, ' ' one who ac-
knowledges Christ.
204 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
4. -ance or -ancy (state of being), as in "constancy,''
state of being constant.
5. -ant (one who), as in "servant."
6. -ar (pertaining to, one who, or having) , as in ' ' nebular, ' '
pertaining to the nebulus; "scholar," one who
studies; "muscular," having muscles.
7. -able or -ible (may be or worthy), as in "curahle" ; " re-
sponsible."
8. -ee (one to whom), as in "payee"; "donee."
9. -ify (to make) , as in ' ' clarify, ' ' to make clear ; ' ' deify, ' '
to make a god.
10. -ic or -ical (like or pertaining to), as in "angeKc, " like
an angel; "botanico?," pertaining to botany or the
flowers.
11. -ics (the science or art of), as in "mathematics";
"therapeutics," science of curing — medicine.
12. -ine (belonging to), as in "leom?ie, " belonging to the
lion; "marme," belonging to the sea.
13. -Hon or -sion (act of or state of being), as in "conflagra-
tion," act of burning; "perfection," state of the
perfect.
14. -ist (one who), as in "theorisf," one who theorizes;
' ' botanist " ; " chemist. ' '
15. -ity or -ty (state of being), as in "humidity," state of
being humid or moist; "modesty/," state of being
modest.
16. -ose (full of), as in "verbose," full of words — talkative.
17. -ry (being, art of, or place where), as in "bravert/,"
being brave ; ' ' surgery, ' ' art of the surgeon ;
"fisher^/," place for fishing.
18. -itude (state of), as in "soHtwcZe," state of being alone.
19. -ule (little), as in "globule," little globe; "granule,"
little grain.
(e) Root Words
Saxon root words are simple and hardly need treat-
ment, bnt we sliall list a few^ useful Latin and Greek
words which are often found as parts of larger words in
modern English.
VOCABULARY-BUILDING 205
1. cor (heart), as in '^core/^ heart; ''cordial," hearty;
"concord," {con, together, and cor, heart), hearts
beating together. On the other hand, note "dis-
cord," hearts apart or disagreement.
Can you find other words with cor as a part?
2. aqua (water), as in "aquarium/' a water tank in which
fishes are kept. An aqueduct (aqua, water, and
due, lead) is a means of leading water from one
place to another.
Look up the following words : aquatic and aqueous.
Do you know other words with aqua as the root?
3. ani7na (life), as in "aniwmtion," liveliness. An i7iani-
mate object is one without life.
Look up the following words: animal, animus, ani-
mosity, and animadvert.
4. due (lead), as in "reduce," to make less since it gives
the notion 6f retracing steps because you are led
back; "procZi/ce," to bring forth. We induce a
man to do a thing because we lead him into the
enterprise. We educate a boy by drawing out
(e, out) what is in him.
What does ductile mean? Look up other words with
due as a part.
5. audi (hear), as in " auditormm," a place where we hear
speeches and music. A sound is audible when the
ear can hear it. An audience is a group of listen-
ers. It is interesting to note that an audit which
is an investigation of accounts came from audi
because such investigations were originally judicial
hearings.
Look up the following words: auditory, inaudible,
audiphone, audiometer.
Z. spec (seeing or sight), as in "spectacles," things with
which to see. We inspect when we look into a
thing.
Look up the following words: spectrum, respect,
retrospect, expect, spectator, and other words containin-^
this part.
7. cap (take) , as in " capture, ' ' to take ; ''captive. '*
206 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
How does captivate differ from capturel See also
capable.
cap (head), as in "captain"; "capital"; "capitol";
"caption." Capillary means "thread-like or
minute tube" because such a tube is fine as a hair.
A hair, in Latin, was capillus because it grew on
the head (caput).
Find other words with cap or capt meaning either
"head" or "take."
8. tract (draw or pull), as in "detract." To detract from
a person is to draw away from his reputation or
position. One attracts when he draws others to
him.
Look up the following words: tractions, retract, ex-
tract.
9. voc (voice), as in "focal." Vocal music comes from the
voice and from no other instrument.
Look up the following words: advocate, invocate,
vocative, vocation, avocation, revoke.
10. volv (rolling or turning), as in "revolve." We revolve
a thing when we turn it over physically or in our
minds.
Look up the following words: evolution, involution,
revolution, and others. Why is a pistol called a revolver '1
11. temp (time), as in "temporizes," to take up time or to
delay.
Look up the following words: contemporarj', ex-
temporize, temporal, temporary, temperate. After look-
ing in a good dictionary, tell why temperance, tempera-
ment, and temperature are connected in meaning witli
the word which represents them.
12. gren (beginning), as in "(rcnesis." The book of 6rewe.s?'s
in the Bible {hiblos, book) tells of the beginning.
A geneology is an account or the words (logos,
word) about a man's origin. Hydrog'eii (hydr,
water) is the element necessary to originate water.
(Note hydrant and other words.)
Look up the following words: primogeniture, homo-
geneous, heterogeneous, exogenous, and genetic.
VOCABULARY-BUILDING 207
13. arch (leader or ruler) , as in " monarcJiy. ' ' A monnrcJiy
has one {monos, one) ruler.
Look up the following words: hierarchy, heptarchy,
archives. Why should records be called archives!
14. log (word, or that which is spoken and recorded), as in
"biology," the science which deals with the phe-
nomena of life. It is a collection of the words on
that subject. Antliropology studies man {anthro-
pos, man).
Look up the following words: logic, analogy, physi-
ology, psychology, and the other "ologies" or studies.
15. gram (marriage) , as in ' ' polygramy, " the practice of hav-
ing many {poly) wives; "higamj," having two
{hi) wives.
What does monogamy mean?
16. poly (many), as in ' ' poZt/technie. " A polyteclmic insti-
tute teaches many technical branches.
Look up the following words: polygon, polytheism,
polydactyl. Why do we call a man who speaks many
languages a polyglot '!
17. auto (self), as in "at<^omobile," a vehicle which moves
itself. Auto-intoxication is the intoxication from
poisons within one's own body.
What is an autocrat '!
We have by no means exhausted the important root
words of the languages, but Ave have given enough types
to interest the student in the discovery of prefixes, suf-
fixes, and roots, and to stimulate him to undertake word
analysis. If you should like more of these parts of
words, study your dictionary, consult an English and a
Latin grammar, and keep a notebook section as suggested
in the following paragraph.
Each time you come across a new word, look it up.
Has it a prefix? Very well, try to find as many other
words as you can with the same prefix and study its effect
upon the meaning of each. Is there a suffix? Then do
208 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
the same thing in reference to it. The root words, how-
ever, will be by far the most interesting. Any student
will find it well worth his time to keep a notebook of
roots. Devote one or more pages to each root and the
family of words in which it occurs. For instance, take
poll (city). Write on the page as follows:
POLi (city)
metropolis, greatest {meter, mother) city,
cosmopolitan city, a city of the world {cosmos)
with all races for its people,
police, city guard,
politics, city affairs, and, since Greek cities were
the units of government, governmental affairs;
and so on.
^^Hiile, of course, the study of foreign languages will
help the student greatly in the mastery of English words,
much progress can be made by one who speaks only the
mother tongue if he systematically consults the diction-
ary and follows the directions given in this lesson. In-
deed such a practice will make the acquisition of a foreign
vocabulary easy for him when he does take up the study
of tongues other than ours. Certainly he will have an
insight into his own language and he will, no doubt, use
words at his command in a discriminating way. The
greatest safeguard against the incorrect or inaccurate
use of words is a knowledge of their original meanings
and the primitive meanings of their parts.
In conclusion, then, I strongly recommend each student
to keep a notebook which fits easily in the pocket (prefer-
ably the loose-leaf kind) for the piirpose of recording
words in groups. The grouping will be according to
common parts. There will be families brought together
because of a connnon root, groups with the same prefixes,
VOCAlM'l.ARY-HriLDlXG 209
and others recorded one after the other Ijecause of siifhx
ag-reemeiit. This work will be of absorbing interest and
Ijermanent profit.
Assignment of Woek
The written exercises in tliis entire lesson slumld be
carefully worked out. Keep copies uf the written exer-
cises in your notebook.
First Day. — Read the lesson through two or three times so as to
get the entire meaning.
Second and Third Days. — Take time to look up all the words
Avhich are mentioned in the lesson and which the lesson does
not explain fully.
Fourth Day. — Outline a speech about the origin of English
words. Deliver it orally from the memorized outline. Be
careful to have your illustrations well prepared. Get some
from other sources than this lesson.
Fifth Day. — Prepare a speech on the subject, "Vocabulary-
Building. ' '
Additional Reminders
1. Are you keeping up your posture and breathing exer-
cises ?
2. Are you observing and criticising other speakers?
3. Are you practicing many extemporaneous speeches?
4. Are you working on your vocabulary ?
5. Are you keeping up the retiection hour?
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
his knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They
are suggestive merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. What is the difference between exactness and facility in
the use of words ? Do you use words with exactness ? Have you
facility?
2. Is a large vocabulary necessary for a speaker? Is a
ready use of words necessary? Of the two, scope and availa-
bility, which is more vital to a speaker's success?
3. What is a prefix? a suffix? a root?
4. What are the great sources of English words? Name
other sources.
5. How do'3s consult differ in meaning from confer ?
6. How are perplexity, astonishment, hewilderment, and
confusion related?
7. What added idea has novel over new ?
8. Distinguish between contemporary history and modern
history,
9. How are model, pattern, prototype, and archetype re-
lated?
10. Can you get other groups of words like those mentioned
in Question 5? Does word analysis help you to make distinc-
tions? Does it aid in understanding words? Keep a collection
of related groups.
11. What effect on the style of a man's speech has the use
of a great many Saxon words? a great many classical words?
12. Why should a vocabulary be made up of words of va-
rious sources ?
13. In actual address, should you incline toward one class
of words, or is variety desirable ?
14. Can variety be secured by an effort of the will at the
time of delivery, or will it arise naturally if the preparation and
study of words has been varied ?
210
k y
LESSON 12
GENERAL IDEAS OR CONCEPTS
in Lessons 9 and 10 we consider the ways in which a
speaker could give an audience an appreciation of images.
W^e assumed that an image of something actually seen,
heard, felt — in short, experienced — was the simplest men-
tal possession which a speaker could consciously have.
The use of words to transfer this image to the mind of the
listener, we called "description" in some cases and "nar-
ration" in others. But in all cases, we insisted that im-
ages were the impressions of particular things* concrete
things, real, existing things. Among our examples of
images were a particular sunrise as witnessed by Edward
Hverett, the execution of a French criminal in a certain
place at a definite time, and the re-creation of the scene
enacted on Bunker Hill during the nineteenth of April.
1776. All these were records of particular things. But
the mind often goes beyond the particular.
It is well known that after the mind has been im-
pressed with a number of particular experiences, it be-
gins to group them together and to note points of likeness
and difference. Then emerges a general notion. After
seeing many sunrises, we note that while on one morning
the sun looked red and on another more golden, while on
one morning there was a mist and on another all was
clear, still every sunrise had some characteristics in
common with every other sunrise. These points of like-
ness exist for all and are inseparably connected with our
mental appraisal of sunrises in general. This and other
abstract notions fill our minds and seek expression dur-
211
212 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ing a speech. It will be the purpose of this lesson to ex-
plain the nature of general ideas or concepts (as the
psychologists would call them) and to outline methods of
expressing them to other people.
1. Individual Differences and Family Likenesses
Let us suppose that you were to attend the meeting of
a New York local union of typesetters. The men would
come and the chairman Avould call the meeting to order.
The minutes of the last meeting would record, let us say,
that a resolution had been passed to the effect that the
period of apprenticeship in a certain line of employment
should be three years instead of two. A further reading
would tell you that $300 had been spent for sick relief and
that the strike in such and such publishing house had been
arbitrated with the following scale of Avages and hours of
employment as the basis for the resumption of work, etc.
Then the new business would include a discussion of the
recently proposed workmen's compensation law and a
committee would be appointed to attend the legislative
hearing as an instructed delegation.
On another evening you visit the bricklayers ' union and
hear a discussion of the duties of a master bricklayer in
contradistinction to those of a helper or hod carrier. The
rule that the trowel must be retained in the hand through-
out the hours of employment, is repeatedly mentioned. So
also do you find out that there is a certain, standard
number of bricks to be laid as constituting a union day's
work. Life insurance, you learn, has just been paid to a
widow whose husband died the month before. Then, going
to the meeting of a miners' union in Pennsylvania, an-
other of locomotive engineers, and yet another of marble
cutters, you are informed concerning the details of each
anion's business.
GENERAL IDEAS OR CONCEPTS 213
After visiting many unions, you discover that while one
deals with this trade and another with that, while one has
a long period of apprenticeship and another a short
period or no apprenticeship at all, while one insists on a
rigid wage scale and another on a flexible rate of pay,
while one objects to the introduction of machinery and
another offers no objections whatsoever — all have certain
points in common. All stand for collective bargaining,
so that the individual workman is not at the mercy of a
more powerful employer, all seek to shorten the hours
of work and lengthen the time available for rest and
recreation, all seek to keep their members informed con-
cerning the state of their trade throughout the country.
In short, certain things are essential to all unions
(these are the family points of agreement) while certain
other things are peculiar to particular unions. Your im-
pressions of a particular union are those received
through your senses while at its meeting, but your notion
of "labor union" as a general name includes only the
features which are general or common to all.
We form concepts or general notions of all things
which are similar in certain essential respects though
possessing individual differences. Thus your concept of
"house" embraces certain features of structure and
shelter possibilities, and disregards accidental or minor
details of size, material, and color of the paint. John
Smith and Tom Jones differ from each other in many re-
spects, but both come under your notion of "man" be-
cause they possess the features which are characteristic
of manhood. In other words, an image or the impression
of a real thing which you can get through your senses
is particular, while a concept or notion of the essential
features of every member of a class is general. Concepts
include only general characteristics. ~^
214 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
2. Kinds of Concepts
General ideas which you may want to express to others
are of various kinds. The most important are :
1. Classes of physical things, usually expressed by a
common noun. Thus the word "house" is the name of a
class of buildings which have certain characteristics in
coimnon. So also: desk, man, snowstorm, suspension-
bridge, battleship, aeroplane, balloon — each representing
a general group of individual things.
2. Processes or principles of operation. For instance,
suppose you are a dairy man and you have knowledge of
the process of pasteurizing milk ; your notion is general
rather than particular, especially if you are acquainted
with more than one pasteurizing plant. You know that
whether the milk is brought in cans or bottles, from near
or far, it must all be put into a tank where its tempera-
ture is brought up to a certain point at which disease
bacteria are rendered harmless, and the temperature
must be maintained at this point the required period of
time. The heating tank may be of one or another mate-
rial in any particular plant, but in all cases it must be
constructed so as to be able to stand the heat and it must
be of a material which will not harm the milk. Such is
your concept of the process of pasteurization. Any prin-
ciple of operation or process, be it the one mentioned,
electrotyping, printing, surgical technique in removing an
appendix, method of teaching a language, or what not.
may be known as to its general, essential characteristics.
These qualities constitute your concept of the process.
3. Abstract or general qualities, like goodness, utility,
or beauty. Suppose you say: ''This blond woman has
beauty and so also has that brunette." "This building is
beautiful and so is that painting." All these individual
things are different, yet each has something which you
GENERAL IDEAS OR CONCEPTS 215
call ** beauty." If at some time you were asked just
what is meant by "beauty" you would have to make cleai'
your general notion. If for instance you should say,
* ' The White House is beautiful but the Capitol is not, ' ' it
might be necessary for you to make clear the essentials
of beauty to defend your statement.
Most concepts come under the three classes just men-
tioned — physical classes, principles or processes, and ab-
stract qualities.
3. The Expression of a Concept
Concepts, as a rule, can be represented by single words
or small groups of words. For example, the word '^util-
ity" expresses a general, abstract notion of quality. If
you should use that word and all the people who heard
you should understand it in exactly the same way that
you do, then the single word would fully express the con-
cept. But very often listeners either do not know the
word at all, or are uncertain concerning its meaning, or
attach a meaning to it entirely different from the one you
have in mind. Furthermore, besides reacting to the word
in the wrong way, the listener may have either no notion
at all or a hazy one of the concept you wish to express.
Therefore it is usually necessary to express concepts in
round-about ways so as to leave no doubt about the grasp
of the concepts and therefore the exact meanings which
you attach to your words.
Let us use an illustration already mentioned. You are
saying that the aim of all production (the co-operation of
land, labor, and capital) is to create utility. Then you ex-
plain, saying, ''The only object for engaging in the manu-
facture of shoes, is the creation of a useful article, the
shoe. Shoes are useful because they are formed so as to
protect the feet from rough knocks and from cold. Their
216 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
form and material enable them to serve this useful pur-
pose. Their usefulness or utility arises because men have
given them the proper form. But even this human need
of protection for the feet could not be met if the shoes
were not transported to the place where the user needs
them. Consequently while the manufacturers create
form utility, the railroads give them place utility. Fur-
thermore, shoes must be on hand at the time they are
needed. The retailer, who keeps a stock from which to
meet the user's need at the proper time, gives a time
utility to the shoes. All economic production is directed
to creating just such utilities in goods or services. Look-
ing back at each kind of utility mentioned we can say that
utility, in general, is something connected with the good
which makes it capable of satisfying human wants."
After such a talk, the hearer who had never come across
the word '^ utility," would get some idea of its meaning
and the one who had not made the abstraction for himself
would be guided to make it. The following extract from
Henry Ward Beecher's famous speech in London on the
question of Slavery (the last of his five speeches in Great
Britain) expresses a concept of ''state's rights" in such
a way that it will be clear to one who has not had the
notion before, and makes clear the use of the words for
one who has the notion but has never heard that partic-
ular expression of it.
(a) Example of Expressing a Concept
Now, take notice first, that the North, hating slavery, having
rid itself of it at its own cost, longing for its extinction through-
out America, was unable until this war to touch slavery directly.
The North could only contend against the slave policy — not di-
rectly against slavery. Why? Because slavery was not the
creature of national jurisprudence, but of State law, and sub-
ject only to State jurisdiction. A direct act on the part of the
I
I
GENERAL IDEAS OR CONCEPTS 217
North to abolish slavery would have been revolutionary. (A
voice: "We do not understand you.") You will understand
me before I have done with you to-night. (Cheers) Such an at-
tack would have been a violation of the fundamental principle
of State's rights.
This peculiar structure of our Government is not so unin-
telligible to Englishmen as you might think. It is only taking
an English idea on a large scale. We have borrowed it from
j^ou. A great many do not understand how there can be a State
independence under a National Government. Now I am not
closely acquainted with your affairs, but the Chamberlain can
tell you if I am wrong, when I say that there belong to the old
city of London certain private rights that Parliament cannot
meddle with. Yet there are elements in which Parliament —
that is, the will of the nation — is as supreme over London as
over any town or city in the realm. Now, if there are some things
which London has kept for her own judgment and will, and yet
others which she has given up to the national will, you have
herein the principle of the American Government — (cheers) — by
which local matters belong exclusively to the local jurisdiction
and certain general matters to the National Government.
1 will give you another illustration that will bring it home
to you. There is not a street in London, but, as soon as a man
is inside his house he may say, his house is his castle. There is
110 law in the realm which can say to that man how many mem-
bers shall compose his family — how he shall dress his children^
when they shall get up and when they shall go to bed — how
many meals he shall have a day, and of what those meals shall
be constituted. The interior economy of the house belongs to the
members of the house, yet there are many respects in which
every householder is held in check by common rights. They have
their own interior and domestic economy, yet they share in other
things which are national and governmental. It may be very
wrong to give children opium, but all the doctors in London
cannot say to a man that he shall not drug his child. It is his
business and though it is wrong, it cannot be interfered with.
I will give you another illustration. Five men form a partner-
ship of business. iNow, that partnership represents the National
Government of the I'liited States; but it has relation only to cer-
tain great commercial interests common to them all. But each
of these five men has another sphere — his family — and in that
sphere the man may be a drunkard, a gambler, a lecherous and
indecent man, but the firm cannot meddle with his morals. It
cannot touch anything except business interests which belong to
the firm. Now, our States come together on this doctrine — that
218 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
each State, in respect to those rights and institutions that were
locally peculiar to it, was to have undivided sovereignty over its
own affairs ; but that all those powers, such as taxes, wars, trea-
ties of peace, which belong not only to one State but also in com-
mon to all States, went into the General Government. The Gen-
eral Government never had the power — the power was never del-
egated to it — to meddle with the interior and domestic economy
of the States, and it never could be done. You will ask what are
we doing it for now ? I will tell you in due time. Have I made
that point plain ? ( Cheers )
4. Methods of Making Concepts Clear to Others
A study of the illustration concerning the word ''util-
ity" and the Beecher exposition just quoted may give a
basis for listing the more important ways of making a
concept clear to others.
1. The specific illustration, strange as it may seem, is
the most effective means of making the general concept
clear to others. The specific illustration used must have
two features, however, if it is to carry with it a grasp of
the general notion.
(a) It must be familiar to the audience. In the extract
from Beecher there are three specific illustrations of the
general principle which Beecher has in mind — the possi-
bility of local authority separate from general authority.
In the one case the local independence takes the form of
municipal privileges of London, in another it reveals it-
self as household rights in contradistinction to municipal
laws, and the third shows a separation of business respon-
sibility and private, moral responsibility. A grasp of
these illustrations makes easy a grasp of the idea of
state 's rights. At least one, and possibly two or all three,
of these specific instances must have been familiar to per-
sons in the audience.
(b) The instance must have the points essential to the
concept which is being expressed, though still possessing
GENERAL IDEAS OR CONCEPTS 219
its individual points of difference. Here, each instance
given was different in peculiar respects from the slavery
rights of states in America, but each had this essential
point, that a member of a larger group is restricted in cer-
tain respects because of the authority of the group over
its members, but he may retain certain peculiar rights
which the group cannot alter or diminish.
2. The direct enumeration of all the essential charac-
teristics ivhich make up the concept in terms familiar to
the audience, will often be the best way to make the
notion clear. Notice the manner in which the apostle im-
presses, upon the Corinthians, his idea of the abstract
quality of charity (love) as a Christian virtue.
Though I speak v/ith the tongues of men and angels and have
not charity, I am become as a sounding brass and a tinkling cym-
bal. And though I have the gift of prophecy and understand all
mysteries and have all knowledge, and though I have all faith
so that I could remove mountains yet have not charity, I am
nothing. And though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and
though I give my body to be burned and have not charity, it
profiteth me nothing.
Charity suffereth long and is kind ; charity envieth not ; char-
ity vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up, doth not behave itself
unseemly, seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, thinketh
no evil; rejoiceth not in iniquity but rejoiceth in the truth;
beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, en-
dureth all things.
Charity never faileth; but whether there be prophecies, they
shall fail; whether there be tongues, they shall cease; whether
there be knowledge, it shall pass away. For we know in part and
we prophecy in part. But when that which is perfect is come,
that which is in part shall be done away. When I was a child,
I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child ;
but when I became a man, I put away childish things. For now
we see as through a glass, darkly; but then, face to face; now
I know in part ; but then shall I know even as I am known.
And now abideth faith, hope, charity — these three ; but the
greatest of these is charity.
220 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(a) Contrasting opposite qualities with those enumer-
ated often help to make the positive enumerations more
clear. Notice in the passage above, how the permanent,
abiding quality of love is made clear by contrast with
the temporary and partial nature of prophecy and knowl-
edge. In the second paragraph, long suffering is men-
tioned at the beginning and end while in the middle it is
brought out by an enumeration of opposite characteris-
tics. In the last two paragraphs, again, the permanence
of charity (or love, as the revised version of the Bible has
it) is brought out by contrast. In Lesson 1, the exposi-
tion of the notion of tact depends on enumeration and
contrasted enumeration.
3. A careful discrimination between the notion and
another very similar notion helps to make it clear. This
method is often found in legal addresses, especially the
judge's charge to the jury. We can imagine a judge say-
ing the following :
You have heard the matron of the prison testify that this
nurse, accused of murdering her employer, said that she did in-
deed give Mr. A — an overdose of strychnine on the night of
A^piil the twelfth, in consequence of which he died. The prose-
cuting attorney has been unable to obtain a more complete state-
ment from the accused, though she acknowledges all the matron
says and furthermore admits that she once stole money from her
employer.
Now the prosecuting attorney contends that the statement to
the matron is a confession of guilt — the indictment being for
murder in the first degree. It will be necessary for me to in-
struct you concerning the nature of a confession of guilt, for if
you judge this to have been such a confession, then you must
render a verdict of guilty.
If a person were to go to a store and take away a package
which did not belong to him, under the impression that he had a
right to take it because a third person had bought it and left it
on the counter for him, then the acknowledgment of taking the
package is not a confession of guilt to the charge of theft. To
confess theft, the accused must not only acknowledge the fact of
GENERAL IDEAS OR CONCEPTS 221
taking the package but also the intent to take something to which
he was not entitled. What the accused in such a case makes, is
not a confession but an admission. A confession in criminal law
is a statement freely made which acknowledges! deed and intent
sufficient to establish guilt; but an admission is a statement of
fact which may or may not incriminate the maker in relation
to the charge mentioned in the indictment.
The admission in this particular case makes it unnecessary for
the prosecutor to bring forth further evidence to prove that the
overdose was administered by the accused;* but to convict the
accused of murder in the first degree, he must convince you be-
yond a reasonable doubt that when she administered the strych-
nine she fully intended to kill her employer and she succeeded
in carrying out her intention.
Furthermore, the confession that she stole money from her em-
ployer, though a i-eal confession of theft, does not constitute
(together with the other admission) a confession of guilt when
the indictment is for murder. Of course it does tend to break
down her moral reputation ; but it does not change an admission
of fact to a confession of guilt. A confession is a voluntary and
complete acknowledgment of all that constitutes the crime stated
in the indictment.
5. Thoroughness in the Expression of a Concept
A general notion is fully expressed when two things
have been accomplished : (1) When it has been identi-
fied as a member of some larger or broader class which
is familiar to the audience, (2) when its own, essential,
and peculiar characteristics have been brought out. It
will be noticed, in the example of the judge charging the
jury, the confession is identified as belonging to a greater
class of things, namely, statements of any sort made by
an accused person. Its own peculiar characteristics,
which differentiate it from others of the general group,
were then enumerated and made clear. They were the
voluntary character of the statement, without the influ-
ence of fear or hope, the acknowledgment of fact, the ac-
knowledgment of intent, and the complete covering of all
the definition of the crime stated in the indictment. In
I
222 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
most cases, the thorough listing of all the essential chai
acteristics of the general notion is sufficient to make li
clear, but the thorough method calls also for the location
in a greater class.
6. Definition
The most compact and economical means of represent-
ing a concept completely, is the logical definition. Ob-
serve that in the following definitions the greater class ir,
expressed in italics and the essential features which dif-
ferentiate the notion from others of the class, in roman
type.
1. The protective tariff is a tax on imports, designed to raise
the market price on foreign goods brought into this country, in
order to give American producers a competitive advantage.
2. A trust is a comhination of tlie means of production in a
certain field sufficiently powerful to control enough of the output
in that field to enable it to regulate, in a monopolistic manner,
the prices of the commodities it produces.
3. A shipping subsidy is a grant of money by the government
to shipowners, made with the general expectation of fostering the
shipping industry and not made because of specific services to be
rendered in return.
4. Economics is the study which seeks to discover the origin
and nature of human wants and to formulate the laws according
to which men in organized society satisfy those wants.
5. State's rights is a principle in government whereby a state,
though subject to the authority of the national government in
matters of national welfare, is recognized as having its own au-
thority over state policies and institutions.
It can be seen that a good, logical definition contains a
compact mass of matter. But its very compactness, the
thorough covering of the whole ground in a small com-
pass, renders it of little service as a means of expressing
a notion to one who is not already fairly acquainted with
it. The great value of the definition is to sum up in con-
venient form and to drive home a notion already made
GENERAL IDEAS OR CONCEPTS 223
clear by methods we have described. Notice that in the
judge's charge, on page 220 the definition is the last
thing given. It comes at the end of a fairly lengthy expo-
sition. Would this definition have given much enlighten-
ment to one in need of its information if it had not been
preceded by the illustrations and discriminations? But
on the other hand, coming at the end, does it not gather
together in excellent shape for ready reference, a notion
made clear by the more expansive method of expression?
Often we see text -books which begin their treatment of
subjects with definitions, the meanings of which are grad-
ually unfolded by illustrations. The better method is to
begin with the specific cases — enumeration and contrast,
and work on till the notion takes shape in the mind of the
reader or listener. Then seal it with a proper definition.
Our advice, therefore, is to employ definition, not so much
for the purpose of giving information, but rather to
record your notion in crisp and accurate manner for
ready reference.
7. Importance of Skill in Making Concepts Clear
We have already intimated that it is very necessary f or
a speaker to be able to re-create clear images ; it is just
as important for him to convey his general notions to
others. In a real speech we are not likely to find images
and only images, or concepts and only concepts, but these
and other things which the speaker has in mind come
forth intermingled. Though we discussed the expression
of images in a separate lesson, that is no reason for as-
suming that a speech will be devoted to this element of
expression alone. So also with the concept. Use it where
it is necessary, when it forms part of your message and is
of service, and in doing so, follow the method outlined in
this lesson. As a rule, a speaker is primarily interested
224 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
in images and general ideas because thej^ are the informa-
tion which the audience must have as the basis for some
argument or appeal. Unless the audience has some facts
in mind (particular and general truths) it mil not be able
to follow an argument. Furthermore, the clearer the pres-
entation of the facts and concepts, the easier it is to fol-
low the argument, while a very forceful presentation of
these basic things often makes further argument unnec-
essary. Truth, clearly apprehended, argues for itself and
makes its o^\ti appeal. For instance, a well-kno^vn law-
yer argued in favor of regulating the stock exchange so as
to do away with certain evils. So clearly did he repre-
sent the evils and so simple was the exposition of his con-
cept of what a stock exchange ought to be that after he
had presented his facts and notions, but few in the au-
dience needed any argument to make them accept the kind
of remedy which he suggested.
8. Exposition and a Particular Audience
If all the people in an audience are as well-informed as
you on the subject and understand the terms you employ,
the problem of expressing your concept reduces itself to
a choice of the best words. Under such an ideal condi-
tion the various devices described in this lesson would not
be necessary. These methods must be used because of
differences between people, differences in mental stock
and vocabulary. The speaker has a concept and some in
the audience have never formed it. But they have other
ideas which can be called forth to help them receive the
new notion. Our illustrations, comparisons, and con-
trasts are devices whereby the speaker seeks to make the
minds of the hearers take in new ideas because of the
power which they have through the po.ssession of other
similar ideas. Therefore, the problem for the speaker is,
GENERAL IDEAS OR CONCEPTS 225
first, to determine when a particular audience needs to
have the concept made clear and, second, what method of
elucidation is best from the standpoint of what they al-
ready know. It is unwise to over-explain, but on the
other hand the speaker should not run the risk of being
misunderstood. Obviously, one audience will appreciate
a certain kind of illustration while another audience will
be able to understand quite a different parallel. Notice
that Beecher, talking to a mixed audience, gave three par-
allels — one to appeal to those acquainted with govern-
mental affairs, one to appeal to business men, and another
to educate the general citizen.
It is very important when using words which express
essential concepts and while expounding a concept at
length, to watch the audience for any indications of im-
patience, on the one hand, or lack of understanding, on
the other. This is a comparatively easy task, for people
very clearly give signs of intelligent grasp, misunder-
standing, or impatience. These signs should guide the
speaker in the matter of further exposition. We may
sum up by saying, ''Watch your audience and try to make
the new thing clear by illustrations of like, opposite, or
related things which are familiar."
Assignment of Work
Tlic written exercises in this entire lesson should be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in vour notebook.
First Day. — Read the lesson through a second time and then
write your own definition of "image" and of "concept."
Then read the lesson again. Read also Lesson 9.
Second Bay. — Take the word "statesman" and tabulate the es-
sential characteristics a man must have to be classed as a
statesman. A good method is to select ten men who are, in
226 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
your estimation, statesmen. List them. Then enumerate,
in two columns, their characteristics. In the first, put indi-
vidual and non-essential characteristics; in the second, put
characteristics essential to the concept "statesman." For
example :
Non-Essential Essential
Alexander Hamilton
Thomas Jefferson
Third Day. — Outline and develop orally a eulogy of some con-
temporary statesman Avhom you admire and, in the course
of your eulogy, make clear your concept of ' ' statesman ' ' and
show how the particular person is entitled to be included
in the class. (If you wish, substitute ''genius," "artist,"
* ' musician, ' ' or any other concept the working out of which
will interest you.)
Fourth Day. — Write down a clear presentation of one of the
processes with which you come in contact in your work.
Fifth Day. — Write definitions of three of the following expres-
sions and give presentations of the concepts, the last sen-
tences of which will be the definitions you have formulated :
(1) Avarice; (2) humility; (3) business morality; (4)
fountain pen; (5) neutrality; (6) camera; (7) patriotism;
(8) any process with which you are familiar.
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
liis knowhnlge of the principles in this lesson. They
are siififjesticc merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. Did you ever hear a speaker use persistently a word
vvhicli was unfamiliar to you ? What effect did it ha /e on you 1
How could the evil have been remedied?
2. What is meant by "family likeness" when that expres-
sion is used in connection with the individuals which go to make
up a group?
3. What is your definition of "concept"? ^
4. Name the three classes of general ideas classified in this"^
lesson. Could you add one or more classes which are not included
in those three?
5. In the discussion of "utility," is the definition given
first or last? What is the advantage or disadvantage of giving
a definition first ? of givingjtj.ast ? ^
6. What is meant by "specific illustration" as a means of
making a general notion clear ? What are the necessary features
of such an illustration?
7. After reading the exposition of the idea "charity" as
given by Paul, formulate your own definition of ' ' charity. ' '
8, What purpose does contrast serve in making a concept
clear ?
9. Besides concrete illustration and enumeration of essen-
tial characteristics, what other device is of service to make a
concept clear ?
10. What two things must be cared for in an exposition
in order that the concept should be fully expressed ?
11. Why has definition been called "exposition boiledi/
down"?
227
228 TEST QUESTIONS
12. What are the essential features of a good, logical defi-v^'
nition 1
13. What is the value of clear exposition to the maker of X
general speeches?
14. Sum up the advice concerning the adaptation of expo- ^^
sition to a particular audience.
15. Give half a dozen examples of concepts in each of the
three groups.
16. In which group do "chemistry," "eloquence," "sub-
marine," and "utility" belong!
17. Where does the subject-matter of this lesson fall in the
general outline or plan of this Public Speaking Course ?
LESSON 13
ARGUMENTS AND THEIR PRESENTATION
Tims far we have discussed the presentation of images
and concepts so that the audience may be put in posses-
sion of them just as they exist in the mind of tlie speaker.
Such expressional efforts are concerned with re-creation
— the re-creation of particuhir mental images or general
notions which the speakerjias. But there is a possibility
that these images and concepts or combinations of them
as held by the speaker may be errors or perversions of
the truth. A very interesting book has been written by
Professor Miinsterberg, of Harvard University, in which
he gives many instances of people in court who testified
to certain facts and described them clearly, believing
them to be true, although later they were shown to be
false. In other words, it is one thing to represent an
image or idea clearly and quite another to insure its
truth. The promoter, selling mining stock, may paint a
vivid picture of extensive and successful operations, but
he may not be able to demonstrate the actual existence
of such a mine anywhere save in his own fertile imagina-
tion. Besides particular and general ideas, we also form
opinions or judgments which likewise may be clearly
presented, but which also will need defense as to truth
and acceptability.
If you were to paint a word picture of a wonderful
mine and your audience were to accept it as existing just
as you describe it, there would be no need for you to
take precautions to g-uarantee the actual existence of the
mine. If you were to expound the process of ore extrac-
229
230 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
tion used in the mine and it were accepted as a true ex-
position, there would be no need of demonstration. If
you were to express the opinion that such a mine operated
in such a manner would be a good enterprise in which
to invest and the audience were to understand and adopt
the opinion, there would be no practical advantage in
showing them just wdiy the opinion is a justifiable one.
But often it is necessary not only to present but also to
justify and defend. Such an operation we call an arg-u-
ment. Thus far we have discussed the presentation of
percepts and concepts; before taking up the details of
argumentation, we shall treat the clear presentation of
judgments.
1. A Judgment and its Statement
Our experiences throughout life lead us to link things
together in various relations. Thus we say, ''Apples are
sweet," placing apples in a class relation with all other
sw^eet things. We have our ideas of what things are
good, bad, or indifferent. We may come to the conclu-
sion that "The tariff is a benefit to the country." This
means that w^e deliberately place the tariff among the
things good for our country. Such a conclusion is a
judgment. A judgment always includes two or more
things and a definite relation between them. It is a belief
which we form deliberately; it is an opinion. When
stated, such a belief, opinion, or judgment always takes
the form of a proposition. The following are typical
propositions :
1. Labor unions are beneficial to the community as a
whole.
2. A college education is of value as a preparation for
business.
3. Private owncrshi]) of land is justifiable.
ARGUMENTS AND PRESENTATION 231
4. Political parties are necessary in a democracy.
5. John Smith is an honest man.
Notice that between things a relationship is stated
which may or may not turn out to exist. Sometimes the
relationship is stated as one which ought to exist, thus :
1 . The United States should grant self-government to
the Filipinos.
2. Railroads should be required to publish annual re-
ports of the physical value of their property.
3. The President of the United States should b(;
elected for a term of six years and be ineligible for a
second nomination.
In each of these cases, the expresser of the proposition
has one thing clearly in mind (say, labor unions) and
another (things beneficial to the community) and he
affirms a close relationship. The student might here say
that when one forms a concept, he also relates a number
of things so as to come to a grasp of their common or
class features. That is indeed true, but the total product
— the concept or general notion — is built up gradually
and almost unconsciously; certainly the thinker is not
aware of the steps. Many, many experiences with par-
ticular apples of various sizes, shapes, colors, and flavors
make us gradually get a notion of what constitutes apples
in general. In the case of the judgment, however, the
related thoughts are constantly kept in mind, each sep-
arate from the other and compared. We select one
notion (as tariff) and another (national welfare) and,
after carefully inspecting them, we say that they are or
are not related thus and so ; we form the judginent delib-
erately and state the result in the form of a proposition.
These propositions may record relationships which do
exist, have existed, or will or should exist between two
things. If the proposition clearly presents the relation-
ship which the speaker has in mind, then we say that
232 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
the opinion has been clearly expressed. ^Tiether we
accept it or not, if we understand it, the expression has
been clear.
If the speaker feels that his opinion is not understood,
how shall he elaborate its plain statement so as to make
it clear ? In such a case, the amplification will consist of
a proper exposition of the notions included in the prop-
osition. For instance, "tariff" is taken up and pre-
sented according to the rules already laid down for the
expression of concepts. The same is done with "national
welfare." If one of the terms of the proposition is par-
ticular and not general, present it like any other image.
After the speaker has obtained a clear grasp of his prop-
osition, the next step is to verify it so that the audienc(^
will accept it because they see that the steps by which it
was reached were reasonable steps.
2. Why Opinions Need Verification or
Demonstration
Our minds are filled with a multitude of beliefs which
have come to us through various channels. Some of them
are very trustworthy because we have made them care-
fully after investigating all the related facts. But others
are unreliable, having grown up through prejudice or
haphazard misinformation. For instance, a mechanic
can tell you just what style of machine is best for a cer-
tain kind of work. His judgment here is good ; he has
had direct experience with machines ; he has tested all
the parts and has no more reason to lean in one direction
in his fiual judgment than in another. You could not
fool him al)out machines and if he expressed the proposi-
tion, "Machine B is better than machine A," he could
give good and sufficient reasons for it. Yet that same
man, with next to no trustworthy knowledge of politics,
ARGIT:\IEXT8 and PRESENTATIOX 233
government, or economics will firmly liokl to the belief
that the Republican Party is l)etter than the Democratic,
or vice versa. He may have the merest hearsay informa-
tion about the parties, yet he has formed an opinion
which he does not hesitate to put forth as a projjosition.
Ai^ain, we often say, "I believe this or that man is a
fraud," when we have no foundation for the opinion
beyond some peculiarity in his speech or appearance.
In short, opinions which we hold and act upon are of
varying degrees of trustworthiness. Whenever a speaker
feels that his opinion is not accepted by his hearers or
when he wishes them to accept an opinion which is
acceptable only when known "from the ground up," he
undertakes to verify all that led to his conclusions; he
undertakes to establish his opinions by argnment.
3. SouECEs OF Opinions Which Should be Tested.
There are two general sources of material from which
we make our beliefs : (1) directly observed facts and (2)
inferences or actions of the mind. Let us illustrate.
Suppose you and I are in a room and, while you are at
the table writing, I look out the window and see that the
ground is wet. I say to you, "The ground is wet." I
am reporting a fact, something with which I come into
very direct contact and which I know, because my eyes
see it. Or again, let us suppose that it is dark and I
cannot see well, but I put my hand out on the sill and
say, "The sill is wet." Again I report a fact, for my
hands touch the water and I trust my sense of touch as
well as my sense of sight. Anything which comes to me
through the report of my senses I believe exists and I
accept as a fact. Now we can define a fact as knowledge
luhich a normal person gains through the use of normal
sense organs under favorable conditions for observation.
Sui)pose, after saying to you, "The ground is wet,"
234 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
I also say, "Tlie sky is clear." You accept my reports
and say, "Then, it has been raining." Here is a belief
which 5^ou express and which I also accept, though neither
of us directly observed the rain as it fell and as it ceased
to iail. So often have w^e seen tlie ground wet after
rain that the wet ground leads us to infer that it has been
raining. In this case, a fact is observed and its cause
inferred. Now I hold the belief that it has been raining
just as well as I hold the belief that the ground is wet;
one opinion is based on fact and the other is based on
inference.
Let us give yet another illustration. A traveler on a
lonely road finds a man lying dead with a bullet-hole in
his head and a revolver with one chamber empty by his
side. He truly accepts these facts which he gets by
observation, but he also believes that the man committed
suicide.
Opinions rest upon two things, observed facts and
inferences of the mind. If these sources are not drawn
on carefully and with proper safeguards, our opinions
are likely to be untrustworthy. A critical listener, to
whom we are addressing an argument, will not accept
our propositions unless we make it clear that the sources
were consulted thoroughly and discreetly. But, you
might say, "How could anyone be mistaken about a
fact?" Very easily, through faulty observation. Often,
when the light is poor we think we see things which do
not exist or which exist in a very different character
under good illumination. So, also, inferences may be
fallacious. In the cas(> of the rain inference just given,
an error might exist, for i lie ground could be wet be-
cause someone sprinkled it, just as well as it could be
wet from rain. The suicide inference would have been
M wrong one if tlu' <l(\nd man had been murdered. An
argument, to convince, must clearly present the facts
ARGrMKNTS AXl) PRESENTATION 235
and inforoiiccs wliieli lead to tlio proposition to be proved,
and it must sliow that tbey are all acceptable so far as
careful investigation can make tbeni. Of course, we all
know that a popular man can often get bis opinion
accepted merely because the crowd likes liim and will
agree witli anything he says, or an unscrupulous man
may play upon prejudices so as to get an opinion
accepted without rigorous demonstration; but we wish
to show how a proposition may be made acceptable on its
own merits or because it is the r-easonable conclusion to
be drawn from trustworthy facts and inferences.
4. H&w AN Opinion is Built Up
Let us suppose that as an American, reading the vari-
ous papers and discussing current topics, you had formed
an opinion of the Irish Home Rule situation as it loomed
up in the early part of 1914. A bill giving Ireland home
rule was presented to Parliament, whereupon the influ-
ential people in Ulster, a northern county of Ireland,
said that if such a bill were passed, Ulster preferred to be
retained under the British rule and not included in the
Irish government, as provided for in the bill. After
gathering all the facts possible, you formed a number of
opinions somewhat as follows :
1. The interests of the people of Ulster are more
bound up with Great Britain than with the rest of Ire-
land.
2. Under British rule Ulster has prospered.
3. Under Irish rule her prosperity would be dimin-
ished.
4. To include her under a general Irish government
would result in continued civil war.
Each of these propositions sums up a particular field
of the whole discussion, and, if all of them are accepted,
236 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
tliey in turn will lead 3^ou to infer a wider belief aonie-
what as follows : It would be to the interests of Ulstei-
to be exempted from the provisions of the Irish Honn'
Rule Bill.
Now if you w^ere to state this as a proposition to some-
one else and should want to defend it, your first ste])
might be to say the proposition was a tenable one becaus(\
first, the interests of the people of Ulster are more boun( I
up with those of Great Britain than w^ith the rest of Ire
land, and so on dow^n through the four reasons.
But just as your main proposition is supported by th<'
less wide propositions from which it is logically inferred,
so each of these in turn may have still more minute rea
sons as supports. Taking item 1 you might offer the
f ollow^ing supports :
(a) Eacially Ulstermen are English and Scotcli
rather than Irish.
(b) In religion, Ulstermen are Protestant rather than
Catholic like the rest of Ireland.
(c) In temperament, Ulstermen are like the Scotch
rather than the other Irishmen.
(d) In business, thej^ are allied with the commercial
and manufacturing- interests of Great Britain rather
than with the small farming of the rest of Ireland.
(e) Past history shows that there has been continual
strife between Ulster and the rest of Ireland, while there
has been sympathy with England.
But the further you go, the more evident it becomes
that you must offer some facts to sui)port your state-
ments. To support the notion that Ulstermen are racially
different from those of southern Ireland you say: "Due
to difficulties wdth the people of Ireland, James I, in 1610
sent over a colony of English and Scotch settlers to
Ulster. These people were favored by the English
e-overnment and thrived. But the rest of Ii-(^lnnd was
ARGUMENTS AND PRP^SENTATION 287
I'obellioiis agahist tlio Eiiglisli g-ovcnmient and liated
the men of Ulster. Indeed, in 1641, six thousand of the
Ulstermen were massacred. There was retaliation and
the consequent bitterness kept the two peoples apart. A
comparison of names will show that the original blood,
Scotch and English, predominates in Ulster, different
from the Celtic blood in the rest of Ireland."
To support the second statement, about religion, you
would have to give the census reports showing the great
predominance of Protestants in Ulster and the over-
whelming majority of Catholics in the rest of Ireland.
And so on down, all inferences w^ould be given their fact
supports. You have not gotten to the bottom until your
reasons rest upon (1) competently observed facts and
(2) opinions which are generally accepted. Even this
last should be properly checked up by observed facts.
5. Example of Suppokt
Note the following brief argument. It might be out-
lined somewhat as follows :
The United States should grant Cuba reciprocity.
1. Because w^e have guaranteed to establish a strong
government in the islands.
2. Because a strong government can be maintained only
through commercial prosperity.
3. Because reciprocity will secure commercial prosperity.
la) It will give Cuba a needed market for sugar.
4. Because our industries will not suifer from this.
(a) Our markets need not only our own supply of
'sugar, but also Cuba's and more.
(b) This is true in all industries as well as the
sugar industry.
This argument might well be foUoAved by an altruistic
and patriotic appeal.
238 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
THE CUBAN PROBLEM
(1903)
During an existence in which it lias met many crises and solved
many diplomatic problems, the United States has acquired a repu-
tation for expediency, sagacity, and integrity. It is now con-
sidering a problem the solution of which will mar or strengthen
that reputation. Our nation has assumed the responsibility of
establishing peace, and inaugurating a stable and independent
government in the Island of Cuba. Peace has been established,
and independence has indeed been granted to Cuba ; but a strong
government there has yet to be organized.
In order to found a solid government the Cubans must thrive
commercially. The sugar trade is their main source of income,
^lost of the Island's population is engaged in the production
of siigar, and the livelihood of the people is dependent upon the
profitable sale of sugar. Hence, we look to that industry for
Cuba's commercial prosperity. The present condition of the
sugar market, however, makes it impossible for her dealers to
sell at all with profit. The markets of the world, if not con-
trolled by home industries, protected by tariff, are controlled by
the great sugar "Kartel" syndicate, fostered by bounties from
the German government. Cuba's merchants cannot underbid
such powerful rivals.
Confronted with this dilemma, the Cuban planters have peti-
tioned Congress to grant reciprocity to the Island. Without a
doubt, such a measure would greatly relieve Cuba's financial dis-
tress. But an objection to this remedy has been raised on the
ground that it would relieve Cuba only at the expense of home
enterprises, that any lowering of the tariff on sugar would kill
our beet sugar industry in its infancy. Let us investigate this
standpoint. The United States consumes about 2,400,000 tons
of sugar per year. The total sugar product of the L"'^nited States.
Hawaii, and Porto Rico is 850.000 tons. So after using all our
domestic supply, we yet need 1,550,000 tons. Cuba's output last
year was 850,000 tons. Thus, if we should buy all her sugar, we
should still lack 700,000 tons per year. Surely a country demand-
ing 700,000 tons is ample field for development for the Ix'd
sugar industry, producing at present but 150.000 tons.
Objecticms have been raised by other industries. Neverthe-
less, on investigation, it is evident that what they desire for
development far exceeds what they refjuire. Beyond what is
honestly necessary, we should not consider ourselves in reliev-
ing Cuba. AVilh a third of her men dead, her women in itiourn-
iiig. and liei- children orphans. Cuba should truly excite our
ARGUMENTS AND PRESENTATION 239
compassion. Her restoration to peace and liappiness Avill mark
the noblest results of a righteous war. Her prosperity will l)e
a vindication of our national honor. Give Cuba the means
wliereby she can prosper, and our solemn pledge will be fulfilled.
The victory at Manila will have received its reward, the heroes
of Santiago will not have died in vain, and a just Providence
will surely reward the United States with its benediction of pros-
perity and peace.
Wliich of the statements in this ar^ment were not
supported by facts! Would the argument have been
nu)re convincing if the facts liad been given?
6. Acceptable Facts
No doubt the student can see that if an opinion is to
be demonstrated "from the ground up," the speaker
must present the foundational facts which must ulti-
mately support his whole superstructure of inferences.
There nrast be no doubt about the acceptability of such
facts; consequently every precaution must be taken to
insure their reliability. We shall now explain the most
important considerations which must be kept in mind
w hen passing upon alleged facts.
First, however, we must modify our definition of fact
somewhat. There are not only physical facts, such as
Ave have already defined, which are ascertained through
the use of the sense organs; but there are also mental
facts of which one becomes aware by looking within his
own mind.
The material facts can be observed by any number of
people, but mental facts can be directly observed or
experienced by one person only. A mental fact is any
psychological state or experience. Thus, you say, "I was
afraid." You are reporting a state which actually
existed, but which only you were in a position to observe
directly. Of course, someone else, knowing the circum-
240 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
stance wliicli might reasona])ly frighten you, or observ^
ing the expression on your face, could well say, ''Yes, he
was afraid"; but he would not be reporting a direct ob-
servation of your state of mind. His conclusion would be
an inference from facts which he did observe, namely, a
number of circumstances and the expression of your
face. These two kinds of facts, mental and material,
form the basis of all knowledge, the foundation of all
scientific truth, and the material for all thought not in-
cluded in the unrational realm of faith.
Consequently, a fact is anything which exists in the
world and knowledge of which we gain through the most
immediate contact possible. We may define an inference
as knowledge which we accept as true because of trust-
worthy mental operations beyond the direct observation
of facts.
7. Witnesses
Whether a fact which we use in argument be external
and physical or internal and mental, someone must be
its witness and report its existence to others. Before
accepting the fact as actually existing in the form re-
ported, we make sure of certain things concerning the
witness and the observation.
1. Was the Avitness competent to make the observa-
tion?
2. Were conditions favorable to accurate observa-
tion?
."). Is the observer telling exactly what he observed, or
is he misrepresenting?
(1) Competence of the Wifnes.9
It is obvious that a deaf man is not a reliable witness
to a conversation, nor is a blind man likely to make
accurate i-eports concerning colors. Neither is provided
ARGUMENTS AND PRESENTATION 241
with adequate, physical means of perception. So, also, a
scientist equipped with a poor microscope or no micro-
scope at all is less able to make correct observations
concerning cell-structure than a fellow investigator who
uses a modern, high-power instrument. Between the
two extremes, total incapacity because of physical defect
and maxinmm efficiency through normal sense organs
extended to their highest potentiality by instruments for
accurate observation, witnesses vary in physical and
mental competence.
If you are arguing that the temi3erature of a certain
health resort never varies more than ten degrees above or
below 68 F., you may offer as fact support a temperature
record for each day over a period of three years, made by
the clerk of the local drug store. Any normal person is
capable of observing a thermometer and recording the
readings. But suppose the argument should be that a
particular food should be excluded from the markets,
under a Pure Food ruling, because the consumption of a
reasonable amount of it would bring about the consump-
tion of more than three-tenths of a gram of saccharin a
day. All accept the ruling of the Pure Food Bureau of
Chemistry that saccharin may be injurious and you say
that three-tenths of a gram, as set by the Board of
Referees, is the danger point. Does the particular food
contain more than the safe quantity of saccharin in a
day's ration! The facts must be ascertained by very
delicate observation. A chemist, besides having other
qualifications, must be equipped with apparatus which
will enable him not only to detect the presence of sac-
charin but also to determine the exact quantity in a given
sample.
You strengthen the facts which you yourself offer in
evidence if you show the physical capability of your wit-
ness, and you may attack the fact support of an opponent
242 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
by revealing sliortcomiiigs of liis witnesses in this re-
spect.
Besides physical competence, there is mental compe-
tence. The most general weakness here is the simple
fault in memory. If time elapses between the observation
and the report, certain things are often forgotten, some
become obscure, the order of succession is not remem-
bered, and there is a tendency to substitute what ought
logically to have taken place or what would be desirable
to have taken place instead of what was actually ob-
served on the spot. The possibility of weakness in the
memory of a witness is usually suggested by contradictory
testimony by another witness. If it can be shown that
one has a generally poor memory while the other is nor-
mal or exceptionally good, other things being equal, we
accept the report of the second.
Another mental point to be considered may w^ell be
called payflcular expertnes.s in a certain kind of observa-
tion. Often at a basket ball game, the umpire or referee
sees a play not noticed by most of the spectators. Of
course, this may be due partially to superior eyesight,
but usually such skill is mental rather than physical.
Much experience in making one kind of observations
makes the mind quick to co-operate with the eye. The
same chord may strike the ear of a musical genius and
tliat of an ordinary man with perfectly good hearing,
yet the musician will say that this is not one sound but a
combination of such and such separate sounds. The dif-
ference is mental, for a little ])ractice will enable the
other man, under proper directions, to disting-uish the
hidden tones also.
In many scientific and economic ai'guments, we have
to depend upon the report of expert observers of facts.
This does not mean that we accept the opinions or con-
clusions of these experts without (juestion; it simply
ARGUMENTS AND PRESENTATION 243
means that we recognize that a man who has been ob-
serving in a certain fiekl a great deal, is better able to
see what actually exists there than one who has not had
that particular kind of experience. In other Avords, prac-
tice makes perfect in observation.
If a witness can be shown to be temporarily or perma-
nently abnormal or subnormal mentally, his report of
facts may be discredited. Recently in New York, a gay
party returning from a cafe undertook to run the ele-
vator of the apartment in which some of them lived. As
a result one person was killed. None of the others could
give a clear account of how the accident took place.
Each, furthermore, had a different version. Temporary
abnormality may be due to liquor, drugs, intense fatigue
(example of the overworked engineer who cannot tell a
red from a green signal), shock, etc. Permanent mental
aberration ranges all the way from insanity, through
hallucination, to minor peculiarities.
(2) Conditions of Observation
There are often external conditions which hamper cor-
rect observation. Every one knows that it is unwise to
buy a suit of clothes under artificial light, for what
looked like a quiet, navy blue may, in the sunlight, turn
out to be an embarrassing purple or sky blue. Not only
do poor lighting, mist fog, obstructions, and other fixed,
external conditions interfere with observation, but chang-
ing circumstances, such as general confusion and a rapid
succession of events, also cause inaccuracy. An example
of this last is found in the Fourth of July pinwheel which
looks like a circle of fire when in reality it is a single spot
of light revolving rapidly.
Not only does movement of the thing observed cause
confusion, but haste in movement on the part of the
observer will do the same thing. An investigating com-
244 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
mittee- visited the schools of Xew York City and handed
in a severe report. The report was subsequently dis-
credited by many because of alleged errors arising from
the fact that the critics were mal-obser\'ers, through
haste. Similar to this is the error likely to arise when a
report is gotten up concerning facts spread over a wide
field which is to be covered by an inadequate number of
investigators.
(S) Credibility of the Witness
In popular arguments or discussions of a non-technical
character, it is not so much the capability of the witness
which is open to question as^ v< it his credibility or truth-
fulness. There is usually litth- doubt that an ordinary
person may be able to record the quantity of imports or
exports or transmit the testimony in a congressional
investigation; 1ml lli'i<' i> (itt<]i luirM^rtainty concerning
the intent of a iiiaii to t(,'ll the truth or to pervert it to
suit his own interests. Especially in political arguments
do we find reports of alleged facts discredited because
the source of information is looked upon as generally
corrupt and iimiioral. There are two things which may
tlirow doubt upon the credibilits" of a witness: (1) a gen-
eral reputation for unreliability and (2) the existence of
a special motive to roprcsont things in a certain way
whether they are so oi- not.
It must be remembered that weakness of general, moral
character (even when establisjied) is not proof positive
tliat a man's statement of fact is deliberately falsified.
Such a flaw merely raises a doubt. The doubt is strength-
ened if other witnesses, of better character, disagi'ee with
the testimony. In all cases where general character is
not satisfactory, it is not only safe but also fair to hold
the testimony in suspension rather tlian to reject it alto-
gether. If a careful investigation, employing all known
ak(;i;mI':nts and i'Rkskntatiox -mo
IckIh and HalV/^uards, I'ailK to r('vcal niiHrcprcrtcrilaiioii,
Wk'U IIjc had ('IiuvacU'V of tlic wilncsK is not Kuniciciii
ground in ifsclf Tor tlic discardin;^ of llic t<',s1ini(>My.
Soiii('1in)<'.s v.c liiid a special iiiolixc or reason I'or a
man lo twist liis \(\)<>v\ in lliis or llial dircelion. Il is
well luKAvn ilial c.oi'iJoratioDK uscmJ to make I'alsi; cnti-ics
in IlK'ir hooks lo hide exccKsivc! f>rofi1s, ^riic rrxxlern
practice oj' (M>r{)ora1ioj)s to o\'ej-(;aj>itali/>e is similac in
some rcKpects. It is to Die jntei-cst oi' sncli concerns lo
sliow a Kteady, reaKonahle fji-ofi1 rallx-r than fln<'1 nalin;^-
or extrenx'ly hi^li returns. I^'inancial i-easons, r<'asons
o)' lionor arxl re[>ulalion, and many olljers, sorrx'limes a(;t
as sfX'ciaJ irx-enlives for a man lo c.oticcnl or misrepres<'n1
I'acts.
A si>ecial moli\'e j'oj- j'nise lesl il'yinj^- does not neces-
sarily (;ast a slion;^*')- douhl llian general dishonesty
Ufx>n an assertion of I'acl, ])]i\, it doeh, ;_'i\<' ;i ch-arer itxii
cation of the djj-ecti(jn ol" the lalsilication. W'e know
that a real estale a^^'ent want- all the facts ahont a dis-
tiict he is Ixxnnin^ to he favorahie lo health, hiiHirxjKK
j>ros[X'rity, and KO(;ial hapfnrx'KK. Jf he misrepresentK,
it njust he in tix* <lir<'ction of exa^^'eratinji^ vood points.
A rival a^<'nt, interested in f>lot I^, would misrej>j-esei)t
f)lot A in tlx? direction of had [>oints. A thoron^li iuves-
ti^alion njay kIjow tjjat a man is telling tlj<' trulli for
itK own Hake uninfluenced hy the call of his own sfX'cial
inUtntHiH; hut whcro a Hpociaj ii)t<;rcKt is sIionmi, we are
f)articularly careful to investigate the facts suhmitterj.
8. J*'JNAJ. SrOfiKSriONS ('oNCKHNINO THK AceKI'l Al',ll-n V
OF Facts
Facts may he directly ohserv<'d hy you, yourself, or
Ihey may \)(t re[>orte(J to you hy ollx'rs, The testimony
of others may reach you through Hpee(;h, letter, or [xjhlic
fjrint. In all tlx-se latter cases you must not only test tlx*
246 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
facts as you understand tliem but you must be as sure
as possible that you liave gathered the observer's exact
meaning, that the language difficulty has not stood in the
way of an appreciation of exactly what he wanted to put
on record — that and nothing else. To these facts, as well
as those of your own observation, apply the tests already
mentioned.
Facts gain in acceptability if several observers make
the same report or if no one testifies to the contrary. Of
course, in the case of mental facts only one person is in
a position to make a direct observation; his testimony
Avill depend upon his credibility and the extent to which
his reported experience was verified by his subsequent
acts as observed by others.
If you get the habit of patience" and care in checking
up the capability and credibility of each observer of a
fact you accept, as well as the conditions of observation,
your opinions will rest upon firm foundations and your
arguments to convince others will be strong.
9. The Gathering of Facts
If you are interested in arguments concerning topics
which stretch beyond the limits of daily, personal con-
tact, you will have to gather facts by reading. It is well
for every student of speech-making to know the stand-
ard places of reference.
I. ENCYCLOPEDIAS such as the Britannica, the Neiv
International, Nelson's, and the CatJiolic, give facts con-
cerning most things of importance and dispute. Further-
more, articles in those sources usually contain a list of
books which may be consulted for fuller and more de-
tailed treatment of a topic. Such bibliographies are
usually most trustworthy and include only the best works.
TI. GENERAL CATALOGUES of tlic books iu tho libraries
you frequent will enalih^ you to make a list of the avail-
ARGUMENTS AND PRESENTATION 247
able books on tlio subject you are looking up. It is well
to read the table of contents of all the books you can get
before undertaking a careful study of any one.
III. MAGAZINE LITERATURE Is exceedingly well indexed
in Poole's Index, The Reader's Guide, and The Annual
Library Index. In these places we are put on the track
not only of the latest contributions to a current discus-
sion, but also some of the best writings on various topics,
which are not to be found in book form.
IV. YEAR BOOKS sucli as the New International, the
American Year Book, and the Annual Register, give brief
but trustworthy accounts of the events of a particular
year. Such sources are valuable primarily because they
put you on the track of more detailed accounts to be
found and verified elsewhere.
■V. REPORTS of a special character and government
DOCUMENTS also are valuable, especially in economic or
political discussions.
Eemember, however, wherever you find your facts,
to apply to them the tests of acceptability. No man is
infallible and errors may originate even close to the seats
of the mighty.
It is not honest to yourself or to your audience to form
and give out opinions when you have not made sure of
the facts upon which they rest. It is certain that you will
fail to convince an audience if you are not in a position
to produce the facts when necessary.
Assignment of Work
The written exercises in this entire lesson should be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in your notebook.
First Day. — Read the lesson twice carefii%; then take a maga-
zine article and underline every opinion expressed which is
not adequately supported by facts.
248 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Second Day. — Select one of the followiug opinions and support
it by two or more subordinate opinions as indicated on i^ipcs
235 and 236 of this lesson, in connection with the Irish
Home Rule question. Then write down the actual facts
you know in support of the minor opinions.
1. The influx of foreign labor into the Ignited States is
detrimental to the welfare of American labor. '
2. Tlie influx of labor into the United States is a desir-
able economic force for prosperity.
3. Judges should be subject to recall by direct vote of
the people.
4. The United States should increase its army and navy.
5. The United States should diminish its armed forces
and work for neutrality agreements.
6. The Single Tax is (or is not) desirable for the United
States.
7. The IMonroe Doctrine is of more harm than good to
our interests as a nation.
8. The United States should relinquish all colonial pos-
sessions.
9. A national Prohibition Law is desirable.
10. All institutions of learning, from kindergarten to uni-
versity professional school, should be conducted free to stu-
dents l)y the government.
Third and. Fourth Bays. — Carefully formulate and write down
an opinion you hold on some current problem or national
polic3^ Then go to the nearest library and make the most
complete list you can of the available books, reports, and
articles on the subject. After making your bibliography,
begin to read up on the subject, taking notes as you read.
/•'////( Day. — Continue your reading and note-taking. Then
write down a series of facts gathered from the reading,
noting the name of the witness in each case and the accept-
ability of the facts. Use the following form.
PACTS WITNESSES ACCEPTAIHLITY
Note the facts Note names of Enumerate here :
in this column witnesses (a) General reputation
(b) Special interests
(c) Ability — mental
and physical
(d) Circumstances of
observation
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
his knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They
are ,<iiicigesfirc merely, dealing largely with tlie practical
application of the principles, and are to he placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. Did you ever hear a speaker whose vivid presentation
sfrnek you as good, but who never took the trouble to demon-
strate the acceptability of what he presented? How do you feel
when listening- to such a man? Do you doubt his honesty?
2. What is the difference between representation and
(Iciiionstration?
3. Give a definition of argumentation.
4. What are the main features of a judgment?
5. W'hat is a proposition?
6. Why do opinions need verification ?
7. What are the two processes by which we arrive at
opinions?
S. WHiat is meant by a fact ? What is an inference ?
9. In what ways can an opinion be supported? AVhat is
the nature of the final or ultimate support of an opinion?
10. Do you know any "generally accepted opinion," that
is, a belief held by all without any question?
11. AVhat is a mental fact? Who may witness such a fact?
12. Wliat three things must be checked up to insure the
acceptability of a fact?
13. Can you give an example of a physically incompetent
v.itness? of a mentally incompetent witness?
14. Why is it difficult to get witnesses of a railroad acci-
dent or a theater panic to agree in their accounts of the facts f
249
250 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
15. "What two features must be eonsiderod in passing on a
man's credibility ?
16. Do you reject facts because they are rei)orted by a
witness of low morals?
17. What are the generally recognized sources of published
facts?
LESSON 14
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
In our last lesson, we dwelt upon the importance of
facts as foundational to all arguments. In this lesson,
we shall consider the types of reasoning — the logical
workings of the mind beyond the direct observation of
facts. Yet, at the very threshold of our study of reason-
ing, we must once more insist that the most valuable
asset of the argumentative speaker is a wide and accm-ate
gi'asp of facts ; no amount of skill in logic, no amount of
cunning in the construction of arguments can take the
place of trustworthy facts. Indeed, dialectic facility,
without a mastery of facts, produces only an empty shell
of pretense. On the other hand, a knowledge of facts
usually insures clear "reasoning, for the human mind has
a normal tendency to formulate correct opinions if it is
provided with the proper materials of thought.
Yet there is need for the public speaker to understand
the fundamental principles of reasoning and to master
all types of argument. In this lesson we shall consider
the two great classes of inferences or reasoning processes,
the inductive and the deductive.
Induction-
Just as it is natural for the mind to form general
notions or concepts after perceiving many objects of a
similar character, so it is natural for it to formulate
general laws deliberately. For example, you throw a
stone up in the air and it falls to the ground ; you toss
up a ball and it falls to earth; the stem of an apple on
251
252 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
the tree breaks and tlie apple drops; the wind raises
the knaves only that 'they may once more return to their
resting place. Observing all these things, you infer a
general law to the effect that "Whatever goes up must
come down." Or, if you are more careful in your state-
ment, you say, ''All bodies, when raised in the air and
left unsupported, fall to the earth." If you are very
scientific, you w^ill time the various falling bodies and get
a law somewhat as follows: "All interfering agencies
being eliminated, a body falls sixteen feet during the
first second, another sixteen and an additional thirty-
two the second second, still another sixteen and an
additional sixty-four the third second, and so on." More
briefly your law will be : "A falling object drops sixteen
feet during the first second and has the velocity of its
fall increased every second by thirty-two feet over the
velocity of the preceding second." Each of these prop-
ositions states in more or less complete form, an inductive
inference. This inference is the general opinion which
you form because of a number of facts which have come
under your observation.
The simplest kind of induction is known as the perfect
induction. It consists merely of making a general state-
ment concerning all the cases of a certain sort observed,
when the number of such cases is limited and you are
sure you have observed them all. For instance, you
might say, "All the countries of South America which
gained their independence adopted the Republican form
of government." The induction is perfect or complete
1)ecause there is no possibility that any case could have
escaped observation. Such inductions are usually
correct. If the observations hav3 been made carefully
the possibility of error is very slight.
But the imperfect induction is another matter. Take
the example concerning falling bodies, just olTcrcd.
TYPES OF ARGU:\rEXT 25r5
Obviously no man or group of men can succeed in observ-
ing every falling body or every Cody left in the air
unsupported. Only a great many cases can be observed.
But since all of these act in a certain identical way, we
infer that all bodies (these and others) will continue to
act in the same way under similar circumstances. As we
have said, the tendency to generalize is a human trait.
We may now say that a very small number of cases and
often a single case, will be sufficient to suggest a general
law.
A village gossip noses out some scandal about a
particular preacher and then says, ''All preachers are
rascally hypocrites." The impulse to make this gen-
eralization is natural, but to hold to it without further
investigation is hasty judgment. If the gossip should
get similar damaging evidence against three or four
more clergymen, he would be more justified in his
inference, but even then the generalization from the
particular cases at hand would be hasty. Assuming that
every minister cannot be looked up and examined, a
generalization concerning the whole group must be made
with care and subjected to certain checks and tests. We
shall discuss these precautionary safeguards later.
(a) Place of Inductions
Very often, in the course of an argument, a speaker
may want to establish a general law or opinion. He
may, let us say, want to prove that ' ' trade unions always
raise the wages of labor" as a necessary step in an -argu-
ment to show that unions should be fostered. He might
reasonably be expected to establish still another
generalization to the effect that ''whatever raises the
wages of labor should be fostered." Both generalizations
might be accepted without further argument by the
254 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
audience, but on the other hand they might require
demonstration. Assuming that safety calls for a careful
demonstration of these opinions, the speaker must
acquaint himself with the kinds of induction and the
checks Avhich are of service for each kind.
(b) Kinds of Induction
Like all propositions, the statement which expresses
the conclusions of an inductive inference indicates a
relationship) between two things. Let us illustrate first
one and then the other of the two possible kinds of rela-
tionship which may be indicated. You say, ''Trade
unions are the cause of high wages in America, " " Busi-
ness depression is of psychological origin," "A large
army and navy always stimulates a nation to war," or
''Nations which continue to draw in foreign blood,
decay." In each of these statements you indicate that
one thing is the cause of another or the effect of another.
The relationship expressed is a causal relationship. It is
one of the two kinds of relationship which are expressed
often in practical, public discussions. Debaters and
campaign speakers often assert that certain things are
the causes of other things.
The second kind of relationship is one of classification.
Statements which indicate this relationship simply say
that "all A's have this or that characteristic or group of
characteristics." Suppose, for instance, we read, "All
the signers of the Constitution favored the elimination of
slavery in America." The asserter classifies all these
men as being alike in one respect — their desire to
eliminate slavery. The inference consists (1) of analyz-
ing a great many individuals or cases and (2) of making
a statement that will be true of all. Such a process is
often of service when trving to ccmvince others. In law
types; of argument 255
cases we may want to prove tliat '^ihe court has alwaj^s
held thus and so." The following example is a typical
induction leading to a statement of classitication rela-
tionship, drawn from current, diplomatic controversy.
The circumstances were as follows: England declared
that all the ports of Germany were blockaded and that
any neutral vessel trying to run to or from any German
port, might be captured and confiscated. Certain people
objected to this "paper blockade," saying that no port
is properly under blockade unless England has a chain
of warships in physical command of the entire restricted
area. This example is an inductive argument to show
that ''all cases during the Civil Wry were paper block-
ades of the same type as that now declared by England."
When the government of the United States realized that to
subdue the Confederate states it must close their ports, it did
not hesitate to decree a blockade of 2.500 miles of coast. No
anchored chain of vessels would be possible on such a coast line.
The Supreme Court of the Ignited States looked at the purpose
of a blockade rather than the method of maintaining it.
The court held that a blockade was for the purpose of pre-
venting the ingress and egress to and from an enemy 's port. It
was effective if merchant vessels were . exposed to danger of
capture in any way. As the prime object was to cut off the
enemy's commerce, more attention was paid to that than to the
"geographical area of operations." Vessels destined for those
ports were supposed to contemplate running the blockade and
were captured without ceremony or study of ''precedents in
law or history.'.'
The Bermuda and the Springbok bound for Nassau in the
Bahama Islands, the Stephen, Hart bound for Cardenas in Cuba,
aiui the Pefcrhoff destined for JIatamoras, ^lexico, all British
ships bound for neutral ports, were captured for attempted
breach of blockade. The Supreme Court upheld the judgments,
and the British government recognized as correct the principles
on which the judgments were founded, and declined to protest.
She recognized the fact also that blockade is one of the nuisances
of war to which all must be subject.
We made our rules to fit the case and we can hardly deny the
same privilege to others.
256 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(c) Clieck'mg up a Generalisation of Classificafion
AVhenever a general statement of the kind just given
is to be expressed and checked np, the rule to follow is
very simple: (1) Be sure that all the cases you have
observed are true cases under the general statement,
and (2) be sure that you have overlooked no case which
may exist and which may disagree with your conclusion.
The argument just offered as an example could be
refuted by revealing a single case where England did
protest effectively against a Civil War blockade decision.
It is, of course, clear that patience in research and
analysis is necessary to success in this form of induction.
While very thorough scientific method would call for a
most exhaustive presentation of all the available cases,
the practical public speaker must be guided by the temper
of his audience in determining the number of instances
he will offer. So long as those who are listening are
satisfied that a sufficient number of cases has been pre-
sented and so long as they have no suspicion that there
has been prejudicial selection, repression, or misrepre-
sentation, the speaker's induction is safe.
(d) Chcclcinfi up a Generalization of Cause and Effect
When a generalization states a causal relation, the
speaker faces greater difficulty. The danger here is one
of nnalysis. Even if the speaker embraces enough cases
in his observations, he may mistake one thing for the
cause of another merely because they have appeared
together in the cases he observed. Whatever precedes
another thing is not necessarily its cause. We shall give
;i few examples of the kinds of danger incident to causal
inductions. Suppose a s])eaker observes that thnes of
prosperity in the United States have been times of high
tariff. He carefullv studies the returns for all the years
TYPES OF AKGUI\IENT 257
of tlio nation's life and then makes the general statement
that since times of prosperity have been times of high
tariff and times of depression have been times of low
tariff, the tariff is the cause of prosperity. Where is the
danger? Simply in the fact that there may possibly have
been a hidden cause of prosperity snch as a bumper crop
or large gold supply, and the tariff may have been an
innocent coincidence all the while. Now, I do not know
about the merits of this particular question but merely
cite it to show that what appears to be a cause may not
be a cause at all.
Furthermore, the tariff might have been the true cause
at one period, a bumper crop at another, the gold supply
at a third, and general business confidence at a fourth.
Here we see the possibility of a plurality of causes.
Notice the following extract from a speech delivered
by Mr. George W. Perkins before the Economic Club
of New York, February 10, 1915.1 Observe that he
contends that it is not the taritT which has caused the
trusts but rather the various means of intercommunica-
tion. As you read, make up your mind whether or not
he supports his contention.
Did any man in this room ever hear of a political leader or
so-called statesman delivering- a speech in a State legislature
or the National Congress, calling the attention of the people to
the mighty changes that have taken place in the methods of
intercommunication during the last twenty years and pointing
out that, as intercommunication is the first requisite for doing
business, these mighty changes are entirely responsible for the
centralization of business?
On the contrary, speech after speech has been made, ha-
rangning our people with the grossly misleading statement that
the trusts exist becaure of the tariff and the greed and avarice
of a small group of men. A more pernicious and misleading
statement has never been thrust on the attention of oui' pf^ople.
No one would dare make it, if oui- political leaders had their
Copied ffom reprint put out by Tlie Market Woyld and Chronicle.
258 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
minds on the real prol)lem, rather than on vote-getting ; if they
really studied big industrial questions from the viewpoint of
the public good, rather than their own good ; if they had the
courage and honesty to stand up for what is right and sound in
law and business, rather than for what is for the moment
popular. The tariff never made a trust and free trade never
will destroy one. It requires only a very little serious, intelli-
gent thought to reach the inevitable conclusion that, if we were
given free trade in this country tomorrow, not a single so-
called trust would dissolve ; on the other hand, even though
our tariff were put as high as the mountains, if that strange
force which we call electricity were suddenly withdrawn from
our use, and the telephone and telegraph went out of ex-
istence, not a single so-called trust would continue for twenty-
four hours.
If Mr. Perkins had given conclusive proof tlirougli an
adequate number of cases that all trusts were caused l)y
and are maintained by tlie agency of intercommunication,
he would have made a perfect argument to the effect
that trusts are not caused by the tariff. One of the ways
to refute an induction of cause is to prove a rival or
hidden cause. One of the precautions in establishing a
cause is to dispose of all other rival causes.
Just as there are hidden causes, sometimes there are
hidden obstacles to the operation of a cause. Let us
give an example of the interference of the full operation
of a cause to produce its usual effect.
Dr. Harvey W. Wiley, in the September (1914) number
of Good Housekeeping, discusses the inference drawn,
concerning the effect of aluminum compounds on the
human system, by the Referee Board of Scientific
Experts which is consulted in matters aft'ected by the
Pure Pood Law. He said:
Three membei-s of llie Keferoc Board proceeded to condiicl
experiments to det<M'iiiiiie this point (1h<> harmful possibilities
of aluminum compounds w hen used in food). These men w(>i"e
Professor Russrll ]|. ( 'liillendcn, of Yale University; Di'.
Alonzo Yj. Taylor, of tlic Uni\-.Tsi1y of Pennsyh^ania ; and \)v.
TYPES OF ARGUMENT 259
John H. Long, of NorthAvostern University. Dr. Chittenden
experimented upon a squad of twelve men for 130 days ; Dr.
Taylor used eight men; and Dr. Long conducted his experi-
ments with six. Dr. Chittenden used bread raised with alum
baking-powder made in the laboratory ; Dr. Long used a mix-
ture of the composition that is left in bread after alum baking-
powder has been used to raise it ; and Dr. Taylor used an alum
baking-powder administered in wafers or dissolved in water.
As a result of their Avork, Dr. Chittenden concludes that
small quantities of aluminum compounds, and even compara-
tively large quantities taken daily with food, have no effect
upon the general health and nutrition of the body ; Dr. Long-
reaches substantially the same conclusion ; and Dr. Taylor is
of the opinion that little danger exists from the use of alum
baking-powder that is not also attendant upon the use of any
other kind. * * * The report shows that in experiments
where the aluminum was given in capsules these contained
also the specific anticlofe for the poison in the form of bicar-
bonate of soda. All baking-powders contain bicarbonate of
soda in varying quantities, of course ; but it is a fact that
where too much is used this causes yellow splotches in the
bread, and to avoid this there must be more acid, in this case
alum. Baking-powder manufacturers state that a chemical
reaction takes place in baking which transforms the alum into
aluminum hydroxide, insoluble in water and therefore harm-
less in the digestive tract ; but this is true only when there is
enough bicarbonate to neutralize the alum, which is not always
the case.
The Referee Board had been studiously careful to dodge the
issue contained in the use of alum for the hardening of pickles
foi' the purpose of concealing their inferiority. It is true that
Dr. Long has drawn attention to the general use of alum in
pickles, but he coincidentally concludes that the quantity of
aluminum that might be consumed in either pickles or fruits
is so small compared with the quantities actually consumed in
baking-powders, that the study of the baking-powders may be
taken to cover the entire field. He has, it would seem, gone
far out of his Avay to imply that the alum found in pickles and
other food products is the same l-incl of aJuni to be found in
and produced by the chemical reactions of the baking-powders,
and there is not the slightest evidence to indicate that this
assumption is true. As pointed out, the baking-poAvders con-
tain, in the form of bicarbonate of soda, some of their own
antidoie for the alum, Avhile the pickles and the fruits, as Avell
as other foods, contain none of this antidote. This leaA^es Avhat
260 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
I insist is deleterious to be taken into the human system, and
thus permits a wide gap to be torn in the Pure Food Law.
We cannot take space to point out all the errors pos-
sible in a causal induction, nor to explain all the
precautions devised by logicians to insure correct
generalizations, but the illustrations given will indicate
the general danger and the following checks will serve
most of the purposes of the practical speaker.
1. Apply the two checks already given for generaliza-
tions of classification.
2. If you conclude that one thing is invariably the
cause of another, see if you can find anything else which
can also be its cause.
3. Analyze to discover in existing circumstances any-
thing which might nullify the action of a cause which
you believe would produce a certain effect if left to act
freely.
4. On the other hand, analyze to see if your cause of
an observed effect really produced that effect by itself
or if it was merely a part of a combination which was
necessary to bring about the result.
Of course, it is obvious that to apply these checks you
must have many facts as ^vell as circumstances which
make correct analysis possible.
Deductiox
We have just explained that induction is the process
by which we infer a general law from a limited number
of observed facts; deduction is the process by which,
after accepting a general law, we infer other information
which reasonably follows from it. For example, we have
the general statement, "All United States senators must
be thirty years old or over." From this we infer that
Senator A or Senator B must be at least thirty years
old.
TYPES OF ARGUMENT 2G1
The simplest form of deductive reasoning to explain,
is called a syllogism of the first form. All syllogisms
consist of two statements known as premises from which
one reasonably infers a third statement or conclusion.
The argument just given can be expressed in this
syllogistic form as follows :
All United States Senators must be thirty years old
or older.
Mr. A. is a United States Senator.
Therefore, Mr. A. must be thirty years old or older.
Note the following things about the syllogism. The
first statement or major premise is a generalization
which is the result of a previous induction. If you
accept it, very well; but if you question it, an enumera-
tion of cases to establish it (like any other induction) is.
necessary. Second, the minor premise states a fact about
a particular man. Its acceptability is determined in the
same manner as any other question of fact. (See last
lesson.) Granted these two premises, the conclusion
follows as a natural deduction.
In most speeches, deductive argimients are not pre-
sented in the naked syllogistic form, nor are all the parts
always given. Yet the syllogism is in the mind of the
speaker. A concrete example of the style used in actual
presentation is to be found in the following extract from
the speech by Joseph Warren on the Boston Massacre,
delivered March 6, 1775.
That personal freedom is the natural right of every man, and
that property, or an exehisive right to dispose of whatever he
has honestly acquired by his own labor, necessarily arises
therefrom, are truths which common sense has i)laced beyond
the reach of contradiction. And no man or body of men can,
without l)eing guilty of flagrant injustice, claim the right to
dispose of the persons or acquisitions of any other man, or
body of men, unless it can be proved that such a right has
arisen from some compact between the parties, in which it
has been explicitly and freely granted.
262 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
If I may be indulged in taking a retrospective vieAv of the
first settlement of our country, it will be easy to determine
with what degree of justice the late Parliament of Great
Britain have assumed the power of giving away that property
which the Americans have earned by their labor.
Our fathers, having nobly resolved never to wear the yoke
of despotism, and seeing the European world, at that time,
through indolence and cowardice, falling a prey to tyranny,
bravely threw themselves upon the bosom of the ocear>, de-
termined to find a place in which they might enjoy their
freedom, or perish in the glorious attempt. Approving heaven
beheld the favorite bark dancing upon the waves, and gra-
ciouslj^ preserved it until the chosen families were safely
brought to these western regions. They found the land swarm-
ing with savages, who threatened death with every kind of
torture. But savages and death wdth torture, were far less
terrible than slavery. * * *
From these savages, our ancestors acquired title to the soil,
and the business was transacted by the parties in the same
independent manner that it would have been had neither of
them ever known or heard of the island of Great Britain.
Having -become the honest proprietors of the soil, they im-
mediately applied themselves to the cultivation of it ; and they
soon beheld the virgin earth teeming with richest fruits, a
grateful recompense for their unwearied toil. The fields began
to wave with ripening harvests, and the late barren wilder-
ness was seen to blossom like a rose. * * *
When, at an infinite expense of toil and blood, this widely
extended continent had been cultivated and defended . * * *
this country was thought worthy of the attention of the
British ministry ; and the only successful means of rendering
the colonies serviceable to Britain, was adopted. By an inter-
course of friendly offices, the two countries became so united
in affection that they thought not of any distinct or separate
interests, and both countri(>s were flourishing and happy.
# * «
This pleasing connection might have continued, but un-
happily for us and unliappily for Britain, the madness of an
avaricious minister has brought upon the stage, discord, envy,
hate, and revenge, Avith civil war close in their rear. Sonic
demon, in an evil hour, suggested to a short-sighted financier
the hateful project of transferring the whole property of the
king's subjects in America to his subjects in Britain. The
claim of the Bi'itisli pnrliament to tax the colonies can never
TYPES OF ARGUMENT 263
(k- supported but by such a transfer ; for the rijrht of the
House of Commons of Great Britain to originate any tax or
grant of money, is altogether derived from their being elected
by the people of Great Britain to act for them; and the people
of Great Britain cannot confer upon their representatives a
right to give or grant anything which they themselves have
not a right to give or grant personally.
Therefore, it folloAvs that if the members chosen by the peo-
ple of Great Britain, to represent them in parliament, have, by
virtue of their being so chosen, any right to give or grant
American property, or to lay any tax upon the lands or per-
sons of the colonists, it is because the lands and people in the
colonies are. hoiia fide, owned by, and justly belonging to the
people of Great Britain. But (as has been before observed)
every man has a right to personal freedom ; consequently a
right to enjoy what is acquired by his own labor. And it is
evident that the property in this country has been acquired
by our own labor ; it is the duty of the people of Great Britain
to produce some compact in which Ave have explicitly given
up to them a right to dispose of our persons or property.
Until this is done, every attempt of theirs, or those they have
deputed to act for them, to give or grant any part of our
property, is directly repugnant to every principle of reason
and natural justice. And I maj' boldly say that no such
compact exists.
The syllogisms in the preceding extract might be
formulated as follows :
I. (a) Personal freedom is the natural right of every
man.
(b) Free persons have property rights in the fruits
of their own toil.
Consequently, every man has property rights in the
fruits of his own toil.
II. (a) Every man has property rights in what he
earns by toil,
(b) Americans earned America through their own
toil.
Consequently, Americans hold America as their own
property.
264 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
III. (a) The British parliament can tax or dispose of
the property of British subjects only,
(b) American subjects are not British subjects.
Consequently, the British parliament cannot tax or
dispose of the property of American subjects.
IV. (a) The British parliament can dispose of or tax
only such American property as was granted
to British subjects by compact.
(b) No American property was granted by compact
to British subjects.
Consequently, the British parliament can. dispose of
or tax no American property.
We may draw a few conclusions concerning deductive
reasoning from the example just given.
1. In actual delivery a person sometimes omits one
or more parts of the syllogism. Thus, in the first
syllogism above, we inserted the necessary" minor premise
which was omitted by Warren though he must have had
it in mind. In the following argument, the major
premise is left out. '*We must fight for America in this
issue (conclusion) because such conduct is patriotic"
(minor premise). The omitted major would be, ''We
must do whatever is patriotic." If we wished, we could
state the major and minor premises and omit the con-
clusion without weakening the effect. Indeed, we might
even express only the minor premise and still convey
our meaning and its reasons. Tims all would under-
stand the statement, "To fight for America in this issue
is an act of patriotism."
Of course, a speaker should have the whole fabric of
argument in mind even though he may choose to omit
parts in delivery. The strength of the argument depends
upon the parts which must be supplied as well as upon
those expressed.
TYPES OF ARGr:\IEXT 265
2. Notice tliat tlio conclusion of sylloiiisin I l)oconies
tlic major premise ot* syHoi>ism II. Tliis is often tlie
case and sucli a chain of reasoning does not necessitate
a re])etition of the statement which constitutes the link.
'.]. Sjilogistic and all other deductive reasoning rests
on a few principh^s inherent in classification. For
instance, in syllogisms I and II the principle is : What-
ever is true of a whole class of things is true of each
member of the class. In syllogisms III and IV the
principle is: That which is outside of a class (British
property in this case) does not participate in the char-
acteristics of the class (Parliamentary control). These
and numerous other principles follow from the mere
classifying of all the things of the universe according to
various characteristics and relationships. We shall
give one more illustration.
All desirable citizens are literate.
Some Poles are desirable citizens.
Consequently: Some Poles (not all) are literate.
The principle here is that if a part of a group is
included in another group, then only the included portion
participates in the characteristic of the other group.
From these examples and principles, as well as others
which could be brought forth, we get a notion of the
nature of deduction. The following three checks will
insure correct deductions :
1. The exact meaning of each expression used in the
reasoning — both as to the extent of its application and
the characteristics it denotes — must be kept clearly in
mind.
2. Each expression must be used in one sense and one
sense only.
3. A clear mental picture of the class relationships
must be kept in mind.
266 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Let us apply these checks to a few typical cases.
(a) All members of labor uiiioiis are efficient workmen.
The three carpenters working on the X house are
not union men.
Consequently, the three X carpenters are not
efficient workmen.
Wrong conclusion, because the picture of a wide group
of efficient workmen including union men and possibly
more besides, was not kept clearly in mind. If it had
been, the three X carpenters might have been included
in the efficient group as well as union men. (Involves
checks 1 and 3, page 265.)
(b) American citizens should always support that
which is democratic.
Woodrow Wilson is the Democratic candidate.
Consequently, all Americans should support
Woodrow Wilson.
Wrong conclusion, because the word democratic is
used in two different senses. (Involves check 2.)
(c) All German territory is civilized.
No Russian province is German territory.
Consequently, no Russian province is civilized.
Wrong conclusion. (See checks 1 and 3.)
Analogy
We often find in works of logic, argumentation, and
public speaking a third form of argument in addition to
induction and deduction, the analogy. But to us this
does not seem to constitute a third and different kind of
reasoning. The essence of the analogy is to argue that
since two things are alike in many respects they should
also be alike in other respects. Once Abraham Lincoln
was asked why he did not change generals, since the
campaign seemed to be going against the man in com-
TYPKS OF AErTT':\rEXT 267
maiul. IIo replied, '^I do not tliiiik it is a ,i;ood plan to
cliaiiiic horses while crossiiiii- a stream." This was
reasoning from analogy.
, To us it seems that analogy is rather the means of
making a thing clear by more familiar example than
reasoning in the true sense of the word. Or where the
one M'ho advances the analogy is reasoning rather than
illustrating, the process is in reality deductive. For
instance, the major premise in the Lincoln argument is
"I never change agents in the midst of a risky enter-
prise." The minor premise is, ''To change generals in
the midst of tliis campaign is to change agents in the
midst of a risky enterprise" and consequently, "I will
not change generals." But instead of saying the major
premise to his hearer, in general or abstract language,
he represents the same idea by saying, "I never change
l.orses while crossing a stream." In other w^ords, this
i^ a deductive argument with a particular and concrete
case used to represent, in a familiar and forceful manner,
the general and abstract major premise.
Other Deductive Forms
There are other more elaborate forms of deductive
reasoning, some of which we shall mention briefly.
Observe that the checks already given for deductive
reasoning may be applied to these forms as well as to
the simpler syllogisms,
(a) Disjunctive reasoning.
Major : He is either a fool or a knave.
1. Minor: He is a fool and (conclusion) not a knave.
2. Minor: He is a knave and (conclusion) not a fool.
3. Minor: He is not a fool and (conclusion) is a
knave.
4. ]\rinor: He is not a knave and (conclusion) is a
fool.
268 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(b) Hyi^otbetical reasoning
]\[ajor : If this is gold, it will stand the acid test.
1. Minor: It is gold; therefore (conclusion) it will
stand the acid test.
2. Minor: It is not gold; (conclusion) it will not
stand the acid test.
3. Minor: It will stand the acid test; (conclusion)
it may be gold.
4. Minor: It will not stand the acid test; (conclu-
sion) it is not gold.
(c) Dilemma
Major : If he is guilty, he must apologize or resign.
Minor: He is gTiilty. Or, He is not guilty.
Conclusion : He must apologize, etc. Or, He must not
apologize, etc.
Besides this, there are still other forms of dilemma.
Furthermore, there are so many forms of syllogistic and
extra-syllogistic reasoning, that if we offered twice as
many examples more, the whole list would not be
exhausted. But the checks given will insure safe naviga-
tion on the whole sea of deduction, no matter how various
and high the waves may be.
A speaker must determine whether an argument is
deductive or inductive and then apply the checks which
the form requires. It is well to remember that reasoning
is always inductive when the conclusion is general and
depends for its nature upon manj^ observed facts, each
one of which contributes to determine the nature of the
conclusion. Eeasoning is deductive when the conclusion
depends explicitly or implicitly upon truth found in
premises which wore previouslj^ accepted as true.
AVith this general summary, we shall close the lesson
on formal reasoning. The next lesson will l)e given over
to directions for the drawing up of a brief for an argu-
ment and some practical instructions concerning the
TYPES OF ARGU.AIENT 269
treatment of a ])ai'ticiilar audience and a particular
opponent in an argumentative contest. As a good
theoretical preparation for that lesson, we urge that the
student be sure of his mastery of this lesson and the one
which preceded it.
ASSIGNMENT OF WORK.
Tlic written excrcisc-s in this entire lesson should be
earcfiilly worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
,.;^->^ in your notebook.
eis(
First Day. — Read the lesson at least three times and then in
two columns eompare and contrast the characteristics of
inductive and deductive reasoning. Thus :
Inductive , Deductive
1. I 1.
Second Day. — Prove in a well written out, inductive argument
one of the following generalizations :
1. All wars have been caused by selfishness.
2. Mechanical inventions have promoted the happiness
of mankind.
3. The genius has always been the man with an enor-
mous capacity for work.
4. The commission form of government has been suc-
cessful in the United States.
5. The unionizing of labor has promoted true social
progress.
(Take either affirmative or negative and if these generali-
zations do not appeal to you, formulate one of your o^^^l,
the fact-support of which is accessible to you.)
Third Day. — List the special cases used in the argument written
out on the second day. With these single words in a list
as the outline, orally deliver the argument. Do not try to
rememl)er words you wrote ; simply develop your ideas
extemporaneously, using the list of single instances as your
only guide.
Fourih Day. — Read some modern arguments on current topics
— in such magazines as The Survey, The New Bepuhlic,
270 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
North America)! Review, The Ouflool\ and the editorial
pages of good newspapers. Select some of the arguments
and analyze them. Attach the clippings to your analyses.
The analyses should show the forms of reasoning, listing
the conclusions and the cases to support inductions as well
as premises to support deductions. The suppressed parts
must also be indicated. Add your criticism, pointing out
weaknesses or elements of strength.
Fifth Day. — Beginning with one of the following as a major
premise, write out a deductive argument in favor of some
particular reform.
1. Every child should be allowed full time for physical
and mental development.
2. The penalties of war should be visited only upon the
armed forces of the nations engaged in war.
3. Every man has an equal right to the free gifts of
nature.
4. The safeguarding of property rights is the foundation
of a sound, modern state.
5. No civilized government should act upon motives of
retaliation or revenge.
(Take either the affirmative or negative of these or add a
general principle of your own, which you believe is funda
mentally true.)
Write out your argument in full and accompany it with
a syllogistic analysis similar to the one on page 263 of this
lesson.
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
his knowledge of the principles in tliis lesson. Tli(>y
are suggestire merely, dealing largtdy with tlie practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. Which has greater weight iu an argument, knowledge of
facts or skill in the forms of reasoning? If an opponent deliv-
ered a very masterful argument of convincing form, but you
knew one fact that did not agree with his conclusion, how would
you refute him?
2. What is a perfect induction?
8. What is an imperfect induction? Are most inductions
perfect or imperfect?
4. What is meant by a hasty generalization ?
5. Why must we check up generalizations and especially
those which are obtained through imperfect inductions?
6. What are the checks for a generalization of a classifica-
tion relationship?
7. Why must additional checks be applied to a generaliza-
tion of causal relationship? What are the additional checks?
8. How do you like the style of j\Ir. Perkins' argument?
Does it seem too full of feeling? Does he use too many adjectives
which show that he is prejudiced? Is his style almost as l)ad
as that of certain "wild-eyed radicals?"
9. W^iat do you think of Dr. Wiley's style? What are
its good points? What are its bad points?
10. What is a syllogism? What is a premise? What is a
conclusion ?
11. What do you think of Warren's style? Is it too
pompous for a modern audience? Do j^ou like such expressions
271
272 EFFECTIVE ri'BLlC SPEAKING
as "bravely threw themselves upon the breast of the ocean" and
"barren wilderness was seen to blossom like a rose?"
12. Is it necessary, in actual delivery, to give all the parts
of a syllogism ?
13. AVhat are the three checks to insure correct deductive
reasoning ?
14. What is the value of analogy? Is it chiefly argu-
mentative or literary?
15. How is the dilemma related to the disjunctive and tlie
liypothetical syllogism?
LESSON 15
ARGUMENTATION
1. Briefing
The importance of organization and tlie value of a
definitely drawn up plan for any kind of speech has
already been brought to the attention of the student. In
Lesson 1, the use of a simple yet logical outline as the
groundwork of speech delivery was explained. Such out-
lines, with a small number of divisions and subdivisions,
have been referred to again and again during the course
and especially in the first six lessons. Now, while we are
concentrating upon argumentation, we must go more
minutely into the details of the technical brief. In
common with the outlines mentioned, such a brief is
drawn up only after ample material has been gathered
and digested. In our discussion of the form of the brief,
therefore, we shall assume that reading and note-taking,
or some other means of acquiring information, has gone
before.
Tlie simple outlines were merely guides for the
speaker to follow during his delivery. The rigorous,
argumentative briefs are useful not only in this way, to a
certain extent, but they also serve far wider purposes.
Such a brief is a storehouse of all the available material
of value to establish a certain proposition. Like all good
storehouses or filing systems, it must be designed to hold
its contents in classified groups. Furthermore, all the
opinions to be maintained and to be related in a running
273
274 effp:ctive public speaking
argTiment, must be recorded in such a manner that (1)
the particular strength or weakness of each assertion will
be revealed, (2) the existence or non-existence of fact-
supports will be evident, and (3) the nature and trust-
worthiness of the sources may be manifest. Consequently,
after all his careful research, a speaker, in drawing up
his brief, arranges his arg-umentative material in a
manner which will not only store it systematically for
reference, but which will also expose and give warning of
any weakness which may exist.
But what are the parts of a brief? They are similar
in many respects to the parts of the outline of any speech ;
but those portions which involve care in statement and
logical form will be worked out with more than ordinary
patience. Obviously, the body of the brief is the main
line of argument ; but just as the body of any other speech
requires a preparatory portion, so also an introduction is
necessary here. Besides this, and a conclusion, we shall
enumerate the parts of a typical brief.
(a ) Tlw Proposition
The proposition is a statement of the opinion which the
speaker is about to demonstrate. It should be clearly
formulated at the head of the brief and have the follow-
ing characteristics :
1. It must express a logically real proposition. We
mean that it must be capable of proof or disproof if an
honest effort to demonstrate it is made. If the proposi-
tion, however, be unreal, it is, on its face, not susceptible
of demonstration, pro or con. For instance, one who says,
"The government ought not to undertake activities out-
side its proper field of action", is offering an unreal
proposition — one which on its face cannot be proved. He
practically says, "The government ought not to do what
it ought not to do." Tliere is nothing here to argue
ARGUMENTATION 275
about. There is a tautologous or identical, empty sliell
of assertion. No issue is' raised; there is nothing to
prove; in one sense, the thing is self-evident. Now if
the proposition were, ''To conduct the telegraph and
telephone business of the country, is a proper govern-
mental activity," we would have a real proposition
worthy of investigation, to be settled affirmatively or
negatively. A speaker could expound his concept of
"proper governmental activity" and then demonstrate
that the conducting of the telegraph and telephone busi-
ness of the country comes within the field. Here a rela-
tionship capable of proof or disproof is stated and the
proposition is real. Since we sometimes say things which
are incapable of demonstration, it is well for one about
to argue an opinion to formulate it carefully in a proposi-
tion and then to examine that proposition to see if it is
real and worthy of argument.
2. The proposition should be clear and unmistakable
in meaning.
3. It should not be complicated with numerous issues
and modifications. If, on first writing, it seems too
intricate, try to make a broad but simple statement which
will include all you have in mind.
(h) The Introduction
Like all speeches, the argument usually requires an
introduction. For the general purposes of an introduc-
tion, see Lessons 3 and 4. It will be noticed that a part
to put the audience in a favorable emotional state is
important. But in the brief this part is not written down.
The speaker adjusts himself to the prevailing atmos-
phere, extemporaneously; the brief contains only matter
related to the intellectual grasp of ideas and their logical
relationship. Therefore the legitimate introduction to
an arg-ument is designed to educate the hearers so that
276 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
they can follow tlie reasoning processes wliicli logically
lead to an acceptance of the main proposition. The most
desirable arrangement of this material is as follows :
(a) General survey of the situatio'n or problem. — Here
the speaker gives a general idea of the occasion for hold-
ing an opinion and trying to demonstrate it to others. It
is a sort of comprehensive ontline to enable the hearer
to get his bearing.
(b) Detailed facts of informational value. — Here is
presented knowledge necessary to an understanding of
the arguments which are to follow. More facts are usu-
ally recorded than will be expressed in actual delivery of
the introduction. They are all recorded in this place for
convenience and are drawn forth or left alone according
to the exigencies of the occasion. Before some audiences,
the initial, educational matter may be reduced very much,
while other audiences will need not only all that is avail-
able, but will need all of it repeated in various terms.
Sometimes it is wise not to mention some of the facts
here recorded, early in the argument, but to reserve them
to be interwoven in the argimient proper.
(c) Waived and granted matter is next indicated so as
to narrow the field of discussion. By tvaived matter, we
mean matter which is indeed related to the general subject
but which we wish to set aside (without influencing any
opinion about it one way or the other) in order to limit
ourselves to a selected field. For instance, if we were
arguing that ^' Women ought to be allowed to vote for
federal officers," we might well waive or set aside con-
siderations of constitutionality. To be sure the women
could not be granted such suffrage unless all differences
under these considerations were settled, but we wish to
reserve that phase of possible disagreement and confine
our attention to the practical effects of granting the
suft'rage whether it is constitutional or not. AVaiv('(l
matter lias no influence upon the discussion as limited.
ARGUMENTATION 277
Granted matter, on tlip other hand, is something
accepted as true and of full weight in the argument. It is
not demonstrated, because it is accepted as true. It must
be reckoned with and given its proper place in the forma-
tion of final opinions.
(d) Definition of terms. — When necessary, terms are
defined so that when they are used there will arise in the
minds of the hearers exactly the same notions as exist
in the mind of the speaker. For technique of definition,
see Lesson 12, p. 222.
(e) The main issues are next enumerated. They are
subordinate propositions which, if accepted, together
give complete logical support to the principal proposi-
tion. Just as that proposition sums up the final opinion
on the whole field of discussion, so these issues sum up the
opinions which arise from a consideration of logical
subdivisions into which the wiiole field naturally falls.
It is obvious that these subdivisions must not overlap
and they must, taken together, cover the whole ground,
omitting nothing.
The arrangement of these issues in a certain order of
sequence is governed by the principles of organization
explained in Lesson 5.
(f) A restatement of the proposition is necessary at
this point because when first stated it was not fully
explained. Furthermore, it is well to restate the proposi-
tion just at the beginning of the details of proof which
make up the argument proper.
(c) The Body of the Brief
This portion must be analyzed carefully. The paper
should be ruled so that there are two broad columns and,
to the right, one narrow column. Before discussing the
details as arranged in these columns, it will be well to
read through a type brief. It is immaterial whether or
not we agree with the proposition.
278 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
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ARGUMENTATION 279
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280 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
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ARGUMENTATION
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ARGUMENTATION 283
ConcerniiHj the tliree columns. — The backbone of tlie
inference column is made up of the issues. Each one of
them is an inference and all of the subordinate state-
ments which are offered as supports are also inferences.
These issues should be examined systematically. In the
first place, they are propositions just as the main resolu-
tion is a proposition, and consequently should be tested
as to reality, clearness, and simplicity. (See remarks
under the heading, ''The Proposition.") After being
satisfied as to the form of each of your issues, make up
your mind concerning the following: (a) Is each issue
distinct from every other one? (b) Are they all, taken
together, adequate to lead you to infer the main resolu-
tion from themf (c) Are they properly supported?
This brings us to the question of support. In Lesson
13 (pages 233-237, especially), it was explained that an
opinion is supported either by facts which it properly
generalizes, or by other opinions wdiicli are acceptable
and from which it can be inferred. Observe that in the
type brief, issue A is supported by opinions 1, 2 and 3.
Each of them, in turn, is derived from other statements,
(a) and (b). These last statements rest on facts of some
sort. In the cases of A, 1(a) and A, 1(b) the facts are
enumerated in the fact column, but in the cases of A, 3(a)
and A, 3(b), the facts are not enumerated, though the
source of the opinions is recorded. If we accept the word
of Worcester and adopt his opinion, well and good; but
if not, the facts of the case should be looked up. Inci-
dentally, it is a bad policy to adopt the opinions of others
without getting the facts which influenced them.
It is now clear that the inference column is made up
of a series of propositions which hang together so as to
lead logically to an acceptance of the main resolution.
Every one of these propositions should be tested in the
same manner as the first one aiad its issues.
284 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
The facts in the second column slioiihl be abundant.
Furthermore, the source column must contain the names
of witnesses and sources so that the acceptability, credi-
bility, and conditions of observation may be passed upon.
The place where the evidence is to be found should be
noted in sufficient detail to enable others to get it readily
and read it in context.
For faults in reasoning, carefully read the inference
column ; to discover lack of facts, read the fact column ;
and to check up authorities and sources, consult the last
column. This form of brief provides not only an orderly
form-arrangement of material but also a basis of
criticism.
2. Floor Tactics
It is one thing to have a clear line of reasoning in your
own head and quite another to keep it clear in the heads
of your hearers. Argument is above all others the form
of discourse in which you must impress not only the final
effect or conclusion, but also the steps by which that con-
clusion is reached. For this reason the speaker must,
from beginning to end, be especially simple and clear.
There must be no unnecessary ornamentation which
might tend, in the slightest degree, to obscure the struc-
ture of the entire speech. As each point is presented,
explained, and proved, it must be fully driven home and
then its exact place in the line of reasoning insisted upon.
Such connectives as these will abound: ''Having
proved," etc., "let us next," etc., ''If this be indeed so,
then it naturally follows," etc. In short, an abundance
of connectives must be used to make the relationship of
the parts of the whole structure clear.
Then also, frequent repetitions and summaries are
necessary. As one announces an issue and then goes into
the details of proof, the listener is apt to forget the
larger bearing of that issue as his mind is engaged in
ARGUMENTATION 285
approving- or rojecting tlic evidence. Consequently, after
a contention is established, it should be restated and then
related to the next. The ideal is for the debater to keep
the whole contention clearly in mind as he takes up each
detail, justifies it, and places it in the whole scheme.
In handling figures, be careful not to bewilder the
audience. It is unwise to read off formidable lists of
statistics with items extending into six- or more places.
The mind cannot retain or grasp the significance of great
sequences of numbers. The better procedure is to say
something like this: *'The report of the government
shows that such and such a country sent to the United
States an average of 500,000 barrels of sugar each year
for a period of twenty years before the tariff was
imposed. After that the exportation dropped to a little
less than 100,000 barrels. These are round figures; the
exact amounts I have if they are wanted." Be clear, and
at the same time make it evident that your information
is exact and trustworthy. A comprehensive grasp of the
import of a mass of figures is to be offered rather than
the befuddling figures themselves. Many things which
can be taken in by the eye from the printed page cannot
be received by the ear from spoken language.
3. Burden of Proof
Eemember that ''he who asserts must prove." This
old adage simply means that one who asserts something-
new — not yet generally accepted — has the responsibility
of demonstrating its acceptability. While we know that
there are many things quietly received without question
as the established and true order of the universe, which
will some day be shown to be unacceptable, still we realize
that they do have all the presumptions in their favor and
one who would assail them must fight. One who main-
tains that some established thing is wrong or who states
286 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
a totally new idea, must undertake the task of proving
his assertions. It will not avail him to assert and re-
assert; he must prove. A speaker who is advancing an
argument bears such a burden of proof. If he succeeds
in educating his hearers and leading them to reason as
he reasons, he is said to have successfully carried the
burden and shifted it to one who would deny his
contentions.
Therefore, in an arginnent, be careful of what you
assert. Make no wild assertions prompted by bitterness
or dissatisfaction, which you cannot prove by a calm
weighing of evidence. Advance_Qi ib" those cont entions
about A vhich you hav e adequat e knojv vledgei then go about
establishing them in an inexorably logical manner. Obvi-
ously an honest man who is a clear thinker, will be sparing
in his assertions and bountiful in the evidence to support
what he does assert.
While the unflinching acceptance of the responsibility
to prove may seem hard, there is this consolation — you
can put an opponent's nose to the same grindstone. If
one opposed to you makes a wild, unsupported statement,
do not deny it; simply point out that it is an unsupported
assertion which cannot be fairly accepted until demon-
strated. If you should say, ''It is false," you yourself
have made an assertion and assumed the responsibility
to prove it false. But if you simply call for proof, you
clearly throw the burden on him and assume none your-
self. Just as you will be careful in making your own
assertions, so also you will be careful not to assume
unnecessary burdens by branding other people's asser-
tions as false, but you will show the unacceptability of
unsupported statements, thus making clear the burden an
opponent must bear. Sometimes, when you have over-
whelming evidence against his assertion, you may be
willing to deny and then advance your destructive argu-
ment, but even then it would be better policy to call for
ARGUMENTATION 287
proof and bring forth your lieavy guns only after hv liad
wasted his time witli refutable argnments.
4, General Bearing
Finally, preserve a bearing of fairness and calm. One
who reasons must not be excited and he must not seem
excited. Prejudice, bitterness, hatred, and other strong
feeling not only tend to befuddle the thinking of the
speaker but they also give the audience the impression
of partisanship and bias. Of course, if you are talking
to those who hold the same views as you and do not need
to be convinced, get as bitter, indignant, and excited as
you please ; but in such a case, you are not arguing, you
are exhorting. Where argument is necessary, calm is
necessary.
This admonition is not at all intended to disparage the
natural enthusiasm which goes with strong, forceful
delivery. There is a great difference between the force
resulting from the stimulus of interest and intense appli-
cation, and the emotional outburst which is fanned by
])rejudice and intolerance. If the audience gets the
impression that your feeling is stronger than your judg-
ment, your argument will be weakened in their eyes.
In meeting an opponent and in addressing a strange
audience, always be most courteous and more than fair.
One who argues contends against fallacy, not against
persons; he deals in truths, not in personalities. His
preparation consists in thorough, patient research; his
floor generalship consists in control of himself.
Assignment of Work
Tlic written exercises in this entire lesson should be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in your' notchook.
First Day. — Find in the Congressional Record or some book of
speeches, or even in some magazine article, an argument.
288 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Read it carefully and then east it in the brief form described
in this lesson. Place this brief in your notebook, with an
appended criticism of possible Aveaknesses.
Second Day. — Carefully study the type brief and note (a)
whether any particular argument in the first column is
logically weak, (b) if there is any statement not fully war-
ranted by the facts ottered opposite it, and (c) where
arguments are directly from authority.
Third Day. — Recast all the material in the type brief in a new
brief using the following as the main issues :
A — Retention of the Philippines will benefit the United
States.
B — Retention of the Philippines will benefit the
Philippines.
C — Retention of the Philippines will benefit the civilized
world.
Fourth and Fifth Days. — Formulate a proposition on any subject
on which you have convictions and to the facts of which you
have access. Gather the material as thoroughly as possi])le
and construct a good brief.
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
his knowled;i;e of tlie principles in this lesson. They
are sin/fiefifirc merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. How does a technical brief differ from a simple outline?
2. What is meant by a real proposition, in contradistinction
to one which is logically unreal?
3. In the introduction, why do we give first a general
survey, then detailed facts, etc. ? Is there any principle of
procedure here? Is there a gradual focusing and narrowing of
the attention?
4. Is there any set way of determining just what the main
issues of a given proposition should be ? Can the same opinion
be established by dividing it in different ways and summing up
each division with its own proposition ? Can you cut up a pie
in more than one way ?
5. Why is it well to restate the main proposition just before
taking up the details of proof?
6. Why should every entry in the inference column be in
the form of a complete proposition ?
7. What are the tests to which any proposition may be
subjected ?
8. Why is it unwise to adopt the opinions of others with-
out checking up the facts to which they had original access ?
9. What do we mean by connectives which may be used
during delivery ? What is their importance in the argumentative
form of discourse? Do they promote beauty in other forms of
composition ?
10. Are repetitions and summaries of much value in a
debate or straight argument ?
11. What is the ideal to be attained in the presentation of
a mass of statistics to an audience ?
289
290 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
12. What do you mean by the burden of proof?
13. Do yoii know of cases in real life where people who
are proposing new things act as though they did not expect to
bear the burden of proof?
14. Is it well to make sweeping denials of the assertions of
opponents when they are not properly supported? What is a
better policy ?
15. What is your ideal of the general bearing of one who is
trying to convince by appeals to the judgment? Is any other
kind of appeal logical? Does the recognition of the value of
calm logic in any way overlook the possibility of other kinds'
of appeal?
y'
LESSON 16
THE APPEAL TO ACTION
As a practical success in the world of men, the
speaker is judged according to his skill in moving others
to action. To sway the multitude — that is the pinnacle
of eloquence. What avails a beautifully modulated
voice if its pleadings alter not the course of human
events! Why convince men if the beliefs implanted
work themselves not out in deeds? One who speaks
pleasingly, who marshals his ideas clearly, and yet who
cannot secure action, falls short of oratorical effective-
ness. In this lesson, we shall consider the aspects of
speaking which are most closely connected with the
obtaining of action from the hearers.
1. Nature of Action
(a) Conscious Action
All actions are movements in response to some exciting-
cause or stimulus. This cause may be outside the indi-
vidual, as a concrete situation which he faces, or it may
be an image or idea arising in his own mind. To put
it another way, a man seeing a cigar in a store window
has a train of ideas started by the sight of that cigar,
which leads him to go in, buy it, and finally smoke it;
or, while in his office, he may get the notion that a
cigar would be very gratifying and consequently send
out for one to smoke.
Again, a man may come into a room, sit at his desk,
and then, feeling a draft, close the window. This is the
291
K
292 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
direct result of the real stimulus of the cold air. On
the other hand, he might imagine the possibility of the
draft and, because of that mental state, close the win-
dow before actually feeling any inconvenience.
Yet these two causes of action are essentially alike,
for w^hether prompted from without or within, the mind
does have a notion of an existing situation, a notion of
a possible alternative and a desire to secure the more
preferable state. The end in view Works itself out in
action. We call such acts, where the person is aware
of the stimulus and the fact that he is acting, conscious
acts.
^ When a speaker wishes his hearers to perform a
conscious act, he does not, as a rule, have a concrete
external stimulus. Rather does he, by means of w^ords,
arouse suggestive ideas in the minds of his hearers.
By calling up stimulating images, by outlining truths,
and by drawing logical conclusions, he puts the powder
of action, a sort of explosive force, into their minds just
as w^ell as if he could lead them to a place to witness the
very things about which he talks. He makes them see
' ' with the mind's eye. ' ' Notice the following appeal taken
from Thurston's speech urging intervention in Cuba:
The pictures in the American newspapers of the starving
reconcentrados are true. They can be all duplicated by the
thousands. I never before saw, and please God. I may never
again see, so dep'oi'al)le a sight as the reconcentrados in the
suburbs of Matanzas. I can never forget to my dying day the
hopeU'ss anguish in their despairing eyes. Huddled about their
little bark huts, they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms
as we went among tluMii. * * *
Men, women, ami cliildrcu slaud .silent, r.-unishiiig with
hunger. Their only appeal comes IVoiii llieir sad eyes, Ihrough
which one looks as thi'ough ;in ()|)i'n window iiil(^ llieii- agonizing
souls.
The Government of Spain has not appropi'inted and will
not appropriate one dollar to save these people. They are now
being attended and nursed and administei-ed to by the charity
of the United States. Think of the spectacle ! We are feeding
THE APPEAL TO ACTION 293
those citizens of Spain ; Ave are nursing tiieir sick ; we are saving
such as can be saved, and yet there are those who still say it is
right for us to send food, but we must keep our hands off. I
sav that the tini(> luis come when muskets ought to go with the
n.nd!
AMieii Thurston himself saw^ the starving reconcen-
trados, he felt like taking up arms against Spain. In
liis speech, in the Senate, lie tries to arouse the images
lie actually saw, in order that the senators might vote
to declare war.
(h) Unconscious Action
Nature is wdser than any of her offsprings. She has
developed in each creature the means of reacting in
certain fundamental ways necessary for its continued
existence, even without its being aware of the stimulus
or need for action, and, in some cases, without its
realizing that it has moved, when the response has
actually taken place. Let us give a few concrete
examples.
Of all the extreme cases of unconscious action, hello-
tropism of flowers was the first observed by man. It
was seen that sunflowers and others would turn toward
the light (Greek — lielios, sun, and trope, a turning).
Later it was discovered that some animals were also
heliotropic. Upon the appearance of light, they would
move in its direction like automata, performing com-
plicated movements of locomotion with no choice or
consciousness of their own. Other tropisms have been
found. For instance, sAvarms of flies must, of necessity,
head against the w^ind ; while on the other hand, locusts
move with the wind, heading away from the direction
from which it comes. The lady-beetle and the star fish,
when placed on a verticle surface, automatically begin
to climb in an upward direction; they cannot go dowai
nor rest quietly. Certain crayfish and shrimps will
294 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
liead toward. tlie positive pole of an electric current in
the water, just as lieliotropic animals move toward the
light.
How far human beings are affected in this manner
by external forces is not definitely known. It is prob-
able that we have various tropisms. Certainly a brief
description of them prepares one to understand other
unconscious and dimly appreciated acts very common
to us all. Just as external, physical circumstances
determine tropisms, so also instincts which are inherited,
fix almost as completely the course of our conduct in
certain situations. It is instinctive to flee from danger.
Confront a man— certainly a child who has not learned
higher forms of control— with a dangerous thing and
the instinctive impulse is to flee. It is instinctive to
repulse that which is distasteful and to try to acquire
that which seems good. These and other tendencies are
born in us ; they are handed down through the race. A
person needs only to be confronted with a situation
and the instinctive response takes place without reflec-
tion and sometimes without a realization of the action
itself.
The reflex is the next higher in the scale approaching
conscious action. It is not an inherited tendency but
is built up during the life of an individual, through
•practice. The eye winks when a foreign body ap-
proaches it, and the hand of a man reading a book
will flick a fly from the face without once interrupting
the complete absorption of the mind in the interesting
contents of the printed page. Again, the body as a
mechanism appropriately meets a situation without both-
ering consciousness. At first, reflex acts— like those
mentioned, the movements in walking, playing a musi-
cal instrument, and many others — were the results of
deliberate thought, but continued practice made them
mechanical.
THE APPEAL TO ACTION _ 295
Similar to this, is the idiomotor act, in wliicli a notion
promptly sets off an active response. A child on April
first will say, ''Oh, see the bug on your arm," and then
shout, "April fool!" as you make a frantic sweep of
the hand to brush off an insect which never existed.
Here the flash of thought "bug on arm" sets the mech-
anism into characteristic response, without reflection.
Only after the act is completed is one aware that he
has acted.
Every man is a bundle of action tendencies, the
nature of which is determined by surrounding, physical
conditions to which he must turn (tropism) in a certain
way; by what his ancestors did and implanted in him
at birth (instinctive tendencies) ; by what he himself
repeatedly did during his life till the things became
mechanical (reflexes and settled habits) ; and by what
he approved again and again through repeated action.
If a speaker attempts to move his hearer in a manner in
harmony with this bundle of tendencies, he can, as a
rule, succeed quite easily, but if he proposes something
counter to them, his task will indeed be difficult. About
this we shall speak at greater length later. Just now we
can classify acts into three groups of service to us — a
classification which can be understood because of the
introduction just completed.
1. The act stimulated by the speaker may be uncon-
scious and determined by inherited and acquired
tendencies on which he played.
2. The act may be a conscious but impulsive response
to an attractive end proposed by the speaker.
3. The act may be a deliberate and selective response
in which the action is made in a certain direction w^itli
the mind fully aware of other possible courses to be
pureued.
Before discussing these, we may say that all the
considerations under the first must be present and be
29G EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
reckoned with by the speaker when dealing with the
second, and all the principles bearing on the second are '
applicable also in stimulating a selective action.
2. Speaker's Influence over Mechanical Responses
A speaker who can play on primitive and deeply
imbedded tendencies can get a favorable inclination to
almost anything he may propose and even definite
responses in the form of concrete acts. What are his
tools or methods f
1. His personal influence is the first force brought
into play. The magnetic speaker, both because of his
general attractiveness and the particular earnestness
he shows in a given cause, carries his hearers with him.
He has them as in a spell and they move with him in
thought, feeling, and deed. They do not reason out
that they like liim, or that, because he is worthy of
confidence, they will therefore do as he proposes; they
simply turn toward him and follow his suggestions
without thought. So long as he is there to influence
them by his presence and his voice, they are his to
command. Such influence is of greatest service when
immediate action is wanted. It tends to diminish in
power when an interval of time comes between the
speech and the occasion for action. It is a help to the
preacher pleading for a big contribution to be made on
the spot, to the salesman trying to close a contract, to
the military captain just before the charge, to the foot-
l)all coach in the dressing room between the halves. To
just the extent a speaker can impress his personality on
others, this inHuence will hold over and have effect after
a laxjse of time, but in all cas(\s its maximum effect is
felt during delivery.
How is such an influence to be developed ! The prin-
ciples involved and the practical method steps are
THE APPEAL TO AC^TION 297
outlinod in Lesson 8, undor tlio headings, "Personality,"
''Confidence," ''Self-Control," and "Tact."
2. Repcdicd mass aciio)i is a meclianical device for
moving an andience. Tlirongh it, a gronp of individuals
may be weld(Ml into a mass responsive to the will of a
leader. Eevivalists use it often. First the choirmaster
has everybody sing. Then all others remain quiet while
those in the front half and to the right carry a stanza;
the second stanza is taken up by those in front and to the
left while all together sing the chorus. Then follows
singing by various groups all over the house, alone and
in various combinations. The choirmaster has all doing
his will and following his lead. They are in a respon-
sive state. Then on comes the revivalist himself. He
continues the response by getting silent agreements with
obvious truths. Then he obtains a show of hands on
this or that question. He gets those who were converted
before the age of ten to stand, then those who came at
twenty, and so on. By means of rhetorical questions
which permit of only one answer (silent to be sure)
and direct questions calling for movements, he gets
the whole audience responsive to him. The whole situa-
tion is favorable to action which he will suggest, though
most of those present do not realize the process by
which they were brought into line. Only the coolest
and strongest willed individuals can hold out.
The more intellectual the audience, the smaller the
chance for success by these tactics. They are of service
only when the response can be made then and there.
A religious revival does little, as a rule, to establish
new courses of conduct; its great value lies in the fact
that it stimulates an initial step. The steady work of
a pastor is necessary to conserve the results obtained
by the evangelist.
The auction sale is another example of the impel ling-
force of repeated mass action. A man goes to an auction
298 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
with no intention of buying. He sees article after article
bought; he timidly enters the bidding; he gets into the
habit of responding and finally "gets the fever" so that
he eagerly bids on everything that is put up.
In deliberative bodies, where voting goes on as a matter
of routine, responses tend to become mechanical. This
is especially true toward the end of a session. One
who is wily, who senses the tendency to pass everything
and who wishes a resolution to prevail, will make his
motion unobtrusively, have it quietly seconded and go
through on a "sleepy vote." If, however, he speaks in
support of his proposition, he will break the spell. Then
to secure its passage he must work for intellectual assent
rather than the mechanical, approving response.
Nomination speeches and addresses in favor of patri-
otic resolutions are often carefully planned to "sweep
the hearers off their feet." A series of approvals is
arranged. The speaker draws applause for this and
applause for that. Gradually he leads up to applause
of the final and desired proposal. It is during this final
burst of enthusiasm, made possible by the skillful order-
ing of those which, preceded it, that the vote is taken.
Here, as in the other cases, it is clear that the action
taken is a blind one and not the result of meditation nor
even a single clear notion. Tlie method can be success-
ful only when the outlet in action is immediately present.
3. The Impulsive Act
The impulsive act is the result of the successful
impress of a desirable end on the mind of the hearer.
The speaker wants something done. He presents it so
as to attract attention and arouse interest. The atten-
tion nmst be kept on the act until it is actually accom-
})lished, if it fades from the mind and something else
crowds in to hold the center of the mental stage, the
act will not take place. Therefore, the first care of the
TITF. APPEAL TO ACTION 299
speaker is to present the act and wliat it will hi'ini;-, in
a clear and forceful niannei'. For a discussion of
interest and attention, review Lesson 4.
Bnt not only must the act to be performed be held in
the center of attention; it must be of a character to
stimulate an emotional set favorable to the course to be
l)ursued. One might propose a climb up a mountain
on a hot day, but the bare thought is so distasteful that
it is banished from the mind promptly and no action
takes place.XBut if some' attractive feature, such as a
cooling breeze on the top, the far view^, and some rare
fruit or berries to be had there and only there, is held
out, the feelings aroused in response are positive so
far as action is concerned, and not negative. "Anything
in harmony with instinctive and acquired tendencies
(some of which are common to all men) or in accord
with special tastes wall stimulate these positive or fav-
():able emotional responses wdiich drive on to action.
Attention cares for the nature and direction of the
action ; feeling gives the impulse.
Notice the way in wdiich Daniel Webster makes John
Adams plead for the signing of the Declaration of
Independence :
"The war, then, must go on. We must figlit it through.
And if the war must go on, why put off longer the declaration
of independence? That measure will strengthen us. It will
give us character abroad. The nations will then treat with us,
which they never can do while we acknowledge ourselves sub-
jects in arms against our sovereign. Nay, I maintain that Eng-
land herself will sooner treat for peace with us on the footing
of independence, than consent, by repealing her acts, to acknowl-
(Hlge that her whole conduct toward us ha.s been a course of
injustice and oppression. * * *
"The cause will raise up armies; the cause will create navies.
The people, the people, if we are true to them, will carry us.
and will carry themselves gloriously through this struggle. I
care not how fickle other people have been found. I know the
people of these colonies, and I know that resistance to Priti.sh
aggression is deep and settled in their hearts, and cannot be
300 EFFECTIVE PI.tbLIC SPEAKING
eradicated. Every colony, indeed, has expressed its willingness
to follow, if we but take the lead. Sir, the declaration will
inspire the people with increased courage. Instead of a lon^
and bloody Avar for the restoration of privileges, for redress of
grievances, for chartered ininumities, held under a British kin^-.
set before them the glorious object of entire independence, and
it will breathe unto them anew the breath of life.
"Read this declaration at the head of the army; every sword
will be drawn from its scabbard, and the solemn vow uttered, to
maintain it, or to perish on the bed of honor. Publish it from
the pulpit; religion will approve it, and the love of religious
liberty will cling around it, resolved to stand with it, or to fall
with it. Send it to the public halls ; proclaim it there ; let them
hear it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon; Id
them see it who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the
field of Bunker Hill, and in the streets of Lexington and Concord,
and the very walls will cry out in its support."
AVe may tabulate our conclusions. To arouse impul-
sive action, the speaker must present the stimulus so
as —
1. To awaken interest;
2. To bold attention;
3. To draw forth emotions favorable to the action
proposed.
What Constitute Facorahle Feelings? — The passage
just given stimulates feelings of hope, courage, and
elation. As the speaker proceeds, be builds up confi-
dence. Those listening catcb tbe spirit; their hearts
beat strongly and their breathing is deep and exhilarat-
ing. Physically and emotionally they are machines of
assurance. The act proposed is represented as (a) in
harmony with inherited instincts of self-preservation,
desire for power, desire for redress; (b) in line with
special existing political and economic aims; and (c)
likely to be successful. The last is dwelt on most fully.
For a similar appeal to action, read once more Henry
Clay's conclusion of tbe speecb in favor of the AVar of
1812, in Lesson 6, page 99. Notice that in the Clay
peroration, not only is confidence stimulated but hatred
THE APPEAL TO ACTION 301
of England is worked up by insinuation and direct
statement.
If primitive passions can be aroused strongly enough,
assurances of success are unnecessary, for a blind for-
ward plunge will come with strong feeling, and there
is no thought of consequences.
"We not only act when our whole being, physical and
mental, inherited and acquired, flows positively toward
the end proposed, but we also respond negatively when
we see that failure to act will bring punishment or
retaliation. Note the following skillful appeal of Henry
Clay to Congressmen to send an expression of sympathy
to Greece in her struggle for independence:
"But, sir, it is not for Greece alone that I desire to see this
measure adopted. It will give to her but little support, and
that purely of a moral kind. It is prmcipally for America, for
the credit and character of our common country, for our own
unsullied name, that I hope to see it pass. What, ]\Ir. Chairman,
appearance on the page of history would a record like this
exhibit? 'In the month of January, in the year of our Lord
and Savior 1824, while all European Christendom beheld, with
cold and unfeeling indifference, the unexampled wrongs and in-
expressible misery of Christian Greece, a proposition was made
in the Congress of the United States, almost the sole, the last,
the greatest depository of human hope and human freedom, the
representatives of a gallant nation, containing a million of free-
men ready to fly to arms, while the people of that nation were
spontaneously expressing its deep-toned feeling, and the whole
continent, by one simultaneous emotion, was rising, and solemnly
and anxiously supplicating and invoking high Heaven to spare
and succor Greece, and to invigorate her arms, in her glorious
cause, while temples and senate houses were alike resounding
with one burst of generous and holy sympathy — in the year of
our Lord and Savior, that Savior of Greece and of us, a propo-
sition was offered in the American Congress to send a messenger
to Greece, to inquire into her state and condition, wdth a kind
expression of our good wishes and our sympathies — and it was
rejected ! '
"Go home if you can, go home if you dare, to your constitu-
ents and tell them that you voted it down ; meet, if you can, the
appalling countenances of those who sent you here and tell them
302 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
that yoii shrank from the declaration of your own sentiments;
that you cannot tell how, but that some unknown dread, some
indescribable apprehension, .some indefinable danger, drove you
from your purpose ; that the spectres of cimeters and crowns
and crescents gleamed before you and alarmed you ; and that
you suppressed all the noble feelings prompted by religion, by
liberty, by national independence, and l)y humanity^ I cannot
bring m.yself to believe that such will be the feeling of the
majority of the committee. But, for myself, though every friend
of the cause should desert it, and I be left to stand alone with the
gentleman from Massachusetts, I will give to his resolution the
poor sanction of my unqualified approbation."
Here we find a clever combination of positive and neg-
ative stimuli. Clay arouses the positive emotions of
sympathy, religious fervor, and national pride while he
negatively seeks the proper vote by arousing anticipated
fear of the constituents' displeasure and shame at the
charges of cowardice and sordid self-interest.
Nature of the Stimulus. — The stimulus used by the
speaker may be either the image (see Lesson 9), the
concept (see Lesson 11), or the argument (see Lessons
13, 14, and 15). As an image of a certain desirable thing
flashes up in the mind and holds the attention, it may
bring a favorable emotional state and produce action.
So also as a notion of right, justice, etc., grows,
it may result in deeds. Certainly arguments to estab-
lish opinions are very often the antecedents of actions.
The speaker carefully selects these units of thought and
welds them together so as to touch off the desired action
most effectively.
Now it must be said that, as a rule, impulsive acts
result from the realization of concrete images rather
than abstract ideas or propositions. Certainly it is true
that an impulsive response is most likely to take place
if the stimulus touches off fundamental, deep-lying ten-
dencies. As the tendencies become less primitive, or
biological, and more intellectual, they are less likely to be
stirred into im])ulsive response.
THE APPEAL TO ACTION 303
4. Selective Action
The selective action implies conscious choice and
decision. There is a clear willingness to act. In the
mechanical response, deepdying forces of nature, largely
Ijhj'sical, cast the deciding vote, and the body acts with
no conscious direction from the mind. In the impulsive
i-esponse, these forces are also very powerful, but the
thinking and feeling mind is also awake and aware of
the attraction or repulsion and the consequent action
in this direction or that. In the selective action, how-
ever, the mind is the final determining iactor ; it is not
assailed by a force driving it on to one course of action
before any resistance can be begun; it is fully aware
of two or more possible lines of conduct. "While, old
tendencies and impulses may be stronger than judg-
ment and have their way, in selective action there is
a decision, a conscious inclination in one direction
rather than in another. Recently the Italian Cabinet
had to make a choice — to remain neutral or take part
in the great European conflict. A man suddenly met
and insulted on the street, usually has no choice. His
whole nature either drives him on against his tormentor
or away in craven retreat. If the same man, like Italy,
had time to consider and weigh the matter, there would
])e a chance for comparison and choice.
But what shall be compared or contrasted? That
depends on the level of the hearer's intelligence and what
the circumstances require to be placed before him for
consideration. Possibly two images arise with their
attendant emotions'. There is a struggle, and the man
acts out the suggestion of one rather than the other.
Dld-fashioned ministers used to present vivid images
of blistering hell and visions of blissful glory. They
moved their audiences by associating faith and conduct
witli heaven and lack of these things with hell. There
304 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
was no argument to prove that sucli places really did
exist or that they were logically connected with the
acceptance of a particular creed or the carrying-out of
certain ideals of life. The assault was on the imagina-
tion by means of vivid images.
Action may also be influenced by a similar exalting of
a particular concept, or general ideal, over alternative
ones. An argument can also be advanced as the basis
of a definite action. In these last two cases, the feelings
which spring up with the thoughts in the mind are not
vivid emotions, but rather calm, settled sentiments. If
we expound a belief to a man so that it is acceptable,
or arg-ue a proposition so that it is proved, as the basis
for action, we have laid a strong and permanent founda-
tion; but no stimulus of an exciting nature is likely to
be there. Such concepts and beliefs, when fully accepted,
are hard to shake and will almost invariably work out
in action when an occasion arises, but not necessarily
in speedy action.
The mechanical response and impulsive action must
be immediate. The stroke nuist be made when the iron
is hot. On the other hand, the selective action, based
on thought and reason, may take place long after the
initial impression was made, for such impressions grow
deeper and more potent with reflection; the stimulus
to action is slow, steady, persistent. Emotions are fleet-
ing; sentiments are abiding.
Finally, it is possible to be convinced that this or that
thing is true or this or that act wise, yet not feel the call
for personal response — for exertion by you yourself.
One might tell of atrocities in tlie Congo and prove them
and yet get no active response from an American
audience. The thing might be looked upon as an aca-
demic and impersonal matter. Therefore, a speaker
trying to stimulate a selective act, based on reason,
must go a stej) beyond j^troving the desirability of action ;
THE APPEAL TO ACTION 305
he must connect it with his hearers' personal welfare
and happiness. He must make them believe that they arc
affected and will benefit by the act proposed. Their wel-
fare ranges all the way from physical well-being to mental
peace due to the thought of a lofty and unselfish deed
well done. The higher the type of man appealed to,
the wider is the field of personal interest, the less ego-
tistic the point of view and the more altruistic. Indeed,
the nobler men will act readily upon lofty, abstract
ideals of conduct even wdien such action is counter to
their material welfare. Here is where the speaker must
judge his auditors for himself and no one can help
him. What shall be his level of appeal! Of help in
this connection is the discussion of "Tact," beginning
on page 145 of Lesson 8.
(<7) The Persisting Stimulus
When an action cannot be performed immediately and
the speaker wants his ideas and feelings to arise again
and again in his hearers' minds, he must implant some
permanent reminder. He must put a barb in his arrow
so that it will stick and prick from time to time. The
best barb is an apt epithet that cannot be forgotten.
Henry Clay, speaking for high tariff, called it the
"American System" in opposition to the "British Col-
onial System." That was a fine tag. The words stuck
and everyone was enthusiastic over the "American
System;" indeed, who could fail to approve and Avho
could forget a system so named and held in mind I
Another good barb was Webster's "Liberty and Union."
We all remember John Hay's denunciation of "Dollar
Diplomacy" and now Bryan is hit with the epithet club
of "Shirtsleeve Diplomacy." For a long time Roose-
velt was successful when his projects came under the
magic head of "A Square Deal," and he suffered severely
306 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
when some one pinned to him the persistent expression,
"Big Stick." The writer remembers how a college
speaker who was urging the students to have all their
dances formal — with dress-suit necessary — killed the
movement for informal dances by calling them ''Shirt-
Waist Dances." All these expressions are catchy and
suggestive as well. Once caught, they cannot be for-
gotten and, being in mind, they influence conduct.
The persistent epithet is valuable also in creating
public opinion — in spreading a certain attitude and
tendency to action. The women teachers of New York
City repeated in many speeches the phrase, "Equal pay
for equal work!" Now who could resist that slogan?
They got a scale of wages with men teachers and
women teachers on an equal basis. Charles Sumner
kept abolition sentiment alive in the North with his
"Crime Against Kansas" and "Slavery Sectional, Free-
dom National." James G. Blaine owed his defeat for
the presidency to a certain extent, to the unfortunate
expression, "Eum, Eomanism, and Rebellion," as a
characterization of what the democratic party stood for.
In that case the expression acted as a boomerang.
5. Direction Summary
If you wish a certain action, make up your mind what
the general tendencies of your audience are, the partic-
ular ideals and special motives which hold in the
present case, then determine :
1. Is the proposed action in harmony with the
fundamental tendencies of most people? Then make
the most of tliat asjx'ct to stimnlalc a mechanical or
impulsive I'esponse.
2. Has this particular audience any settled habits of
action in reference to you or the course proposed? Do
they look upon you as a leader or one who should be
THE APPEAL TO ACTION 307
obeyed? If so, order them, and depend upon tlie linl)it
of response. Is the thing proposed a natural or routine
tiling for them to do? Tlien propose it as a matter of
course and look for habitual disposition.
3. Can you connect the proposed end with some
settled ideals, notions, or j^rejudices which they have?
If so, make the most of the proper aspects and get the
weight of existing tendencies behind your action.
4. Can you make the end appear new and intrinsic-
ally attractive? Then do so, dwelling on the emotion
evoking aspects, striving for impulsive response.
5. Is it necessary to prove rather than assert the
desirability of the end proposed! Do so, but only when
necessary, for meditation is the foe of immediate action.
If you must prove, do it well. (See Lessons 13, 14,
and 15.)
6. If an interval must come between the stimulus of
your speech and the act proposed, try to devise a
persistent and stimulating brief summary of your
suggestive and impelling idea.
Assignment op Work
Tlic written cxcicisos in this piitiro lesson should be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in j'our notebook.
First Daij. — Read the lesson at least twice and then make a
topical outline of it. jNIaster its contents thoroughly.
Second Day. — Read again what was said about tropisms and
also about the effect of a speaker's personality on an aud-
ience. Then list all the possible external influences which
you can think of wliicli affect the listener's response whether
lie knows it or not.
Third Dinj. — Read again what was .said about inherited tenden-
cies. Beginning with (1) the tendency to seek nourish-
ment and (2) the tendency to sexual acts of reproduction,
make a list of all the tendencies which, to you. vseem inher-
308 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ited by all men and which the.y are strongly moved to act
out under appropriate stimulation.
Fourth Day. — List settled ideals and prejudices common to most
Americans. Combine the lists of the second, third, and
fourth days.
Fifth Day. — Outline a speech designed to secure a definite
action. Precede the outline with an analysis of the particu-
lar audience you imagine. List the springs to action the
audience hag. Tell the make-up of the audience and then
enumerate :
1. Possible external influences;
2. Inherited tendencies ;
3. Settled habits of routine action ;
4. Settled prejudices and ideals Avhicli can be connected
with your particular purpose.
Addiiiuual Tasl\ — Whenever you read speeches proposing ac-
tions, analyze the appeals in the manner given above. Do
this very often and write out such an analysis of a speech,
from time to time, in vour notebook.
I
TEST QUESTIONS
TIr'sso qiU'sstioiia are for tho stmlent to use in tcstinj?
liis knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They
are fiiifirirstirr merely, dealing largely with the ])ra('tical
api)licati()n of the principles, and are to be placed in the
iKitoliook for future reference.
1. What is the rank of a speech urging to action, in the
oratorical scale of values? What is the popular notion of the
high-water mark of oratory?
2. Is there such a thing as unconscious action? Among ani-
mals ? Among men ?
;3. What is meant hy tropism? Are human beings tropic?
4. What is an inherited tendency? What is a reflex? What
is a habitual action ?
5. How does conscious action differ from unconscious re-
sponse ?
6. What are the possible stimuli to action? What agency
does a speaker employ? Are words as influential as real situa-
tions ?
7. What influence has a speaker over unconscious responses?
8. What are the essential features of an impulsive action?
How are the emotions affected?
0. Has attention anything to do with action? If so, what?
10. Has interest anything to do with action?
11. Of images, concepts, and proved beliefs, which is the;
strongest stimulus to immediate action? Which tends to guar-
antee the surest action ?
12. What are the essential features of selective action?
13. Do ideals and judgment affect selective action as nnich
or more than inherited instincts ? - Is there a rule to be applied
to all people in this respect?
309
310 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
14. What is meant bj' the persisting stimulus '! Can you name
others besides that given?
15. Would an advertising man or a salesman profit by read-
ing this lesson ? Would a teacher or parent ? Would a fore-
man or boss of other men ?
16. What relation does this lesson bear to the previous les-
sons ? to lesson 3 for example ? or lesson 8 ? or 9 ? or 12 ? Could
you prepare an outline of the course showing the relation of
each topic and lesson to the whole and to each other ?
17. What material treated thus far in this course would you
put into a course in Personal Efficiency?
18. What from this course would you put into a popular
text on applied psychology?
LESSON 17
SPEECH MATERIAL AND ITS PREPARATION
Tims far we have discussed the material of a speech
as made up of images, concepts, judgments, and argu-
ments, and we have shown how each may be presented,
how each may be demonstrated as representing an exist-
ing actuality, and how each may be used to provoke
feelings and acts of various sorts. All this implies that
the materials used by a speaker — the ideas symbolized
by his words — may be divided and subdivided along
psychological lines.
Now, however, we wish to make another sort of sub-
division — one which recognizes that part of this various
material used by the speaker is very directly limited to a
particular speech, while part of it is general in character.
One portion is the heart of the particular message itself,
while the other portion is a kind of general filling or
explanatory accompaniment. Every speech contains a
mixture of these two ingredients, and the speaker must
discover them — must make them come to mind. The act
of bringing forth the images, ideas, and arguments was
known by the ancient writers as * * invention. ' ' But inven-
tion is not possible in the case of a particular speech
without some previous preparation. Furthermore, the
preparation which brings forth the specific subject-matter
is different from the preparation which bears the general
fruit. In this lesson we shall explain the nature and
purposes of these two kinds of matter and indicate
methods of preparation for their invention.
:^11
^
^^
p^ PUBLIC SPEAKING
1. Specific Matter and General, Matter
The following passage from William Wirt's Eulogy of
Jefferson and Adams (delivered October 9, 1826, in the
House of Representatives) will serve to illustrate, within
the limits of a paragraph, the two kinds of matter which
are presented to an audience :
Man has been said to be the creature of accidental position. The cast
of his character has been thought to depend upon the age, the country,
and the circumstances in which he has lived. To a considerable extent,
tile remark is, no doubt, true. CroniM-ell, had he been born in a republic,
luight have been guiltless of his country's blood; and, but for those civil
commotions which wrought his mind into a tempest, even Milton might
.have rested "mute and inglorious." Tlie occasion is, doubtless, necessary
to develop the talent, whatever it may be; but the talent must exist, in
the embryo at least, or no occasion can quicken it into life. And it
must exist too imder the check of strong virtues, or the same occasion
that quickens it into life will be extremely apt to urge it on to crime.
The hero who finished his career at St. Helena, extraordinary as he was,
is a more common character in the history of the world than he who
sleeps in our neighborhood, embalmed in his country's tears, or than
tliose whom we have now met to mourn and honor.
The direct thought expressed by the orator in this
passage is somewhat as follows: Although time, place,
and occasion have much influence in determining a man's
character, still, to develop great talent, an embryo of
greatness must first exist; furthermore, true greatness
requires that talent be checked by virtue. This specific
message, however, is very compact and difficult to under-
stand for the first time in the form just stated by us. To
make the meaning more open and clear, to adapt it to the
particular audience, general, illustrative matter is called
into service. Wirt's first principle, that circumstances
tend to develop the man, is made concrete by recalling
the lives of two men — Cromwell and Milton, Similarly,
Napoleon is a particular illustration of the truth that
talent unchecked by virtue results in evil. On the other
hand, AVashington is a noble type where talent and virtue
go hand in hand. Now these happened to be the illustra-
tions chosen l)y Wirt. But lie could have found others.
No matter. Whatever he might have found and might
SPEECH IMATERTAL 313
liavo iis(m1 would liave been drawn from liis general stock
of information and would have been used to make clear
a particular thought.
To the particular audience AN'irt was addressing, it was
perfectly clear that Washington was meant by 'Mie who
sleeps in our neighborhood, embalmed in his country's
tears." But these references to great men do not
exhaust the general material drawn upon by the speaker.
The very use of such expressions as ''republic," "guilt-
less of his country's blood," "those civil commotions,"
and "embalmed in his country's tears" imply a very
extensive and versatile mentality and give some hint of
the vast general field upon which the speaker drew.
Indeed it is almost impossible to express the simplest
thought Avithout calling into use many supplementary
ideas in the light of which its meaning is made clear. The
very related nature of our knowledge makes it necessary
for us to express a single idea in terms requiring informa-
tion of many others.
No doubt we have explained the nature and i)urpose of
these two kinds of matter; next, one might ask in what
proportions they occur. This varies in different sorts of
speeches. In eulogies, commencement addresses, and
occasional speeches of all kinds, the general matter, as a
rule, preponderates; but in technical, legal, and argu-
mentative speeches, the specific matter is of greater
importance.
2. General Material
It was no doubt a realization of the importance of the
general matter which made the ancients insist that the
public speaker should be a man who had mastered all
human knowledge. "While today we do not require such
an enormous prerequisite, we do believe that the orator
should be a man of exceptionally wide, general informa-
tion and a complete master of the particular topic on
314 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
which he expresses a direct message. This ineans that
a man's general preparation must have given him wide
culture, while his specific preparation for a particular
speech must have equipped hnn to speak with authority
on a definite subject.
Of the necessity and advantage of broad culture which
renders its contributions of general information, there
can be no doubt. It enables a speaker to think more
clearly on any particular subject which he may wish to
discuss. We often hear it said that this is the age of.
specialization and that the mair^K) would succeed must
know one thing thoroughly. AJ^ery true, but it is also
true that the broader the man's culture, the better able
he is to -become a specialist in some limited field. His
information gained from wide experience prepares him
to see a particular subject in its proper proportion and
in relation to other things. With this sense of relation-
ship there comes the possibility of keener analysis. See-
ing the bearing upon his immediate subject of a consider-
able field of human knowledge, the man is able to
recognize points of likeness and difference which would be
obscured to a less widely informed person. But not only
does general culture improve one's thinking on a particu-
lar problem ; it also aids in the expression of the results
of that thinking. It provides many illustrations and
equivalent forms of expression to meet the varying needs
of individuals in the audience.
This matter of expression leads us to turn our atten-
tion, in passing, from the influence of general information
upon the mental power of the speaker to its influence
upon his style. What a person thinks and what he says,-
as well as how he says it, are most intimately connected.
AVhenever a speaker attempts to illustrate or amplify an
idea, he reveals his limitations and colors his message.
The engineer may have to restrict his illustrations to the
field of engineering; the doctor talks in terms of illness
SPEECH MATERIAL 1115
and drugs; the nature poet gets his similes from the
iiowers of tlie phi ins and the torrents of the mountains.
Fortunate indeed is he who is at home in all fields. The
more catholic his taste, the better for him as a speaker,
and the better for his audiences. Richness of style comes
from breadth of general resource.
The speech of a cultivated gentleman abounds in
pleasing and illuminating references to works of the
world's best literature, to the wonders of nature, to the
joys and sorrows of the human heart. The many sources
from which he draws his illustrations enable him to appeal
to minds of various natures and capacities. Deficiency
here is sometimes so telling in its effect that a specialist
in a particular branch is unable to communicate his
expert knowledge to others. Many a clever and profound
engineer has failed to impress others because he knew
engineering only and could not make his ideas plain to
those who did not have particular knowledge identical
with his own. Such men not only lose in pleasingness ;
they also lose in simple lucidity.
(a) General Preparation
How to acquire the general material, how to retain
impressions from many experiences, and how to system-
atize those experiences, is the problem of general educa-
tion. What is acquired represents the whole man,
intellectually. We cannot here outline an entire system
of education calculated to develop the well-rounded man.
Yet a few special hints with reference to the special needs
of a speaker may be given with propriety.
1. The sense perceptions should be increased and the
special senses trained. In Lesson 9, page 163, we
remarked that many people are one-sided in their sense
development, that some are impressed with the sight
elements of a total situation, some with the sound ele-
316 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKLXG
ments and so on. Read once more pages 163 to 167 for
metliod directions for sense-training.
Travel when possible and observe accurately all with
which you come in contact. Very often it is well to
recline quietly in the evening, when alone, and try to
revive the impressions of the day, gained in new
surroundings.
2. Study men, not only as an exercise in sense percep-
tion, but also for the ideas and ideals they express.
Cultivate acquaintances and encourage those whom you
meet to talk about the things they know best, sympathetic-
ally responding to their enthusiasm about the hobbies
they love. Through the conversation of others, much is
learned about external facts and a keen insight is had
into the feelings of human beings. Of course, modes of
expression are there also for observation and analysis.
3. Then the speaker should not forget the great com-
pany of silent friends, his books. They present the whole
range of knowledge, arranged, classified, and expressed
by masters. Like friends, they should be selected witli
care and appreciated for their worth; their excellencies
sliould be separated from their faults and emulated.
4. All this observatioii and study of observable and
readable things must be supplemented hj careful criti-
cism. Accept only what is verifiable as fact and valid
as reasoning. See Lessons 13 (especially the pa.ssage
beginning on page 245) and 14.
5. It is difficult to say just what books are most neces-
sary for general reading. President Eliot, of Harvard,
has prepared a list of l)ooks which may be held on a shelf
five feet long and which, he says, give an adequate treat-
ment of the essentials of a liberal education. We shall
not give a list here but suggest that the student apply to
his instructor for advice wdiich will meet his individual
needs. No man who wishes to be a good speaker should
ever cease his systematic I'eading. General preparation
SPEECH MATERIAL 317
is never at an end; it goes on as long as lifo continues.
Physical growth has its restricted period, but mental and
spiritual enrichment has no limits.
(h) Ai-ailahilifij of Geueral Material
All this general mass of riches, gathered from personal
observation, conversation, or reading, must be readily
accessible. It cannot be *' crammed" for an occasion. It
must be slowly acquired, digested, and thoroughly
absorbed, so that it is a part of the man himself and
impregnates all his thoughts both as to nature and
method. During delivery all this matter comes to hand
without conscious effort. The speaker does not pay great
attention to this explanatory, filling-in, or embellishing
part of his speech, he is free to concentrate on the line of
his direct and specific message. The intellectual sub-
stance of the man flows forth to sustain and make clear
the particular thought of a definite sx)eecli.
It has been suggested that the speaker keep a collection
of general facts and materials by means of a card cata-
logue or other filing device, so that the accumulations of
a lifetime may be preserved in an orderly form. The
suggestion, though, springs from a misconception of the
use to which a speaker puts '^the accumulations of a life-
time." He draws from this fund to illuminate the
immediate topic of his discourse, on the spur of the
moment, during actual composition — an operation which
requires the matter to be stored in his head and not in
some pigeonholes or in a card cabinet. To be sure, it is
desirable for him to make use of a modern well-catalogued
reference library while engaged in an exhaustive study of
the special subject of a particular speech, but the general
fund of information, with its accompanying attitude
toward life (not to be confused with the special facts of
an immediate topic) is useful only so far as it can be
318 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
spontaneously drawn upon during the process of delivery,
or composition.
What a wretched substitute would a card catalogue be
for such an acquisition, embedded in the very personality
of the man ! No speaker can foresee wlien he may have
to draw upon this source, and one who has laboriously
looked up his illustrative material will «be at a loss for
resources when he most needs them during delivery.
Consequently, we conclude that instead of having a card
catalogue to help out in this manner, the speaker must
have an excellent memory; not the parrot-like memory
of certain facts and incidents, but a cultivated retention
of ideas grouped according to their relationships and
bearings upon the problems of life. The ability to retrin
incidents and truths in a definite functioning scheme is
best acquired by meditation upon everything experienced.
Nothing should be thought of in an unrelated manner, but
the mind should be exercised in the habit of grasping
everything new with a full consciousness of its relation
to the old. Such a mind beco*nes a veritable wellspring
of facts and intellectual, aesthetic, and ethical ideals
from which the orator brings forth his sparkling ideas.
No card system can meet the requirements.
3. Special Material
While the general material of a speech cannot well be
looked up fo'F a particular address, the special informa-
tion or immediate topic must be consciously prepared and
deliberately acquired with its use in view. Or, at least,
it must be deliberately reviewed, verified, and arranged.
Success here does no-t necessarily reflect culture, but it
does indicate accuracy and secures for the speaker the
hearing due to an authority. Of course, if the speech is
to be made on a topic included in a man's life-work, then
the special looking up is reduced to a minimum. Nearly
SPEECH MATERIAL 319
every one has heard of Webster's coiimieiit that if Hayne
]ia(l written a speech especially (lesigiied to be refuted
by all of Webster's years of study and meditation, he
could not have succeeded better than he did in his effort
which called forth the famous ''Reply."
However, such complete preparation for a particular
address, ready at hand, is the exception rather than the
ruh\ Even experts in certain fields prefer to look up
their material and go over it carefully before they give
it utterance. It is a good rule never to speak impromptu
(without having prepared the direct line of thought in
advance) except when circumstances make escape impos-
si])le. While a mistake in literary reference, clumsiness
ill expression, or even a violation of the usage of good
grammar may be charitably overlooked, or forgiven, a
misstatement of any of the important special facts of an
address cannot be allowed to pass unchallenged.
Exactly what will constitute the special matter depends
u])on the purpose of the speech in a given case. It is the
matter on which the speaker fastens his attention when
planning a speech with a definite end in view. He believes
that such-and-such material will make the desired impres-
sion. He will be sure to put that on record, no matter
how he may pad it out, illustrate it, and adapt it to the
audience before him.
(a) Method of Research
The preparation of the special material should be most
thorough. It should insur.e completeness and accuracy.
1. Personal observation is most satisfactory. Its
weakness is one of limitation in scope rather than trust-
worthiness. While making your personal research,
answer in a satisfactory manner the following questions :
(a ) Am I competent by equiymient and training to make
trustworthv observations ?
820 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(b) Have I planned a systematic order of investigation
which will insure thorough exploration of the
field?
Then start gathering your material making notes in an
orderly manner. Be careful to separate observed facts
from inferences. (See Lesson 13, pages 233 and 234.)
Later in this lesson (page 322) we shall describe a form
of note-taking for reading research which may be used
for the recording of direct observations.
2. Conversafion with authorities in a given field is
next in value. It is superior to the consultation of writ-
ten reports because questions to remove misunderstand-
ings are possible, and the man consulted can amplify this
or reduce the time given to that according to the needs
of the investigator. Li other words, the information is
sought from the viewpoint of the investigator and not
some general notion of popular demand.
Of course the men consulted must be weighed in the
balance which is prepared for all witnesses. (See
Lesson 13, page 240.)
3. Systematic readhifi may be undertaken according
to the following plan :
(a) Make as complete a bibliograpliy as you can. This
list of books may be compiled as follows :
I. Go to the card catalogue in the library to which
you have access, and under the general title
of the subject and all allied subjects, list the
available books, with the names of the
authors and the publishers and years of pub-
lication. For instance, you are preparing a
speech on Lal)oi- Unions and th(» Laws.
You look up Labor Union and the allied
subjects of Trade Unions, Labor, Work,
Strike, Lockout, Workman's Compensa-
tion, Lijunctions, Sti'ikes, Lockouts, I>oy-
cotls, etc. TTndcr cacli of llicsc heads,
SPEECH MATERIAL 321
you will find various books by various
authors. List them as directed. The names
of the authors will be the next line of inves-
tigation. Finding that Sidney Webb wrote
The Histonj of Trade Unionism, you consult
the author's list and see what other books
he wrote in the same general field. Under
Webb you will find Industrial Democracy
and many others. List all these. Later, as
you read these books, you will find references
to others which you may have missed. For
instance, in the sections of the Report of the
Industrial Commission which deal with labor
legislation, you may find reference to Stim-
son's Handbook of the Labor Laws of the
United States. List all such books.
It is well to make your bibliography in
card form, with a card for each book, as
follows :
Title of Book
Autlior
Publislieis Date .
Remarks on nature, etc
II. After exhausting the book literature, take up
the magazine literature of the subject in the
same way. Look up each general subject,
subsubject, and author in Poole's Index and
the Eeader's Guide, reference works which
keep the articles in all the good magazines
indexed up to the last month. Make a card
bibliography for magazine articles in a way
similar to that just suggested for books, sub-
stituting for "Publishers," ''Name of Maga-
zine Date Page. ' '
It pays to put much time on compiling a
322 P]PFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
bibliograpliy before starting tlie reading.
One is often enabled to get the best works in
the best order, thus saving much duplication
and unprofitable work.
(b) Before reading books through, it is well to read
carefully the index or chapter heads of several
books. Indeed, a careful investigator will put
the titles of all the chapters of each book on the
back of its bibliography card. This step also
saves some unnecessary reading and often guides
the course of the reading in a most profitable
manner.
(c) Note-taking should also proceed systematically. A
loose-leaf book should be used. Head each page
with the title of the book or magazine, the
chapter or article, the page, and the author. In
some cases, even minute subdivisions of informa-
tion may be given separate sheets w^ith appro-
priate headings. After all notes are taken, they
can be removed from the book cover and rear-
ranged to the best advantage. This makes pos-
sible the bringing together of all the information
obtained from all sources, on a given point.
It is only after a most thorough, special preparation,
through observation, interview, and reading that a
speaker begins to plan his speech. For simple plans, see
Lessons 1 and 2. For more general plans, see Lesson 6,
page 86, and for elaborate detailed planning, see the brief
in Lesson 15, pages 273 to 284.
The special preparation is good in pi'oportion as it
gives the speaker authoritative mastery of all the details
of the matter about wliicli he is speaking. Of course, a
busy man in the rush of life is often called on to make a
speech when he cannot i)0ssibly prepare the material in
a perfect manner. AVell, he must do the best he can under
the circumstances, but lie will soon discover that it is
SPEECH MATERIAL 323
better not to speak at all than to speak when entirely
nnprepared.
4. Conclusion
"We hope that it has been made clear in this lesson that
hard work is the foundation of success in speech-making
as in other branches of human endeavor. There is no
royal road, a lifetime must be given to general improve-
ment, and for each speech the special preparation must
be adequate. To be born with the ''gift of gab" is no
great blessing unless the "gift of capacity for hard work"
goes with it. One who speaks readily but has no thoughts
worth expressing is as a sounding brass and a tinkling
cymbal. Furthermore, fatal facility has been the cause
of more than one downfall. The empty word-maker may
last for a short while, .but truth lives forever; one cannot
find the truth to give it voice, without effort in painstaking
preparation.
Assignment of Work
The wiitte'ii exercises in this entire lesson should be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in vour notebook.
First Day. — Select some well-known speech that appeals to yo-i
and write it out in full. Take such a speech as Patrick
Henry's Appeal to Arms, Webster's Bunker Hill Orafio)i,
Wendell Phillips' Toussaint L'Ouverlurc, or Bryan's Cross
of Gold. Then make a skeleton statement of its direct
thought, thus separating the specially prepared matter from
the general matter. When this is done, count the special
references, and departments of information which appear
in the general matter.
Second Day. — Turn to an encyclopedia and note the brief
account of ''The Battle of Bunker Hill," "The Sinking of
the Maine," "The Life of Lincoln." "Andrew Jackson,"
and other subjects which appeal to you. Select one of these,
324 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
and using the encyclopedia article as the material of your
direct message, write out an interesting and readable speech
on the subject. In doing this, do you find a wealth of general
matter ready at hand to help you illuminate and embellish
your message?
Third Day. — Carefully analyze your speech and determine the
points of strength and weakness in your general preparation.
Is your knowledge of one field the only thing you have to
lean on? How may you enlarge and enrich your general
stock of ideas?
Fourth Z>a^.— Get the Eliot list of books or any other good list
and check off those you have read. Then plan yourself a
course of reading, seeking breadth rather than specialization
in. one line.
Fifth Day.— Start a record book of new things you learn by
observation, conversation, and reading. This is not so miich
a storehouse for future reference as a means of informing
you when you are falling behind and of encouraging you to
systematic enrichment of your mind.
TEST QUESTIONS
Those questions are for the student to use in testing
liis knowledge of tlie principles in this lesson. 'Ilicy
are sufrf/cfitirc merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. What is meant by special matter or direct message .'
2. AVliat is meaut by general matter?
3. What (lid ancient, rhetoricians mean by the term
"invention" ?
4. IIow broad should the general information and interests
of a public speaker be? Is there any relation between the width
of his intellectual view and the effectiveness lie would have with
many audiences of varying character?
5. Which would you rather have, general knowledge of
many subjects or a thorough knowledge of one subject ? ]\Iust
you make a choice ? Cannot the two go hand in hand ? How
are they mutually helpful ?
6. Can you make out a schedule of lines of improvement for
general preparedness?
7. Have you ever heard of the five- foot bookshelf before?
Have you seen the list of books included? Have you read any
of the books?
8. How useful would a card catalogue of general material
be?
9. What would you call the index of thorough, general
[)reparation ?
10. Has a brief any relation to special material?
n. What are the three sources of special material mentioned
in this lesson ?
12. What are the steps in concentrated reading up for the
special material ?
18. What is the best system of note-taking?
14. Is there any relation between hard work on subject-
matter and success in speech-making ?
825
326 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
15. Who Avas William Wirt? Croi^well? Hayne ? Eliot?
JMilton ? Toussaint L 'Ouverture ?
16. How would you go about it to gather material on the
following subject : St. Helena ? Labor Unions ? Lockouts .*
Bunker Hill ? Lincoln ? Jime Apples ?
17. What books do you like to read? Why? Do you keep a
record of the books you read? Would it not be worth doing?
18. Do you know anyone with "the gift of gab"? Has he
the "gift of capacity for hard work"?
y
LESSON 18
ATTENTION OF THE SPEAKER AND OF THE AUDIENCE
All who have endured dreary sermons will agree that
it would be well for every speaker to study methods of
holding the attention of the audience. But the need for
the cultivation of the speaker's own attention to what he
is doing, is not so obvious. Yet many faults of delivery,
faults which irritate the audience and embarrass the
speaker himself, are directly traceable to variations in
his attitude toward different aspects of delivery. Ram-
blings and digressions are clearly the results of poorly
regulated attention. So also are many parentheses and
retracings of the line of thought. The inaccurate use of
words as well as over-attention to words to the detriment
of the development of the thought, reflect bad economy
in the matter of attention. Indeed there are many things
of this kind which may well be considered by a speaker,
since they will reveal the necessity of organizing the
attention along satisfactory and efficient lines.
1. General Nature of Attention
No one has defined attention in a thoroughly satisfac-
tory manner; yet all agree upon the existence of certain
aspects. We shall not take time to settle the exact nature
of this mental state from a psychological point of view,
but we shall describe some of the undeniable aspects
which are of vital importance to the speaker.
One cannot discuss the subject at all Avithout first
assuming a self and a non-self — that is, a person and
827
328 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
something to which the person may attend. The self is
the mind, and the object attended to is whatever the mind
is thinking about in a conscious manner.^
This thinking mind is assailed with a multitude of
objects which compete for its attention. There are
sounds to be listened to, thousands of them, some loud
and some low ; sights to be viewed ; smells to be sensed ;
and furthermore there are springing up from within,
thoughts and feelings not immediately connected with
things outside. What shall the mind attend to at a given
time! What shall it select to take in, or what will force
its way in whether the mind wants to choose it or not!
As a speaker talks, he can give varying degrees of atten-
tion to various things. Will he watch his audience most
carefully, will he regulate his speech in a precise manner,
will he concentrate on his train of thought?
As we have already hinted above and as was implied
in the lesson on action, stimuli which assail the mind and
compete for attention may be external — as books, pic-
tures, people and all kinds of tangible objects — or, as
mental processes and thoughts, they may spring from
within. Just as the very apparently outside objects are
attended to by the mind, so the thoughts are atte^'iJed
to in a similar manner and never confused with the self.
To put it concretely for a speaker, he can attend to his
train of reasoning just as well as he can attend to the
expression of a listener's face. In short, it is possible
to attend to real things and to ideal things, to what is
physically before us and to what is in the mind only.
To the innumerable candidates for the center of atten-
tion, the mind makes responses in various ways. Some
iQf coiirso we know that it is (iiirn-ult to make a ]3sycliologically
corroct and scientific sej)aration of the niiiul from the materials it works
over. But ])ractical pood sense insists tliat tliere is a difference between
the thinking mind and wliat it is thinking abo\it — a difference between
the subjective self and the tiling (object) to which that self pays
attention.
ATTENTION ;?29
things are given the very focus of attention itself, others
are less clearly taken in, some are but vaguely appre-
hended, and some never cross the threshold of attention
at all and are as though not existing. Concretely, a
speaker may remain utterly unconscious of a draft or a
flickering light on the platform, he may be faintly aware
of uneasy moving in the audience, while clear in the
center of his consciousness is the idea he is trying to
drive home.
The attentive mind may therefore be said to be divided
into zones. The central zone or focus has clear, sharp,
strong images and ideas, the contents of the next zone are
not so clear, while out at the edge impressions weaken
into nothingness. AA^e must determine just wdiat should
. be sharpest in the attention of a man during the delivery
of a speech — what should be in the focus, what should be
in mind but not in the focus, and what should be shut out
altogether,
2. Stages of Attention"
All attention is alike in that it is a condition which
brings about clearest mental content. But we can speak
of three stages or arrangements of circumstances which
promote this clearness and vividness of thought. The
first of these we may call involuntary attention, the sec-
ond, voluntary or selective, and the third, habitual. In
Lesson 4, pages 49 to 54, we spoke of the first two of
these kinds of attention, the involuntary and the volun-
tary, when we said that a speaker could, at the outset,
get the attention of his audience either by a sudden shock
(so that they involuntarily respond by attention) or by
promise of reward (so that they voluntarily set aside
other thoughts and concentrate on what is being said).
A third kind of attention is the habitual, in which one is
working with liis whole mind along a certain line so that
330 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ho is immune from outside distractions. ^Ye have seen a
man so in earnest about making clear a pet idea of his
own that he noticed neither the amused smiles or indif-
ference of some, nor even the derisive snickers and ges-
tures of others.
1. Involuntary attention is the attention one is forced
to give to a thing because it violently thrusts itself in.
Thus a loud noise assails the senses so that we drop what-
ever else we are doing and attend to it. Any violent or
marked break in the existing order of things has this
effect. In a boiler^factory a sudden hush as the machin-
ery stops attracj:s' this sort of attention quite as well as
an explosiom^n a quiet, open country. Intense things,
strange things,, sudden things, all compel involuntary
attention. This attention is held just so long as the kind
of attraction mentioned lasts. Of course what is novel
or striking to one person may not be at all so to another,
and tiling, like all other mental matters, attention is per-
so^^i^^ike the impulsive act, involuntary attention is
gY^"$ontaneously and without reflection.
2. Voluntary attention, on the other hand, is the at-
tention we deliberately choose to give in the face of com-
peting bids. Other things may be present to distract,
but the attention stays fixed where the individual volun-
tarily determines it shall be. A speaker might tend to
lose heart in his task as he sees no progress with his
audience, but he can determine to stick to it, paying no
attention to the uncomfortable atmosphere. He may sud-
denly get a brilliant idea to present which would give him
great pleasure, but his better judgment says that it would
detract from the main message and he sets the tempting-
distraction aside voluntarily, in order to attend strictly
to what he had planned to say.
3. Habitual attention or settled attention comes when
one is so absorbed in the thing to which he is attending
that other things have no power to hold him. In invol-
ATTENTION 331
initaiy attention, there is no struggle, for tlie strong-
impress of the object breaks through any semblance of
resistance on the part of the subject; in habitual atten-
tion the subject is still so strong and so settled in its
attention to the object that no other object has any power
of distraction. In neither case is the person aware of any
competition.
When the speaker or hearer is aware of a divergent
pull, then the attention given in one direction or the other
is voluntary.
3. Attextiox of the Speakek Dueixg Preparation
During the preparation of a speech, it is highly desir-
able that the speaker develop habitual attention. He
should engage in his research with such absorption that
nothing else can tear him from it. To his reading and
investigation he must give undivided and sustained
application.
Of course interest plays a large part. Interest is a
feeling of satisfaction or anticipation of satisfaction
experienced when dealing with that which, because of our
general tendencies or deliberate judgments, is pleasant
or desirable. What are then the interests of a speaker
which will start him on research and careful preparation
and lead to habitual absorption until the task is finished ?
They are :
1. Interest in the object to be attained by moving
the audience.
- 2. Interest in the welfare of the audience, which
can be secured through a thorough presentation of
the matter to be prepared.
3. Interest in the subject matter itself.
Unless one and preferably all of these interests exist,
the speaker will find his preparation great drudgery, and
he will break his application to it before the habit stagie
332 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
of attention is reached ; furthermore, in most such cases
he has no business to speak at all, for he has no real pur-
pose or message.
If the desired absorption conies, then the mind is recep-
tive to a high degree to all things which are allied to the
matter at hand, and all other things are shut out. Here
of course we touch the matter of research for the special
material, referred to in the last lesson. It is astonishing
what can be produced when the searcher is thoroughly
wrapped up in his task. Lawyers beginning to look up
an interesting case soon settle down to sustained atten-
tion and will stay up all night going over evidence and
consulting the statutes ; scientists working out the details
of new discoveries neglect meals and are oblivious to the
passage of time; ministers planning sermons close to
their hearts concentrate on their preparation and neglect
all else. It is only in this state that the best result is
produced.
Furthermore this stage of attention brings with it
almost unlimited powers of sustained effort. Though
started by interests, when developed into a habit of con-
centration, exciting emotions and feelings subside and
a great degree of calm prevails. So also the physical
strain attendant upon sudden involuntary attention and
the strain of conflict in the voluntary, are absent. Con-
sequently muscular sensations and efforts as well as dis-
turbing feelings are not present to any considerable
degree, to produce fatigue.
But habitual attention to material cannot be secured at
a bound; one must school one's self to it. At first, other
things will tend to draw the speaker away from his books,
there are conflicts, and he gives voluntary attention to
the task at hand. A number of these viciories will pave
the way to settled, habitual attention to research matter.
The concentration of great minds is the result of long
schooling. Therefore if you discover that you skip from
ATTENTION 333
one thing to another and are easily distracted, it is time
for yon to fight the tendency and guide your attention
by a knowledge of your best interests as a speaker and
a man. When the great victory is won and the habit of
hard work established, what can you not conquer?
4. Attention of the Speaker During Delivery
During delivery, the speaker is on the alert, in an
attentive state calculated to take advantage of any turn
of affairs. To his speech and all appertaining to it, he
pays voluntary attention. The central zone of greatest
clearness is held by the main trend Qf his thought. In the
zone of awareness are such things a^ the appearance and
actions of the audience, and incidental ideas which come
and go as he talks, but which do not divert him from his
planned course unless he chooses to be so diverted.
Then, in that event, the new, selected idea, for a time,
occupies the central zone and the previously planned mat-
ter is at the next degree of intensity, clearness, and
urgency in his mind. Distractions which threaten to
become serious obstacles are in a distant zone of indis-
tinctness, but the speaker is not so absorbed in his central
thought as to be unable to shift to them if they grow in
importance. To illustrate, suppose that a speaker is
proceeding nicely with his previously planned argument
clearly before him and he is unaware of the puzzled ex-
pression on the faces of some of those before him. He
must not be so absorbed as to permit that thing to go
unnoticed too long. He swings his attention to the fur-
ther zone, bringing out clear for a moment the distrac-
tion which was vague. Then if it is of a character to
warrant full attention, he lets his theme settle into second
place while the intruded situation is being disposed of.
Then again, he voluntarily elevates his main line of dis-
course to the first place. In other words, during deliv-
I
334 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPExUvING
ery the speaker should be constantly exercising voluntary
attention, shifting the focus from item to item according
to the dictates of efficiency.
5. What Should Not Receive Conscious Attention
The delivery of a speech is a very complicated process
which involves the calling forth and ordering of ideas;
the association of appropriate words to express those
ideas ; the pronunciation of the words and the attendant
breathing, phonation and articulation; the association
and execution of expressive gestures, and the noting of
all the signs of receptivity on the part of the audience.
If one were to try to pay full attention to each of these
activities, none would be performed well. Nature has
helped us out so that, granted attention to some, the oth-
ers are set automatically in motion and take care of them-
selves. Let us enumerate those things which should be
below the threshold of attention and take care of them-
selves during speech delivery.
1. Breathing should not hold the attention of the
speaker. Correct habits of breathing should be estab-
lished so that the machine runs itself, just as the habit
of walking is such as to direct the walking while we are
thinking of all sorts of things except the movements of
our feet. During breathing exercises the movements of
the diaphragm and all the other mechanism should re-
ceive full attention (see Lesson 7) but this exercise must
have its effect on the habitual mode of breathing and that
habit should hold sway during delivery without engross-
ing the mind. If one is attending to his breathing, some-
thing is wrong and furthermore the expression of thought
is likely to be hampered. So also Posture should take
care of itself. Read once more pages 122-24, Lesson 7.
2. Vocahidary use or the selection of proper words in
a given place, should bo almost automatic. One who has
ATTENTION 335
to pay attention to tlie choice of words is in need of vocab-
ulary building exercises. During such exercises, the
attention is primarily on them but during delivery, speech
habits should prevail. Yet here, to a certain extent, the
process of choosing words should be at the fringe of
attention, ready to spring to the center if difficulty is
experienced in finding adequate means of expression. If,
however, this difficulty is chronic, your vocabulary is
poor and you must do more work along the lines sug-
gested in Lessons 10 and 11.
3. Pronunciation also should take care of itself. But
like the choice of words, it may once in a while demand
the center of attention.
4. Gestures and attitudes take care of themselves.
We shall speak of this at some length in a later lesson.
Just now we may say that most gestures are part of the
physical adjustment which is a natural part of the feel-
ing or emotion experienced at a given time, and the
speaker is unaware of them. Of course awkward habits
of movement will show themselves whenever a gesture
is made. Such habits must be corrected by systematic
exercise, but not during -the delivery of a speech. As a
general rule it is not wise to plan gestures deliberately
and make them with conscious attention.
6. "What Should Receive Coxscious Attention
Conscious attention should be paid to the audience at
the second zone of attention while the development of the
main theme should occupy the focus. As we have inti-
mated, accidents of an external character or difficulties
with words and what not may distract the speaker and,
for a time, dethrone the theme from its high place, but
the crisis should be met and the arrangement first stated
nnist be returned to as the norm.
7. Attention to the Audience. As a rule this should
not detract from the development of the theme, but it
336 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
must exist if the tlieino is to be truly developed for that
particular audience. The speaker must watch for ex-
pressions and signs of interest or inattention on the part
of the audience; he must note emotional states as well.
It is clear that he must fit his message to the minds before
him. Unless he attends in a sort of secondary way to the
indications they display, he cannot fit in the message
which holds his first attention. Of course he never for-
sakes his message or loses sight of the goal toward
which he is striving, but he does modify the manner of
reaching that goal according to the receptivity or resist-
ance of the hearers. Eead once more the Beecher selec-
tion on page 40, Lesson 3, and that of Garfield on page 33,
and note how their courses are directed with the emo-
tional state of the audience in mind. They must have
had an eye to that audience as well as to the message.
Read also the Beecher selection on page 216, Lesson 12,
and observe a similar tact with reference to the under-
standing rather than the feeling of the audience.
The reason why certain memorized speeches are so
poor and sound so stiff and artificial is largely this mat-
ter of paying no attention to the particular audience.
The speaker is absorbed primarily in the elocutionary
effect and secondarily in the recollection of the exact
words to be delivered. Such ''elocutionists" deliver as
though there were no audience, or they have a standard
delivery independent of any audience and kept the same
for all.
2. Attention to thr. Main ThoiKjht. This brings us
to the focus of attention and we sliall discuss the distrac-
tions which seek to usurp the place of the main theme as
planned, in the mind of the speaker.
Assuming adequate preparation, all the details of the
speech have been thoroughly impressed and they are
related and arranged in logical groups. It is not neces-
sary for the speaker to attend to these details. He has
ATTP^NTION 337
his mind on the larger divisions of the plan. They are
clearl}^ in mind, and as he disposes of one, the next occn-
pies the center of his thoughts. As each of these divi-
sions is taken up, the well-impressed details spring read-
ily into place at the proper time.
It is important that the planning be fairly simple.
There are two things which will insure the correct ad-
justment of attention during delivery, and both come
when the preparation is thorough — the speaker should
be entirely interested in his matter, and he should be
very familiar with it. These, with good planning, are
sure to bring success.
When the speech is not progressing well, look for
safety in your plan, fix the attention on that plan and
bring the next subdivision clearly to mind; then work
toward its presentation.
3, Distractions. Stray thoughts often come to mind
and beguile the speaker into neglecting his main task.
The attraction may be in the form of an impulse to
express the newly inspired ideas to the audience or there
may simply be set up a train of thought wnich gets the
center of attention while the speech itself is carried in
the outer zone attention, in a perfunctory manner. AVlien
the first of these situations arises, the speaker, who is
using voluntary or selective attention, must make up his
mind whether the new idea can be fitted in with advan-
tage or not. If a clear gain is to be had, he makes the
insertion; if not, he sets it firmly aside and continues
along the appointed path. Of course the distracting
meditation must be killed at the outset.
Other distractions, already mentioned, such as move-
ments in the audience and difficulties with words, will be
met in the same manner. The ideal is to keep the general
end or purpose clearly in mind. Have the attention
firmly on the great divisions as planned, but be ready to
make improvements and adjustments according to- the
338 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
exigencies wMcli may arise, using your ultimate goal as
the guide.
7. Attention of the Audience
It is the problem of the speaker to secure the attention
of his audience at the outset. In Lesson 4 we explained
methods of treatment for the introduction which would
bring the desired result. But we have already learned
that attention has a strong tendency to shift, and even
if one does capture the mind of the audience at the begin-
ning, there is no guarantee that it will be held through-
out. We shall now discuss the attention of the hearer
during the program of speech.
1. Understanding is the first requisite of sustained
attention. It will be noticed that in our plans for
speeches, we begin with general outlines easy to under-
stand and introduce technical difficulties only in a grad-
ual manner. A listener will not and cannot continue to
attend to what he does not understand. This is one of
the reasons why you can read a light novel through at
a single sitting but fidget over a difficult book of science.
It is hard to give prolonged attention to difficult matter
and almost impossible to that which is not understood.
The slightest failure to get the speaker 's meaning, show-
ing on the face of the listener, should be a signal to
recapture his attention by vocal emphasis or a novel
presentation of something easy which will pave the way
to a simple treatment of the hard passage.
2. Interest must be maintained. If the audience
ceases to ])e attracted by the novelty of ideas or the
rapid movement, or if they see no personal advantage in
listening; in short, if your speech does not appc^al so
as to obtain involuntary or voluntary attention, they will
let their minds take up other trains of thought just as
thougli you were not present. Many ministers Avould
ATTENTION ;3:39
hv astoiiislied to learn liow many business deals were
})lanned diirini*' the ir abstract and uninteresting sermons,
and how many more new hats and dresses were com-
l)letely conceived to the subdued accompaniment of their
droning.
.1. ISlonotony in the presentation of a series of ideas
each in themselves interesting enough, and fiat vocal
expression, also kill attention. The first may take many
forms, chief among which are monotony of arrangement
and sameness of treatment. The sentences are all alike
and there is no life and sparkle to the composition. Vocal
monotony is similar in its deadly effect upon the audi-
ence. During delivery, the speaker should be animated
and constantly progressing in his treatment. The ennui
produced by monotony will show in the eye, and in the
attitude of the listener 's body. When that wilted appear-
ance is noted, the speaker must rally and make progress.
These three qualities, lack of meaning, lack of interest,
and monotony, negatively afi'ect the attention of the
audience. But there are other fa-ults which actively dis-
tract the attention of the listener and actually supply
him with other food for thought than the ideas expressed
by the speaker.
4. Peculiarities of speech, manner, and dress are dis-
tractions which take the attention from the main theme.
AVe know a college jjrofessor of anatomy who called the
spinal column the spinal "colyum," and his students
kept waiting for that word to pop out instead of attend-
ing to the content of his lectures. Another teacher had
the habit of saying, ''How many see?" all through her
explanations. The class was fascinated by this recur-
rent phenomenon and never ''saw"; tliey simply heard
the formula and waited for its certain repetition. All
speech peculiarities., dialects and idiosyncrasies will dis-
tract the attention of the audience. Have a friend note
your speaking and tell you if you have any annoying
340 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
pet phrases, mispronunciations, or otlier noticeable devi-
ations from standard good usage.
Peculiar gestures and mannerisms, playing with ob-
jects while speaking, buttoning and unbuttoning the coat,
sipping water, clearing the throat, and a thousand other
possible eccentricities may detract from what you say.
Search out any such habits and try to eliminate them.
The attention should be on the thought you are develop-
ing, not on some intruded peculiarity.
Dress also has its influence. Loud clothes oi' unkempt
clothes will draw notice and occupy the mind of one in
the audience. An old lady once went to hear an art critic
deliver a most interesting address on the pictures of
Eembrandt. On coming home she inquired if the man
never pressed his trousers. It was easy to see what was
in her mind as he unfolded the wonders of Eembrandt 's
genius. A flower in the button hole even may be too con-
spicuous. These and many more little distractions might
be mentioned; we can sum up the lesson taught by all
with one piece of advice : Dress well but inconspicuously,
neither exaggerate in attire nor fall into slovenliness.
5. Suggestive ideas often send the listener off on a
tangent. You may use an illustration merely as a means
of bringing out a relatively minor point, but it may find
fertile soil in some mind, take root, and grow while you
are proceeding with the rest of your address. This
cannot be helped ; all minds seize upon thoughts and work
them out without attention to whatever else is going on.
The best preventatives of evil results from this tendency
are movement in. the thought of the speech and animation
in delivery. The relating of this thought to that and the
fitting all into a scheme which the listener sees grow as
you proceed, is the best means of keeping his attention
with you and your address. Of course the voice is of won-
derful assistance, for emphasis here and a pause there
ATTENTION 341
will capture the straying mind and bring it back to you
and your unfolding message.
Add to all these possible rivals for attention, the effect
of any deficiency of rhetoric or composition. Indeed all
excellence of expression is measured by the degree to
which it insures the easy and attractive transference of
thought. If sentences are ungrammatical so as to ob-
scure the meaning, then the attention will be lost. The
listener must stop attending to the progress of the
thought in order to unravel a tangle of meaning. Cor-
rectness in grammar and simple attractiveness in style,
are both means of keeping the attention on the message
rather than on the mechanism of expression.
8. Conclusion
It is clear that during speech delivery the speaker can-
not very well examine himself to determine how his atten-
tion is disposed, for that very act would disturb the
proper distribution of attention. But one can recollect
after a speech what took place in his mind. Possibly such
recollection and self-examination may point the way to
improvement by revealing faults which threaten to
become habitual.
For practical purposes we can sum up the precautions
which should be taken.
I. In general perfect your vocabulary, pronunciation,
bodily movements and grammatical modes of expression
so that they are automatic and spring into proper action
as the thought to be expressed comes to mind. Only
w^hen some derangement in this whole mechanism takes
place during delivery, should it receive conscious atten-
tion.
II. Be thorough in your research and preparation,
cultivating habitual attention until the whole is completed.
342 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
III. Make your plan carefully and as simply as pos-
sible. Then keep that plan in the center of attention.
IV. Also pay attention at a lower level (or zone out
from the focus) to the audience and adapt the parts of
your message to the audience as it changes from time to
time in receptiveness.
A careful observation of these four things will go a
great way toward insuring proper attention on your part
and on the part of the audience.
Assignment of Work
The written exercises in this entire lesson shoukl be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in vour notebook.
First Day. — Read the lesson through twice. Then review in a
thorough manner Lesson 4.
Second Day. — Observe whenever something you are doing grows
wearisome. Make careful note of the number of times you
start to do somethhig and stop before it is completed. Are
you incapable of the hard concentration of the habit type?
If 3^ou are tempted to turn aside from something as you
grow weary of it, stick to it simply as a test of character.
Remember that you must get the habit of concentration if
you are ever to get at -the bottom of anvthing and do it
well.
Third Day. — On this or some substituted day, attend a sermon,
lecture or other extended address and note when the theme
grows uninteresting or when your attention wanders. Can
you put your finger on the reason for each lapse ? Was the
cause included in those enumerated in this lesson, or was
there some other cause? (Of course this very task tends to
divide your attention, but if you honestly attend to the
speaker and do not reflect on the loss of attention until it
actually takes place, the evil will be reduced.) Write out
your observations.
Fourth Day. — At another speech, observe the audience and
speaker. Do not attend primarily to his message, but rather
make your own observation of the kind of attention he
arouses and holds. See how he meets situations. Do .you
ATTEXTIOX 343
think he attends to his audienee ? Did lie make any mis-
takes? AVliat were they? Do they suggest to you any addi-
tions to tliip lesson ?
FifiJi Dai/. — Plan and deliver orally a short speeeh. IIow do
you tind your attention to the main line of argument? Do
you keep your outline clearly before you? Have you any
distracting language disability, any faults of gesture? Have
you a tendency to ramble, overamplify. or pursue suggested
new ideas ?
TEST QUESTIONS
Tlictsf (jiu'stions are for the student to I'.sc in testinfr
his knowledge of the principles in this lesson. J hey
are suggestive merely', dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. What two aspects of attention are treated in this lesson .'
Why is the second important :'
2. Can you give a detinition of attention ? No formal
definition is given in the lesson.
3. What is meant by subject and object when we discuss
attention? Can the object be witliin a man's own mind, or must
it be a real, external thing?
4. What is meant by zones of attention ? Mliat is the focus
of attention ? When we say that a thing is below the threshold of
attention, what do we mean? Could we just as properly say,
beyond the farthest zone?
5. What are the characteristics of voluntary attention?
What are the characteristics of involuntary attention? What
are the characteristics of habitual attention ?
6. Which of these is most desirable during the preparation
of speech material ? Why ?
7. Which is the most desirable during delivery? Why?
8. Does interest play any part in attention? What inter-
ests start the speaker on his task of research and renew his
application whenever habitual attention breaks?
9. What operations should receive no conscious attention
during delivery ? How do they manage to go on satisfactorily
without attention ? Look at the lesson on action and see if certain
actions become automatic.
10. What kind of attention should the audience receive?
What particular things connected with the audience are espe-
cially worthy of this sort of attention? Do those things always
stay at the- same level of attention — or in the same zone of
attention ?
11. What is the life history of a distraction? Take first an
important distraction and then an unimportant one.
12. How does the interest of the audience affect its attention?
13. What effect has monotony on the attention paid by the
audience? What things in speech delivery are prone to
monotony ?
14. Why should a speaker avoid all peculiarities of manner,
speech and dress? Do you remember any speaker who had a
shortcoming of this sort which caused disaster?
15. How can a speaker prevent .'^ome of his own good ideas
from starting the audience oif on a little line of meditation, tc
the exclusion of the speaker's address?
344
LESSON 19
THE PURPOSE OF A SPEECH
The seed from which every speech springs, is the jmr-
pose to be accomplished by it. This seed, taking root in
the heart of the speaker, germinates in his search for
material, puts forth leaves in his planning, and bears
frnit in the delivery. And each of these stages is deter-
mined in its character by the nature of the original seed.
The purpose starts all the mechanism of speech-making
and dominates at every step. The more clearly defined
the purpose, the more directly the speaker sets about his
several tasks. To change the fig-ure, we may say that
the purpose sets the mark and aims the gim. If the
speaker follows the guidance of his purpose successfully,
he hits the mark. Though we have left our discussion of
the purpose of the speech and its ramifying influences
until this late lesson, we have assumed from the very
})eginning that a purpose exists for every speech. Its
existence was implied in our treatment of organization,
planning, and dividing the speech, and in our exposition
of the treatment of various details.
1. Nature of Purpose
Purposes are as many and various as the differing
characters of men multiplied by the millions of situations
which confront them in kaleidoscopic rotation, and mul-
tiplied again by the numberless combinations of minds
and temperaments in the audiences. Assume that a man
has for one of his purposes, the selling of lawn mowers;
845
346 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
that purpose and the carrying it to a successful issue
will vary with each customer. Furthermore, the means
which he will use in a certain case will not be the same
as the means he will use to carry out another purpose,
such as the winning of a bride to share with him the
profits of his numerous sales. Each purpose is individ-
ual and each speech brings with it special problems con-
nected with the accomplishment of the end in view.
The old rhetoricians endeavored to classify the ends
or purposes of speeches. They tried to establish certain
kinds of ends which would embrace all particular cases.
Aristotle (B. C. 384-322) divided all speeches into (1)
the demonstrative, which had for their end the simple
presentation of things for the pleasure or displeasure
naturally associated with them; (2) the judicial, which
sought to establish justice through the proof of the truth
about something which took place in the past; and (3)
the deliberative, which undertook to move the hearers to
a wise future action. This is a fair classification of the
occasions or subjects of a Greek orator's speeches, but it
otfers little suggestion concerning differences in method
in attaining the various ends.
Modern writers have turned to psychology for a basis
of classifying the general purposes of a speaker. One of
the early English arrangements of this sort is that of
Campbell (1757) which has been widely copied and poorly
imitated. He said, "All the ends of speaking are re-
ducible to four ; every speech being intended to enlighten
the understanding, to please the imagination, to move
the passions, or to influence the will."
But these classifications overlook the complex nature
of a speech which would be of service to accomplish any
purpose in practical life. For instance, it is difficult to
move the will unless the imagination, feelings, and under-
standing have all been set into operation also, and it is
hard to say when a simple appeal to the imagination may
PURPOSE OF A SPEECH 347
not work itself out in action. Indeed a speech contains
an almost infinite number of images, coi\cex)ts, and ap-
peals of various sorts. Many a speech is a complex of
pleasure-giving- pictures, rigorous jjroof, and lively
appeal to action. The mixture of all these serves to
bring about the purpose of the speaker. AVe might well
reduce such elements, to be found in various propositions
in all speeches, to certain psychological units, such as
images, concepts, judgments, and reasoning processes
on the cognitive side, and feelings, emotions, and senti-
ments on the affective side, with certain formulas for
their application to secure action. But the end or pur-
pose of a real speech is not to present just one of these
to the exclusion of the others. The purpose may be any
practical thing from the announcement of the coming and
going of the trains to the securing of a million dollars
for charity. Furthermore, the end might be the artistic
one of representing a series of images, ideas, and ideals
for the emotions they would successively arouse.
2. Means Toward the End
To further his particular end, the speaker stirs in the
minds of those before him the elements previously men-
tioned, in desirable combinations. He must, in each case,
determine just what will influence his special audience in
a particular way. He knows that a proposition cannot
be proved by argument before the audience is in posses-
sion of the facts involved. He makes up his mind whether
or not his peculiar audience is acquainted with those
facts. In one event he presents them vividly, in the other
he need hardly refer to them, though in both instances
his purpose is the same. An inductive argaiment is neces-
sary only when a given audience does not accept the gen-
eral law to which the speaker wants to refer. If such
a generalization be accepted, it need only be expressed;
348 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
there is no necessity for establishment. People already
inclined in a certain impulse direction need only the men-
tion of an act in harmony with it to set them in motion ;
while others not so favorably disposed at the outset, must
be impressed with the desirability of the act proposed.
The purpose, then, is always specific and the speaker in
each instance selects his elements or ingredients in a
manner likely to be most effective with a particular audi-
ence taking a particular, initial attitude. It is clear now,
no doubt, wdiy we delayed our detailed treatment of the
purpose of the speech until after the presentation of
images, concepts, arguments, and the springs to action.
All must be understood if they are to subserve the pur-
pose of the speaker. He must, to use Hamlet's figure,
play upon his audience as a nmsician works the stops of
his instrument. He calls up images, feelings, impulses —
all in the order best calculated to make the accomplish-
ment of his purpose easy and natural.
3. Formulation of the Purpose
One should always clearly formulate his purpose. He
should be sure of his aim. It is even well to write it down
so as to be more definite. Thus one might head his
plan: — ''To persuade the school board to introduce do-
mestic science into the course of study," or "To arouse
sentiment in favor of single tax among the farmers of
this county," or "To inform the clerks of my department
about the workings of a new filing system." These are
typical of the thousands of specific purposes which must
be accomplished through speech.
Having fixed on the exact nature of his purpose, the
speaker may then proceed to determine just what ele-
ments will influence tliose before him in the desired
manner. He must make his choice g^iided by two consid-
erations: (1) He must C()m])ass his subject as a com-
PURPOSE OF A SPEECH 340
l>leted composition in itself, yet (2) lie must modify his
treatment to meet the peculiarities of those to be im-
])i'essed. The subject makes its demands as an abstract
thing, apart from any individual, and the audience makes
its demands because of its limitations of ujiderstanding
and feeling. Just how does the speaker satisfy both
demands, how does he discharge his duty to his message
content and his duty to his hearers ? Only by harmoniz-
ing the two can he hope to accomplish his purpose.
It is difficult to find speeches short enough to quote
entirely in these lessons, and it is not well to take only
an excerpt to illustrate the matter at hand. The fol-
lowing address by Wendell Phillips, delivered to the peo-
ple of Boston for the purpose of urging them to preserve
the Old South Church, may serve.
A liundred years ago our fathers announced this sublime dec-
laration, "God intended all men to be free and equal." Today,
with a territory that joins ocean to ocean, with her millions of
people, with two warsljehind her, with the sublime achievement
of having grappled with the fearful disease that threatened her
life, and broken four millions of fetters, the great Republic
launches into the second century of her existence.
With how much pride, with what a thrill, with what tender
and loyal reverence, may we not cherish the spot where this
marvellous enterprise began — the roof under which its first
councils were held, where the air still trembles and burns with
Otis and Sam Adams. Except the Holy City, is there any more
memorable or sacred place on the face of the earth? * * *
Athens has her Acropolis, but the Greek can point to no such
results. London has her Palace, and her Tower, and her St.
Stephen's Chapel, but the human race owes her no such mem-
ories. France has spots marked by the sublimest devotion, but
the IMecca of the man who believes and hopes for the human
race, is not to Paris; it is to the seaboard cities of the great Re-
public. And when the flag was assailed, and the regiments
marched through the streets, what walls did they salute as the
regimental flags floated by to Gettysburg and Antietam? These!
Our bovs carried down to the battlefields the memorv of State
Street, of Faneuil Hall, of the Old South Church.
We had signal prominence in the still earlier days of the
Revolution. It was on the men of Boston that Lord North
350 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
visited his revenge. It was oiir port that was to l)e shut and its
commerce annihilated. It was Sam Adams and John Hancock
who enjoyed the everlasting reward of being the onl}' names
excepted from the royal proclamation of forgiveness. Here, Sam
Adams, the ablest and ripest statesman God gave to the epoch,
forecast those measures which welded the thirteen colonies into
one thunderbolt, and launched it at George the Third. Here,
Otis magnetized every boy into a desperate rebel.
The saving of this landmark is the best monument you can
erect to the men of the Kevolution. You spend thousands of
dollars to put up a statue to some old hero. You want your sons
to gaze upon the nearest approach to the features of those "dead
but sceptered sovereigns Avho still rule our spirits from their
urns." But what is a statue of Cicero compared to standing
where your voice echoes from pillar and wall that actually heard
his philippics? Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to
put their hands on the very spot where bold men spoke or brave
men died. Shall w^e tear in pieces the roof that actually trembled
to the words that made us a nation ? It is impossible not to
believe, if the spirits above us are permitted to know what passes
in this terrestrial sphere, that Adams, and "Warren, and Otis are
today bending over us asking that the scene of their immortal
labors shall not be desecrated, or blotted from the sight of men.
Consecrate it again to the memory and worship of a grateful
people ! Napoleon turned aside his Simplon Road to save a tree
Caesar had once mentioned. Won't you turn a street, or spare
a quarter of an acre, to remind, boys what sort of men their
fathers were? Think twice before you touch these walls. We are
the world's trustees. The Old South no more belongs to us
than Luther's or Hampden's or Brutus 's name does to Germany,
England, or Rome. Each and all are held in trust as torchlight
guides and inspiration for any man struggling for justice and
ready to die for truth. The worship of great memories, noble
deeds, sacred places, is one of the keenest ripeners of such ele-
ments. Seize greedily on every chance to save and emphasize
them.
Without going- into the minute details, we can indicate
the selection of material in this case. In the first para-
graph Phillips makes a general statement whicli arouses
a sentiment of national pride. No elaboration or ox])Ia^
nation is necessary to that American audience In llie
second paragraph he says that we may well cliciisli the
PURPOSE OF A SPEECH 351
spot where it all had its beginning. Then he arouses
emotions of love and pride by recalling particular men —
( )tis and Adams — and by comparing Old South with other
famous places of national pride the w^orld over. The
last part of the second paragraph and all of the third re-
call occurrences in the Old South which make it dear to the
town people. Notice that information is not elaborate
and references are by a Avord or two only. If the speech
had been made in San Francisco, to collect funds to send
to Boston, no doubt Phillips would have used vivid
images of all these events instead of merely referring
to them as familiar things.
So far there is no argument, all is image-raising and
the arousing of sentiments and emotions by means of
reference. But in the fourth paragraph, arguments are
advanced. It is reasoned that the money spent to pre-
serve this landmark will give a better return than the
amount to erect a monument. Furthermore, it is con-
tended that the permanent nature of the pla-ce w^ill insure
against future uncertainty concerning the spot in ques-
tion. The paragraph concludes with an emotional refer-
ence to Otis, Warren, and Adams. The last paragraph
is an almost perfect peroration of the poetic enlarge-
ment type. (See Lesson 6, pages 92 to 97.)
As one of the exercises,. we shall assign to the student
tlie preparation of this speech, to be delivered to a culti-
vated audience in Richmond, Virginia, the same date the
original was delivered — June 4, ]876. The object is the
securing of funds to preserve Old South Church. How
will the student fit the essentials of the message to the
understanding and feelings of this different audience?
/Sometimes the purpose of a speech is not to stimulate
a definite action, but merely to use such images and con-
cepts as will arouse a general sentiment of a given sort
which will abide and become part of the character of the
352 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
listener. Maii}^ sermons and ethical addresses have this
sort of purpose. The following speech by Lincoln is a
fair example.
Address of August 31, 1864, to the 148th Ohio
Soldiers of the 148th Ohio:
I am most happy to meet you on this occasion. I understand
that it has heen your honorable privilege to stand, for a brief
period, in the defence of your country, and that now you are on
the way to your homes. I congratulate j^ou and those who are
waiting to bid you welcome home from the war; and permit me
in the name of the people to thank you for the part you have
taken in this struggle for the life of the nation. You are sol-
diers of the republic, everywhere honored and respected. When-
ever I appear before a body of soldiers, I feel tempted to talk
to them of the nature of the struggle in which we are engaged.
I look upon it as an attempt, on the one hand, to overwhelm
and destroy the national existence ; while on our part, we are
striving to maintain the government and institutions of our
fathers, to enjoy them ourselves, and transmit them to our chil-
dren and to our children 's children forever.
To do this, the constitutional administration of our govern-
ment must be sustained, and I beg of you not to allow your minds
or your hearts to be diverted from the support of all necessary
measures for that purpose, by any miserable picayune arguments
addressed to your pockets, or inflammatory appeals made to your
passions and your prejudices.
It is vain and foolish to arraign this man or that for the part
he has taken or has not taken, and to hold the government
responsible for his acts. In no administration can there be
perfect equality of action and uniform satisfaction rendered
by all.
But this government must be preserved in spite of the acts
of any man or set of men. It is worthy of your every effort.
Nowhere in the world is presented a government of so much
liberty and equality. To the humblest aiul poorest among us
are held out the highest privih'ges and positions. The present
moment finds me at the White House, yet there is as good a
chance for your children as there was for m.y father '.s.
Again I admonish you not to be turned from your stern pur-
pose of defending our beloved country and its free institutions
by any arguments urged by ambitious and designing men, but
to stand fast for the Union and tlie old flag.
Soldiers, I bid you God-speed 1o your homes.
PURPOSE OF A SPEECH • 353
Here the idea that the life of the nation is greater tlian
that of the individual is developed so as to arouse a
strong- sentiment of loyalty to that idea. Considering
the time of the address and the men in the audience, it
is difficult to conceive of a better selection of material to
foster a strong and constant sentiment of loyalty and
service than this. The Gettysburg Speech is like this
one in general character. It simply holds up the ideal
of dedication and consecration to the great work of
perpetuating the union.
In deliberative bodies, in law courts, and in public
debate, it is sometimes -the purpose of the speaker merely
to make a vague impression of a certain sort in order
to get an opponent to go definitely on record with views
which may be attacked after they are fully expressed.
Note the following address by Patrick Henry, delivered
before the Constitutional Convention of Virginia, June
4, 1788. The Constitution had been drawn up in Phila-
delphia and was being presented to the various states
for adoption. The preamble and the first two sections
of the first article were up for adoption. Henry did
not want them accepted, yet he preferred to attack after
those favoring the Constitution had exposed the strength
of their arguments. Furthermore, he wanted to register
a general protest against the power used by the Phila-
delphia delegates and to create a feeling of distrust and
fear of impending disaster.
Mr. Chainium :
The i>nblic mind, as well a.s my own, is extremely mieasy at
the proposed ehaiige in the government. Give me leave to form
one of tlie nnmlx^r of those who wish to be thoroughly acquainted
with this perilous and imeasy situaticm, and why we are brought
hitlier to decide on this great naticmal question. I consider my-
self as tlie servant of the people of this commonwealth, as a
sentinel over their rights, liberty, and happiness. I represent
their feelings when I say that thev are exceedingly uneasy, being
brought from that state of full security which they enjoy, to the
354 ^ EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
present delusive appearance of things. Before the meeting of
the late federal convention at Philadelphia, a general peace and
a universal tranquility prevailed in this country, and the minds
of our citizens were at perfect repose ; but since that period,
they are exceedingly uneasy and disquieted.
When I wished for an appointment to this convention, my
mind was extremely agitated over the situation of public affairs.
I conceive the republic to be in extreme danger. If our situa-
tion be thus uneasy, whence has arisen this fearful jeopardy?
It arises from this fatal s.ystem ; it arises from a proposal to
change our government — a proposal that goes to an utter anni-
hilation of the most solemn engagements of the states — a pro-
posal to establish nine states into a confederacy to the eventful
exclusion of four states. It goes to the annihilation of those
solemn treaties which we have formed with foreign nations. The
present circumstances of France, the good offices rendered us
by that kingdom, require our most faithful and most punctual
adherence to our treaty with her. We are in alliance with the
Spaniards, the Dutch, the Prussians; these treaties bind us as
thirteen states, confederated together. Yet here is a proposal
to sever that confederacy. Is it possible that we shall abandon
all oiir treaties and national engagements? And for what?
* * * ^-^s our civil policy or public .justice endangered or
sapped? Was the real existence of the country threatened, or
was this preceded by a mournful procession of events?
This proposal of altering our federal government is of a most
alarming nature ; make the best of this new government— say
it is composed of anything but inspiration — you ought to be
extremely cautious, watchful, jealous of your liberty ; for instead
of securing your rights, you may lose them forever. If this new
government will not come up to the expectations of the people,
and they should be disappointed, their liberty will be lost and
tyranny must and will arise. I repeat it again, and I beg gentle-
men to consider, that a wrong step made now, will plunge us
into misery, and our republic will be lost.
It will be necessary for this convention to have a faithful his-
torical detail of the facts that i)receded the session of the fed-
eral convention, and the reasons that actuated its members in
proposing an entire alteration of government — and to demon-
strate the dangers that awaited us. If they were of such awful
magnitude as to warrant a pi-oposal so extremely perilous as this,
I must assert that lliis coinciitioii lias an absolute right to a thor-
ough knowledge of cvci'.n- circiiiustaiice relative to this great evcni.
And here I would make this iiupiiry of those worthy cliaracters
who composed a part of the late federal convention. I am snw
that they were impressed \\ifh the necessity of forming a great
PrRPOSE OF A SPEECH 355
consolidated government, instead of a confederacy. That this
is a consolidated government is demonstrably clear; and the
danger of such a government i.s, to my mind, very striking. I
have the highest veneration for those gentlemen ; but, sir, give
l)e leave to demand what right had they to say "We, the People,"
instead of We, the States? jMy political curiosity, exclusive of
my anxious solicitude for the public welfare, leads me to ask,
wlio authorized them to speak the language of, "AVe, the Peo-
ple," instead of We, the States? States are the characteristics
and the soul of a confederation. If the states be not the agents
of this compact, it must be one great, consolidated national gov-
ernment of the people of all the states. I have the highest respect
for those gentlemen who formed the convention ; and were some
of them not here, I would express some testimonial of esteem
for them. America had, on a former occasion, put the utmost
confidence in them ; a confidence which was well placed ; and I
am sure, sir, I would give up anything to them ; I woulcl cheer-
fully confide in them as my representatives. But, sir, on this
great occasion, I would demand the cause of their conduct.
Even from that illustrious man, who saved us by his valor, I
would have a reason for his conduct ; indeed that liberty Avhich
he gave us by his valor, tells me to ask this reason ; and I am
sure, were he here, he would give us that reason ; but there are
other gentlemen here who can give us that information. The
people gave them no power to use their name. That they
exceeded their power is perfectly clear.
It is not mere curiosity that actuates me ; I want to know the
real, actual, existing danger which should lead us to take those
steps so disastrous, in my conception. Disorders have arisen in
other parts of America, but here, sir, no dangers, no insurrec-
tions nor tumults have happened ; everything has been tranquil.
But notwithstanding this, we are wandering on the great ocean
of human affairs. I see no landmark to guide us. We are run-
ning we know not whither. Difference in opinion has gone to a
degree of inflammatory resentment, in different parts of the
country, which has been occasioned by this perilous innovation.
The federal convention ought to have amended the old system ;
for this purpose, they were solely delegated : the object of their
mission extended to no other consideration. You must therefore
forgive the solicitation of one unworthy member, to know what
danger could have arisen under the present confederation, and
what are the causes of this proposal to change our government.
Make a careful analysis of this speech as a wiiole and
by para,!OTaphs Avith special reference to the purpose to
be accomplished by each part.
356 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
4. Method of Procedure
Having determined tlie purpose of the speech, the
speaker should first arrange the material in a manner
that will lead logically and inevitably to the desired end.
The best example of this logical arrangement, which is
impersonal and sure in its forward march, is the mathe-
matical demonstration. In speech making, the academic
debate comes nearest. In practical life, the case before
a judge of a higher court is the best example. In most
speeches, the strictly logical selection must be discarded
later and modified to suit a real audience, w^hich is not
entirely logical.
Having made this selection and arrangement of mate-
rial, then determine, from the standpoint of understand-
ing, the acceptability to the particular audience. Which
of the various ideas are familiar to them? Such can be
mentioned and put into the proper places, but need no
thorough treatment. Familiar images can be referred
to by name merely or indicated by striking epithet (see
Lesson 10 and particularly page 181). The same is true
of concepts and the conclusions of arguments. Where
the images, concepts, and arguments are new to the
audience, they must be planned for full treatment. (See
Lessons 9 to 15.)
We have intimated that each of the intellectual ele-
ments carries with it possibilities of feeling or emotion.
But an image which will arouse one feeling in one person
will arouse quite a different one in another. The heart-
rending situation in a melodrama which has the shop
girl worked up to a state of tearful anxiety and sympathy,
leaves the young woman just out of college cold and
critical of its good taste. A surgeon calmly lays open
the abdomen of his appendix patient, while a relative,
foolishly standing near, faints. To speak of profit before
a board of directors carries with it no feeling of injustice
PURPOSE OF A SPEECH 357
(fi- outrage, but the same notion expressed to a socialist
;( rouses a whole mass of resentment against the exploita-
tion of labor and social inequality. ^^We need not pass
on the question which is right in these various cases; we
merely know that there are differences in feeling pos-
sibilities because of class, training, and custom, and also
sex and age. AVell, the speaker seeking to arouse certain
feelings in consonance with his purpose must look at his
means and determine how it will affect his particular
audience. Of course he must have some notion of the
nature of those before him.
Just as their intellectual shortcomings dictate full
treatment of some things, building from the bottom up,
so also their peculiar prejudices and level of emotional
refinement will necessitate tactful selection and treatment
of others. Look over your material and see what will
be readily accepted from the standpoint of favor or
emotion. Fix on the best mode of presenting it so as to
make the most of that predisposition. Also designate
those parts which will run counter to the feelings of the
audience. Some will have to be discarded. If that is
possible without damaging your case, drop the unpalat-
able matter. If it must be preserved, devise the most
tactful way of making it tolerable. Many details will
often have to be sacrificed or modified. Be cheerful in
doing this ; you will never succeed by forcing things down
unwilling throats. Eemember that the accomplishment
of your general purpose is more important than any
detail.
A good plan is to enumerate the salient features or
steps in your speech in one column, then in the other,
mark intellectual shortcomings or advantages held by
the audience, and in the third, emotional response prob-
abilities. This will be your battle plan of sacrifices and
modifications.
358 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Naturally, when on the floor you may sense situations
quite different from what you anticipated and you may
have to make sudden and unexpected modifications in
your treatment. The rule to follow is this :;- Keep the
purpose unchanged before you; readily sacrifice minor
details and make concessions to temporary feelings;
when necessary slur over fairly essential parts; finally,
if no headway is possible, it is better to stop trying than
to antagonize the audience permanently. Sometimes it is
wiser to let your purpose Avait for a more favorable
occasion than to drive against a hopelessly hostile
audience. Yet it is wonderful how much can be accom-
plished bj^ a speaker who makes his concessions wisely,
who respects the feelings of those before him and keeps
his own temper.
There is no rule to guide the speaker in this matter of
adjustment to temperament, and men cannot be classified
according to feelings. Aristotle sought to aid the orator
by giving the characteristics of young men so that one
addressing a group of them might know what to expect.
For instance, he said that young men are violent in
desires, quick to action, easily moved, easily deceived,
generous, lovers of honor rather than riches, merciful,
valiant, etc., while old men are slow to action, slow of
decision, without violent desires, lovers of gain rather
than abstract honor, timid, etc., and middle-aged men are
somewhat between the two in character. He also
analyzes the characters of the noble, the rich and the
poor. While to be sure, there is much truth in what is
said, there is little practical help with a real audience.
Each audience is composite in its makeup and the special
interests of every group are so various that the only
•help a speaker can have is an intimate knowledge of
those particular interests, prejudices, and inclinations.
We advise the student to get from the library Aristotle's
Rhetoric, which is well translated and easily had. Eead
PURPOSE OF A SPEECH 361
iar with the Articles of ('oiifcdei-itioii, but the Constitution
is new. Realize that you are conlending against an attitude
created by the Henry speech.
Fifth Dfl^.— Deliver orally the speech prepared on the fourth
day.
Some \Vi.
speaker slioukl aiwci^
his purpose clearly to the auuit^x^.. tviLii tins we must
differ. It is certainly necessary to have your purpose
clearly defined in your own mind^ but it is often very
unwise to give it voice either before or after it is accom-
plished. We can easily discern the purpose of Patrick
Henry in his address (given in this lesson) to the Vir-
ginia Convention, especialh^ when we have access to the
addresses of other men in reply and Henry's later
assaults on their arguments. But Henry would have
been very foolish to reveal that purpose at the outset.
When a theatrical manager comes before the curtain to
address the audience while a fire is being extinguished
behind the asbestos curtain, he very wisely holds back
his real purpose — namely, the avoidance of a panic. To
express that purpose would be the very best way to
defeat it. So also when we are trying to win over an
audience to our point of view, which seems directly
counter to their life habits, thoughts, and feelings, we
never reveal our purpose in the speech.
Furthermore, a wise man does not ''crow" or "rub
it in" after he has been successful. His reward is his
purpose accomplished. In this connection read once
more page 61 of Lesson 4.
358 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Naturally, when on the floor you may sense situations
quite different from what you anticipated and you may
have to make sudden and unexpected modifications in
your treatment. The rule to follow is this : Keep the
purpose unchanged before you; readily sacrifice minor
details and make concessions to temporary feelings;
when necessary slur over fairly essential parts; finally,
if no headway is possible, it is better to stop trying than
to antagonize the audience permanently. Sometimes it is
wiser to let your purpose wait for a more favora^
occasion than to drive against a hopelessly ^
audience. Yet it is w^onderful how much ""
plished by a speaker who make^' ' '^
The written exercises in this entire lesson should be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in your notebook.
Fir at Dat/.— Read the lesson over three times and make an
abstract of it.
Second Day.— Write the Phillips speech, using the left-hand half
of a piece of paper. Fold the paper down the center and
write only on the left side of the crease. On the right side,
indicate modifications which would be made if the speaker
were talking to people in San Francisco who had never been
in Boston. His purpose is to raise funds for an historical
society to purchase Old South in order to preserve it.
Third Day.— Select some topic in which you are interested, some
audience with which you are familiar, and designate a pur-
pose to be accomplished. Then outline your material and
modifications as indicated on page 357 of this lesson. Deliver
the speech with only the outline of finally ap])roved material
memorized.
Fourth Day.— Plan a speech in reply to Patrick Henry.- It is a
speech to induce the Virginia Convention to adopt the Con-
stitution. Read the Constitution and any school history
account of the condition of the country when the Articles of
Confederation were in force. Work this speech up thor-
oughly. Remember that the delegates are thoroughly famil-
PURPO^^E of a speech 361
ifir witli llu' A ft ides of Coiifi-dci-il ion, but the Constitntiou
is new. Kcnlizc llinl you fuv coiilcuding a^ninst an attituck-
created by tbe Ileniy speeeb.
Fifth Z)aiy.— Deliver orally tbe speed) prepared on the fourtb
day. ■
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testint,-
his knowledge of tlie principles in tliis lesson. They
are suggesiiie merely, dealinp- largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to he placed in the
notebook for futuie reference.
L What is meant by the purpose of the speech? Is it a
^(nieral thing or a specific thing f Can purposes be easily
( lassified?
2. When does the purpose first arise? How h)ng shoukl it
persist ?
3. What was Aristotle's classification of the ends of speak-
ing? What is the value of this classification ?
4. Can you give Campbell 's classification ? What do you
think of it? Assuming it correct in general theory, could you
improve on the classification he gives?
5. What do we mean l)y the elements used in constructing a
si)eech ?
6. What part does an element play in carrying out the pur-
pose of the speaker?
7. Should the speaker have his purpose clearly formulated?
Why ?
8. In preparing his message for the purpose of accomplish-
ing his encl, what two general considerations move the speaker?
9. What do you think of the Phillips selection ? IIow do you
like the style? How does it compare with that of Patrick
Henry ? Which reflects the greater culture ?
10. Can you make a rough classification of purposes? Try it.
11. AVhat are the steps in method procedure in preparing a
speech, with the purpose as the guide?
12. Can men be clas.sified according to emotional response?
according to intellectual attainments?
13. Is an audience homogeneous, or are the individual charac-
liM'islics widely divergent? What effect has this on the accom-
])lisliin('iit of the speaker's purpose?
14. Should the speaker always stale his jjiirpose clearly to the
audience? Why?
302
LESSON 20
THE EXPRESSIVE VOICE
With the exception of the rules for posture and breath-
iii.i;- in Lesson 1, we have not discussed elocution, a subject
^^•]lich takes account of the expressive powers of the voice
ill speech. We have paid more attention to psychological
aspects such as the organization of ideas, the gathering
of material, the clear grasp of details, and methods of
impressing all these things upon the audience. Now we
wish to add that the mere selection of proper words in
c;'rtain groupings will not bring the greatest success with
an audience. The voice must be used effectively to get
tli(^ bpst results. It is possible to spoil the most beautiful
composition by poor vocal expression, harsh tones, and
monotony. One must lend to the wisdom of the mind the
])('auty of the voice. In this lesson we shall consider what
tlie voice adds to the message. The lesson may be
regarded as a continuation of number seven; and it would
])(' well for the student to review the advice given there
before taking up this new matter.
Excellence of posture and breathing will insure a good
habitual tone of voice. In this lesson we shall analyze
that voice as a succession of constantly varying sounds,
and we shall explain the expressional effects of those
variations. We assume, at the outset, that the student
has developed a good normal tone — that he stands cor-
rectly, has complete control of his breathing, and speaks
with throat well relaxed. He has no constriction any-
303
3r,4 EFFECTIVE IMIBLIC SPEAKING
where and all tlie operations of sonnd production are easy,
natural, full, and strong.
The sounds which follow one another in speech are
produced nnicli like the notes of a wind instrument of tli(^
horn group. They have certain distinguishable charac-
teristics. In the first place each has a recognizable
qualitij, and they come forth at a more or less rapid raie ;
while each has a definite pitch and force. As we listen to
the sounds of a man speaking, w^e notice changes in qual-
ity, rate, pitch, and force. We shall be interested in these
possible variations in the tone of the voice and their value
in expression.
]. (j)rALITY
1. Nature. — If one were to hear a man talking, in the
distance, though the exact words might not be audible,
the humdu vuice equality would be unmistakable. The
voice could not be mistaken for the cry of an animal.
Again, if you were to hear three pc^ople with whom you
are familiar talking in the next room, and each should
repeat the same words after the other, you could say,
^'Now Smith is speaking; now it is Jones; and now it is
Brown." There is an individual equality which distin-
guishes each man's voice from that of every other man.
2. Physical Basis. — The raw material of every vocal
sound which has quality, is an indefinite murmur made
by the vocal cords. These cords are like little cushions
or lips pressed together in the larynx (voice box or
Adam's apple). As the air comes up the windpipe from
the lungs, they rapidly press togc^ther and fly apart thus
letting the air ])ass ui)ward in a series of puffs. At th(^
cords, the sound audible from these puffs is an indefinite
murmur or buzzing. It is much like the buzz made by
the lips of the player at the mouthpiece of a simple horn.
But just as the tube and flaring ])ell of the horn modify,
I'einforce, and give (|naliiy to the mlsern1)le buzz at its
THE EXPRESSIVE VOICE
365
inontlipiece, so also the cavities of the throat, iiioutli, and
nose, give quality or ton(^ to the vocal mnrmur.
ScHEMK OF Vocal Organs
Agents of Resonation:
A — Hard and Fixed — Bones of SkuH (B. S-K.), Bones of Nasal Cavity
(N. C), Superior MaxiUary or Hard Palate (S. M.), Teeth (D), and
Inferior Maxillary or Lower Jaw (I. M.).
n — Soft and Flexible — Ventricle above Vocal Cords (V.), Upper Cham-
ber of Larvnx (L.), Epiglottis (B.), Pharynx (Ph.), Soft Palate (P.),
Cheeks (Ch.), Tongue (T.), and Lips (L.).
Also note C. — vocal cords, G. = gullet, Tr. = trachea or windpipe.
Cavities are left wliite.
The passages through which the sound passes as it is
modified in quality, have, in some places, hard and fixed
walls, while in other places, the walls are soft and flex-
366 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ible. The size and shape of these cavities and the texture
of their walls, at the time the sound is being produced,
determine the quality. Since the soft and flexible parts
can change in size, shape, and texture, it is evident that
a man's voice may have different qualities at differant
times. The human voice therefore has variable quality
while that of the simple horn is fixed. On the other hand,
the contributions of the hard and fixed parts, tend to pr(^-
serve a fixed and individual element. We are particu-
larly interested in the possibilities of quality change and
what such changes express. This brings us to the mental
factors involved.
3. Psychological Basis of Qualify Changes. — When
one experiences an emotion, an integral part of that emo-
tion is the physical adjustment. Thus in anger, the heart
beats faster, the breathing is quick and the muscles grow
tense. In joy, there is relaxation, a strong, steady heart
beat and depth of breathing. The whole body is affected,
being dominated by the emotion in the mind. But of all
the parts of the body to respond, one of the most sensi-
tive is the resonation system near and above the vocal
cords. The slightest emotion instantly alters the size,
shape, and texture of the resonating cavities by action
on the soft resonators. In anger there is constriction and
tenseness of texture. The tone produced is flat and
throaty. It is known as the guttural. AVhen one is
inspired by the magnificent and good, there is openness,
relaxation, and expansion, and we hear the full, round
orotund. In fear we get only a toneless 'whisper. In
great joy, there is resiliency and power as reflected in the
brilliant quality — a bugle-like tone.
These are merely types and do not exhaust the list.
There are numberless qualities just as there are number-
less shades of emotion. Yet no emotion is so slight as
not to show in the voice. I^ven a minor disapy)ointm<'nt
gives tlic voice a ''hollow ring."
THE EXPRESSIVE VOICE
367
4. AppUcation hij fJie Speaker. — It is agreed lliat in
speech we wish to convey our thoughts and feelings in the
most compk^te and vivid manner possibhi. Every emo-
tion experienced shouhl show in the voice. Furthermore,
our emotional responses to ideas throw much light on the
nature of those ideas. If the ideas are clear and strong,
tlu^ir emotional accompaniment will be clear, and expres-
sion which gives the whole is far more than a lifeless
outline. Let us illustrate by means of a passage from
Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address. First read it to
a friend in a perfunctory, business-like way, disregarding
the notes in the margin and not taking the trouble to
make all the images arise vividlv in vour mind.
Neither party expected for the war the magni-
tude or the duration which it has already at-
tained. Neither anticipated that the cause of
the conflict might cease with, or even before, the
conflict itself should cease. Each looked for an
easier triumph and a result less fundamental
and a.stounding. Both read the same Bible, and
pray to the same God ; and each invokes his aid
against the other. It may seem strange that any
men should dare to ask a just God's assistance
in wringing their bread from the sweat of other
men'.s faces; but let us judge not, that we be
not judged. The prayers of both could not be
answered — those of neither have been fully
answered.
The Almighty has his own purposes. "Woe
unto the world because of otfenses ! for it must
needs be that offenses come ; but woe unto that
man by whom the offense cometh." If we shall
suppose that American slavery is one of those
otT'enses which, in the providence of God. must
needs come, but which, having continued through
liis appointed time, he now wills to remove, and
that he gives to both North and South this ter-
rible war, as the woe due to those by whom the
offense came, shall we di.scern therein any de-
parture from those divine attributes which the
believers in a living God always ascribe to him?
Fondly do we hope — f(M^vently do we pray — tliat
Xormal
fccliiiff.
Irony and
slio-lit
bittfrnfss.
Solemnity.
Confidonpo.
368 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
this miglity scourge of war may speedily pass
away. Yet, if God wills that it continue until Angry resolve
all tile wealth piled by the bondman's two hun-
dred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be
sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with
the lash sImII be paid by another drawn with
the sword. — as it was said two thousand years Sudden change
ago, so still it must be said. "The judgments of to
the Lord are true and righteous altogether." vesiffnation.
With malice toward none ; with charity for
all ; with firmness in the right, as God gives us Kindliness,
to see the right, let us strive on to finish t-he work
we are in ; to bind up the nation 's wounds ; to
care for him who shall have borne the battle, ^it.v-
and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all
which may achieve and cherish a just and last-
ing peace among ourselves, and with all nations. Quiet peace.
Xow read it again as well as you can, noting- the emo-
tion cnes on the side. Get every idea vividly in mind.
Call up the pictures, as of the lash falling on the slave,
and feel the proper indignation, ^lake the thoughts live
and move and have being in your mind, and the emotions
will come and the vocal quality will take care of itself.
Ask 5'our friend Avhicli was the more effective rendition.
If the speaker is unembarrassed and at home before
his audience, the s;^Tupathetic and expressive changes in
quality will take place in direct proportion to the com-
pleteness with which what he says is real to him. He
must keep the attention on the thought and the concrete
situations which gave rise to it. Situations must be vivid
to the mind's eye and the Avliole nature must be allowed
to respond in an unrestrained manner to them. If that
be done, the message will go forth living, throldiing,
effective.
Suppose one says to a baby, " Til bring yon a beautiful
ball to play with," using a flat, uiieiithusinstic (|uality so
that the words will mak(» their own, unaided im])ression.
There Avill he litth* response. But if one has a com])l(^te
anticipation of the many-colored ball and tlu^ frolics with
THE EXPRESSIVE VOICE 369
it, and then lets the voice show the enthusiti>ni aroused
by the pictures, the baby will respond Avith glee, for the
meaning conveyed to him is richer and fuller. It is the
same way with adults, though the abstract word symbols
have more weight with them than with a child. At no
time does the enriching value of vocal quality disappear.
The voice quality reveals the full subject and also the
soul of the speaker. It is for this reason that the speaker
must make all his thoughts live again as he gives them
voice. It is only with attention on such thoughts that he
will have the emotional experiences which will be revealed
in quality changes.
Affectations and exaggerations of qualify' are worse
than a lack of sympathy. A tone of manufactured pathos
is disgusting and pretended indignation ridiculous.
Avoid such sentimentality and be natural. All we want
is the proper human emotion which is really felt when the
speaker is living in his message and expressing it with-
out restraint.
So also the affecting of a superior "speaking voice" or
artificial tone of supposed elegance and impressiveness,
is to be avoided. It is like the "company voice" which
any bright child recognizes when his mother is foolish
enough to "turn it on." The speaker must be a real,
genuine, honest, unaffected man, delivering his message
in a straightforward manner. His voice shows no con-
scious exaggeration on the one hand, no restraint on the
other.
2. Rate
1. Xafure and Pln/sical Basis. — Rate is simply the
speed with which one sound succeeds another in speech.
Physically it is regulated by the rapidity of movement of
the organs of speech. Sometimes one speaks more rap-
idly than his average, or normal rate, and sometimes
more slowlv.
370 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
2. Psycliological Basis. — These changes in rate have a
mental origin. One cannot express ideas more quickly
than his mind i^roduces them. Generally speaking, rate
is governed by the rapidity of the speaker's mental oper-
ations. In rapid thinking, the rate is fast ; in slow think-
ing, the rate is retarded. But besides this involuntaiy
control on rate, the speaker often voluntarily regulates
his rate out of consideration for his audience. If he is
dealing with easy and familiar matter which they can
easily and quickly take in, he permits his rate to become
rapid, but wdien he is attacking a problem which is either
new to them or difficult, he purposely goes slowly. It is
here that inexperienced speakers make mistakes; they
exercise no voluntary control over their rate, but rattle
on or slow up just as they are in easy mental trim them-
selves, or are floundering in difficulties.
3. Application. — Obviously the application will deal
mostly with voluntary regulation of rate. The speaker
must judge his audience beforehand or sense it whih'
speaking, and he should accommodate his rate to their
thinking. On familiar and easy passages, he must not
be slow for that would be boring; but on difficult passages
he must refrain from setting a pace beyond the mental
speed of his hearers. Of course, rules cannot be made
which will cover all situations; the speaker must judge
from signs before him whether he is going at the best
pace or too rapidly or too slowly. But the following-
three rules may safely be offered :
(a) Always begin slowly. The audience has not set-
th'd down, the place is not as quiet as it will be later,
and the speaker has not accommodated his voice to the
room. Besides these physical <lraw})acks, there is the
mental obstacle of scattered attcidioii; tlie listeners have
not settled down to concentrate on the speech. For all
these reasons it is best to retard the i-ate at the beginning.
Example. Kead the following op(niing of "Webster's
THE EXPRESSIVE VOICE Ml
Tu'ply to Hayiio, to a friend. First read it at normal rate
or more rapidh^; tlien read it slowly. Question liini con-
cerning the effects.
Mr. President, when the mariner has been tossed for many
days, in thick weather, and on an unknown sea, he naturally
avails himself of the tirst pause in the storm, the earliest glance
of the sun, to take his latitude and ascertain how far the ele-
ments have driven him from his true course. Let us imitate this
prudence, and, before we float further on the waves of this debate,
refer to the point from which we departed, that we may at least
be able to conjecture where we now are. I ask for a reading
of the resolution.
(The resolution on the sale of public lands was read.)
We have thus heard what the resolution is, which is actually
before us for consideration ; and it will readily occur to everyone
that it is almost the only subject about which something has not
been said in the speech, running through two days, by which the
Senate has been entertained by the gentleman from South Caro-
lina. Eveiy topic in the wide range of our public affairs, whether
past or present — everything, general or local, whether belonging
to national politics or party politics, seems to have attracted
more or less of the honorable member's attention, save only the
resolution before the Senate. He has spoken about everything
except the public lands. They have escaped his notice. To
that subject, in all his excursions, he has not paid even the cold
respect of a passing glance.
(b) Retard the rate tvhen many details or clear images
must he imparted. This is common in descriptive pas-
sages.
Exam pie. Read the folloAving passage first at normal
or rapid rate and then at slow rate and note the gain in
vividness.
The palaces and domes of Carthage were burning with the
splendors of noon, and the blue waves of her harbor were rolling
and gleaming in the gorgeous sunlight. An attentive ear could
catch a low munnur. sounding from the center of the city, which
seemed like the moaning of the wind before a tempest. And well
it might. The whole people of Carthage, .startled, astounded by
the report that Regulus had returned, were pouring, a mighty
tide, into the great square before the Senate House. There were
mothers in that throng whose captive sons were groaning in
372 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Roman fetters, maidens whose lovers were dying in the distant
dnngeons of Rome, gray haired men and matrons, whom Roman
steel had made childless ; and with wild voices, cursing and
groaning, the vast throng gave vent to the rage, the hate, the
anguish of long years.
(c) When the matter is unfamilmr and difficult, requir-
ing much parallel thought, make the delivery slow. For
good examples, read again the judge's charge to a jury on
page 220 of Lesson 12, and the selections on pages 55,
56, and 57 of Lesson 4.
Most speakers have the fault of using too rapid a rate.
To overcome such a fault, attend well to all that you
deliver; treat nothing in a perfunctory manner. Then,
when you find yourself hurrying along, consciously put
a restraint on the speed.
Nervous people and those of eager temperament are
most prone to the fault of excessive speed in delivery.
Take stock of yourself and note the way your tempera-
ment affects your delivery. Cultivate a smooth, mod-
el ate rate.
4. Pauses. — In connection with rate, we may well
consider pauses. They are important in expression. We
may disting-uish two kinds of pauses, the logical and the
dramatic. Logical pauses are tlie frequent short stops
which mark off Avords in logical thought groups.. Note
the marking of the following passage into logical thought
groups.
We all, / with e(|ual sincerity, / profess to he anxious / for the-
estahlishment of a repuhlican government / on a safe and solid
basis. / It is the object of the wishes of every honest man in the
United States, / and / 1 presume I shall not be disbelieved / when
I declare that it is an object, / of all others, / the nearest and
most dear to my OAvn heart. / The means of accomplisliing this
great purpose / become the most important study / which can
interest mankind. / It is our duty / to examine all those means /
with ])eculi}ir attention, / and to choose the best and most effect-
ual. / It is our duty / to draw from nature. / tVom reason, /
THE EXPRESSIVE VOICE 373
from examples, / the jnstest principles of i)oliey, / and to pursue
and apply them / in the formation of our government. /
Alexander Ha mil Ion.
Read it, observing those group pauses. Then mark
it otherwise, as, for instance, making a pause after
''establishment" and leaving out the one after "govern-
ment." Make other similar readjustments and you will
discover that the exact way in which the speaker groups
his w^ofds gives much indication of the way he wants his
message accepted. In actual delivery, the correct group-
ing will take care of itself, if the rate is normal and if the
speaker is really attending to well prepared material.
The dramatic pause is a most effective device for giv-
ing emphasis to a passage. Such a pause made before the
thing to be emphasized, prepares the audience for the
stroke when it comes and raises their anticipation to a
high pitch. The pause after the emphatic passage gives
a moment for reflection, for the thought to penetrate with
undiminished force. Note the following and read it with
an impressive pause where the dash is used.
Of all the social, political and economic disgraces in our coun-
try, the blackest — child labor, is the most inexcusable.
Of all the social, political and economic disgraces in our eoun-
try. the blackest, child labor — is the most inexcusable.
Or even greater effect may be gained by pausing l)oth
l)efore and after the emphasized word "child labor."
If it is not overworked, the speaker can get remark-
able results w^ith the dramatic pause.
3. Force
1. Nature. — From the standpoint of the listener, force
is the loudness of the voice of the speaker. It measures
the distance at which the speech can be heard.
2. Physical Basis. — Physically, the force varies with
374 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
variations in the pressure of the column of air which is
propelled from the lungs during speech, and that pres-
sure depends on the degree of completeness with which
the diaphragm is relaxed and the degree of pressure
exerted by the walls of the abdomen upon it.
3. Psychological Basis of Force Regulation. — A
speaker voluntarily tries to regulate his general force to
the space to be filled by his voice. Involuntarily, he uses
greater force on the Avords or passages which seem of
greater value or importance. This is stress. Of course
some words are deliberately stressed, but most stressing
arises unconsciously simply because the mind is thinking-
out the thought as one of greater importance than others
related to it.
4. Application. — A speaker should practice all degrees
of force so that he can adopt the jDroper force in a large
or small hall, without spoiling the quality of his voice
and without uttering shrill sounds of too high pitch.
This can be done readily enough if, in the practice, the
speaker regulates the pressure from the abdomen and
diaphragm and refrains from allowing his voice to ascend
the scale or change its pitch. Breathe deeply after the
approved manner. (Lesson 7, pages 115 to 122.) Then
as the air is steadily controlled by an even relaxation
of the' diaphragm, speak in a normal quality, full and
round, but quiet in force, as though speaking in a small
parlor. Then increase the pressure of the abdomen on
the slowly relaxing diaphragm and speak louder, as if
in a fair sized hall, without raising the pitch or changing
the normal quality. Continue to increase the loudness by
this method until you are talking as though in a great
theatre. Do not alloir the pitch to rise and preserve th(^
normal quality. Then make variations in force alone by
control from the center. For exercise purposes, take
any passage you may wish. The Webster opening, quoted
in this lesson, will do.
THE EXPRESSIVE VOICE 375
If the speaker can control bis general force in this way,
can secure a full, carrying voice without any element of
shrill calling or strained shouting, he has a most valu-
able possession.
Just as it is w^ell to begin with a rather slow rate, so
it is best to open a speech in a tone slightly below normal
in force. This compels the audience to become quiet
and give its attention promptly. The subdued force and
slow rate should be maintained for a while, and then the
speaker may gradually increase the force until he finds
the best accommodation to the room. The force thus
fixed upon becomes -the normal one for that speech and
variations for emphasis are made above and below it.
It is not only offensive to the audience but wearing on the
speaker to exert more force than the place to be filled
calls for. Just the right force conveys an impression of
self-possession, mastery, and reserve power.
We have remarked that certain passages can be made
more emphatic by delivering them with greater force.
But they can also be made emphatic by a delivery of
impressive, subdued force. Eead the underlined part first
with increased force and then with subdued force.
But I say to you, The judgments of the Lord are true and
rii^hteous altogether.
This device of lowering the voice is often very effective.
It is useful not only to emphasize a passage but also to
secure attention when a murmur is heard in the audience.
The sudden quiet attracts attention and stops annoyances.
4. Pitch
1. Nature. — By pitch we mean that characteristic of
a sound which places it high or low on the musical scale.
Of course the words high and low" are figurative. We
might just as well say shrill and sober.
876 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
2. Physical Basis. — The pitch of a sound is deter-
mined by the rapidity with which the puffs of air from the
lungs escape through the lips of the vocal cords. The
pitch of a siren whistle depends upon the number of puff's
of air which escape through its tube each second. Here
the principle is the same. But the mechanism which reg-
ulates the speed with which these vocal lips close and open
and thus let the puffs through, is very intricate. There
are many little muscles which draw the vocal cords tense
so that they move rapidly, or relax them so that the move-
ment is slow. Furthermore the cords are controlled so
that they come only partly together or wholly so, so that
they move part of their length or their entire length. All
these things control the nature and speed of the escaping
puffs and determine the pitch of the resulting sound. A
speaker need not think of this mechanism at all ; it takes
care of itself. He simply thinks of the sound he is to
produce, and the mind, giving the order, sets the mech-
anism in operation with absolute precision. In most
cases, all the speaker need do is to think his ideas and
not even have his mind on the sound.
3. Psycliological Basis. — Changes in pitch, known as
inflections, take place naturally as ideas form themselves
in definite relations to each other and to the receiving
audience. Thus when one idea is more important than
another and is to receive stress on the word that repre-
sents it, there is a natural rise in pitch preceding the
stress and a recovery afterward. When a logical pause
is reached and the thought is not completed but needs one
or more such word-groups to complete it, the voice nat-
urally makes a slight upward bend in pitch. Thus you
say, '*As Webster addressed the audience " and the
voice goes up, indicating that the relation of what shall
be said to what has been said is that of something neces-
sary to complete its sense. The fall shows completed
sense and takes place naturally at the end of the state-
THE EXPRESSIVE VOICE 377
ment of a complete idea, When the attitude toward the
audience is one of interrogation, tlie voice slides up or
down in pitch to indicate to them the notion that an
answer of this or that sort is wanted. Note the upward
slide in "Are we to stand idly by in this crisis?" and the
downward slide in "Who is so base as would be a bond-
man ? ' '
4. Application. — All the inflections take care of them-
selves if the speaker is well prepared in his thought. In
the paragraph above we have not enumerated all the
various inflections known to technical elocution, but we
have given enough to show that inflections flow naturally
from the relationship which the ideas about to be ex-
pressed hold in the mind of the speaker. His attention
should not be on inflections ; it should be on ideas.
But one may well look carefully to the normal pitch of
his voice. Inflections are variations above or below the
normal pitch or average key in which a man speaks. It
is wise to cultivate a fairly low pitch. If the speaker has
learned how to breathe correctly and he is calm and self-
possessed during delivery, it is very probable that his
pitch will be low. By this we do not mean to advise the
assumption of a ponderous double bass. We merely wish
to warn against the irritating high pitch with which many
speakers annoy their auditors. Listen carefully to your
voice and determine if it has a good middle pitch. If it
is too shrill, practice for a lower pitch. The higher the
pitch, the more tension on the vocal cords and the sooner
the voice gives out; the lower the pitch, the greater the
relief and possibility of sustained effort.
Some speakers, especially those of the cart-tail variety,
have an annoying habit of finishing every impressive
statement with rising inflection. It is a sort of challenge,
defying contradiction. Eead these words with a strong
upward inflection on the last and you will get our idea :
"This candidate is the greatest patriot of the age!"
378 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Of course the sense calls for a downward inflection. If
you have fallen into any such spell-binding vices, elimi-
nate them as soon as possible,
5. Conclusion
If the speaker masters breathing and control and then
practices for various modulations in quality, force, pitch,
and rate, he will develop a wonderful instrument for
expression, a sympathetic musical accompaniment for the
words which symbolize his thoughts. The expressive
voice adds much to the bare vocabulary and logic of the
speaker.
We no longer recommend that speeches which are
expected to do real work should be memorized. But we
do believe that it is well to memorize and practice the
declamation of passages from the works of great orators
as an exercise in modulation. Take impressive selections
and deliver them as an actor would, giving every ounce
of meaning to the passage that your voice can contrib-
ute. Take argumentative passages, which require care-
ful inflection, emotional passages which call out many dif-
ferent qualities, earnest passages which call for varying
degrees of force. In short, the practicing of matter
already composed, with the purpose in view of making the
most of them vocally, is a good exercise to give you easy
control over all the powers of your voice. It also removes
the restraint which keeps many speakers from showing
their real feelings in their voices. We recommend there-
fore declamation for practice, and in actual delivery,
attention to thoroughly prepared thought and earnestness
of purpose.
THE EXPRESF^IVE VOICE 379
Assignment op Work
TIk' Avrittfu exercises in this entire lesson slimild bo
ciuciully worked out. Keep copies of tlie written exer-
cises in vour notebook.
Firsit Day. — Road the less^on through twice and review thoroughly
Lesson 7.
Second Day. — Read some book of oratorical selections and pick
out one which appeals to you and which has quite a range
of feeling. Then copy it and make an emotion analysis
similar to the one we have made for the Lincoln's Second
Inaugural. Then practice reading with the proper cjuality
changes. Keep your mind primarily on the thought and
feeling so that the quality is the natural result of your
emotion.
Third Day. — Take another selection and mark in the margin
the proper rates. Thus use the degrees normal rate, slow
rate, very slow ; fast rate, very fast. The idea is to indi-
cate what you think would be desirable rate modulations
to make in consideration of the audience. Append a note
describing the kind of audience to which you imagine the
speech is delivered. If you can prepare an original speech,
so much the better.
Fourth Day. — Practice the exercise on degrees of force. Make
up a short announcement and deliver it first to ten imag-
inary people, then to fifty, to two hundred, to a thousand,
to two thousand. This exercise should be practiced very
often.
Fifih Day. — 'Make a complete analysis of your own voice and
vocal habits, noting faults. ]\Iake notes after the following
items :
1. Quality— flexibility
2. Force (a) Normal
(b) Flexibility
(c) Control
8. Pitch (a) Normal key, high or low
(b) Flexibility
4. Rate (a) Normal, how many words a minute, av-
erage
(b) Ability to accommodate
5. Special faults or peculiarities
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for tne student to use in testing-
his knowledge of the principles m this lesson. They
aie suggest ire merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. What is meant by elocution? Is the study of elocution
of any value to the i)i"actical public speaker? Why?
2. In what respt^cts can the speaking voice be modified?
What is the purpose or function of these modulations?
;i Can you gi^■e a detinition of quality ? Of human quality?
Of individual quality .' Of special, emotion quality ?
4. What is the physical basis of quality? Which of the two
kinds of resonation walls plays the larger part in (juality changes?
5. Explain why a change in quality expresses a change in
emotion.
6. Do you believe that the emotion analysis of the Lincoln
selection is correct ? What modifications or additions could you
make ?
7. What is the best way for a speaker to control his quality
during delivery ? Should he think about quality ?
8. What are the two sources of rate control?
!). Can you give the three rules selected as important in rela-
tion to rate control?
10. What are the two kinds of pauses;' Where dn the logical
pauses take place?
n. Of what value is the dramatic pause?
12. What is meant by general force? What is the most com-
mon speaking fault connected with force? I low can it be
cured ?
LS. Can you get emphasis by reduced force? Is it wise to
do so sometimes?
14. What is the nalure of inflection? Can inflections be con-
sciously controlled ?
IT). Whv is it well lo have a faii-lv low. nornuil, or average
pilch.'
:^'0
LESSON 21
GESTURES
In the last lesson, we spoke of the expressive voice
and its contributions to the message of the speaker. The
effects of well-selected words were considered as supple-
mented by the modulations of the voice. But besides this
appeal which the speaker makes to the ear of the audi-
ence, he also makes an appeal to the eye by his bodily
attitudes, his gestures, and the expressions of his face.
It is the appeal to the eye which we shall discuss in this
lesson. The expressiveness of bodily postures and move-
ments must not be overlooked, for much meaning is added
to the message by them. Indeed, a single flash of the
eye, a turn of the hand, a forward swing of the body,
may say more than all the words in an entire address.
1. Causes of Gestures
Broadly speaking, gestures may be divided into two
great groups according to tlie causes which start them.
There may be an involuntaiy, natural impulse or there
may be a voluntary and deliberate desire to use a ges-
ture to supplement words. Let us explain first the invol-
untary gesture which almost always expresses feeling
and not intellectual discernment.
We have said that a feeling of any sort, and especially
a sudden emotion, consists not only of a mental state,
but also of a complete adjustment of the physical organ-
ism. In anger there are the changed circulation and
breathing and the tenseness of the muscles. Any move-
381
382 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
ment made at that time will show the existing muscular
tenseness and express the inward state of the maker of it.
The physical adjustment peculiar to an emotion influ-
ences the character of any posture and movement at the
time the emotion is experienced.
Then there are reactions which are natural to certain
situations and which have been handed down through
the ages. When aggressively angry we thrust out the
chin, draw back the lips, and throw the body forAvard.
This was the threatening attitude which our prehistoric
ancestor presented to his foe. When we feel in the same
way, even though we are not preparing for a physical
encounter, we assume the same attitude. It is a reflex
or habitual response which goes with the situation. Wlien
a disagreeable odor is near, the edges of the nostrils
draw up. When w^e are experiencing the emotion of
resentment or offense, the nose is turned up also. Conse-
quently it is clear that there is a deep biological and
psychological basis for involuntary gestures, for the atti-
tudes which we promptly and unconsciously take when
the mind is assailed with certain thoughts with strong
feeling associations. These gestures show themselves
promptly just as quality changes of the voice do, and they
are also almost entirely out of the control of the speaker.
On the other hand, the voluntary gestures are made
deliberately because the speaker considers that they will
help him express his ideas. Thus one says, ''The box
Avas about so long and so wide," holding his hands apart
the appropriate distances. One might say, sweeping his
hand before him, ''There stretched the vast prairie as
far as the eye could see." He deliberately makes the
gesture to enforce the idea of expanse and to cause the
picture to arise more vividly. But even many of these
gestures are made without previous intent on the part
of the speaker; they simply take place as he utters the
words in harmony with them. Consequently wo can say
GESTURES 383
that by far the greater number of gestures are made
without conscious direction and come into existence as
certain ideas and feelings flood the mind of the speaker.
This is an important thing to know, because it will
enable us to view the study and practice of gestures in
a sensible light. From it we gather that the study of a
system of gestures is not of value to enable a speaker to
make a gesture deliberately (though it does serve this
purpose for the actor), but it is valuable (1) because it
affords an orderly and well arranged group of exercises,
(2) because the movements made consciously in the exer-
cise may become a part of the speaker's expressional
equipment and take place spontaneously during delivery,
and (3) because it will offer a systematic basis for the
criticism of other speakers. But before we take up the
significance of particular gestures, it will be well to out-
line some general exercises to give readiness and grace
of movement.
2. General Principles and Exercises
The first principle to note is that wdien a gesture is
made, there is a combined and harmonious movement of
the whole body, the arm, and the hand. The contribu-
tions of all these three are most evident in large, sweep-
ing gestures, but they exist in varying degrees and
proportions in all gestures. To make this clear and also
to afford a helpful exercise we recommend the use of
Indian clubs.
Observe the diagram, which gives five simple move-
ments to be tried separately at first and then in various
combinations. If you have no clubs, you can make the
movements with the free, open hand. In that case, the
palm should be open and flexible and there should be an
easy give in both wrist and fingers. Indeed, after prac-
ticing with the clubs, the free hand exercise should be
used as a transition to gesture execution.
384
EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Fig-. 1.
Exercise A. Stretching the hand up as far as possible,
describe a giant circle with the shoulder as the center.
Notice the slight sway or accommodation of the body.
Notice also the flexible give of the wrist. The weight of
the club makes these things not only evident but inevit-
able. Practice without the club and get the same sym-
pathetic sway of the body and turn of the wrist. Do not
stiffen the fingers but keep them fairly limp. Now do the
exercise with both arms at the same time, first with both
hands crossing in front together, then timed so that while
one hand is stretched out to the side the otluM- is ci-ossiug
in front. The arms then pass the face alternately. In
connection with gesture work, the movcmcnis should
always be in the directions indicated by the arrows.
Never reverse.
E.rercise B. St retell tlie hand up as far as possible
obli(|uely as though the man in the diagi'am were ti-ying
GESTURES 385
to touch the letter B. Then with the elbow as the center
make a movement of the hand that describes what is
roughly a circle. Notice the accommodating motion of
the shoulder and upper arm as well as the sw^ay of the
body. The last is less in this exercise than in Exercise A.
Practice with and without clubs, with one hand and with
both as in Exercise A. Observe the greater finger and
wrist flexibility needed here.
Exercise C. Begin by stretching the hand out to the
side at the level of the waist. Describe the ellipse. No-
tice that both shoulder and elbow come into equal play.
The sway of the body is slight and there is some wrist
and finger flexibility.
Exercise D. This is the most valuable of all, for it
calls for shoulder and elbow rotation and movement in
all parts of the arm as well as a high degree of flexibility
in wrist and fingers. Notice how the back of the wrist
seems to lead the way in the movement and see that the
hand on the return movement, down and toward the
body, seems to float palm down, while on the outward
sweep it is palm up. Yet each position of hand and
fingers melts almost imperceptibly int'o the next.
Exercise E is similar to D, but it is in the lofty plane
and calls for even greater hand and wrist freedom, with
less elbow and shoulder action. It is the t^^aical
''hurrah" gesture.
As soon a« the student gets a sense of whole bodily
cooperation and flexibility, the clubs should be used less
and less and the free hand movements resorted to more
and more. It will be observed that we cannot call a
movement wholly hand, or wholly forearm, or full arm;
one may predominate, but a gesture is an integral part
of an entire body change and attitude.
Having cared for the larger aspects, we may give a
little more detailed consideration to the hand. First
consider the supine hand, witli palm up (see figure 2). A
386
EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
— Supine Hand.
gesture terminating with the pahn in this position is
called a supine gesture. Observe that the thumb is fairly
free of the palm though not
sticking out at right angles.
The fingers fall naturally as
illustrated, being neither
spread wide apart nor stuck
rigidly together. Certainly the
palm is not stiff. The whole
appearance is of ease and flexibility with no suggestion
of cramp or stiffness.
Some students have a tendency to stiffen the palm,
cup the palm, spread the fingers, stick out the thumb too
far, or turn the thumb in. The following exercise is
designed to overcome such defects and cause the hand
to fall in the proper disposition at the stroke of a
gesture :
Exercise F. Hold the hand before you, with back of
the wrist up and the finger drooping limply (figure 3).
Then wring vigorously as though to flick
off water. Continue this for some time
and then terminate it by having the hand
fall in the supine position. Then practice
a number of gestures calling for the supine
hand, with appropriate words such as:
I — I present you with tMs.
II — That is all the information I have.
Ill — Behold, how simple.
{Nute — Gesture on word in italics.)
After this, repeat exercise I) with particular attention
upon the supine hnnd at tlu' part of the curve farthest
from the body.
If the free movements and the supine hand position,
practiced for in exercises A, B, C, D, E, and F, are per-
fected, other movements and liand ])Ositions, to be
GESTURES 387
described later, will in most cases take care of them-
selves.
3. Significance of Gesture
There are many systems which are supposed to give an
orderly explanation of the meaning of this or that ges-
ture. Most of them are suggestive rather than scientific.
Our abstract is based on the system devised by Austin,
and published in his Chironomia in 1806.
1. Law of Particularity. A gesture directly in front
indicates a single particular thing; one slightly to the
side (oblique) takes in several; one on the side (lateral)
includes very many. Or in general, front gestures are
most particular while lateral gestures are most general.
Those made obliquely backward refer to what is remote
in time or space.
Illustration: Say
I — ^'I appeal to you, sir," making a horizontal
gesture in the front plane (h. o., see figure 4) with
hand supine.
II — I appeal to these gentlemen (gesture hori-
zontal oblique).
Ill — I appeal to the whole world (gesture hori-
zontal lateral).
IV — I appeal to the history of the past (gesture
horizontal, oblique backward).
This law holds for ascending and descending as well
as horizontal gestures. Using the descending gesture
(first bringing the hand up in the oblique plane to the
level of the chest in each case and then making it descend
smartly to the place noted, with hand supine) practice
these three examples to indicate the law that the more
particular the thought, the more the gesture verges to
the front plane :
388
EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPExVKING
a. f. ^ascending- front, a. o. -ascending oblique, a. 1. =ascending lateral,
h. f. = horizontal front, h. o. = horizontal oblique, h. l.=:horizontal lateral.
a. t. — descending front, d. o.=desce7iding oblique. 6. \.= descending lateral.
Gesture can also be made oblique backward at all levels.
I — I stand on this sinf/lc principle (descending-
front) .
II — I stand on tltrsc. principles (descending ob-
lique).
Ill — I stand on all the principles of law and justice
(descending lateral with sweep throiigliout the words
preceding latr).
2. Law of the Planes. The ascending plane is said to
be the plane of the spirit, the horizontal plane that of
the mind, and the descending thai of ihc hod//. Aspira-
GESTURES ;389
tions, hopes, ideals, and all lofty things take the upper
plane; rational and rhetorical utterances take the hori-
zontal; and physical, active, and colloquial matters go
below. Strong assertions tend to have descending-
gestures because there is associated a potentiality of
physical enforcement. Some writers have said that all
assertions take descending gestures, but this is not
universally true; there is merely a tendency in that
direction, for often we find assertions accompanied by
other gestures, such as horizontal front with index finger.
Examples:
I — We are guided by a single, altruistic ideal
(lofty and particular, takes ascending front).
II — My reason approves this measure ; let me offer
it to you for your judgment (rational and particular,
takes horizontal front; repeat gesture in this illus-
tration).
Ill — To do this is customary (colloquial and par-
ticular, takes descending front). If it is a simple
colloquial matter, make gesture gently; if a strong-
assertion, make it vigorously.
This last may take horizontal front if, in saying
the words, you are appealing for judicious agree-
ment. It may take the ascending front if you have
in mind something sacred or deserving of reverence
in the custom.
Examples of assertions in descending plane. Vigorous
physical action possibilities present.
I — I denounce the agreement (descending front).
II — I reject the proposals (descending oblique).
Ill — I despise them all (descending- lateral).
IV — I cast them all into utter oblivion (descend-
ing oblique back).
Now it is evident that the planes horizontal to the floor
and those perpendicular to the floor give, at their points
390 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
of intersection, tlie names of the gesture, since they
designate the place where the hand comes to restj- Thus
the front plane is intersected by the ascending to give
ascending front, by the horizontal to give horizontal
front, and by the descending to give descending front.
Thus we have a total of twelve positions for the right
hand. We have a similar twelve for the left and the
possibility of another twelve where the hands are used
together in two-handed gestures.
4. The Making of a Gestuke
Thus far we have discussed the significance of gestures
when made, but now we must go into the details of each
movement. The hand does not shoot out abruptly to the
desired place. There is a preparatory movement, then
the execution which terminates in a stroke or ictus, and
finally, the return movement.
Assume the normal position in action (see page 109,
Lesson 7) with the two hands hanging naturally at ease
by the sides.
(a) The Preparatory Movement consists in bringing
the hand (palm down) up to about the level of the chest,
in the oblique plane. As it rises, the palm slowly turns,
so that at the point of rest the palm faces toward the left
and the back of the hand to the right.
(b) The Execution of a descending front gesture car-
ries the hand smartly downward, the palm turning more
upward as it descends. It arrives at the point, descend-
ing front.
(c) Ictus. At the moment it reaches that point, the
fingers, which have been curled in somewhat, snap out
to the true supine position (see figure 2). This stroke or
ictus takes place on the accented syllable of the empha-
sized word. It gives character and force to the gesture.
(d) The Beturn is a recovery to the position of rest.
GESTURES 391
The executionary movement for all gestures begins
where the preparatory movement ends and carries the
hand down, out, or up to the desired position. But the
two movements are continuous ; that is, except in special
cases where there is arrested preparation. In the hori-
zontal lateral, for instance, the hand does not rise directly
to that place, but passes, in x^reparation, through hori-
zontal oblique.
Now, before a mirror, practice all the twelve positions
enumerated on page 388, making the preparation through
horizontal oblique.
Remember the snap of wrist and fingers (ictus), whicli
terminates the gesture at the j^roper place.
3. Law of Force. Some gestures are forceful and
some weak, to indicate energetic or mild mental attitudes.
The law is as follows : Gestures are forceful in propor-
tion to the distance through which they pass, the speed
of their execution, and the muscular tension involved in
their delivery,
(a) Distance. This means great preparation up to the
usual point, chest high, just described, or even higher.
Make the assertion
''I will never submit,"
with descending front gesture.
Now make it most energetically bringing the hand in
preparation, on the words I will, well above the head.
This insures a greater distance of executio-nary move-
ment.
(b) Speed. Note how the speed increases with added
vehemence.
(e) Tension. Observe the tenseness of your forearm,
in particular as the ictus is given, and also note that the
whole body is, to a certain extent, tense also, in sympathy.
By way of contrast, with the same descending front
destination of the hand, say
■ ''Isuhmit.''
392 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Note that the preparation is almost notliing; there is a
slow movement and muscular laxity. Indeed the gesture
consists of little more than a slow, nerveless turn of the
hand. Bodily laxness is such as to give even a slight
bend at the hips.
Now practice all the gestures in the series, with the
right hand, varying the distance of preparation, the speed
of execution and the muscular tension. Practice before
the mirror and observe effects. Remember that the
whole body must sway with the gesture. Read once more
pages 107 to 111 of Lesson 7.
TWO HAXDS
Gestures are made by the right hand as a rule if the
speaker is right handed. Occasionally the left is used
to refer to something on that side or to give variety and
contrast. But sometimes a two handed gesture is needed.
Two hands do not give greater intensity, they rather
give greater warmth. Ilhey add affection, whole-hearted-
ness, and tenderness. Give these two examples :
I — I u-flcome you, sir, to this hall (right hand hori-
zontal, front).
II— I welcome you with affection to this hall (both
hands horizontal front).
Now repeat either example with both hands horizontal
oblique, then both hands horizontal lateral. Observe as
the arms are flung wider apart the welcome is warmer
and more whole-hearted.
TIAXD DISPOSITIONS.
Thus far we have spoken only of (a) the supine hand
(figure 2), but the hand may be disposed in other ways
than this.
GESTURES
893
(b) The Prone Hand (fii^ui'c
5) is the opposite of the supiiio.
The supine is communicative,
the prone repressive.
Exam pies:
Prone Hand.
I — Speak forth freely (supine, horizontal front).
II — Keep silent (prone, horizontal front).
The supine hand is cheerful, the prone gloomy.
Examples:
I — Behold the happy day (both hands, liorizontal
lateral supine).
II — How sad these autumn woods (both hands,
horizontal lateral prone).
The supine permits, the prone refuses ; the supine im-
pels, the prone compels ; the supine is genial, the prone is
severe. Of course all ideas of physical or figurative cov-
ering or concealing, take prone gestures in appropriate
planes.
(c) The Vertieal Hand indicates aversion, repulsion,
abhorrence.
Examples:
I — Forbid it. Almighty God (ascend-
ing front vertical).
II — Out of my sight, rascal (hori-
zontal oblique vertical).
Ill — Dismiss such absurd ideas
(both hands, horizontal oblique
vertical).
(d) The Clinehed Fist indicates agres-
siveness, force, vehemence, and resolve. In
descending gestures of assertion, it is stronger than the
supine hand because of its own significance and also
because it involves more muscular tension.
394 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
(e) The Index Finger designates or points out witli
discrimination either physical things or mental things.
Examples:
I — Tluit is the man (horizontal lateral index).
II — Observe this point in the argument (hori-
zontal front index).
There are many other dispositions of the hand, such
as hands clasped, hands applied as in prayer, hands
folded, and arms folded, the discussion of which is in the
dramatic field rather than the o-ratorical. Obviously ges-
tures which are pure imitation or mimicry follow the
laws of no system.
5. Gestures ix Continuous Delivery
We have, so far, been practicing isolated gestures. In
actual delivery, they melt one into the other impercep-
tibly in certain passages, and in others they occur only
at long intervals. Much advice has been offered for and
against many gestures. As a matter of fact, no set rule
is trustworthy. What is true of one individual is not
true of another in effective, unaffected delivery, and what
is proper for a certain kind of passage would not do at
all for one of opposite nature. If you are naturally ani-
mated, buoyant, and full of bodily energy, you will have
more violent outward manifestations of emotional states
and your gestures will be more marked and more numer-
ous than if you are more restrained. A similar comment
holds for different passages by the same speaker. Sim-
ply be natural and let the gestures take care of them-
selves. Let the practice make its impress on your
general, bodily flexibility, but do not consciously follow
any rule of gesture during delivery.
In practicing a series of gestures, it is not always
necessary to have a recovery for each and a full ])repai'a-
GESTUREH 895
tion for its successor, Tlie preparation of the gestures
of a series, other than the first, springs right from tlie
ictus place of its predecessor. Thus, saying "I admired
his virtue, mercy, and charity, ^^ one makes horizontal
front for virtue, horizontal oblique for mercy, and hori-
zontal lateral for charity, and the preparatory motion of
the second and third are simply
slight curves accomplished by the
wrist (see figure 7).
The same principle would hold
if the second and third gestures
were entirely unlike the first.
Take the following passage call-
ing first for horizontal oblique,
from which a small preparatory ^ .\l:est
movement is made in transition ^'^- '•
to the second executionary movement to ascending
lateral :
''I place these things before you and may the Gods
(prep.) . .hor. obi sustain . slight prep asc. lat.
inspire your choice. ' '
Very often it is not desirable to make two or more
gestures or even to repeat a single one, for the repeated
emphasis may be cared for by what is known as an
impulse or the mere repetition of the ictus. • For instance,
in the sentence, ''I admired his virtue, mercy, and char-
ity," one could make the horizontal oblique gesture on
the first word and merely repeat the ictus on the other
two. Furthermore such a sentence can be cared for by
a single gesture sweeping, in execution, through the three
words to horizontal lateral with its ictus on the last of
them. In each case, though, there is a different meaning-
conveyed. The three separate gestures give the notion
of three distinct and separate virtues; the ictus repeti-
tion merely repeats stress with a less complete demarca-
396 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
tion of tlie kinds of excellence, while the single sweeping
gesture groups them all as parts of a single admirable
character.
6. Platform Conduct
While addressing the audience, do not keep your face
directed toward one spot only; talk to various parts of
the hall. In directing your remarks here and then there,
do not simply turn the head but turn the hips so that the
rotating motion starts from the ankles and carries the
shoulders with it. Of course this rotation does not take
place if you are moving about at the time.
This brings us to walking on the platform. Do this as
freely as you like so long as you do not abuse the j^ractice
and attract unfavorable notice to yourself by the amount
or nature of your pacing back and forth. Never turn
your back to the audience. In walking be economical
with your leg movements — that is, make only necessary
movements to cover a given space. Do not cross the
leg one in front of the other. In short, do not attract
attention to your walk; the audience is there to attend
to your thought.
7. COxNCLUSION
Practice all the gestures, in all postures — first quietly
in the normal position with weight on left foot ; then in
animation, balancing the weight on the forward, right
foot (see Lesson 7), and in all variations of foot position
and balance. Forward gestures should not cause you to
topy)le over or even reach out and stretch awkwardly.
Do all you can to master various gestures in different
attitudes and keep constantly at the fundamental exer-
cises, A, B, C, D, E, and F of this lesson. It will make
you more graceful and enable your body to speak in har-
monv with vour tongue. Then during deliverv, forget
GESTURES 397
all about these things, and ])ay attoiitioii to yonr message
and your audience.
ASSKJN.MENT OF WORK
The written exercises in tliis entire lesson should bo
carefully worked out. K.'ep copies of tlie written exer-
cises in vour notebook.
First Day. — Review Lesson 7 and then read this lesson two
or three times. Answer the test questions.
S(co)td Day. — Practice exercises A, B, C, and D until they are
well mastered. Practice before a mirror and as you do so
keep in mind what was said on page 385 about the coml)ined
movement of the whole body.
Third Day. — Continue the other exorcises and take up P] and F.
Be sure of your hand flexibility. Then add the following
exercise :
Exercise G. Stand in the position taken by a fencer just
before he makes a thrust. This is firmly on both feet with a
distance of about twenty-four inches between them. Then
make a forward thrust, keeping the left hand by the trouser
leg and using the right hand as follows : — Describe the fig-
ure 8 as in exercise D, only time the thrust so that if
comes when the hand is farthest from the body. This is
a .sort of thrust with a flourish. Continue this with varying
degrees of forward plunge. It is a good exercise in balance.^
Fourth Day. — Practice all the examples given under the three
laws and make up as many more examples of your own.
Also practice with the dispositions of the hands other than
supine.
Fifth Day. — Take a selection from one of the great orators and
write it out with a good space between the lines. Then
under the words which would naturally be delivered with a
gesture, mark, in red ink, the gesture you think appropriate.
I'se the designations used in this lesson ; for example, r. h.,
hor. lat. sup. means right hand, horizontal lateral supine.
Think out whether an involuntary impulse due to settled
reflex or emotion would take place here or there, or whether
a deliberate gesture would be made. Determine whether a
series would be used, repetition or impulse. Send this in.
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
his knowledge of the principles in tliis lesson. They
are sug-f/efitive merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the pinnciples, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. What is meant by appeal to the ear and appeal to the
eye ?
2. Give the two general causes of gesture and the two sub-
divisions of the more primitive cause. Do animals gesticulate ?
3. What is the most general principle of motion in all ges-
tures ? Can we distinguish various body parts with the different
prominence in each gesture? Does the whole body enter into
every gesture ?
4. Can you do exercise A easily ? What muscles seem
most exercised by it? Do we ever make gestures of this sort,
or is the exercise of indirect benefit only?
5. Do you see any progressive plan of assistance in the work
of exercises A, B, C, D, and E ? What is the element of increas-
ing help?
6. What about the wrist movement and hand flexibility in
these gestures? What about the co-operation of body, whole arm.
forearm, wrist, and hand?
7. Do you make the supine gestures easily Avith the hand
])roperly disposed ? Have you any hand difficulty ? Does exer-
cise F seem to help ?
Always prac-
tice before a mirror.
8. Name the twelve positions, using the intersection of the
three horizontal planes with the four vertical as a means of
designation.
9. Give the law of particularity.
10. Give the law of planes.
11. Give the law of force. Can you, from these three laws,
construct a fairly comprehensive system of gestures?
12. What are the parts of a gesture? Whicli part will give
the gesture precision if properly timed?
13. What is the significance of two-handed gestui-es as dis-
tinguished from the one-handed?
14. Contrast the supine and the projie hand.
15. What is the significance of the vertical liand .' Of the
index finger? Of the clenched fist?
16. In continuous delivery, does every gestiuv have a full
preparation? What is the best procedure?
17. Can you give a brief sunnnary of good i)Ia1f()nn conduct?
3!)8
LESSON 22
HYGIENE FOR PUBLIC SPEAKERS
The subject of liygiene embraces all the means which
appertain to the preservation of health. Practical
hygiene uses every agency that will maintain the effi-
ciency of the body, w^ard off disease, and prevent dete-
rioration. It stops only at the threshold of medicine and
surgery. Hygiene is thus of interest to everyone, but
especially to the speaker, whose effectiveness depends
very directly upon his physical welfare. -But each calling
has dangers peculiar to itself. The miner who goes into
the depths of earth takes precaution against noxious
gases while the farmer on the prairie wears high leather
boots as a protection against the fangs of rattlesnakes.
The voice-user also has peculiar dangers against which he
must guard. We shall discuss aspects of general hygiene
which are of interest to the speaker, and also 'special
hygiene peculiar to him alone.
1. Mental Hygiene
All of us are affected in the production of ideas by our
habits of mind, so that any one line of thinking persisted
in influences all others. It is impossible for a man to
live continually in a realm of noble thought without
approaching each problem in a noble manner. On the
other hand, base thoughts color, and are reflected in,
whatever is expressed. Every man should be guided by
these truths and inhilnt at the outset undesirable tenden-
cies of the mind and stimulate activities in worthy
directions.
399
400 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
The public speaker must be more watchful of liis
mind's cleanliness and health than others, for his speech
will reveal what is often concealed by men of other call-
ings. Not only is it true that no speaker can put into his
speech what is not in his soul, but it is also true that he
cannot keep his soul out of his speech.
Cheerfulness is also necessary. Do not worry or let
irritable spells hold sway. Concentrate on each task
mental and physical; finish it, and then drop it entirely
when the next one comes up. Do not brood over one
thing when the mind should be occupied with another,
resting, or engaged in recreation.
Mental rest is as important as bodily rest. Do not
stick to work of preparation or research when you are
''stale." The I'esult will not pay you. Furthermore, do
not continue preparing, reading, and fixing outlines in
the mind up to the last minute before speaking. It is
better to stop work and take a walk or drive. Get out
in the fresh air and let the mind quietly assimilate what-
ever study has brought to it, even if the study is not so
complete as you could desire. The speech will be better
than one for which you have crammed up to the moment
of delivery.
2. General Physical Hygiene
Because we discussed mental hygiene in a section by
itself we do not mean to imply that mind and body are
separate, but rather that the subject-matter of the mind
may he considered separately. The vigor and energy
of mental operations depend directly on the health of the
body. Therefore the ability of a speaker to work up to
his best intellectual standard is partly, at least, deter-
mined by his licaltli.
Then also the insti-ument through which a s])('aker
communicates is his bodv. That bodv nnist l)e in n'ood
HYGIENE 401
t'oiuUtion or it cannot adequately convey the thoughts of
the mind. One who is ill or physically weary shows his
weakness in his listless voice. Tones produced through
a sore throat or by vocal cords abused by misuse in
strained breath control, cause the audience to suffer in
sympathy with the speaker. Many things affect the
voice. Reserving disease for a brief remark (as befits
one not a physician, speaking to laymen), we shall con-
sider digestion, clothing, rest, breathing and phonation,
bathing, stimulants, mouth prophylaxis, and the speak-
er's habits.
3. Digestion
The problem of nutrition and digestion is an individual
one. Each must determine for himself what his system
needs and what he can digest. If the self-made rules are
violated, or if for some other reason indigestion takes
place, a man's speaking ability will surely be impaired.
The uncomfortable feeling at the pit of the stomach
keeps the mind annoyed while the distension of the organ
itself interferes with breathing. By all means watch
your digestion and, at the first signs of trouble, consult
a physician or administer your own home remedies. Do
not continue eating with utter disregard for consequences
which your experience tells you are sure to follow.
Even when the digestion is good, do not eat large
meals before speaking, and when possible let a period of
time elapse between the meal and the speech. Just after
a meal, the stomach is fullest and the lung capacity least.
Then also the action of the diaphragm is hampered, and
the smallest movement causes distress. The blood is
down below and not up at the throat and brain.
We recollect a trip with a college debating team to a
distant university. Just before the debate, the hosts
invited the guests to a good dinner, but the faculty
402 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
advisor was strict in the limits of consumption he
placed upon the hungry heroes of the forum. He also
banned French fried potatoes and insisted on the more
digestible baked form. Every speaker is not accom-
panied at all times by a faculty advisor, but he would
do well to follow the kind of suggestions given to the
college boys. As an important speech approaches, eat
sparingly, even of nutritious and easily digested food. If
you are to speak after a dinner, do not indulge in all the
courses. Eemember that the ideal for singers is to put
four hours between the last meal and a performance ; the
ideal for a speaker calls for a two-hour interval. If you
cannot live up to the ideal, approach it as nearly as you
can.
4. Clothing
A discussion of clothing may well have many subdivi-
sions, but the hygienic aspects are two, namely, the influ-
ence of clothing on bodily temperature and its influence
on the circulation of the blood. It is difficult to say
whether an individual should dress heavily or lightly.
If begun early in life, it is best to wear very little clothing
and make a minimum difference between summer weight
and winter weight. This brings about hardiness and
resistance to colds — the great bugaboo of speakers. Yet
like diet, it is an individual matter. One thing, however,
is certain, the body should not be subjected to extremes
of temperature by sudd(Mi changes in clothing of varying
weight and cut.
A speaker wearing an overcoat and entering a warm
hall should remove tlie coat on entering. Similarly, after
an address, when the throat has been exercised, be care-
ful to protect it from sudden change when leaving the
building. Especially at night, in the open air, protect
the throat and chest.
HYGIENE 403
Conceiniiii*,' constriction we can say that the clothing
at no part of the body should be so tiglit as to interfere
wit] I tlie superficial circulation or the mechanism of
breathing. Obviously the lacing of women violates both
these rules. Men usually dress so that the abdomen and
lower chest are free and the diajjhragm can do full, pow-
erful duty. The point of compression in their dress is
usually at the throat. Stand-up collars are bad. They
not only interfere with the circulation and delay the vital-
izing of the tissues in the capillaries, but they annoy the
speaker and hamper phonation. Turn-down collars suffi-
ciently large are better. With full dress, a fairly open
and amply large standing collar is a good compromise.
In connection with this topic, we may warn the speaker
against constriction which results from bending the head
to read notes on a table or reader's desk. Such bending,
with its accompanying compression at the throat, inter-
feres with the circulation and is hard on the breathing.
If notes must be consulted, they should be held where
they can be easily seen without bending the head. If
physical conditions on the platform are such that some
bending is unavoidable, bend from the Avaist so that the
posture of the torso is kept correct as described in Les-
son 7. There are not only hygienic advantages to be
derived from following this advice, but aesthetic gains
as well.
5. Rest
The speaker must have plenty of rest. Both his body
and his mind must come refreshed to his task. There
are men who seem to work incessantly, but they are pay-
ing for it in some way. Best results cannot be obtained
by working continuously without rest. On this point,
Bishop Buckley said, ''AVhen an important address is to
be delivered, the orator should begin the special care of
his body at least twenty-four hours before the time.
404 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Henry Ward Beeclier, addressing the Clerical Union of
Brookljai, stated that this was his invariable practice,
and that, though he had a powerful constitution, he made
it a point to eat less and rest more as Sunday approached.
On his lecture tours he was in the habit of taking a short
nap just before going on the platform."
Similar to rest, in its effect, is plenty of fresh air.
It is the custom of many clergymen to prepare their
sermons during the early part of the week, to spend all
Saturday afternoon in the open air, and on Sunday to
rest, except when in the pulpit. This is an excellent
s-cheduie, for it suspends concentration on the speech
some time before delivery, it gives the body the benefit
of outdoor exercise, and it brings needed rest.
Long walks are good for the public speaker. They
afford a fine opportunity to meditate, to obtain the sanest
views of his subject, and at the same time to exercise in
the open air. However, long walks that tire should not
immediately precede a speech.
At night the window should be thrown wide open, so
that plenty of fresh air can come into the bed-room. The
body should l^e covered enough to prevent ill effects from
cold.
(). Breathing and Phonation
If the breathing is poorly controlled, ill effects will
follow. The tones produced will be bad and the vocal
cords as well as the pharynx may suffer from congestion.
It is very important that the breathing exercises sug-
gested in Lesson 7 be completely mastered. Indeed, good
deep breathing will not only prevent voice and other ail-
ments but may help to cure them when they exist.
In producing tones, the vocal cords should be used
for sound production and nothing else. They nuist not
be employed as trap doors to regulate the emission of
HYGIENE 405
Mir. From the wind pipe up, all tiie agencies of speech
sliould be flexible and relaxed. If a feeling of constric-
tion is experienced in the throat, the tone is being badly
produced and the vocal cords abused. Relax immediately
and keep the mind on the diaphragm. That is where
the effort should be concentrated. As the air comes up
against the cords they should move freely and lightly to
produce the vocal murmur of varying pitches. Persist-
ence in incorrect phonation means the destruction of the
speaker's voice.
When the throat is tired, stop talking. Fatigue is the
warning, and to refuse to heed it means punishment.
When there is inflammation of the throat or larynx, do
not talk. Consult a doctor and rest until the speaking-
apparatus is normal again. If you must deliver a speech
with the throat in bad condition, a good temporary help
will be a gargle of luke-warm water w4th equal parts, of
powdered alum and salt. Dissolve in a tumbler of water
as much of each as could be put on a dime. The taste
of this mixture is bad, but it will give temporary relief,
until the speech is ended and you can get to a physician.
There should be no unnecessary straining of the vocal
cords by shouting, cheering, and prolonged singing.
Often there is temptation to join in rollicking songs,
where all sing at the top of the voice. This may be fun,
but it is a kind of fun which the singer must forego. Con-
gregational singing is usually bad in proportion to the
enthusiasm of those who join in. If the speaker is also
a trained singer and thoroughly understands the use of
the singing voice, he can use his own judgment with good
effect.
7. Bathing
The speaker should keep his skin in good condition by
frequent baths. Warm baths with the proper precautions
against cold are necessary to cleanse the pores. After
406 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
each bath and every morning the speaker should sponge
the throat and chest with cold water. It is well to use
salt in this and in such cold plunges as may be desired
from time to time. A cold plunge every morning is excel-
lent if you can stand it. Remember though, it is more
valuable for its tonic effects than for its cleansing-
properties.
8. Drinking and Smoking
The speaker should neither drink alcoholic liquors nor
smoke. Though this is well known, but few live in
accordance with these suggestions. Alcoholic drinks are
bad for the system and especially bad for the throat with
its delicate mucous membrane. Whoever uses them must
understand that for the pleasure he gets from the indul-
gence he will pay in well being. Just before speaking,
such drinking is especially bad. It is injurious to the
physical mechanism of speech and even the apparent
mental stimulation is of an undesirable kind. One so
stimulated may acquire a sort of false brilliancy, but he
loses more in judgment.
The drinking of tea and coffee is a dietary question
wliicli must be settled by the individual. Both beverages
are mild stimulants which can be endured by some but
not by others.
Smoking is bad for the speaker. It has a tendency to
parch the throat and also to act unfavorably on the nerv-
ous system and the vocal cords. Particularly bad is the
smoking of cigars, x^ipes, and cigarettes after the west-
ern fashion. The eastern w^orshipper of Lady Nicotine
wisely filters his hot smoke through water. Further-
more, he uses mild tobacco. .A speaker who enjoys smok-
ing and who simply refuses to give up the practice might
do well to buy a Turkish hookah. This style of pipe
reduces the evils of smoking to a minimum.
HYGIENE 407
We may consider here the traditional pitcher of ice
water on the speaker's stand. It ought to be abolished;
more harm than good is done by the "sip of cold water."
The throat in action should not receive a dash of cold
water. If there is congestion, as indicated by the hot
and parched feeling, the cold douche will simply insure
greater congestion when the reaction follows its appli-
cation.
To insure against dry mouth and throat, many things
have been suggested. Possibly the chew^ing of slippery
elm will do some good; it can do no harm. Most pre-
pared lozenges are bad for the stomach. A good demul-
cent to sip can be made with a little tragacanth g-um in
water. But if this be used, take it before beginning to
speak. It is a descent from the sublime to the ridiculous
for a speaker to stop in the middle of his address to take
a drink.
9. MoUTII HVGIENE
The mouth should be kept as aseptic and clean as
possible. Peroxide of hydrogen diluted with water is
good to use as a gargle and a mouth wash. The follow-
ing advice given by Doctor Mills in his book on A^oice
Production (page 262) may also be followed.
As the speaker and singer must often practice their art in an
atmosphere that is far from pure, they will do well to carry out
in a routine war some sort of mouth toilet on their return
home and the next morning. Various simple mouth and throat
washes may be used, such as (1) water with a little common
salt dissolved in it (2) water containing a few drops of carbolic
acid — just enough to be distinctly tasted; (3) Avater containing
listerine; (4) either of the last two with the addition of a pinch
of bicarbonate of soda to a teacupful of the Huid. when there is
a tendency to catarrh.
Of course the teeth should be brushed after each meal,
before retiring and on getting up in the morning. Then
also the speaker ^liould go once each year to the dentist
408 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
to have his teeth examined. A little work done by the
dentist in time will save a great deal of trouble later.
All this care of the teeth and mouth is most necessary,
for bacteria multiply rapidly, and affections of the
mouth, tonsils, and throat have a powerful effect upon
the speaking' voice.
10. The Speaker's Habits
The instrument of the public speaker is his body. He
should take the greatest care of it possible. To keep in
the necessary robust health his habits should be regular.
He should follow the old rule of "earlj^ to bed and early
to rise." We all know the story of how Ben Franklin,
when being entertained by the most distinguished peo-
ple of France, at the proper time each evening, would
rise and excuse himself saying, ''It is now my usual hour
to retire." While such independence is not always tact-
ful or possible, an approximation to Franklin's regu-
larity in early sleep is desirable.
Regularity and simplicity in eating should also charac-
terize the speaker. In short, a simple, honest, uncrowded
life should be his if he is to keep in perfect condition.
This entails the sacrifice of many pleasures and indul-
gences, but the reward is worth the sacrifice.
.Assignment of Work
I'lic written exercises in tliis entire lesson should be
careful ly worked out. Keeji copies of tlie written exer-
cises ill voiir notebook.
First Day. — Read the lesson through twleo and then test
yourself with the (luestions. Have you. in the past, violated
an.y of the rules of hygiene given in this lesson ? Are thei-e
any with whieh you do not agree?
Second Day. — Study the lesson again carefully, making a
tabulated summary of the advice given. Then make out a
weekly schedule for a speaker, assuming that he is to begin
HYGIENE 409
preparing the speech on Simday and delivef it the follow-
ing Saturday. Assume that he is employed from eight to
four thirty every week day excei:)t Saturday, when he stops
at twelve o 'clock. ]\Iake out the daily schedule, from rising
to retiring, in great detail, even to the Innishing of the teeth.
Third Day.— Go back to Lesson 7 and practice all the breathing
exercises most carefully. Then combine the deep rhythmic
breathing with exercises A, B, C, D, and E of the last lesson.
Fourth Day. — Take the outline of a speech which j^ou have pre-
pared and go for a long walk. While walking, develop the
speech several times, talking silently. This is a good ex-
ercise in preparation for a speech provided it is not done
innnediately before the delivery in public. You will notice
that the throat is a bit tired after this exercise just as
though you had been actually speaking. That is one of the
reasons why a walk of this kind should not precede the
address proper.
Fifth Day. — Review once more the Reflection Hour on page 146
of Lesson 8.
TEST QUESTIONS
These questions are for the student to use in testing
his knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They
are suggestive merely, dealing largely Avith the practical
application of the principles, and aic to he placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. What is meant by hygiene, general hygiene, and special
iiygiene ?
2. Give your definition of mental hygiene and tell why the
speaker must give it more than usual care.
3. Is mental hygiene in any Avay related to the physical?
Is physicar welfare related to mental efficiency?
4. Can any general rules of diet he formulated which will
be of service to the speaker?
5. What are the rules concerning quantity of food which
may usually be followed by the speaker?
6. What are the two important things in dress that interest
the speaker?
7. What is to be said about the effect on a speaker of con-
sulting notes on a table or desk?
8. Give the inference you draw from Bishop Buckley's
statement about Beecher. What other thing, besides rest, is' of
importance to keep the speaker fresh and vigorous?
9. Why is it necessary to emphasize the fact that the vocal
cords should be used for the production of sound only?
10. What course should a speaker pursue when he feels
fatigued? What must he do when the throat is sore?
n. Has shouting or singing any bad effect on the speaker's
voice ?
12. Tell the respective uses of the warm bath, the cold bath,
and the cold spray or douche of the chest.
13. AVhat effect have alcoholic drinks on the mind during a
speech if taken immediatelv before? What effect have thev on
the throat?
14. What effect has smoking on the throat of the speaker?
What is the most harmless form of smoking ?
15. What do you think of the "sip of cold water" during the
delivery of an address?
16. Give a brief summary of the various precautions to
keep the mouth clean.
17. Can you give a few harmless mouth washes? Do you
know of others put u]) for commercial i)in'poses and sol<l under
patent names?
18. Give a brief summary of the ideal regulation of the daily
life of a speaker.
410
LESSON 23
PRACTICAL SPEECH DIRECTIONS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
There are many occasions on which one may have to
speak in this or that capacity. While we cannot possibly
list all these, there are certain ones of importance which
may well be selected for treatment. We shall, at first,
treat those speeches connected with mass meetings and
conventions, presenting samples of addresses to be made
when one must act (1) as organizer of a meeting, (2) as
temporary chairman, (3) as the permanent chairman or
spokesman of the meeting. Then we shall take up
speeches from the floor and later the addresses of toast-
master and others at a dinner. Last of all we shall con-
sider the set speeches of the regular "orators" of special
occasions.
Calling a Meeting
Meetings of unorganized bodies or mass meetings of
citizens for discussion, are usually called together by
public notice or general invitation. At the time of meet-
ing, someone interested in the object at hand must take
the initiative in speech. He may do one of two things,
either sketch briefly in an unbiased manner the reason for
the coming together, or simply say, "Will the meeting
please come to order? I shall be pleased to hear nomina-
tions for temporary presiding officer." If those present
are unacquainted and the enterprise is new, tlie introduc-
tory remarks are necessary and may be followed by a
■411
412 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
motion for iioniinatioiis. If those present are acquainted
and the purposes of the gathering fairly well known, the
self-appointed officer will show better taste and tact by
expressing no views. The following is a sample of the
brief explanation to be given when necessary:
Fellow citizens; this meeting' whs called in order that the tax
payers of the community might join in an expression of their
attitude toward the proposed change in the public lighting system.
As you have no doubt heard, the city authorities are planning to
discontinue illumination by gas and install electricity. The tax-
payers are interested because the improvement must be financed
by assessments upon them. It is therefore desirable that we or-
ganize our opinion for presentation at the general hearing on the
subject to be held next :\Ionday at the City Hall. My purpose
is not to go into the details of the initial cost of this new public
work which must be met by us, nor shall I discuss future serv-
ice and running expenses. ]\fy wish is merely to call you together
so that you may discuss these matters as you see fit. jMany here .
have made a study of the details of the proposed system of light-
ing, and we shall be glad to hear from them when the meeting
has been properly organized. ]\Iay I now receive nominations for
the position of temporary president of this gathering!
Duties of the Chairman
If the meeting is an isolated one and there is no expec-
tation of further meetings, the president is not called
temporary president, but simply chairman. When a tem-
porary presiding officer is chosen, it is expected that he
will preside at the first meeting, during which the perma-
nent officers of the organization or convention will be
nominated and elected. After liis election, the temporary
president takes the chair wdthout making a speech. He
then receives nominations for the office of temporary sec-
retary, who will keep a record of the acts of the meeting.
When this officer has been chosen and takes his place,
the meeting is ready to do business.
The secretary reads the call or announcement of the
meeting and the presi<leni then nuikes his address. It
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 413
may be similar to the example already given or it may go
more into detail. It should not be too decided on points
which will be later discussed for settlement by the meet-
ing. It may be decided on the necessity for action of some
sort but it is considered "steam roller" tactics for the
president to dictate precisely what shall be done, from
the chair.
In political gatherings for organization of a movement
and at conventions, the opening address of the president
is often the * ' key-note speech ' ' — the speech which sets the
tone of the meeting and outlines the general aims and
ideals of the gathering. The following is a very brief
sample. In real life, it would be much expanded.
Fellow citizens ; I thank you for the honor conferred upon me
by this election to the position of temporary president of what
may prove to be an epoch-making gathering. "We are here to
voice the sentiments of progressive democracy as against those of
political corruption and vested interest which has no justification
in morals or practical expediency.
Allied with no party and made up of men wlio have in times
past engaged in the activities of different parties, we shall forget
all lines of political cleavage and stand only for the best interests
of this city. We shall be gnicled by no other considerations than
Ihose of fundamental justice and business efficiency. The old-
line parties in national politics have made their nominations for
the coming city elections. Neither presents a candidate whom we
can approve. On the one hand we find named for mayor a man
who made his reputation as an attorney for a corporation, that
corporation became notorious through the corrupt methods it used
to secure a franchise Avhereby it obtained for itself our best strip
of river front land — a pleasant place which should have been
kept as a recreation spot where the poor might find rest and
come in touch with healing Nature, themselves, their children,
and their children's children forever. On the other hand we
have offered for our approval a typical grafting office holder Avho
as public treasurer was involved in contract scandals of the
most flagrant sort. What cares he for the people or the city ? He
owes his allegiance to the machine. His aim will not be efficiency
and the reduction of taxes ; rather will it be tlie placing of the
henchmen of his chief in well-paid city jobs, and tlie granting
of illegal privileges to the chief himself.
414 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
So much for the candidates already in the field. What issues
are presented for consideration 1 None ! Each party attacks the
record of the other and throws mud at the opposing leaders and
candidates. And well they may, for their targets deserve the
shots. But neither supports a single reform, neither proposes
one improvement in administration, neither has a constructive
suggestion to make.
Yet how vast is the field of needed improvements! I shall
mention but a few things in which good citizens should take an
interest and which can be secured by intelligent nomination and
votibg. Our public school system needs reorganization and greater
support. The last new school was built four years ago, 'and the
city population increases steadily at the rate of five per cent a
year. Children are attending part time, there are not enough
sittings, and the teachers are underpaid. Why not eliminate
boodle contracts and give the money saved over to the proper
education of our children ? These fat contracts are another issue.
Our system of bidding and awards should he changed so that
no one can "get on the inside." We should see that the city
truly receives the best service for the least possible cost.
Our civil service is also in need of reform. It was considered a
great victory for honest and efficient government when, twenty
years ago, the Civil Service Bill was passed, — a bill designating
the form of examinations and qualifications for public service
in the various ranks. But our politician friends have got around
the provisions of that act by special rules and exceptions whereby
their own favorites are given favored chances. Furthermore they
have placed most of the important and well-paid positions on
the exempt list and such appointive positions are filled by the
boss. We must stand for efficiency and no favor, top to bottom,
in the civil service. Why not urge the engagement of a city
manager, independent of political parties, and place the whole
mechanism of employment under proper and safe regulations,
in his charge?
Gentlemen, I have said enough to express the spirit of this
meeting. I shall not enlarge upon the wretched condition of our
charities, the corruption in the police department and the ruin-
ous financial policy adopted by the old-line parties in the past.
Others will address you and treat all these topics thoroughly.
No doubt we shall be able to embody our sentiments in appro-
priate resolutions and begin a campaign of civic righteousne.ss.
It is my purpose merely to arouse your sense of public duty.
Let us set aside old prejudices, let us realize that party lines must
not persist in municipal affairs, and let us combine in a non-
partisan effort to secure good government — consciencious and
efficient service from our officials and public improvements for
the taxes we have to pay.
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 415
At a nominating convention, the "key-note speech"
outlines the situation faced by the party and touches on
the general policy to guide the platform construction.
The example just given can be followed in general style,
and with appropriate modifications, in plan.
Order of Business
We shall not go into parliamentary matters, but it may
be of service to a student to know the usual order of busi-
ness in the opening meeting of a convention, the organi-
zation of a movement, or the establishment of a society.
1. Call to order.
2. Election of temporary officers.
3. Beading of the call and temporary president's
opening address.
4. Appointment of committees on credentials and or-
ganization (if necessary).
5. Recess with informal talk while the committees are
deliberating.
6. Reports of committees on credentials and organi-
zation.
7. Election of permanent officers.
8. Installation of permanent officers.
9. Appointment of all committees.
10. Reading of communications.
11. Reports of committees.
12. Business.
13. Nominations and elections (assuming that to be
part of the business of the convention).
14. Adjournment.
CoNVEXTioN Speeches
We have already given examples of nominating
speeches in Lessons 2 and 3, and on page 25 of Lesson
2 is to be found a general type plan of such speeches.
416 . EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Tl i.i or some similar, well-organized plan can be used,
with modifications to suit any. nominating occasion.
Tlie other business of the convention or public meet-
ing, is to settle matters of principle and policy to be em-
bodied in resolutions or a platform. In Lesson 19 we
quoted a speech by Patrick Henry (page 353) exemplify-
ing obstruction methods on the convention floor. The
following speech b}^ Alexander Hamilton, before a similar
convention in New York State to ratify the same Con-
stitution, illustrates floor rebuttal and constructive argu-
ment as well :
Mr. Chairman, the honorable member who spoke yesterday
went into an explanation of a variety of circumstances to prove
the expediency of a change in our national government, and the
necessity of a firm Union ; at the same time he described the great
advantages which this state, in particular, receives from the
Confederacy, and its peculiar weaknesses when abstracted from
the Union. In doing this he advanced a variety of arguments
which deserve serious consideration. Gentlemen have come for-
ward this day to answer him. He has been treated as having
wandered in the flowery fields of fancy, and attempts have been
made to take off from the minds of the committee that sober im-
pression which might be expected from his arguments. I trust,
sir, that observations of this kind are not thrown out to cast a
light air on the important subject, or to give any personal bias on
tlie great question before us. I wall not agree with gentlemen who
trifle with the wealmesses of our country ; nor will I suppose that
they are enumerated to answer a party purpose, and to terrify
with supposed dangers. No; I ])elieve these weaknesses to be
real, and pregnant with destruction. Yet, however w-eak our
country may be, I hope w^e shall never sacrifice our liberties. If,
therefore, on a full and candid discussion, the proposed system
shall appear to have that tendency, let us reject it ! P>ut let us
not mistake words for things, nor accept doubtful surmises as th(^
evidence of truth. Let us consider the Constitution calmly and
dispassionately, and attend to those things only which merit con-
sideration.
No arguments drawn from embarrassment or inconvenience
ought to prevail upon us to adopt a system of government radic-
ally bad; yet it is proper that these arguments, among others,
should be brought to view. In doing tliis. yesterday, it was
necessary to reflect njum our situation : to dwell upon the im-
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 417
beeility of our Union ; and to consider whether we, as a state,
eould stand alone.
Although I am persuaded that this convention will be resolved
not to adopt anything that is bad, yet I think every prudent
man will consider the merits of the plan in connection with the
circumstances of our country ; and that a rejection of the Con-
stitution may involve most fa>tal consequences. I make these
remarks to show that though we ought not to be actuated by un-
reasonable fear, yet we ought to be prudent.
Sir, it appears to me extraordinary that while gentlemen in
one breath acknowledge that the old Confederation requires
many material amendments, they should, in the next, deny that
its defects have been the cause of our political weakness and the
consequent calamities of our country. I cannot but infer from
this that there is still some lurking favorite imagination that
this s.ystem, with corrections, might become a safe and permanent
one. It is proper that we should examine this matter. We con-
tend that the radical vice in the old Confederation is that the
laws of the Union apply to the states only in their corporate
eapacit.y. Has not every man who has been in our legislature
experienced the truth of this position? It is inseparable from
the disposition of bodies who have a constitutional power of
resistance, to examine the merits of a law. This has ever been
the case with the federal requisitions. In this examination, not
being furnished with those lights which directed the deliberations
of the general government, and incapable of embracing the gen-
eral interests of the Union, the states have almost uniformly
weighed them by their own local interests; and have executed
them only so far as answered their particular convenience or
advantage. Hence there has ever been thirteen ditferent bodies
to judge of the measures of Congress, and the operations of the
government have been distracted by their taking different
courses. Those which were to be benefited, have complied with
the requisitions ; others have totally disregarded them. Have
not all of us been witnesses to the unhappy embarrassments
which resulted from these proceedings? Even during the late
Avar, while the pressure of common danger connected strongly
the bond of our union, and excited us to vigorous exertions, we
have felt many distressing effects of the impotent system. How
have we seen this state, though most exposed to the calamities
of the war, complying, in an unexampled manner, with the fed-
eral requisitions, and compelled by the delinquency of others to
bear most unusual burdens! Of this truth we have -the most
solemn evidence on our records. In 1779 and 1780 when the
state, from the ravages of war, and from her great exertions to
resist them, became weak, distr'^ssed, and forlorn, every man
avowed the principle we now contend for; that our misfortunes,
418 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING'
in a great degree, proceeded from the want of vigor, in the Con-
tinental government. These were our sentiments when we did
not speeulat^e, but feel. We saw our weakness, and found our-
selves its victims. Let us reflect that this may again, in all prolv
ability, he our situation. This is a weak state, and its relative
station is dangerous. Your capital is accessible by land, and by
sea it is exposed to every daring invader; and on the northwest
you are open to the inroads of a powerful foreign nation. Indeed
this state, from its situation, will, in time of war, probably be
the theatre of its operations.
Gentlemen have said that the noneomxDliance of the states has
been occasioned by their sufferings. That may in part be true.
But has this state been delinquent? Amidst all our distresses,
u-e have fully complied. If New York could wholly comply with
the requisitions, is it not to be supposed that the other' states
could in part comply ? Certainly every state in the I'nion might
have executed them in the same degree. But New Hampshire,
who has not suffered at -all, is totally delinquent. North Carolina
is totally delinquent. Many others have contributed in very
small proportion; Pennsylvania and New York are the only
states which have perfectly discharged their federal duty.
From the delinquency of those states which have suffered little
by the war, we naturally conclude that they have made no
efforts ; and a knowledge of human nature will teach us that their
ease and security have been the principal cause of their want of
exertion. While danger is distant its impression is weak, and
wiiile it aff'ects only our neighbors, we have few motives to pro-
vide against it. Sir, if we have national objects to pursue, we
must have national revenues. If you make, requisitions and they
are not complied with, what is to be done? It has been well
observed that to coerce the state is one of the maddest projects
that was ever devised. A failure of compliance will never be con-
fined to a single state ; this being the case, can we suppose it to
be wise to hazard a civil war? Suppose IMassachusetts or any
other large state should refuse, and Congress should attempt to
compel them; would they not have influence to procure assist-
ance, especially from those states who are in the same .situation
as themselves.? What a picture does this idea present to our
view! A complying state at war with a noncomplying state;
Congress niarching the troops ol' one state into the bosom of
another; this state collecting auxiliaries and forming perha])s a
ma^iority against its federal head. Here is a nation at war willi
itself! A government that can exist only by the sword! Every
such war must involve the innocent with the gnilty. This .single
cojisideration should be snfTicient to dispose every peaceable citi-
zen against sucli a government.
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 419
But can we believe that any state will ever suffer itself to be
used as an instrument of coercion against another? It is a
dream; it is impossible. AVe are brought to this dilemma: either
a federal standing army is to enforce the requisitions, or the fed-
eral Treasury is left without supplies, and the government with-
out support. What is the cure for this great evil ? Nothing, but
to enable the national laws to operate on individuals in the same
manner as those of the state do.
What shall we do ? Shall we take the old Confederation as the
basis of the new system ? Can this be the object of gentlemen ?
Certainly not. Will any man who entertains a wish for the
safety of his country trust the sword and the purse to a single
Assembly, organized on principles so defective? Though we
might give to such a government certain powers with safety, yet
to give them the full and unlimited powers of taxation and the
national forces, would be to establish a despotism, the definition
of which is, a government in which all power is concentrated in
a single body. To take the old Confederation and fashion it upon
these principles would be establishing a power which would
destroy the liberties of the people. These considerations show
clearly that a government totally different must be instituted.
They had weight in the Convention which formed the new sys-
tem. It was seen that the necessary powers were too great to
be trusted to a single body ; they therefore formed two branches
and divided the powers, that each might be a check upon the
other. This was the result of their wisdom ; and I presume that
every reasonable man will agree with it. The more this subject
is explained, the more clear and convincing it will appear to
every member of this bod.y. The fundamental principle of the
old Confederation is defective. We must totally eradicate and
discard this principle before we can expect an efficient gov-
ernment.
This was one of a series of Hamilton's addresses which
secured the adoption of the Constitution by the New
York Convention. When the first test came, the dele-
gates stood forty-six to nineteen against ratification;
after Hamilton's efforts the Constitution was adopted by
a majority of three votes. Observe the following features
of this piece of floor eloquence :
1. Hamilton conserves all the ground gained by his
colleagues by means of terse summary and favorable
recapitulation (paragraph ]).
120 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
2. He nullifies the work of the opponents without giv-
ing- offense (paragTapli 1, middle).
o. He brings the question clearly before the conven-
tion in a frank and unbiased manner (paragraph 1, the
end).
4. He brings up the issue of New York standing alone
(paragraph 2).
This is a good beginning with the particnhir audience
addressed.
5. He expresses confidence in the judgment of the
body if only it Avill pi'operly consider the matter at hand
(paragraph 3).
6. His arguments in the remaining paragraphs are
clear, and each i^oint is supported by reference to what
actually took place. He is careful to draw illustrations
to the credit of New York. He does not assail the state ;
he assails only the old system.
7. He concludes with a strong summary and appeal
for the now inevitable new system which he advocates.
The kind of argument which he used is excellent when-
ever one is to advocate a change or reform. First show,
that the old is faulty or inaxlequate; then that a remedy
is essential; and then that the proposed remedy over-
comes the old defects and has none of its own. If the
attack on the old can be so managed as to make the new
the inevitable kind of reform, the speech is likely to be
successful.
Speeches from the floor of a convention or general
meeting should be dignified Imt not ponderous, keen but
not acrimonious, dealing in principles and not personali-
ties. The student will do well to go over this speech by
Hamilton many times with these general ideals in mind.
Perhaps a careful not(>book summary ml,i.dit be wortli
while. This might inchide (1) ]K)ints mentioned above,
(2) an analysi>< of the audience, and (;>) a statement
of the conditions of the speech as the occasion and the
purpose.
SPECIAL OC(L\SIOXS 421
Refutation
Before leaving convention methods, we may speak of
tlie attention which one should pay to the arguments of
an opponent and the form of refutation in reply. One
of th€ greatest parliamentary speakers the world has
known was Charles James Fox, the English statesman.
It is said that he could listen to an address by a member
of the other side and retain perfectly every point made.
His pet ruse in debate was to restate his opponent's argu-
ments in better form and clearer arrangement than the
original presentation; then when they were before the
house in their greatest weight, he would proceed to tear
them to pieces. To approach such a performance should
be the aim of every speaker who wishes to break a lance
in convention or cross swords in deliberative bodies. The
accomplishment is useful not only in large gatherings but
also in committees and small groups such as arbitration
boards and boards of trustees.
How shall the speaker school himself to grasp • and
retain the case presented by his antagonist in all its
details? We suggest that he make a practice, in the
beginning, of taking analytical notes, using the regular
blank form of brief described in Lesson 15. For instance,
you have before you a sheet of paper ruled with a broad
column to the left for opinions or inferences, another
broad column in the center for facts, and a narrow column
to the right for sources. If the opponent advances an
opinion, note it in the first column. If he supports it by
minor ideas, note them, properly indented, under the
first. If he gives facts for support, put them down in
the proper place, and so on until you build up a com-
plete brief of his speech as he proceeds. A little practice
will give you great skill in terse expression and in select-
ing the heart of the message and separating it from the
amplification. Keep this style of note-taking up for a
4L>2 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
while and you will soon be able to make a mental brief
and retain the essential matter.
If you intend to say something in refutation, it is well
to restate the opponent's case clearly at the outset. This
brings it once more before the audience and gives point
to your reply. When refuting, it is well to have a
systematic plan of attack. The following is offered as a
general mode, portions to be used according to the situa-
tion faced. Of course the language will be modified.
1. Even if the two reasons given by Mr. A — were con-
ceded to be true, it would not necessarily follow that his
conclusion to etc. — Avould be accepted; because
2. We^ cannot accept Mr. A's conclusion because we
do not accept his premises or reasons. The first, namely,
, etc., cannot be accepted because ; and
so on.
3. We cannot agree with Mr. A's opinion because no
reason has been advanced to support it. Then either
demand further support or bring forth your own facts
and arguments to destroy the original assertion's
validity.
If you have briefed the other man's address, you are
in possession of a logical war map and know precisely
wiiere the vulnerable spots are, w^aiting for your attack.
Sometimes it is advisable to evade or let pass what an
opponent says and simply try to offset the genera]
impression made. In such a case, simply keep your larger
object in view and work toward it.
In all discussions, observe parliamentary courtesy. Do
not refer to an opponent as "he," but rather, "Mr. So
and So," or "The gentlemen who just spoke," or some
such phrase. Even harsh criticism should be impersonal
and be couched in parliamentary language. We quote a
famous ])a) Tmmcntai-y retort to an unparliamentary
atlack.
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 423
Henry Grattan's Reply to Mr. Corry in the Irish
Parliament, 1800
Has the gentleman done ; has he completely done ? He was
unparliamentary from the beginning to the end of his speech.
There was scarce a word he uttered that was not a violation of
the privileges of the house. But I did not call him to order.
Why ? Because the limited talents of some men render it impos-
sible for them to be severe without becoming unparliamentary.
But before I sit down. I shall show^ him how to be severe and
parliamentary at the same time.
On any other occasion I should think myself justified in treat-
ing with silent contempt anything which might fall from the lips
of that honorable member. But there are times when the insig-
nificance of the accuser is lost in the magnitude of the accusa-
tion. I know the difficulty the honorable gentleman labored
under when he attacked me, conscious that, on a comparative
view of our characters, public and private, there is nothing he
could say Avhich would injure me. The public would not believe
the charge. I despise the falsehood. If such a charge were made
by an honest man, I would answer it in the manner I shall use
before I sit down. But I shall first reply to it, when not made by
an honest man.
The right honorable gentleman has called me "an unimpeached
traitor." I ask why not "traitor," imqualified by an epithet.
I will tell him ; it was because he durst not. It was the act of a
coward who raises his arm to strike but has not the courage to
give the blow. I will not call him villain, because it would be
unparliamentary, and he is a privy counselor. I will not call
him fool, because he happens to be Chancellor of the Exchequer.
But I say he is one who abused the privilege of Parliament, and
freedom of debate, by uttering language which, if spoken out of
the House, I should answer only with a blow. I care not how
high his situation, how low his character, how contemptible his
speech ; whether a privy counselor or a parasite — my answer
would be a blow.
He has charged me with being connected with the rebels. The
charge is utterly, totally, and meanly false. Does the honorable
gentleman rely on the report of the Plouse of Lords for the
foundation for his assertion? If he does, I can prove to the
committee that there was a phj'sical impossibility of that report
l)eing true. But I scorn to answer any man for my conduct,
whether he be a political coxcomb, or whether he brought himself
into power by a false glare of courage or not.
I have returned, — not, as the right honorable member has said,
to raise another storm, — I liave returned to discharge an honor-
424 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
able debt of gratitude to my country that conferred a great
reward for past services, which, I am proud to say, Avas not
greater than my desert. I have returned to protect that Consti-
tution of Mhieh I was the parent and founder, from the assassi-
nation of such men as the right honorable gentleman and his
unworthy associates. They are corrupt, they are seditious, and
they at this very moment are in a conspiracy against their coun-
try, I have returned to refute a libel as false as it is malicious,
given to the public under the appellation of a report of the com-
mittee of the Lords. Here I stand ready for impeachment or
trial. I dare accusation. I defy the honorable gentleman ; I
defy the government ; I defy their whole phalanx ; let them
come forth. I tell the ministers, I will neither give quarter nor
take it. I am here to lay the shattered remains of my constitu-
tion on the floor of this House, in defence of the liberties of my
country.
Of course, provocation must go pretty far before a
speech such as the one just given should be uttered. Yet
there are times, in political gatherings especially, when
just that thing is needed. A few years ago, Senator
McCarren of Brooklyn made a bitter attack on Charles
F. Murphy, Leader of Tammany Hall, in the Democratic
Convention. All remember some of the bitter speeches
delivered in the Republican Convention of 1912, held in
Chicago, which resulted in Roosevelt's withdrawal from
the party. It is Avhen such occasions arise that the
student will profit by the example just offered for study.
No branch of public speaking is more interesting than
the convention and legislative field. The student should
perfect himself in the methods — equip himself for such
frays. To succeed here one must be well-informed, quiclv:
of analysis, ready in speech, and fearless of heart.
Assignment of Work
'I 111- writli'ii exercises in tliis entire lesson slioiild 1)0
ciUetuliy wurkeil out. Keep eopies of tile written e\er-
eises in yuiir notebook.
First Day. — Read the lesson tlirough at least Iwirc. Tlicn answer
the test questions.
SPECIAL OCXWSIOXS , 425
Second Day. — Outline and deliver a short announcement si)eeoh
for one of the following oeeasions:
1. fleeting to organize the workmen in an unorganized
branch of industry.
2. Meeting of citizens to agitate for local option in li(|uor
matters.
3. IMeeting to organize a social club or some society for
a special i)urpose.
Third Bay. — Plan fully and then write out a" key-note speecli"
for a convention of any sort you may select.
Fouvtli Bay. — Make an analytical brief of the Hamilton speech.
Fifth Bay. — Plan and write a complete rebuttal of the Hamilton
speech. If you wish to analyze and refute some other speech
of which you have a copy, that will do just as well.
TEST QUESTIONS
Theso questions arc for tlie student to use in testing
his knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They
are siKjfiestire merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. Name four kinds of speeches wliieli might reasonably bo
(•..})eeted during the organization and conduct of a convention.
2. What are the essential features of the explanatory address
of one who calls a meeting to take up some new matter ?
3. What is meant by "steam-roller tactics"? What do you
tliink of such tactics?
■1. Give the essential features of a typical ' ' key-note speech. ' '
5. How could the one given be improved ? Has it any glar-
ing faults of style, or is the style goocl and clear?
6. Give the order of business of a convention or organizing
meeting.
7. What do ,you think of Hamilton's style? How does it
compare with that of Patrick Henry? Which man shows the
greater intellectual force? If either were to be accused of being
a demagogue, which would be so designated tirst?
8. What should be the characteristics of a speech from the
floor of a convention ?
9. What is the ideal equipment and method of one who
would enter floor debate ?
10. What relation does a brief bear to the analytical notes
of an opponent's address?
11. Can you give a good systematic scheme of refutation?
12. What was said about parliamentary courtesy ? Have you
ever heard a speaker who lost ground simply because of his lack
of courtesy ?
13. How do you like the style of Grattan's speech? Would
you call it weighty or brilliant?
14. Is his own speech in good taste throughout? What parts
sound too egotistic? How could the speech have been improved
wilhoiil sacrificing llic biting effectiveness?
426
LESSON 24
PRACTICAL SPEECH DIRECTIONS (Continued)
The Chairman of Occasion
Often there are speech occasions when many addresses
are made and a chairman presides over all. We have in
mind dedicatory services, the laying of corner stones,
commemorative gatherings, commencement exercises,
and, above all, banquets. Of first interest are the duties of
the chairman, or, as he is called at dinners, the toast-
master. He is master of ceremonies ; he must preserve the
tone of the meeting and see that the program is carried
out smoothly. His speaking consists of an address at the
ix'ginning, short introductions to the other speeches, and
sometimes comments at their conclusion.
Opening Address
The opening talk by the chairman or address of wel-
come should as a rule be very brief. There are, to be
sure, times when this introductory address has impor-
tance in itself, either because of a stand to be taken by
the presiding officer or because of some special feature
of the occasion which gives him and his message peculiar
weight. But when he is simply the master of ceremonies,
his address is merely introductory and should in no way
compete with the set speeches. The following are sug-
gested as proper, typical features for such an address.
1. It should set the tone of the gathering. If the
occasion is a solemn one, the speech should give that tone;
427
428 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
if it be convivial, tlie speech slioukl be jovial; if it be a
l)i-isk business meeting, the speech may be snappy.
2. It may refer to (a) the general purpose of the
organization, (b) the special reason for the gathering,
(c) the personal attitude of the speaker himself to either
of these or some special i^hase. This last, however, must
be indulged in sparingly and with entire good taste.
3. It may welcome those present explicitly or implic-
itly to participate appropriately in the ceremonies.
4. It should launch the meeting by introducing the
first speaker or by ushering in Avhatever else the program
calls for first.
At the connnemorative services conducted by the Sen-
ators and Representatives of Massachusetts in honor of
Charles Sumner, the following introductory address was
given by the Honorable Alexander H. Bullock :
In the train of those paying mournful tribute to Charles
Sumner, most fit is the presence of the Legishiture of ]\Iassa-
chusetts. By their act, twenty-four years ago, the gate was
opened through which he passed to the Senate of the United
States for life. And now, after this lapse of time and the close
of his career, the Government and the people of this Common-
wealth contemplate with just and solemn satisfaction the con-
tribution they then made to the higher sphere of statesmanship.
They recall his first appearance there, seemingly lost amidst a
majority who were tlie emliodiment and type of ideals so mucli
less heroic and elevated than his own ; with what masterly
unreserve he began and continued his great mission, disguising
nothing, sweeping in his perspective many of the vast results
which have .since been attained ; how he lived to see his grand
central aspirations realized, his main purposes accomplished, at
his death leaving as a truth, never before so well illustrated at
the Capital, that the character of statesman and senator derives
added strengtli and lustre from tlie character of scholar and
philanthropist, liberator and reformer.
At the moment of the greatest triumph of Wilberfoi'ce, on
the passage of his bill al)olishing the slave trade, Sir Samuel
Romilly, amid the ringing acclamations of the House of Com-
mons, called upon the younger members to observe how superioi-
were the rewards of virtue to all the vulgar conceptions of
ambition. In the houi- of the greatest triumph of Sunnier — the
THE CIIAIRIMAN OF OCCASION 429
hour of his deatli — ;i like culnionition arose from his vacant chair,
calling" upon American i)ublic life to mark the lofty exemplar,
l)y whom, amid abounding corruption, comparative poverty had
been held as honor; to whom artifice and intrigue had been an
abhorrence; w^ho, in the long practice of official transactions and
official manners, had never acquired an official heart ; who had
guarded his conscience against every assault, and always kept
that vessel pure ; upon whose headstone the whole Republic
inscribes for its souvenauee, "Incorruptible and Unapproach-
able."
With one mind the Senators and Representatives of INIassa-
chusetts, successors to those who, nearly a quarter of a century
since, sent him forth with the seal of his great commission, are
present by these fine and august ceremonies to deliver him over
to history. In selecting their orator for this tender office, they
could not fail to call for him who best would give voice to their
eulogy. As our lamented Senator was a master in all the art
of letters, it is fitting that he should be embalmed by the art of
another and similar master and personal friend. I introduce to
you Mr. George William Curtis.
Study this example carefully and notice the way the
tone of the meeting is established. Observe how fitting
the ideas are to the occasion. Also note the adaptation
to the special audience, as well as the appropriate intro-
duction of him who was to make the long eulogistic
oration.
The opening speech of a toastmaster at a dinner con-
forms to the plan just described for general occasions.
But of all opening speeches, it should be — in most cases —
the shortest. Obviously the toastmaster has the guests
at his mercy and he can do as he pleases. Too often we
fear he takes advantage of his position, bores the diners
and irritates the speakers who are to follow. A long-
winded toastmaster is insufferable.
The introduction of each speaker, by the toastmaster,
should be short and it should tend to make the audience
eager to hear the man introduced. Here it is appropriate
to refer appreciatively to (1) some general trait of the
speaker, of a distinguishing character, (2) some particu-
lar attainment, or (3) the value and interest of wdiat he
430 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
lias to say. Often these things are conveyed by means
of an anecdote, story, or fable. Observe how the refer-
ence was made in the introduction of George AVilliani
Curtis, at the end of the last example.
The following is an introduction that was used at a
dinner of a department of a large corporation:
Gentlemen, somewhere in Greek mythology, we read of an
individual who carried a new-born calf to the barn. And every
day, he made it a practice to lift the calf, always managing to
hold up the gradually increasing weight. The strength of the
lifter grew with the calf's growth, and when it was a full grown
bull, the master could raise it clear off the ground. Five j^ears
ago our contract department was born and it was lifted and
carried by one man. Now it is the largest of its kind in the
state ; Mr. Brown, the manager, w'ill speak to us and possibly give
the secret of strength which enables him to conduct so effieiently
and alone the work which had its small beginnings under his
care : JMr. Brown.
The complimentary introduction should not be too ful-
some in its praise and gratifying reference ; to exceed the
bounds of good taste gives evidence here of insincerity.
Extravagant and insincere praise before others partakes
of the nature of an insulting imposition ; it is as though
the toastmaster were having fun at the expense of his
speaker. This remark applies also to the comment whicli
the toastmaster sometimes makes at the conclusion of an
address.
After-Dinner Speech
The dinner speech projjer now receives our attention.
It is an established feature of civilized life and all speak-
ers should acquire some facility in this form of address.
The occasion is a convivial one, though not necessarily
frivolous. The whole tone is one of tolerance and good
nature. If a speaker has some vigorous contention to
make, the dinner, as a rule, is not the place to nudve it.
THE CHAIRMAN OF OCCASION 431
The speeches sliould be addresses calculated to cliarm and
give i^leasure.
This i^leasure may ])e of the intellectual sort which
comes I'rom hearing a lofty theme treated in a sympa-
thetic and artistic manner. It may be rollicking good
humor or it may be (luiet fun through an appreciation
of a dry but kindly criticism of life. But whatever it is,
it has no element of contention. It is customary for a
speaker at such a dinner to ascertain beforehand just
the sort of people he is to address and who the other
speakers will be. If among the other speakers there is
one with whom he has a difference, that difference must
not be aired, save in good-natured, genuine poking of fun
at himself as well as his adversary. It is better to decline
an invitation to speak after dinner than to use the occa-
sion as a means of getting at some one else present or
absent.
After settling the question of audience and other
speakers, the candidate for post-prandial honors will con-
sider his subject and manner of treatment. He will not
attempt to demonstrate anything rigorously by force of
argument. Neither will he make a strenuous appeal,
unless the dinner occasion is to be changed from its social
purpose to some other. Rather will he select some topic
of interest and treat it in a broad, human, genial way.
The treatment should be expansive rather than intensive.
The matter used, therefore, is more of the general, cul-
tural sort than the special, rigorous message. As in all
speeches, there should be a central theme and unity of
treatment, but the attraction of the speech is not so much
the driving home of the theme in itself ais the graceful
development of it by reference to a wide and rich field.
Such speeches reveal the speaker's general attitude
toward life, for in ornamenting his central theme, he
draws upon the things nearest his heart and most pleasing
to his taste. While revolving his thoughts before those
482 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
present in a tolerant, free spirit, he indeed reveals
himself. '
Note the tone of John Hay's address before the Omar
Khavyam Clnb of l.ondon.
Omar Khayyam
I cannot sufficiently thank yon for the high and unmerited
honor you have done me tonight. I feel keenly that on such an
occasion, with such company, my place is below the salt ; but
as you kindly invited me, it was not in human nature for me
to refuse.
Although in knowledge and comprehension of the two great
poets whom you are met to commemorate I am the least among
you. there is no one who regards them with greater admiration,
or reads them with more enjoyment, than myself. I can never
forget my emotions when I first saw FitzGerald's translati(ms of
the Quatrains. Keats, in his sublime "ode on Chapman's Homer,
has described the sensation once for all:
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies.
When a new planet swims into his ken.
The excjuisite beauty, the faultless form, the singular grace of
those amazing stanzas Avere not more wonderful than the depth
and breadth of their profound philosophy, their knowledge ol'
life, their dauntless courage, their serene facing of the ulti-
mate problems of life and of death. Of course the doubt did
not spare me, which has assailed many as ignorant as I wa •
of the literature of the East, whether it was the poet or hi^
translator to whom was due this splendid result. Was it, in
fact, a reproduction of an antique song, or a mystification of a
great modern, careless of fame and scornful of his time? Could
it be possible that in the eleventh century, so far away as Khoras-
san, so accomplished a man of letters lived, with such distinction,
such breadth, such insight, such calm disillusion, such cheerful
and jocund despair! Was this Weltschmerz, which we thought
a malady of our day, endemic in Persia in 1100? ]\Iy doubt onlv
lasted till I came upon a literal translation of the Rubaiyat, and
I saw that not the least remarkable quality of FitzGerald's poem
was its fidelity to the original. In short, Omar was a Fitz-
Gerald hrfore the Idler, or FitzGerald was a reincarnation of
Omar.
It is not to the disadvantage of the later poet that he followed
so closely in the footsteps of the earlier. A man of extraordinary
genms'had appeared in the world; had sung a song of incom-
THE CHAIRMAN OF OCCASION 433
I)arable beauty and power in an environment no longer worthy
of him, in a language of narrow range; for many generations
the song was virtually lost; then by a miracle of creation, a poet,
twin-brother in the spirit to the tirst, was born, who took up the
forgotten poem and sang it anew with all its original melody
and force, and with all the accumulated retinement of ages
of art. It seems to me idle to ask which was the greater master;
each seems greater than his work. The song is like an instrument
of precious workmanship and marvelous tone, which is worth-
less in common hands, but when it falls, at long intervals, into
the hands of the supreme master, it yields a melody of tran-
scendent enchantment to all that have ears to hear.
If we look at the sphere of influence of the two poets, there
is no longer any comparison. Omar sang to a half-barbarous
province: FitzGerald to the world. AVherever the English
speech is spoken or read, the Rubaiyat have taken their place as
a classic. There is not a hill-post in India, nor a village in
England, where there is not a coterie to whom Omar Khayyam
is a familiar friend and a bond of miion. In America he has
an equal following, in many regi(ms and conditions. In the
p]astern States his adepts form an esoteric set ; the beautiful
volume of drawings by Mr. Vedder is a center of delight and
suggestion wherever it exists. In the cities of the West you
will find the (Quatrains one of the most thoroughly read books
in every club library. I heard them cjuoted once in one of
the most lonely and desolate spots of the high Rockies. We
had been camping on the Great Divide, our "roof of the M-orld,"
where, in the space of a few feet you may see two springs, one
sending its waters to the Polar solitudes, the other to the eternal
Carib summer. One morning at sunrise, as we were breaking
camp, I was startled to hear one of our party, a frontiersman
born, intoning these words of somber majesty :
'Tis but a tent where takes his one day's rest
A Sultan to the realm of death addrest ; •
The Sultan rises, and the dark Ferrash
Strikes and prepares it for another guest.
I thought that sublime setting of primeval forest and frowninjj^
canon was worthy of the lines ; I am sure the dewless, crystalline
air never vibrated to strains of more solemn music.
Certainly, our poet can never be numbered among the great
popular writers of all time. He has told no story ; he has never
unpacked his heart in public ; he has never thrown the reins on
the neck uf the winged horse, and let his imagination carry him
where it listed. "Oh! the crowd must have emphatic warrant,"
as Browning sang. Its suffrages are not for tlie cool, collected
434 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
observer, whose eyes no glitter ean dazzle, no mist suffuse. The
many cannot but resent that air of lofty intelligence, that pale
and subtle smile. But he Avill hold place forever among that
limited number who, like Lucretius and Epicurus, — without
rage or defiance, even without unbecoming mirth, — look deep
into the tangled mysteries of things; refuse credence to the
absurd, and allegiance to arrogant authority ; sufficiently con-
scious of fallibility to be tolerant of all opinions ; with a faith
too wide for doctrine and a benevolence untrammeled by creed,
too wise to be wholly poets, and yet too surely poets to be
implacably wise.^
Observations :
1. The theme is obviously most appropriate.
2. The tone and contents are perfectly adapted to the
audience.
3. The style is polished, yet genial and contemplative
as naturally befitted a cultivated gentleman addressing
bis equals at dinner.
4. The speech is short.
Besides these specific things to be noted, one feels a
general, sincere urbanity, as he catches a glimpse of a
literary man of no mean attainments, delighting his
hearers and himself with his reflections on a beloved topic.
Even with change of topics, something of this feeling,
in varying degrees, should go with all after-dinner
speeches.
To show how this is evidenced in more humorous
speeches, we give the following extemporaneous address
made by John Hay on Thanksgiving Day, 1865, in Paris,
when he was Secretary of Legation. It is one of his very
first addresses.
OlK COTTNTRVWOMEN
My Countrymen — and I would say my countrywomen, but
that the former word embraces the latter whenever opportunity
offers — I cannot understand why I should have been called upon
to respond to this toast of all others, having nothing but theoret-
' Tlio Hay speeches are froiii Addicss by .luhn llaii ((VMiturv Co.. 1006).
THE CIIAIKMAX OF OCCASIOX 435
ical ideas upon the sul)jeet to be treated — one, iii fact, 1 must
l)e ])resuined never to have handled. (Laughter and ai)plause.)
1 have been called up, too, by a committee of married men. I
can think of no claim I have to be considered an authority in
these matters, except what might arise from the fact of my
having resided in early life in the same neighborhood with
Hrigham Young, who has since gained some reputation as a
thorough and practical ladies' man. (Great laughter.) I am
not conscious, however, of having imbibed any such wisdom at
the feet of this matrimonial Gamaliel as should justly entitle me
to be heard among the elders.
8o I am inevitably forced to the conclusion that these hus-
bands cannot trust each other's discretion. The secrets of the
prison-house are too important to be trusted to one of the
prisoners. So ignorance of the matter in hand has come to be
held an absolute prerequisite when anyone is to be sacrificed to
the exigencies of this toast.
I really do not see why this should be so. It is useless for hus-
bands to attempt to keep this thin veneering of a semblance of
authority. The symbols of government they still retain deceive
nobody. They may comfort themselves with the assurance of
some vague invisible supremacy, like that of the spiritual JMikado
or the Grand Llama, but the true Tycoon is the wife. A witty
and profound observer the other day said: "Every husband
doubtless knows he is' master in his own house, but he also knows
his neighbor's wife is master in hers." (Laughter and cheers.)
Why should not you, husbands of America, admit this great
truth and give up the barren scepter? Things would go much
easier if you ceased the struggle to keep up appearances. The
ladies will not be hard on you. They will recognize the fact
that, after all, you are their fellow-creatures, and you can be
very useful to them in many little ways. They will doubtless
allow you to pay their bills, take care of their children, and carry
their votes to the ballot-box just as you do now.
You had better come down gracefully, and above all, let no
feeling of discovered inferiority betray you in evil speaking of
the domestic powers. There have been recent instances of dis-
tinguished gentlemen, no doubt instigated by rebellious husbands,
who have recklessly accused these guardian angels of your fire-
sides of being extravagant and frivolous. These things are never
uttered with impunity. I would not in.sure the life of one who
libels the ladies for less than cent per cent.
' ' Discite justitiam moniti et non temnere Divas ! ' ' which, as
you may not understand the backwoods pronunciation of the
classic warning, I will translate with a freedom befitting the
dav we celebrate ;
436 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
."Now. all you happy husbands.
Beware the rebel's fate!
Live in obedience all your lives.
Give up 3^our latch-keys to your wives,
And never stay out late."
The humorous after-dinner speech should never descend
to buffoonery, nor should the fun be of an undesirable
sort. Now and then, at stag dinners, someone drops to
the level of '' off-color" stories. Never do this yourself;
it is a most undesirable habit to start. Even if such
entertainment does not offend those who listen, a stamp
and character is given to the mind of the speaker which
is detrimental to success in the worth-while fields.
This reminds us of one of the services of the toast-
master. If one of the speakers should make a faux pas
in the use of an undesirable story, or if one should say
something offensive in sentiment, belief, or prejudice to
some of those present, the master of ceremonies, at the
end of the speech, by tactful comment; indicates that the
sentiment of the gathering as a whole is not in the
offensive direction. This he must do, if he does it at all,
with the best of good-humor and without hurting either
the culprit or the others present. It is his place, when
a jarring note is struck, to restore the harmony of the
gathering. Of course it is wisest sometimes to let a slip
pass without comment of any sort. If a speaker is dull
and the guests become restless, it is for the toastmaster
to save the day by a bright sally or story. If things
become too hilarious, it is he who will sober matters down
to the plane of dignified fun.
-Some men think that the after-dinner speech is a sort
of vaudeville monologue made up of a series of jokes
loosely hung together. That is one of the cheapest kinds
of speech. In fact it is no speech at all, for it does not
reveal the speaker to the audience. It reflects no per-
sonality save one's taste in jokes; it lacks originality
i
THE CIIATR:\rAX OF OCCASION 437
and has nothing- of communication whatsoever in it. A
l)lionogTaph could render this sort of entertainment
ahnost as well as the speaker, and a paid performer could
do better. A short story or joke now and then in the
after-dinner speech, on the other hand, is welcomed by
the audience. If the audience be at all discriminating,
the welcome will be in proportion to the appropriateness
of the joke in connection with a real point to be brought
forth. Do not drag jokes in by the hair of the head.
Also have mercy on your audience and refrain from
the frequent use of hackneyed quotations and scraps of
doggerel rhyme. It is very boring to hear one reel off
a lot of sentiments and quotations dug out of some com-
pilation. The three besetting sins of the after-dinner
speaker of the common variety are :
1. The old jokes;
2. The hackneyed quotations;
3. Eambling lack of unity and real theme.
Summary of Advice for After-Dixxer Speaking
1. Learn all you can about the audience,
2. Find out who else will speak.
3. Make your speech short, especially if many others
are to talk.
4. Make it of a character, in matter, that will not only
offend no one present but will really please all. This
means that you must choose a topic in harmony with the
occasion and those present.
5. Select a topic in harmony with your own tastes
and knowledge. If it is assigned to you, treat it so as to
conform with wdiat has been said.
6. Let your treatment be genial rather than impetu-
ous, expansive rather than intense.
7. Have it well prepared and planned. Do not
ramble.
438 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
8. Avoid the old jokes and those dragged in.
1). Avoid the hackneyed quotation.
10. Finally be your best self, enjoying yourself among
friends, on a high level of intellectual pleasure.
Vocational Talks
In all the branches of business activity, from the man-
aging of a great city down to the smaller departments of
commercial companies, the value of the conference is
being recognized. In the old days, the head of the estab-
lishment issued his orders, and those under his authority
carried them out as well as their understanding of them
would permit. But it is a growing custom for chiefs to
make short addresses to those working with them, out-
lining problems and seeking the combined wisdom of all
as the basis of their solution. These gatherings give even
those in the lower ranks a broad outlook so that each can
see his individual task in its i^roper place in a great work-
ing organization. Through them, the worker is made to
feel that he is not merely a mechanical part but also a
thinking part of the grand scheme. At the conferences,
it is customary for the chief, or someone designated by
him because of superior experience or knowledge in a
given branch, to make an address and with that as the
starting point have discussions of mutual benefit to all
participating and especially to the firm. It is difficult to
get good samples of this sort of address, for they are not
preserved. Furthermore, what would be appropriate for
one branch of work would be of no interest to others. It
therefore seems best to offer a typical outline rather than
a particular speech.
A — Prerequisites for Success:
1. Tlie general ones necessary for all success in
speaking.
THE CIIAIRMAX OF OCCASION 439
2. Intimacy of tone and physical closeness. Gather
the men around as friends ; do not spread them out in a
great room to listen to a formal address. The closer they
can be grouped together as in a social gathering, the
better.
3. Thorough democracy in the conduct of the meet-
ing. This is not incompatible with the recognition of
authority arising from position or superior knowledge,
but it is incompatible with the obtrusion of distinctions
in rank. All the men of various ranks come together for
mutual help.
4. Most careful preparation and planning of the talk
and the points to be brought out in the discussion. This
is necessary to prevent the conference from becoming a
mere chat.
B — Typical Outline:
1. Introduction to establish tone of pleasantness and
to arouse interest.
2. Statement of the problem.
(a) Defects of an old system under consideration
for modification.
(b) Proposed system with its advantages and pos-
sible disadvantages.
3. Effect of adoption:
(a) Upon the efficiency of the firm.
(b) Upon the employees who will have to carry
it out.
4. Appeal for co-operation and further discussion
with suggestions.
During the speech, those present should take notes. It
is well for each to formulate his contribution to the dis-
cussion before rising. Simplicity and clearness are the
chief essentials of good, minor contributions.
The principles which hold for a departmental, voca-
tional talk hold also for professional conferences, for
440 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
committee meetings, and for hearings before boards of
appropriation and management. The success of all such
conferences, and above all the departmental ones, is
remarkable. An esprit de corps is developed which
increases individual and combined efficiency many fold.
The man of superior position gets an insight into the
feelings and special problems of the subordinate and the
man in the ranks comes to realize the difficulties of those
in authority. The resulting information and sympathy
bring about healthy co-operation and friendliness to
replace possible antipathy. In this field of speech one can
do much good, for we influence men largely by personal
contact. The world will be reformed when men come to
know each other through sympathy, and not by the force
of external legislation and compulsion.
Assignment of Work
The written exercises in this entire k»sson sliould be
carefully worked out. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in vour notebook.
First Day. — Read over the lesson two or three times and take
up the test questions.
Second Day. — Plan and make an opening address at one of the
following occasions :
1. The laying of the corner stone of a hospital. Audi-
ence mixed, townspeople.
2. Graduation exercises of a boy's technical and trade
school.
3. Meeting to commemorate the anniversary of: Abra-
ham Lincoln, Robert E. Lee, Henry Ward Beeeher, William
Lloyd Garrison, General Grant, or some one you admire
and about whom .you know. Remember that this is not a
complete eulogy, bnt merely your introductory remarks.
Other speakers are to follow with elaborate speeches.
Third Day. — Write out four or five appropriate introductions to
dinner speakers. Make comments on the personalities of
the men introduced, the audience, and the occasion.
THE CHAIRMAN OF OCCASION 441
FourlJi Ddi). — OiitliiU' c'JU'ct'ully jiiid devclo]) ()r;i]l\' ;tn after-
(liiiucr si)eec'h. lliwe in iiiiiul all the thiiif>s noted on page
4:^7 for after-dinner speakers to have in mind.
Fifth Day. — Outline a departmental talk that might well be
given in your business. Develop the talk orally.
TEST QUESTIONS
Tliese questions arc for the student to use in testing
his knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They
are sugyestive merely, dealing largely with the practical
application of the principles, and are to be placed in the
notebook for future reference.
1. What is meant by an occasional address?
2. Give some of the characteristics that a good opening
address by the chairman of occasion should have.
3. How do you like Mr. Bullock's style? Is it fitting to
the occasion ? Could it be improved in any way ? How ?
■4. What is the scope of the short introduction of a particu-
lar speaker by the chairman ?
5. What is to be said about the degree of flattery in a
complimentary introduction ?
6. What is the nature of the gathering at which the after-
dinner speaker makes his address? What is its general tone?
7. Give the general nature of the treatment of the theme
by an after-dinner speaker. Is contention in place?
8. Do you think Hay's after-dinner speech on Omar too
difficult for the man of average intelligence? If so, why? If
not, why?
9. Is Hay's style pleasing? Do you like his diction? If
asked to describe his style, what would you say ?
10. How does the second of his speeches given here compare
with the first? Which should make the greater "hit" at the
time of delivery? Which should abide longest in the mind after
it is heard?
11. Tell some of the duties of the toastmaster during the
progress of the dinner.
12. What do you think of the strung-together-joke style of
after-dinner speech?
13. What is meant by a vocational talk?
14. What are the prerequisites for success in this sort of
address ?
15. What are the advantages or good to be accomplished
by the vocational talk ?
442
LESSON 25
practical speech directions for special occasions
1. The Biographical Eulogy
It is obvious that there are too many speech occasions
to permit of exhaustive illustration or even fairly satis-
factory classification. Consequently, we must select
those types which are most commonly used or which,
because of their structure, will help us to understand
others of a similar character. Of all these, the biograph-
ical eulogy is probably the most serviceable to study. It
cannot be delivered without a fair degree of attention to
structure, and when made, the structure worked out may
be applied to other kinds of speech. Its matter, a
critical appreciation of the life and character of a
man, is similar to the matter of a commemorative
address, which deals with national life and character or
mass attainments rather than individual attainments.
Other speeches also have matter similar in kind and
treatment to that of the eulogy. Such speeches are
made at anniversaries, the laying of cornerstones, dedi-
cations, and exercises of various sorts. The invective is
identical in form with the eulogy though the sentiments
expressed are of opposite nature.
We have given several examples of eulogistic speak-
ing. In Lesson 1, page 11, we quoted a passage from
Ijincoln's eulogy of Henry Clay. This selection shows
an analytic treatment of virtues. In Lesson 5, page
443
444 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
69, we quoted a portion of Carl Scliurz's "Charles
Sumner." This was to illustrate the arrangement of
the body of the sjje^'ch according to sequence in time —
the chronological oidcr. Read these once more, as well
as the conclusion of AVendell Phillips' "Daniel O'Con-
nell." (Lesson 6, page £0.)
We may speak of eulogies as of two kinds, the formal
and the intimate. The formal eulogy deals with some
great man of national importance and is addressed to
those who have come in contact with him indirectly and
through his works only; the intimate eulogy is an appre-
ciation of a man by one who knew him well and is
addressed to the smaller circle of those who were also
his intimate friends. The great, formal eulogies are like
Greek tragedies in that they imjjress with distant and
universal grandeur ; but the informal eulogy warms
each individual 's heart. There are far more of this kind
delivered, but relatively few of them are recorded and
preserved. Not many men, and they only the great
orators of wide reputations, are called upon to deliver
formal eulogies, but many have to make the informal
kind at birthday gatherings, anniversaries of various
sorts, and funerals.
Before going into the characteristics of such an
address, it may be well to read one as an example. We
give a speech by Mr. Lewis Say re Burchard, of the New
York bar, eulogizing his old professor of pliysics at
the fiftieth anniversary of Professor Compton's gradua-
tion from the College of the City of New York — known
luring its early years as the Free Academy. This
speech was made to a large gathering of brother alumni
who knew the old professor as a teacher and to whom
every glimpse of the college of the past generation was
of real interest. Note, therefore, how this speech brings
out thoughts near and dear to every one present.
SPECIAL OCC.\SIOx\S 445
PROFESSOR ALFRED GEORGE COMPTON
Professor Compton's ideal of his own biography may be
found in "Who's Who in America," and seems based on Mark
Twain's boyhood's dairy with its mif ailing daily entry of "Got
up. washed, and went to bed." His eoutribution amounts to
"Born so-and-so; educated public schools and Free Academy.
'53; taught ever since; and there you are." Let us try to pad
this out into worthier bulk.
Alfred George Compton was "l)orn within the sound of Bow
Bells," in Clipstone street, London, February 1, 1835. Part
of his childhood was spent in his father's earlier home in the
([uaint and pretty old village of High Wycombe, a market town
of Buckinghamshire, up a long hill — indeed my cycling
memories insist upon that "long" — above Great IMarlow of the
little, and Henly of the great regattas. In 1842 his father.
William Compton, a maker of pianos, brought the family to
America in the ship Mediator — a voyage of thirty days — and
settled in New York. Their first home was in Sixth street,
east of Avenue D, near or in the region then and yet known
as "the Dry Dock," and near the thriving shipyards where
Henry Eckford and William TI. Webb built their famous old
New York clippers, and George Steers, uncle of Compton 's
chum, designed and built the America.
Child and product of New York's system of public education,
he first attended Public School No. 4, in Stanton street, under
Principal Patterson, and then "Old No. 15," in Fifth street.
of which Abraham Van Vleck. father of a well-known public
school teacher of the present day. was principal. Among his
class-mates here were John Hardy and James R. Steers, who
were graduated with him from the Free Academy. From No.
15 the boy went to School No. 14, then known as "the Poor-
house School," because, after its first building was burned, and
pending the completion of its new house on 27th street near
Third avenue (still standing), it found quarters in one of the
fine old grey-stone buildings formerly occupied by the County
Almshouses, on the then wooded heights of Bellevue fronting
the Ea.st River between 25th and 27th streets.
In this half-rural region the boy fitted for the newly estab-
lished Free Academy. Perhaps it may encourage —
"Some forlorn and shipwrecked brother"
to "take heart again," bail out, right ship, and resume his
"Sailing o'er life's solemn main."
to learn for the first time the incredible but authentic fact that
our peerless Compton, who, we think, axiomatically, can do
446 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
anything, failed to pass the first entrance examination, held in
January, 1849.
For a few months he worked, probably as practically and
as humbly as the youthful Joseph Porter, afterward K. C. B. —
in the office of a certain Counsellor Burr, in William street;
and it is matter of curious speculation as to what the New
York bar, and perhaps the bench, would have gained — we
know what the College and ourselves would have lost — if the
sturdy, freckle-faced and sandy-headed little IManhattanized
Cockney lad of fourteen had not resolved to try again ; but
try he" did, and, of course . The students admitted in
June were afterward joined with those admitted in the previous
January, in what we know as our first class, '53.
It Avas a different college (though in the same building) and
a different New York then. Renwick's' Flemish turrets, then
stuccoed in imitation of brownstone, looked over green fields
and scattered houses to Union Square (which was half-way to
Greenwich), and to the roadside tavern on the site of the
Fifth Avenue Hotel (which was half-way to Chelsea), and to
the East River. Perhaps Madison Square, planned as a
"parade ground" to reach to the crest of Murray Hill, had
not then been cut down to 26th street. Third avenue, without
even car tracks, drew two straggling strips of little frame
houses past Bull's Head. Harlemwards; but the region was
more rus than in urhe.
The epoch-making Academy had a brave little force of
professors as path-breakers in those days. President Webster,
of stately memory, and the great Ross, soldiers, gentlemen, and
scholars both, brought their high traditions of West Point —
then in the first flush of the prestige derived from the astonish-
ing work of Scott and his West Pointers in the campaign
from Vera Cruz to INIexico — traditions which have left their
impress in thoroughness, discipline, and devotion to this day.
Irving, a nephew of Washington Irving, was Professor of
History and Belles Lettres; Docharty. of the text-books,
assistant in pure mathematics. In German, there was -Glau-
bensklee; in Spanish. ^Morales ; and in French, Roemer, the
ex-dragoon officer, bearing a fine air of camps and courts, who
had seen service in the. Low Countries, and, as an attache in
favor with his king, had visited the great camp where Radetsky
held Lombary for Austria, wlio. Ilien )i)i hfou sahreur, lived on
for us to see him as line ridlh niousfaclic riding like an officer
or driving e)i gmndc leiiuc in llic park. Later came Anthon and
Draper, inheriting names to conjui-e with in the circles of scholar-
'1Mi(" old Collcjic buildiiiL:. ilcsiiiiicd by tlic famous arcliitpct. Ronwick,
had turrets.
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 447
ship of that New York (it was Anthon who collected the begin-
nings of our little library and knew the joy of the bibliophile
when p]dward Everett Hale came to him to hunt authorities not
to be found elsewhere) ; Dr. Owen, whose Greek texts over a gen-
eration ago were American classics and were used even in Oxford ;
and the famous Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, soon to be succeeded by the
dashing, all-accomplished Doremus of international fame, whose
lectures, burning their diamonds and spending their thousands,
were the talk of the town, so that the papers called him "the
Barnum of Science"; and good old dominies, hearing from afar
the ominous mutterings of Darwin and Huxley and Spencer,
applauded in crowded churches his "reconciliations" of evolution
and the "six days" of orthodoxy; whose little arsenic-stained
^larsh tubes decided causes celehres: whose improved compressed
granulated gunpowder blasted out eight miles of the JMont Cenis
tunnel and, marking a new advance in ordnance, made him a
welcome guest at the Tuileries under the Second Empire ; the
pi-esident of the Philharmonic and the host of Ole Bull and
Christine Nilsson, our pet host o' serenade nights, and to this
day unconquerably alert, interested and interesting. Under the
pioneers of this radical and brilliant group young Compton
studied, not through tutors or assistants, but with them face to
face in daily work, especially bearing away and cherishing the
impression of Professor Ross as the giant of those da.ys.
'53 had its commencement in Niblo's Theatre, for the old
Academy of IMusic, sacred to a long series of bestowals of sheep-
skins and medals, had not then been built. Hardy, his classmate
in old No. 15, and later our first congressman, had the Valedic-
tory, and Compton Third Honor, his theme being "Superstition."
After graduation it was his intention to become a civil engineer,
but the early fall brought to Hardy and Compton offers of tutor-
ships at the dazzling salary of $400, and the temptation was not
to be resisted.
From '53 to '69 he taught pretty nearly everything, history
and rhetoric, Wayland's Moral Philosophy, Spanish, Hart's
Catevhisni on the Constitution of the U. S.; and, during the war.
field and permanent fortification and stereotomy, till, in '69. on
the failure of health of Professor Nichols, he was appointed to
the chair of Applied ]\Iathematics, which department, as amended
from time to time, has lieen the field of his life-work and peculiar
success ever since.
Professor Anthon 's "Song of the Birds," sang of our alumni
as having "o'er Bartlett's puzzles banished sleep"; and Bart-
lett's Analytical Mechanics; Acoustics, Optics and Spherical
Astronomy will forever be associated by all graduates, from the
early '70 's on, with the Professor's personality and crystalline
448 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
demonstratious. Through the great days of the '60 's and '70 's.
Calculus and Bartlett without mitigation were "required." The
sons of York in those days had no "option" with which to make
glorious summer of the winter of their discontent, as some of us
later chaps had; and the veterans say it was "man's work."
Bartlett was then a new professor al West Point, his books
were new, and ours was probably the first college after the V. S.
iMilitary Academy to use them. So Professor Bartlett used to
visit the College with great interest then (like the hero of Cole-
ridge's ballad) —
"To see how the work went on."
Surely, he found the work in the liands of a prince of
demonstrators.
The .years since '69 have been crowded ones for the professor.
It is in line with this truth that these laborious years, than
which one can imagine none in the life of any teacher more
fruitful in the immeasurable harvest of influence," give little data
to the biographer. It has certainly been fortunate for us. but
unfortunate for the fame of our professors as independent
investigators and authors, that, to an unparalleled extent, they
have been compelled to give all their time and strength to class-
room recitations. As Agassiz was "too busy to make money,"
Professor Compton has been literally too busy to make himself
famous outside of the circle of his students, and. like that
Avonderful old man, Dwight, of Columbia Law School, his sur-
passing excellence as a teacher and his devotion to the fascinating
task of direct-contact work, has probably lost the world much,
and intrusted his monument only to the memory of his pupils.
Since 1869, he has taught large sections never less than fifteen
hours a week without an assistant to prepare his demonstrations.
For eighteen years after '69. he conducted, outside of his regular
hours, a three-year post-graduate course in civil engineering,
work remembered as priceless by his post-graduate students.
Breaking in his long day only by a modest revel at the historic
Chellborg's lunch room, it has generally been well towards even-
ing that he has started homeward. During the last twenty-one
years he has lal)ored for and obtained, laid-out, planned, super-
intended, even written text-books for, the entire mechanical and
manual training departments and courses. This field, always in
his thoughts and plans, was especially em])hasized to his atten-
tion by the Kiissian exhibit at the Centennial Exhibit icm of 3876.
Building on this and the work of Belford in Chicago and of the
Washington Fniversity in St. Louis, he has made the addition
and development of this department. his own especial contribution
to the College.
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 449
In '69, with Cleveland Abbe '('57), he conducted an eclii)se
t'xpedition to Sioux P'all.s City. Dakota Territory (then a hamlet
of twenty houses), and reported it to the Cincinnati Observatory,
and in '78. he led a few of his students to Colorado and observed
an eclipse and reported it to the Xaval Observatory at Washing-
Ion. He has reported a transit of ^lercury and done such other
astronomical work as the limited facilities at his disposal would
permit. And for many years has he not labored early and late,
faithfully, and at last successfully, for the new College ? Hence,
his publications have been few: A Manual of Logarithmic Com-
putation, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1881; First Lessons in
Wood Working, American Book Co. ; First Lessons in Metal
M'orking, AA^iley, 1890 ; The Speed-Lathe (with de Groodt), Wiley,
1898; Some Common Errors of Speech, Putnams, 1898 (intended
as an introduction to another work on English yet in ]\ISS.)
Upon the resignation of General Webb in 1902, and pending
the selection and installation of a new president, the executive
duties of the presidency have been intrusted by the Board of
Trustees to Professor Compton. under the title of Supervising
Professor, and, later, of Acting President. This temporary head-
ship of his Alma ]\Iater crowns a half-century of unbroken service
with honor to the Trustees, the College, and himself, but it is the
devout prayer of every man that has ever sat under him that,
for the sake of those to come, the end of his teaching may not
befall for many a long year, and such is the abiding triumph
of his youthfulness that the prayer is surely answered at its
making.
Busy as the years have been, loyalty to a sacred trust of
friendship has imposed yet another burclen, which he has borne
as buoyantly and successfully as every other. Space forbids the
story, but Compton 's devotion to a friend, a Cuban patriot, whose
great estates were confiscated during the insurrections of '69,
saved the property to his widow, an American lady. It involved
journeys to Cuba, work in Spanish, endless litigation in Spanish,
Cuban, and American tribunals, twenty years of strenuous
trusteeship, and two .years of accounting, but, as always, he did
it and did it well.
He commands French, German, and Spanish, and is a member
of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers.
Professor Compton married, June 10, 1874, ]Miss Francis E.
Feeks, formerly a teacher in the Normal College, and has a son
and two daughters living.
Has this indefatigable worker found no time to play ? Whether
it is the English in him, or simply because such a "first-class all-
around man" must know the .I'oys of the open air. this busy
450 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
man has won and saved the secret of buoyant strength and cheer-
ful, lasting youthfulness — recreation. Of all manly sports, three
stand supreme in their manliness, their freedom from cruelty and
the excitement of competition, their insistence upon self-reliance,
courage, brains, skill, and the facing of the individual man with
the beauties and hostile powers of Nature — each finding its finest
and highest development when played single-handed, or, at least,
without paid or professional assistance— seamanship, moun-
taineering, and woodsmanship, or forest-cruising. Of these,
although he managed to get in some good Alpine climbing in
3902, the last-named has been Compton's especial field and joy.
In 1856, inspired by an article in Silliman's Journal, on "The
Exploration of the Adirondacks," Compton, with Theodore
Banta of the class of '53, made his first trip into the then
untraveled, uncharted, and almost unknown north woods. On
the first trip he found a local guide and climbed IMt. INIarcy.
Since then, for many seasons, he has traversed the Adirondacks
without map or guide or gun, finding his own way like the
Indians, courcnrs du hois, and trappers of our boyhood's books,
and living the Thoreau life next to Nature. Like Thoreau, carry-
ing perhaps one choice book in his pack and more in his head,
and preferring watching a bird or a wild creature to killing it,
and loving the scent of the woods and his fire too keenly to miss
them in tobacco, and, like "Walt Whitman, "loafing and inviting
his soul," he has drunk deep of the life-restoring spell of the
forest. One season, by his campfires, he taught himself the
integral calculus, but, iDetter, through scores of threaded camps
on lake side and mountain shoulder,- he has learned to "renew his
youth like the eagles."
Such noble sport demands the freedom of the long vacation.
Between whiles, he does a bit of tennis and is a keen hand at
this latter-day, impossibly scientific croquet, which seems a sort
of outdoor long-distance billiards — the crociuet of patient cranks
with quite impossible eyes and nerves and wrists.
It has always been a pet fancy of mine that if Compton were
washed up like Robinson Crusoe on some great new island with
the necessary natural resources and given a few tools from the
ship, and say a century of life and unskilled labor without limit,
but without a book, he could reproduce civilization — like the
scientist in Jules Verne's L'llc Mystcnuse — "only more so";
that, sooner or later, he M'ould be running a locomotive built by
himself out of the ])rodu('ts of his own mining, playing Chopin
on a Com])t()n ]>iano, putting little brown Juniors and Seniors
through ]^artl(^tt, dictating from memory a few European liter-
atures to ishnid-made ph()n()gra|)hs and typewriters, and — to
bring my undcr-gi-aduate di-cam down to date — INIarconigraphing
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 451
back to New York to see how the family was getting along and
achdsing the sailing of a steamer equipped Avith island-made
chronometer, sextant, and compass, and Compton's Bowditch's
Navigator (of conrse supplied with Compton's own logarithms)
— and having through it all the serenest of good times, and never
once by any chance hurried or worried, out of temper, idle, sick,
or old.
The piano is, perha])s hereditarily, his instrument. He wears
his hair too normally to be a virtuoso, but plays as a gentleman
should, and a scholar — with sufficient technique to make avail-
able and enjoyable his ranging command of the composers.
Imagine, you who have felt the charm of his class-room clemon-
strations, the professor reading you Bach or Beethoven.
Seated thus at his keyboard with his loved ones around him,
let us leave the picture of him, wishing him many a long and
happy year, rich in the memory of many tasks of many kinds
well done, and in the loyal love of the thousands of his "boys,"
who are better equipped doers of the world's work for liaving
sat under him and truer men and gentlemen for knowing him.
2. Observations on the Personal Tribute (Eulogy)
1. Preparation. — KnoAv tlie man through close, per-
sonal contact. Gather all information you can, not
experienced by you, from others who did have the direct
experience. If anything must be "read up," be very
thorough in the reading; get all aspects and master
everything most thoroughly.
2. Organization. — As indicated in Lesson 5, page 69,
the general plan of a eulogy is either chronological in
order of material, or according to some scheme of
analysis for the elements or virtues of the character and
attainments. Sometimes also, as in the example just
given, the two are combined. Observe, in the example
just given, the effective reserving of the enthusiastic
discussion of traits for the end, after matters of history
had been disposed of.
3. Details. — (a) Select those things which will appeal
strongly to the audience addressed, (b) Illustrations
and references should be made with the particular
452 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
audience's experience and mental equipment in mind.
(c) As far as possible, be concrete rather than abstract;
use images rather than concepts. Even when bringing
out some abstract quality, it is often better to indicate
what is meant by a concrete deed or situation, than to
expound it in general terms. (d) Be intimate and
personal in your treatment rather than lofty, distant,
and grand.
4. Tone. — The tone is established by the occasion.
The speech just given is jolly or at least happy. The
subject of the address is present and all are happy. If
such a speech were made at a farewell dinner or time
of retirement from office, the tone would be less jovial,
somewhat gentler, and more mellow. A funeral address
may use data similar to that just given, but the tone
should be more solemn and gravely gentle.
3. IxArouEAL Address
The general purpose of the inaugural address is to
outline policies to be pursued in office. The tone is
different from that of a jjre-election promise needed to
obtain approval and, possibly, votes. The place has been
secured and the tone of the address is firm and direct.
There are, as a rule, two things to be recorded in such
a speech, (1) an analysis of the situation faced because
of past developments and (2) an outline of methods or
policies in the future. Of course, proper adaptation to
audience, occasion, and office must be made. The usual
principles of arrangement, explained in Lesson 5, apply.
The Second Inaugural Address of Lincoln may be
taken as an example. We shall give here the opening
and all of the speech up to the part already printed in
Lesson 20, page 'Mu. Kead l)oth parts so as to get a
combined ini])ression of tlie entire s))eecli.
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 453
LIxVCOLN S SECOND INAUtUTKAL ADDRESS
I. Fellow Count rumen: At this second appearing to take
the oath of the presidential office, there is less occasion for
an extended address than there was at the first. Then a
statement, somewhat in detail, of a course to be pursued, -
seemed fitting and proper. Now^, at the expiration of four
3'ears, during which public declarations have been constantly
called forth on every point and phase of the great contest
which still absorbs the attention and engrossi^s the energies
of the nation, little that is new could be i)resented. The
progress of our arms, upon which all else chiefly depends,
is as well known to the public as to myself ; and it is, I trust,
reasonably satisfactory and encouraging to all. With high
hopes for the future, no prediction in regard to it is to be
ventured.
II. On- the occasion corresponding to this, four years ago, all
thoughts were anxiously directed to an impending civil
war. All dreaded it — all sought to avert it. While the
inaugural address was being delivered from this place,
devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, insur-
gent agents were in this city seeking to destroy it without
war — seeking to dissolve the Union and divide effects, by
negotiation. Both parties deprecated war ; but one of them
would rather make war than let the nation survive; and the
other would accept war rather than let it perish. And the
war came.
III. One eighth of the whole population were colored slaves,
not distributed generally over the Union, but localized in the
southern part of it. These slaves constituted a peculiar and
powerful interest. All knew that this interest was, some-
how, the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, and
extend this interest was the object for which the insurgents
would rend the Union, even by war; while the government
claimed no right to do more than to restrict the territorial
enlargement of it.
(Now turn to page 367, Lesson 20, for the rest of the
speech.)
Note that Lincoln faces one situation only, the war;
with one cause, slavery ; to he settled in one way, con-
tinned, effective war until peace without slavery is
attained.
4.54 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
The following is a typical outline whieli may be nseil
at varions iaaugriral occasions.
L Intnxiuction appropriate to audience and occasion.
EL Body of the speeck.
1. The situation faced by the body, society, or
organization.
2. Policies to be pursued.
(a) Greneral. guiding principles.
(b) Specific acts or lines of conduct.
3. Prosi>ects of success.
TTT. Conclusion.
1. Appeal for co-operation.
2. Pledge to conscientious service.
3. Trust in desired outcome.
Addresses made on retirement from office are, in cer-
tain respects, similar. The outline just given may be
used with the following changes and additions. (II-l)
Beview what was accomplished during the course of
administration. (II-2) Advice concerning future develop-
ments, (in) Thank those who co-operated during the
term of office just expired; express confidence in what
the future will bring forth.
4. Spi3:ch with a Peacttcajl Object to a ^Iixed
audtexce
Among the most difficult- speeches to make is one to
a popular audience upon a vital issue. Here all the
resources of the speaker must be called into service.
TVe give as the example for study, Daniel O'Connell's
famous address on Tara HiU, to what was one of the
greatest mass meetings the world has ever seen. It is
comparable with the mighty efforts of Demosthenes
with th^ citizen gatherings of Athens. While reading
it, have in mind the fact that O'Connell was trying to
stir resentment against the Union and at the same time
SPECIAL OCCASIO^CS ^5
•> restiam ads d TioleiKe. Hkme^ it k «£E&«h to stir
a erow^d so tlat all will feel witk tke orator. -~
diffieolt to keep its eoiiseqiievt aets vi^im '
of ratioaial restraint. Olfi^rre hoc O'Coanel
In paragrapli I, he estabfisbes tie r^—
between Umsel^ Aose present, aad tke proii^i^ i^^
fstee. Ofaserve kow he secures interest and attemko
ani obtains a favorable attitnde toward humt4f iSi^
prin^des in Lessons 3 and -L' The body c: :-
m^it is in U to ^^I wrtii xh^ siEmraary im . --
scheme of arrai^einent <see> L^-s&om 5 for |Minefp4ek^ is
a devekfnnait c^ general jHindples of rig^ in IL to
anthoritative siqiport of the jmneqtk^. TIT, and Aove
to a pres^itaticn of specific act^ of an obje^ionable
character: in IV, fraud and violence: in V. bribay ^id
mon^j e»:»rnipli<Mi: in VL the destmctkm of ifcinstry.
Tbe summary in VII carries oet mles 4&c»ss€*i m
Lesson 6. e^>eoaIly page 9L while the rest of the spi5€*^
is a skinfol a^>eal fsee Le^^m 6. pase 96. onk to the
particular audience he was addres^ng.
Bead that perflation Vm to XL ear^olly and note
the prejudices and deep efncitioi^ cm which he f^aj^.
Obse-rve^ how he refers to TTeflii^on on tke <»e hand an>l
the Queen €m Ae oth»-. to the soldie^rs and to the B3irUp»-
men. and how he turns to his own advanta^ r^siipns
sentimf»it and love of country. Toward 1^ emd ^
makes a most effective ms* €*f mass response as &e basis
of final agre^n^t and obe«fience. »Fr»r pTiisepI^. 5*e^
Lesson 16 and espeaally pages f96. fi*?. f5•^- >
TMs is the last exanq^ wc ^all oSer. Study it well
an*! e&ieavor to identify in it the carrying o«t of
r»rineipfes developed in tfiis course of ksso«s in Effective
Pulfie Speaking. Study it also with a Tiew to piepari^
original speeches alozLg similar Ii5?es- Make a earefol
ni>teboci: analvsis.
456 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
REPEAL OF THE UNION
UaiiiL'I O'Cuini.'ll
I. Fclloic-1 risk men: It would 1)l' the extreme of atfectation
in me to suggest that I have not some elaim to be the leader
of this majestic meeting. It would be worse than affectation ;
it would be driveling folly, if I were not to feel the awful
responsibilit}' to my country and mj^ Creator which the part
I have taken in this might.y movement imposes on me. Yes ;
I feel the tremendous nature of that responsibility. Ireland
is roused from one end to the other. Her multitudinous
population has but one expression and one wish, and that
is for the extinction of the Union and the restoration of her
nationality. (A voice: "No compromise!") AVho talks of
compromise? I have come here, not for the purpose of
making a schoolboy's attempt at declamatory eloquence, not
to exaggerate the historical importance of the spot on which
we now stand, or to endeavor to revive in your recollection
any of those poetic imaginings respecting it which have been
as familiar as household words. But this it is impossible to
conceal or deny, that Tara is surrounded l)y historical
reminiscences which give it an importance worthy of being
considered by everyone who approaches it for political pur-
poses, and an elevation in the public mind which no other
part of Ireland possesses. We are standing upon Tara oJ
the Kings ; the spot where the monarchs of Ireland were
elected, and where the chieftains of Ireland bound them-
selves, by the most solemn pledges of honor, to protect their
native land against the Dane and every stranger. This was
emphatically the spot from which emanated every social
power and legal authority by which the force of the entire
country was concentrated for the purposes of national
defence.
II. On this spot I have a most important duty to i)erform. I
here y)rotest, in the name of my country and in the name of
my God, against the unfounded and unjust Union. My
proposition to Ireland is that the Union is not binding on
her people. It is void in conscience and in principle, and
as a matter of constitutional law I attest these facts. Yes,
I attest by everything that is sacred, without being profane,
the truth of my assertions. There is no real union between
the two countries, and my ])roposition is that there was no
authority given to anyone to pass the Act of Union. Neither
the English nor the Irish Legislature was competent to pass
that Act, and I arraign it on these grounds. One authority
alone could make that Act binding, and that was the voice
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 457
of the people of Ireland. The Irish Parliament Avas elected
to make laws and not to make legislatures ; and, therefore, it
had no right to assume the authority to pass the Act of
Union. The Iri.sh Parliament was elected by the Irish people
as their trustees; the people were their masters, and the
members were their servants, and had no right to transfer
the property to any other power on earth. If the Irish
Parliament had transferred its power of legislation to the
French Chamber, would any man assert that the Act was
valid? Would any man be mad enough to assert it; would
any man be insane enough to assert it; and would the
insanity of the assertion be mitigated by sending any number
of members to the French Chamber? Everybody must
admit that it would not. What care I for France?— and I
care as little for England as for France, for both countries
are foreign to me. The very highest authority in England
has proclaimed us to be aliens in blood, in religion, and in
language. (Groans.) Do not groan him for having proved
himself honest on one occasion by declaring my opinion.
But to show the invalidity of the Union I could quote the
authority of Locke on "Parliament." I will, however, only
detain you by quoting the declaration of Lord Plunket in
the Irish Pcirliament, who told them that they had no
authority to transfer the legislation of the country to other
hands. As well, said he. might a maniac imagine that the
blow by which he destroys his wretched body annihilates his
immortal soul, as you to imagine that you can annihilate the
soul of Ireland — her constitutional rights.
III. I need not detain you by quoting authorities to show the
invalidity of the LTnion. I am here the representative of
the Irish nation, and in the name of that moral, temperate,
virtuous and religious people, I proclaim the Union a nullity.
Saurin, who had been the representative of the Tory party
for twenty years, distinctly declared that the Act of Union
was invalid. He said that the Irish House of Commons had
no right, had no power, to pass the Union, and that thv
people of Ireland would be justified, the first opportunity
that presented itself, in effecting its repeal. So they are.
The authorities of the country were charged Avith the enact-
ment, the alteration, or the administration of its laws. These
were their powers ; but they had no authority to alter or
overthrow the Constitution. I therefore proclaim the nullity
of the Union. In the face of Europe I proclaim its nullity.
In the face of France, especially, and of Spain. T proclaim
its nullity; and I proclaim its nullity in the face of the
liberated States of America.
458 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
IV. I go farther, and proclaim its nullity on the grounds of
the iniquitous means by which it was carried. It was
effected by the most flagrant fraud. A rebellion was pro-
voked by the Government of the day, in order that they
might have a pretext for crushing the liberties of Ireland.
There was this addition to the fraud, that at the time of the
Union, Ireland had no legal protection. The Habeas Corpus
Act was suspended, and the lives and liberties of the people
were at the mercy of courts martial. You remember the
shrieks of those who suffered under martial law. One day,
from Trim, the troops marched out and made desolate the
country around them. No man was safe during the entire
time the Union was under discussion. The next fraud was
that the Irish people were not allowed to meet to remonstrate
against it. Two count}^ meetings, convened by the High
Sheriff's of these counties, pursuant to requisitions presented
to them, were dispersed at the point of the bayonet. In
King's County the High Sheriff called the people together
in the Court-house, and Colonel Connor of the North Cork
Militia, supported by artillery and a troop of horse, entered
the Court-house at the head of 200 of his regiment and
turned out the Sheriff, Magistrates, Grand Jurors, and free-
holders assembled to petition against the enactment of the
Union. In Tipperary a similar scene took place. A meeting
convened by the High Sheriff' was dispersed at the point of
the bayonet. Thus public sentiment was stifled; and if there
was a compact, as is alleged, it is void on account of the
fraud and force by which it was carried. But the voice of
Ireland, though forcibly suppressed at public meetings, was
not altogether dumb. Petitions Avere presented against the
Union to which were attached no less than 770.000 signa-
tures. And there were not 3,000 signatures for the Union,
notwithstanding all the Government could do.
V. My next impeachment against the Union is the gross
corruption with which it was carried. No less than £1,275,-
000 was spent upon the rotten boroughs, and £2,000,000 was
given in direct bribery. There was not one office that was
not made instrumental to the carrying of the measure. Six
or seven judges were raised to the Bench for the votes they
gave in its support ; and no less than twelve bishops were
elevated to tlie Episcopal Bench for having taken the side
of the Union ; for corruption tlien spared nothing to effect its
purpose — corruption was never carried so far; and if this
is to be binding on the Irish nation, there is no use in
honesty at all. Yet in spite of all the means employed, the
enemies of Irelaiul did nol succeed at once. There was a
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 459
majority of eleven against tlie Union the first time. J hit
before the proposition was brought torward a second time,
members who could not be influenced to vote for the
measure were bribed to vacate their seats, to which a number
of English and Scotch officers, brought over for the pur-
pose, Avere elected, and by their votes the Union was carried.
In the name of the great Irish nation I proclaim it a nullity.
At the time of the Union the national debt of Ireland was
only £20.000,000. The debt of England was £440.000,000.
England took upon herself one-half of the Irish debt, but
she placed upon Ireland one-half of the £440.000,000. Eng-
land since that period has doubled her debt, and admitting
a proportionate increase against Ireland, the Irish debt
would not now be more than £40,000,000; and you may
believe me when I say it in the name of the great Irish
people, that Ave will never pay one shilling more. In fact,
Ave owe but £30,000, as is clearly demonstrated in a book
lately published by a near and dear relative of mine. jNIr.
John O'Connell, the member for Kilkenny. I am proud that
a son of mine Avill be able, Avhen the repeal is carried, ta
meet any of England's financiers, and to prove to them the
gross injustice inflicted upon Ireland.
^^I. My next impeachment of the Union is its destructive and
deleterious effect upon the industry and prosperity of the
country. The county of ]\Ieath Avas once studded Avith noble
residences. "What is it noAV ? Even on the spot Avhere Avhat
is called the great Duke of Wellington Avas born, instead of
a splendid castle or noble residence, the briar and the
bramble attest the treachery that produced them. You
remember the once prosperous linen-weavers of ]\Ieath.
There is scarcely a penny paid to them uoaa^ In short, the
Union struck doAvn the manufacturers of Ireland. The Com-
missioners of the Poor LaAv prove that 120,000 persons in
Ireland are in a state of destitution during the greater part
of each year. Hoav is it that in one of the most fertile
countries in the AA^orld this should occur?
VII. The Irish ne\"er broke any of their bargains nor their
treaties, and England never kept one that Avas made on her
part. There is noAV a union of the legislatures, but I deny
that there is a union of the nations, and I again proclaim
the Act a nullity. England has given to her people a muni-
cipal reform extensive and satisfactory, AA-hile to Ireland she
gives a municipal reform crippled and Avorthless. But the
I'^nion is more a nullity on ecclesiastical grounds : for why
should the great majority of the people of Ireland pay for
the support of a religion AAdiich they do not believe to be
4G0 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
true! The Union was carried by the most abominable cor-
ruption and briberj^ by financial robbery on an extensive
scale, which makes it the more heinous and oppressive ; and
the result is that Ireland is saddled with an unjust debt, her
commerce is taken from her, her trade is destroyed, and a
large number of her people thus reduced to misery and
distress.
VIII. Yes. the people of Ireland are cruelly oppressed, and are
we tamely to stand by and allow our dearest interests to be
trampled upon? Are we not to ask for redress! Yes, we
will ask for that which alone will give us redress — a parlia-
ment of our own. And you will have it too, if you are cjuiet
and orderly, and join with me in my present struggle.
(Cheers.) Your cheers will be convej^ed to England. Yes,
the majority of this mighty multitude will be taken there.
Old Wellington began by threatening us, and talked of civil
war, but he says nothing about it now. He is getting inlet
holes made in stone barracks. Now only think of an old
general doing such a thing, as if, were there anything going
on, the people would attack .stone walls! I have heard that
a great deal of brandy and biscuits have been sent to the
barracks, and I sincerely hope the poor soldiers will get
some of them. Your honest brothers, the soldiers, Avho have
been sent to Ireland, are as orderly and as brave men as any
in Ireland. I am .sure that not one of you has a single
complaint to make against them. If any of you have, say so.
(Cries of "No!") They are the bravest men in the world,
and therefore I do not disparage them at all when I state
this fact, that if they are sent to make war against the
people, I have enough women to beat them. There is no
mockery or delusion in what I say. At the last fight for
Ireland, when we were betrayed by a reliance on English
honor, in which we would never again confide — for I would
as soon confide in the honor of a certain black gentleman
who has two horns and hoofs — but, as I was saying, at the
last battle for Ireland, when, after two days' hard fighting,
the Irish were driven back by the fresh troops brought up
by the English to the bridge of Limerick, at that point when
the Irish soldiers retired fainting, it was that the women
of Limerick threw themselves in the way, and drove the
enemy back fifteen, twenty, or thirty paces. Several of the
poor women were killed in the struggle, and their shrieks of
agony being heard by their countrymen, they again rallied
and determined to die in their defence, and, doubly valiant
in the defence of the women, they togetlier routed the Si.xons.
. Yes, I repeat, I have enough women to beat all the army
SPECIAL OCCASIONS 461
of Ireland. It is idle for any minister or statesman to
suppose for a moment that he can put down sueh a struggle
as this for liberty. The only thing I fear is the eonduet of
some ruffians who are called Eibbonmen. I know there are
such blackguards, for I have traced them from Manchester.
They are most dangerous characters, and it will be the duty
of every Repealer, whether he knows or by any means can
discover one of them, immediately to hand him over to justice
and the law. The Ribbonmen only, by their proceedings,
can injure the great and religious cause in which I am now
engaged, and in which I have the people of Ireland at my
back.
IX. This is a holy festival in the Catholic Church — the da^'
upon which the IMother of our Saviour ascended to meet her
Son, and reign with Him forever. On such a day I will not
tell a falsehood. I hope I am under her protection while
addressing you, and I hope that Ireland will receive the
benefit of her prayers. Our Church has prayed against
Espartero and his priest-terrorizing, church-plundering
marauders, and he has since fallen from power — nobody
knows how, for he makes no etfort to retain it. He seems to
have been bewildered by the Divine curse, for without one
rational effort the tyrant of Spain has faded before the
prayers of Christianity. I hope that there is a blessing in
this day, and, fully aware of its solemnity, I assure you that
I am afraid of nothing but Ribbonism, which alone can
disturb the present movement. I have proclaimed from
this spot that the Act of Union is a nullity ; but in seeking
for Repeal I do not want you to disobey the law. I have
only to refer to the words of the Tories' friend, Saurin, to
prove that the Union is illegal. I advise you to obey the
law until you have the word of your beloved Queen to tell
you that you shall have a Parliament of your own. The
Queen — God bless her! — will yet tell you that you shall
have a legislature of your own— three cheers for the Queen !
(Great cheering.)
X. On the 2d of January last I called this Repeal year, and
I was laughed at for doing so. Are they laughing now?
No: it is now my turn to laugh and I will now say that in
twelve months more we shall have our Parliament again
on College Green. The Queen has the undoubted preroga-
tive at any time to order her Ministers to issue writs,
which, being signed by the Lord Chancellor, the Irish
Parliament would at once be convened without the necessity
of applying to the English Legislature to repeal what they
appear to consider a valid Act of Union. And if dirty
462 EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING
Sugden would not sign the writ, an Irish Chancellor would
soon be found who would do so. And if we have our Parlia-
ment again in Dublin, is there, I would ask, a coward
amongst you who would not rather die than allow it to be
taken away by any Act of Union? (Loud cries of "No one
would ever submit to it!" "We'd rather die!" etc.) To
the last man. (Cries of "To the last man!") Let every
man who would not allow the Act of Union to pass hold
up his hand. (An immense forest of hands was shown.)
When the Irish Parliament is again assembled, I will defy
any power on earth to take it from us again. Are you all
ready to obey me in the course of conduct which I have
pointed out to you? (Cries of "Yes, yes!") When I dis-
miss you today, will you not disperse and go peaceably to
your homes— ("Yes, yes, we will!") — every man, woman,
and child ? — in the same tranquil manner as you have assem-
bled ? ( " Yes, yes ! " ) But if I want you again tomorrow, will
you not come to Tara Hill? ("Yes, yes!") Remember, I
will lead you into no peril. If danger should arise, it will
be in consequence of some persons attacking us, for we are
determined not to attack any person ; and if danger does
exist you will not find me in the rear rank. When we get
our Parliament, all our grievances w\\\ be put to an end ;
our trade will be restored, the landlord will be placed on a
firm footing, and the tenants who are now so sadly oppressed
W'ill be placed in their proper position. "Law, Peace, and
Order" is the motto of the Repeal banner, and I trust you
will all rally round it. (Cries of "We are all Repealers!")
I have to inform you that all the magistrates who have
recently been deprived of the Commission of the Peace have
been appointed by the Repeal Association to settle any dis-
putes which may arise among the Repealers in their respec-
tive localities. On next Monday persons will be appointed
to settle disputes without expense, and I call on every man
who is the friend of Ireland to have his disputes settled by
arbitrators without expense, and to avoid going to the Petty
Sessions.
XL I believe I am now in a position to announce to you that
in twelve months more we shall not be without having a
"Hurrah for the Parliament on College Green !" (Immense
cheering.) Your shouts are almost enough to call to life
those who rest in the grave. I can almost fancy the spirits
of the mighty dead hovering over you. and the ancient kings
and chiefs of Ireland, from the clouds, listening to the
shouts sent up from Tnra for Irish liberty. Oh T Ireland is
a lovely land, blessed with the boiuiteous gifts of Nature,
SPECIAL OCCASIONS ' 463
and where is the coward who would not die for her? (Cries
of "Not one !") Your cheers will penetrate to the extremity
of civilization. Our movement is the admiration of the
world, for no other country can show so much force with
so much propriety of conduct. No other country can show
a people assembled for the highest national purposes that
can actuate man ; can show hundreds of thousands able in
strength to carry any battle that ever was fought, and yet
separating with the tranquillity of schoolboys. You have
stood by me long — stand by me a little longer, and Ireland
wiU be again a nation.
Assignment of Work
The written cxereises in this entire lesson sliould he
carefully worked ont. Keep copies of the written exer-
cises in vour notebook.
First Day. — Study the lesson thoroughly and make a written
analysis of Mr. Burchard's eulogy. Comment in your note-
book on the excellence of the arrangement and make sug-
gestions for changes if you think improvement might be
effected.
Second Day. — Outline an informal eulogy of someone of distinc-
tion in a circle, more or less wide, with which you are
familiar. Plan it to be delvs^ered at an anniversary or occa-
sion when he is to be presented with a gift in recognition of
services rendered. Write down definitely the occasion, the
nature of the audience, and your relation to both.
Third Day. — Orally develop and deliver the speech as planned.
Fourth Day. — Outline and deliver an inaugural address as:
president of a social club, president of a stock company
formed to supply water to a valley used by farmers, presi-
dent of a political club of radical character in a neighbor-
hood formerly conservative, or of any other position of which
you know and in which you take an interest.
Fifth Day. — Rule several sheets of foolscap paper down the
center. On the left side, write a careful and detailed analysis
of the O'Connell speech. On the right side, indicate the
lesson of this course, and page on which a comment or prin-
ciple related to the points noted, is to be found.
TEST QUESTIONS
These (juestioiis are for the student to use in testing
liis kiiouhHlge of the principles in this lesson. They
are siifnicfitivc merely, dealing largely with the practical
a])plieation of the jsrinciples, and are to be placed in the
iiotehook for future reference.
1. Why is the euh)gy picked out as a type speech worthy of
study ?
2. What are the two general plans of arrangement suggested
either pure or combined for the eulogy ?
3. Give the difference between the formal and the intimate
eulogy. W^hich kind is used more often? Which is usually
recorded and preserved ?
4. How do you like the style of the Burchard speech? Do
you think the matter would be ver^^ -interesting to men graduated
from the same college as Compton and Burchard ?
5. How important is deep and genuine feeling through thor-
ough familiarity to success in the eulogy ?
6. What are the general purposes of an inaugural address ?
7. Give a type outline for an inaugural address.
8. Can you construct a farewell address? Have you ever
read Washington 's famous farewell address ?
9. Why is it difficult to make a speech to a popular audience
on a vital topic ? Why is such an audience more difficult to
influence successfully than a special audience?
10. Does O'Connell open his speech like a man who has to
establish himself with the mixed crowd before him, or like one
who is sure of his reception by any Irish crowd?
11. In paragraph II he says, "Would any man be mad
enough to assert it; would any man be insane enough, etc.?"
Have you ever come across this rhetorical device before ? Have
you read the speech of Brutus over the body of Caesar in
Shakespeare's Julius Caesar?
^2. In how many places does the text show that O'Connell
adapted his remarks to indications of feeling given by the
audience? Does this require a high degree of ease and skill as
a speaker ?
464
INDEX
Action, nature of, 291-96.
Adams, John, 299-300.
After-dinner speech, 430-38.
Aluminum compounds, Wiley on,
258-60.
Americanism, Schurz on, 92-93.
Analogy, 266-67.
Anniversary address, 443-52.
Appeal, 96-99: to action, 291-307.
Application, 92-96.
Argumentation, 273-87. See also
Arguments.
Aiguments, 229-47, 251-69.
Aristotle, 85, 358-59.
Arrangement of material, 68-81, 151-
52, 356-59.
Attention, general nature, 327-29 ; of
audience, 49-54, 327-42 ; of speak-
er, 327-42 : of speaker during prep-
aration, 331-33 ; to audience, 335-
36 ; to plan, 336-37.
Attiactiveness, personal, 44-45, 129-
39.
Auto-suggestion, 142-44.
Bathing, 405-6.
Bearing in an argument, 287.
Beecher, Henrv Ward, 7-8. 39-40,
51-52, 130-31, 179-80, 216-18, 336,
404.
Blaine, James G., 180.
Body, weight of, 109-10, 396.
Body of a speech. 17-18, 67-81.
Boston, Everett's description of, 17 4-
76.
Boston Massacre: Hancock on, 42:
Warren on, 261-64.
Breathing, 115-22, 334, 404-5.
Briefing, 273-84.
Buckley, Dr., 184-85.
Bullock, Alexander H., 428-29.
Burchard, Lewis S., 444-51.
Burden of proof, 285-87.
Burke, Edmund, 74-75.
Canal Toll Bill, Root on. 96-97.
Card bibliogi-aphy, 321-22.
Causation: as a basis of order, 75-
76 : generalization of, 254-60.
Chairman: of meeting, 412-15; of
occasion, 427-30.
Charity, Paul on, 219.
Chronological order, 69-73.
Classification, generalization of, 25 1-
56.
Clay, Henrv, 11-12, 99, 159-60, 301-2.
Clothing, 402-3.
Communication between minds, im-
portance of, 2-3.
Compton, A. G., Burchard's eulogy
of. 444-51.
Concepts, 211-25.
Conclusion of a speech, 18-19, 85-101.
Confidence, 139-44.
Conkling, Roscoe, 19-25.
Conscience, 137-38.
Conscious action, 291-93.
Constitution: Hamilton on, 416-20;
Henry on, 353-55.
Convention: opening of, 415 ; speeches
in, 415-24.
Conversation, as a factor in acquir-
ing special material, 320.
Corax, 85-86.
Criticism of other speakers, 13-14.
Cuban Problem, argument on, 237-
39.
Culture, importance of, 314-15.
Curran, J. P., 43, 97-99.
Curtis, George William, 430.
Declaration of Independence, Adam.s"
supposed speech on, 299-300.
Deduction, 260-69.
Definition of terms in a speech. 60.
Demosthenes. 10 8-9.
Digestion, 401-2.
Discrimination between concepts.
220-21.
Distractions: to audience, 339-40; to
speaker, 337.
Drinking, 406-7.
Earnestness, 136-37.
Effectiveness : defined, 1-2 ; how at-
tained, 3-4.
Efficiency, 1-2.
Emotion, its effect on the voice, 366-
69.
Eulogy: biographical, 443-52; of A.
G. Compton bv Burchard, 444-51 ;
of Clav bv Lincoln, 11-12 ; of O'Con-
nell bv Phillips, 90 ; of Sumner by
Schurz. 69-73.
Everett. Edward, 53, 154, 174-76.
Exercises for gestures, 383-97.
Exordium, 86.
Facts, 239-47.
Feeling in the audience, 31-46, 67,
78-79.
Feet, position of, 107-9.
Flexibility in posture, 114-15.
Floor tactics. 284-85, 358.
Force, 373-75.
Fox, Charles, 421.
Franklin, Benjamin, 408.
Friendline.ss, 132-33.
465
466
INDEX
Gambling-, Beecher on, 179-80.
Garfleld, James A., 32-38, 180, 336.
General ideas, 211-2.5.
Generalization, 251-60.
Gestures, 381-97; automatic, 33.'):
conti'ol of, 4 : voluntary and in-
voluntary, 381-83.
Grady, Henry W., 9, .52, 95-96.
Grant, U. S., 19-25.
Grattan, Henry, 423-24.
Greece, Henry Clay on, 301-2.
Habitual attention, 330-31.
Hamilton, Alexander, 416-20.
Hancock, John, 42.
Hands, use of, 385-97.
Hav, John, 43-44, 432-36.
Heni'y, Patrick, 2, 52-53, 91, 353-55.
Home rule in Ireland, 23 5-37.
Hostility in the audience, 32, 39-41.
Hugo, Victor, 50-51, 154-55.
Hygiene, 138 ; 399-408.
Ideas: organization of. 4-15, 17-29:
should be developed one at a time,
10-12.
Idiomotor acts, 295.
Imagery, 151-67, 171-82.
Imagination, 151-67, 171-82.
Impulsive acts, 298-302.
Inaugural address, 452-54.
Indifference in the audience, 41—44.
Induction, 251-60.
Ingersoll. Robert, 161-62, 181.
Interest in the audience, 49-54.
Interests of speaker, 331-33.
Introduction of a speech, 18, 31-61,
275-77.
Involuntary attention, 330.
Jesus as a public speaker, 188-89.
'Key-note speech," 413-15.
Language, mastery of, 4. See also
Vocabulary-building.
Lincoln, Abraham, 11-12, 266-67, 352-
53, 367-68, 452-53.
O'Connell, Daniel, 90, 454-63.
Old South Church, Phillips on, 349-51.
Omar Khayyam, Hay on, 43-44,
432-34.
Opening Address, 427-30.
Opinions, how built up, 230-37.
Order of material, 68-81. 177.
Organization of ideas, 4-15, 17-29.
Paul, the apostle, 219.
Pauses, 372-73.
Perkins, George W., 257-58.
Peroration, 87, 92-99.
Persisting stimulus, 305-6.
Personality, 129-39.
Personal research as a factor in ac-
quiring special material, 319-20.
Philippines, brief on the retention of,
278-82.
Phillips. Wendell, 90-91. 349-51.
Phonation, 404-5.
Physical aspects of delivery, 105-24.
Pitch, 375-78.
Place as a basis of order, 73-74.
Plan of a speech, 17-29.
Posture, 106-15, 334.
Practice, importance of, 3-4, 14-15.
See also Preparation.
Preparation, importance of, 141-42.
Pi-eparation of material, 311-23.
Proem, 85-86.
Promise of gain, 52-54, 329.
Pronunciation, automatic, 335.
Proposition, 274-75.
Purpose of a speech, 60-61, 345-60.
Quintilian, 183.
Reading, 185-87, 320-22.
Reciprocity with Canada, speech on,
54-58.
Reflection hour, 146-47.
Reflex action. 294.
Repeal of the Union, O'Connell on,
456-63.
Research. 319-323.
Rest, 403-4.
Retention of ideas, 4, 318.
Robespierre, 51.
Root, Elihu, 96-9 7.
Magnetism, 130-39, 296-97.
Magnitude as a basis of order, 7 4-7.
Mass action. 297-98.
Material, preparation of, 311-23.
Meeting, how to call, 411.
Mills, Dr., 407.
Modesty, 41-4 4.
Mouth hygiene, 407-8.
Miinsterberg, Hugo, 229.
Napoleon, Ingersoll on. 162.
Nervousness, 123-24.
New South. Grady on. 9.
Nominating speech, organization of,
17-29.
Nomination: of Grant by Conkling,
19-25 ; of Sherman by Garfield, 32-
38.
Note-taking, as a factor in acquiring
special material, 320, 322.
Schurz, Carl. 69-73, 92-93.
Selective action, 303-6.
Self-control, 144-45.
Senses in imagery, 163-67.
Sense-training, 315-16.
Sherman, John, 32-38.
Shock to the audience, 50-52, 329.
Sincerity, 42-44.
Slavery. Beecher on. 39-40. 130-31.
216-18.
Smoking. 406.
Speakers, criticism of. 13-14.
Speeches for special occasions, direc-
tions for, 411-63.
Speed in delivery, 369-73.
Subjective aspects of delivery. 129-
47.
Suggestive use of words, 181-82.
Summary, 88-91, 100-101.
Sumner, Charles: Bullock on, 428-
29 ; eulogy of by Schurz, 69-73.
INDEX
467
SvUogisms, 261-69.
Sympathy, 133-36.
Voice, 363-78 ; control of, 4.
Voluntary attention, 330, 333-34.
Tact, 145-46.
Tariff, Perkins on, 257-58.
Thurston, John M., 292-93.
Toastmaster, duties of, 429-30.
Tone, variations of, 363.
Trunk, posture of, 111-12.
Unconscious action, 293-96.
Understanding in the audience,
61, 77-78.
Vocabulary, automatic use of.
Vocabulary-building-, 183-
Vocational talks, 438-40.
Warren, Jo.seph, 261-65.
Washington, Booker T., 43.
Washington, George, 12-13.
Webster, Daniel, 93-95, 158, 163, 2
300, 319, 370-71.
Weight of body, 109-10, 396.
Wiley, Dr. Harvey W., 258-60.
Wilson, Woodrow, 14, 266.
Wirt, William, 312-13.
Witnesses, 240-46.
Women, Hay's speech on, 434-36.
Word-analysis, 193-209.
Word-painting, 151-58, 171-82.
Words, supply of, 182-90, 193-20^
Zones of attention, 329-31, 333.
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