NEW NORMAL QUESTION BOOK T T J-E-SHERRILL LIBRARY OF THE * UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class The Man Who Pleases and Toman Who Charms, 75c. The points of conduct and the marks of breeding that spell sue c e s s social and business success* How to Become Quick at Figures. Enlarged Edition. $J.OO. How to Prepare for a Civil Service Examination, with recent Examination Questions and the Answers. Cloth, 560 pages. $2.00* Abridged Edition, without Questions and Answers, Paper, 50 cents. Craig's Common School Questions, with Answers. Enlarged Edition. $1,50. Henry's High School Questions, "with Answers. $1.50. SherrilTs New Normal Questions, with Answers. $J.50. Quizzism and Its Key (Southwick.) $1.00. JOOJ Questions and Answers Series. Eleven Volumes. until recently published by THE B. B. CO., each 50 Cts* Theory and Practice Teaching. Revised. United States History. Revised. General History. Revised. Geography. Revised. English Grammar. Revised. Reading and Orthography. Revised, Physiology and Hygiene. Revised* Botany. New. Natural Philosophy. ' New. Arithmetic. Revised. Test Examples in Arith., with Answers. Revised. Moritz*s 1000 Questions. For Entrance Exam. N. Y. High Schools, College of City of N. Y., St. Francis Xavier College, West Point, Annapolis, and Civil Service. Paper. 30 cents. Answers, 30 cents. Recent Entrance Examination Questions. For the College of the City of New York, St. Francis Xavier College, Columbia College, the High Schools, Regents* Examinations, West Point, Annapolis, the Civil Service. Paper. SOcts. Answers, 30 cents. 20th Century Educational Problems. By President Millar of Hendrix College. A timely discussion. $1.00* Henry'. Normal U.S. History. $1.00. CRAIG'S COMMON SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK {Over 189,000 copies sold) Over 10,000 teachers have secured their certificate with its aid. County examiners use it because it is so authoritative. Students find it of great assistance in pre- paring for their Entrance Examinations to the High Schools. Teachers use it for review work. The ^ook contains over 8,500 questions and answers on U. S. History Geography Reading Pedagogy Grammar Drawing Physiology Civil Government Arithmetic Bookkeeping In order that this book may find its way into the hands of every hard-working Teacher, we oner tLe following special club rates : Price for single copies, $1.50; two copies, $1.20; three copies, $1.15; four copies, $1.10 ; five copies, $1.00. Transportation prepaid. HENRY'S HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK (Over 60,000 copies sold) *'This book is the most up-to-date practical aid I have ever seen. The questions on Mathematics, History, and the Sciences are full of helpful suggestions. Every pro- gressive teacher should possess a copy.' It contains questions and answers on the following subjects : General History Physiology English Literature Chemistry Philosophy Astronomy Rhetoric Geometry Political Economy Physics Civil Government Algebra This is one of the most uelpful books for High 5v teachers that has ever been published. It has helped mr^ny a student to successfully pass his College Entrance Examination. Price, 1.50. NEW NORMAL QUESTION BOOK COMPRISING QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON ALL COMMON SCHOOL STUDIES DESIGNED EXPRESSLY FOR TEACHERS PREPARING FOR EXAMINATIONS FOR CERTIFICATES AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF COMMON SCHOOLS, HIGH SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTES FOR DAILY, WEEKLY AND GENERAL REVIEWS BY J. E. SHERRILL EDITOR "NORMAL TEACHER" LARGED Copyright 1899, by Hinds & Noble HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE, PUBLISHERS 31-33-35 WEST ISTH STREET NEW YORK CITY 6tHEAL Some new Speakers The Best American Orations of To-day (Blackstone) $1.25 Selected Readings from the Most Popular Novels - .00 Pieces That Have Taken Prizes in Speaking Contests .25 New Pieces That Will Take Prizes in Speaking Contests .25 Pieces for Every Occasion (Le Row) ... .25 How to Attract and Hold an Audience (Esenwein) .00 How to Use the Voice in Reading and Speaking (Ott) .25 How to Gesture, New Illustrated Edition (Ott) - .00 A Ten Weeks' Course in Elocution (Coombs) - .25 Fenno's New Science and Art of Elocution - - .25 Three-Minute Declamations for College Men - 1.00 Three-Minute Readings for College Girls - - 1.00 Handy Pieces to Speak (on cards) - - - - .50 Acme Declamation Book - ... .50 Ross' Southern Speaker - - - - - 1. 00 New Dialogues and Plays (Primary, Inter. , Adv.) 1.50 Commencement Parts (Orations^ Essays, etc.) 1.50 Pros and Cons (Questions of To-day Fully Discussed) 1.50 250 New Questions for Debate .... .15 How to Organize and Conduct a Meeting - .75 Palmer's New Parliamentary Manual ... .75 Howe's Hand Book of Parliamentary Usage JO HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE 3J-33-35 West J 5th Street, New York C*y PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION The chief purpose of the New Normal Question Book is that of preparing teachers for examinations. The questions have been so arranged as to bring out the most vital and diffi- cult points of each subject and the answers have been carefully selected from the very best authorities. The book has been thoroughly revised and enlarged by adding questions and answers on the following new subjects, viz.: Psychology, Peda- gogy and Test Problems in Arithmetic. The Questions and Answers are by no means the all- important features of the book. The Appendix of Outlines on Map Drawing, Infinitives and Participles, Analysis in Grammar, Theory and Practice of Teaching, Topic Lists, Practical Grading, and hints and suggestions on various other subjects, such as the preparation of manuscripts and rules and regulations to be observed during examinations, must prove a mine of treasure to the teacher. THE PUBLISHERS. Sept. ist, 1899. 175775 r for Vonr Library The Worth of Words (Bell) $1.25 How to Study Literature (Heydrick) ... .75 A Brief Outline of the Books I Have Read .25 How Nature Study Should Be Taught (Bigelow) - 1. 00 Nature Study Lessons (Crawford) ... .75 Lessons on Manners Morals (Dewey) - each .75 Character (Varnum) 1.50 The Man Who Pleases and the Woman Who Charms .75 Who's Who in Mythology .75 Who's Who in History .75 Seeley's The Foundations of Education - - 1. 00 Seeley's A New School Management - - 1.25 Gordy's A Broader Elementary Education - - 1.25 The 20th Century Educational Problems - - 1. 00 The Science of Study (Moore) - - - - 1. 00 Cook's Psychology (A Simplified Exposition) 1.25 Stout's The Groundwork of Psychology - - 1.25 Stout's Manual of Psychology - 1 .50 Mackenzie's Manual of Ethics - - - - 1.50 How to Become Quick at Figures - - - - 1.00 A Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms .50 Common Errors in Writing and Speaking .50 A, B,C of Electricity .50 Fiftv Profitable Occupations .... - 1. 00 HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE 91-33*35 Wert J5th Street, New York Cftf TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE. Preface 11 Questions on Orthographr 15 Answers to Questions on Orthography 18 Questions on Heading 32 Answers to Questions on Reading 35 Questions on Arithmetic 50 Answers to Questions on Arithmetic 58 Questions on Grammar 89 Answers to Questions on Grammar 100 Questions on United States History 142 Answers to Questions on United States History ^ 158 Questions on Physiology 209 Answers to Questions on Physiology 219 Questions on Theory and Practice of Teaching 258 Answers to Questions on Theory and Practice of Teaching 262 Questions on Mathematical Geography 280 Answers to Questions on Mathematical Geography 285 Questions on Political Geography 298 Answers to Questions on Political Geography- 304 Questions on Physical Geography 320 Answers to Questions on Physical Geography 328 Questions on Civil Government 358 Answers to Questions on Civil Government 364 (13) 14 CONTENTS. PAGE. Questions on English Literature 378 Answers to Questions on English Literature- 381 Questions on American Literature 395 Answers to Questions on American Literature 397 Questions on Penmanship ~ 403 Answers to Questions on Penmanship . 404 Questions on Parliamentary Rules ~ 408 Answers to Questions on Parliamentary Kules~ 411 Questions on Psychology and Pedagogy 424 Answers to Questions on Psychology and Pedagogy 430 Test Problems 446 Answers to Test Problems 450 APPENDIX. Rules to be Observed at Examinations 457 Hints on the Preparation of Manuscripts 460 Programme 465 Outline of Percentage 467 Cartography. 471 Scale of Criticism 475 Grammar 479 Outline on Theory and Practice of Teaching 485 Topic List for the Study of Geography 489 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY 1. Define Orthography. 2. What is an elementary sound ? 3. How many elementary sounds in the English Slanguage, and how are they represented? 4. Give their classification. 5. Define vocals, sub-vocals and aspirates, and explain the terms correlatives, liquids, coalescents, explodents and continuents. 6. What is a letter? 7. How are letters divided? 8. What further division can be made ? 9. Name and define the vowels and consonants. 10. When are w and y vowels ? 11. How are consonants distinguished? 12. Name and define the semi- vowels and mutes. 13. What do you understand by the liquids? 14. How do letters differ in the variety of their representation ? (15) 16 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 15. Of what uses are silent letters? 16. When are letters said to be long and when short f 17. How do letters combine to form sounds? 18. What is the name of a letter? 19. What is the power of a letter? 20. When two or more letters unite what do they form? 21. What is a final 'letter? 22. How are vowels united? 23. Name and define the classes of diphthongs and triphthongs. 24. How are consonants united? 25. Do vowel and consonant sounds unite? 26. Define digraph and trigraph. 27. What is a syllable? 28. What is the essential part of a syllable? 29. Of what may a syllable consist ? 30. Give a model for analyzing syllables. 31. What is a word? 32. How are words classified? 33. What is accent? 34. What is an accented syllable? 35. How is accent denoted? 36. What does a difference of accent sometime* serve to do? 37. What difference is found in the accentuation of compound words? 38. When is the hyphen generally used between the parts of a compound word, and when is it com* monly omitted? 39. What words have an accent? 40. Which may the accented syllable be? ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 11. How many and what kinds of accents are there ? 42. Mention the significant parts of a word. 43. What is-a root? 44. Define prefix and suffix. 45. How would you analyze a word according to Its significant parts ? 46. What is pronunciation? 47. What is spelling? 48. Name and define the kinds of spelling. 49. Give rules for spelling. 60. Give a method of orthographic parsing. 18 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 1. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, let- syllables and spelling. 2. An elementary sound is the simplest sound of the language. 8. Forty-one.* These sounds are represented by twenty-six letters called the English Alphabet. 4. These sounds are divided into throe sub-vocals and aspirates. CHART OF THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS LONG VOCALS., SHORT VOCALS. 1. e, as in me, eve. 9. I, as in ill, it. 2. e, serge, verge. 10. " ell, let. 3. a, t< aim, ale. 11. 6 lt odd, not. 4. ^ u air, care. 12. tt, " up, sup. 5. a, a arm, farm. 13. a, add, sad. 6. 6, u or, for. 14. a, u ask, task. 7. > it oak, no. 15. V, * full, pulL a , tl ooze, do. *Authorities differ as to the number of elementary sounds. From to6 works which we have consulted, we find the number given varying forty to forty-four. ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 DIPHTHONGS. 16. \ as in ice, lie. 18, u, as in mute, cube. . fti, " oil, boil. 19. on, " out, sound. SUB-VOCALS. CorreJffJLwtss. 20. b, as in boy, ebb. 21. d, " did, rod. 22. g, " go, rag. 23. g, " gem, judge. 24. v, " veer, valve. 25. th, " tbis, breathe. 26. z, " zone ? zeal. 27. zh, " azure, seizure SUB-VOCALS. 28. 1, as in lo, will. 29. r, " row, roar. 30. m 9 " moon, home. 81. n, " no, moon. 82. ng, " sing, ring. SUB-VOCALS. Coakscenttk 83. w, as in we, wit. S4 y> u y et > y u - ASPIRATES. Exphdenfo. 85. p, as in pin, pipe. 36. t, " till, spot. 37. k, " kick, neck. 38. ch, " church, which. ASPIRATES. ContinwMte. 39. f, as in fife, stiff. 40. th, " think, breatb. 41. s, " see, pass. 42. sh, <4 shine, wish. 29 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 43. h, " he, hat. 44. wh, " whence, what. 5. The vocals consist of pure tone only. The suh-vocals consist of tone united with breath. The aspirates consist of pure breath only. Correlatives are so called because each pair is formed with the same position of the organs. Liquids are so called because they flow readily into other sounds. Coal- escents are so called because they unite with the sounds of other letters. Explodents are so called because they are incapable of prolongation. Con- tinuants are so called because they are capable ol prolongation. 6. A letter is a character that stands for a sound of the human voice used in speaking. 7. Letters are divided, (a) In respect to their forms, into capital and small letters. (b) In respect to the sounds they represent, into vowels and consonants. 8. The forms of letters may be divided as to (a) Varieties into 1. Italic. 2. Roman. 3. gj/rf jjnglteh. ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 (b) Sizes into i. Great Primer. 2, Columbian, 3. English. 4. Pica. 6. Small Pica. 6. Long Primer. 7. Bourgeois. 8. Brevier. 9. Minion. 10. Nonpareil 11. Agate. 11. P*rl. 13. Diamond. 14. BRILLIANT. A to sounds, letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 9. The vowels represent pure vocal sounds. Tkft vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. The consonants represent sub-vocal sounds and aspirates. The consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, a, t, v, w, x, y, z. 10. W and y sometimes represent vocals, and are then vowels. 11. Consonants are distinguished, f Semi-vowels and -\Mutes. 12. Semi-vowels may represent sounds without aid of a vowel. They are f, h, j, 1, m, n, r, s, v, x, z, and c and g soft. Mutes (b, d, k, p, q, t, and g bard) can not be sounded without the aid of a vowel. 22 THE NORMAL QUESTION 13. L, m, n, and r, are called liquids, because th sounds represented by them flow readily into simi lar or other sounds. 14. (a) Generally a letter represents a peculiar souncL (b) Some letters represent more than one sound. (c) Sometimes different letters represent the same sound. (d) Sometimes a letter is used that does not represent any sound. 15. Silent letters are used (a) To modify the sounds of other Ietters (b) To denote the origin or definition of the word. 16. A letter is said to be long when its sound can be protracted at will, as a in say aye. A letter is said to be short when the sound represented by it can not be protracted, as a in hctt. 17. Some letters combine (a) To form one sound. (b) To form a combination of sounds. 18. The name of a letter is the term or appelhv tion by which it is known. 19. The power of a letter is the elementary Bound which it represents. 20. When two or more letters unite, to represent a union of elementary sounds, they form a combina* turn of letters. ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 21. A final letter is one that ends a word. T is fi ial in rat. 22. The union of two vowels in one syllable is culled & diphthong; the union of three vowels in one syllable is called a triphthong. 23. Dipthongs are divided into two classes, proper aad improper. A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels a 18. (1) Pronounce, several times in succession, words in which aspirate sounds occur as initial or final elements. (2) Drop the other sounds, and repeat the as- pirates alone. (3) Repeat the words and elements, at first, ia concert, then separately. 19. CHART OF ASPIRATE SOUNDS. F, f, as in life, quaff, skiff, sc6ff, rftff. H, h, as in hay, hive, hope, humid. K, k, as in rake, b66k, rick, mtick, rock. P, p, as in rap, lip, h6p, up, gallop. S, s, as in mass, kiss, I6ss, fuss. T, t, as in at, flit, mote, lute, sttbmlt. Sh, sh, as in rash, wish, b6sh, mfish. shore. Ch, ch, as in match, rich, roach, milch. Th, th, as in thank, 16th, throne, ruth, wr6th. Wh, wh, as in whale, what, whip, why, whimper. 20. (1) Suppression of vocal sounds in unaccented syllables. (2) Suppression of subvocal and aspirate sounds. (3) Incorrect articulation of vocal sounds. (4) Omission and addition of syllables. (5) Blending the end of one word with the be- ginning of the next. 21. Take, for example, the word map, in which there are as many sounds as there are letters.x Print it on the board : MAP. m-m-m a-a-a p-p-p map. ' j After the separate sounds of this word are per- fectly understood, select one with a new element in it, and exercise pupils on that ; first calling on them to say whether it has as many sounds as it has let- ters. 40 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. MAIS". m-m-m a-a-a n-n-n man. Proceed now to illustrate the fact that, owing to the poverty of our alphabet and the capricious irregularities in our modes of forming words by letters, the same letter, a, is used for a variety of sounds. This may be shown in make, car, fall, etc. Show that one device for helping us out has been to at- tach a silent vowel letter (as in wafce=m~a-k) to indicate the long sound of a in a large class of words. MAKE. m-m-m a-a-a- k-k-k make. In the word car we have the sounds of k, a iu father and smooth or untrilled r. CAR. k-k-k a-a-a r-r-r car. Here it may be illustrated that the presence of r should give a slight, but not a too formal, differ- ence to our enunciation of such words as alms and arms, balm and farm. In the word thaw there are only two elementary sounds, namely, aspirate th and the sound of a in fall. Call upon pupils to designate the elementary sounds in the following words : Trough (trof ), enough, physic, child, shine, thin, thine, sleigh, calf, autumn, awe, aught, height, freight, prove, prone, laugh> sphere. 22. By pauses and repetitions. 23. First. Pronounce the vowel e. extending the lips as much as possible sidewise. ana showing the tips of the teeth. Second. Pronounce ah, dropping the jaw and opening the mouth to its widest extent. READING. 41 Third. Pronounce oo (as in cool) contracting the lips. Then, the teacher having drawn upon the blackboard a triangle with the three sounds indi- cated at the angles, let him pass the " pointer," around in a circle, touching at the angles, and re- quire the pupils to utter the vowels, as he indicates them, in rapid succession, continuously, that is, with- out pausing between them. Having gone around three or four times in one direction, make a signal for the pupils to stop ; then taking a fresh breath^ reverse the exercise. E Proceed in like manner, taking each of the other angles as a starting point. We shall thus have repetitions of each of the following :( E-ah-oo; e-oo-ah ; ah-e-oo ; ah-oo-e ; oo-ah-e ; oo-e-ah. After the above has been practiced for a min- ute or two, exercises like the following may be taken up immediately. (The teacher pronounces one word at a time, with the utmost precision, and requires the pupils to repeat with an exaggerated movement of the lips and jaws.^ Next, phrases, an4 42 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. finally complete sentences, are uttered, great care being taken to give elastic spring and play to the muscles of articulation. The one injunction which needs to be enforced upon the mumbler is, OPEN THE MOUTH AND MOVE THE LIPS. ARTICULATION OF SINGLE WORDS. I . . know . . of . . no . . way . . of . . judging . . of . . the . . future . . but . . by . . the . . past. ARTICULATION OF PHRASES. In every period of life . . the acquisition of knowledge . . is one of the most pleasing employ* ments . . of the human mind. ARTICULATION OF SENTENCES. The greater the difficulty, the more glory there is in surmounting it ; skillful pilots gain their repu- tation from storms and tempests. 24. Emphasis is a special stress of voice upon one or more words of a sentence, to give them the prominence and importance the author intends. 25. The object of emphasis is to attract particu- lar attention to the word or phrase upon which it 5s placed, thus indicating that the idea intended to be conveyed depends very much upon that word or phrase. 26. This is sometimes accomplished by an unu^ sual lowering of the voice, even to a whisper; but most frequently by an increased stress laid upon the word or phrase to be emphasized. READING. 4B 27. Emphasis is either absolute or relative. When the emphasis is independent of any con- trast or comparison with other words or ideas, it is called absolute emphasis. Where there is antithesis, either expressed of implied, the emphasis is called relative. 28. Emphatic words are often printed in Italics When, however, different degrees of emphasis are to be denoted, the higher degrees are designated by the use of capitals, LARGER or SMALLER, ac- cording to the degree of intensity. * 29. Accent is that stress of voice by which one syllable of a word is made more prominent than others. Id., p. 1. 30. The accented syllable is designated thus: ('); as, com-mand'-ment. 31. Primary and secondary. The more forcible stress of voice, is called the primary accent; and the less forcible, the secondary accent. 32. Inflections are slides of the voice upward or downward. Of these there are two : the rising in- flection and falling inflection. 83. The RISING INFLECTION is that in which the coice slides upward, and is marked thus (') ; as, Did you walk'? (Did you walk?) The FALLING INFLECTION is that in which the voice slides downward, and is marked thus Q ; as, I did not walk\ (I did not walk.) 34. (1) Emphatic words, and words denoting a 44 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. completion of the sense, generally require the fall ing inflection. (2) Words concluding negations and direct ques- tions, or words used by way of direct address, re- quire the rising inflection ; but, if repeated emphat- ically, the falling inflection is proper. (3) Words concluding indirect questions, re- quire the falling inflection; but, if repeated em- phatically, the rising inflection is proper. (4) Each member of a commencing series gen- erally requires the falling inflection, except the last, which should have the rising inflection. (5) Each member of a concluding series gen- erally requires the falling inflection, except the last but one, which should have the rising inflection. 35. A series is a succession of particulars in a discourse. 36. A series in the beginning or middle of a sen- tence is called a commencing series. A series which concludes a sentence is called a concluding series. 37. The circumflex is a union of the two inflec- tions on the same word, beginning either with the falling and ending with the rising, or with the rising and ending with the falling. READING. 45 38. Quality ELEMENTS OF EXPRESSION. Pure Tone. f Effusive. Orotund < Expulsive. (Explosive. Aspirated. Guttural. Nasal. Oral. Low. Very low. Middle. High. Very high. Transitions Force. Stress. Subdued. Moderate. Energetic. , Im P assioned { Suppressed. [Long. Quantity^ Medium. (Short. Radical. Median. Vanishing. Compound. Tremor. (Slow. Rapid 39. Transition is change in the manner of ex- pression. 40. The monotone is an unvaried tone through- out a sentence or discourse. 41. Monotony is a frequent occurrence of the same tone or manner, without reference to the sense. 42. Modulation implies those variations of the voice, heard in reading or speaking, which are prompted hy the feelings and emotions that the subject inspires. 43. The voice is modulated in three different ways ; that is, from high to low tones, and the re- verse. 6 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Secondly, it is varied in quantity, or in loudness ar volume of sound. Thirdly, it is varied in quality, or in the kind of sound expressed. 44. Although the voice is capable of as many variations in speaking as are marked on the musi- cal scale (8), yet for all the purposes of ordinary reading, it will be sufficiently exact if we make but three degrees of variation, viz., the low, the middle^ and the high. 45. QUANTITY is two-fold ; consisting in FULLNESS or VOLUME of sound, as soft or loud; and in TIME, as slow or quick. The former has reference to STRESS, the latter to MOVEMENT. 46. Quantity has reference to loudness or volume of sound, and pitch to the elevation or depression of a tone. 47. QUALITY has reference to the kind of sound uttered. 48. FORCE is the degree of energy with which sounds are uttered. 49. Emphasis differs from force, in the fact that the former is relative, while the latter is absolute. 50. The manner in which force is applied, h$ Beading and speaking, is termed stress. 51. CADENCE is the dropping of the voice at the close of the se.iptf3tn.c3, wjhicjti .ipd.ic.a.te.s .t.h.a.t the sense is complete. BEADING. 47 52. CLIMAX is an utterance gradually iucreasing in intensity, and changing in pitch and movement. 53. GROUPING is that nice modulation and adapta- tion of the voice to the sentiment expressed which renders the utterance not only more impressive, but more pleasing to the ear. 54. Personation is the representation of the tones and manner of other persons. 55. In all discourse, printed or written, certain characters are used to show something about ita meaning which can not so conveniently be ex- pressed by means of words. These characters are called rhetorical points. 56. The first class of rhetorical points includes, (1) The period (.) ; (2) The colon (:) ; (3) The semicolon (;) ; (4) The comma (,). The second class of rhetorical points includes, (1) The exclamation point (!); (2) The interrogation point (?); (3) The dash ( ) ; (4) Quotation marks ( " " and < ' ) ; (5) Marks of parenthesis ( ) ; (6) Brackets []. 57. Etymological points are used to indicate something in regard to the formation, use, or omis- sion of words or parts of words. They are, 48 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. (1) The apostrophe ('), used to show the omis- sion of a letter or letters ; a's, John's. (2) The caret ( A ), to show some omission in g manuscript; as come " The king is to marshal us." A (3) The diaeresis, to mark the separation of contiguous vowels; as, preengage. (4) Marks of quantity, to show that the vowel k long or short, as major. (5) Marks of accent, to mark either the ac- centuation of a syllable, or the intonation of the voice ; the grave ( r ), the acute ('), and the circum- flex (A) ; as, bitu'men, insist*, gold. (6) The hyphen, used, 1. To separate syllables ; as al-ge-bra; 2. To unite the parts of a compound word. (7) The period, to show the abbreviation of a word ; as, lat. for latitude. Points for reference are used to refer the reader to some other place in the page or the book. They are the following, which are generally used in the order given, and may be doubled if necessary: The asterisk (*) ; The obelisk or dagger (f) ; The double obelisk (J) ; The section () ; Parallels (||), and The paragraph (^[). 58. Capital letters are used : (1) To begin the first word of a sentence. (2) To begin all proper names. READING. 49 (3) To begin all titles of honor. (4) To begin the first word of every line of poetry. (5) To begin the names of objects personified. (6) In writing the pronoun I, and interjec- tion O. (7) To begin appellations of the Deity. (8) To begin the names of the days of the week, and of the months. (9) To begin direct quotations. LO) To begin words derived from proper names. (11) To begin the chief words in the titles of books, headings of divisions of books, chapters, dis- courses, etc. (12) To begin words of special importance. 59. " Be sure you understand what you read, and endeavor to express the sentiments of the author as you would express the same if they were your own. end you were talking." 50 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC 1. Define Arithmetic as a science and as an art. 2. Upon what is arithmetic founded, and now &re its operations carried on ? 3. What is arithmetical language? How many kinds ? 4. In how many ways may numhers be written Y 5. In the Arabic system of notation, numbers are expressed according to what principle ? 6. Why is the Arabic system of notation also called the decimal system? 7. What is the scale of a system of notation? What is the radix of the scale ? 8. Upon what is the Arabic system of notation based ? 9. How are numbers represented in the Roman notation ? 10. What is the effect of placing a bar over a letter? 11. What is the fundamental synthetic proces of arithmetic? 12. Give the principles of addition. 13. How many and what are the cases in addi- tion? 14. Why do we write the numbers, as suggeeced ARITHMETIC. 51 by the arithmetics, and why do we begin at the right hand to add ? 15. What is the fundamental analytical process of arithmetic? 16. Give the principles of subtraction. 17. Name and define the cases in subtraction. 18. In how many ways may we obtain the ele- mentary differences in subtraction ? 19. Name the principles of multiplication. 20. Why are the multiplicand and multiplier taken together called factors? 21. What is division ? 22. What are the terms of division ? 23. Upon what does the quotient depend? 24. Show how the value of the quotient depends on the relation of dividend and divisor. 25. What principles of division are deduced from these relations? 26. What two theories regarding the quotient, as to quality of abstractness or concreteness? 27. How are numbers classified? 28. Define these classes of numbers. 29. What are the factors of a number? 30. What is a prime factor? 31. What is factoring? 32. What is a divisor or measure of a number? 33. What is a multiple of a number? 34. What is a common divisor and a common multiple? 35. Define greatest common divisor and least common multiple. 36. What is a fraction? 52 THE NOEMAL QUESTION BOOK. 37. How does the unit of a fraction differ from a fractional unit? 88. What is a common fraction ? 39. How are fractions divided ? 40. Define proper and improper, and simple, com- pound and complex fractions. 41. Name and define the terms of a fraction. 42. Is a fraction a number ? 43. Is a fraction a denominate number? 44. What is a mixed number? 45. What is the reciprocal of a number ? 46. Give an outline of the cases of fractions,, 47. What two methods are there of developing fractions ? 48. What is a continued fraction? 49. What is a decimal fraction? 50. In what two ways may a decimal fraction be expressed ? 51. What is the first thing to be considered in the treatment of decimals ? 52. Give rules for reading and writing decimals. 53. What will the denominator of a decimal al- ways be ? 54. Upon what does the value of a decimal figure depend ? 55. How do decimals increase and decrease? 56. What is a pure decimal? 57. What is a mixed decimal? 58. What is a complex decimal ? 59. From what are the names of decimal orders derived? 60. What is a circulating decimal? 61. What is a denominate number? ARITHMETIC. 53 62. What is a simple denominate number? 63. What is a compound denominate number? 64. What is a standard unit? 65. Name the quantities of magnitude whicb give rise to denominate numbers. 66. What is the standard unit of value? 67. What is the standard unit of weight? 68. What is the standard unit of length? 69. What is the standard unit of surface? 70. What is the standard unit of volume? 71. What is the standard unit of capacity? 72. What is the standard unit of angles? 73. What is the standard unit of time? 74. Define the metric system of measurement. 75. What is percentage ? 76. What is the difference between rate and rate per cent. ? 77. Name and define the elements involved in percentage. 78. How is per cent, expressed ? 79. Give general rules for computations in per- centage. 80. Give the applications of percentage. 81. Define profit and loss. 82. Define commission ; brokerage. 83. Define agent, factor, broker, consignee, and consignor. 84. Define duties. 85. What is the difference between specific duties and ad valorem duties ? 86. What is a tariff? 87. What is insurance? 88. Name and define the kinds of insurance. 54 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 89. Define underwriter, policy and premium. 90. Define a tax. 91. What is a bond ? What is a coupon ? Name the three principal classes of United States bonds. 92. Define interest. 93. What is the difference between simple and compound interest? 94. What is a note? 95. Name and define the kinds of notes. 96. What is a draft? 97. Define discount and present worth. 98. What is the difference between true discount and bank discount? 99. What is ratio? 100. What are the terms of the ratio? 101. In how many and in what ways may the ratio of two numbers be expressed ? 102. What is the difference between a simple ra- tio and a compound ratio? 103. What is a proportion? 104. How is a proportion formed? 105. What is a continued proportion? 106. How many antecedents in a proportion? How many consequents? 107. How are ratio and proportion distin- guished ? 108. What is a simple proportion ? 109. What is a direct proportion ? 110. What is an inverse proportion? 111. What is a compound proportion? 112. Define partnership. 113. What is the difference between simple and compound partnership ? ARITHMETIC. 55 114. What is analysis? 115. Define exchange. 116. What is a bill of exchange? 117. How many parties to a transaction in ex- change? 118. Name and define these parties. 119. What is an indorsement? 120. What is an acceptance? 121. How is this obligation acknowledged? 122. What is a bankrupt? 123. What is the difference between a bankrupt and an insolvent? 124. Define bankruptcy. 125. Define aliquot parts. 126. Explain how distance is measured by time. 127. How do you find the difference in time cor- responding to any difference in longitude ? 128. How do you find the difference in longitude corresponding to any difference in time ? 129. How do you find the time at one place when the time at another place and their difference of time are known? 130. How do navigators determine their longi- tude at sea? 131. What is alligation ? 132. What is the difference between alligation medial and alligation alternate? 133. What is an annuity? 134. Name and define the kinds of annuities. 135. What is involution ? 136. What is the power of a number? 137. What is a perfect power? An imperfect power ? 56 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 138. "What is the exponent of a power? 139. Give the principle involved in finding a* y power of a number. 140. Define evolution. 141. What is the root of a number? 142. How are the roots of numbers indicated? 143. Define square root. Cube root. 144. What is the difference between arithmetical progression and geometrical progression? 145. What five things are to be considered IE arithmetical progression ? 146. What things are to be considered in geo metrical progression? 147. What is a duodecimal ? 148. For what are duodecimals used ? 149. What is mensuration ? 150. What is magnitude? 151. What is the measuring unit of surfaces? 152. How do you find the area of a parallelo- gram, and a square ? 153. How do you find the area of a rhombus? 154. How do you find the area of a trapezium ? 155. How do you find the area of a triangle ? 156. How do you find the area of a triangle when the three sides are given ? 157. How do you find the circumference of a cir- cle, when the diameter is given? 158. How do you fiud the diameter of a circle, when the circumference is given T 159. How do you find the area of a circlet 160. How do you find a mean proportional be- tween two numbers? ARITHMETIC. 57 161. How do you find the solidity of bodies whose sides are perpendicular to each other? 162. How do you find the solidity of a prism? 163. How do you find the lateral surface of a right prism ? 164. How do you find the solidity of a pyramid or cone? 165. How do you find the lateral or convex sur- face of a regular pyramid, or cone? 166. How do you find the solidity of a cylinder? 167. How do you find the convex surface of a cylinder ? 168. How do you find the surface of a sphere or globe? 169. How do you find the solidity of a sphere or globe ? 170. How do you find the side of a square equal in area to any given surface ? 58 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC 1. Arithmetic, as a science, logically investigates and philosophically classifies and arranges the prin- ciples and rules of the subject; as an art, it applies the principles and rules for computation to the practical affairs of life. 2. Arithmetic is founded on NOTATION, and its operations are carried on by means of ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, MULTIPLICATION and DIVISION. 3. Arithmetical language is the method of ex- pressing numbers. It is of two kinds, oral and written. The former is called numeration and the latter is called notation. 4. (1) By words, or common language. (2) By figures, called the Arabic method. (3) By letters, called the Roman method. 5. "We employ characters to represent the first nine numbers, and then use these characters to number the groups, the group numbered being in- dicated by the position of the character. ARITHMETIC. 59 6. From the Latin, decem, ten. Ten units of a lower order make one unit of the next higher order. 7. The scale of a system of notation is the law of relation between its successive orders of units. The number which expresses this law is called the radix of the scale. 8. Upon the simple but ingenious device of place. 9. By the following seven letters : I. one ; V. five; X. ten; L. fifty ; C. one hundred; M. one thou- sand. Every time a letter is repeated its value is repeated. Where a letter of less value is placed be- fore one of a greater value, the less is taken from the greater. If placed after it, the less is added to the greater. 10. A bar ( ) placed over a letter increases its value a thousand times. Thus M denotes one mill- ion. 11. Addition. For by it we pass from unity to plurality; from the one to the many. This pro- cess, which gives rise to numbers, becomes the primary operation of arithmetic. 12. I. Only similar numbers can be added. II. The sum is a number similar to the num- bers added. III. The sum is the same in whatever order the numbers are added. 13. Two. The first consists in finding the sums of numbers independently of the notation used to ex- press them. The second consists in finding the 60 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. sum of numbers as expressed in written characters. The former deals with small numbers which can be united mentally and may be called mental addition; the latter is used with large numbers, and may be called written addition. 14. Merely for convenience. 15. Subtraction. 16. I. Similar numbers only can be subtracted. II. The difference is a number similar to the minuend and subtrahend. III. If the minuend and the subtrahend be equally increased or diminished, the remainder will be the same. IV. The minuend equals the sum of the sub- trahend and remainder; the subtrahend equals the difference between the minuend and remainder. 17. There are two. 1st. The finding of the differ- ence between numbers independently of the nota- tion employed to express them. 2d. The finding of the difference between large numbers expressed in the Arabic system. 18. Two. First, we may find the difference be- tween two numbers by counting off from the large number as many units as are contained in the smaller number. The other method consists in deriving the elementary differences by inference from the elementary sums. 19. I. The multiplier is always an abstract num- ber. II. The product is always similar to the multi- plicand. ARITHMETIC. 61 HI. The product of two numbers is the same, whichever is made the multiplier. IV. If the multiplicand be multiplied by all the parts of the multiplier, the sum of all the partial products will be the true product. V. The multiplicand equals the quotient of the product divided by the multiplier; the multiplier equals the quotient of the product divided by the multiplicand. ^0. Because they make the product. 21. Division is the process of finding the quo- tient of two numbers. 22. The terms of division are the dividend, divi- sor, and quotient. 23. The quotient depends on both dividend and divisor. 24. If one of these terms is fixed, a change in the other changes the quotient. But if both are changed, these changes may neutralize each other, and the quotient remain the same. 25. (1) Multiplying the dividend or dividing the divisor by any number, multiplies the quotient by that number. (2) Dividing the dividend or multiplying the divisor by any number, divides the quotient by that number. (3) Multiplying or dividing both dividend and divisor by the same number does not change the quotient. C2 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 26. Ans. 1. Several recent writers take the posi< tion that a concrete number may be divided by an abstract number, because in practice we thus di- vide a concrete number into equal parts. This is a subordination of science to practice, which is neither philosophical nor necessary. The practical case which they thus try to include in the theory of the subject, admits of a scientific and simple explana- tion, without any modification of the fundamental idea of division ; and when thus explained it be- comes apparent that the two terms are similar numbers. The dividend and divisor are always similar numbers. The quotient is always an abstract num- ber. Ans. II. The quotient may be either abstract or concrete, (a) It will be an abstract number, when the dividend and divisor are both abstract, or both con- crete numbers. (Ex. 1 and 2.) (b) The quotient will be a concrete number, when the dividend is a concrete, and the divisor an abstract number. (Ex. 3.) (c) Either the divisor or the quotient, must al- ways be an abstract number. (Ex. 1, 2 and 3.) ) (d) An abstract number can not be divided bj a concrete number. (Ex. 4.) (1) (2) 15 cents | 3 cents. 15 | 3 ~~5~ 5 (3) (4) 15 cents | 3. 15 | 3 cents. 5 cents. Impossible. ARITHMETIC. 6^ "Writing in the places of numbers words indi- cating the kind of numbers used, we have: (1) (2) Concrete | Concrete. Abstract | Abstract. Abstract. Abstract. (3) (4) Concrete | Abstract. Abstract | Concrete. ConcretftT" Impossible. 27. Numbers may be classified as follows: I. As even and odd. II. As prime and composite. III. As integral and fractional. IV. As abstract and concrete. V. As simple and compound. |VI. As like and unlike. 38, An even number is one that can be divided by 2 without a remainder. An odd number is one that can not be divided by 2 without a remainder. A prime number is one that has no factors, and therefore has no exact divisor. A composite number is one that may be di- vided, and always is the product of two or more factors. An integral number, or integer, expresses whole things. Thus, 281 ; 78 boys. A fractional number, or fraction, expresses equal parts of a thing. Thus, half a dollar ; three- fourths of an hour. 34 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. An abstract number is one that is not used in connection with any specified thing. A concrete number is one that is used in con- nection with some specified thing. A simple number is an abstract number, or a concrete number having but one denomination ; as, three, three feet. A compound number consists of two or more concrete numbers having different denominations ; (as, three feet, six inches. Like or similar numbers are those which have the same unit. Thus, three yards and five yards are similar numbers. Unlike or dissimilar numbers are those which do not have the same unit. Thus, three yards and three books are dissimilar numbers. 29. The factors of a number are the integers which being multiplied together will produce that number. 30. A prime factor of a number is its prime di- visor. 31. Factoring is the process of separating a num- ber into its factors. 32. A divisor or measure of a number is a num- ber that will divide it without a remainder. 33. A multiple of a number is the product ob- tained by taking it a certain number of times; 15 is a multiple of 5, being equal to 5 taken 3 times. ARITHMETIC. 65 A multiple of a number is any number which it will exactly divide. 34. A common divisor of two or more numbers, is a number which will divide them without a re- mainder. Thus 2 is a common divisor of 4, 6, 8, 12, 16. A common multiple of two or more numbers, is a number which can be divided by each of them without a remainder. Thus, 12 is a common mul- tiple of 2, 3, 4. 35. The greatest common divisor of two or more numbers, is the greatest number which will divide them without a remainder. Thus, 6 is the greatest common divisor of 12, 18, and 24. The least common multiple of two or more numbers, is the least number which can be divided by each of them without a remainder. Thus, 12 is the least common multiple of 4 and 6, for it is the least number which can be exactly divided by them. 36. A fraction is a number which expresses one or more of the equal parts into which a unit is di- vided. 37. The unit of the fraction is the unit, or whole thing, which is considered as divided into parts. Thus, the unit of the fraction of a dollar is one dollar. A fractional unit is one of the equal parts of the unit of the fraction. Thus, one-half is the frac- tional unit of halves. 38. A common fraction is one in which the nu- 5 66 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. merator and denominator are both expressed by figures. 39. Fractions are divided with regard to their value, as compared with the unit, into proper and improper fractions ; with regard to their form, into simple, compound and complex. 40. A proper fraction is one whose numerator is less than its denominator; as, }. An improper fraction is one whose numerator is equal to or greater thaiV its denominator ; as, f , j-. A simple fraction is one not united with another, and both of whose terms are integers^ as, f. A compound fraction is a fraction of a fraction ^ as, f off. A complex fraction is one having a fraction in one or both of its terms ; as, f of 6, f I 41. The terms of a fraction are the numerator and denominator. The number below the line is called the denominator. It shows into how many equal parts the whole is divided, and gives name to the parts. The number above the line is called the numerator. It shows how many of the equal parts denoted by the denominator are taken. 42. It has been stated by some writers, and seems frequently to be the idea of pupils, that a fraction is not a number. This, however, is a mis- take, as will appear from a slight consideration of ARITHMETIC. 67 the matter. Newton's definition of a number pro- vides for the fractional number when the object, measured is a definite part of the measure ; it con- sequently appears that the fraction is a number, if we accept his definition as correct. The definition, "A fraction is a number of equal parts of unity," also makes it clear that a fraction is a number. Again, if it is not a number, what kind of a quan- tity is it; and why should it be treated in arithme- tic, the science of numbers? Five inches is certainly a number; hence its equivalent, five-twelfths of a foot, is also a number. Numbers are of two classes, integers and fractions; and fractions are numbers, as much so as integers. The fractional number, it will be noticed, involves two ideas first, the integral unit; and second, the fractional unit. In an integer we have the idea of a number of units; in the fraction we have, not only an idea of a number of units, but also the re lation of the fractional unit to the integral unit. 43. A fraction is not a denominate number. 44. A mixed number is an integer and a fraction united; as, 5J. 45. The reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by that number. Thus, the reciprocal of 6 is . 68 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 4t>. '1. Number to a fraction. 2. Fraction to a number. 3. To higher terms. 4. To lower terms. 5. Compound to simple. 6. Dissimilar to similar. 1. Reduction . , . < 2 Addition / 1- Denominators " \ 2. Denominators unlike. Q Q,,T^. * f ! Denominators alike. 3. Subtraction. . 1 2 ; Denominator8 unlike< ( 1. Fraction by a number. 4. Multiplication < 2. Number by a fraction. ( 3. Fraction by a fraction. f 1. Fraction by a number. 5. Division . . , . < 2. Number by a fraction. ( 3. Fraction by a fraction. 1. Number to a number. * -D i *; J 2. Fraction to a number. 6. Relation ....< 8 ' Numl? er to a fraction. 4. Fraction to a fraction. 47. There are two methods of developing the subject of common fractions, which may be distin- guished as the Inductive and Deductive methods. By the inductive method, we solve each case by analysis, and derive the rules, or methods of oper- ation, from these analyses, by inference or induc- tion. The method is called inductive, because it proceeds from the analysis of particular problems to a general method which applies to all problems of a given class. By the deductive method we first establish a few general principles by demonstration, and then derive the rules, or methods of operation, ARITHMETIC. 69 from these principles. The method is called de- ductive because it proceeds from the general prin- ciple to the particular problem. We will illustrate the difference of these two methods by a problem in compound fractions. Take the question, " What is | of f ?" The analysis is as follows: | of % is one of the three equal parts into which \ may be di- vided ; if each 5th is divided into 3 equal parts, or the unit will be divided into 5 times 3, or 15 equal parts, and each part will be ^j hence ^ of is ^, and of is 4 times ^ or ^, and f of is 2 times j^-, or fa. Examining the analysis we see that we have multiplied the two denominators to- gether and the two numerators together, from which we derive the rule for the reduction of com- pound fractions. By the deductive method we would reason as follows : By a principle previously demonstrated, J off, which is the same as dividing by 3, is fa ; and f of , by another principle, is ^-. It will be noticed that the deductive method is much shorter than the inductive method, because while the former explains every point involved, the latter makes use of principles previously demon- strated. 48. A continued fraction is a fraction whose num- erator is 1, and denominator an integer plus a frac- tion whose numerator is also 1 and denominator a similar fraction, and so on. Thus, ^=i + J, or thus, Id., p. 434, eh. 4- 70 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 49. A decimal fraction is a fraction whose ck nominator is not expressed ; but is understood to b*j such a power of ten as is indicated by the number of figures at the right of the separatrix. CRITICISM. In consulting Ray's Higher Arith- metic, I find this definition of a decimal fraction : "A decimal fraction is one which derives its name from the Latin word decem, meaning ten; and is so called because its denominator is always 1 with cyphers annexed ; being either 10 or the product of several 10's." This definition is worthless, because it includes a large class of common fractions. Read Prof, Davies, in his University Arithmetic: "A decimal fraction is one in which the unit is divided accord- ing to the scale of tens." REMARK. The separatrix is the most impor- tant character used in decimals, and no pains shoulc be spared to impress this on the minds of pupils. 50. A decimal fraction may be expressed in the form of a common fraction, or by means of a deci' mal scale. When expressed by the scale, it is dis- tinguished from the general meaning of the term decimal fraction by calling it a decimal. A deci- mal may thus be defined as a decimal fraction ex- pressed by the decimal method of notation. Thus, jffr -j^j-i are decimal fractions, but not decimals; while .5, .45, are both decimal fractions and deci- mals. 51. In the treatment of decimals, the first thing ARITHMETIC. 71 to be considered is the method of reading and writ- ing them, or their numeration and notation. 52. (1) To read a decimal, read it as though it were an integer, and add the name of the right hand order. (2) To write a decimal, write it as an integer; and so place the decimal point that the right hand figure shall stand in the order denoted by the name of the decimal. (3) It is seen from the decimal scale, that the tens of any number of tenths, the hundreds of any number of hundredths, the thousands of any num- ber of thousandths, etc., each falls in the order of units when the decimal is expressed decimally. Thus, 42 tenths, written decimally, is 4.2, the 4 (tens) falling in units' order; 1265 hundredths, writ- ten decimally, is 12.65, the 2 (hundreds) falling in units' order; and 425 thousandths, written deci- mally is .425 or 0.425, the (thousands) falling in units' order. Hence, the following RULE. To write a decimal, begin at the left and write the term corresponding to the name of the decimal, in the order of units. (4) There are two methods of reading deci- mals, which may be expressed as follows : (a) Begin at the decimal point and read in succession the value of each term belonging to the decimal, or (b) Read the decimal as a whole number, and the name of the right hand decimal place. 72 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Methods of writing decimals : (a) Fix the decimal point and write each term in its proper decimal place. (b) Write the numerator as an integer, and then place the decimal point so that the right hand term shall express the denomination of the decimal. (c) Write the numerator as an integer, and then begin at the right and numerate backward, filling vacant places with ciphers, until we reach the required denomination, and to the expression thus obtained, prefix the decimal point. Thus, to write 475 millionths, we first write 475 ; then be- ginning at the 5, we numerate toward the left, saying tenths, hundredths, thousandths, ten-thousandths (writing a cipher), hundred-thousandths (writing a cipher), millionths (writing a cipher), and then place the decimal point. 53. The denominator of a decimal will always be the unit 1, with as many ciphers annexed as are equal to the number of figures in the decimal or numerator. 54. The value of any decimal figure depends upon its place from the decimal point. Thus, .3 is ten times .03. 55. Decimals increase from right to left, and de^ crease from left to right, in a tenfold ratio ; and therefore may be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided the same as whole numbers. 56. A pure decimal consists of a decimal only. Thus, .35, which is read 35 hundredths, is a pure decimal. ARITHMETIC. . 75 57. A mixed decimal consists of an integer and a decimal. Thus, 15.7, which is read, 15 ones and 7 tenths, or 15 and 7 tenths, is a mixed decimal. 5b\ A complex decimal consists of a decimal with a common fraction annexed. Thus, .005f , which is read 5 j thousandths, is a complex decimal. 59. The names of the decimal orders are derived from the names of the orders of integers. 60. A decimal in which one or more figures are constantly repeated, is called a circulating decimal. 61. A denominate number is a concrete number in which the unit of measure is established by law or custom. Thus, 5 yards, 3 feet, 7 pounds, 3 ounces, are denominate numbers. 62. A simple denominate number is a denomi- nate number composed of units of the same denom- inations. Thus, 5 feet, 9 pounds, 3 miles, are sim- ple denominate numbers. 63. A compound denominate number is a denom- inate number composed of units of two or more denominations which are related to each other. Thus, 6 feet and 4 inches, 8 hours and 32 minutes, are compound denominate numbers. 64. A standard unit is a unit of measure from which the other units of the same kind may be de- rived. 74 . THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 65. (1) Value; (2) Weight; (3) Length; (4) Sur- face ; (5) Volume ; (6) Capacity ; (7) Angles ; (8) Time. 66. Money is the measure of the value of things. It is of two kinds, coins and paper money. In the United States the standard unit is the dollar. la English money the standard unit is the pound. 67. The standard unit of weight is the Troy pound. 68. The standard unit of length is the yard. It is determined by the length of a pendulum which vibrates seconds in a vacuum at the level of the sea, in the latitude of London. 69. The standard unit of surface is the square yard for ordinary measurement, and the acre for land. 70. The standard unit of volume is the cubic yard for ordinary measurement, and the cord for wood. 71. The standard unit of capacity is the gallon for fluids, and the bushel fo" dry substances. 72. The standard unit of angular measure is the right angle, or, in practice, one degree of a circle. 73. The standard unit of time is the day. This is determined by the revolution of the earth upon its axis. 74. The metric system is a decimal system of weights and measures, having the meter for the base or unit. ARITHMETIC. 75 75. Percentage is the name applied to computa- tions in which 100 is the unit or measure. 76. The rate is the number of hundredths. The rate per cent, is the fraction which denotes how many hundredths are taken. Thus, in 3%, or y^, 3 is the rate, and -yj^- itself the rate per cent. 77. Problems in percentage involve the following elements: (1) The base is the number of which the per cent, is taken. (2) The rate is the number of hundredths taken. (3) The percentage is the number which is a certain number of hundredths of the base. (4) The amount is the sum of the base and per- centage. (5) The difference is the base, less the percent- age. 78. Any per cent., being so many hundredths y may be operated with either as a common fraction or a decimal; but the decimal form is preferred as the easier. 1% is either -yj^ or .01. Any part of \% may be expressed decimally by taking the like part of .01. Thus, \%=\ of .01=.0025. Any part of \ c f that can not be exactly expressed as a deci- mal may be written as a common fraction on the right of the order of hundredths. Thus, |%=.00. The following examples will show how to express different rates per cent, decimally : 2% =.02; 100% 76 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 79. I. Base and rate given, to find the percentage. Multiply the base by the rate. II. Base and percentage given, to find the rate. Divide the percentage by the base. III. Rate and percentage given to find the base. Divide the percentage by the rate. IV. Base and rate given to find either amount or difference. Multiply the base by 1 plus the rate, for the amount ; and by 1 minus the rate, for the difference. V. Amount or difference and rate given, to find the base. .Divide the amount by 1 plus the rate ; and the difference by 1 minus the rate. 80. The rules of percentage are applied in many of the most common mercantile transactions in computing interest, discount, commission, taxes, insurance, duties, and especially profit and loss. 81. Profit and loss are the terms used to indicate gain or loss in business transactions. 82. Commission is an allowance made to an agent for selling goods for another. The commission allowed to a broker is called brokerage. 83. An agent is one who transacts business for another. A factor is an agent who buys and sells or transacts mercantile business for another. A broker is one who buys and sells stocks, real estate, bonds, and the like, for another person. A COD- ARITHMETIC. 77 signee is the person to whom goods are sent for sale; the sender is called the consignor. 84. Duties, or customs, are taxes levied on im- ported goods, for the support of government and protection of home industry. 85. Specific duties are customs assessed on the quantity of goods imported, without reference to their value, and ad valorem duties are customs as- sessed on the cost of goods in the country from which they are imported. 86. A list of the rates of duties to be collected is called a tariff'. 87. Insurance is a guaranteed indemity for loss. 88. There are five different kinds of insurance : Fire insurance secures against loss or damage by fire ; marine insurance, against the dangers of nav- igation; accident insurance, against the casualties to travelers and others; health insurance secures a weekly allowance during sickness; life insurance secures a certain sum, on the death of the insured, to some party named in the contract. 89. The underwriter is the insurer the person or company that takes the risk. The policy is the written contract. The premium is the sum paid the underwriter for taking the risk. 90. A tax is a sum assessed on the person, prop- erty, or income of an individual, for any public 78 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. purpose, such as the support of government, maintenance of schools, etc. 91. The interest-bearing notes issued by nations, states, cities, railroad companies, and other corpo- rations, as a means of borrowing money, are calud bonds. The coupons attached to bonds are due- bills for the interest, which, as the interest becomes due, are cut off and presented for payment. The several classes of bonds issued by the United States Government are called United States securities, or government securities, the principal of which are known as sixes of 1881, five-twenties, and ten-forties. 92. Interest is the premium paid for the use of money. 93. Simple interest ir interest on the principal only. Compound interest is interest on the prin- cipal and also on the interest which, at regular in- tervals of time, is added to the principal. 94. A note, or a promissony note, is a written promise to pay a certain sum of money for value received. 9 r 5. A time note 1's one made payable at a speci fied time. A negotiable note is one so made that it can be sold or transferred. A bank note is a note payable at a bank. Bank bills are also called bank notes. ARITHMETIC. 79 A joint note is a note signed by two or more persons who are jointly liable for its payment. A joint and several note is a note signed by two or more persons who are both jointly and singly liable for its payment. 96. A draft is an order made by one person upon another to pay a specified sum to a third person named. It is also called a bill of exchange. 97. Discount is a sum deducted for the payment, before it becomes due, of a note or other debt not drawing interest. Present worth, or proceeds, is the face of an obligation, minus the discount. 98. True discount is the difference between the present worth and the face of the debt. In other words, it is the interest on the present worth for the given time. Bank discount is greater than true discount, the former being computed on the face of the note or amount, the latter on the present worth or principal. 99. Ratio is the relation that one quantity bears to another of the same kind. It is represented by the quotient arising from dividing one by the other. The ratio of 8 to 2 is 4. 100. The two numbers compared are called the terms of the ratio. 101. The ratio of two numbers is expressed by placing a colon (:) between them; as 5:12. A ratio is also expressed in the form of a frac- 80 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. tion, the antecedent being made the numerator and the consequent the denominator. Thus, 5:12= T 5 . 102. A simple ratio is the ratio of two numbers ; as 5:8, or f:|-. A compound ratio is the product of two or more simple ratio; as, (5:6) + (f:10). 103. Proportion is an expression of equal ratios. 104. Placing a double colon (: :) between them, forms the proportion 3:5::6:10, read 3 is to 5 as 6 is to 10, or the ratio of 3 to 5 is equal to the ratio of 6 to 10. 105. A proportion with more than two equal ratios is called a continued proportion, as 3 : 5 : : 6 : 10:: 9:15. 106. Since each ratio has an antecedent and con- sequent, every proportion has two antecedents and two consequents, the 1st and 3d terms being the antecedents, and the 2d and 4th the consequents. 107. Ratio is the relation between two numbers shown by their quotient; proportion is the relation between two ratios shown by their equality. The former has two terms, the latter four. 108. A simple proportion is an equality between two simple ratios. 109. A direct proportion is one in which each term increases or diminishes, as the one on which it depends increases or diminishes. 110. An inverse proportion is one in which each ARITHMETIC. 81 term increases as the term upon which it depends diminishes, or diminishes as it increases. 111. A compound proportion is a proportion in which either ratio is compound. 112. A partnership is the association of two or more individuals for the transaction of business; the persons so associated are called partners.^ 113. A simple partnership is one in which each of the partners has his capital invested for the same time. A compound partnership is that in which the capital of the partners is employed for different periods of time. 114. Analysis, in arithmetic, is the process of ar- riving at a required result, not by formal rules, but by tracing out relations and reasoning from what is known to what is unknown. We generally rea- son from the given number to 1, and from 1 to the required number. 115. Exchange is a method of remitting money from one place to another, or of making payments by written orders. 116. A bill of exchange is a written request or or- der upon one person to pay a certain sum to an- other person, or to his order, at a specified time. 117. There are always three parties, and usually four, to a transaction in exchange. 6 82 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 118. The drawer or maker is the person who signs the order or bill. The drawee is the person to whom the order is addressed. The payee is the person to whom the money is ordered to be paid. The buyer or remitter is the person who purchases the bill. i 119. The indorsement of a bill is the writing upon its back, by which the payee relinquishes his title, and transfers the payment to another. 120. The acceptance of a bill is the promise which the drawee makes when the bill is presented to him to pay it at maturity. 121. This obligation is usually acknowledged by writing the word "Accepted," with his signature across the face of the bill. 122. A bankrupt is a person who fails in busi- ness and has not property enough to pay all his debts. 123. The term bankrupt is strictly applicable only to a trader, while the term insolvent applies to any person who is unable to pay his debts. 124. Bankruptcy is a failure in business^ with inability to pay all debts. 125. Aliquot parts is a useful method of finding a product, when one or both of the factors is a compound number. 126. Every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. Since the sun ap- pears to pass from east to west round the earth, or through 360, once in every 24 hours, it will pass ARITHMETIC. 83 through Jj of 360, or 15 of the distance, in 1 hour; and V of distance in -^ of 1 hour, or 4 min- utes; and V of distance in -^ of 4 minutes, or 4 seconds. 127. Divide the difference in longitude, expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds, by 15, and the respective quotients will be hours, minutes, and seconds of time. 128. Multiply the difference in time, expressed in hours, minutes, and seconds, by 15, and the re- spective products will be degrees, minutes, and sec- onds of longitude. 129. When the second place is east of the first, add their difference of time; when it is west of the first, subtract their difference of time. 130. Taking with them a chronometer (an accu- rate watch) set to mark the time at a given place (as Greenwich or "Washington), they ascertain by observation of the sun with the sextant the time at the spot they are in, reduce the difference of time to difference of longitude, and thus find that they are so many degrees east or west of the meridian of the place for which their chronometer is set. 131. Alligation treats of the mixing or combin- ing of two or more articles of different values. 132. Alligation medial is the process of finding the average value or quality of the several articles. Alligation alternate is the process of determining 84 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. the proportion of the several articles used in form* ing a mixture. 133. An annuity is r a sum of money which ie payable at regular periods of time. 134. A certain annuity is one that continues foi a fixed period of time. A perpetual annuity, or perpetuity, is one that continues forever. A con- tingent annuity is one that begins or ends, on the occurrence of certain specified future events, as on the death of one or more persons. An annuity in reversion is one that begins at a specified future time, or on the occurrence of a specified future event. An annuity in arrears, or forborne, is one the payments of which have been allowed to accu- mulate, instead of being paid when due. 135. Involution is the process of finding a power of a number. 136. A power of a number is the result obtained by using it a certain number of times as a factor. 137. Any number that is the product of equal factors is called a perfect power. Any number that is not tha product of equal factors is called an, imperfect power. ANSWER 2. A perfect power is a number whose root can be found. An imperfect power is a num- ber whose root can not be found exactly. 138. The exponent of a power is a number placed at the right of the root and just above it, to show the number of times the root is to be used as a fac-* ARITHMETIC. 85 tor. It also denotes the degree of the power. Thus, 2 1 denotes the second power of 2, or 2x2; 2 3 =2X2X2, or the third power of 2. 139. ^.ny power of 1 is 1 , any power of a num- ber greater than 1 is greater than the number itself; any power of a number less than 1, is less than the number itself. 140. Evolution is the process of finding the roots of numbers. 141. The root of a number is one of the equal factors of that number. 142. The roots of numbers are indicated by the character, i/ 9 called the radical sign. If no figure is written in the opening of the sign, the square root is indicated ; if the figure 3 is place there, as ^, the cube root ; if 4, the fourth root ; and so on. 143. The square root of a number ia one of the two equal factors of that number. The cube root of a number is one of the three equal factors of that cumber. 144. An arithmetical progression is a series of terms varying by a common difference. A geo- metrical progression is a series of terms varying by a common multiplier. 145. In arithmetical progression, five things are to be considered : the first term, the last term, the number of terms, the common difference, and the 86 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. sum of the series. Three of these being given, the other two can be founcL 146. In geometrical progression, five things are to be considered : the first term, the last term, the number of terms, the constant multiplier, and the sum of the series. Three of these being given, the other two can be found. 147. A duodecimal is a denominate number in which twelve units of any denomination make a unit of the next higher denomination. 148. Duodecimals are used by artificers in meas- uring surfaces and solids. 149. Mensuration is the art of measuring magni- tudes. 150. The term magnitude denotes that which has one or more of the three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness, 151. In measuring surfaces, it is customary to assume a square as the measuring unit, as a square inch, a square foot, a square rod, etc.; that is, a square whose side is a linear unit of the same name. 152. By multiplying the length by the breadth. 153. By multiplying the length by the altitude. 154. By multiplying half the sum of the parallel sides by the altitude. 155. By multiplying the base by half the alti- tude ARITHMETIC. 87 156. From half the sum of the three sides sub- tract each side respectively ; then multiply together half the sum and the three remainders, and extract the square root of the product. 157. By multiplying the given diameter by 3. 14159. 158. By dividing the given circumference by 3.14159. 159. By multiplying half the circumference by half the diameter; or, by multiplying the circum- ference by a fourth of the diameter. 160. A mean proportional between two numbers ie found by multiplying the given numbers together, and extracting the square root of the product. 161. By multiplying the length, breadth, and thickness together. 162. By multiplying the area of the base by the height. 163. By multiplying the length by the perimeter of the base. 164. By multiplying the area of the base by J of the altitude. 165. By multiplying the perimeter of the base by | the slant height. 166 By multiplying the area of the base by the height or length. 167. By multiplying the circumference of the base by the height. 168. By multiplying the circumference by the diameter. 88 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 169. By multiplying the surface by J of the di- ameter. 170. By extracting the square root of the given surface. GRAMMAR. 8P QUESTIONS ON GRAMMAR. 1. Define grammar as an art, as an acquisition, as a study. 2. What is English grammar? 3. What is the object of studying grammar? 4. What is language, strictly speaking? 5. What can you say of the composition of lan- guage? 6. Under what heads is English grammar treated of? 7. Define etymology. 8. How are words classified? 9. How are words distinguished? 10. By what general name are the different classes of words called ? 11. Why are they called parts of speech ? 12. Give a simple and yet logical definition of a noun. 13. Give a complete classification of the noun. 14. Define and illustrate the classes of the com- mon noun. 15. What may be used as nouns? Illustrate. 16. What is personification? Illustrate. 17. Give a rule for determining what nouns should be considered masculine and what feminine. 18. When and how are nouns made plural? 90 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 19. What can you say of the gender of collective nouns? 20. How are most nouns made plural? 21. Mention some nouns that are used only in the plural number; some that are used in the sin- gular number only ; and some that have the same form for either number. 22. How are most compound words made plural? 23. How is a name that begins with the title Mr., Miss, or Dr. made plural ? 24. What is said of the title Mrs.? 25. How are letters, figures, marks and signs made plural ? 26. Define case. 27. Give an outline of case. 28. Give rules for forming the possessive. 29. What exception to these rules ? 30. What is the origin of the use of the posses- sive sign('s)? 31. What is enallage as used in grammar? 32. What is a pronoun ? 33. What does the word pronoun mean ? 34. For what is a pronoun used? 35. Into how many general classes may pro&ouns be divided? 36. Define a personal pronoLE. 37. Into what classes are the personal pronouns divided? 38. Name the simple personal pronouns. 39. Name the compound personal pronouns. 40. To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender ? GRAMMAR. 91 41. Why are not the first and second persons each made always to represent a different gender? 42. What is a relative pronoun ? 43. What classes have relative pronouns? 44. Name the simple relative pronouns. 45. Is "as" ever used as a relative pronoun? 46. How are who, which and that used? 47. What can you say of the declension of rela- tive pronouns? 48. When is which preferred to that? 49. When is that preferred to which? 50. Give the peculiar constructions of the rela- tive pronoun what. 51. When is what used? 52. What pronoun is used when the antecedent is supplied? 53. Give a general rule for parsing the relative pronoun what. 54. How are compound relatives formed? 55. Name the compound relatives. 56. Define an interrogative pronoun. 57. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 58. What may the antecedent of a pronoun be? 59. What is the subsequent of a pronoun? 60. What is the difference between the antece- dent and the subsequent? 61. What are the modifications of pronouns? 62. Define an adjective. 63. Into how many classes may adjectives be di- vided? 64. What is a descriptive adjective? 65. What is a definitive adjective? 92 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 66. Into what other classes may adjectives be di vided ? 67. Define a common adjective. 68. Define a proper adjective. 69. Define a participial adjective. 70. Define a compound adjective. 71. Define a numeral adjective. 72. Name and define the classes into which nu- meral adjectives are divided. 73. Define these classes of adjectives. 74. Define the pronominal adjective. 75. What modifications have adjectives? 76. To what adjectives is number applied? 77. What is the comparison of an adjective.? 78. Why is this called comparison ? 79. How many and what are the degrees of com- parison ? 80. Define the diminutive degree and tell how it is formed. 81. Define the positive degree. 82. Define the comparative degree and tell how it is formed. 83. Define the superlative degree and tell how it is formed. 84. What is comparison ascending? 85. What is descending comparison ? 86. What is regular comparison ? 87. Give examples of irregular comparison. 88. When are adjectives redundant? 89. Are all adjectives compared? 90. When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adject' ives come together which are placed first and how are they compared ? GRAMMAR. 93 91. What is an article? 92. What other name is applied to this part of speech ? 93. Which is the definite article and why so called ? 94. Which is the indefinite article and why so called? 95. When should A be used? 96. When should An be used? 97. When is no article used ? 98. Define a verb. 99. How are verbs classified? 100. Define a regular verb. 101. Define an irregular verb. 102. Define a defective verb. 103. Name the defective verbs. 104. Define a redundant verb. 105. Give examples of redundant verbs. 106. Define an impersonal verb. 107. Define an auxiliary verb. 108. Why are the auxiliary verbs so called? 109. Name the auxiliary verbs. 110. Define a principal verb. 111. What is a complete verb? 112. Define a transitive verb. 113. Define an intransitive verb. 114. What is an active-transitive verb? 115. What is an active-intransitive verb? 116. What further can be said in reference to active-transitive and active-intransitive verbs it 117. What stands as an answer to what? or whom ? of a transitive verb ? 94 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 118. How would you determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive ? 119. How many terms implied in a transitive verb? 120. How many terms implied in an intransitive verb? y 121. May some verbs be used transitively or in- transitively? Give examples. 122. "What is a copulative verb? 123. "What is the principal copula verb? 124. What is the peculiarity of these copula verbs? 125. How do derivative verbs form their princi- pal parts ? 126. What properties have verbs? 127. Define voice. 128. Define the active voice. 129. Define the passive voice.' 130. What else can be said of voice? 131. Define mode. 132. Name the classes of modes. 133. What are the finite modes? 134. Name the finite modes. 135. Define the indicative mode. 136. Define the subjunctive mode. 137. What is the difference between the indica- tive and subjunctive modes? 138. What is the explanation of these differences? 139. What are the signs of the subjunctive mode ? 140. Define the imperative mode. 141. What is always the subject of the impera- tive mode ? 142. Define the potential mode. GRAMMAR. 95 143. "Why is the potential mode so called? 144. What are the infinitive modes ? 145. Name the infinitive modes. 146. Define the infinitive mode. 147. The infinitive is usually accompanied by what word? 148. After what words is the sign omitted? 149. How many infinitives are there? 150. What does the present infinitive denote? 151. Of what does the present infinitive consist? 152. What does the perfect infinitive represent t 153. Of what does the perfect infinitive consist? 154. What constructions have infinitives? 155. What is a participle ? 156. How is the participle formed ? 157. How many participles are there ? 158. What is a simple participle ? 159. What is a compound participle? 160. What constructions have participles? 161. Define tense. 162. How many and what are the tenses? 163. Define the present tense. 164. Define the past tense. 165. Define the future tense. 166. Define the present-perfect tense. 167. Define the past-perfect tense. 168. Define the future-perfect tense. 169. By what other names are the tenses desig- nated ? 170. How many tenses has the indicative mood? 171. How many tenses has the subjunctive mood? 172. How many tenses has the potential moodt 173. How many tenses has the infinitive mood? 96 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 174. How many tenses has the imperative mode i 175. What are the forms of the verb ? 176. How many forms have transitive verbs ? 177. Name these forms. 178. How many forms have intransitive verbs ? 179. Name the forms of the intransitive verbs. 180. Define the common form. 181. Give examples of the common form. 182. Define the emphatic form. 183. Give examples of the emphatic form. 184. In what other way is the emphatic form used? 185. Give examples. 186. Define the progressive form. 187. Give examples of the progressive form. 188. When is the progressive form used ? 189. How is it formed ? 190. Define the passive form. 191. Where is the passive form used? 192. How is it formed ? 193. Define the ancient form. 194. What other forms are recognized by some grammarians? 195. How is the interrogative form made ? 196. How is the interrogative form made in the present and past tenses ? 197. How is the negative form made? 198. From what do the compound forms resuit? 199. What persons and numbers have verbs ? 200. What is conjugation ? 201. What is synopsis? 202. What is the inflection of a verb? g03. How many conjugations have verbs? GRAMMAR. 97 204. What verbs are of the weak conjugation? 205. What verbs are of the strong conjugation? 206. What is the theme of the verb? 207. What is a paradigm? 208. What is it to make a verb? 209. What is it to tell where a verb is made? 210. Give an example. 211. What is the root of the verb? 212. What are the principal parts of a verb? 213. Why are they so called? 214. Define an adverb. 215. How are adverbs classified? 216. What is a modifying adverb ? 217. What is a conjunctive adverb? 218. To what is an adverb equivalent? 219. From what are adverbs derived? 220. What general rule can be given in reference to the position of the adverb ? 221. What modifications have adverbs ? 222. Define a preposition. 223. Into how many classes are prepositions di- vided? 224. Define a simple preposition. 225. Define a compound preposition. 226. Define a complex preposition. 227. Define a conjunction. 228. How are conjunctions classified? 229. How are conjunctions classified as to rank? 230. What are co-ordinate connectives? 231. What are subordinate connectives? 232. How are conjunctions classified as to signi- fication ? 7 98 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 233. Define a copulative conjunction. 234. Define a disjunctive conjunction. 235. Define an interjection. 236. Define syntax. 237. Define a sentence. 238. What does the expression of a thought in* yolve? 239. What is the subject of a sentence? 240. What is the predicate of a sentence? 241. How are sentences classified? 242. Name the sentences of the first division. 243. Define a simple sentence. 244. Define a complex sentence. 245. Define a compound sentence. 246. Define a complete sentence. 247. Define an abridged sentence. 248. How are sentences classified as to the nature of the proposition? 249. Define a declarative sentence. 250. Define an interrogative sentence. 251. Define an imperative sentence. 252. Define an exclamatory sentence. 253. What are the elements of a sentence? 254. Into what can all sentences be resolved? 255. What is a proposition ? 256. How many parts has every proposition? 257. Define a clause. 258. How is a clause always used? 259. Define a phrase. 260. What is a modifier? 261. What is analysis? 262. Define synthesis. 263. Define ellipsis. GRAMMAR. 99 264. What is parsing? 265. What is prosody? 266. What is verse ? 267. How is poetry distinguished from prose? 268. How many kinds of verse are there? 269. Define rhyme. 270. Define hlank verse. 271. What is meant by the quantity of a sylla- ble? 272. What is afoot? 273. What is a figure? 274. Kame the figures of grammar. 275. What is a figure of orthography? 276. What is a figure of etymology ? 277. What is a figure of syntax? 278. What is a figure of rhetoric? 100 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON GRAMMAR 1. Grammar, as an art, is the power of reading, writing, and speaking correctly. As an acquisi- tion, it is the essential skill of scholarship. As a study, it is the practical science which teaches the right use of the language. 2. English grammar is the art of speaking and writing the English language, according to estab- lished usage. 3. The object of studying grammar is to be able to understand, speak, and write a language correctly. 4. Language is any method of communicating thought of feeling. 5. The composition of language is of two kinds, prose and verse. 6. English grammar is treated of under four heads : Orthography, etymology, syntax, and pros- ody. 7. Etymology treats of 1st. The classification of words. 2d. The properties of words. GRAMMAR. 101 3d. The derivation of words. 8. In a discourse, words are (classified) used (1) As names of beings, places, or things; (2) As substitutes for names or facts ; (3) As qualifiers or limiters of names; (4) To assert action, being or condition ; (5) To modify an assertion or a quality ; (6) To express relations of things or of thoughts; (7) To introduce or to connect words and sen- tences ; (8) To express a sudden or an intense emo- tion, or, (9) For rhetorical effect. 9. By the uses Words are distinguished as, (1) Nouns, (5) Adverbs, (2) Pronouns, (6) Prepositions, (3) Adjectives, (7) Conjunctions, (4) Verbs, (8) Exclamations, &a<7 (9) Words of euphony. 10. The several kinds, or classes of words, arr called by the general name of parts of speech. 11. The word parts means division, and speech means language, so that the expression, parts of speech, means division of language. 12. A noun is a name-word. 102 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 13. Nouns. Including : Colllective, Abstract, Verbal, Diminutive Class. Properties or Modificat'ns f Masculine, Gender J Feminine > ' I Common, (^Neuter. Person (First, < Second, Third. Case C No mi native, J Possessive, I Objective, (^Independent 14. A collective noun is a name, singular in form, but plural in meaning; as, crowd, company, fleet. An abstract noun is the name of a quality considered apart from the substance to which it belongs; as, sweetness, beauty. Abstract nouns are derived from adjectives. A verbal noun is the name of an action or state of being; as, singing, standing, seeing. A diminutive noun is one derived from an- other noun, and expressing some object of the same kind, but smaller; as, stream, streamlet; hill, hillock. Class nouns are names which can be applied to each individual of a class or group of objects; as, horse, apple, man. 15. All words, signs, phrases, and sentences taken technically (that is, independently of their mean- ing, and merely as things spoken of), are nouns/ GRAMMAR. 10& Or, rather, are things read and construed as nouns ; because, in such a use, they temporarily assume the syntax of nouns. Adjectives made nouns: "The ancient of days did sit." Bible. Pronouns made nouns: "The nameless He, whose nod is nature's birth." Young. Verbs made nouns: "Avaunt all altitude, and stare, and start theatric." Cowper. Participles made nouns: "For the crying of the poor and the sighing of the needy, I will arise." BMe. Adverbs made nouns : " In these cases we ex- amine the why, the what, and the how of things." L' 'Estrange. Conjunctions made nouns: "Your if is the only peace-maker ; much virtue is in your if. 7 ' Shak. Prepositions made nouns; "0, not like me; for mine's beyond, beyond." Shak. Interjections made nouns: "^ith hark and whoop and wild halloo." Scott. Phrases made nouns: "Towards the earth's centre is 'down." Sentences made nouns : " * We celebrate this day 9 was printed on their banners." Signs used as nouns : * is called an asterisk. 16. Personification means considering inanimate objects as persons endued with life ; as, we say of the earth, "she is fruitful;" of the sun, "he has risen in his strength ; " of time, " he flies on rapid Wings." 17. No uniform rule can be given. In general, 104 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. however, nouns become masculine which indicate superior strength, energy and firmness. Those, on t ticular subject. Ex. It rains. It snows. It thunders. 107. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the different modes, tenses, numbers, etc., are formed. 108. They are so called, because auxiliary means" helping. 109. The auxiliary verbs are, shall, should, will, would; may, might; can, could, (having two tenses); must, (with one tense); and do, be, and have, used in all the tenses, 110. A principal verb is a verb that expresses by itself the act or state, or the chief part of it. 111. A complete verb is a verb that has an ap- propriate form for all the modes and tenses. Ex. Love, recite see teach. 112. A transitive verb receives or requires an ob* ject to complete its meaning. 113. An intransitive verb neither receives nor re* quires an object to complete its meaning:. 114. An active-transitive verb is a verb that ex- GRAMMAR. presses an action ^hich has some person or thing for its object ; as, " Cain slew Abel." 115. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object; as, "John walUs." 116. The subdivision of verbs into active-transi- tive and active-intransitive is not only needless, but partial in its application. The distinction is made to apply exclusively to active verbs; whereas it may apply as well to neuter as to active verbs. 117. The object or complement of the transitive verb stands as an answer to the question what? or whom ? with the verb. 118. To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, we have only to use this test: Ask with it the question what? or whom? and if, in its signification as used in the example in question, it has, as answer, a noun or a pronoun, meaning a different thing from the subject, or if one is obvi- ously required to complete the meaning intended, it is transitive ; otherwise it is intransitive. 119. A transitive verb in a proposition neces- sarily implies three terms a subject, a predicate, and an object. Ex. Csesar (sub.) crossed (pred.) the Kubicon (obj.). 120. An intransitive verb requires but two terms: a subject and a predicate; as, " The tempest (sub.) rages" (pred.). 121. Some verbs are, in their nature, transitive; 120 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. others are naturally intransitive ; and some other* are used transitively or intransitively. EXAMPLES : (1) "Cold blows the wind." " Blows " is in- transitive. (2) "The wind blows the dust." "Blows" il transitive. (3) "It has swept through the earth." Intran- eitive. (4) " Jane has swept the floor." Transitive. (5) "God moves in a mysterious way." In- transitive. (6) " Such influences do not move me." Trans- itive. 122. Am. No. 1. A copulative verb is used to as- sert the predicate of a proposition of the subject ; as, " Sugar is sweet." Ana. No. 2. Incomplete veros that require as complement a word (adjective, noun, or pronoun) relating to their subject are called neuter or copula verbs. 123. The principal copula verb is the verb to oe. Other verbs belonging to this class are, become, seem, appear, grow, feel, look, smell, taste. 124. A peculiarity of these copula verbs is that each implies in its meaning the verb to be. Thus * become ' is really to come to be ; ' appear ' is to be in appearance. GRAMMAR. 121 125. A derivative verb generally forms its prin- cipal parts in the same way as the primitive verb. Ex. Mistake, mistook, mistaken; undergo, un- derwent, undergone. 126. To verbs belong voice, mode, tense, num* ber, and person. 127. Ans. No. 1. Voice is a property of transitive verbs founded on the relation of the subject to the action. Ans. No. . Voice is that modification of the verb which shows the relation between the verb and its subject. 128. The active voice represents the subject as acting. 129. The passive voice represents the subject as acted upon. 130. Ans. No. 1. Voice is a property that belong^ to transitive verbs only. -4ns. No. 2. All intransitive verbs are in the active voice because they have the form of verbs whose subjects act. 131. Mode is that modification of the verb which indicates the manner or condition of the assertion. 132. Modes are of two classes, finite an infinite. 133. The finite modes are those which are finited or limited by person and number. 122 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 134. The finite modes are the indicative, poten- tial, subjunctive, and imperative.* 135. The indicative mode is used to declare 8 thing as a fact or to ask a question ; as, " he loves." "Does he love?" X" 136. The subjunctive mode represents a thing not as a fact, but as simply conceived in the mind ; as, " if I were a king." 137. The only difference between the subjunctive mode and the indicative mode is in the third per- son singular of the two tenses, the present and the present perfect. Thus: Indicative present : (If though, etc.) he loves. Subjunctive present: (If, though, etc.) he love. Indicative pres. perfect: (If or though) he has loved. Subjunctive pres. perfect: (If or though) heAare loved. 138. The explanation of these differences is, that in what is called the subjunctive mode there is an auxiliary left out either the word will, or the words may, can, should. 139. The subjunctive is used, for the most part, in propositions expressing a condition or a supposi- tion, after the conjunctions, if, unless, except, though, * It may be well to state that all grammarians do not agree with this classification. Some authorities, as Butler, for instance, do not recognize the potential mode ; others ignore the subjunct ive, etc. The classification given is, however, the one most gen- erally accepted. GRAMMAR. 123 whether, lest, and until. It is DOW rarely used, the forms of the indicative having taken its place. 140. The imperative mode is used in command- ing, exhorting, or entreating; as, " Children, obey jour parents." "Always tell the truth." "Save jne, Hubert ! Save me ! " 141. The imperative is now used only in the sec- ond person, singular and plural, and the subject is generally omitted, as it is always the pronoun you, and the person addressed is sufficiently known without expressing it. 142. The potential mode denotes power, possibil- ity, liberty, obligation and determination. 143. This is so called, because potential means able, having power. 144. The infinite modes are those which have no limitation of person and number. 145. They are ordinarily called infinitives and participles. 146. Def. No. 1. The infinitive mode is that form of the verb which is not limited to a subject, or which has no subject; as, "to write." Def. No. 2. The infinitive is a verbal noun, and expresses the action of the verb simply, without reference to any subject. " To play." Def. No. 3. A verb used without limitation by a subject, is in the infinitive mode. L 124 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Def. No. 4. The infinitive mode is the name of the action, unlimited (from Latin in, not, and finis, a limit) by number or person. It is generally pre- ceded by the sign to, but not always; as, I like to sing; we saw him run. The infinitive is really a noun.^ Def. No. 5. The infinitive mode expresses the action, being, or state, without affirming it ; as, to write. Def. No. 6. An infinitive is a form of the verb that generally begins with to, and that expresses the act or state without predicating it. Def. No. 7. The infinitive represents the action or state as an abstract noun. Def. No. 8. The infinitive mode partakes of the nature of the verb and of that of the noun. Def. No, 9. The infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything. Def. No. 10. The infinitive mode is that form of the verb which is used to express an action, a being, or a state, which is not limited to a subject. Def. No. 11. The infinitive mode is used to ex- press an action not limited either by person or number. GRAMMA*. 125 Def. No. 18. Verbs have another substantive form besides that in ing. This form is usually pre- ceded by the preposition to, and is called the infini- tive of the verb. Def. No, 13. The infinitive mode expresses an action or state not limited to a subject. Def. No. 14. The infinitive mode is used to ex- press an action or a state of being in a general and unlimited manner. Def. No. 15. The infinitive mode is that form of the verb which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without per- son and number. Def. No. 16. Participles and infinitives are as- suming verbal words. They may be used as nouns, as adjectives and as adverbs. 147. To is called the sign of the infinitive. t 148. After the active voice of the verbs bid, make, need, let, feel and dare; after let in the passive, and after some other words, to is omitted. 149. There are two infinitives the present and the perfect. 150. The .present infinitive denotes, simply the act or state. 151. The present infinitive consists of to, com- bined with the simplest form of the verb ; or of to 126 NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. be, with a simple participle. Ex. To write, to be writing, to be written. 152. The perfect infinitive represents the act or state as completed at the time referred to. 153. The perfect infinitive consists of to have, or to have been, combined with a single participle. 154. Infinitives and participles have the construc- tion of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 155. Def. No. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the properties of a verb and of an adjective or a noun. Def. No. 2. Participles are verbal adjectives which as verbs may require an object, and as ad- jectives may qualify nouns. Def. No. 3. A participle is a word derived from a verb, retaining the signification of its verb, while it also performs the office of some other " part of speech.' 1 Def. No. 4- A participle is that form of the verb which partakes of the nature both of a verb and of an adjective. Def. No. 5. A participle is a word having the signification of a verb, but the construction of an adjective. Def. No. 6. The participle is a verbal adjective, limiting a noun, or forming part of the predicate of a proposition. GRAMMAR. 127 Def. No. 7. A participle is a form of the verb that expresses the act or state without predicating it, and generally .resembles an adjective. Def. No. 8. The participle partakes of the na- ture of the verb and of that of the adjective. Def. No. 9. Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or noun. Def. No. 10. A participle is a form of the verb that generally qualifies or limits the meaning of a substantive, by assuming some action or state in connection with it. 156. The participle is generally formed by adding ing, d, or, ed, to the verb : thus, from the verb rule, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound ; as, 1, ruling ; 2, ruled ; 3, having, ruled. 157. Ans. No. 1. There are three participles ; the present, the perfect, and the compound perfect. Ans. No. 2. There are two participles; the present and the perfect, each of which is either simple or compound. Ans. No. 3. There are, properly, two partici- ples, the present and the perfect. 128 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Ans. No. 4. Participles are distinguished as 1. Present, 2. Prior present, .3. Past. Ans. No. 5. There are three participles: the present, the perfect, and the compound. Ans. No. 6. There are two participles the present or incomplete participle, as, walking, draw- ing ; and the past, or complete participle, as, walked, drawn. Ans. No. 7. English verbs have severally three participles the first, or imperfect ; the second, or perfect; and the third, or preperfect. Ans. No. 8. Transitive verbs have six partici- ples ; namely, three active and three passive. They are called, present active, past active, perfect active, present passive, past passive, and perfect passive. Intransitive verbs have only three participles ; namely, present active, past active, and perfect active. 158. A simple participle is a single word derived from its verb. 159. A compound participle consists of a simple participle, with the auxiliary participles having, or being, or having been. 160. The participle may have the construction of a noun, adjective, or adverb, in addition to its ver- bal force, that of assuming action, being, or a state of being. GRAMMAR. 129 161. Tense is that attribute of a verb by which it expresses distinctions of time. 162. There are six tenses; the present, the past, and the future ; the present-perfect, the past-per- fect, and the future-perfect. 163. The present tense is that form of the verb which denotes simply present time. 164. The past tense is that form of the verb which denotes simply past time. 165. The future tense is that form of the verb which denotes simply future time. 166. The present-perfect tense is that form of the verb which denotes what is past and finished, but which is connected also with the present time. 167. The past-perfect tense is that form of the verb which denotes what was past and finished, be- fore some other event which is also past. 168. The future-perfect tense is that form of the verb which denotes a future time prior to some other time which is itself future. 169. Ans. No. 1. The prior past tense, the past tense, the prior present tense, the present tense, the prior future tense, the future tense. Ans. No. 2. The present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first-future and the sec- ond-future. 170. The indicative mode has all the six tenses. 9 130 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 171. Ans. No. 1. The subjunctive has two tenses: the present and past. Ans. No. 2. The subjunctive mode has three tenses the present, past, and past-perfect. Ans. No. 3. The subjunctive mode has six tenses the same as the indicative. 172. The potential mode has four tenses the present, the past, the present-perfect, and the past- perfect. 173. The infinitive mode has two tenses the present, and the present perfect. 174. The imperative mode has but one tense the present. 175. The forms of the verb are its various changes to express the time and state of an act in the several modes and tenses. 176. Transitive verbs may have four forms. 177. The common, the emphatic, the progressive, and the passive. 178. Intransitive verbs may have three forms. 179. The common, the emphatic, and the pro- gressive. 180. The common (indefinite) form represents an act indefinitely, as a custom, or as completed, with- out reference to its progress. 181. Examples of the common form I love; I loved; I shall love; I have loved. GRAMMAR. 131 182. The emphatic form represents an act with emphasis. 183. Examples of the emphatic form I do write; I did write. 184. The emphatic form is used in interrogative or negative sentences without emphasis. 185. Ex. Do you write? Did you write? I do write. 186. The progressive form is used to denote ao- tion or state in progress. 187. Ex. "I am writing;" "He had been sing- ing." 188. The progressive form may be used in all the modes and tenses. 189. The progressive form is formed by prefixing the various modes and tenses of the neuter verb to be to the present participle of the principal verb. 190. The passive form denotes the reception of- an act by its subject; as, "I am struck." 191. The passive form is used in all the modes and tenses. 192. The passive form is formed by prefixing the various modes and tenses of the neuter verb to be to the perfect participle of the principal verb. 193. The ancient form, or solemn style, is used in the Bible, in religious worship, and sometimes in poetry and burlesque; as, " Thou art the man. 132 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 194. The interrogative and negative forms. 195. The interrogative form is made by placing the subject after the first helping verb; as, " Hav6 you seen my book?" 196. The present and past tenses are usually made from the emphatic form; as, "Z)o you heaf the alarm?" 197. The negative form of a verb is made by placing not after the first helping verb; as, " He has not come." 198. Compound forms result from the formation of interrogative and negative and from the pro- gressive and passive forms. 199. Verbs have three persons the first, the sec- ond, and the third; and two numbers the singu- lar and the plural. These correspond to the per- son and the number of the subject. 200. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb. - 201. Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes And tenses. 202. The inflection of a verb is called its conju- gation. 203. The verb has two conjugations, the weak and the strong. 204. There are two methods of forming the past tense of verbs. Most verbs form it by adding d or ed to the theme ; as, Theme : move, live,, form. GRAMMAR. 133 Past tense : moved, lived, formed. The past participle of all such verbs has the same form as the past tense. Such verbs are of the weak or regular conju- gation. 205. Some verbs mostly of one syllable, and all of Anglo-Saxon origin form their past tense by changing the vowel sound of the theme, and form their past participle by adding n or en to the theme, or to the past tense ; as, Theme: draw, grow, ride. Past tense: drew, grew, rode. The past participle of such verbs generally endi in n or en. Such verbs are of the strong or irregular con- jugation. 206. The theme of the verb is that form which admits the preposition to before it ; as, to have, to see. This form is called the infinitive, or unlimited form, and is generally a substantive. 207. A word given as a model by which to inflect other words is called a paradigm. 208. To make a verb in grammar, means to put it into any required form. 209. To tell where a verb is made, is to name the tense, mode, form, voice, number, and person of the verb, if these can be known by the verb itself. If all these facts can not be known, name as many as possible. 210. Ex. Where is may be going made ? In the present potential, progressive form, active voice. 134 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 211. The present infinitive active without its sign to, is the root of the verb. 212. The principal parts of a verb are : I. Pres- ent indicative; II. Past indicative; III. Past par- ticiple. / 213. These are called principal parts, because from them all other forms of the verb are made. 214. Adverbs are words used to limit the appli- cation of verbs, participles, infinitives, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and propositions. 215. Adverbs are classified, according to the ideas they express, into those of: Manner; as, well, beautifully, quickly. Time ; as, now, to-day, to-morrow, soon. Place ; as, where, here, there, near. Cause ; as, why, therefore. Degree or quality ; as, very, exceedingly, terri- bly, much, less. Number; as, once, twice. Order; as, first, last, finally. Affirmation ; as, truly, yes, certainly. Negation; as, no, not, not at all. Doubt; as, perhaps, possibly. Direction ; as, downward, inward, upward. 216. A modifying adverb is one which limits words or phrases without having any connecting power. 217. A conjunctive adverb is one which intro- GRAMMAR. 135 duces a subordinate sentence and modifies its verb; as, we will know the truth when he returns. 218. An adverb is equivalent to a preposition and its object limited by the adjective from which the adverb comes, or by some other adjective of like meaning. Ex. " He acts wisely." He acts in a wise man- ner. 219. (1) Adverbs of manner are mostly derived from adjectives by adding ly ; as, wise, wisely. (2) Some adverbs are identical in form with the adjective ; as, more beautiful. (3) Some adverbs are formed from nouns; as, daily, hourly. 220. An adverb should be placed in close prox- imity to the word or words that it modifies. 221. Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are compared after the manner of adjectives; as, soon, sooner, soonest. Some are compared irreg- ularly ; as, well, better, best. 222. A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word. 223. Prepositions are divided into three classes- simple, compound, and complex. 224. A simple preposition is a preposition con- sisting of a single word. 136 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 225. Compound means compounded of two prep* ositions ; as, out of, from between, etc. 226. Complex refers to prepositions compounded of a preposition and some other part or parts of speech ; as, on account of, to the extent of, etc. 227. A conjunction is a word whose office it is to connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. 228. Conjunctions are classified on two bases; first, as to rank ; second, as to signification. 229. As to rank, conjunctions are coordinate and subordinate. 230. Coordinate connectives are those which join similar or homogeneous elements. 231. Subordinate, connectives are those which join dissimilar or heterogeneous elements. 232. As to signification, conjunctions are copula- tive and disjunctive. 233. A copulative conjunction simply conneeta the meaning of phrases or sentences; as, the moon ehines and the wind blows. 234. A disjunctive conjunction connects words, phrases, or sentences, yet indicates alternative, ad- versative, or antithetic meaning ; as, he will go or stay; the shop was burned, but the house was saved. GRAMMAR. 137 235. An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind ; as, Oh ! alas ! 236. Syntax treats of the construction of sen- tences, 237. A sentence is a complete expression of thought by means of words. 238. The expression of a thought involves at least three things : (1) Some subject of thought. (2) Some idea which is connected with the subject. (3) Some word which expresses the connection of the first and second ideas. 239. The subject is the name of the thing spoken of. 240. The predicate is the word or words used with the subject in making the statement. 241. Sentences are classified as to structure and as to the nature of the proposition. 242. Simple, complete, abridged, complex, prin. cipal, compound, partial compound, subordinate leading and coordinate. 243. A simple sentence is one which contains but one subject and one finite verb ; as, " Life is short." 138 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 244. A complex sentence is one which contains a simple sentence, with one or more clauses modi- fying either its subject or its verb ; as, "A life which is spent in doing good can not be a failure." 245. A compound sentence is one which contains two or more sentences, whether simple or complex, connected by one or more conjunctions; as, "Life is short, but art is long." 246. A complete sentence is one whose verb is finite. 247. An abridged sentence is one whose verb is in the infinitive or participial mode. 248. As to the nature of the proposition sentences are declarative, imperative and interrogative. 249. A declarative sentence is one that declares something; as, " The 'wind blows." 250. An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question ; as, " Does the wind blow ? " 251. An imperative sentence is one that expresses a command, an exhortation, an entreaty, or per- mission, and contains a verb in the imperative mode; as, "Let the wind blow." 252. An exclamatory sentence is one that ex- claims something; as, "How the wind blows J" GRAMMAR. 139 253. The elements of sentences are words, phrases, and clauses. 254. All sentences can be resolved into proposi- tions or clauses. 255. A proposition is a subject combined with its predicate. 256. Every proposition must have at least two principal parts; a subject- nominative and a pre- dicate-verb. 257. A clause contains the elements of a sen- tence but does not make complete sense. 258. It is always used as a modifier. 259. A phrase is any number of related words in proper order, not forming a sentence or a clause. 260. A modifier is a dependent word, phrase or clause, added to some other word or expression, to limit or vary the meaning. 261. Analysis in grammar is the separation of sentences into the parts which compose them. 262. Synthesis is the construction or formation of sentences from words. 263. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words, phrases, or clauses necessary to complete the sense and construction of a sentence; as, "He loves play better than (he loves) study." 264. Parsing is verbal analysis ; the naming of 140 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. the several parts of speech, with the relation which each word has in the sentence. 265. Prosody is that part of grammar which treats of the quantity of syllables, of feet, and the modes in which they are combined in verse. 266. Verse is language so arranged in lines that syllables of a certain length may occur at certain intervals. 267. Verse is the form in which poetry generally appears. Poetry is distinguished from prose not only by this form, but by its containing more fig- ures, as well as peculiar words and expressions. 268. There are two kinds of verse, rhyme, and blank verse. 269. Rhyme is that kind of verse in which there is a correspondence of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines. 270. Blank verse is metrical language without rhyme. 271. By the quantity of a syllable is meant the time required for its utterance. 272. A foot is two or more syllables, constituting a portion of a line. 273. A figure in grammar, is an intentional de- viation from the ordinary spelling, formation, con- struction, or application of words. 274. There are figures of orthography, figures of etymology, figures of syntax, and figures of rhetoric. GRAMMAR. 14f 275. A figure of orthography is an intentional deviation from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. 276. A figure of etymology is an intentional de- viation from the ordinary formation of a word. 277. A figure of syntax is an intentional devia- tion from the ordinary construction of words. 278. A figure of rhetoric is an intentional devia- tion from the ordinary application of words. THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOlC gUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY. 1. What is history ? 2. What are the divisions of history? 3. Define ancient history. 4. Define modern history. 5. What is civil history ? 6. What is sacred history ? 7. What is profane history ? 8. For what is ancient history distinguished ? 9. For what is modern history distinguished? 10. What can be said of the first inhabitants of America? 11. What race of people followed the Mound Builders? 12. Why were they so named ? 13. Describe the Indian. 14. Who first suggested the idea of the rotundity of the earth? Who confirmed it? Who resolved to prove it? 15. What was the great and exciting problem of the fifteenth century ? 16. Who had excited the people of Europe abou* the Indies? 17. Why did Columbus wish to sail to India? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 143 18. Give some account of Coltimbus's trials and his final success. 19. How many voyages did Columbus make, and what lands did he discover in each voyage? 20. What further can be said of Columbus? 21. Give an idea of the character of Columbus. 22. Give an account of his burial. 23. Why was this country called America? 24. How many and what nations took an active part in exploring North America? 25. Name the most important Spanish discover- ers and explorers. 26. Give an account of De Leon's discoveries. 27. What did Balboa discover? 28. Who discovered Mexico? 29. Give an account of De Ayllon. 80. What became of Ue Ayllon's effort to kidnap the natives? 31. What was the result of De Ayllon's second kidnapping expedition? 32. Give an account of Magellan's explorations. 33. What of De Soto and his explorations? 34. Who was Melendez? 35. What was the real object of the expedition of Melendez? 36. Where did Melendez land and what did he do? 37. What did Melendez next proceed to do? 38. Give a summary of Spanish explorations. 39. Name the most important French discover- ers. 40. Give an account of the explorations of Ver- razzani. 144 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 41. What did James Cartier discover? 42. Name the most important English discover- ers and explorers. 43. Give an account of the discovery of the Cab- ots. 44. This discovery was previous to what other important discoveries? 45. Give an account of the first attempt of th English to colonize America. 46. What did Sir Walter Ealeigh do? 47. Where was the first white child of English parents born in America ? 48. What was her name ? 49. What did Raleigh call the lands he explored! 50. What did Gosnold explore? 51. Give an account of the Dutch explorations in America. 52. In what year did he make these discoveries ? 53. What was the Spanish claim in America? 54. Upon whose expedition was it based? 55. What was the French claim ? 56. What was the English claim? 57. Upon what was the English claim based ? 58. How far westward did these claims extend ? 59. By what right did Spain claim the Pacific Coast? 60. What was the Dutch claim? 61. During what period in the world's history did these discoveries and explorations take place? 62. What were the only permanent settlements at the close of the sixteenth century? 63. Name five of the first permanent settlements UNITED STATES HISTORY. 145 made in the New World, at the beginning of the seventeenth century. 64. What inducements led Europeans to come to America? 65. What important event transpired April 10, 1606? 66. What was the London company? 67. What territory was granted to this com- pany? 68. Of whom was the Plymouth company com- posed ? 69. What right was granted to this company ? 70. What settlement did the London company make? 71. What special importance is attached to this settlement? 72. What was the character of the Virginia col- onists? 73. What was their success? 74. What distinguished man was among the first settlers ? 75. What did John Smith do for the colony? 76. What great story is told of John Smith? 77. When and where was the first legislative as- sembly ever held in America? 78. When was slavery first introduced into the colonies? 79. When were the Navigation Acts passed? 80. What was the purpose of these acts? 81. Explain the system of these acts. 82. What was the effect of these laws ? 83. What took place in 1676? 10 146 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 84. What was the cause of Bacon's rebellion? 85. "What happened during this rebellion? 86. Where was the first permanent New England settlement made? 87. How did the New England states get their name? 88. When and by whom was Connecticut settled ? 89. Where did they commence their first settle- ments ? 90. By whom was Rhode Island settled ? 91. By whom was the first settlement in New Hampshire made ? 92. Who made the first settlement in Maine? 93. From what did the early colonies greatly suffer? 94. What conduct and outrages led to the atti- tude of the Indians toward the colonists? 95. What missionary heroes worked among the Indians ? 96. What may be said of the colonists with re- gard to education? 97. When was Harvard University founded ? 98. When and where was William and Mary College founded ? 99. When was Yale College founded? 100. When was Dartmouth College founded? ,101. By whom was New York settled? 102. Where did they commence their settlement? 103. What took place in the year 1664? 104. Name the Dutch governors of New York in the order of their reign. 105. By whom was Delaware settled ? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 147 106. Where did they commence their first settle- ment? 107. What transpired in a few years after their settlement ? 108. By whom was Maryland settled ? 109. Why did they leave England? 110. Where did they land? 111. Give an account of the government of Lord Baltimore. 112. To whom does the honor of having first es- tablished religious freedom in America belong? 113. By whom was Pennsylvania settled? 114. When did they arrive in this country? 115. Where did they commence a settlement? 116. What can be said of William Penn's behav- ior to the Indians ? 117. Explain what is meant by Mason and Dix- on's line. 118. By whom was North Carolina settled? 119. Where did they commence a settlement? 120. When was South Carolina settled? 121. What was introduced into this country in the year 1700 ? 122. When and by whom was Georgia settled ? 123. Why was it called Georgia? 124. From what nation were the great mass of the settlers of the U. S.? 125. What other nations were represented? 126. Where were these different nationalities found in the colonies ? 127. In what were the settlers of New England engaged ? 148 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 128. In what were the settlers of the Middle States engaged? 129. In what were the settlers of Virginia and Maryland engaged? 130. In what were the settlers of Carolina and Georgia engaged ? 131. What was the most commercial colony? 132. What was the most commercial town? 133. Why had Virginia no large towns? 134. How was trade carried on ? 135. What was used instead of currency ? 136. In what money were accounts kept? 137. When was the Federal currency adopted? 138. State something of the manners and cus- toms of the early settlers. 139. What religious beliefs existed in the colo- nies? 140. Give an account of the religious persecu- tions. 141. Under what dominion were the colonies? 142. What kinds of government were there? 143. Describe the commercial corporation. 144. Describe proprietary government. 145. Give examples of proprietary government. 146. Describe royal government. 147. Give examples of royal government. 148. Describe charter government. 149. Describe voluntary association. 150. Name two strange delusions in colonial his- tory. 151. When was the printing press introduced into America? 152. Who was the first American editor? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 149 153. Who were the founders of American liter- ature? 154. What part had the pulpit to do in the edu- cation of the colonial tira'es? 155. When were post-offices first established in the colonies? 156. What great men did the colonial times pro- duce? 157. What was the population of the colonies at the close of the colonial period? 158. Name the inter-colonial wars. 159. What was the cause of King William's war? 160. When did the war begin and when did it close ? 161. What was the cause of Queen Anne's war? 162. Give the dates of this war. 163. By what treaty was it ended? What was the result of the war? 164. What was the cause of King George's war? 165. What was the principal event in America? 166. Give the dates of this war. 167. What was the result of this war? 168. What was the cause of the French and In- dian war? 169. Between what nations was the war fought? 170. What was this war called in Europe? 171. Name the principal events of this war. 172. Who were the principal commanders in this war? 173. Give the dates of this war. 1 74. What were the terms of the treaty ? 175. W^at were the causes of the Revolutionary War? 150 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 176. What were the writs of assistance ? 177. What was the stamp act ? 178. When was the Boston port bill passed ? 179. What was the mutiny act? 180. When and where was the first colonial con- gress held ? 181. When was the first continental congress held ? 182. Of what did it consist? 183. What did this congress do ? 184. Who were the officers of this congress ? 185. What parties existed in America at the breaking out of the Revolution ? 186. Give an account of the second continental congress. 187. For what is the 4th of July, 1776, memora- ble? 188. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 189. What famous foreigners assisted the Ameri- cans in the Revolution. 190. When were "The Stars and Stripes" adopted as the emblem of our nationality? 191. Give an account of the treason of Benedict Arnold. 192. Name the most important battles of the Revolution, with dates, results and commanders. 193. When was the treaty of peace concluded ? 194. What were the terms of the treaty ? 195. What important measure was adopted by Congress in 1777 ? 196. What were the defects in the articles of confederation ? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 151 197. "When was the Constitution of the United States adopted? 198. What two political parties were in existence at this time ? 199. What were the principles of these two par- ties? 200. Who were the leaders of these parties ? 201. Name the different places where the Con- tinental Congress met. 202. When did the first trouble arise in reference to slavery ? 203. What did each section claim? 204. What compromise was effected ? 205. Who exercised this power? 206. Who was chosen first president of the Uni- ted States? When and by whom? 207. Name the most important events of Wash- ington's administration. 208. Give the history of the seats of our govern- ment. 209. Give a short history of the District of Co- lumbia. 210. Who was chosen president after Washing- ton? 211. What do you know about him ? 212. Name the most important events of Adams's administration. 213. Define the text of the Alien and Sedition laws. 214. Give an account of the presidential election of 1800. 215. What do you know of the character of Thomas Jefferson ? 152 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 216. What were the important events of Jeffer- son's administration ? 217. Give an account of the election of James Madison. 218. What were the principal events of Madison's administration ? 219. Give a brief account of the Indian war. 220. What was the cause of the war in 1812 ? 221. What were the principal engagements of this war? 222. When and where was the treaty of peace made? 223. What is said of this treaty? 224. Give an account of the next presidential election. 225. Name the important events of Monroe's ad- ministration. 226. Define the Monroe Doctrine. 227. What was the Missouri Compromise ? 228. Give a sketch of the two great parties now in power. 229. Who were the champions of these parties? 230. What was the result of the election of 1824 ? 231. What were the events of John Quincy Ad- ams's administration? 232. What of the presidential election of 1828? 233. What were the important events of Jack- ton's administration? 234. What can you say of the presidential elec- tion of 1836? 235. What were the events of Van Buren's ad- ministration ? 286. Who was elected President in 1840 ? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 153 237. What was the meaning of the election? 203. Give an account of the death of President Harrison. 239. Who then became President? 240. Name the events of these administrations. 241. What was the issue of the campaign of 1844? 242. Who was elected President? 243. What was the cause of the war with Mex- ico? 244. Name four or five of the principal battles of this war. 245. What is there remarkable about the battles of this war? 246. Who were the most noted commanders on both sides? 257. What treaty formally ended the Mexican war? 248. State the territory ceded by this treaty to the United States. 249. What other events transpired during Polk's administration ? 250. What was the Wilmot Proviso? 251. Who were candidates for the presidency in the election of 1848? 252. What were the principles of the Free-soil- ers? 253. Who was elected? 254. When did Taylor die? 255. Who then became President? 256. What were the events of this administra- tion? 257. Give an account of the admittance of Cali- fornia into the Union. 154 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 258. What compromise measure passed Con* gress ? 259. What were the provisions of the Omnibus Bill? 260. What was the question at issue in the cam- paign of 1852 ? 261. Who were the candidates? ' 262. Who was elected ? 263. What were the events of this administration? 264. What was the Gadsden purchase ? 265. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Bill? 266. What was this doctrine called? 267. What was the result of this bill? 268. When did it become a law? 269. What did it bring about? 270. What new party came into existence in 1853? 271. What were the principles of this party? 272. What new party was organized out of the Free-soilers ? 273. What principle did the Democrats advocate? 274. What candidates were put in the field? 275. What were the events of Buchanan's ad- ministration ? 276. What was the "Dred-Scott" decision? 277. Into how many parties were the people di- vided in 1860, and who was elected president? 278. What immediate effect did the election have in South Carolina? 279. What other States followed the Iea4 of South Carolina? 280. Give a sketch of the formation of the new government. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 155 281. What may be given as the causes of the civil war ? 282. What was the policy of Abraham Lincoln ? 283. When and where was the first gun of the rebellion fired ? 284. What was remarkable about this contest? 285. When and where was the first blood shed? 286. What can you say of the flags of the two nations? 287. Name the states that formed the Southern Confederacy. 288. Name some of the most important battles won by the confederates. 289. Name some of the most important battles won by the federals. 290. Name the hard fought battles in which neither army was successful. 291. What virtually closed the civil war? 292. What occurred five days after Lee's sur> render? 293. Who now became president? 294. What political questions came up for con* sideration ? 295. What important events occurred during Johnson's administration ? 296. What was the cost of the war? 297. Who was the next president? 298. Name the most important events of Grant's administration. 299. Name the events of Grant's second adminis- tration. 800. Who was elected president in 1876? 156 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 301. Mention the events of Hayes's adminis- tration. 302. Was President Hayes's administration favorable to his party ? 303. Who were the nominees for the Presi- dency to succeed President Hayes ? 304. When was Gfarfield inaugurated Presi- dent? 305. What gigantic swindling system was detected in the Post Office Department ? 306. When was President Garfield assassi- nated ? 307. When did Chester A. Arthur become President of the United States ? 308. What is the Civil Service Act, and when was it passed ? 309. When was letter postage reduced from three cents to two cents ? 310. How was Alaska recognized as a Territory \ 311. How was Chinese immigration regulated ? 312. Who were nominated for President in 1884? 313. Who was elected ? 314. What notable events occurred in 1886 ? 315. What important commercial act was passed by Congress in January, 1887 ? 316. What bill originated in the Senate in re- gard to the Canadian fishery question ? 317. What was the result of the election of 1888 ? 318. In February, 1889, what important office was added to the Cabinet ? 319. What legislation in the same month was of special interest to the people of the Northwest ? UNITED STATES HISTORY. 156(2 320. What interesting anniversary occurred in 1889? 321. How near to the verge of war did the United States come during Harrison's adminis- tration ? 322. What important tariff and silver legisla- tion was enacted in 1890 ? 323. What were the effects of the " McKinley Law"? 324. What was the result of the election of 1892? 325. What event of international interest marked the year 1893 ? 326. Did any exceptional political occurrences mark this year ? 327. What important question engaged the attention of the Congress and the people in 1894? 328. What occurrences in the labor field ex- cited general anxiety in 1894 ? 329. What great question was brought most prominently to the attention of the people in 1895-96 ? 330. What was the result of the general elec- tion of 1896 ? 331. What was the first important act during the McKinley administration ? 332. Did either house of Congress do anything else of note at the extra session ? 333. Was this the only treaty of consequence before the Senate of that session ? 334. How did its failure affect Hawaiian an- nexation ? 156& THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 335. What noteworthy event for New York occurred in 1897 ? 336. What important general legislation was enacted by the Fifty-fifth Congress at its winter session of 1897-98 ? 337. How long did the war with Spain last ? 338. What were the principal battles in this war? 339. What other exhibitions of American hero- ism distinguished this war ? 340. What brought about this war ? 341. What were the principal terms of the peace protocol ? 342. Who were appointed to represent the United States in the peace conference, and where did the conference hold its sessions ? 343. What was the character of the War Kev- enue Act ? 344. What did the treaty of peace provide ? 345. When was peace formally declared ? 346. What dramatic coincidence attended the vote of the United States Senate for the ratifica- tion of the treaty ? 347. Has the United States any other foreign complications on hand at present ? MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 302. Name the presidents who served two terms. 303. Name the presidents who died "in office. 304. What administrations were troubled with Wars ? 305. What presidents did the Federal party elect ? UNITED STATES HISTOBYV 157 306. The Old Republican party? 307. The Democratic party? 308. The New Republican party? 309. What presidents were elected without op- position ? 310. Name some of our most eminent inventors. 311. Who was our most eminent literary, politi- cal and scientific writer ? 312. Name our distinguished metaphysicia- 313. Our lexicographers. 314. Name our mathematicians. 315. Our naturalists. 316. Our novelists. 317. Our historians. 318. Our poets. 319. Our journalists. 320. Our sculptors. 321. Our painters. 322. Our orators. 323. What territory belonged to the United States when it began its existence as a nation? 324. What country was organized as the North- west Territory? 325. What States have been carved out of this territory ? 326. What was the Southwest Territory ? 327. What States have been formed from it? 328. Was Maine one of the thirteen original States ? 329. What States and Territories have been formed out of the Louisiana purchase \ 330. Give the early history of Texas. 331. From what comes the real glory of a nation? 158 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON U. S. HISTORY. 1. The word history is of Greek origin, signify. ing in that language a learning or knowing by in- quiry, and in English a record of past events. 2. History is divided into ancient and modern ; which is also divided in civil, sacred and profane. 3. Ancient history is an account of all events that have taken place from the creation of the world to the birth of Christ. 4. Modern history embraces an account of all events from the birth of Christ until the present time. 5. Civil history is an account of the rise, con- tinuance, and fall of empires, kingdoms, and states. 6. Sacred history is that which is contained in the Sacred Scriptures. 7. Profane history is properly the history of fabulous gods, and heroes of antiquity. 8. Ancient history is distinguished for the rise and fall of the four great empires : Assyria, Persia, Greece and Rome. 9. Modern history is distinguished for the in- UNITED STATES HISTORY. 159 vention of gunpowder, the art of printing, and the discovery of America. 10. The first inhabitants of America are un- known. The name given them is Mound-Builders, owing to the great mounds and earth-works to be found in different parts of the country, of which the Indians have no traditions. 11. The Indians. 12. Columbus named them " Indians," because he thought the island he had found was a part of India, or Eastern Asia. 13. The Indian is tall, straight and well propor- tioned. His skin is of a copper brown; his hair long, black and coarse. They were uncivilized, had no written books, no well organized society, or arts, or manufactures, or agriculture. They lived mainly by hunting and fishing, and cultiva- ting patches of Indian corn, beans, potatoes and melons. Their great delight was in war and the chase. They lived in rude huts called wigwams, and their dress was the skin of wild beasts. The arts of the whites greatly injured them. The guns which they got from the whites only made them reckless in their destruction of game, and rendered their petty wars more frequent and more bloody. The rum of the white man turned them into brutes. The cottons and calicoes which they learned to use in place of their own furs and deer-skins, caused sickness and consumption. 160 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 14. Toscanelli, Sir John Maudeville, Ohristophet Columbus. 15. The great problem of the fifteenth century was to find a near route to India. 16. Marco Polo, a Venetian, had traveled to the east, and returned with wonderful accounts of the riches of Cathay and the Islands of Cipango, called, generally, the East Indies, and now known to be China and Japan. 17. Since the route at that time to this rich coun- try of spices, silks, pearls and gold was overland by caravans, dangerous and expensive, Columbus thought it would be a great thing if he could go to India all the way by sea. Columbus was also a deeply religious man, and he longed greatly to bring the unknown barbarous nations of the far East to a knowledge of the Christian faith. 18. Columbus being too poor to fit out an expe^ dition himself, first applied to his own countrymen for aid, and then to the king of Portugal. He next jturned to Spain, and in the meantime sent his brother to England, but these people had no time to listen to a poor sailor at whom everybody laughed, and the children mocked him as he passed in the streets. Success came at last. Eighteen years had now passed since he conceived his great design, seven of which were spent waiting for the answer of Ferdinand. Saddened by his continual UNITED STATES HISTORY. 161 failures, he was leaving Spain, begging a little food at convent doors, and resolving to apply to the king of France. At a lonely mountain pass he was overtaken by a messenger from the queen, Isabella, asking him to return to the capital. Urged by a desire to spread tbe Catholic faith throughout the world, and to see Spain the mistress of lands in Asia, the queen had changed her mind. To the cold objections of Ferdinand she nobly an- swered, " I undertake the enterprise for my crown of Castile, and will pledge my jewels to raise the necessary funds." 19. Four. In his first voyage Columbus discov- ered Guanahani, to which he gave the name of San Salvador the Spanish words for Holy Savior. In his second voyage he discoverd the Winward Isles, Jamaica and Porto Rico. In his third voyage he discovered the Island of Trinidad, and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. In his fourth voyage he visited the places which he had previously discovered, and made some explo- rations along the south side of the Gulf of Mexico. 20. Columbus never dreamed that he had discov- ered a new continent, and died supposing that ha had opened a new route to Asia. His later years were saddened by persecution and neglect, and he died in poverty and obscurity, at Valladolid, Spain, May 20, 1506, in the seventy-first year of his age. 21. Columbus was a man of commanding pres- 11 162 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ence. In character he was one of the greatest soula that ever lived. He was a man of lofty intellect, of wonderful enthusiasm, and of a deep religious nature. 22. His remains were carried to Seville; after- ward they were removed to San Domingo, in 1796 to the cathedral at Havana, and in 1899 to Spain. 23. The country was called America from Amer- icus Vespucius, who sailed to the new world on a voyage of discovery after Columbus had reached the continent ; Americus explored still farther the new regions, and on his return to Spain, published an account of his discovery, and the country in consequence received from him the name of Amer- ica. 24. The four powers which took an active part in exploring North America were Spain, England, France and Holland. 25. Columbus, Vespucci, De Leon, Balboa, Gri- jalvah, De Ayllon, De Narvaez, Magellan, De Soto, and Melendez. 26. Ponce de Leon (pon'-tha-da-la-6n') was a gal- lant soldier, but an old man, and in disgrace. He coveted the glory of conquest to restore his tar- nished reputation, and, besides, he had heard of a magical fountain in this fairy land, where one might bathe and be young again. He accordingly equipped an expedition, and sailed in search of this fabled treasure. On Easter Sunday (Pascua Flor- ida, in Spanish), 1512, he came in sight of a land gay with spring flowers. In honor of the day, he called it Florida. He sailed along the coast, and UNITED STATES HISTORY. 163 landed here and there, but returned home at last, an old man still, having found neither youth, gold, nor glory. 27. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, Sept. 26, 1513, while ascending the mountains of the Isthmus of Panama. 28. Mexico was discovered by Grijalvah, (gre- haul'-vah), in 1518. 29. In 1520, Vasquez de Ayllon, (vas'-keth-da al'-yon), a wealthy Spaniard, undertook an expedi- tion to America, and, landing on the present coast of South Carolina, decoyed a number of natives on board his fleet, and steered for home, intending to sell them in Europe as slaves. 30. Three of the vessels were wrecked, and most of the Indians were drowned. 31. De Ayllon was honorably received by his government, and was sent on another kidnapping expedition ; but this was unsuccessful, resulting in De Ayllon's pecuniary ruin. Thus ended the first attempt to enslave the Indians, who, thenceforth, lost all confidence in Spanish honor. 32. Magellan was the first European to sail upon the Pacific (1519). On account of its calm and peaceful appearance when first traversed, he gave it the name Pacific. He was also the first that sailed around the world (1519-21). 33. De Soto explored the interior of the Southern States, discovering the Mississippi river, 1541. 34. In 1565, the king of Spain, the bigoted Philip II., sent Pedro Melendez (me-len'-deth), 164 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. "a soldier of ferocious disposition and criminal practices," to colonize Florida. 35. The real object of this expedition was to break up and destroy a colony of French Protes- tants, called Huguenots, who the year before, had made a settlement near the mouth of the St. John's river, territory claimed by Spain. 36. Melendez, with his men, lauded on the north- eastern shore, near the mouth of a small river, OE St. Augustine's day (2d of September). Here he laid the foundation of the town of St. Augustine (Sept., 1565), the oldest settlement, by forty-two years, within the United States. 37. Melendez next turned his attention to the Huguenots, whom he found and attacked. The Huguenots put to sea in their vessels, but a furious storm arose and dashed to pieces every ship in the fleet. Most of them, however, reached the shore. Here they were attacked by the forces of Melendez; and men, women and children were alike butch- ered, only a few escaping. " 38. The Spaniards, having planted themselves on the great islands they first discovered, pushed out in different directions to the mainland. They soon overran Central America, Mexico and Peru. Within the .present limits of the United States they were also active: 1. Florida, a vast and undefined re- gion, was partially explored; 2. The Mississippi was discovered ; 3. New Mexico was explored ; 4. St. Augustine and Santa Fe' were founded ; 5. The coast of California was examined for many leagues. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 165 89. Verrazzani and Cartier. 40. Verrazzani (va-rat-tsah* ne), a Florentine, waa sent out by the French king, in the year 1524, in command of an exploring expedition. He first touched the coast at North Carolina, and explored as far north as Newfoundland. It is believed that he entered the harbors of New York and Newport. Verrazzani's voyage was the foundation of the French claim in America. 41. In 1534, James Cartier, (kar-te-ah'), sent out by the king of France, discovered and explored the Gulf and the River of St. Lawrence. 42. The Cabots, Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Walter Raleigh, Bartholomew Gosuold, Martin Pring and George Waymouth. 43. The Cabots discovered Labrador (1497) ; and Sebastian Cabot, in a second voyage, sailed along the coast from Labrador to Chesapeake Bay (1498). 44. This was one year before Columbus discov- ered South America, and two years before Vespucci visited the continent. 45. The first attempt of the English to colonize America was made by the brave Sir Humphrey Gil- bert, who, under authority of Queen Elizabeth, endeavored to establish a settlement at New Found- land (1583). The enterprise was unsuccessful. 46. Raleigh sent an expedition to North Caro- 166 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. lina (1584) ; and made two attempts to found a col ony (1585, 1587). 47. The first white child of English parents in America was born at the temporary settlement on the island of Roanoke, in 1587. 48. Her name was Virginia Dare. 49. Raleigh called the lands he explored, Vir- ginia, in honor of Elizabeth, who was called the Virgin Queen. 50. Grosnold explored the coast of Massachusetts (1602). 51. The Dutch made a single expedition under Henry Hudson, who discovered and explored the Hudson river, and traversed the coast northward to Hudson Bay. 52. In 1609. 53. The Spanish claim of Florida stretched north- ward without any definite limits. 54. It was chiefly based on the expedition of De Leon. 55. The French claim, under tne name of New France, extended from New York to Labrador, and was founded on the voyage of Verrazzani. Dur- ing the following century it was extended to the great lakes and the entire Mississippi Valley. 56. The English claim of Virginia stretched from Florida as far as Labrador. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 167 57. It was based on the voyages of the Cabots. 58. All these three nations claimed westward to the Pacific Ocean. 59. Spain claimed the Pacific Coast by explora- tion. 60. The Dutch claim, named New Netherland, in the year 1614 was based on Hudson's discovery, and extended from the 40th to the 45th degree north latitude. 61. These explorations had lasted during the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries. 62. At the close of the sixteenth century, the only permanent settlements were those of the Spaniards at St. Augustine and Santa Fe'. 63. (1) The French at Port Royal, K S , 1605. (2) The English at Jamestown, 1607. (3) The French at Quebec, 1608. (4) The Dutch at New York, 1613. (5) The English Puritans at Plymouth, 1620. 64. The principal inducements that first led Europeans to come to America were : the hope of finding a western passage to India; eagerness to amass sudden fortunes by conquest or mining ; cu- riosity and love of adventure ; the prospect of profit from the Newfoundland fisheries, and from trade in train-oil, walrus tusks, bear skins, and beaver skins; zeal to convert heathen peoples to Chris- tianity, and the design of planting colonies. 168 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 65. April 10, 1606, was an important day for the western continent. On that day the king of Eng- land issued two great patents to men of that coun- try, authorizing them to possess and colonize most of that portion of North America lying between the thirty-fourth and forty-fifth degrees of latitude, and extending from ocean to ocean. 66. The London Company was an association com- posed of nobles, gentlemen, and merchants residing in London. 67. To this company was granted the territory lying between the thirty-fourth and thirty-eighth degrees from Cape Fear to the Potomac. 68. The Plymouth Company was composed of persons from Plymouth, in the west of England. 69. It was granted the exclusive right to plant colonies between the forty-first and forty-fifth de- grees, from NQW York city to Halifax. 70. In May, 1607, a colony of one hundred and five persons, under the auspices of the London Company, began the settlement of Jamestown, OD the James river, in Virginia. 71. This was the first permanent English settle- ment in America. 72. They were mostly gentlemen by birth, unused to labor. They had no families, and came out in search of wealth or adventure, expecting, when rich, to return to England. 'UNITED STATES HISTORY. 169 73. The climate was unhealthy, and before the first autumn half of their number had perished. 74. Captain John Smith. 75. John Smith alone saved the colony from ruin. First as a member of the council, and after- ward, as president, his services were invaluable. He persuaded the settlers to erect a fort and build log huts for the winter. He made long voyages, carefully exploring Chesapeake Bay, securing the friendship of the Indians, and bringing back boat- loads of supplies. He trained the tender gentle- men till they learned how to swing the ax in the forest. He declared that " he who would not work, might not eat." He taught them that industry and self-reliance are the surest guarantees to for- tune. 76. A well-known story is related of Smith on one of his expeditious. He was captured by the Indians and carried before their chief, Powhatan, whose headquarters were near the present site of Richmond. He was condemned to death, but was saved by Powhatan's daughter, Pocahontas. It is believed that this is a fiction ; but there really was such an Indian girl as Pocahontas. and, some years after, she married one of the colonists, named John Bolfe. 77. In 1619 the first representative assembly ever convened in America was held at Jamestown. 78. Negro slaves were first brought to Virginia in a Dutch man-of-war, in 1620. They were soon afterward introduced into all the other colonies. 170 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. The price of a negro in New Amsterdam ranged between $125 and $150. 79. In 1660 the English Parliament passed cer tain laws called the Navigation Acts. 80. The purpose of these acts was to give Eng, land the entire control of all the trade of the col- onies. 81. The Virginians were not allowed to send their products anywhere but to England; they were not allowed to buy goods anywhere but in England; and everything had to be carried in Eng- lish vessels. 82. These laws bore very heavily on Virginia. They produced great discontent, and were one of the causes of the revolution. 83. In 1676, civil war broke out in Virginia. This war is known as "Bacon's rebellion." 84. The cause of it was ill-feeling which had arisen between the people and the aristocratic party in Virginia. 85. The country was laid waste, and Jamestown burned to the ground; but it was terminated by the death of Bacon. 86. At Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620, by the pilgrims. 87. In 1614 this section of the country was vis- ited by the celebrated Captain Smith, who explored the coast, and, on his return to Europe, made a map of the country and called it New England. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 171 88. In 1636, by a company of persons from Mas- Bach usetts, with their minister, Mr. Hooker. 89. At Windsor, Hartford and Weathersfield. 90. Rhode Island was settled in 1636, by Roger Williams, a clergyman, who was expelled from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions. 91. By the Rev. Mr. Wheelright, and a few fol- lowers, who were also banished from Massachusetts on account of their religion. 92. The first settlement in Maine was made by Ferdinand Gorges in 1636. 93. They suffered greatly from the hostilities of the Indians. 94. Columbus himself carried a considerable num- ber of the natives to Europe, where they were sold into slavery. Another explorer carried off fifty to the same fate. Another, having induced the confiding Indians to enter his ship, closed the hatchways, spread the sails and started for the West Indies. Another enticed the king of the Hurons on board his vessel, and carried the captive chief to France, where he died of loneliness and grief. Their wrongs would make a long record of inhumanity. "The entire aboriginal population of the West Indies became extinct under the iron rule of the Spaniards." The practice of selling Indians into bondage in Europe continued for nearly two centuries. The news of these and other wrongs spread from wigwam to 172 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. wigwam, from tribe to tribe, till the tales of treach- ery and outrage reached the most distant nations of North America, and a general distrust of the whites spread among the Indians, which led to three hundred years border warfare, and which was in no wise allayed by the conduct of the colonists themselves toward the savages. 95. Rev. John Eliot, who was followed by John Sargent, David Brainard, David Zeisberger, James Marquette, Thomas Mayhew, and others. 96. They took deep interest in the affairs of ed- ucation, and at an early period established schools and colleges for the education of their children. 97. In the year 1638, at Cambridge. 98. In the year 1693, in Virginia. 99. In the year 1700, at Saybrook, in Connecti- cut. 100. In the year 1769, at Hanover, New Hamp- shire. 101. By a company of Dutch, in the year 1614 102. They sailed on the Hudson river, and com- menced a settlement near the present city of Al- bany; they also commenced another settlement on Manhattan Island, where the city of New York now stands, and called it New Amsterdam. 103. New Amsterdam was conquered by the UNITED STATES HISTORY. 173 English, and called New York, in honor of the Duke of York, to whom it was granted. 104. Peter Minuit, WouterVan T wilier, Sir Wil- liam Kieft and Peter Stuyvesant. 105. Delaware was settled by the Swedes and Finns., in 1630. 106. Near the entrance of the Delaware Bay, where they laid the foundation of Lewistown, the oldest town in the State. 107. The Swedes and Finns were conquered, and their colony subdued by Stuyvesant, the Governor of New Netherlands. 108. The settlement of Maryland was commenced in 1633, by a colony of Roman Catholics under Lord Baltimore, a native of England. 109. They left England because they were greatly persecuted on account of their religion. 110. They landed on the shores of the Chesapeake Bay, and commenced a settlement at a village which they purchased from the Indians, and called St. Mary's. 111. The government of Lord Baltimore was es- tablished on the most liberal principles. Civil and religious liberty were proclaimed ; no one was mo- lested on account of his religion ; and all were per- mitted to worship God according to the dictates of their own conscience. 174 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 112. To the Roman Catholics of Maryland. 113. By a company of Friends, or Quakers, un- der the celebrated William Penn. 114. The first company arrived in the year 1681, but Penn himself did not arrive until about a year .fater, with another party. 115. They purchased the land from the natives, and commenced a settlement on the Delaware river, where the city of Philadelphia now stands 116. Penn's behavior to the Indians was truly noble and Christian -like. Soon after his arrival, he made his famous treaty with the Indians. Both parties lived up to this treaty ; and as long as the Quaker control of the colony lasted, which was seventy years, there was unbroken harmony be-' tween the whites and red man. 117. The boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland had caused much trouble for many years. It was finally settled in 1767, when two surveyors, Mason and Dixon, fixed the present boundary. The boundary was afterwards known as "Mason and Dixori's line." 118. In the year 1650, by a colony from Virginia. 119. Near Albemarle sound. 120. In the year 1689, where Charleston now stands. 121. In the year 1700 the cultivation of cotton and rice was introduced. 122. In the year 1732, by Mr. Oglethorpe, who UNITED STATES HISTORY. 175 commenced a settlement where the city of Savan- nah now stands. 123. It was called Georgia in honor of George the Second, at that time king of England. 124. In the year 1750 the great hody of the in- habitants in the colonies were either English or their descendants. 125. The Dutch, French, Scotch, Irish, Swedes and Germans. 126. The Dutch were numerous in New York; the French were found in New York and South Carolina; the Scotch and Irish, in East Jersey, the Carolinas, and Georgia; the Swedes, on the Delaware ; the Germans, in Pennsylvania and North Carolina. 127. In New England the inhabitants were occu- pied in farming, lumbering, manufacturing, ship- building, and the fisheries. 128. In the middle States they were chiefly farm- ers. 129. In Virginia and Maryland the principal staple was tobacco, and farming was the main business. 130. In Carolina and Georgia were the rice plantations, near the coast; on the highlands the settlers were farmers. Cotton was not yet culti- vated to any extent. 131. The most commercial colony was Massachu- setts. 132. Boston, from the first, was the most active of all the towns in shipping. 133. If we examine a map of Virginia, we may 176 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. notice how many large rivers run into Chesapeake Bay. Up these the ships went to the plantations, and took away the produce of the planters, leaving other things in exchange. This is the reason why the colonists of Virginia did not collect in large towns. 134. The trade of the colonies was, in early times, mainly carried on by exchange or barter. 135. In Virginia, for a long time, tobacco was used as money ; in New England, wampum, made of shells; in New York, beaver-skins. 136. The currency was English pounds, shillings, and pence. 137. Dollars and cents came in with the Revolu^ tion. 138. The mode of life was exceedingly simple. The people wore home-spun clothes, and made their yarn from the wool of their own sheep. All persons were required by law to dress within their means. The roads were poor and wheeled vehicles were scarce. The food was simple but abundant. The houses were mostly log cabins, with small windows, and chimneys made of sticks and clay plaster. The furniture was generally very simple and plain. 139. The religious belief of the colonists differed greatly, though nearly the entire population pro- fessed Christianity. Maryland, founded by Catho- lics, soon had, like the other colonies, a majority of Protestants. The Church of England (the Epis- copal) prevailed in Virginia and South Carolina. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 177 In New England, the people were largely Calvin- istic in doctrine and Congregational in practice. In New York, the Dutch Reformed were supreme. The Quaker element predominated in Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, Rhode Island and New Jersey. Roger Williams established at Providence the first Baptist church in America. The French Protest- ants (the Huguenots) were found in considerable numbers in New York and Carolina. 140. A war of sects was waged in several of the colonies. The people forgot their ideas of toler- ance and religious equality when power came to them. " New England Protestants appealed to Liberty ; then they closed the door against her." It was a sad, strange, picture of life. The Puri- tans imprisoned Baptists and executed Quakers. The Churchmen in Virginia banished Puritans and imprisoned Baptists. The Protestants in Mary- land disfranchised the Catholics. But as years passed away, a more kind, tolerant spirit prevailed, and, long before the end of the colonial period, the illiberal sentiment of persecution had passed away. 141. The thirteen colonies, each and all, from the time of their founding down to the Declaration of Independence in 1776, were under the dominion of the crown of England. 142. There were several different kinds of gov- ernment in the colonies, and various colonies from time to time changed their government. The kinds of government were: Commercial corpora- 12 178 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. tion, proprietary, royal, charter, and voluntary as* sociation. 143. The government of a commercial corpora- tion, as the London Company, which ruled over Virginia in early times. A 144. Proprietary government, the rule being un- der some proprietor or proprietary to whom the king granted the province. 145. Pennsylvania under William Penn, and Maryland under Lord Baltimore, are examples of proprietary government. 146. Royal government, or the government of the king of England through some royal governor appointed by the crown. 147. Almost all the colonies were, sooner or later, under royal government. 148. Charter government was the government of the colonies by a charter or written instrument, given by the king, and granting certain political rights and privileges. 149. There were some colonies founded by the people themselves, without the authority of king or company or proprietor. This kind of govern- ment may be called government by voluntary as- sociation. 150. The Salem Witchcraft and the " negro plot " of New York. 151. In the year 1639, an English printer named Stephen Day, set up at Cambridge the first printing press. The first newspaper appeared in 1704, and was called the "Boston News-Letter." UNITED STATES HISTORY. 179 152. John Campbell was the first American edi- tor. 153. Increase Mather, one of the early presidents of Harvard College, and his son, Cotton Mather. Cotton Mather's Magnalia, a religious history of New England, was the first important book written by a native of this country. 154. The pulpit was a great educator of the times. Many of the ministers were men of supe- rior scholarship, who preached their long, strong sermons to congregations of farmers, mechanics, and small tradespeople of the district. In many a parsonage the Scriptures were read in the original languages at the morning and evening worship. For two-thirds of a century metaphysical theology had held the ascendancy in the ministry; but the clergy did not stop with the discussion of dogmas; they led and inspired the people ; they kept pa- triotism aflame; they promoted vital religion; they moulded national character. 155. In the year 1693, Parliament voted to estab- lish post-offices in the colonies, and Thomas !N"eale was authorized to transmit letters and packets " at such rates as the planters should agree to give." 156. Jonathan Edwards, the theologian; Benja- min Franklin, the philosopher and statesman j James Otis and Patrick Henry, the great orators. 157. Nearly 3,000,000. 158. I. King William's war; II. Queen Anne's 180 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. war ; III. King George's war ; IV. French and Indian war. 159. King William's war was a contest between France and England. When James II. was forced to abdicate the throne, he fled to France. The king of that country lent him an army to assist him in his attempts to regain the throne. This led to a war between the two countries, which ex- tended to their colonies in America. 160. The war began in 1689, and closed in 1697, by the treaty of Ryswick. 161. England, Holland and Germany formed an alliance against France in 1701, to prevent the union of France and Spain. The war which followed is known in English history by the name of " the war of the Spanish succession." In this country it was called " Queen Anne's war." 162. It began in 1702 and continued till 1713 eleven years. 163. It was ended by the treaty of Utrecht. Acadia was ceded to England. 164. Disputes arose in Europe about the succes- sion to the Austrian throne, and France and Eng- land took opposite sides. 165. The principal event in America was the capture of the strong French fortress of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island. 166. The war began in 1744 an'd ended in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in Prussia. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 181 167. Louisburg, the capture of which had cost the colonies so much effort, was restored to France. 168. Jealousy and envy on account of their re- spective possessions in America were the chief causes of the war. 169. Between England and her colonies, with a few Indians, on the one side, and France and her colonies, largely aided by the Indians, on the other. 170. The seven years war. 171. Washington's journey across the Alleghe- nies, battle of the Great Meadows, Braddock's de- feat, capture of Louisburg, battle of Lake George, capture of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, capture of Niagara and Quebec. 172. English, Braddock, Amherst, Wolfe, Aber- crombie and Washington; French, Dieskau and Montcalm. 173. This war broke out in 1754, and closed by the treaty of Paris, 1763. 174. France ceded to Great Britain all her Amer- ican possessions east of the Mississippi, and north of the Iberville river, in Louisiana. At the same time Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain. 175. The isolated position of America, the ten- dency of her governments and anti-monarchial in- stitutions, the prevailing customs and opinions of her self-reliant people, inevitably destined her for 182 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. a separate national existence. Causes less natural hastened severance from the mother country. Among these causes were unjust legislation in Eng- land, and despotic administration of British officials in the colonies. 176. Writs of assistance were granted, empower- ing the holder to invade any one's premises and search for contraband goods. 177. The " Stamp Act," passed in 1765, requir- ing a heavy duty to be paid upon all legal docu- ments, newspapers, pamphlets, etc. 178. The "Boston Port Bill" passed in 1774, effectually destroying the business of New England merchants. 179. The " Mutiny Act," passed in 1774, requir- ing the colonists to provide quarters and supplies for British troops stationed among them. 180. The Colonial Congress met in October, 1765, at New York, and agreed on a "Declaration of rights and grievances of the colonies." A petition to the king and memorials to both houses of Par- liament were also prepared and adopted. '181. The first Continental Congress was held at Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. 182. It consisted, of talented and influential men from all the colonies, except Georgia. 183. It issued a protest against standing armies being kept in the colonies without consent of the UNITED STATES HISTORY. people, and agreed to hold no intercourse with Great Britain. 184. Peyton Eandolph, of Virginia, was chosen president, and Charles Thomson, of Pennsylvania, secretary. 185. Two parties had arisen, Whigs and Tories, the latter friends to Parliament and the king. 186. May 10, 1775, the second Continental Con- gress convened at Philadelphia. That body de- cided to raise an army of twenty thousand men; ind, on the 15th of June, by a unanimous vote, elected George Washington commander-in-chief of "the forces raised or to be raised in defense of American liberties " 187. On the 4th of July, 1776, congress passed the famous Declaration of Independence from Great Britain forever. 188. The great man who wrote this Declaration was Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, assisted by Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania ; Roger Sher- man, of Connecticut; Eobert R. Livingston, of New York, and John Adams, of Massachusetts. 189. Through the commissionership of Franklin, secret aid in the form of loans and war stores was obtained from France. A number of foreign pa- triots volunteered their services to aid the cause of American independence. Among those that, during the war, rendered valuable services as officers were the German barons John De Kalb and Frederick ., the Poles Thaddeus Kosciusko and Count 184 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Casimir Pulaski, and especially the French Marquis de La Fayette. 190. " The Stars and Stripes "the prettiest flag in the world was adopted as the emblem of our nationality, June 14, 1777. The 13 stripes, 7 red and 6 white, alternating, represent the Thirteen Original States, and an additional star is placed upon it for every new State. Thirty-eight stars now spangle its blue fold. 191. In September, 1780, the treason of Benedict Arnold was discovered. This man, an unsuccess- ful horse-dealer in Connecticut, had entered the army at the beginning of the war, and had gained much credit on the expedition to Quebec in 1775. He was now discontented, and offered to betray West Point, of which, by a display of patriotism, he had gained command. Major John Andre, who was the agent of communication between General Clinton and Arnold, was captured and the plan exposed. Arnold escaped to England, but Andre was hung as a spy at Tappan, 1ST. Y., October 2d. 192. 1. Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775; Americans victorious. Maj. Pitcairn commanded British ; Americans had no commander. 2. Cap- ture of Ticonderoga by Americans, May 10, 1775. Allen and Arnold commanded Americans; Dela- place, the British. 3. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775 ; Americans defeated. Col. Prescott com- manded Americans; Gen. Howe, the British. 4. Attack on 'Quebec, December 31, 1775; Americans defeated. Montgomery and Arnold commanded UNITED STATES HISTORY. 185 Americans ; Carleton, the British. 5. Evacuation of Boston by the British, March 17, 1776. Wash- ington commanded Americans ; Gen'. Howe, the British. 6. Battle of Long Island, August ^ 27, 1776 ; Americans defeated. Washington commanded Americans; Gens. Howe and Clinton, the British. 7. Battle of White Plains, Oct. 28, 1776 ; Americans defeated. Washington commanded Americans; Gen. Howe, the British. 8. Battle of Trenton, Dec. 25, 1776; Americans victorious. Washington commanded Americans; Col. Rahl, the Hessians. 9. Battle of Princeton, Jan. 3, 1777; Americans victorious. Washington commanded Americans; Cornwallis, the British. 10. Battle of Bennington, Aug. 10, 1777; Americans victorious. Gen. Stark commanded Americans; Col. Baum, the British. 11. Battle of the Brandywine, Sept. 17, 1777 ; Amer- icans defeated. Washington commanded Ameri- cans; Cornwallis and Clinton, the British. 12. Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4, 1777; Americans defeated. Washington commanded Americans; Gen. Howe, the British. 13. First Battle of Sara- toga, Sept. 19, 1777; Americans victorious. Gen. Gates commanded Americans; Gen. Burgoyne, the British. 14. Second Battle of Saratoga, Oct. 7, 1777; Americans victorious. General Gates corn* manded Americans; Gen. Burgoyne, the British, 15. Battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778; neither army victorious. Washington commanded Amer* leans; Gen. Clinton, the British. 16. Massacre of Wyoming, July 3, 1778, by Tories and Indians. Butler and Brandt conducted the slaughter. 17. Massacre at Cherry Valley, Nov. 17, 1778, by To- 186 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ries and Indians. Butler and Brandt conducted the slaughter. 18. Capture of Stony Point, July 25, 1779, by the' Americans; Gen. Wayne commanded Americans; Col. Johnson, the British. 19. Attack on Savannah, Sept., 1779; Americans repulsed. Lincoln and D'Estaing commanded Americans and French ; Prevost, the British. 20. Paul Jones's Naval Battle, Sept. 23, 1779 ; Americans victorious. Paul Jones commanded Americans ; Pearson, the British. 21. Capture of Charleston, May 12, 1780, by the British. Gen. Lincoln commanded Amer- icans; Gen. Cornwallis, the British. 22. Battle of Camden, May 12, 1780; Americans defeated. Gen. Gates commanded Americans; Cornwallis, the British. 23. Battle of King's Mountain, October 7, 1780; Americans victorious. Campbell and Shelby commanded Americans; Maj. Ferguson, the British. 24. Battle of the Cowpens, Jan. 17, 1781; Americans victorious. Gen. Morgan com- manded Americans; Col. Tarleton, the British. 25. 'Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8, 1781; Amer- icans victorious. Gen. Greene commanded Amer- icans; Cornwallis, the British. 26. Siege of York- town. Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19, 1781. Washington commanded Americans; Cornwallis, the British. 193. On the 30th of November, 1782, a prelimi- nary treaty was signed at Paris, by commissioners from the two governments, those from the United States being John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and Henry Laurens. On the 19th of April, 1783, a cessation of hostilities was pro- UNITED STATES HISTORY. 187 claimed in the American army; and on the 3d of September following a definite treaty was signed at Paris 194. By the terms of the treaty, Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United States, and the boundaries were fixed at the great lakes on the north and the Mississippi on the west. She also conceded the right to fish on the banks of Newfoundland. Florida was returned to Spain. 195. The articles of confederation. 196. 1. Congress could ascertain the sum neces- sary to defray the expense of the public service, but it could not collect a dollar. It could contract debts, but it could not raise money. Some of the states made the desired levy, some delayed, and others refused. 2. There was no power to regulate commerce, either foreign or domestic. State tax- ation of goods brought in from adjoining states, was very common, and produced endless disputes and bitterness. 3. Nearly all the powers of Con- gress were merely advisory. It could declare any- thing, but it could do nothing. 197. It was adopted September 17, 1787, by a convention at Philadelphia, which was called to revise the articles of confederation. 198. In some sections the new constitution met with the most determined opposition. Two politi- cal parties came into existence the Federalists and Anti-Federalists, or Republicans. 188 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 199. The former favored the constitution, and advocated a centralized government ; the latter ad- vocated the doctrine of state sovereignty, and op- posed a central government. 200. The leaders of the Federal party were Alex- ander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. Thomas Jefferson was the great head of the Anti- Federal, or Republican party. 201. Philadelphia, 1774-76; Baltimore, 1776; Philadelphia, 1777; Lancaster and New York, 1777; Philadelphia, 1778-83; Princeton, 1783; An- napolis, 1783; Trenton, 1784; York, 1785-89. 202. The first slavery troubles arose in the con- r ention that adopted the constitution of the United States. Violent disputes arose between the two sections concerning the ratio of representation. 203. The northern members claimed that slaves should not be counted in representation and taxa- tion ; the southern, that they should. 204. A compromise was effected by which ever afterward during the existence of slavery in the country, five slaves were equal in political power to three white men. 205. This power was exercised by the masters, and not by the slaves; and thus, in several States of the South a white man had twice as much po- litical power as a white man in the North. 206. George Washington. 1789. By the whole people. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 189 207. Appointment of the cabinet, United States Bank chartered, capital of the United States changed, Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee ad- mitted into the Union, Indian war in Ohio, death of Franklin. Events of Washington's second ad- ministration : Genet recalled by France, the whisky rebellion, treaty with "England. 208. New York city was the first seat of our government; thence it was transferred to Philadel- phia ; and in 1800 it was removed to Washington City, in the District of Columbia. 209. The District of Columbia was formerly ten miles square, given to the United States in 1790, by Maryland and Virginia, for the purposes of a national capital. In 1800 it became the seat of the general government, and the residence of the pres- dent and other chief executive officers of the na- tion. In 1846, by an act of Congress, the part given by Virginia was restored to that state; con- sequently the District is now confined to the Mary- land side of the Potomac, and contains about seventy square miles. 210. In the fall of 1796, John Adams, the nomi- nee of the Federalists, was elected over his oppo- nent, Thomas Jefferson. 211. Adams was a native of Massachusetts. He was an able lawyer and a good writer. 212. Troubles with France, death of Washing- ton, Dec. 14, 1799, death of Patrick Henry, removal 190 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. of National Capital from Philadelphia to Washing ton City, passing of the Alien and Sedition laws. 213. "Owing to the violent denunciations of the government by the friends and emissaries of France, the alien and sedition laws were passed. Under the former, the president could expel from the country any foreigner whom he deemed injurious to the United States ; under the latter, any one libelling Congress, the president or the government, could be fined or imprisoned. This was a most unpopu- lar measure, and excited the bitterest feeling." 214. The quarrel between the two great political parties the Federalists and Republicans grew more and more bitter as the presidential election approached. Adams was re-nominated by the for- mer; Jefferson was the candidate of the latter, The Republicans triumphed. Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, was chosen president, and Aaron Burr, of RT.Y., vice president. 215. Thomas Jefferson was a ripe scholar, a bold reformer, the founder of the Republican party, and the author of the Declaration. He was an ardent supporter of the doctrine of State Rights, and led the opposition to the Federalists. 216. The purchase of Louisiana, from France, in 1803, for $15,000,000 ; war with Tripoli ; the Ham- ilton-Burr duel, July 11, 1804; expedition of Lewis and Clarke, 1804; the first steamboat, Robert Ful- ton, 1807; slave trade abolished, 1808. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 191 217. The Republicans, or Democrats, elected James Madison as fourth president, and on March 4, 1809, he was duly inaugurated. He was re- elected in 1812, thus serving eight years. 218. The principal events were a war ^ith the Indians of the Northwest, and the second War with England, usually styled " The War of 1812." 219. British emissaries aroused the Indians to war. A confederacy of the northwestern tribes was formed by the famous chief Tecumseh. The war was terminated by General Harrison's victory at the battle of Tippecanoe, Indiana, Nov. 7, 1811. 220. For a seriea of years England had oppressed American commerce. She had, besides, haughtily seized American seamen from the decks of Ameri- can vessels, claiming them as deserters from her flag. It was no longer to be borne, and on the 19th of June, 1812, President Madison published a proclamation of war against England. 221. Naval battle between the Essex (American) and the Alert (British), Aug. 13, 1812. Com. Por- ter commanded Americans. Americans victorious. Surrender of Gen. William Hull to British, Aug. 15, 1812, on eve of battle. Naval battle between Constitution (American) and Guerriere (British), August 19, 1812. Captain Isaac Hull commanded Americans; Capt. Dacres, the British. Americans victorious. Battle of Freuchtown, Jan. 22, 1813; 192 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Americans defeated. General Winchester, com- mander of the Americans ; Gen. Proctor, the Brit- ish. Naval battle between the Chesapeake (Amer- ican) and the Shannon (British), Jan. 1, 1813. Capt. Lawrence commanded Americans; Captain Broke, the British. Americans defeated. Naval battle between American fleet and British fleet, on Lake Erie, September 10, 1813. Com. Perry com- manded Americans; Com. Barclay, the British. Americans victorious. Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25, 1814; Americans victorious. Gen. Win- h'eld Scott commanded Americans ; Gen. Riall, the British. Capture of Washington City, Aug. 24, 1814, by the British. Gen. Ross burned the Cap- itol building. Battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815 ; Americans victorious. Gen. Jackson commanded Americans ; Gen. Pakenham, the British. 222. A treaty of peace was concluded at Ghent, December 24, 1814. 223. Not a word was said in the treaty about op- pressions on American commerce, nor about the right of search the two causes of the war. 224. In the presidential election, held in the au- tumn of 1816, James Monroe, of Virginia, was elected b^ the Republicans, or Democrats. 225. The formation of the Colonization Society, the construction of the Erie Canal, war with the Seminole Indians, Florida ceded to the United States, the Monroe doctrine, LaFayette's visit, Mis- UNITED STATES HISTORY. 193 sissippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine and Missouri admitted into the Union, the Missouri compromise. 226. In one of President Monroe's messages, he declared, " that any attempt by a European nation to gain dominion in America, would be considered by the United States an unfriendly act." 227. When the admission of Missouri was pro- posed, a violent debate arose on the question whether it should be a slave or a free state. It was finally arranged, in 1820, by an agreement known as the Missouri compromise, that Missouri might come in as a slave state, but that slavery should be prohibited in all other territory belong- ing to the United States west of the Mississippi and north of parallel 36 30'. 228. The great party which had twice triumph- antly elected Monroe, was now divided into the Whig party and the Republican, or Democratic party. The Whigs were in favor of a protective tariff and a general system of internal improve- ments; the Democrats opposed them. 229. John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay were the champions of the Whigs; Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun of the Democrats. 230. No one receiving a majority of the electoral votes, the election went to the House of Represent- atives, by whom John Quincy Adams was chosen. 13 194 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 231. The high protective tariff of 1828 ; deaths of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, July 4, 1826 ; construction of the first railroad, 1827. 232. The election of president during the fall of 1828 ended in the choice of General Andrew Jack- son, of Tennefcsee, the hero of New Orleans. His election was considered a triumph of the Demo- crats over the Whigs and the protective system. 233. Asiatic cholera, in 1832; Black Hawk's war; new tariff law, 1832; nullification act of South Carolina; removal of the Cherokees; the Texan war; great fire in !N"ew York City, Decem- ber 16, 1835 ; Florida, or Seminole war, 1835 ; abo- lition of the United States bank; death of six eminent men ; admission of Arkansas and Louis- iana. 234. The election of President Van Buren was a triumph for the Democrats. It was a continuation of Jackson's policy. 235. The "Panic of '37;" the Canadian Rebel- lion ; Passage of the Sub-Treasury Bill. 236. The ninth president of the United States was William Henry Harrison, of Ohio. 237. The election of President Harrison was a triumph of the Whig party. 238. President Harrison had been just a month in office when he died. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 195 239. By the terms of the constitution, Vice- President Tyler succeeded him in the office of president. 240. Ans. No. 1. Tyler leaves the Whigs; sub- treasury bill repealed; resignation of the president's cabinet; boundary of Maine settled in 1842; rebel- lion in Rhode Island; annexation of Texas. Ans. No. 2. The return of the Wilkes's Ex- ploring Expedition ; invention of the sewing ma- chine, by Elias Howe, 1853; the great Mormon excitement of 1844; invention of the magnetic tel- egraph, by F. B. Morse, 1837; the admission of Florida, Texas and Iowa. 241. The Texan question was the main issue of the campaign of 1844 the Democrats being for, and the Whigs against, annexation. 242. Jas. K. Polk was the Democratic candidate, and was inaugurated eleventh president, March 4, 1845. 243. The passage of the resolutions permitting Texas to join the Union was considered by the Mexicans as an act of hostility. Moreover the western boundary of Texas was in dispute. The Texans claimed the country as far as the Rio Grande, while, on the other hand, the Mexicans contended that the revolted province had never spread farther westward than the River Nueces. 244. Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca delaPalma, May 8 and 9, 1846. Capture of Monterey, Sept. 196 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 24, 1846, Battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 23, 1847 Capture of City of Mexico, Sept. 14, 1847. 245. The Americans gained every battle. 246. Gens. Taylor and Scott, Americans; Santa Anna, the Mexicans. 247. The Mexican war was formally ended by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, concluded February 2, 1848. 248. The treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo ceded to the United States all the vast territory now com- prised in New Mexico, Utah, and California. In return Mexico received a compensation of fifteen millions of dollars. 249. Smithsonian Institution established in April, 1846; northern boundary of the United States set- tled June, 1846 ; gold discovered in California Feb- ruary, 1848; Wisconsin admitted into the Union. kb 250. Both political parties made efforts to secure the control of the territory acquired by the war. For this purpose, the Wilmot Proviso, so named from its author, David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, Was introduced into congress, excluding slavery from the whole of the new acquisitions. It was long discussed, but finally defeated. 251. In the campaign of 1848, three distinct parties the Whigs, the Democrats, and the Free- soil ers brought out candidates. Taylor was nomi- nated by the Whigs ; General Lewis Cass, of Michi- UNITED STATES HISTORY. 197 gan, by the Democrats, and Martin Van Buren by the Free-soilers. 252. They held that Congress should prohibit the introduction of slavery into the territories. 253. Zachary Taylor. 254. When sixteen months had elapsed, Presi- dent Taylor's administration was abruptly closed by his death, which occurred, after a brief illness, on the 9th of July, 1850. 255. The Vice President, Millard Fillmore, of New York, now became chief magistrate. 256. Admission of California, September 9, 1850; the passage of the " omnibus bill ;" Cuban "fili- bustering;" deaths of John C. Calhoun, March 31, 1850, Henry Clay, June 28, 1852, Daniel Webster, October 24, 1852. 257. California formed a constitution and applied to Congress for admission into the Union as a free state. Her admission was opposed by the southern leaders, and for several months a hot discussion was carried on within the walls of Congress. 258. The measures devised by Clay, known as the " omnibus bill, or compromise of 1850," passed Congress in September. 259. It provided, 1st. For the admission of Cali- fornia as a free state; 2d. For organizing territorial governments in Utah and New Mexico, without any provision for or against slavery; 3d. Forestab- 198 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. lishing the boundary of Texas, as at present, and paying that state ten millions of dollars to relin- quish all claim to additional territory; 4th. For prohibiting, not slavery, but the slave trade in the District of Columbia; 5th. For the enactment of a fugitive slave law, to enable masters to recover their slaves escaping to a free state. 260. The question at issue was the compromise act of 1850. 261. The candidates were Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, representing the Democratic party; Gen. Winfield Scott, representing theWhigs ; and John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, the Free- soil ers. 262. Pierce was elected by a large majority, Scott receiving the vote of only three States. 263. The Gadsden Purchase ; the World's Fair, at New York, July 14,1853; the treaty with Japan; commencement of the Pacific Railroad ; the Kan- sas-Nebraska bill; assault on Charles Sumner. 264. The United States acquired 27,000 square miles of territory south of the Gila (he r lah) river, by paying Mexico $10,000,000. This transaction is known as the Gadsden purchase. 265. In 1853 Stephen A. Douglas introduced the famous Kansas-Nebraska Bill, organizing the Ter- ritories of Kansas and Nebraska, and giving the inhabitants of each territory the right to decide for themselves, whether the State should be admitted free or slave. UNITED STATES HISTORT. 193 266. This doctrine was called "squatter sove- reignty." 267. As it was a repudiation of the Missouri compromise, it caused violent and intense feeling. 268. It became a law in 1854. 269. It brought about a "border warfare" be* tween pro-slavery and anti-slavery men. 270. The Know-Nothings, or Americans. 271. It entertained the principle that America should be ruled by Americans and opposed the in- fluence of foreigners. 272. The Free-soil Democrats organized a new party styled "Republicans." 273. The' Democrats were in favor of letting slavery extend wherever it found its way by the voice of the people. 274. In the election of 1856 the Know-Nothings supported ex-President Fillmore ; the Republicans, John C. Fremont; and the Democrats, James Bu- chanan. Buchanan was elected. 275. The "Dred Scott" decision; trouble with the Mormons; John Brown's raid; Oregon, Kan- sas and Minnesota admitted into the Union. 276. This decision, which was delivered by Chief Justic Taney, declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional; that the constitution gave slave- owners the right to hold their slaves in the terri- tories, and that neither negro slaves nor their dee- 200 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. cendants, slave or free, could become citizens of the United States. 277. Four. Abraham Lincoln, the candidate of the Republican party was elected. 278. When it became known that the party op posed to the further extension of slavery had been successful, and that Lincoln would be the next president, public meetings were held in South Car- olina to bring about a secession of that State from the Union; and, on the 20th of December, 1860, an ordinance of secession was passed by a state con- vention held in Charleston. 279. Janua:y, 1861, five of the slave states Mis- sissippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Louisiana, passed secession ordinances; and, on the first of February, Texas did the same. 280. On the fourth of February, 1861, a congress composed of delegates from all these States, except Texas, met at Montgomery; and four days after, organized a government by the adoption of a" pro- visional constitution," assuming the title of the "Confederate States of America." 281. (1) The difference in habits and pursuits had tended to weaken the bonds of common an- cestry. (2) Different opinions of the nature of the gov- ernment, whether it was an indivisible union or a mere compact of states, had existed since the days of Washington. (3) It had long been foreseen that the balance ef political power, which was steadily moving UNITED STATES HISTORY. 201 northward, would at some time overthrow the southern rule. (4) The failure of the Missouri Compromise, which had preserved peace for forty years, revived the earlier threats of disunion. (5) The tariff, resulting in nullification, was seen to favor the manufacturing North at the ex- pense of the cotton growing South. (6) Little intercourse between the two sections led to jealousy and suspicion, till they looked upon each other almost as separate nationalities. (7) The publication of sectional books, whose popularity depended on the animosity between the two sections, were generally filled with ridicule and falsehood, and did much to embitter the sectional hatred. (8) The slavery question; especially as involved in the annexation of Texas, the fugitive slave law, the "Dred Scott Decision," the Kansas struggle, the John Brown raid these, all these tended to alien- ate the sympathies of the people, and, in the ex- citements of the passing hour, made them forget common interests and their common struggles for independence. The gates of war were opened. 282. President Lincoln's inaugural message was full of expressions of good- will to the South, urging obedience to the laws, and affirming that he "had no lawful right," and " no inclination to interfere with slavery; that secession meant anarchy; and that, if war should arise, the South would be the aggressors. 202 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 283. The first gun of the war was fired at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, at half-past four o'clock, Friday morning, April 12, 1861. 284. This " strange contest between seventy men and seven thousand," lasted for thirty-four hours, no one being hurt on either side. 285. A regiment of Massachusetts militia, hurry- ing to the defense of the national capital, was at- tacked in the streets of Baltimore, and several men were killed. Thus the first blood shed in the civil war was April 19, 1861. 286. The Confederate flag, the " stars and bars," was conspicuously displayed everywhere in the south; the "stars and stripes" everywhere in the north. 287. The eleven states that formed the Southern Confederacy, were: South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Vir- ginia, Arkansas, Forth Carolina, Tennessee. 288. Bull Run, Virginia, July 21, 1861 ; Cedar Mountain, Virginia, August 9, 1862 ; Second Bull Run, Virginia, August 29, 1862 ; Harper's Ferry, Virginia, September 15, 1862; Fredericksburg, Virginia, December 13, 1862; Chancellorsville, Vir- ginia, May 2 and 3, 1863; Chickamauga, Georgia, September 19 and 20, 1863 ; Cold Harbor, Virginia, June 3, 1864. 289. Rich Mountain, Va., July 11, 1861; Fort Henry, Tenn., Feb. 6, 1862; Fort Donelson,Tenn., Feb. 16, 1862; Pea Ridge, Mo., March 6, 1862; Merrimac and Monitor, Va., March 9, 1862; Few UNITED STATES HISTORY. 203 Orleans, La., April 28, 1862; Murfreesboro', Tenn., Dec. 31, 1862; Vicksburg, July 4, 1863; Gettys- burg, Pa., July 1st and 3d, 1863; Chattanooga, Tenn., Nov. 23 and 24, 1863; Alabama and Kear- sarge, naval battle, June 15, 1864; Lost Mountain, Ga., June 15 and 17, 1864; Atlanta, Ga., Sept. 2, 1864 , second battle Cedar Creek, Ya., October 19, 1864; Nashville, Tenn., December 15 and 16, 1864; Petersburg and Richmond, Va., April 2, 1865. 290. Indecisive battles of the war : Shiloh, Tenn., April 6, 1862; Fair Oaks, Va., May 31, 1862; Sav- age Station, Va., June 29, 1862; Frazier's Farm, Va., June 30, 1862; Antietam, Md., Sept. 17, 1862; Perryville, Ky., Oct. 8, 1862 ; Wilderness, Va., May 5 and 6, 1864; Spottsylvania, Va., May 8 and 12, 1864. 291. The surrender of Lee^s Army at Appomat- tox court-house, April 9, 1865. 292. The assassination of President Lincoln. 293. Vice President Johnson. 294. The reconstruction of the Secession States. 295. The Amnesty proclamation; tenure of office bill; impeachment of the president, laying of the Atlantic cable; purchase of Russian America. Also, the 13th amendment to the constitution; the civil rights bill passed ; the Fenian raid ; trouble with Mexico and France; Nebraska admitted; se- 204 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ceded states re-admitted; fourteenth amendment adopted; Indian war; treaty with China, 1868. 296. 1,000,000 men were destroyed on both sides; and the money paid out for the war was more than $4,000,000,000. 297. U. S. Grant. 298. Building of the Pacific Railroad; adoption of the 15th amendment; the 9th census taken; the Alabama claims settled; the burning of Chicago in 1871. 299. Great fire in Boston, November 9, 1872; the Modoc war; the great financial panic of 1873; 1873, the year of epidemics ; troubles with Spain ; visit of the Grand Duke Alexis, of Russia ; troubles in Louisiana during 1873 and 1874; visit of King Kalakaua, of the Sandwich Islands, Pacific Ocean, 1875; Colorado admitted, 1876; deaths of Edwin M. Stan ton, December, 1869, General Rob- ert E. Lee, General George H. Thomas and Ad- miral Farragut in 1870, William H. Seward, Prof. Morse, Horace Greeley and General Meade in 1872, Chief Justice Chase in 1873, Senator Charles Suni- ner in 1874, Ex-President Andrew Johnson, John C. Breckinridge and Vice-President Henry Wilson in 1875; the Custar slaughter, 1876; the Center nial Exhibition at Philadelphia from May 10 to November 10, 1876; visit of Dom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, 1876. 300. Rutherford B. Hayes. 301. The electoral tribunal; troubles in Louisia"* and South Carolina. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 302. A large element in the party were not sat- isfied with his policy of conciliation toward the South. They believed that, if the electoral vote had been legally cast for him as President, it must also have been cast for the Republican State officers, and that it was the duty of the President to protect those officers, by the pres- ence of United States troops at the State capitals. 303. The Republicans nominated James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur. The Democrats nominated Winfield S. Hancock and William H. English. The Greenback-Labor party nominated James B. Weaver and Benjamin J. Chambers. 304. March 4, 1881. 305. The Star Route frauds, whereby contracts in the West for carrying the mails were so ma- nipulated that great wrongs and robberies were perpetrated. Within two months contracts to the amount of nearly $2,000,000 were annulled. The alleged conspirators were tried, but judg- ment was never rendered against them. 306. On the morning of July 2, 1881, by Charles J. Guiteau, at a railway station in Washing- ton, D. C. 307. Immediately on being informed of the President's death he took the oath of office. 308. It was passed in 1883, and aimed to regu- late appointments and promotions in the civil service of the United States by means of exami- nations, instead of political preferment. 309. October 1, 1883. 310. In 1884 a bill was approved by which a governor, judge, marshal and other officers were THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. to be appointed for a term of four years, but no legislative assembly or congressional delegate was authorized. Sitka was made the temporary seat of government. 311. It was forbidden, by a law passed in 1882, for ten years. 312. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleve- land and Thomas A. Hendricks. The Repub- licans, James G. Elaine and John A. Logan. The Greenback-Labor party, B. F. Butler and A. M. West. The Prohibitionists, John P. St. John and William Daniel. 313. Grover Cleveland. 314. Tne Haymarket riot in Chicago, May 3. The riot of Milwaukee, May 6. The earthquake of Charleston. The conviction of eight anarchists in Chicago. The rise of the Knights of Labor to prominence. Great gales off the coast of Texas, and wrecks on Lakes Michigan and Superior. The unveiling of the statue of " Liberty Enlight- ening the World," in New York Harbor. 315. The Interstate Commerce Act. It was signed by the President, February 4, 1887. 316. The Retaliation Act, which placed in the hands of the President the power to prohibit the importation of the products of the Canadian fisheries, or if necessary to suspend all commerce with Canada until the differences between the United States and that country were settled. 317. The Republicans elected Benjamin Harri- son President and Levi P. Morton Vice-Presi- dent. The election was exciting and majorities in the doubtful States small. UNITED STATES HISTORY. 318. Secretary of Agriculture. 319. An act by which North and South Dakota, Washington, and Montana were ad- mitted as States. 320. The centenary of the first inauguration of Washington as President of the United States. 321. Some American sailors were murderously attacked in the streets of Valparaiso by a Chilian mob. Our government demanded reparation in damages and an apology, under pain of war. Chili was just coming out of a civil war of her own, and for reasons of domestic policy held back a little, but succumbed just as the period fixed in the American ultimatum was expiring. 322. The " McKinley Law," so called, made important changes in the tariff, generally in the direction of an increase in the rate of protective duties. The " Sherman Act" was a law repeal- ing the " Bland Act," and requiring the govern- ment to purchase monthly 4,500,000 ounces of silver bullion at the market price and coin a part of it into standard dollars. 323. Its opponents declared that the operation of the "McKinley Law" resulted in a general advance in the cost of living. Its supporters claimed that it increased the general prosperity. 324. The Democrats elected Grover Cleveland President and Adlai E. Stevenson Vice-President. The campaign was notable for the absence of much of the usual excitement. The general verdict appeared to be against a continuance of the high protective rates of the McKinley Tariff. 325. The World's Columbian Exposition, held 204$ THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. at Chicago, commemorating the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. 326. (a) President Cleveland convened Con- gress in extra session in August to consider the alarming financial depression which had recently set in. This session ended with the repeal of the silver-purchase clause of the " Sherman Act" of 1890. (b) A dispute between this country and England concerning the seal industry in the Ber- ing Sea, which had been assuming a threatening aspect, was amicably settled by international arbitration. 327. A protracted discussion by Congress (Democratic) resulted in the enactment of a revised tariff law repealing the duties on imported wools, and other important raw materials, reducing duties on many manu- factured or partly manufactured articles. 328. A strike of railroad employees at Chicago assumed an almost revolutionary character by reason of violence, incendiarism, and general lawlessness. President Cleveland ordered United States troops to the scene of the trou- bles, thus terminating the episode. 329. The general question of the settlement by arbitration of all differences with other nations. A disput.6 between Great Britain and Venezuela concerning the boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana, drew forth from President Cleveland a sharp protest, coupled with an intimation that our government, in support of the "Monroe Doctrine," would, if necessary, go to war. After considerable UNITED STATES HISTORY diplomatic correspondence it was agreed to submit the Venezuelan boundary question to arbitration, which our government pronounced satisfactory. 380. The Republicans elected William McKin- ley President and Garret t A. Hobart Vice- President with a working majority in the House of Representatives, on platform declarations assuring the maintenance of the existing gold standard in our currency. The Democrats had demanded the unlimited free coinage of silver at the current ratio of 16 to 1. Next to the coinage question the most important issue of the campaign was that of the duties on imports, McKinley representing those who desired higher tariffs as a protection to domestic industries. 331. The calling of an extra session of Congress in March, 1897, for the enactment of a new pro- tective tariff, styled the " Dingley Act" in honor of Representative Dingley of Maine, its author. The act was signed July 24, 1898. 332. The Senate rejected a general treaty of arbitration between Great Britain and the United States. 333. No. A treaty with the republic of Hawaii, for its annexation to the United States, was sent in by President McKinley, but went over till the regular session the following winter and then failed. 334. It made it necessary to effect the annex- ation by joint resolution as in the case of Texas. This was finally accomplished in the summer of 1898. 204f THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 335. The enactment of the Greater New York Law by the State Legislature, uniting Brooklyn, Staten Island, and other adjacent territory with. New York City proper, and raising it to the second rank, as to both area and population, among the cities of the world. The consolidation went into effect January 1, 1898. 336. A bankruptcy law ; resolutions de- claring Cuba free, and thus bringing about a war with Spain; and the "War Revenue Act." 337. Actual hostilities began April 21, 1898, with the severance of diplomatic intercourse, and ended August 12, 1898, with the signing of a peace protocol at Washington. 338. The battle of Manila Bay, on May 1, in which Admiral Dewey destroyed the entire Spanish fleet in Philippine waters ; the sea-fight off the mouth of the harbor of Santiago, Cuba, July 3, when the ships under Admirals Schley and Sampson destroyed the fleet of the Spanish Admiral Cervera ; the battles incidental to the capture of Santiago, between June 24 and July 17, and the battle which ended the siege of Manila and brought about its surrender, was fought just before the news of the peace negotia- tions reached the Philippines. 339. The sinking of the collier Merrimac, in the narrowest part of the entrance to the harbor of Santiago, to blockade the harbor. This was accomplished by Naval Constructor Hobson, with a picked crew of seven men, at night, under fire of the Spanish shore batteries. Colonel tJNITED STATES HISTORY. 204<7 Funston's bravery in the Philippines was also especially notable. 340. The state of disquietude in the United States caused by the long and bloody war car- ried on by the Spanish army in Cuba in its attempt to put down the rebellion there. The acme of outraged sentiment in the United States was reached when, on February 15, the Ameri- can battleship Maine was destroyed in the harbor of Havana by a mysterious explosion, causing the death of 264 American officers and seamen. 341. The cession of Porto Rico by Spain to the United States ; the evacuation of that island and of Cuba; the renunciation of Spanish sover- eignty in Cuba; and the reference of the future disposal of the Philippine Islands to an inter- national conference or Peace Commission. 342. Senators Davis, Frye, and Gray; William R. Day, late Secretary of State, and Whitelaw Reid of New York. The sessions of the con- ference were held at Paris. 343. It provided for the issue of bonds to raise money for carrying on the war, and for a far- reaching system of internal taxation to supply the means for meeting the principal and interest of the debt thus created and supply the govern- ment with additional revenue. 344. That Spain should give up all her remain- ing possessions in the Western Hemisphere, as forecast by the protocol, and cede to the United States the Philippine Archipelago in considera- tion of the payment of $20,000,000 by the United 204& THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. States, and also the island of Guam in the Ladrones; and that each government should relinquish all its own claims for indemnity, and those of its citizens or subjects, growing out of the Cuban War. The treaty contained also ome provisions securing especially favorable commercial privileges to Spain in her late pos- sessions transferred to the United States. 345. On April 11, 1899, when the ratifications of the treaty by the two nations were exchanged at the Executive Mansion in Washington. 346. The struggle over ratification had been very fierce, a large number of senators objecting to the assumption of sovereignty by the United States Government in the Philippines. On February 4, 1899, after the 6th had been fixed as the date for the final vote, the Filipino insur- gent army, under General Emilio Aguinaldo, opened fire upon the American army in the out- posts of Manila. This was obviously done for the purpose of emphasizing the demand of the Filipinos for independence as opposed to an- nexation to the United States. It seemed to have an effect the reverse of what was intended. Some of the senators who had been inclined to listen to the plea of the Filipinos now declared that this violence must be punished. When the vote was taken on February 6, it stood 57 to 27, or one more than the requisite two-thirds in favor of the treaty. 347. Yes. A joint commission representing Great Britain, Canada, and the United States, which met in Washington in the fall of 1898, UNITED STATES HISTORY. 205 suspended its sessions for a time in the follow- ing spring because, in considering the various subjects which had caused irritation between the United States and the other countries involved, it could not reach a satisfactory agreement on a boundary line between Alaska and the British possessions in the American Northwest. In Samoa, also, trouble has grown out of the tri- partite system of government, the British and American representatives espousing the cause of Malietoa, one of the claimants to the Samoan throne, while the German representatives sided with his rival, Mataafa. The dissension became so violent that Eear Admiral Kautz of the United States Navy was sent to Apia with a suitable force and was obliged to do some fight- ing with the natives of Mataafa's faction. 206 UNITED STATES HISTORY. ANSWERS TO MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 302. Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, lackson and Grant. 303. Harrison, Taylor, Lincoln and Garfield. 394. Madison was president during the war of 1812; Polk was president during the Mexican war; viincoln was president during the civil war. 305. John Adams and John Quincy Adams. 306. The old Republican party, as opposed to the Federalists, elected Jefferson and Madison. 307. Jackson, Van Buren, Polk, Pierce and Bu- chanan. 308. Lincoln, Grant, Hayes and Garfield. 309. Washington and Monroe. 310. Benjamin Franklin, inventor of the light- ning-rod, 1752. Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin, 1793. Thomas Blanchard, inventor of the tack ma- chine, 1806. Robert Fulton, inventor of the steamboat, 1807. Jethro Wood, inventor of the modern cast- iron plow, 1819. Ross Winans, inventor of the railroad passen- ger car, 1828. Samuel F. B. Morse, inventor of the electric telegraph, 1837. Charles Goodyear, inventor of vulcanized rub- ber, 1839. Elias Howe, inventor of the sewing machine, 1843. Cyrus McCormick, inventor of the harvesting machine, 1845. THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 207 James Lyall, inventor of the positive motion ioonx, 1868. James B. Eads, originator and constructor of the great steel bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis, 1867; and of the jetties below New Orleans, 1876. Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, 1877. Thomas A. Edison, inventor of the talking phonograph and electric light, 1877-78. 311. Benjamin Franklin. 312. Jonathan Edwards. 313. Joseph E. Worcester and Noah Webster. 314. Bowditch and Rittenhouse. 315. The Andubons and Agassiz. #16. Irving, Brown, Hawthorne and Fenimore /70per. 317. Sparks, Bancroft, Hildreth, Lossing, Pres- cott, Motley, Head ley and Irving. 318. Halleck, Foe, Willis, Whittier, Lowell, Longfellow, Bryant, Freneau and Dana. 319. William Cullen Bryant, Horace Greeley, James Gordon Bennett, Sr. 320. Powers, Greenough, Story, and Harriet Hosmer. 321. West, Copley, Page, Stuart, Trumbull and Sully. 322. Webster, Clay, Everett, Calhoun and Sum. ner. 323. The territory of the United States, at the close of the Revolution, was bounded as follows : On the north by the Great Lakes, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by the Mississippi river; 208 UNITED STATES HISTORY. but from the region lying within this boundary, the Spanish province of Florida and that part of the present State of Louisiana which lies east of the Mississippi river, must he excluded, in defining the original domain of the IT. S. 324. In 1787, the region north of the Ohio river was organized under the name of the Northwest Territory. 325. From this territory five states have been formed, as follows: Ohio, in 1802; Indiana, in 1816; Illinois, in 1818; Michigan, in 1837; and Wisconsin, in 1848. 326. The region south of the Ohio was generally called the Southwest Territory. 327. From it have been formed the following states: Kentucky, in 1792; Tennessee, in 1796; Mississippi, in 1817; and Alabama, in 1819. 328. No. 329. Louisiana, in 1812 ; Missouri, in 1821 ; Ar- kansas, in 1836 ; Iowa, in 1846 ; Minnesota, in 1858 ; Oregon, in 1859 ; Kansas, in 1861 ; Nebraska, in 1867 ; Colorado, in 1876 ; Washington territory, organized in 1853 ; Dakotah territory, organized in 1861 ; Idaho territory, organized in 1863 ; Montana territory, organized in 1863 ; Wyoming territory, organized in 1868 ; Indian territory. 330. Texas at one time was a part of Mexico, but becoming dissatisfied with the government, re- volted in 1836, and set up an independent govern- ment. In 1845 Texas was annexed to the United States. 331. " Let us remember that the real glory of a nation comes not from riches or power, or lands of vast extent, but from the love of right and truth." PHYSIOLOGY. 209 QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY. 1. Illustrate the value of physiological knowl- edge. 2. Into what two bodies is the kingdom of na- ture divided? 3. Define organic bodies. 4. What does this division include? 5. Define inorganic bodies. 6. What does this division include? 7. What is the distinction between organic and inorganic matter ? 8. In what conditions may we study organized matter? 9. What science is derived from the first, and what from the second method? 10. Give a full and complete definition of phys- iology. 11. Define anatomy. 12. How are anatomy and physiology divided ? 13. How are animal anatomy and physiology di- rided ? 14. Define comparative anatomy and physiology. 15. To what are human anatomy and physiology limited in their application ? 14 210 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 16. How are plants nourished? 17. How are animals nourished ? 18. What do animals always possess ? 19. What functions are peculiar to animals alone ? 20. What substances enter into the structure of the human body? 21. What can you say of the interchangeability of these substances ? 22. How do these substances vary at different periods of life ? 23. What effect does this have on the limbs in childhood and in old age ? 24. What offices do the fluids of the system per- form? 25. Name the fluids of the body. 26. How are the particles of matter arranged in solids? 27. Name the solids of the body. 28. Give the list of chemical elements in the hu- man body. 29. Into what substances are these elements di- vided ? 30. Name the metallic substances. 31. Name the non-metallic substances. 32. Give an arrangement of the parts of the body. 33. Define a fibre. 34. Define a fasciculus. 35. Define a tissue. 36. Define an organ. 37. What is the action of an organ called? 38. Give an example of an organ and its func- tion. 39. Define an apparatus. PHYSIOLOGY. 211 40. Define a system. 41. To what can every organ of the body be re- duced? 42. What tissue is the primary form of all others? 43. How is the cellular tissue formed? 44. Where is the cellular tissue found ? 45. What is the chief use of this tissue ? 46. What different names have been given to the cellular tissue ? 47. Describe the osseous tissue. 48. Describe the muscular tissue. 49. Describe the nervous tissue. 50. Into what divisions may the human system be divided ? 51. How are the bones constructed? 52. Give the principal uses of the bones. 53. Why do the bones have such different shapes? 54. Of what are the bones composed? 55. What are the different uses of the component parts of the bones ? 56. In what state do bones exist at first? 57. How are they converted into bone? 58. Which portion of the bones continues to in- crease and which to diminish to old age? 59. What proportion of the bones is animal mat- ter in children? in adults? in old age? 60. What is the condition of the bones in chil- dren? 61. At what age do the bones arrive to perfec- tion ? 62. What is the condition of the bones in old age? 63. What is the strength of the human bone? 212 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 64. How many bones are there in the human body? 65. Define ossification of the bones. 66. What is meant by centres of ossification ? 67. What is the only bone in the body which is completely ossified, or hardened, at birth ? 68. What is the connection between any two bones called ? 69. How many joints are there in the human body? 70. How many kinds of joints are there? 71. What is the construction of a movable joint? 72. Define cartilage. 73. W hat are the chief uses of cartilage ? 74. What is the membrane called that invests the bones? 75. Into how many parts are the bones of the body divided? 76. How are the bones of the head divided? 77. Describe the bones of the skull. 78. Name the bones of the skull. 79. How are the bones of the skull united? 80. What is the form of the skull? 81. How many bones in the ear, and what is their use ? 82. How many bones in the face, and what is their use ? 83. Name the bones of the trunk. 84. How many bones in the spinal column? How are they arranged ? 85. How are the bones of the spinal column di- vided? PHYSIOLOGY. 213 86. "What is gained by the division of the spinal column into so many separate pieces? 87. Of what does each vertebra consist? 88. How many ribs are there? 89. What do the ribs form? 90. Into how many and what classes are the ribs divided? 91. Describe the curvatures of the ribs. 92. How, and to what are the ribs united? 93. Describe the sternum. 94. How many and what bones in the pelvis? 95. How many bones in the upper extremities? Name them. 96. How many bones in the lower extremities ?' Name them. 97. What is a muscle? 98. How are the motions of the body performed? 99. How is muscular motion exerted? 100. What are characteristic properties of mus- cles? 101. What does contractility imply ? 102. What does sensibility imply? 103. Muscles are of how many kinds? 104. How are the voluntary and involuntary mus- cles distinguished? 105. What are the uses of the muscles? 106. How many muscles are there ? 107. How are the muscles arranged ? 108. How are the muscles attached to the bones ? 109. What effect has exercise upon the muscles? 110. Name the digestive organs. 111. Describe the mouth. 112. Name the salivary glands. 214 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 113. Describe the pharynx. 114. Describe the esophagus. 115. Describe the human stomach. 116. How is it placed? 117. What is its average capacity in the adult? 118. How many openings has it, and what are they called ? 119. How many coats does the stomach possess, and what are they ? 120. Describe the lacteals. 121. Describe the intestines. 122. Describe the liver. 123. Describe the pancreas. 124. What must our food contain ? 125. Define food. 126. Of what does food consist ? 127. What does organic food comprise ? 128. What does inorganic food comprise? 129. What changes are- wrought upon the food in the body ? 130. What does digestion comprise ? 131. What are the chief functions of the stom- ach? 132. What are the chief conditions favorable to stomach digestion ? 133. Name the digestive fluids. 134. What are the functions of the saliva? 135. What is the function of the gastric juice? 136. What are the functions of the bile? 137. What are the functions of the pancreatic juice ? 138. What is the probable function of the intes- tinal juice? PHYSIOLOGY. 215 139. Of what is chyme composed? 140. When is chyme changed to chyle? 141. What is the object of absorption? 142. How is absorption effected ? 143. Explain absorption by blood vessels. 144. Explain absorption by lacteals. 145. Describe the lymphatic system. 146. How is the chyle finally made into blood? 147. What are the organs used for the circula- tion of the blood? 148. Describe the heart. 149. Describe the auricles. 150. Describe the ventricles. 151. How do the cavities in the heart differ? 152. What is found between the auricle and ven- tricle in the right side of the heart? 153. How many valves in the left side, and their names ? 154. What vessels proceed from the ventricles? 155. Describe, their valves. 156. Give a complete description of the valves of the heart. 157. With what is the heart supplied? 158. Has the heart sensibility ? 159. Name and describe the parts of the circula- tion of the blood. ' 160. What propels the blood through the body? 161. Describe the movements of the heart. 162. What are the veins? 163. Where do they commence? 164. Give the structure of the coats of the veins. 165. What are arteries? 166. Give their structure. 216 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 167. Describe the coats of the arteries. 168. What do the capillaries constitute ? 169. For what are the capillaries remarkable? 170. What relation do the capillaries bear to the arteries and veins? 171. What important operations are performed fn these vessels ? 172. Give the elements of the blood. 173. Give the specific gravity and temperature of the blood. 174. How much blood in the body? 175. Give the use of the corpuscles of the blood. 176. State the difference between the red and white blood corpuscles. 177. JTame the us'es of the blood. 178. Name the respiratory organs. 179. What organs also aid in the respiratory pro- cess? 180. What is the structure of the lungs? 181. Describe the trachea. 182. Define an air cell. 183. Of what use are the capillaries in the lungs ? 184. What is the difference between arterial and venous blood? 185. What is respiration? 186. What is the object of respiration ? 187. State the deductions from the experiments of Dr. Southwood Smith. 188. Compare the lungs and heart, giving three points in common and three points of difference. 189. What are the heat-producing organs? 190. What is at present the most readily accepted theory of animal heat? PHYSIOLOGY. 217 191. What is the temperature of the human body? 192. How is the body kept at' its uniform tem- perature ? 193. "What is the essential organ of the voice in all animals? 194. Describe the larynx. 195. What are the vocal chords? 196. What are the essential conditions of the production of the human voice? 197. Name the secretory organs. 198. Describe the exhalants. 199. Describe the follicles. 200. Describe the glands. 201. What is secretion? 202. What is the skin? 203. Describe the two layers of the skin. 204. NiimQ the general properties of the skin. 205. Give the uses of the skin. 206. Describe the hair and nails. 207. Describe the secretions of the skin. 208. Give the functions of the nervous system. 209. Give the divisions of the nervous system. 210. What does the cerebro-spinal system com- prise ? 211. What does the sympathetic system contain? 212. Describe the brain. 213. Give the divisions of the brain. 214. Describe the cerebrum and cerebellum. 215. Describe the spinal cord. 216. Describe the cerebro-spinal nerves. 217. Of what does the sympathetic system con- sist? 218 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK.- V 218. Of what is the nervous system composed ? 219. What are the functions of the cerebrum? 220. What are the functions of the cerebellum ? 221. What is the function of the medulla oblon-* gataf 222. What are the functions of the spinal cord? 223. What are the functions of the sympathetic system ? 224. With what are the nerves endowed ? 225. Define the sensory organs. 226. Of what does the structure of the sense of touch consist? 227. Of what does the structure of the sense of taste consist? 228. Of what does the structure of the sense of smell consist? 229. Of what does the structure of the sense of sight consist ? 230. Name the three coats of the eye-ball. 231. Of what is the optical apparatus made up? 232. Of what does the structure of the sense of hearing consist ? 233. To what is the outer ear adapted ? 234. Describe the middle ear. 235. Describe the inner ear. PHYSIOLOGY. 219 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY. 1. Precious lives are frequently lost through ignorance. Thousands squander in early years the strength which should have been kept for the work of real life. Habits are often formed which entail weakness and poverty upon manhood. Some silly feat of strength may produce an irreparable injury. A thoughtless hour of reading by twilight may im- pair the sight for life. A terrible accident may happen, and we might be able to save life if we "only knew what to do." Physiology gives us that knowledge which may save or lengthen life, repel or abate disease, and which regulates our bodily vigor. 2. The kingdom of nature is divided into organic and inorganic bodies. 3. Organic bodies possess organs on whose ac- tions depend their growth and perfection. 4. This division includes animals and plants. 5. Inorganic bodies are devoid of organs, or in- struments ot life. 220 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 6. In this division are classed the earths, metals, and other minerals. 7. The distinction between these two great classes of materials is based upon form, coherence, growth, composition and derivation. 8. There are two conditions in which we may Study organized matter: namely, as living beings and as dead bodies. 9. The science of Physiology is derived from the first method, and the science of Anatomy from the second. 10. Human Physiology is the science which treats of the life of man of the way in which he lives, and moves, and has his being. It teaches how man is begotten and born, how he attains ma- turity, and how he dies. 11. Anatomy teaches the number, size, situation, and composition of the various parts, with their relations to each other. 12. Anatomy and Physiology, in their most ex- tended use, apply to all organized beings, though they are naturally divided into the several branches of Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology, and Ani- mal Anatomy and Physiology. 13. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are again divided into Comparative Anatomy and Physiol- ogy, and Human Anatomy and Physiology. PHYSIOLOGY. 221 14. Comparative anatomy and physiology are de- voted to the lower orders of animals. 15. Human anatomy and physiology are limited in their application to man. 16. Plants are nourished by the inorganic ele- ments found in the earth and air around them. The materials of their growth are received in the form of a liquid or a gas, already prepared for their use. 17. Animals are nourished by the organic mate- rials of vegetables or of other animals. 18. Animals always possess a stomach or a diges- tive cavity, in which their food is received, to un- dergo a process of preparation before it can be ab- sorbed into their tissues. 19. Sensation and voluntary motion are peculiar to animals alone, and are therefore called animal functions. 20. In the structure of the human body, there is a union of fluids and solids. 21. These substances are essentially the same, for the one is readily changed into the other. There is no fluid that does not contain solid matter in solution, and no solid matter that is destitute of fluid. 22. In different individuals, and at different pe- riods of life the proportion of fluids and solids varies. In youth, the fluids are more abundant than in advanced life. 222 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 23. For this reason, the limbs in childhood are soft and round, while in old age they assume a hard and wrinkled appearance. 24. The fluids not only contain the materials from which every part of the body is formed, but they are the medium for conveying the waste, de- cayed particles of matter from the system. 25. The fluids of the body are blood, chyle^ lymph, saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, syno^ via, mucous, and serum. Bile, sweat and urine are excretions. 26. The particles of matter in solids are arranged variously ; sometimes in fibres (threads), some- times in laminae (plates), sometimes homogeneously, as in basement membranes. 27. The solids of the body are bones, teeth, car- tilages, ligaments, muscles, nerves, vessels, viscera, membranes, skin, hair and nails. 28. Of the sixty-five chemical elements or simple bodies known to exist, only fifteen have been found as normal constituents of the human body. The following is the list : (1) Oxygen, (9) Sodium, (2) Hydrogen, (10) Potassium, (3) Carbon, (11) Chlorine, (4) Nitrogen, (12) Fluorine, (5) Sulphur, (13) Silicon, (6) Phosphorus, (14) Iron, PHYSIOLOGY. 223 (7) Calcium, (15) Manganese. (8) Magnesium, 29. These elements are divided into metallic and non-metallic substances. 30. The metallic substances are potassium, so- dium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, iron man- ganese, and copper. 31. The non-metallic substances are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, silicium, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, and a few others. 32. The parts of the body are arranged into fibres, fasciculi, tissues, organs, apparatuses, and systems. 33. A fibre is a thread of exceeding fineness. It is either cylindriform or flattened. 34. A fasciculus is the term applied to several fibres united. Its general characteristics are the same as fibres. 35. A tissue is a term applied to several different solids of the body. 36. An organ is an instrument composed of tis- sues, and designed for action. 37. Its action is called its function or use. 38. The liver is an organ, and the secretion of bile its function. 39. An apparatus consists of a number of differ- ent organs, arranged for the performance of 224 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. office. The teeth, mouth, stomach, intestines, etc., belong to the digestive apparatus. 40. A system is a connected series of similar parts, such as the muscular or the nervous system. 41. However various all organs may appear in their structure and composition, it is now supposed that they can he reduced to a few tissues, as the cellular, osseous^ muscular, mucous, nervous, etc. 42. The cellular or areolar tissue is regarded as the primary form of all others. 43. It is formed by the crossing or interlacing of minute fibres, interwoven in every direction, so as to form a web-like membrane with innumerable small spaces, which communicate with each other. 44. The cellular tissue is found in every part of the system, except in compact portions of bone, teeth and cartilage. 45. Its chief use seems to be to connect together organs and parts of organs which require a certain degree of motion on each other. It possesses great power of extensibility and elasticity. 46. Various names have been assigned to the cellular membrane, corresponding to the different positions in which it is found. When inclosing those organs not exposed to the air, it receives the name of serous membrane, from a fluid secreted in it, called serum. In the lining of the respiratory PHYSIOLOGY. 225 passages and of the alimentary canal, it is called mucous membrane, from a secretion of mucous which is poured out from numerous glands beneath its surface. Where it forms a covering for the body, it is known as the dermoid membrane, or skin. 47. The osseous tissue, in composition and ar- rangement of matter, varies at different periods of life, and in different bones. In some instances, the bony matter is disposed in plates, while in other instances, the arrangement is cylindrical. Some- times, the bony matter is dense and compact ; again, it is spongy, or porous. 48. The muscular tissue is composed of many fibres, that unite to form fasciculi, each of which is enclosed in a delicate layer of cellular tissue. 49. The nervous tissue consists of soft, pulpy matter, enclosed in a sheath, called neurilema. This tissue consists of two substances; the one of a pulpy character and gray color, is called cin-e-ri- tious (ash-colored) ; the other, of a fibrous charac- ter and white, is named medullary (marrow-like). 50. Though the body is harmoniously united into a single system, it can be dissected and parts described separately. The following order is here adopted: (1) Osteology, or an account of the bones or frame work of the system. 15 226 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. (2) Myology, an account of the muscles or the moving powers of the system. (3) Splanchnology, or the nutritive organs. (4) Angiology, an account of the circulating system of the arteries and veins. (5) Pneumonology, or an account of the respi- ratory, vocal, and calorific organs. (6) Ichorology, or the lymphatic and secreting system. (7) Neurology, or the history of the nervous system, the vivifying power. (8) The inlets of the soul, or the senses. 51. The bony structure is a dense, sub-fibrous basis, filled with minute cells, and traversed in all directions by branching and connected canals called Haversian, which give room to blood vessels and nerves. 52. The bones have three principal uses: 1. To protect the delicate organs ; 2. To serve as levers on which the muscles may act to produce motion ; and 3. To preserve the shape of the body. 53. Bones differ in form according to the uses they subserve. For convenience in walking, some are long; for strength and compactness, some are short and thick ; for covering a cavity, some are flat ; and for special purposes, some are irregular. 54. The bones are composed of both animal and earthy matter. PHYSIOLOGY. 227 55. The earthy portion of the bone gives them solidity arid strength, while the animal part endows them with vitality. 56. At first, bones exist in a state of cartilage. 57. They are gradually converted into bones by a deposition of phosphate and carbonate of lime. 58. The lime of the earthy portion of the bones is continually increasing till old age, while the animal portion is gradually diminishing. 59. In children, the animal matter constitutes about one-half; in adults, one-fifth; and in old age, one-eighth of the whole composition. 60. In children, the t>ones are soft and flexible, and admirably adapted to sustain the numerous falls and accidents, to which they are liable, with- out injury. 61. The bones do not arrive at their perfect state until about the twentieth year. 62. As the animal matter of the bones diminishes in old age, they become hard and brittle. 63. Human bones, when used as levers, are twenty-two times as strong as sandstone, three and one-half times as strong as lead, nearly two and three-fourths times as strong as elm and ash, and twice as strong as box, yew, and oak timber. 64. There are two hundred and eight bones in 228 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. the human body, beside the teeth. Some anato- mists reckon more than this number, others less, for the reason that, at different periods of life, the number of pieces of which one bone is formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in infancy, has eight pieces; in youth, three; in old age, but one. 65. The process of ossification is the deposition of mineral matter in the cartilage. 66. The deposition of mineral matter in the car- tilage takes place first at particular points, called the centres of ossification. 67. It is that bone which is called the petrous, which contains the organs of hearing. 68. A joint or articulation. It is by means of these joints that the various motions of the bones are easily made. 69. Over two hundred, all perfectly adapted to their various positions and work. 70. Am. No. 1. Three : fixed, or such as the joints of the skull and upper jaw, teeth and vomer ; movable, such as the shoulder, hip, elbow, wrist, knee, ankle, carpus, and tarsus; intermediate, of such joints as those in the vertebral column. Ans. No. 2. There are several kinds of joints in the body, the most important of which are the hinge-joint at the elbow and knee, and the ball and socket joint at the hip and shoulder. PHYSIOLOGY. 229 71. The opposing surfaces are coated by an elas- tic substance called cartilage; this is lubricated (oiled) by a fluid called synovia, which is secreted in an enclosed membrane or bag, called synovial. 72. Cartilage is a dense, firm substance, nearly related to bone, but it lacks the mineral ingredi- ents of bone, which makes it softer and more elas- tic. 73. The chief uses of cartilage are the following : (1) To yield smooth surfaces for eas} 7 friction in the joints, and to act as a cushion in shocks. (2) To fasten bones together without destroy- ing freedom of movement, as between the verte- brae. (3) To serve as a firm yet not unyielding frame- work, as in the larynx and trachea. (4) To adapt itself to all purposes where firm- ness, toughness, elasticity and strength are required. 74. The bones are closely covered with a very firm, whitish-yellow membrane, very smooth. This is called the periosteum. This membrane encloses the vessels which convey nutriment into the bones. It is to this periosteum that the ligaments and ten- dons are attached, as they can not fasten to the bone itself. 75. They are divided, for convenience, into four parts : 1st. The bones of the head. 2d. The bones of the trunk. 3d. The bones of the upper extremities. 230 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 4th. The bones of the lower extremities. 76. The bones of the head are divided into those of the skull, ear and face. 77. The skull is composed of eight bones. They are formed of two plates, or tablets of bony matter, united by a porous portion of bone. 78. 1 frontal, 1 occipital, 2 temporal, 1 sphenoid, 2 parietal, 1 ethmoid. 79. The bones of the skull are united by ragged edges called Sutures. These are small and rough projections of bone which are largest at their ex< tremities, and are made to fit into the edges of tht opposite bone with great firmness. 80. The skull is convex externally, and at th* base much thicker than at the top or sides. 81. In each ear are four very small bones. The} aid in hearing. 82. In the face are fourteen bones, some of which serve for the attachment of powerful muscles, which are more or less called into action in masti- cating food ; others retain in place the soft parts of the face. 83. The bones of the trunk include those of the spinal column (back-bone), the thorax (chest), and the pelvis (basin). 84. The spinal column is composed of twenty- PHYSIOLOGY. 231 four bones. These are so arranged that a tube or canal is formed through the whole column. 85. Seven of these are called cervical (neck) bones, twelve dorsal (back) bones, five lumbar (loin) bones. 86. By a division of the spinal column into so large a number of separate bones, very great free- dom of motion is allowed, with only a slight bend at any particular point. 87. Each vertebrae consists of a body, which is situated in front of the spinal canal, and of seven processes or projections, which serve to form the spinal canal, and unite the vertebrae to each other by afibrding attachments for the muscles. 88. There are twenty-four ribs twelve on each side. 89. The ribs form the side walls of the thorax. 90. The ribs are divided into three classes; seven are true ribs, three are false ribs, and two are float- ing ribs. 91. Each rib has two curvatures one of which bends it around the chest horizontally, and another which gives it a downward curvature from the back forward. 92. The ribs are united to the vertebrae by true joints, but forward, the true ribs join the breast- bone by flexible cartilages. The three false ribs unite to a cartilage which is common to all of them, and by means of which they are attached to the 232 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. breast-bone. The floating ribs have no forward attachment. 93. The sternum, or breast-bone, forms the front of the thorax. In infancy, it is in eight distinct pieces; in youth, three; and in old age, but one. 94. The pelvis, or lower division of the trunk, consists of four bones. The sacrum, the coccyx, and the innominatum. 95. The upper extremities contain sixty-four bones the scapula, (shoulder-blade) ; the clavicle, (collar-bone) ; the humerus, (first bone of the arm) ; the ulna and radius, (bones of the fore-arm); the carpus, (wrist) ; the metacarpus, (palm of the hand) ; and the phalanges, (fingers and thumb.) 96. The lower extremities contain sixty bones the femur, (thigh-bone); the patella, (knee-pan;) the tibia, (shin-bone); the fibula, (small bone of the leg) ; the tarsus, (instep) ; the metatarsus, (mid- dle of the foot) ; and the phalanges, (toes). 97. A muscle is an aggregation of minute fibres, each of which is again composed of minute fibrils, held together by a delicate membrane. 98. All the motions in the animal body are per- formed by muscles. Generally speaking, muscles are the organs of motion. 99. Muscular motion is exerted by means of the contractility of muscles. 100. Contractility and sensibility are character istic properties of muscles. i PHYSIOLOGY. 233 Contractility implies their power of con- tracting and relaxing. 102. Sensibility implies their power of commu- nicating impressions directly to the mind. 103. Muscles are of two kinds: involuntary and voluntary. 104. The voluntary and involuntary muscles are distinguished by their structure and mode of ac- tion. 105. The uses of the muscles are : (1) To produce motion. (2) To hold the limbs in position. (3) To protect the skeleton. 106. There are, in all, about five hundred mus- cles, each having its special use, and all working in exquisite harmon}^ and perfection. 107. The muscles are arranged in pairs, each with its antagonist, so that as they contract and expand alternately, the bone to which they are at- tached is moved to and fro. 108. The ends of the muscles are generally at- tached to the bone by strong, flexible, but inelastic tendons. 109. The effect of exercise upon a muscle is very marked. By use it grows larger, and becomes hard, compact and darker-colored; by disuse it de- creases in size, and becomes soft, flabby, and pale. 110. The digestive organs are the mouth, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, oesophagus (gullet), stom- ach, intestines (bowels), lacteals (milk, or chyle ves- 234 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. sels), thoracic duct, liver, and the pancreas (sweet- bread). 111. The mouth is an irregular cavity, which contains the instruments of mastication and the or- gans of taste. It is bounded in front by the lips ; on each side by the internal surface of the cheeks ; above, by the hard palate and teeth of the upper jaw; below, by the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw; behind, it is continuous with the pharynx, but is separated from it by a kind of movable cur- tain called the soft palate. 112. The salivary glands are six in number, three on each side of the jaw. They are called the parotid, the sub-maxillary, and the sub-lingual. 113. The pharynx is a short and somewhat ir- regular tubular cavity, into which the mouth opens behind, serving as a portion of the canal from the mouth to the stomach. It also communicates with both ears, with the nostrils and lungs, by passages which open directly into it. 114. The pharynx terminates in the esophagus (meaning the passage for conveying the food). This is a long and narrow tube, made up of two muscular coats, which terminates in the stomach by the cardiac orifice. It is smaller in size than the pharynx, and contains a great number of min- ute glands which secrete an oily fluid when the food is passing through it. PHYSIOLOGY. 115. The stomach in man is an oblong membran- ous bag. 116. It is placed obliquely across the abdomen, and just below the diaphragm. 117. The average capacity in the adult is about one quart, though it may be distended to contain a much larger quantity, or be contracted to a very small size. 118. It has two openings one towards the heart, called the cardiac orifice, which receives the food from the esophagus and the other at the right or small end of the stomach, called the pyloric orifice, for the transmission of food to the small in- testines. 119. The stomach possesses three coats the outer or serous, the middle or muscular, and the inner or mucous. 120. The lacteals are a class of vessels communi- cating with the mucous surface of the intestines and carry a milky fluid containing the nutritious part of the food in a dissolved state. The lacteals, in their passage through the mesentery, form clus- ters called mesenteric glands, in which the lacteal fluid undergoes an important change, by which it acquires many of the properties of blood. 121. The intestines, or alimentary canal, are di- vided into two parts the small and large The small intestine is about twenty-five feet in length, and is divided into three portions, namely, the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The larger 236 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. intestine is about five feet in length, and is divided into three parts, namely, the coecum, the colon, and the rectum. 122. The liver, a gland appended to the alimen- tary canal, is the largest organ in the system, and weighs about four pounds. It is situated in the right side, below the diaphragm, and is composed of several lobes. Its upper surface is convex; its under concave. This organ is retained in its pla^e by several ligaments. It performs the double office of separating impurities from the venous blocd, and secreting a fluid (bile) necessary to chylifica- tion. 123. The pancreas is a long, flattened gland, analogous to the salivary glands. It is about six inches in length, weighs three or four ounces, and is situated transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen, behind the stomach. 124. The human body is composed largely of combinations of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen; hence, our food must contain these ele- ments. 125. Food may be called that substance which, when within the body, supplies material which re- news lost tissue or supports some process of life. 126. Food consists of organic and inorganic ma- terials. 127. Organic food comprises (1) nitrogenous sub- stances; (2) fats; (3) compounds of carbon a* 1 hydrogen, such as sugar or starch. PHYSIOLOGY. 237 128. Inorganic food comprises water, and alka- lies, such as salt and phosphates. 129. The changes wrought upon the food in the body are, (1) digestion, or the proper preparation of food in the alimentary canal ; (2) assimilation, or the conversion of food into blood and tissues; (3) excretion, or the decomposition of food. 130. Digestion comprises (1) mastication; (2) in- salivation; (3) deglutition; (4) stomach-digestion; (5) digestion in the intestines. 131. The chief functions of the stomach are, (1) to mix the food into a pulp; (2) to dissolve the ni- trogenous portion of the food by means of the gas- tric juice. 132. The chief conditions favorable to stomach digestion are, (1) temperature of 100 F., nearly; (2) continual motion of the walls of the* stomach ; (3) the removal of thoroughly digested portions of food from the stomach ; (4) previous perfect masti- cation and insalivation of the food ; (5) a moderate quantity of food; (6) regular intervals between meals; (7) no severe physical or mental exertion immediately before or after a meal; (8) a tranquil mind ; (9) bodily health ; (10) favorable weather. 133. The digestive fluids are (1) the saliva ; (2) the gastric juice ; (3) the bile ; (4) the pancreatic juice; (5) the intestinal juice. 134. Functions of the saliva : (1) Softening the food ; (2) Converting starch into sugar ; (3) mingling the food with air. 238 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 135. Functions of the gastric juice : Dissolving albuminous and other substances. 136. Functions of the bile: (1) Absorbing waste material from the blood? (2) Dissolving fatty portions of food; (3) Stimu- lating the action of the intestines. 137. Functions of the pancreatic juice : (1) Digesting fats; (2) Dissolving albuminous substances. 138. That of digesting albuminous matter. 139. Chyme is composed of (1) albuminous mat- ter; (2) fatty matter; (3) starch; (4) gastric juice. 140. After its union with bile, chyme is usually called chyle. 141. The object of absorption is (1) to supply the blood with fresh materials; (2) to remove waste particles. 142. Absorption is effected by blood-vessels (cap- illaries) and by lacteals (or lymphatics). 143. Absorption by blood-vessels takes place chiefly in the stomach and the intestinal canal. These absorbed materials are conveyed to veins. 144. Absorption by lacteals takes place in the small intestine by minute vessels called villi ; these lead the absorbed chyle into the lacteals or lym- phatic vessels, whence it is conveyed through the lymphatic glands to the thoracic duct, and thence thrown into veins. 145. The lymphatic system of the body has its PHYSIOLOGY. 239 ramifications throughout the body similar to the system of blood-vessels, from which it differs in this, that its fluid is lymph, and flows in only one direction. 146. By the aid of respiration, the chyle is finally made into blood. 147. The organs composing the circulatory sys- tem are the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. 148. The heart, or central engine of circulation, is located in the thorax or chest, resting by ite lower surface on the diaphragm, and somewhat to the left of the middle line of the body. It is of a conical form, made of animal muscular fibre, the fibers crossing themselves in at least three direc- tions. The heart is a double organ, one side being called the arterial and the other the venous, or left and right hearts, since the former receives and pro- pels the pure or arterial blood, while the latter cir- culates venous blood. Again, each of the two sides or hearts is divided into an auricle and a ventri- cle. Each of these four cavities will ordinarily contain about three fluid ounces, making the whole heart to contain nearly a pint. 149. The auricles differ in muscularity from the ventricles. Their walls are thinner, and of a blu- ish color. These cavities are a kind of reservoir, designed to contain the blood arriving by the veins. 150. The ventricles not only have their walls thicker than the auricles, but they differ in their internal structure. From the interior of these cav- ities arise fleshy columns, called columnce carnece. 240 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. The walls of the left ventricle are thicker and stronger than those of the right. 151. The cavities in the right side of the heart are triangular in shape; those of the left oval. 152. Between the auricle and ventricle in the right side of the heart, there are three folds, or doublings, of thin, triangular membrane, called the tricuspid valves. 153. Between the auricle and ventricle in the left side, there are two valves called the mitral. 154. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise to the pulmonary artery; the left ventricle, to a large artery called the aorta. 155. At the commencement of each of these ar- teries there are three folds of membrane, and from their shape, they are called semi-lunar valves. 156. The valves are muscular fibers arranged in such a form that the blood can pass through them ; but the contracting of the ventricle presses the blood back against the valve and closes it so that the blood can not pass back again. The same con- traction of the muscles of the ventricle forces the valves open out into the arteries, and the pressure of the blood in the artery closes the valve again. 157. The heart is supplied with arteries and veins, which ramify between its muscular fibers, through which its nutrient blood passes. It has, PHYSIOLOGY. 241 likewise, a few lymphatics, and many small nervous filaments from the sympathetic system of nerves. 158. The heart, in its natural state, exhibits but slight indications of sensibility, and although nearly destitute of the sensation of touch, it is yet, how- ever, instantly affected by every painful bodily ex- citement, or strong mental emotions. 159. The circulation consists of two parts : 1. Great or systemic circulation ; 2. Lesser or pul- monary circulation. Commencing, we will sup- pose, with the left ventricle, the blood is impelled through the semi-lunar valves into the aorta, and along its successive branches to the microscopic net-work of the capillaries, which ramify through all the tissues of the body. In the capillaries, the blood parts with its nutritive elements, becomes venous, and is collected into the small veins, and flows through their converging branches into the main trunks, the vense cavae, and finally into the right auricle. From the right auricle it is emptied through the tricuspid valves into the right ventricle. This completes the great or systemic circulation. From the right ventricle the blood is impelled through the semi-lunar valves into the pulmonary artery, and along its branches to the capillaries of the lungs, to be exposed to the action of the air. From the pulmonary capillaries the blood enters in converging streams the pulmonary veins, which carry it to the left auricle, and this completes the lesser or pulmonary circulation. It is then emptied 16 242 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. through the bicuspid valves into the left ventricle, where it started on its course. 160. The force which propels the blood through the body lies in the substance of the heart. Its assistants in this are: 1st, the elastic walls of the arteries ; 2d, the muscular pressure upon some of the veins ; 3d, the contraction and expansion of the chest in breathing 161. The movements of the heart consist of an alternate contraction and expansion. The former is called the systole, and the latter the diastole. During the diastole the blood flows into the heart, to be expelled by the systole. The alternation of these movements constitutes the beating of the heart. 162. The veins are the vessels which return the blood to the auricles of the heart after it has been circulated by the arteries through the various tis- sues of the body. They are thinner and more del- icate in structure than the arteries, so that when emptied of their blood, they become flattened and collapsed. 163. The veins commence by minute radicles in the capillaries, which are everywhere distributed through the textures of the body, and coalesce to constitute larger and larger branches, till they ter- minate in the large trunks which convey the dark> colored blood directly to the heart. 164. The external, or cellular coat of the veins, PHYSIOLOGY. 243 is dense and firm, resembling the cellular tunic of the arteries. The middle coat is fibrous, like that of the arteries, but extremely thin. The internal coat is serous and also similar to that of the arte- ries. It is continuous with the lining membrane of the heart at one extremity, and with the lining membrane of the capillaries at the other. 165. The arteries are the cylindrical tubes that convey the blood from the heart to every part of the system. 166. They are dense in structure, and preserve, for the most part, the cylindrical form, when emp- tied of their blood, which is their condition after death. 167. The arteries are composed of three coats. The external, or cellular coat, is firm and strong; the middle, or fibrous coat, is composed of yellow- ish fibers. This coat is elastic, fragile, and thicker than the external coat. The internal coat is a thin, serous membrane, which lines the interior of the artery, and gives it the smooth polish which that surface presents. 168. The capillaries constitute a microscopic net work, and are so distributed through every part of the body as to render it impossible to introduce the smallest needle beneath the skin, without wound- ing several of these fine vessels. 169. The capillaries are remarkable for the uni- formity of diameter, and for the constant divisions and communications which take place between them. 244 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 170. The capillaries inosculate, on the one hana, with the terminal extremity of the arteries, and on the other, with the commencement of the veins. They establish the communication between the termination of the arteries and the beginning of the veins. 171. The important operations of secretion and the conversion of the nutrient materials of the blood into bone, muscle, etc., are performed in these vessels. 172. Animal blood, after standing for some time, contains 1st, red and white corpuscles; 2d, animal fibrine; 3d, water; and 4th, albumen. The first two form the clot, the remaining two the serum. The blood contains dissolved within it three gases : Carbonic acid, oxygen, and a small quantity of nitrogen. One hundred volumes contain about 50 volumes of these gases collectively. 173. The specific gravity of blood 1, very nearly ; its temperature = 100 F., nearly. 174. The living body contains a quantity of blood of about one-tenth of its own weight. 175. Ans. No. 1. The use of the red corpuscles seems to be to convey oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body. Ans. No. 2. The function of the red corpus- cles seems to be to convey oxygen to the tissues, and as this is the agent which is continually pro- moting the change or waste of the system, these corpuscles seem to be the great agents for disassim- PHYSIOLOGY. 245 ilating the tissues and the blood itself. The color- less or white corpuscles seem to be the agents by which the repair of the body is effected, since they are greatly augmented in number when there is a large wound to be healed, or when there is a great amount of internal or external inflammation. 176. The red blood corpuscles differ from the white in this, that they are smaller in size, but larger in number, and of a less changeable nature. 177. The following are four uses of the blood: (1) It feeds the different parts of the body, which depend upon it for their maintenance. (2) It provides the entire body with warmth and moisture. (3) It carries oxygen to the tissues which need this gas. (4) It gathers refuse matters throughout the body, and conveys them to places whence they may be discharged. 178. The respiratory organs are the lungs [lights], the trachea (wind-pipe), the bronchia (sub-divisions of the trachea), and the air-vesicles (air-cells at the fextremities of the bronchia). 179. The diaphragm (mid-riff), ribs, and several muscles, also aid in the respiratory process.. 180. They are two conical-shaped organs, occu- pying the cavity of the chest on each side of the heart, from which they are separated by a mem- branous partition, the mediastinum. Their color V^THE ' UNIVERSITY 246 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. is pinkish gray marked with black. Each lung is divided into two lobes by a long, deep fissure. In the right lung the upper lobe is subdivided by a second fissure. The air cells in each lobe commu- nicate with each other, but not with those of an- other lobe. The lungs rest on the convex surface of the diaphragm. The root of each lung comprises the pulmonary artery and veins, and bronchial tubes, with the bronchial vessels and pulmonary plexuses of nerves. They are comprised of rami- fications of the bronchial tubes, terminating in in- tercellular passages and air cells. It is supposed that there are not less than one hundred million air cells in the lungs. The mucous membrane of the lungs presents an extent of surface of twenty- one thousand square inches ; supposed to be greater than the entire surface of the skin of the body. All the air tubes, vessels, arid nerves of the lungs are closely knit together into one general texture, by a delicate cellular tissue, and the whole mass, on each side, is enveloped in the serous membrane as an external coat. 181. The trachea is a cartilaginous tube about one inch in diameter, made up of from fifteen to twenty cartilaginous rings, commencing at a point nearly opposite the fifth cervical vertebra, and ex- tending as low as the second dorsal, or top of the sternum, where it divides into two bronchi extend- ing to each lung. These segments of the trachea are not perfect rings, since they complete only about five-sixths of a circle, the remaining sixth PHYSIOLOGY. 247 consisting *>f smooth or involuntary muscular fiber. 182. An air cell is a thin and elastic, funnel- ehaped membrane of about ^ of an inch in diame- ter. 183. The capillaries in the lungs serve to expose the blood to the action of the air. This is done by (1) spreading it over a large surface, (2) spreading it in thin streams, (3) protecting it by merely a delicate cover. 184. The main difference between arterial and venous blood, is that the latter contains less oxygen but more carbonic acid gas than the former. 185. Respiration, or breathing, is that process by which air is taken into the lungs and expelled from them. 186. The object of respiration is, 1st. To supply the system with oxygen, which is essential to the generation of animal heat; 2d. To convert the chyle into blood. This is done by the oxygen of the inspired air; 3d. To relieve the organs of the body of the principal elements (carbon and hydro- gen) that compose the old and useless particles of matter. 187. (1) The volume of air ordinarily present in the lungs is about twelve pints. (2) The volume of air received by the lungs at an ordinary inspiration is one pint. (3) The volume of air expelled from the 248 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. lungs at an ordinary expiration is a little less than one pint. (4) Of the volume of air received by the lungs at one inspiration, only one-fourth part is decomposed at one action of the heart. (5) The quantity of blood that flows to the lungs, to be acted upon by the air at one action of the heart, is two ounces, and this is acted upon in less than one second of time. (6) The quantity of blood in the whole body of the human adult, is twenty-five pounds avoir- dupois, or twenty pints. (7) In the mutual action that takes place be- tween the air and blood, every twenty-four hours, the air loses thirty-seven ounces of oxygen, and the blood fourteen ounces of carbon. 188. Three points in common : (1) Both operate by expansion and contrac- tion. (2) Both are involuntary organs; that is, on ordinary occasions they act independently of the will. (3) Both are indispensable to the mainten- ance of life. Three points of difference : (1) The lungs contain air ; the heart contains blood. (2) The lungs contain bronchial tubes, air- cells and blood-vessels ; the heart has two parts, called the right and left side, each part being again divided into auricle and ventricle. PHYSIOLOGY. 249 (3) The lungs purify the blood; the heart propels the blood through the body. 189. The organs which produce animal heat are essentially those employed in the act of breathing and the circulation of the blood. 190. The theory which now is most readily ac- cepted makes the function of animal heat to be a chemico-vital one, or a chemical change (oxydiza- tion) dependent upon vital energy, being nearly analogous to the burning of a candle or the com- bustion of wood and coal in the stove. 191. The temperature of the human system is 98 F., and this it is invariably found to be in all cli- mates and seasons, when the individual is in per- fect health. 192. The manner in which the body is kept at the uniform temperature of 98, is a subject of deep interest. It is partly accomplished by radiation, since the body is ordinarily warmer than the air about it, and also partly by inhaling the cool air into the air passages. 193. The larynx in all animals is the essential organ for the production of the voice. 194. A cartilaginous tube, imperfectly conical, the base directed upwards, made up of distinct por- tions or segments slightly movable upon one an- other, and with a certain portion of the channel lengthened into a narrow and elongated opening, constitutes a larynx. 250 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 195. Across the middle of the larynx is a trans- verse partition, formed by two folds of the lining mucous membrane, stretching from either side, but not quite meeting in the middle line. They thus leave, in the middle line, a chink or slit, running from the front to the back, called the glottis. The two edges of this slit are not round and flabby, but sharp, and, so to speak, clean cut; they are also strengthened by a quantity of elastic tissue, the fibers of which are disposed lengthwise in them. These sharp, free edges of the glottis are the so- called vocal cords or vocal ligaments. 196. The essential conditions of the production of the human voice are: (a) The existence of the so-called vocal chords, (b) The parallelism of the edges of these chords, without which they will not vibrate in such a manner as to give out sound, (c) A certain degree of lightness of the vocal chords^ without which they will not vibrate quickly enough to produce sound, (d) The passage of a current of air between the parallel edges of the vocal chords of sufficient power to set the chords vibrating. 197. The secretory organs are exhalants, follicles- and glands. 198. The exhalants were supposed to be termina : tions of arteries or capillaries. The external exha- lants terminate on the skin and mucous mem^ branes ; the internal in the cellular and medullary tissues. 199. The follicles are small bags, or sacs, situated PHYSIOLOGY. 251 in the true skin and mucous membrane. The pores seen on the skin are the outlets of these bodies. 200. The glands are soft, fleshy organs, and aa various in their structure as the secretions, which it is their function to produce. Each gland is com- posed of many small lobules united in a compact and distinct mass, that communicates by a small duct with the principal outlet, or duct of the organ. Every gland is supplied with arteries, veins, lym, phatics, and nerves. 201. Secretion is one of the most obscure and mysterious functions of the animal economy. " It is that process by which various substances are separated from the blood, either with or without experiencing any change during their separation." 202. The skin is the external covering of the body. It consists of two layers the outside skin or the epidermis, and the inner one or dermis. 203. The epidermis serves to protect the sensi- tive lower skin or dermis, and to moderate the evaporation of fluid from the blood vesse?s. The dermis serves to invest the excretory glands ; on its surface are the sensitive touch-corpuscles. The dermis is the deeper portion of the skin ; it is denser, more elastic and more tender than the epi- dermis. When cut it bleeds very freely, while thtf latter does not bleed at all. 204. The general properties of the skin are tough ness, flexibility and elasticity. 205. Owing to its toughness, it serves as the pnr 252 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. tecting cover of the body ; in virtue of its flexibility, it sbields the inner parts from violence; and, on account of its elasticity, it yields readily to the movements of the body. It is also the principal organ of touch. 206. The hair and nails are peculiar forms of the epidermis. The former is composed of horny scales and cells, closely packed together. 207. The secretion of the skin consists of two different fluids, one oily, the other watery. The oily one is secreted mostly in the scalp and the face, where the skin is largely supplied with hair. The other is called perspiration or sweat, the two terms being habitually taken synonymously, although there is this difference between them : perspiration is an insensible excretion, which evaporates on the skin ; sweat is a sensible secretion, composed of the same fluid as the other, but appearing on the skin in the form of drops. 208. Functions of the nervous system: (1) It connects the different parts and organs of the body into an organic unit or whole. (2) It animates or governs all movements of the muscles, whether voluntary or not. (3) It regulates the temperature, nutrition and secretion of the body. (4) It controls the processes of the organic life of the body. (5) It receives impressions which are gener- ated by its terminal branches. (6) It conveys impressions to different por- tions of the body. PHYSIOLOGY. 25S (7) It can generate influences which no outer organ or system can produce, such as sight, smell or taste. By means of this function, it puts the body in direct communication with the other world. 209. The nervous system, although a continuous substance, is conveniently subdivided into two sys- tems: (1) The cerebro-spinal system; and (2) The sympathetic system. 210. The cerebro-spinal system comprises the cerebro-spinal axis, that is, the brain and the spinal cord, together with the cerebral and spinal nerves which emanate from this axis. 211. The sympathetic system contains the chain of sympathetic ganglia and the nerves which they give off. 212. The brain is a very soft substance, forming, in man the enlarged upper terminus of the spinal cord. It is encased in the cavity of the cranium, which it fills, and from which it is difficult to be extracted entire. The brain substance of man gen- erally varies in weight from forty to sixty ounces, and it is universally admitted that, as a rule, the quantity of brain substance corresponds to the in- tellectual powers of the individual, although it is believed that the quality of this substance also plays an important part. The brain consists of cells and fibers which are rendered visible only by a good microscope. 213. The brain is divided into the large brain or cerebrum, the small brain or cerebellum only one- eighth as large as the former and the enlarged spinal cord or medulla oblougata. 254 (THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 214. The cerebrum and cerebellum consist each of two hemispheres, one on the right, the other on the left side. The surface of the cerebrum is cov- ered with a great many foldings and windings or convolutions, irregular in form and direction ; these are separated from each other by deep furrows. The cerebellum also has convolutions, but they are of a more regular form and direction. 215. The spinal cord is the downward continua- tion of the medulla oblongata. It is a soft sub- stance, contained in a bony cavity, formed by the vertebral column or back-bone. It extends nearly to the sacrum; it is furrowed like the brain into two lateral, symmetric parts. Between these two parts that is, in the centre of the cord and through its entire length runs a fine canal, which originates in a point between the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata. 416, The cerebro spinal nerves originate in both the brain and the spinal cord, whence they ramify and spread all over the body. They have the form of fibers and cells. 217. The sympathetic system consists, like the 'brain, of cells and fibers. It is situated in front arid at the sides of the spinal column ; its ganglia or nerve cells are connected with one another, and with the spinal nerves by nerve-cords. 218. The nervous system appears to be composed of two distinct substances the gray and the white. In the cerebrum and cerebellum the white substance is contained within the gray; in the medulla ob- longata and spinal cord the gray substance is en- PHYSIOLOGY. 255 closed in the white. The nervous fibres and tubes are white ; the cells are gray. 219. The main functions of the cerebrum seem to be the manifestation of intellectual powers and the will. 220. The functions of the cerebellum seem to consist in the regulation of muscular movements. 221. The function of the medulla oblongata is to generate and control the motions of respiration and deglutition. 222. The functions of the spinal cord are (1) to transmit sensitive impressions from its outer nerves to the brain ; (2) to transmit the manifestations of the will from the brain to the spinal motor nerves ; (3) to originate nerve-force independently of the brain whenever a stimulus is applied. 223. The functions of the sympathetic system seem to be, to control the action of the alimentary canal, the glands, the blood-vessels and the heart. 224. Nerves are generally endowed with motor and sensory properties, and others which serve the purpose of generating sensations. 225. Sensory organs are tools, or instruments, capable (1) of receiving impressions from the outer world, and (2) of making us conscious of those impressions. They are merely the peculiarly shaped termination of a particular nerve. They are five in number, viz; that of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. 226. The structure of the sense of touch consists 256 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. in nerves, which are spread out under the epider- mis, and within the dermis or cutis. 227. The structure of the sense of taste consists of papillae spread over the tongue and portions of the cavity of the mouth. These papillae are the terminations of certain nerves coming from the brain. 228. The structure of the sense of smell consists in olfactory nerves, which are spread over the in- terior surface of the nasal cavity. 229. The structure of the sense of sight consists in two eye-balls, each of which comprises, (1) three distinct coats, and (2) an optical apparatus. 230. The three coats of the eye-ball are: (1) The sclerotic coat. (2) The choroid coat. (3) The retina. 231. The optical apparatus is made up of: (1) The cornea. (2) The aqueous humor. (3) The crystalline lens. (4) The vitreous humor. 232. The structure of the sense of hearing con- gists of two ears, each of which comprises : (1) The outer ear. (2) The middle ear. (3) The inner ear or labyrinth. 233. The outer ear is peculiarly adapted to col- lect and transmit waves of sound. 234. The middle ear consists of (1) the external tube and (2) the drum or tympanum. These are separated from each other by the tympanic mem- PHYSIOLOGY. 257 brane. The drum contains three small bones; the hammer, the anvil and the stapes. 235. The labyrinth or inner ear consists of the vestibule, three semi-circular canals, and -the coch- lea. The labyrinth is filled with liquids, in which are floating the terminal fibres and filaments of the auditory nerve. 258 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 1. What does the theory and practice of teach- ing embrace ? 2. Of what does school economy treat? 3. Define methods of instruction. 4. What do you understand by methods of cul- ture? 5. What could be treated of under the history of education? 6. What should be taken into consideration in making preparations for the school ? 7. What should be taken into consideration in selecting a site for a school-house ? 8. What do you consider to be the requisites of good school-grounds? 9. State the objects of graded schools. 10. What branches of knowledge should be taught in primary schools? 11. Give a list of grammar school studies. 12. What branches should be embraced in the high school course? 13. Upon what should the size of a school-house depend ? 14. What is the best form for school-houses ? TEACHING. 259 15. How should a school-house be warmed? 16. How should a school-room be ventilated? 17. With what furniture should a school-house e provided ? 18. With what apparatus should schools be sup- plied ? 19. Of what use are school records? 20. What is meant by the organization of a gehool? 21. Give an outline of work preliminary to the organization of a school. 22. What advantages will be gained by forming Acquaintances of parents and pupils before the opening of the school? 23. What should be the chief business of the teacher on the first day of school ? 24. Give directions that should be observed closely during the first day of school. 25. How should a school be opened? 26. How many and what grades should there be in the public schools? 27. What are the advantages of a programme? 28. What are employments of a school ? 29. What are the objects of study ? 30. By what principles should incentives to study be tested ? 31. Name incentives to study which are of doubt- ful propriety. 32. What are proper incentives to study? 33. What are the objects of education? 34. Since the recitation must embrace the objects of education, what may be considered the ends of the recitation? 260 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 35. How should the recitation he conducted ? 36. What might be considered requisites for the recitation ? 37. What preparation should the teacher make for the recitation? 38. Why is it necessary to take exercise ? 39. Define school government. 40. Under what heads may school government be embraced? 41. Define ethics. 42. Define school ethics. 43. Name the important factors in the school. 44. What maybe considered as some of the most important qualifications of the teacher ? 45. What may be considered as the school duties of pupils? 46. Define discipline. 47. Into how many and what species may school government be resolved ? 48. What may be considered as proper penalties ? 49. What may be considered as improper penal- ties? 50. What things should the teacher avoid? 51. What things should every teacher perform ? 62. What is education ? 53. What is teaching? 54. What is learning? 55. In what divisions are the faculties of the mind comprised ? 56. What faculty comes first in the natural order of development? 57. How is the intellect developed ? 58. What are the sources of knowledge ? TEACHING. 261 59. "What is that knowledge called which man derives through the senses? 60. What does this knowledge include ? 61. What is that knowledge called which is de- rived through reason ? 62. What does this knowledge include ? 63. What should a system of education have for its object? 64. What conditions does teaching presuppose ? 65. What does education do for the individual? 66. What does education do for a people? 67. What are some of the most common evils of our schools? 68. What should form the foundation for a sys- tem of teaching? 69. Give a classification of the elements of peda- gogics. 70. What other names are sometimes applied to these elements ? 71. Into what divisions is physical education di- vided? 72. Define diatetics. 73. Define gymnastics. 74. What is the special direction which the ac- tivity of apprehending intelligence takes? 75. When is the perceptive faculty most active? 76. When is the conceptive faculty most active? 77. When is the thinking faculty most active? 78. From the foregoing, what epochs may be distinguished? 79. What appears in the act of learning? 80. Give the names of some of the most impor- tant educational reformers. 262 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 1. All that relates to the theory of teaching or to its practice may be embraced under the four fol- lowing heads: 1. School economy ; 2. Methods of instruction; 3. Methods of culture; 4. The his- tory of education. 2. Under the head of school economy could be considered the preparation for, and the organiza- tion of, the school, and the conditions of its effi- cient workings. 3. Under the head of methods of instruction an, investigation could be made into the nature of knowledge and the methods of imparting it. 4. Under the head of methods of culture, the physical and mental constitution of man could be examined, and an effort could be made to arrive at the best means of developing and strengthening it. 5. Under the head of history of education, there could be related the success or the failure, the causes and effects, of the various educational TEACHING. 263 systems and efforts which have characterized the past. 6. In making preparation for the school, the following particulars must be regarded : (1) School sites. (5) School-houses. (2) School grounds. (6) School furniture. (3) School grades. (7) School apparatus. (4) School studies. (8) School records. f. Several things must be taken into considera- tion in selecting a site for a school-house. The most important of them are : (1) Convenience of access. (2) Suitability of the grounds and surround- ings. (3) Healthiness of the neigborhood. (4) Beauty of the location. 8. (1) Grounds about a school-house should be thoroughly drained, so as to ensure dryness in all seasons. (2) They should be leveled and sodded. (3) They should be planted with trees for shade and with hardy shrubs for ornament. (4) They should be provided with a house for fuel and separate closets for the accommodation of the pupils of both sexes. (5) The grounds should be well supplied with, water. (6) They should be enclosed by a neat fence. 9. Some of the most prominent objects the friends of education have had in view, in advocating a system of graded schools, are the following : they 264 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. economize the labor of instruction ; lessen its cost; make teaching more effective ; promote good order in school ; prompt the ambition of pupils ; provide instruction in the higher branches of learning ; and remove the necessity of children's leaving home to obtain a good education. 10. Children in primary schools ought to be taught the names of the sounds of letters of the alphabet; and they ought also to receive careful instruction in pronouncing, spelling, defining, ele- mentary reading, oral composition, drawing and writing, and elementary arithmetic. 11. A list of grammar school studies must em brace spelling, defining, reading, composition, ele* merits of grammar, geography, history of the United States, drawing and writing, arithmetic, oral and written, vocal music. 12. The pri-ncipal studies embraced in a high school course are included in the following classifi- cation: Language, inductive sciences, deductive sciences, and history. 13. The size of a school-house should mainly depend upon the number of pupils it is intended to accommodate. A house designed for an un- graded school, to be taught by a single teacher, should not contain less than nine hundred square feet. A house built to accommodate fifty to eighty pupils, and provide them with a recitation room, should contain not less than fifteen hundred square feet ; and one to accommodate from eighty to one hundred and twenty pupils, with two recitatifi TEACHING. 265 rooms, should have an area of something like two thousand square feet. 14. The best form for school-houses in rural dis- tricts is rectangular, the door entering at the south end, and the north end being without windows. The ceiling must be from twelve to sixteen feet high, as it will add to the beauty of the room and to the health and comfort of its occupants. 15. The common mode in which our school- houses are heated is very objectionable. If a stove must be placed in the room, it should be surrounded with a tin casing made to extend from the floor to about one foot above the top of the stove. There should be a door in the casing for putting in fuel ; and a trunk for the conveyance of fresh air should start outside of the building, run under the floor, and communicate directly with the stove. 16. All the windows of a school-room should be hung with pulleys, in order that they may be easily raised or lowered. If windows and doors are skill- fully used, a tolerably good degree of ventilation can be secured. 17. (1) The furniture of a school-house should be of the most approved and convenient pattern. (2) The desks should be so arranged as to enable all pupils to pass to and from their seats without creating confusion in any part of the room. (3) Every school should be provided with a library of reference-books. The most comprehen- sive English dictionary, a geographical gazetteer, a biographical dictionary, a popular encyclopedia, 266 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. sets of historical and physiological charts and out-. line maps should be considered indispensable arti- cles in the furnishing of every school-house. (4) The teacher's desk should be so constructed as to be well adapted to the uses for which it is in- tended. A plain business office desk, with draw- ers, shelves, closets and book-rack, is perhaps the most convenient form. 18. Among the articles of apparatus which should be found in all schools are the following: A set of cards for teaching the alphabet, pronunciation, spelling, and elementary reading, with a stand to hang them upon ; several sets of letter blocks, and a chart of elementary sounds; writing-charts; cards for drawing, both large and small, to suit classes or individuals, and a set of objects for drawing; a numeral frame, and sets of square and cube root blocks; a globe, a set of outline maps, and a tellu- rian ; charts of history; a case of minerals and curiosities, a large collection of objects for object, lessons, some pictures and engravings intended for the same purpose; a thermometer. 19. To aid the teacher in his work; to give in- formation to parents and school officers; to furnish educational statistics; to exert a beneficial influence upon the pupils. 20. School organization is a system of arrange- ment designed to secure constant employment, efficient instruction and moral control. It aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner, TEACHING. 267 and by the most economical expenditure of time and money. 21. 1. The young teacher should consider well his adaptation to a particular school before engaging it. 2. He should know something of its peculiar difficulties, then weigh the question of his fitness to cope with them. 3. The teacher should make known his views and plans of teaching and man- agement to school officers while negotiating. 4. The contract with school officers should always be in writing; it should bind the officers to the sup- port of the teacher in all just measures. 5. The teacher should visit the district and make acquaint- ances of parent* before opening of school. 22. Such visits will convince the people that the teacher takes an interest in his work and desires to do it well. 2. The teacher will be able to ascer- tain how many children from each family will be likely to attend school, what their ages and ad- vancements are, and what books they have studied, 3. From the children the teacher can learn who were in the several classes, how many classes there were in the school, how the school was organized, and many other matters of detail that will assist him in making up a complete schedule of classes and studies, ready for use on the opening day. 23. The chief business of the teacher on the first day is to win the respect of the pupils, and to es- tablish confidence between them and himself. 268 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOtf. ' 24. (1) Furnish something interesting for every pupil to do, from the commencement, all day long. (2) Forestall disorder by establishing order at every movement. (3) You will more readily interest the younger classes by engaging with the older classes first, than by pursuing the opposite course. 25. (1) School officers should be present and in- troduce teacher the first day; this gives appearance -of moral support to teacher, and produces salutary effect upon pupils. (2) Teacher should make brief, familiar, and appropriate address to pupils ; should explain his relations to them, and theirs to him. (3) He should strive to make the first impres- sions pleasant. (4) Special preparation for first day indispen-. sable; go to work with a carefully prepared plan. Leave nothing to the impulse of the moment. (5) Open school with some appropriate and pleasing general exercise. This may be a familiar song; some vocal exercise, or a responsive reading of the Scriptures. 26. There should not be more than four grades in the public schools. The primer and first reader should constitute the D grade ; the second reader, the C grade ; the third reader, the B grade ; and the fourth reader, the A grade. The number of classes in each grade should not exceed four, and, by clo*e classification, they need not exceed this number. TEACHING. 269 27. Advantages of a programme : (1) It lessens the labor of teaching. (2) It makes teaching more effective. (3) It promotes good order. (4) It cultivates systematic habits. (5) It promotes the ambition of pupils. 28. The employments of the school may readily be arranged into three classes, as follows : I. Study. II. Recitation. III. Exercise. 29. Knowledge, discipline, aspiration and effi- ciency. 30. (1) Incentives to study ought to be continu- ous in their influences. (2) Incentives 'to study ought to arise from the nature of the subject, and the circumstances connected with learning it. 31. The principal incentives to study, about the use of which a difference of opinion exists, are prizes, merit-marks, emulation, fear of punishment, shame, and ridicule. 32. (1) The approbation of the teacher. (2) The approbation of the parents and friends of the -pupil. (3) The approbation of society. (4) The attainment of an honorable position in the school. (5) The pleasure of overcoming difficulties. (6) The gratification of curiosity. (7) The desire of knowledge. 270 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. (8) The hope of success in life. (9) The enjoyment of pure ideal creations. (10) The duty of self-perfection. (11) The satisfaction of doing right. (12) The prospect of heavenly reward. 33. (1) The development of the faculties. (2) The acquisition of knowledge. (3) Its wise application to the uses of life. 34. The ends of the recitation may be summarily stated to be : (a) To develop the power of quick and accu- rate perception, of close observation, and generally, of clear and exact thought. (b) Another object of the recitation is to cul- tivate the power of concise and ready expression. (c) A third object of the recitation is to deter- mine the extent and accuracy of the learner's at- tainments. (d) Another object of the recitation is to increase the attainments of the class, to add to the knowl- edge that its members have acquired in their study hours. (e) An object of the recitation is to determine the pupils' habits and methods of study, and to cor- rect whatever is faulty either in manner or matter, (f ) The moral objects of the recitation are tc cultivate sentiments of justice, kindness, forbear- ance, and courtesy. 35. How to conduct a recitation : (1) A brief reproduction of the preceding lesson. TEACHING. 271 (2) A brief review of the preceding lesson. (3) Rehearsal and critical examination of the daily lesson. (4) Recapitulation of the daily lesson. (5) Adequate preparation for the advanced lesson. 36. (1) A live, intelligent teacher. (2) Recitation seats. (3) An abundance of blackboard. (4) Apparatus such as globes, charts, maps, numerical frame, measures, etc. (5) Reference books. (6) Call bell. (7) Proper ventilation. (8) Equal temperature. 37. (1) General preparation, always special if possible. (2) Should have a knowledge of mental and moral philosophy. (3) Should have an abstract of each day's work. (4) Should know how to " use." books, but not abuse them. 38. (1) Exercise is necessary to health. (2) Exercise is necessary to strength. (3) Exercise is necessary to study. 39. School government is the proper ordering of both the organic and individual action in the schools, so as to secure in pupils the best possible development of the mind and discipline of the heart. 272 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 40. School government may be embraced under the following heads: (1) School ethics. (2) School retributions. (3) School legislation. (4) School administration. 41. Ethics is the science which treats of human rights and duties. 42. School-ethics relates to the rights and duties of persons connected with the school. 43. (1) The teacher. (2) The general school officers. (3) The communities that found and support schools. (4) The pupils. 44. (1) Common sense. (2) Knowledge of the branches. (3) Teaching power. (4) Governing power. (5) Love of the work. 45. The school duties of pupils may be compre- hended under the following classification : (1) Duties to themselves. (2) Duties to one another. (3) Duties to the school property. (4) Duties to the teacher. (5) Duties to the general school officers. (6) Duties to the school as a whole. (7) Duties to visitors at the school. (8) Duties to society. TEACHING. 273 (9) Duties to God. 46. The term "discipline" is often taken in a broad sense, including all the appliances, studies and exercises of the student's life. In its more contracted sense, it is applied to the correction of particular errors and faults. 47. School government is practically of three general species : 1st. That of force; 2d. That of authority; and 3d. That of love. 48. (1) Privation of recitations. (2) Privation of recess. (3) Private reproof. (4) Reproof before a class, or before a school. (5) Privation of position in a class. (6) Daily and weekly reports. (7) Notes to parents. (8) Suspension. (9) Expulsion. (10) Corporal punishment. (11) Withholding friendship. (12) Special penalties. 49. (1) Threatening individual or general punish- ment. (2) Scolding at individuals or the school. (3) Asking for excuses either written or oral. 18 274 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. (4) Whipping as it is generally practiced, i. e., as the common punishment for every kind of offense. (5) Compulsory study, inflicted as a punish- ment. (6) Any form of physical torture or mental distress beyond the absolute demand of the case, any sudden or violent action, as throwing rulers or slapping the head, are not only highly improper but dangerously criminal. (7) Any punishment whatever beyond the school-yard, or, indeed, any punishment in the school-room, for acts committed beyond the school- yard, I consider entirely improper and badly im- politic. 50. (1) Guard against prejudice on entering a school. (2) Do not allow pupils to direct their owi> studies. (3) Do not attempt to teach too many things, (4) Never attend to extraneous business in school hours. (5) Avoid making excuses to visitors for the defects of your school. (6) Never compare one child with another. (7) Avoid wounding the sensibilities of a dull child. J (8) Never lose your patience when parents unreasonably interfere with your plans. (9) Never make the study of the Bible a pun- ishment. (10) Ride no "hobbies" in teaching. TEACHING. 275 51. (1) Convince your scholars by your conduct that you are their friend. (2) Take special care that the school-house and its appendages are kept in good order. (3) Teach both by precept and by practice, the use of the decimal or American currency. (4) When scholars do wrong, it is sometimes best to withhold immediate reproof, but to describe a similar case in general instruction. (5) Be accurate. (6) Cultivate a cheerful countenance. (7) Study to acquire the art of aptly illustra- ting a difficult subject. (8) Take advantage of unusual occurrences to make a moral or religious impression. 52. I call that education which embraces the cul- ture of the whole man, with all his faculties sub- jecting his senses, his understanding, and his pas- sions to reason, to conscience, and to the evangel- ical laws of the Christian revelation. De Fallenberg. 53. To teach is to communicate knowledge to give instruction. Rev. William Bates. 54. To learn is to acquire knowledge to be in- structed. 55. The faculties of the mind are comprised in three general divisions the intellect, the sensibil- ity and the will. 56. The first in order is the development of the intellect. 276 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 57. The intellect is developed by the acquisition of knowledge. 58. The sources of knowledge are, the senses and the reason. 59. The knowledge which man derives through the senses is called empirical knowledge the knowledge of experience. 60. This includes all that we know through the senses seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smell- ing and through emotional experiences. 61. Knowledge of which reason is the source is called rational knowledge. 62. Ideas of space, of time, of distance, the trutha evolved by the mathematical calculations, ideas of the absolute and the infinite, are attained through the processes' of reasoning, and can not be reached by experience. 63. A system of education should have for its object the guidance of the faculties of the mind in their efforts to reap in the harvest-fields of nature, so that they may first gather that which is first re- quired, that they may store away that which is of most use, to the end that the mind may be strength- ened by labor, that the act of receiving may in- crease the capacity to receive, and that what re- quires greater strength and longer continued efforts to overcome and possess, may be left to be gath- ered at that period of life, when the requisite strength and power of endurance shall have been gained through a judicious system of exercise. 64. Teaching presupposes three conditions: First, TEACHING. 277 a degree of knowledge and capacity on the part of the pupil ; second, a degree of knowledge and skill on the part of the teacher; and third, knowledge to be acquired. 65. (a) Education makes men more industrious ; (b) more trustworthy; (c) more active and system- atic ; (d) more cheerful ; (e) more far-sighted ; (f) more economical, as producers and preservers of property 66. (a) It tends to make a people more orderly, and to substitute reflection for passion; (b) to pre- dispose them to respect lawful authority; (c) to in- dispose them to submit to oppression; (d) to ren- der political revolutions gradual and bloodless; (e) to qualify men for the exercise of more and more political power ; (f ) to make refinement and civil- ization universal. 67. (a) Want of interest on the part of parents and others; (b) frequent change of teachers; (c) excessive multiplication of school districts; (d) di- versity of class-books; (e) teachers not qualified; (f ) defective supervision. 68. The object-matter which must form the foundation for a system of teaching, will compre- hend : (1) The nature of the thing to be operated upon, or educational capabilities. (2) The nature of the instrumentalities which may be used in operating upon it, or educational means. (3) The manner of performing the operation, or educational methods. 278 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 69. The classification of the special elements of pedagogics is very simple: (1) The physical. (2) The intellectual. (3) The practical. 70. We sometimes apply to these words Orthobi- otics, Didactics, and Pragmatics. 71. Physical education, as it concerns the repair- ing, the motor, or the nervous activities, is divided into (1) Dietetics; (2) Gymnastics; (3) Sexual ed- ucation. 72. Dietetics is the art of sustaining the normal repair of the organism. 73. Gymnastics is the art of systematic training of the muscular system. 74. The special direction which the activity of apprehending intelligence takes are : (1) Perception. (2) Conception. (3) Thinking. 75. The perceptive faculty is most active in the infant. 76. The conceptive faculty is most active in the child. 77. The thinking faculty is most active in the youth. 78. Thus we may distinguish an intuitive, an imaginative, and a logical epoch. 79. In the act of learning there appears (1) a mechanical element, (2) a dynamic element, and (3) one in which the dynamic again mechanically strengthens itself. DEACHIKG. 279 80. Ascham, Montaigne, Ratich, Milton, Comen- lus, Locke, Rosseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi, Jacotot and Herbert Spencer. 280 THE NOKMAL QUESTION BOOK. QUESTIONS ON MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Define geography. 2. How is geography divided ? 3. Define mathematical geography. 4. What is the form of the earth ? 5. Give proofs of its rotundity. 6. "What is the diameter of a sphere? 7. "What is the circumference of a sphere? 8. Give the equatorial diameter of the earth. 9. Give its polar diameter. 10. Give its circumference. 11. "What is its extent of surface? 12. "What its solid contents in miles? 13. "What is its weight? 14. "What is its specific gravity ? 15. "What is the horizon ? 16. What points ot the horizon are called cardi- nal points ? 17. "What are the semi-cardinal points ? 18. "What position does the earth occupy in the universe ? 19. How many and what bodies compose the solar system f t 20. "What relative position does the earth occupy Ui the solar system ? MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 281 21. What is the distance of the earth from the sun? 22. Has the sun any other motion than its move- ment through space? 23. To what theory has this uniformity of direc- tion of the movements of the planets and sun given rise? 24. What is the axis of the earth ? 25. What are the poles? 26. Which is the north pole? 27. What is the motion of the earth on its axis called? 28. Give proofs of the earth's rotation. 29. Explain how falling bodies prove it. 30. Having established that the earth rotates, what considerations indicate that it rotates from west to east ? 31. What is the exact time of a rotation ? 32. What is the velocity of rotation ? 33. Where is the velocity least ? 34. To what phenomenon does the rotation of the earth give rise ? 35. What is the great circle called which sepa- rates the dark side of the earth from the light? 36. What is the earth's motion around the sun called? 37. What is the exact time of a complete revo- lution? 38. Define a siderial year. 39. Define a tropical year. 40. Which value is taken for the length of the civil year? 41. What is the extent of the earth's orbit ? 282 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 42. At what season is the earth nearest the- sun ? 43. Explain why it is nearer at one time than at another. 44. When is the earth at its perihelion ? 45. When at its aphelion ? 46. At what velocity does the earth move in its orbit? 47. What governs the velocity of the different planets ? 48. What causes the continued revolution of the earth and other planets ? 49. How are centrifugal and centripetal forces now regarded ? 50. What gives the earth's orbit its elliptical shape ? 51. What produces the change of seasons? 52. Define circle as used in geography, 53. How may circles of the earth be divided 54. Define great and small circles. 55. Define circles of position, or measurement. 56. Define climatic circles. 57. ISTame the circles of position. 58. Name the climatic circles. 59. What is the number of degrees in a circle? 60. Define latitude. 61. What is the length of a degree of latitude? 62. Are degrees of latitude of equal length on a!) parts of the globe ? 63. On what is latitude measured? 64. What is the basis of the geographic mile ? 65. Define longitude. 66. Are degrees of longitude all of equal length ? 67. On what is longitude measured? MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 283 68. What is the greatest extent of longitude? 69. What places have no longitude? 70. What is the greatest extent of latitude ? 71. What places have no latitude? 72. What are prime meridians? 73. Where are these usually located? 74. What computations of longitude and time may be made, having difference of longitude or time between places given ? 75. Explain why. 76. Give a diagram showing the time at the same moment at different places, marked at quadrant's distances. 77. Define quadrant. 78. What are the tropics? 79. Where are they located? 80. What are the polar circles ? 81. Where are they located? 82. Why are these circles thus located? 83. Into what zones do the climatic circles divide the earth? 84. Locate the torrid zone. 85. Locate the temperates. 86. Locate the frigids. 87. What is the width of the torrid zone? 88. What is the width of the temperates? 89. What is the width of the frigids? 90. What is the ecliptic? 91. What is the degree of inclination of the earth's axes to the plane of the ecliptic? 92. Under what circumstances would there have been no change of seasons? 284 THE NOKMAL QUESTION BOOK. 93. In what case would the change of seasons have been greater than it now is ? 94. What are the equinoxes? 95. How many and what are they called? 96. On what days of the year do they occur? 97. What are the equinoctial points ? 98. What are solstices ? 99. How many, and what are they called ? 100. On what days of the year do they occur? 101. What are the solstitial points ? 102. Why is the ecliptic so called ? 103. On what does the relative length of the daf and night depend ? MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 285 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Geography is the science that treats of the earth. In its widest sense, it embraces all that we know of the globe its form, magnitude and mo- tions; the successive changes it has undergone, its present condition, its structure, products and in- habitants. 2. Geography is divided into three branches mathematical, political and physical. 3. Mathematical geography is a term given to certain facts of astronomy and mathematics which are used in geography. The astronomical part treats of the earth as a planet of the solar system, with its size, motions, etc. The mathematical part teaches us how to represent the earth's surface oa maps and globes. 4. The shape of the earth is that of a sphere, or globe, slightly flattened at the poles; in exact language, an oblate spheroid. 5. I. The continual circumnavigation of the earth. This shows that the earth is round from east to west, at 286 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. II. Appea ince of approaching objects. If the earth were flat, as soon as an object appeared on the horizon, we would see the upper and lower parts at the same time ; but if it were curved, the top parts would first be seen. Now, when a ship is coming into port, we see first the topmasts, then the sails, and finally the hull; hence the earth must be curved ; and, since the appearance is the same, no matter from what direction the ship is approaching, we infer that the earth is evenly curved, or spherical. III. The circular shape of the horizon. The horizon, or the line that limits our view when noth- ing intervenes, is always a circle. IV. The shape of the earth's shadow. The shadow which the earth casts on the moon during an eclipse of the moon, is always circular, and as only spherical bodies in all positions can cast such shadows, we infer that the earth is spherical. V. Measurement. The shape of the earth has been accurately ascertained by calculations based on the measurement of an arc of a meridian. We therefore not only know that it is spheroidal, but also the exact amount of its oblateness. VI. Great circle of illumination. The shape of the great circle of illumination, or the line separ- ating the portion of the surface lighted by the sun's rays from that in the shadow, is another evidence of the rotundity of our earth. 6. A diameter of a sphere is any straight line drawn through the center from surface to surface. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 287 7. The circumference of a sphere is the greatest distance around it. 8. 7,925.65 miles. 9. 7,899.17 miles. 10. 24,899 miles. 11. 196,900,278 square miles. 12. 260,000,000,000 cubic miles. 13. 5,852,000,000,000,000 of tons, a weight of which our minds can form no conception. 14. The specific gravity of the globe is found to be about 5f ; that is, it would require 5 globes of water of the same size, to balance the weight of the earth. 15. The horizon is that circle upon which the earth and sky appear to meet. 16. North, South, East and West, are called car- dinal points. 17. North-east, north-west, south-east and south- west, are called semi-cardinal points. 18. The earth is one of a group of small non- luminous bodies which revolve around the sun, ac- company him through space, and reflect his light. 19. The solar system comprises the sun, eight large bodies called planets, and as far as is now known about one hundred and seventy-five smaller bodies called planetoids, or asteroids, besides nu- merous comets and meteors. Some of the planet* have bodies called moons or satellites moving 288 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. around them. These also belong to the solar sys- tem. 20. The earth belongs to the group nearest the sun and is third from the sun in position. 21. Nearly 92,000,000 of miles. 22. The sun, all the primary planets, and their satellites so far as known, rotate from west to east. 23. To a theory by Laplace called the nebular hypothesis, which assumes that originally all the material of which the solar system is composed, was scattered throughout space in the form of very tenuous matter called nebula. It being granted that this matter began to accumulate around a cen- ter, and that a motion of rotation was acquired, it can be shown on strict mechanical principles, that a system resembling our own might be evolved. 24. The central line of rotary motion is called the axis of rotation. 25. The extremities of the axis are called the poles. 26. The north pole is the pole nearest the north star. 27. It is called its rotation. 28. I. A direct proof of the earth's rotation is derived from observations of a pendulum. If a heavy ball be suspended by a flexible wire from a fixed point, and the pendulum thus formed be made to vibrate, its vibrations will all be performed in the same plane. If instead of being suspended from a fixed point, we give to the point of support MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 289 a slow motion of rotation around a vertical axis, the plane of vibration will still remain unchanged. Suppose then a heavy ball to be suspended by a wire from a fixed point directly over the pole of the earth and made to vibrate ; these vibrations will continue to be made in the same invariable plane. But the earth meanwhile turns round ab the rate of 15 per hour; and since the observer is unconscious of his own motion of rotation, it re- sults that the plane of vibration of the pendulum appears to revolve at the same rate in the opposite direction. II. A second proof of the earth's rotation is de- rived from the motion of falling bodies. 29. If the earth had no rotation upon an axis, a heavy body let fall from any elevation would de- scend in the direction of a vertical line. But if the earth rotates on an axis, then since the top of a tower describes a larger circle than the base, its easterly motion must be more rapid than the base, and if a ball be dropped from the top of a tower, since it already has the easterly motion which be- longs to the top of the tower, it will retain this easterly motion during its descent, and its devia- tion to the east of the vertical line will be nearly equal to the excess of the motion of the top of the tower above that of the base during the fall. 30. The sun and stars appear to move in an op- posite direction, from east to west, or as it is com- monly expressed " rise in the east" and "set in the 19 290 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. west." This apparent motion of the sun and stars is caused in reality by the rotation of the earth. 31. The time of a complete rotation is 23 hours, 6 minutes, 4.09 seconds. 32. The velocity of rotation at any point on the equator is about 1,042 miles per hour. 33. At points distant from the equator, the velo- city diminishes, until at the poles it is nothing. 34. The alternation of day and night is owing to the earth's rotation, which brings each point of its surface from darkness to light, and from light to darkness. 35. The great circle which separates the dark side of the earth from the light side is called the circle of illumination. 36. Its revolution. 37. The exact time of a complete revolution is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9.6 seconds. 38. The exact time of a revolution is called a sidereal year. 39. The tropical year, or the time from one March equinox to the next, is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 49.7 seconds. 40. The latter value is the one generally given for the length of the fear s being nearly 365J days, 41. 577,000,000 miles. 42. About January 1st. 43. The orbit of the earth is au ellipse. The sun MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 291 is in one of the foci and as this is not in the center of the orbit, the earth must be nearer to the sun at some parts of its revolution than at others. 44. When the earth is in that part of its orbit which is nearest to the sun, it is said to be at its perihelion. 45. When in that part of its orbit farthest from the sun, it is at its aphelion. 46. Its mean velocity may be taken as equal to about 19 miles a second, which is nearly sixty times faster than the speed of a cannon-ball. 47. While the circumference of the orbits of the planets increase with their distance from the sun, their velocity at the same time diminishes, and the time of revolution, or length of year, increases cor- respondingly. 48. The earth's movement through space is caused solely by a projectile force imparted to it when it first began its separate existence probably when first separated from the nebulous sun. From its inertia it would move for an indefinite time in one direction, but, by the sun's attraction it is con- stantly changing its direction by falling toward the sun ; and thus is produced the curved shape of its orbit. 49. Centrifugal and centripetal forces, as such, have no real existence, save in the projectile force and in the attraction of the sun. It is inertia alone that keeps the earth moving and the sun's attrac- tion that modifies the motion. The earth has no power whatever, in itself, to move either towards or from the sun. An entire abandonment of the 292 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. idea of center -seeking or center-flying forces, will greatly simplify the explanation of the earth's mo' tion of revolution. 50. It is owing to the attractive influence of the neighboring planets, which modify the effect of the sun's attraction. 51. The change of seasons is produced by the revolution of the earth, together with the inclina- tion and constant parallelism of the axis. 52. The term circle, in geographical science, is used in a restricted sense. The geographical circles are not planes cutting the terrestrial globe, but lines encircling it. 53. Into great circles and small circles, and into circles of position and climatic circles. 54. Those which bisect the surface of the sphere are called great circles. All others are small cir- cles. 55. Circles of position include the equator, a great circle encompassing the globe from east to west, midway between the poles ; meridians, great circles encompassing the globe from north to south, intersecting at the poles, and crossing the equator at right angles; and parallels, small circles parallel to the equator. They are used in determining tha geographical position of places. 56. They are four parallels which serve not only to determine position, but also to mark certain im- portant climatic boundaries, hence they may be distinguished as climatic parallels, MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 293 67. They are the equator, the meridians, and the parallels. 58. The tropics, the polar circles and the ecliptic. 59. Every circle, whether great or small, is di- vided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. 60. The latitude of a place, is the distance of its parallel from the equator. 61. 69 miles, or ^-g- part of the circumference of the earth. 62. Near the poles the degrees are slightly longer, owing to the oblateness of the sphere. 63. Upon the meridians. 64. One minute of longitude at the equator con- stitutes the geographical or nautical mile used in reckoning distances at sea. 65. The longitude of a place, is the distance of its meridian from the prime meridian. 66. The length of the degrees of longitude de- creases as we recede from the equator, the parallels becoming smaller the nearer we approach the poles. 67. Upon the parallels and the equator. 68. There are 180 of west longitude and 180 of east longitude. 69. At the poles where all the meridians meet, longitude ceases. 70. There are 90 of north latitude, and 90 of south latitude. 294 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 71. Places on the equator have no latitude. 72. The meridian from which longitude is reck- oned is called the prime meridian. 73. For each nation it is generally the meridian of its own capital. 74. If the difference in time marked at two places be known, their difference in longitude can at once be ascertained, and vice versa. 75. Since any given point on the earth's surface passes through 360 of longitude one entire rota- tion in 24 hours, it must pass through - 3 ^-, or 15, in one hour; and 1 in -fa of an hour, or four min- utes. 76. u We 9( St. o 3 Ea 9( St. 18 12 A Monday night of . M. or mid- Sunday. 6A Moil . M. day. No of Moi on iday. 6P Mon M. lay. 12 P Midni Mon .M. ghtof day. 77. A quadrant is one quarter of a circle, or 90. 78. The tropics are parallels which mark the highest latitude which receives the vertical rays of the sun. 79. They are located 23J from the equator. 80. They are parallels which mark the limits of illumination when the sun is vertical at the tropics. 81. They are located 23J from the poles. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 82. Their position is fixed by the inclination of the earth's axis 23J towards the plane of its orbit. 83. The zones enclosed by these circles are: one torrid zone, two temperate zones, and two frigid zones. 84. The torrid zone is between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. 85. The temperates lie between the tropics and the polar circles. 86. The frigids lie between the polar circles and the poles. 87. The Torrid Zone is 47, (= about 3,250 miles) in breadth. 88. Each Temperate Zone is 43 (= nearly 3,000 miles) in breadth. 89. Each Frigid Zone is 23J (= 1,625 miles) in width. 90. The ecliptic is a great circle whose plane co- incides with that of the earth's orbit. 91. 23| toward the plane of the ecliptic. 92. If the earth's axis had been perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, the equator would have coin- cided with the ecliptic ; day and night would have been of equal duration throughout the year, and there would have been no diversity of seasons. 93. If the inclination of the equator to the eclip- tic had been greater than it is, the sun would have receded farther from the equator on the north side 296 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. in summer, and on the south side in winter, and the heat of summer as well as the cold of winter would have been more intense ; that is, the diver- sity of the seasons would have been greater than at present. 94. They are the times of the year at which the sun's vertical rays fall exactly on the equator. 1 95. There are two equinoxes, the vernal and au- tumnal. 96. The vernal equinox takes place on the 20th of March, and the autumnal on the 22d of Septem- ber. 97. The ecliptic intersects the equator at two points diametrically opposite to each other. These are called equinoctial points. 98. The solstices are the times at which the ver- tical rays of the sun reach their farthest northern or southern limit, and fall vertical on one or the other of the tropics. 99. There are two solstices, called the summer solstice, and the winter solstice. 100. The summer solstice takes place on the 21st of June, and the winter solstice on the 21st of De- cember. 101. They are the points of the ecliptic which are midway between the equinoxes. / 102. This circle is so called because solar and lunar eclipses can only take place when the moon is very near its plane. 103. Whenever more than half of either the north- ern or southern hemisphere is illumined by the MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 297 rays of the sun, the length of the day in that hem- isphere will exceed that of the night, in proportion as the length of the illuminated part, measured along any of the parallels, exceeds that of the dark part. THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. QUESTIONS ON POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Define political geography. 2. Under what heads may this division of geog- raphy be discussed ? 3. What political divisions does the continent of North America comprise ? 4. Of what races does the population of the United States consist? 5. What is the number of the population of the United States? 6. What are the leading forms of industry in the different localities ? 7. What are the leading exports and imports of foreign commerce? 8. With what countries is the commerce of the United States? 9. What are the divisions of British America? 10. What are the most important provinces of British America ? 11. In what does their source of wealth consist? 12. What are its forms of industry ? 13. How does its commerce rank? 14. How is the Dominion governed ? 15. What is the number of its population and what is its state of advancement ? POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 299 16. Locate the Northwest Territory. 17. What difference exists between the popula- tion of Greenland and Iceland? 18. What is the character of the population of Mexico ? 19. What are their forms of industry? 20. What their sources of wealth ? 21. Of what divisions does Central America con- sist? 22. What gives importance to this country ? 23. To whom do the West Indies belong? 24. How many and what are the political divis- ions of South America? 25. What is the number of inhabitants of South America? To what races do they belong? 26. What is the state of commerce of South America ? 27. Which the most important country in South America? 28. Which is the largest city in the southern hemisphere? 29. What is the state of civilization in South America? 30. What is true of the natural resources of Bra- zil? 31. What are its principal industries ? 32. Which is the most progressive of the Spanish American republics? 33. Name the British isles. 34. What does the British empire comprise? 35. What is the form of government of the Brit- ish empire? 300 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 36. What is the rank of England in the United Kingdom ? 37. In what do its resources consist? 38. What is the commercial rank of England? 39. What are the resources of Wales? 40. What are the employments of the Scotch? 41. What difference exists between the people of the highlands and the lowlands ? 42. For what is Glasgow noted? 43. Describe Ireland. 44. What are its political divisions ? 45. What are its important cities and for what is each noted? 46. How many and what are the empires of Eu- rope? 47. How many and what are its republics? 48. How many and what are its kingdoms ? 49. Which of the latter are absolute monarchies? 50. What is the total population of Europe? 51. Of what race does it consist and what branches does it include? 52. What countries occupy the Scandinavian pe- ninsula? 53. What are the exports of Norway? 54. What are the exports of Sweden ? 55. What is the most northern town in the world ? 56. What races dwell in the extreme northern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula? 57. How does the liusian Empire rank, and what does it include ? 58. What is the state of the inhabitants ? 59. What are the five great powers of Europe? POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 301 60. What large and navigable rivers in Central Europe ? 61. "What is the rank of France among States ? 62. What of its education ? 63. What are the forms of industries of the peo- ple? 64. For what is the capital city of France noted, and how does it rank in size? 65. Of how many states is the German empire composed? 66. Name'the most important. 67. What is the extent and population of Ger- many? 68. What are the employments of its people ? 69. What are its exports, and how does it com- pare with England in manufactures and commerce? 70. How does Germany rank with other coun- tries in educational matters? 71. What are the divisions of the Austrian em- pire? 72. Why is the foreign trade of Austria limited? 73. Of what races are the people of Austria made up? 74. Mention some of its important cities. 75. What lands does Denmark comprise? 76. What are the employments of the people? 77. What peculiarity about the state of Holland ? 78. What river waters Belgium,' and how is Bel- gium situated? 79. For what is the country of Switzerland prin- cipally noted? 80. What are its manufactures? 302 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 81. "What is the present condition of the people of Spain? 82. What are the pursuits of the people of Por- tugal ? 83. "With what other people are they closely al- lied? 84. What are the characteristics of the people 'of Italy? 85. What is the most important manufacture of Italy? 86. What are the interesting features of Rome ? 87. What gives special interest to the kingdom of Greece ? 88. What are the present employments of its people ? 89. Of what race are the Turks? 90. To which continent does their empire more properly belong? 91. What are the races of Asia, and what is the number of each ? 92. What is its state of civilization ? 93. What is true of the rivers of Asia ? 94. What European powers have possession in Asia? 95. What is the form of government throughout Asia? 96. How does China rank as an empire ? 97. Of what political divisions does it consist? 98. What is the number of its population ? 99. What is the character of its civilization ? 100. Of what does the empire of Japan consist? 101. How do the Japanese rank in civilization ? 102. What is the situation of Africa? POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 303 103. Give the outline of Africa. 104. For what is Africa remarkable? 105. Describe the mountains of Africa. 106. Name the rivers of Africa. 107. Describe the lakes of Africa. 108. Name the productions of Africa. 109. Describe the government of Africa. 110. What is the number of inhabitants and to what races do they belong ? 111. Describe Egypt. 112. For what is Egypt celebrated? 113. Name the countries of Africa. 114. What does Australia comprise ? 115. Describe the inhabitants of Australia. 116. Name the countries of Australia and give the capital of each. 117. What is the government of Australia? 118. What is Oceanica? 304 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Political geography treats of men as inhab- itants of the earth, of the modes of life they lead, and of the forms of government under which they live. 2. Races, nations, industries, governments, civ- ilization, etc. 3. North America comprises six divisions : (1) The United States occupying the middle part of North America, and the north-western part called Alaska. (2) British America. (3) Danish America, comprising the islands of Greenland and Iceland. (4) The Republic of Mexico, lying south of the United States. (5) The Republics of Central America, lying south-east of Mexico, between the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. (6) The West Indies, comprising two island chains: the Antilles and the Bahamas. 4. The white race, negroes and mulattoes, the descendants of slaves brought from Africa, Indians and Chinese. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 305 5. In 1870, the population was about 39,000,000. The white race numbered about 34,000,000; ne- groes and mulattoes, nearly 5,000,000; Indians, 350,000 ; Chinese, 64,000. 6. Agriculture is the leading industry. Its chief seats are the central and Atlantic plains and the California basin. Grazing is an important oc- cupation in the agricultural regions. Mining is an industry of great and growing importance. The principal mines of coal and iron are in the eastern highland; those of gold and silver in the moun- tains of the western highland ; those of lead in Nevada, Utah, and the valley of the Upper Missis- sippi ; and those of copper on the shores of Lake Superior. Manufacturing has its chief seat north of the Potomac and Ohio. Fishing is a leading inter- est in some of the New England States. Com- merce, domestic and foreign. 7. Cotton, breadstuff's, provisions, petroleum, gold and tobacco are the exports. The imports are dry goods, sugar, coffee, hides, tea, iron and tin. 8. The foreign commerce of the United States is chiefly with England, Germany and France in Europe ; with Canada, the West Indies and Brazil in America ; and with China and Japan in Asia. 9. This extensive country may be divided into three parts : The Dominion of Canada, the Prov- ince of Newfoundland, and the " North-west Ter- ritory." 10. Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New 20 rir 306 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario. These five provinces all lie in the basin of the St. Lawrence and the great lakes. They form the most populous, pro- ductive and important section of the British Amer- ican possessions. 11. This region possesses great natural wealth > (1) In its extensive forests of pine, maple, beech and oak. (2) In the fertile soil of the St. Lawrence Basin. (3) In the fisheries of the St. Lawrence and neighboring waters. (4) In its mines of iron, coal, copper and lead. (5) In its direct water communication with the Atlantic. 12. Farming, lumbering, ship-building, the fish- eries, mining and commerce. 13. With the exception of the United States and England it has a larger commercial marine than any other country. 14. The Dominion government is vested in a Governor-General appointed by the British sov- ereign, and a legislature, called the Parliament. 15. The population is about 4,000,000. In civili- zation, the Dominion ranks with the United States. The people are educated, prosperous and pro- gressive. 16. The North-west Territory includes the vast tract of country north of the Dominion of Canada and the United States stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific and extending about 1,400 miles from north to south. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 307 17. The people of Iceland are more intelligent. 18. The population consists of Mexican Indians, who form the majority, of Creoles, or people de- scended from Spanish parents; and of Mestizos, or mixed races. The Mexicans are a civilized but not a progressive race. 19. Agriculture and silver mining are the prin- cipal occupations, but every branch of industry is at the lowest ebb. 20. Mexico is rich in silver, gold, quicksilver and other metals; and the soil is generally fertile. The country is, however, destitute of water highways from the interior to the coast. 21. Central America is the seat of five indepen- dent republics Guatemala, Honduras, San Salva- dor, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and of the small province of British Honduras, or Belize. 22. The importance of this country arises : (1) From its geographical position on the nar- row neck of land between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. (2) From its abundance of valuable natural products. 23. Cuba and Porto Rico are colonies of Spain ; Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the lesser An- tilles belong to Great Britain ; the rest belong to France, and other European countries. Hayti was once divided between France and Spain; it now consists of two independent negro republics Hayti and San Domingo. 24. There are thirteen political divisions in South 308 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. America. Nine states, or republics Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argen- tina, Uruguay, Paraguay. One empire Brazil. Three colonies British, Dutch and French Guy- ana. Patagonia has no organized government. 25. South America has about 26,000,000 inhabit- ants. One third of these belong to the Caucasian race, one third are Indians, and the remainder con- sists of negroes and persons of mixed blood, as mestizoes and mulattoes. 26. South America has had a comparatively lim- ited commerce. It is now rapidly increasing, espe- cially in Brazil, Chili, and the Argentine Confed- eration. 27. Brazil is the largest and most important country of South America. Its area is nearly as great as that of the United States or of all Europe. 28. Rio Janeiro, sometimes called Rio, the most important port, is the capital of Brazil and the largest city in the southern hemisphere. 29. The people are in general uneducated and unprogressive. They have few railroads, few tele- graphs, steamers, printing presses or manufactures. South America has given to the rest of the world little except its tropical products, its gold and sil- ver, and that most valuable of root plants, the po- tato. 30. In the richness and variety of its vegetation^ Brazil surpasses all other countries POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 309 81. Agriculture and stock-raising, are the chief occupations. The staple productions for export are coffee, of which it supplies three-fourths of the whole quantity used in the world ; and sugar, in the production of which it is second only to Cuba. 32. Chili is the most enterprising country of South America, and has a large proportion of Eu- ropean inhabitants. 33. The British Isles consist of Great Britian and Ireland, together with numerous small adjacent islands. 34. The name British Empire is applied to the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and its nu- merous colonies and possessions in various parts of the world. 35. The government is a hereditary limited mon- archy. The laws are made by Parliament, which is composed of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. 36. England is the largest, most populous, and most important division of the United Kingdom. 37. Its vast deposits of coal, iron, and other min- erals, its productive soil, its extent of sea-coast, its great number of good harbors and navigable bays and river-mouths, and its central situation for the commerce of the world, are the principal sources of the wealth and power of England. 38. Commercially, England ranks as the foremost of countries. 39. It is rich in mines of copper, iron and coal. 310 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 40. Manufacturing, agriculture and the fisheries. 41. The Highlanders are the descendants of the native race of Britain, and speak a Celtic language called Gaelic. The inhabitants of the Lowlands belong to the same race as the English, and speak the English language. 42. It is celebrated for its iron and cotton man- ufactories. 43. Ireland is a beautiful and lertile island, about the size of the State of Maine. 44. Politically, it is divided into four provinces, Ulster, Leinester, Munster and Connaught, repre- senting four ancient kingdoms, and these are sub- divided into thirty-two counties. 45. Dublin, the metropolis, a beautiful city and a seat of culture; Belfast, the center of the linen manufacture and trade, and Cork, noted for its splendid harbor, and its ship-building and trade. 46. Europe contains four empires, Russia, Tur- key, Germany, and Austria. 47. Two republics, France and Switzerland. 48. There are ten independent kingdoms, Nor- way, Sweden, Great Britain and Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Denmark, Belgium, and Holland. 49. Russia and Turkey are absolute ; Germany, Austria and the ten kingdoms are limited mon- archies. 50. The total population of Europe is estimated POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 811 at 300,000,000, three-fourths of it being in West- ern Europe. 51. It is nearly all Caucasian. The three branches of the Caucasian race in Europe are the Celts in the west, the Teutons from the Alps to Scotland and Northern Norway, and the Slaves in the Great Plain. 52. Sweden occupies the eastern and Norway the western part. 53. Lumber and fish. 54. Grain, iron and copper. 55. Hammerfest is the most northern town in the world. 56. The Laplanders and Finns, who belong to the Tartar race. Their chief wealth is the rein- deer, which supplies them with food, clothing, and many useful articles. 57. Russia is the most extensive of empires, in- cluding one-half of Europe and one-third of Asia. It is about twice the size, and has nearly double the population of the United States. 58. The inhabitants are mostly Slavonians. Ger- mans predominate in the provinces bordering on the Baltic Sea. The higher classes are well edu- cated, but the great mass of the people can not read or write. 59. Russia, Germany, Austria, England and France, are the largest, most populous and power- ful, and are called the Five Great Powers. 812 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 60. Four navigable rivers the Po, the Rhone, the Rhine, and the Danube flow from the heart of high Europe and pass through the plains to four seas. 61. France is one of the oldest, most powerful and most highly civilized nations of Europe. 62. In literature, science and art France has long been distinguished ; but until recently the educa- tion of the great body of the French people was almost entirely neglected. Now, however, an or- ganized system of popular instruction is in opera- tion under the control of the government. 63. Agriculture, manufacturing and commerce. 64. It is the most beautiful and attractive of cities, and is the world's center of modern art, fashion and pleasure, as London is of commerce and of business. It is distinguished for its mag- nificent public buildings, public gardens, and places of amusement, and for its great libraries, museums, art galleries, and scientific schools, and also for the manufacture and sale of articles of art, ornament, and fashion. It is second only to Lon- don in wealth and trade. 65. Politically the German Empire consists of twenty-six States. 66. The Kingdom of Prussia, which embraces two-thirds of the area of Germany and a majority of its population, and the three kingdoms of Ba- varia, Saxony, and Wurtemburg. The other twenty- POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 313 States are small in extent, and are variously called grand duchies, duchies, principalities, etc. 67. The area of Germany is nearly the same aa that of France, being 208,000 square miles. Popu- lation is about the same as that of the United States. r*f 68. The leading industries ar6 agriculture, man- ufacturing, mining and commerce. 69. Wheat, wines, wool, and manufactures are the principal exports. In manufactures Germany is behind England and France. \ / 70. In education Germany is the foremost coun- try in Europe. It has a fine system of public schools, and education is compulsory. 71. Austria proper and the kingdom of Hungary, together with the Polish States to the north of the Carpathian mountains. 72. As Austria has but little sea- coast, the foreign trade is limited. 73. About one half of the population belong to the Slavonic race, and one fifth to the Germanic; one-sixth are Magyars, and the rest are made up of Roumanians, Jews, Gypsies, Greeks, etc. 74. Vienna is the finest city of Central Europe. Pesth, the chief commercial city of Hungary; Prague, in Bohemia, Trieste, etc. 75. Denmark consists of the peninsula of Jut- land and of the adjacent islands at the entrance of the Baltic, the largest being Zealand and Ftinen. 76. Denmark is mainly an agricultural and graz- 314 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ing country, but many Danes are engaging in fish ing, or in a seafaring life. 77. Some parts are even lower than the ocean at Mgh tide, and would be inundated if they were not protected by extensive dykes. 78. The western part of Belgium, watered by the Scheldt and its tributaries, is a continuation of the flats of Holland. 79. Switzerland has the sublimest scenery in Europe. 80. The manufacture of small articles, such as watches, jewelry, silk stuffs, ribbons and toys, is the chief occupation. 81. In the sixteenth century, Spain was the great- est nation in Europe ; but, owing to bad govern- ment, it has sunk to the position of a second-rate power, and is neither progressive nor highly civil- ized. 82. The leading pursuit is the culture of the vine, from which port wine is made, and of the olive and semi-tropical fruits. 83. The Spanish. 84. The Italians are the purest representatives of the Latin race, and their language comes di- rectly from the Latin. The people are generally industrious, frugal and temperate, but excitable and passionate. 85. The silk manufactures of Italy are the most important of Europe. 86. Every part of Rome contains remains of tern- POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. SH pies, baths, tombs, arches, and columns which ex- cite admiration. 87. Five hundred years before the birth of Christ Greece was the most civilized of nations. Its re- publics were famous for their illustrious soldiers, artists, philosophers, poets and historians. 88. A large part of the people are engaged in raising sheep and goats. 89. The Turks belong to the Mongolian race. 90. The empire of the Turks is more properly an Asiatic power. 91. The Mongolians, 500,000,000; Malay, 20,- 000,000 ; Caucasian, 180,000,000. 92. The fertile plains of China and tropical Asia are the great seats of population. In this region civilized nations have existed for thousands of years, but this civilization has long been stationary. 93. They rank among the longest and largest on the globe. 94. The English, the Russians, and the Dutch are the only European nations that possess exten- sive dominions in Asia. Siberia and Georgia form parts of the Russian Empire; India and the West- ern Coast of Farther India belong to England; and the greater portion of the East Indian Archipelago is governed by the Dutch. 95. The government is an absolute monarchy. 96. The Chinese Empire is one of five great gov- 316 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ernraents which together cover more than half of the land surface of the globe. These are, in the order of their area, the British Empire, the Russian Empire, the Chinese Empire, the United States and Brazil. 97. The Empire is divided into three parts: (1) China proper. (2) Mantchooria. (3) The Colonies, including Thibet, Mongolia, Little Turkestan, and Soongaria. 98. The total population of the Chinese Empire is estimated at 425,000,000. This is the densest population in the world. 99. The civilization of China was already flour- ishing at a time when the Christian nations had no existence. With the exception of the steam engine and the electric telegraph, there is scarcely any great invention of modern times which has not been in use among the Chinese for many centuries. Still, they can not be regarded as a progressive people, and their conceit prevents their learning new ideas. It is but recently that China has been opened to the world. 100. The empire of Japan is composed of islands, the largest of which are JSTiphon, Yesso or Jesso, Kiusiu and Sikoke. 101. The Japanese are the most highly civilized and the most progressive of the Mongolian race. They are now rapidly introducing railroads, tele- graphs, and improved machinery of all kinds, and POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 317 have established public and scientific schools under the instruction of European and American teach- ers. 102. Africa extends between the parallels of 37 north and 35 south latitude. " It is surrounded on all sides by the ocean, except where it is united to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. 103. It has few projections of land or inbreak- ings of the sea, and is the most regular of all the grand divisions. Its figure resembles that of an irregular triangle. 104. Africa is remarkable for its high surface, extensive deserts, and hot climate. 105. The mountains of Africa are : (1) The Atlas range, in the north-west. (2) The mountains of Abyssinia. (3) The mountains of the Great Lake Region, around the sources of the Nile, in which is Kili- manjaro (20,000 feet high), the loftiest peak of Africa. (4) The mountains of South Africa, terminat- ing in Table Mountain, in Cape Colony. (5) The Kong Mountains, along the Guinea Coast. 106. The African rivers are few in number, though some of them are noted for their great length. The most important are the Nile, Niger, Congo, Zambesi, and Orange. 107. In the equatorial region of Africa is a series of lakes which in size rival, if they do not surpass, the Great Lakes of North America. The largest 318 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. of these are lakes Albert, Victoria, and Tangan- yika. 108. The productions of Africa comprise grain, cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, indigo, ivory, ebony, ostrich feathers, palm oil, and tropical fruits. 109. All the native governments are despotisms, and, except in Egypt and the Barbary States, are of the rudest and simplest description. 110. The population of Africa is estimated at 193,000,000. They belong to two races, the Cau- casian, and the Ethiopian. 111. Egypt, the most important and most inter-* esting country of Africa, occupies the lower portion of the Nile valley, reaching from the Mediterranean to the first cataract, a distance of between 500 and 600 miles. 112. Egypt is celebrated for its magnificent pyra- mids, temples, obelisks, statues, and tombs built more than four thousand years ago. 113. Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, the Sahara, Soudan and Equatorial Africa, Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea Coast, Cape Colony and Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal Republic, Madagascar and Zanzebar. 114. Australia comprises the continental island of Australia and the large islands of New Guinea, New Zealand, Tasmania (or Van Diemen Land,) POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 819 together with many small islands and groups of islands adjacent to Australia. 115. The inhabitants are chiefly British, and their principal occupations are mining, agriculture, and grazing. The original inhabitants of Austra- lia are short and stout, with small heads, flat noses, thick protruding lips, long, coarse hair, and of a black or dark brown complexion. / 116. (1) Queensland occupies the north-eastern part of the continent. Brisbane is the capital. (2) New South Wales lies south of Queens- land> Sydney is the capital. (3) Victoria lies south of New South Wales. Melbourne is the capital. (4) South Australia lies west of Victoria and New South Wales. The capital is Adelaide. (5) West Australia. Perth is the capital. (6 and 7) In North Australia and Alexandra Land,, no settlements have yet been made. (8) Tasmania. Hobart Town is the capital. 117. The colonies are politically independent of one another, and are governed by representatives chosen by universal suffrage, and by executive of- ficers appointed by the crown. 118. Oceanica is the great island division of the earth. It includes Malaysia, Australia and Poly- nesia. The extent of the land surface is 4,500,000 square miles. 320 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. QUESTIONS ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Define physical geography. 2. Into what classes may the objects of which physical geography treats, be divided ? 3. What is the probable condition of the inte- rior of the earth ? 4. What considerations indicate that the earth is stilj m a molten condition? 5. What phenomena does the heated interior produce ? 6. What is a volcano ? 7. What is the usual shape of a volcano? 8. Where else may the crater be located ? 9. What is the width of craters ? 10. Upon what does the slope of volcanoes de- pend? 11. Into what two classes may they be divided? 12. Define active volcanoes. 13. Define extinct volcanoes. ' 14. What is the number of volcanoes? 15. What is their ordinary arrangement? 16. Give examples. 17. What apparent exceptions to this rule? 18. What is the peculiarity in the distribution of volcanoes ? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 321 19. What explanation is given of this fact? 20. Locate the two volcanic zones which encir- cle the earth. 21. In what regions of the earth is the greatest volcanic activity displayed? 22. What theory is advanced as a possible cause^ of volcanoes? 23. Mention other volcanic phenomena. 24. What are earthquakes? 25. What three kinds of earthquake movement have been noted ? 26. What is the usual duration of earthquakes? 27. What is an earthquake area ? 28. What is the cause of earthquakes? 29. What is the law of their distribution ? 30. What connection exists between volcanoes and earthquakes? 31. What relation between earthquakes and at- mospheric conditions ? 32. Where are the land masses of the globe lo- cated ? 33. Of what does the land consist? 34. Under what two aspects may the land be studied ? 35. What separation of the land masses is marked by the zone of fracture? 36. What is the common form of the land masses? 37. What difference in the direction of prolonga- tion between the eastern and western continents ? 38. What difference in other respects results from this? 21 322 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 39. What differences in outline do the continents exhibit? 40. What influence has the articulations of coast upon a country and its people? 41. What fact is true of well articulated coun- tries ? 42. How do the continents compare m this re- spect ? 43. What constitutes the relief of a country? 44. What two forms of relief exist ? 45. What influence has the relief of a country upon its climate, life, etc.? 46. What proportion of the continents is occu- pied by plains? 47. How may plains be classified as to their for- mation and differences in character of surface? 48. What are plateaus ? 49. Define a mountain chain. 50. Define a mountain system. 51. How are mountains supposed to have been formed ? 52. What two classes of mountains as to manner of formation ? 53. What two classes of valleys? 54. What are continental axes ? 55. What general law of relief has been observed from a study of the continents ? 56. What proportion of the land surface do the islands form? 57. What two classes of islands? 58. Define continental islands. 59. What similarity do they bear to the main- land, and what does this indicate ? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 323 60. Define oceanic islands ? 61. What two classes of oceanic islands? 62. How do continental islands compare in size with oceanic islands? 63. What contrast in the rock material of the two classes of islands? 64. Describe the common forms of coral islands. 65. Upon what are coral islands built? 66. Where are coral islands found, and why are they confined to these regions ? 67. What office do the waters of the earth per- form ? 68. What is the composition of water? 69. What important peculiarity does water pos- sess? 70. What is the great reservoir of water? 71. How are the waters dispersed over the earth ? 72. What are the sources of rivers? 73. Where are springs most numerous? 74. Upon what does the temperature of springs depend? 75. What is the river system? 76. Define river basin. 77. Define water-shed. 78. Upon what does the volume of a river de- pend ? 79. What are canons? 80. What are deltas and estuaries? 81. What is erosion? 82. Define lakes. 83. What are mountain lakes? 84. What place have lakes in the economy of nature ? 324 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 85. What is the cause of the saltuess of some lakes ? 86. Where are lakes most numerous ? 87. How is the sea divided ? 88. How are ocean basins divided? 89. Describe the Pacific basin. 90. Describe the Atlantic basin. 91. Wherein do the ocean basins present great differences ? 92. How are coast waters classified? 93. What is known of the ocean bed? 94. How are the depths estimated in the absence of soundings? 95. What are the greatest depths of the sea? 96. Describe waves. 97. What causes the advance of the wave ? 98. What retards or breaks it ? 99. Describe tides. 100. Define flood and ebb tides. 101. How are tides produced? 102. What are tidal waves ? 103. Define spring and neap tides. 104. How is the height of tides modified! 105. What phenomena are produced by these differences in level ? 106. Describe oceanic currents. 107. What is the cause of currents? 108. To what three classes of currents doas dif- ference of temperature give rise? 109. What modifies the direction of the polar *nt{ return currents? 110. What office does the atmosphere of the earth perform? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 325 111. What is its composition? 112. What is the depth of the atmosphere? 113. What effect does the great compression of the atmosphere at the earth's surface produce? 114. What is climate? 115. Define astronomical climate. 116. Define physical climate. 117. What is the general law of astronomical climate. 118. Why is temperature greater at the equator, and why does it gradually diminish toward the poles? 119. What modifications of climate do the earth's motions produce ? 120. Where are the general deviations from the astronomical climate most marked? 121. What are isothermal lines ? 122. Where are the extreme deviations from astronomical .climate found? 123. What difference between oceanic and conti- nental climate ? 124. What is the origin of winds ? 125. How may they be classified ? 126. Where are the regions of these several classes of winds located ? 127. What are the equatorial calms and how pro- duced? 128. Name some important constant winds. 129. What gives direction to these winds? 130. Name some periodical and variable winds. 131. Upon what does the distribution of rain de- pend? 132. How are clouds formed? 326 THE NOEMAL QUESTION BOOK. 133. Define dew, snow, hail, and frost. 134. What portion of the earth's surface receives no rain, and why ? 135. Where are storms most violent? 136. Describe glaciers. 137. What is the origin of glaciers ? 138. Where is the most remarkable glacier re gioo ? 139. What evidences exist of former systems of glaciers ? 140. What is the snow line? 141. What causes lightning and thunder? 142. Name some other electrical phenomena. 143. What constitutes the flora of a country? 144. What gives variety to the plant life of the globe ? 145. What two forms of distribution of vegeta- tion do we find ? 146. In what region is found greatest luxuriance, and why ? 147. What similarity exists between the vertical and horizontal distribution ? 148. What constitutes the fauna of a country? 149. What law of distribution prevails ? 150. What exception to this rule in the case of marine animals? 151. What marks the range of animals? 152. What exception to this rule? 153. What appears to be the basis of distribution of plants? 154. What modifies the fauna of each continent? 155. What evidences exist as .to the unity of the human race ? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 327 156. What three strongly marked types exist * 157. What tnree secondary races are found? 158. What is supposed to have produced the di- versity of races ? 159. What is the law of perfection of type in man? 160. Which is the typical or normal race ? 328 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Physical Geography treats of the earth in its relations to nature and natural laws. 2. Physical Geography treats of five classes of objects, viz : Land, water, air, plants and animals. 3. The interior is probably still in a semi-fluid or pasty condition. 4. The spheroidal form of the earth is exactly what calculation shows would have been acquired, had the earth once been in a molten state and ex- posed to about the same velocity of rotation on its axis that it now has. This seems to point to a for- mer fluidity, and renders its probable that the pres- ent crust or solid part has been formed by the gradual cooling of the melted mass. The crust does not appear to have reached, as yet, any very considerable thickness, and the interior is, there- fore, probably still in a semi-fluid state. 5. Volcanoes, earthquakes, hot springs, non- volcanic igneous eruptions, and the gradual sub- sidences or elevations of the crust. 6. A volcano is a mountain or other elevation, PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 329 from which the materials of the interior escape to the surface. 7. A volcanic mountain is usually of conical shape, with a circular basin or depression at its summit, called the crater. In the center of the crater is the mouth of a perpendicular shaft or chimney. 8. It may be either on the top or sides of the mountain. 9. Craters differ greatly in size, the larger vary- ing from 2000 to 18,000 feet. 10. The slope of a volcano depends on the mat- ter of which it is composed. Lava cones have very gentle slopes; tufa cones, or those originally formed of cinders wet with water and steam, have a steeper surface; and cones composed of dry cin- ders have the steepest slopes of all, their inclination sometimes being as great as 45 degrees. 11. Volcanoes ma} 7 be distinguished as active and extinct. 12. Active volcanoes are such as are either in a constant state of eruption, or have eruptions from time to time, with intervals of rest. 13. Extinct volcanoes are such as are now at rest but were subject to eruptions in former ages, as is shown by their form and structure, and the presence of craters. 14. The number of volcanoes is not accurately known. The best authorities estimate it at about 672, of which 270 are active. Of these latter, 175 are on islands, and 95 on the coasts of continents. 330 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 15. Volcanoes, though they are but local and apparently independent accumulations of materials, ordinarily occur in lines more or less irregular. 16. The six voicanoes of Mexico are on a line which, when prolonged into the Pacific, strikes the volcanic island of Socorro. The volcanoes of South America are all on the line of the Andes; and those of North America, on the line of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains. Numerous exam- ples are also found in other quarters of the globe. 17. The apparent exception to this rule is found where volcanoes seem isolated, or form groups con- sisting of a central volcano surrounded by second- ary cones. But even in this case the linear ar- rangement is apparent, since the groups themselves form long bands, as in the Polynesian Islands. 18. Nearly all the volcanoes on the earth's sur- face are situated along the mountain ranges and belts of islands which skirt the shores of the con- tinents, while the interior is almost destitute of them. 19. As volcanoes are nothing but openings through the earth's crust, that permit an escape from the pasty interior, they will occur only where the crust is weakest. This will be on the borders of sinking oceans, in the line of fracture formed by the gradual separation of the ocean's bed from the coasts of the continent. 20. The first zone includes the vast array of PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 331 mountain chains, peninsulas, and bands of islands which encircle the Pacific Ocean with a belt of burning mountains. The second zone, though less continuous, is hardly less remarkable. It is the belt of broken lands and inland seas, which, extend- ing round the globe, separates the northern from the southern continents. 21. The volcanic forces display the greatest in- tensity at the intersections of the two volcanic zones, in Central America and the East Indian Archipelago. 22. The rain-water which, having entered the ground, instead of reappearing in the form of springs or artesian wells, penetrates deep into these subterranean cavities, may become so heated, un- der the high pressure to which it is subject, as to produce the usual volcanic phenomena. 23. Mud volcanoes small hillocks that emit streams of hot mud and water from their craters, but never molten rock. Fields of fire. In certain localities inflammable gas issues from openings in the ground. When lighted it burns for a consid- erable time. Solfataras regions where sulphur vapors escape, forming incrustations. 24. Earthquakes are movements of the earth's crust, varying in intensity from a hardly percepti- ble vibration to violent convulsions, which change the face of the ground .and overthrow the most sub- stantial works of man. THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 25. (1) The wave-like or undulatory. (2) The vertical motion which acts from be neath like the explosion of a mine. (3) The whirling or rotary motion. 26. When the area of disturbance is large, shocks f)f varying intensity generally follow each other at irregular intervals. Though, in general, the vio- lence of the shock is soon passed, disturbances may occur at intervals of days and weeks, or even years. 27. There are circumscribed regions in which the surface is liable to be shaken simultaneously, such a region being called an earthquake area. 28. It is now generally believed that the princi- pal cause of earthquakes is the strain produced by the contraction of a cooling crust. 29. Earthquakes may t occur in any part of the world, but are most frequent in volcanic districts. They are more frequent in mountainous than in flat countries. 30. The analogy in the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes is evident, yet the former occupy a far more extensive domain than the latter. Both are most intense in their action along the great fractures of the earth's crust; yet we are not, on that account, to conclude that the one is the cause of the other; they only require similar conditions for their manifestation. 31. "Within the tropics, especially, earthquakes PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 333 are most frequent in that part of the year in which the greatest atmospheric disturbances take place. They are most dreaded at the beginning of the rainy season, when the monsoons are changing di- rection. 32. The land masses are crowded together around the north pole, the northern limits being about the 78th parallel. Thence they extend towards the south in three vast divergent tracts, terminating in points widely separated one from another. 33. The land consists of six great bodies, called continents, and a multitude of small fragments called islands, which skirt the shores of the conti- nents, or dot the broad expanse of the sea. 34. Every continent presents itself to the ob- server in a twofold aspect as a surface, with pe- culiarities of horizontal form and outline, given by the line of contact of land and water; and as a solid, with peculiarities of vertical form, given by the elevation of its surface above the level of the sea. 35. Each of the three tracts of land is invaded nearly midway by the ocean, or by great inland seas, from which there results, in each, a belt of broken lands, peninsulas and islands. Within this belt are the great archipelagoes of the East and West Indies, and the peninsulas. of Southern Asia and Europe. 36. Every great continental mass has a figure more or less triangular. Australia alone ap- proaches a quadrilateral form. 334 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 37. In the two Americas, the sharpest angle of the continental figure is turned towards the south, and the greatest elongation is in the direction of the meridians. In Asia-Europe, on the contrary the sharpest angle is towards the west, and th greatest elongation of the double continent is ia the direction of the parallels. In Africa and Aus- tralia, the greatest extent from east to west is ap- proximately equal to that from north to south. 38. America, extending about 9,000 miles from north to south, traverses all the climatic zones, ex- hibiting, as a result, great variety in the character of its plants and animals. Asia-Europe having, also, a length of 9,000 miles, has, from the Pacific shores to the Atlantic a general similarity of cli- mate, vegetation and animals. 39. The outlines of the continents exhibit strik- ing differences. Some are deeply indented with gulfs and inland seas; while others present a mas- sive form without indentations or projections wor- thy of notice. 40. They increase the length of coast line, and the contact of land and water ; they favor the for- mation of convenient harbors, and open the interior of the continents to commerce by sea. The sea penetrating into the land moderates the extremes of temperature, and increases the moisture of the atmosphere. Again, the subdivision of the con- tinents into peninsulas, forming diverse physical regions, secures a higher development of human society by assisting in the formation of distinct na- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 335 tionalities; like those created in the great penin- sulas of India and Arabia, Greece, Italy and Spain. 41. The deeply indented, well articulated conti- nents are, and have always been, the abode of the tnost highly civilized nations. 42. Europe surpasses all the other continents in the relative magnitude of its indentations and pro- jections; Asia is second; North America, though considerably less indented, still has peninsulas bear- ing to its entire area the proportion of 1 : 14. The southern continents, on the contrary, are nowhere deeply penetrated by the waters of the ocean. 43. The vertical configuration of a continent or island that is, its elevation as a whole, varied by plains, table-lands, mountains and valleys is called its relief. 44. Elevations in mass, and linear elevations. 45. A difference in altitude of no more than 330 feet, is sufficient to produce a difference in temper- ature of 1 Fahrenheit, being equivalent to a dif- ference of seventy miles in latitude. An increase in altitude of but a few thousand feet, therefore, changes entirely the character of a region, like a removal of it from torrid to temperate latitudes, or from temperate to frigid. The relief also controls the drainage of a continent, and influences, to a certain extent, the direction and character of the winds and the distribution of rain. 46. Plains cover nearly one-half of the land sur- face of the earth. In the eastern continent they 336 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. lie mainly in the north ; in the western they oc- cupy the central portions. 47. Alluvial plains are formed of materials de- posited by rivers upon overflowed lands. Marine plains, so called because they seem to have been formed under sea water, and resemble the sandy bottom of an ancient ocean. Undulating plains have the surface varied by swells of greater or less elevation, but rarely above the general level. 48. Plateaus, also called table lands and high plains, are tracts, either level or diversified by hill and vale, having an elevation of more than one thousand feet above sea level. 49. In a mountain chain, the crest or summit of the range separates into a number of detached por- tions, called peaks; below the peaks the entire range is united in a solid mass. 50. A mountain system is a name given to sev- eral connected chains or ranges. 51. Most mountain chains seem to have been produced by tremendous lateral pressure in por- tions of the earth's crust, causing either long folds or deep fissures with upturned edges rising into high ridges, the broken strata formi-ng ragged peaks. 52. There are two distinct types of mountain chains mountains by folding, which are generally PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 387 of moderate elevation ; and mountains by fracture, to which belong the highest chains of the globe. 53. Valleys are either longitudinal or transverse. 54. The great dividing ridges, from which the continent, as a whole, slopes in opposite directions, may be called the main axis of the continent. The less highlands, separating into opposite slopes the part of the continent in which they are situated, form a secondary axis. 55. All the long, gentle slopes descend towards the Atlantic Ocean and its prolongation, the Arc- tic ; while all the short and rapid slopes are directed towards the Pacific, and its dependent, the Indian Ocean, the highest lands being adjacent to the shores of the greatest oceans. 56. Of the 53,000,000 square miles of land, nearly 3,000,000, or about one-seventeenth, is composed of islands. 57. Islands are either continental or oceanic. 58. Continental islands are those that lie near the shores of continents. 59. From the close resemblance they generally bear to the geological structure of the mainland, they are probably but continuations of the neigh- boring mountain ranges, or continental elevations. They may, therefore, be regarded as the projections of submerged portions of the neighboring conti- 22 338 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. nents. They have in general, the same lines of trend us the shores of the mainland. 60. Oceanic islands comprise those far away from the continent?. 61. Isolated oceanic islands are mainly of two kinds, the volcanic and the coral. 62. Continental islands, as a rule, are larger than oceanic islands. 63. The rocks which make up the body of the continents and continental islands sandstone, slate, granite, and the various metamorphic rocks are entirely wanting in oceanic islands. The latter are composed either of volcanic substances, or of lime- stone. 64. Though of a great variety of shapes, they agree in one particular, viz : They consist of a low, narrow rim of coral rock, enclosing a body of water called a lagoon. 65. Reef-building polyps do not live below the depth of 100 or 120 feet, and hence require a foun- dation near the surface. This is furnished by sub- marine mountains and plateaus, or the slopes of volcanic cones which form the high islands. 66. According to Dana, the reef-forming coral polyp is not found in regions where the mean an- nual temperature of the waters exceeds 68 Fahr. Goral islands are therefore confined to those parts of tropical waters where the depth does not greatly exceed 100 feet, and which are protected from cold PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 339 ocean currents, from the influence of fresh river waters, and are remote from active volcanoes. 67. By disintegrating and rearranging the mate- rials of the earth's crust, it was the principal agent in shaping what is now the solid land. It is equally indispensable in carrying on the processes of vege- table and animal life, as it forms the larger part of all organized bodies. 68. Water is a liquid, composed of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, chemically combined in the ratio, by weight, of eight to one. 69. Water contracts in volume with a diminution of its temperature, until reduced to 39.2 Fahr., where its density is greatest. Below this tempera- ture it expands. But for this curious exception in the physical properties of fresh water, at least three fourths of the habitable globe would be incapable of sustain- ing its present life. 70. The great reservoir of terrestrial waters is the sea. 71. By slow but constant evaporation the water is lifted into the atmosphere in the form of vapor, which, borne by the winds to the continents, is there condensed and falls in beneficent rains. 72. The water which issues from the ground as springs, which is derived from the melting of ice or snow, or which drains directly from the surface after rainfall, runs down the slopes of the land and MO THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. collects in the depressions formed by the intersec- tion of the slopes, in rills or rivulets, which at last combine in larger streams, called rivers. 73. Springs are most numerous in and around mountainous regions. 74. The temperature of a spring depends much on that of the strata through which its waters pass. Some springs are icy cold, particularly mountain regions. Others, coming from considerable depths, are warm, hot, and even boiling. Their heat is at- tributed in some cases to volcanic, and in others to chemical, action. 75. Rivers that discharge their waters into the same ocean or its arms, constitute what is called a rivsr system. Four systems, the Atlantic, Arctic, Pacific and Indian, embrace all the rivers of the globe, except a few which are absorbed in the sand, aiid others that empty into certain inland seas, or lakes not connected with the ocean, whose waters are carried oft' by evaporation. 76. The entire area of land which drains into the river system is called its basin. 77. The ridge or elevation which separates two opposite slopes, is called a water-shed. 78. The amount of water transported by a stream is by no means proportionate to the extent of its basin, nor to the length of its course, but depends on the amount of rain falling upon the area drained, and the ratio of evaporation to rainfall throughout the basin. Extensive forests in a river basin aug- THE UNIVERSITY PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 341 ment the volume of water, for they both increase the rainfall and retard the evaporation of water from the soil. 79. A deep gorge, ravine or gulch between high and steep banks, worn by water courses. 80. Deltas and estuaries are terms appled to dif ferent forms of river-mouths. A delta is formed by the detritus or earthy material which the river carries along from the upper part of its basin, and which, owing to the decrease of velocity, it deposits near the mouth 81. The wearing away by rivers of the rock-ma- terials over which they flow, is called erosion. 82. Lakes are bodies of water collected in depres- sions of the land. 83. Mountain lakes are valleys or chasms filled by streams. They are long and narrow, rarely of extensive area, but often of great depth. 84. They form reservoirs, which, receiving the surplus waters in time of freshets, equalize the flow of rivers and prevent destructive inundations. In their basins the wild mountain torrents find rest, and the muddy waters deposit their sediment, and flow out pure and transparent with a gentle cur- rent. 85. The surfaces of the continents having been the beds of the primeval oceans, the presence of salt in the soil is a natural consequence. Fresh water streams and takes wore formed only after the soil had been thoroughly washed by rains, and 342 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. the salt carried away by streams into the ocean. If the streams receiving the substances washed from the soil by the rainfall, do not flow away to the ocean, but enter inland basins without outlet, the lakes formed in those basins will necessarily be salt. 86. Lakes are most numerous in the central and northern portions of Asia, Europe, and North America. The southern continents, except Africa, have comparatively few. 87. The waters of the sea are separated by the lands into three great oceans, which are the coun- terparts of the land masses. 88. The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are subdi- vided, each having a northern and southern basin, corresponding to the northern and southern conti- nents. The Indian Ocean has only a southern ba- sin; but the vast depression between Asia and Europe, in the bottom of which lie the Caspian and Aral Seas, may be considered as, in a certain sense, its complement. The Arctic is properly a continuation of the Atlantic ; the Antartic, also, is not properly a separate ocean, but is the common center from which the three great basins radiate. 89. The Pacific is oval in outline and broadly open at the south, but is nearly closed at the north. 90. The Atlantic basin has been likened by Hum- boldt to a long valley, with approximately parallel sides. This is the only basin widely open at the porth, and, stretching from pole to pole, it forma PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 343 the only complete channel for the interchange of polar and equatorial waters. 91. The three great ocean basins differ in regard to the position and character of the branches, by which the coasts of the continents are indented. 92. Coast waters may be classified, according t<7 their form and their position in respect to the ad- jacent lands, as inland seas, border seas, and gulfs or bays. 93. Little is known, in detail, in regard to the conformation of the bottom of the sea. But nu- merous soundings, both in shallow shore waters and in the deep sea, have given us an approximate idea of the nature of the beds of the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea. The bed of the ocean, though diversified like the surface of the land, contains fewer irregulari- ties. Numerous soundings show that it extends, for immense distances, in long undulations and slopes. Its plateaus and plains, therefore, are of great size, compared with those of the continents. Submerged mountain ranges occur mainly along the shores, and belong, properly, to the continental systems of elevations. 94. In the absence of soundings, ocean depth has been calculated from the velocity of the tide-wave and earthquake waves crossing it, which depends upon the depth of the basin in which the waves move. 95. Observations thus far made justify the con- 344 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. elusion that the greatest depths of the sea are from 25,000 to 30,000 feet, about equivalent to the great- est heights upon the continents. 96. Waves are ridges of water, produced by the friction of the winds on the surface. The stronger the wind, the higher the waves rise, the farther they are apart, and the deeper the trough between them. 97. The advance of the wave is the communica- tion of the wave movement to successive portions of the sea; and not, to any considerable extent, ex- cept in shallows., an onward movement of the water itself. 98. When waves, advancing towards the shore reach the shallows, the motion is retarded at the bottom by friction ; and the top, moving on with- out support, curls over and breaks in foam upon the beach ; or in very shallow seas, it may break at a considerable distance from the shore. 99. Tides are the periodical risings and fallings of the water, caused by the attraction of the sun and moon. The alternate risings and fallings suc- ceed each other with great regularity, and consume about six hours each. Unlike waves, tides affect the waters of the ocean to great depths. 100. The rising of the water is called flood tide; the falling, ebb tide. 101. Tides are produced by the attraction of the moon and sun, principally that of the former, acting with different degrees or force of different arts of the earth. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 345 102. The moon attracts both the land and the sea; but the particles of the latter being free to move, the waters are drawn towards the attracting body; and where its influence is most powerful, are lifted up above the normal curve of the surface of the sea. Thus is formed a vast swell, or tide wave, upon the hemisphere turned towards the moon. 103. When the sun and moon act together, on the same hemisphere of the earth, the tidal wave is higher than usual. The flood tides are then highest, and the ebb tides lowest. These are called spring tides. They occur twice during every revo- lution of the moon once at full, and once at new moon. When the sun and moon are 90 apart, or in quadrature, each produces a tide on the portion of the earth directly under it, diminishing some- what that produced by the other body. High tide then occurs under the moon, while the high tide caused by the sun becomes, by comparison, a low tide. Such tides are called neap tides. 104. The height of the tide depends on local cir- cumstances. In the midst of the Pacific, it is scarcely more than two feet, which may be consid- ered its normal level. But when dashing against the land, or forced into deep gulfs and estuaries^ the accumulating tide waters sometimes reach a great height. 105. Differences in level, produced by high tides., cause currents which vary in force and direction with the condition of the tide, producing in some cases, dangerous whirlpools. The famous msel- 346 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. strom, off the coast of Norway, is but a tidal cur- rent. Such is also the famous whirlpool of Charyb- dis, in the Strait of Messina, and many others of less note. 106. The ocean currents are vast rivers in the sea, which move on steadily through water com- paratively at rest, and are often different from the latter in color and temperature. Some are hun- dreds of miles broad, thousands of feet deep, and have a course embracing the larger part of the ocean in which they move. 107. The main causes of these vast movements in the ocean are found in the winds, the excessive evaporation within the tropics which tends to lower the level of the water there, and the differing tem- peratures of polar and equatorial regions. The cold waters of the higher latitudes, being heavier, tend constantly to flow into the warmer waters of the equatorial seas; and the latter, being displaced by the former, flow away as surface currents to- wards the poles. 108. Polar, equatorial, and return currents. 109. The polar and return currents, were they acted upon by no external force, would move in the line of the meridians, taking the shortest course between the poles and the equator. Both are, however, deflected from this course by the unceasing action of the earth's rotation, the polar currents, as they advance, tending more and more towards the west, and the return currents towards the east ; and their directions are still farther modified by the forms of the basins of the several oceans, and the PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 347 influence of the prevailing winds in the different zones. 110. In the economy of the globe, the atmos- phere is of the greatest importance. It supplies animals and plants with air, retains and modifies the solar heat, and carries moisture over the surface of the land, where it descends as rain or snow. Without the atmosphere the earth would be a bar- ren and lifeless waste. 111. The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion by volume, of 21 parts of the former to 79 of the latter; with a very small quantity of carbonic acid, and more or less of watery vapor held in suspension. 112. Calculations based upon the diminution of pressure with the height, estimate it at from 45 to 50 miles; others, based on the duration of twilight, at distances varying from 35 to 200 miles. 113. It will be seen that one-half of the entire at- mosphere, by weight, is condensed within 3f miles about 18,000 feet of the sea level; and fully two-thirds are below the level of the summit of the highest mountains. This fact has an im- portant bearing, both on the influence of moun- tains in directing or modifying the course of the winds, and on the general climatic phenomena of the globe, 114. The physical agencies acting through the atmosphere upon organic life, constitute climate, of 348 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. which heat and moisture are the essential elements, the winds being the medium of circulation. 115. The general climatic conditions belonging to a region, and depending upon its latitude, con- stitute its astronomical climate. 116. The climate belonging to a place, by its lati- tude, is usually modified, to a greater or less ex- tent, by secondary physical agencies among which are the general atmospheric and marine currents, the differing power of land and water to absorb and radiate heat, and the altitude of the surface. The astronomical climate of a region thus modified, is its real or physical climate. 117. The amount of heat produced by the sun upon the earth's surface, is greatest near the equa- tor, and diminishes gradually towards the poles. 118. (1) In the Equatorial regions the sun's rays are perpendicular to the surface of the sphere, and there produce their maximum effect; but, on ac- count of the curved outline of the globe, they fall more and more obliquely with increasing latitude, and the intensity of action diminishes proportion- ately. At the poles they are tangent to the sur- face, and their effect is zero. (2) The area on which a given amount of heating power is expended is least at tbe Equator, consequently the resulting heat is greatest. (3) The absorption of heat by the atmos- phere as the sun's rays pass through it, is least wbere they fall perpendicularly that is, in the PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 349 Equatorial regions, and increases, with their in- creasing obliquity, towards the poles. 119. In consequence of the inclination of the nxis, the declination of the sun, or its angular dis- tance from the Equator, varies with the advance of the earth in its orbit, causing periodical variations in the length of day and night, and consequently in temperature. 120. The general deviations from the astronom- ical climate occur chiefly in the middle latitudes. 121. Humboldt devised a series of lines known as isothermals, or lines of equal average temperature, in order to illustrate the actual distribution of heat, irrespective of latitude. Each line connects places having the same mean temperature, either of the year, a season, or any one month. Annual isother- mals show the average temperature belonging to the places which they connect; the monthly and season isothermals show the distribution of heat throughout the year. 122. The extreme deviations occur on the coasts of the north Atlantic, western Europe being very much warmer than eastern America in correspond- ing latitudes. 123. In general the climate of the oceans is char- acterized by uniformity, the difference between the summer and the winter temperature being compar- atively slight. The continental climate, on the contrary, is characterized by sudden changes, and extremes, the difference between the summer and the winter temperature, in middle and high lati- tudes, being excessive. 350 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 124. Winds are masses of air in motion. They somewhat resemble currents in the ocean, and re- sult from the same causes, viz : the disturbance in the equilibrium of the atmosphere by heat, and by the rotation of the earth. 125. As constant, or those which blow contin- ually in one direction, as the Trade- winds; peri- odical, or those which blow at certain periods only, as the Monsoons, Land and Sea Breezes ; and varia- ble, or those which occur at irregular intervals. 126. The law of atmospheric circulation gives rise to three distinctly marked wind zones, on each side of the equator, namely : (1) The zone of constant winds, extending to latitude 25 or 30. (2) The zone of variable winds, with alternate polar and equatorial currents dominating, extend- ing thence to latitude 60, or near the polar circles; and (3) The zone of prevailing, though not con- stant, polar winds. 127. The boundary between the north-east and south-east trades, is formed by the zone of the ascending current, from 4 to 6 in breadth, adja- jcent to the thermal equator. The mean position of this zone is in the Atlantic, between 3 and 9 north latitude; in the Pacific, between 4 and 8 north. In the continents it is usually found be- tween 3 south, and 4 north latitude. Here the ascending current overpowers the horizontal ; and, as the upward motion is not perceptible to the ob- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 351 server, the atmosphere seems to be in a state of rest; hence this belt is designated the Zone of Equatorial Calms. 128. The trade-winds, so called from their influ- ence on the trade of all maritime nations. 129. The rotation of the earth on its axis gives the lower currents an easterly, and the upper cur- rents a westerly direction. 130. Monsoons, and land and sea breezes. The most remarkable variable winds are whirlwinds and hurricanes, typhoons, or cyclones. 131. The quantity of moisture in the air depends on its temperature, and its vicinity to the sea. The amount of precipitation regularly decreases as we pass from the equator to the poles, and from the coasts of the continents towards the interior. 132. Clouds or fogs result whenever two bodies of air of different temperatures are mingled, espe- cially if, as is generally the case, the warmer of the two is the moister. 133. Dew is the moisture collected during the night, in the form of small drops of water, on the surface of plants and other bodies. Frost is frozen dew. Snow is frozen moisture, produced in the same manner as rain. It can only fall in regions where the temperature of the air is at or below the freezing point. Hail is frozen rain. 134. The rainless regions of the old, as well ae 852 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Che new world, lie almost entirely within the zones of the trade-winds. There are certain regions of the globe, esti- mated in all at five and a half millions of square miles, in which rain never falls. This is, for the most part, owing to the fact that the winds are de- prived of their moisture before reaching these dis- tricts, either by encountering some mountain chain or by blowing over extensive arid tracts. 135. The most remarkable for violence, and for the regularity of their course, are the hurricanes of the West Indies and of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, the typhoons of the South China Sea, and the cyclones of the Gulf of Bengal. 136. Glaciers are immense masses of ice and enow, which move with extreme slowness down the higher mountain valleys or slopes. Their up- per parts are formed of soft snow ; their lower por- tions of clear, hard ice. 137. The weight of the huge snow fields, which form above the snow line, presses the mass slowly down the slopes. The pressure, due to the weight of the superincumbent layers, but especially that which is produced when the mass is forced through & contraction in the valley, squeezes out the coa- air, to which snow, in great part, owes its color, and the lower part of the glacier thus Hcomes changed into a compact mass of pure ice. alternate thawing and freezi^- to which PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 353 mass is subjected below the snow line, also con- tributes to the change from snow to ice. 138. The best known, and probably most re- markable, glacier region is that of the high Alps, in the heart of which are Mount Blanc, Monte Rosa, and the Bernese Alps. 139. When they have deserted their former val- leys, evidences of their previous existence are to be found in the long lines of unstratified rocks and mud left by their moraines in their boulders, and especially in the deep grooves, or scratches, cut in the bottom or sides of the valleys by imbedded rocks. These scratches are parallel, and show the direction of the motion. 140. The lower limit of perpetual snow, called the snow line, is found within the tropics, about three miles above the sea level. In temperate lat- itudes it occurs. at the height of a little less than two miles; and at the northern limit of the conti- nents, it is about half a mile above the level of the sea, or perhaps even less than this. 141. Lightning results when the electricity of a cloud discharges to the earth or a neighboring cloud. The discharge is due to the union of the positive and negative electricities of the cloud and neighboring object, and is attended by a vivid ppark, called lightning. 23 354 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Thunder is caused by the violent displacement of the air, produced by the passage of the light- ning and its rush back again into the partial vacuum created. 142. St. Elmo's fire and the Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis. 143. The plants of any section of country taken together are called its flora. 144. The flora of different parts of the earth differ widely, by reason of differences in heat, moisture, light, slope and soil, particularly by the first two. 145. The influence of heat and moisture are no- ticed as we pass from the equator to the poles, or from the base of a tropical mountain to the summit, Thus arises a horizontal and vertical distribution of vegetation. 146. The greatest luxuriance of vegetation is found in the equatorial regions, where heat and moisture are most abundant. 147. The observer, passing from the base to the summit of high mountains, in any latitude, finds variations in the character of the plants similar to, though not identical with, those observed in ad- vancing to higher latitudes. 148. The animals found in any region of country are called its fauna. 149. As a rule, the luxuriance and diversity of animal life decrease as we pass from the equator to the poles. A similar decrease is noticed in passing PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 355 from the coasts of the continents towards the in- terior. 150. In marine animal life, the law of distribu- tion is reversed, both the number and size of the species increasing from the equator towards the poles. This is probably due to the more equable temperature of the ocean in high latitudes. 151. Large bodies of water, deserts, or mountain ranges, mark the boundaries of regions of animals as well as of plants ; but the influence of tempera- ture is so important that even when these natural barriers are wanting, the horizontal range of ani- mals is sharply marked by isothermal lines. 152. Man, and his faithful friend, the dog, form an exception to most other animals in this respect. 153. The distribution of heat, moisture and veg- etation forms the true basis for the distribution of animal life. 154. A careful study of the map of the distribu- tion of animal life, will show that each continent possesses a fauna peculiar to itself. This arises generally from some clearly traceable peculiarity in the distribution of the heat and moisture, or in the nature of the vegetation. 155. (1) A comparison of the different tribes and races of men, reveals the fact of a gradual modifi- cation of types, on every side of the central or highest race, until, by insensible degrees, the lowest and most degraded forms of humanity are reached 356 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. (2) Iii the central race, among the individ- uals of which there is greater diversity in form, features, temperament and mental characteristics, than in any other, there are persons of pure blood who show, in a less degree, almost every distin- guishing feature of each of the lower races. (3) Since the earlier myths and legends of nearly all nations resemble each other, it is fair to infer that their remote ancestors originally dwelt together. The strongest proof of unity, however, is found in the very close resemblance in the lan- guages of many widely separated races. 156. The Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the Ne- gro. 157. The Malay, or brown race; the Australian ; and the American or copper-colored. They are re- garded as modifications of the Mongolian Race. 158. The ever- varying external conditions. 159. The law of perfection of type, in man, forms an exception to that observed in the lower orders of creation. The human family appears in its highest physical perfection, not within the tropics, but in the temperate zone, in Western Asia, the geographical center of the Old World. The type degenerates gradually with increasing distance, in all directions from this geographical center; until, in the remotest regions of the globe, are ^ound the PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 85*7 ugliest, and most deformed specimens of the human family. 160. The white race seems to be the normal race from which the others have gradually deviated. 358 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 1. Define government. 2. What is the necessity of government? 3. Name and define the kinds of government. 4. What kind of government existed in the American colonies prior to the Revolution? 5. Define these different forms of government 6. What are laws ? 7. What is a state ? 8. Define civil government. 9. What is a constitution ? 10. When did the present constitution of the United States go into operation ? 11. What is the introductory paragraph of the constitution called? 12. Repeat the preamble. 13. What is the object of the preamble? 14. What were the purposes for which the con- Btitution was adopted ? 15. Into how many departments is the govern- ment of the United States divided? 16. Define these three departments. 17. To what does article I. of the constitution relate? CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 359 18. Give section 1 of article I. 19. "What advantage is there in dividing the leg- islative body into two branches ? 20. How often are the members of the House of Representatives chosen ? 21. By whom are they chosen ? 22. Why is a comparatively short term of service fixed for the House of Representatives? 23. How old must a Representative be? 24. What other qualifications are necessary ? 25. In what manner are representatives and di- rect taxes apportioned among the several States ? 26. Repeat that part of the Apportionment clause which limits the number of representatives. 27. How are the vacancies in the representation from any State to be filled? 28. How are the Speaker and other officers of the House chosen? 29. What important power is exercised by the House? 30. What is the power of impeachment? 31. Are impeachments tried by the House? 32. Of how many members is the Senate com- posed? 33. How are the Senators chosen ? 34. How do they differ in this respect from the representatives? 35. For how long are the Senators chosen? 36. How do they differ in this respect from the representatives ? 37. Why is a comparatively long term of service fixed for the senators ? 360 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 38. Repeat that part of the constitution which relates to the arrangement of senators into classes. 39. How are vacancies in the Senate filled? 40. If the vacancies happen during the recess of the Legislature of the state, how shall they be filled? 41. "What are the qualifications of the senators? 42. Who is constituted the presiding officer of the Senate? 43. When is he entitled to vote? 44. How are the other officers of the Senate chosen? 45. Who shall preside in the Senate on the trial of the President of the United States? 46. What is necessary in order to convict a per- son on impeachment? 47. How is the judgment, in cases of impeach- ment, limited? 48. Are those convicted on impeachment liable to no other punishment? 49. In what particulars shall the legislature of each state regulate the election of members of Congress? 50. What power may Congress exercise in the matter ? 51. How often shall Congress assemble? 52. What day is fixed for the meeting of Con- gress ? 53. Who are to judge of the right of any one to a seat in Congress? 54. What number of each house of Congress is necessary to constitute a quorum ? CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 361 55. Who determines the rules of proceeding in Congress? 56. What means has each house for enforcing its rules? 57. How is the publicity of the proceedings of Congress secured ? 58. How is the responsibility of individual mem- bers secured? 59. Repeat the clause which relates to revenue bills. 60. After a bill has passed both Houses of Con- gress, what must be done with it? 61. What is still necessary before it can become a law ? 62. What must the President do if he does not approve it? 63. What is the next thing to be done with it? 64. Repeat that clause which limits the time that the President may retain a bill. 65. What powers are granted to Congress ? 66. What powers are denied to Congress ? 67. What powers are denied to the States ? 68. In whom is the executive power of the United States vested ? 69. For how long a term is the President elected? 70. What other executive officer is chosen at the same time and for the same period? 71. How are electors appointed? 72. What persons are disqualified from being ap- pointed electors? 73. What is the mode of choosing the President and Vice-President? 362 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 74. "What number of electoral votes is necessary to an election ? 75. What is to be done, in case no candidate has a majority of the whole number of votes? 76. In what manner shall the votes of the House be taken in choosing the President ? 77. What number of states is necessary to a choice by the House ? 78. Repeat that clause in the constitution which defines the qualifications of the President. 79. When does the office of the President de- yolve on the Vice-President ? 80. What does the constitution say in reference to the compensation of the president ? 81. What are the words of the oath administered to the president ? 82. What are the powers and the duties of the president? 83. Who are liable to impeachment ? 84. Who are meant by officers of the United States? 85. Does this include members of Congress ? 86. What officers of the United States are there besides civil officers? 87. Are the officers of the army and navy liable to impeachment ? 88. Who are the persons chiefly meant besides the president and vice president? 89. For what offenses are these officers liable to impeachment ? 90. What is the penalty in case of impeachment? 91. Where is the judicial power of the United States vested? CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 363 92. What are the inferior courts called? 93. In what does treason against the United States consist ? 94. What is necessary in order to convict a per- son of treason ? 95. What provision is made in regard to the pun- ishment of treason? 96. What has Congress declared to be the pun- ishment for treason against the United states? 97. What limit is placed to the punishment of treason ? 98. What is meant by an attainder of treason? 99. What is meant by corruption of blood? 100. What shall the United States guarantee to every state in this Union ? 364 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOV- ERNMENT. 1. The act of governing; the exercise of au- thority; the administration of laws; control; di- rection; restraint; regulation; as, civil, church, or family government. 2. Governments are necessary evils. Their ne- cessity arises out of the selfishness and stupidity of mankind. 3. Governments are of different kinds: Despot- ism, where the will of one man is the law ; oligarch- ies, where a few make the laws for those subordi- nate to them; and free or popular governments, where the laws are made by the people, or rather by persons they select for that purpose. 4. There were originally three different forms of government in the colonies, namely, the charter,- the proprietary, and the royal governments. 5. The charter governments were composed of a governor, deputy governor, and assistants elected by the people. In the proprietary governments, CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 365 the power of appointing officers and making laws rested in the proprietors, by the advice and consent generally of the freemen. In the royal govern- ments the governor and council were appointed by the crown, and the people elected representatives to the colonial legislature. 6. Laws are expressions of the controlling will, which become rules of action for the governed. 7. A state is a community of persons living within certain limits of territory, under a perma- nent organization, which aims to secure the preva^ lence of justice by self imposed laws. 8. Civil government is control by law, exercised by a state over its members. 9. The principles or fundamental laws which govern a state or other organized body of men, and are embodied in written documents, or implied in the institutions and usages of the country or so- ciety ; organic law. 10. In September, 1788. 11. The preamble. 12. " We, the people of the United States, in or- der to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the com- mon defence, promote the general welfare, and se- cure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America." 13. The object of the preamble is to set forth the purposes for which the Constitution was adopted. 14. 1st. To form a more perfect uniotu 2d. To establish justice. 366 THE tfORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 3d. To insure domestic tranquility. 4th. To provide for the common defence. 5th. To promote the general welfare. 6th. And to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity. 15. Into three: Legislative, executive and judi- cial. ' 16. The legislative makes the laws, the execu- tive carries the laws into effect, and the judicial interprets the laws. 17. To the legislative department. 18. "All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representa* tives. 19. The two Houses of Congress act as a check upon each other. 20. Every second year. 21. By the people of the several states. 22. That they may come more frequently and more directly under the supervision of popular opinion. 23. No person shall be a representative, who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years. 24. He must have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and must, when elected, be as* inhabitant of that state in which he is chosen. 25. According to their respective numbers. 26. " The number of representatives shall not ex- ceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative." CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 367 27. The executive of that state shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 28. By the House itself. 29. The House has the sole power of impeach- ment. 30. It is the right which the representatives have to bring an accusation against high officers of gov- ernment, for maladministration of office. 31. No. They are tried by the Senate. 32. Of two from each state, or seventy-six in all. 33. By the legislatures of the several states. 34. The representatives are chosen by the people of the states. 35. For six years. 36. The representatives are chosen for only two years. 37. That they may serve as a check upon the sudden fluctuations of popular opinion, to which the other branch of the legislature is liable. 38. "Immediately after they shall be assembled, in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year; so that one-third maybe chosen every second year." 39. By the appointment of the legislature of the state in whose representation the vacancy may ex- ist. 368 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 40. The executive of the state may make tem- porary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 41. (a) Must be thirty years of age; (b) must have been a citizen of the United States nine years ; (c) and must, at the time of his election, be an in* habitant of that state for which he shall be chosen, 42. The Vice-President of the United States. 43. Only when the Senate is equally divided. 44. " The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States." 45. The Chief Justice. 46. The concurrence of two-thirds of the mem- bers present. 47. It shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold office un- der the United States. 48. The party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 49. The time?, places and manner, of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the Legislature thereof. 50. But the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 51. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year. 52. On the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint another day. 53. Each house shall be the judge of the elec- CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 36& tions, returns, and qualifications, of its own mem- bers. 54. A majority. 55. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings. 56. Each house has the power to punish its mem- bers for disorderly behavior; and, with the concur- rence of two-thirds, expel a member. 57. By compelling each house to keep a journal of its proceedings, and to publish the same from time to time. 58. By requiring the yeas and nays to be taken on any question, at the desire of one-fifth of the members present. 59. "All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills." 60. It must be presented to the president. 61. The president must approve and sign it. 62. He shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. 63. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and it' approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a 5aw. 64. "If any bill shall not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after 24 370 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, un- less the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law." 65. Congress shall have power (1) To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States. (2) To borrow money on the credit of the United States. (3) To regulate commerce with foreign na- tions, and among the several states, and with tne Indian tribes. (4) To establish a uniform rule of naturaliza- tion, and uniform laws on the subject of bankrupt- cies, throughout the United States. (5) to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures. (6) To provide for the punishment of coun- terfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States. (7) To establish post-offices and post-roads. (8) To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries. (9) To constitute tribunals inferior to the Su- preme Court. (10) To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 371 (11) To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures 'on land and water. (12) To raise and support armies. (13) To provide and maintain a navy. (14) To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces. (15) To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrec- tions, and repel invasions. (16) To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States. (17) To exercise the exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square), as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places, purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings. (18) To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the forego- ing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 66. Powers denied to the United States : (1) The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by 372 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be im- posed on such importation not exceeding ten dol- lars. (2) The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of re- bellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. (3) No bill of attainder, or ex-post facto law shall be passed, (4) No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumer- ation hereinbefore directed to be taken. (5) No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. (6) No money shall be drawn from the treas- ury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. (7) No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any of- fice of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 67. Powers denied to the states : (1) No state shall enter into any treaty, alli- ance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make UIVIL GOVERNMENT. 373 anything but gold and silver coin a tender in pay- ment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of con- tracts, or grant any title of nobility. (2) No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws. (3) No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops or ships of war, in time of peace; enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 68. The executive power shall be vested in a Psresi'lent of the United States. 69. For four years. 70. The Vice President. 71. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives, to which the state may be entitled in the Congress. 72. Senators, Representatives, and all persons holding any office of trust or profit under th United States. 73. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall mime in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted 374 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. for as Vice President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign, and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. 74. A majority of the whole number. 75. The House of Representatives shall elect a president. 76. By states ; the representation from each state having but one vote. 77. A majority of all the states. 78. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 79. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice president. 80. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period, any other emolum n* from the United States, or any of them. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 375 81. " I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United States." 82. (1) The president shall be commander- in- chief of the army and navy of the United States^ and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respec- tive offices, and he shall have power to grant re- prieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. (2) He (the president) shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint embassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. (3) The president shall have the power to fill up vacancies that may happen, during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. (4) He shall, from time to time, give to the 376 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such meas- ures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagree- ment between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive embassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commis- sion all the officers of the United States. 83. The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States. 84. Officers deriving their appointments from the national government. 85. No. 86. Officers of the army and navy. 87. They are not. 88. Heads of departments; judges of the Su- preme Court, marshals, collectors, district attor- neys, etc. 89. For treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 90. Removal from office, and disqualification to hold office in future. 91. In one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time to time, or- dain and establish. 92. District courts and circuit courts. 93. Treason against the United States shall con- sist only in levying war against them, or in adher- ing to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 94. No person shall be convicted of treason, un- CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 377 less on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 95. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason. 96. Death hy hanging. 97. No attainder of treason shall work corrup- tion of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 98. Conviction of the crime of treason. 99. One whose blood is corrupted can not inherit property from others, nor transmit an inheritance to his children ; his blood ceases to have any in- heritable qualities. 100. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of govern- ment, and shall protect each of them against inva- sion ; and, on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature can not be con- vened), against domestic violence. 378 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK, QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH LITERATURE. 1. Into what ten periods may English literature be divided, with reference to English history? 2. How were letters and learning first intro- duced into England? 3. Why was the country named England ? 4. Describe the early minstrels. 5. What was the effect of the Danish invasion upon the Anglo-Saxon language and literature ? 6. What is the oldest English poem? 7. Of what benefit was King Alfred to the cause of literature ? 8. What circumstances led to the Norman in- vasion ? 9. Describe the Ormulum. 10. What is the nature of the writings of Sir John Mandeville ? 11. Who was "Piers Plowman?" 12. What great work did Wyckliffe do? 13. Give a brief account of Chaucer and his writings. 14. What effect did the Norman conquest have upon literature? ENGLISH LITERATURE. 379 15. Who was Caxton ? Give an account of his literary work. 16. Give an outline of the life and work of Tyn- dale. 17. Give a sketch of Sir Thomas Moore. 18. What kinds of poetical composition did Wyatt and Surrey introduce into England? 19. Give a brief account of the age of Elizabeth. 20. To what department of composition did John ftnd Richard Hooker contribute? 21. Give a brief account of Lord Bacon and his writings. 22. Give the points of interest in the life of Ed- mund Spenser. 23. Who were the leading contemporaries of Spenser? 24. What is the style of Shakespeare's writings? What are his best poems? 25. What valuable contributions to literature did Thomas Fuller make? 26. Give the points of special interest in the life and work of Jeremy Taylor. 27. Give a brief sketch of Milton and his writ- ings. 28. In what special fields of investigation were Locke, Newton and Boyle interested? 29. Give an account of the life and writings of John Bunyan. 30. Give a sketch of John Dryden and his writ- ings. 31. Give an account of the introduction of the newspaper. 380 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 32. Who were the principal writers of the Au- gustan Age ? 33. Who were the principal writers of the Age of the Three Georges ? 34. Name the leading English literarj oaefi of the Lake School. 35. Name the English Poets Laureate. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 381 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH LIT- ERATURE. L I. ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 450-1066. GEDMON. II. NORMAN TRANSITION PERIOD. 1066-1400. CHAUCER. III. REFORMATION AGE. 1400-1558. TYNDALE. IV. ELIZABETHAN AGE. 1558-1625. SPENSER. V. DRAMATIC AGE (overlapping). 1585-1645. SHAKESPEARE. YI. THE AGE OF THE PROTECTORATE. 1625- 1660. MILTON. VII. THE RESTORATION AGE. 1660-1702. DRY- DEN. YIII. THE AGE OF QUEEN ANNE. 1702-1714. POPE. IX. AGE OF THE THREE GEORGES. 1714-1800. COWPER. X. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1800 . SCOTT WORDSWORTH. 2. The Teutonic peoples had a system of writ- ing in characters called runes, which they claimed had been taught them by their god Odin, or "Wo- din. The Teutons had engraved their runes oil stones and trees. Besides these written characters, 382 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. all barbarous nations have their story-tellers, who tell the traditions of the past and the deeds of men around them, and these stories were handed down till they were finally written down and became the first history or poem of a nation. Pope Gregory sent monks to England to teach Christianity. They carried a copy of the Old Tes- tament and other works on parchment. Thus, all at once, upon the English soil came the CHRISTIAN RELIGION, the HEBREW LITERATURE, and the WRIT- TEN CHARACTERS of the ROMANS three great gifta to the future of our English race. 3. From the Angles, a teutonic race that settled along the shores of the North Sea, and finally be- came the conquerors and holders of the British Isles. 4. The Britons had their bards, who sang to harps, songs of war and praises of heroes. The Scandinavians had a sagaman and scald; the Eng- lish their scop and gleeman. The chiefs honored these men as princes honor poets. They had them at their feasts; they took them to the field of bat- tle, and the court of those old rulers would not have been complete without these, its minstrels. 5. The invasions of the Danes interrupted liter- ary labor, and early in the eleventh century the Danes conquered England, and King Canute took the throne. 6. England's earliest extant writing is an epic ENGLISH LITERATURE. 388 poem of more than six thousand lines, entitled " Beowulf." 7. The honored name of King Alfred stands pre- eminent among the writers of prose in Old Eng- lish. No sooner had he effected the deliverance of his people from their Danish enemies, than he eagerly set to work to lift them out of their bond- age of ignorance. From various quarters he in- vited men of learning to his court. He strove to secure the higher education of the clergy. In order to diffuse knowledge, he had the standard writings on religion, morals, geography, and history trans- lated into the language of the people. He applied himself to a careful course of training in order to prepare himself for the work of a writer. His writings are pronounced " the purest specimens of Anglo-Saxon prose." 8. The vicinity of so remarkable a people (the Normans), early began to produce an effect on the public mind of England. Before the conquest, English princes received their education in Nor- mandy. English sees and English estates were be- stowed on Normans. The French of Normandy was familiarly spoken in the palace of Westmin- ster. The court of Rouen seems to have been to the court of Edward the Confessor what the court of Versailles, long afterwards, was to the court of Charles the Second. The battle of Hastings, and the events which followed it, not only placed a Duke of Normandy on the English throne, but gave 384 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. up the whole population of England to the tyranny of the Norman race. 9. The Ormulum, written by Orm, is supposed to have been written in the thirteenth century. One of its editors describes it as " a series of hom- ilies in an imperfect state, composed in metre, with- out rhyme; the subject of the homilies being sup- plied by those portions of the New Testament which were read hi the daily services of the church." The author himself says, "If any one wants to know why I have done this deed, why I have turned into English the Gospel's holy teach- ing; I have done it in order that all young Chris- tian folks may depend upon that only, that they, with their whole mind, might follow aright the Gospel's holy teachings in thought, in word, in deed." 10. Sir John Mandeville (1300-1372), published his well-known volume of travels in 1356. It pm fesses to be an authentic account of what the au- thor saw on his travels through the most distant countries of the East, but is, in reality, a collection of marvelous tales, worthy only of being classed with the adventures of Baron Munchausen. What- ever truth it may contain is mingled with so much falsehood, that the whole narrative is worthless. The book was translated from Latin into French, and from French into English. 11. " Piers Ploughman " wrote three works, " The Vision," " The Creed," and " The Complaint of Piers Plowman." They express the discontent t" the Commons with the course of affairs in ENGLISH LITERATURE. 385 Church and State. Tradition assigns the author- ship to WILLIAM LANGLANDE, and the time is sup- posed to have been 1362 to 1399. 12. Wyckliffe (1324-1384) was one of the earli- est writers who addressed the common people in words familiar to the hearths and homes of Eng- land. But his chief literary work was "A Trans- lation of the Holy Bible." Wyckliffe was the first eminent scholar who used the English tongue in attacking the ecclesi- astical system. He was the forerunner of the Reformation. He struck the first mighty blow against Roman Catholic supremacy in England. 13. Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) is our first great poet so incomparably great as to all that went before, that he is distinctively called the Father of English Poetry. His name would be found in any list meant to include the five greatest poets of England. Chaucer's writings show him to have been in sympathy with Wyckliffe and the Lancastrians, in their resistance to the encroach- ments of the Roman hierarchy. His principal work, " The Canterbury Tales," is believed to have been written late in life. 14. For more than a century after the Norman Conquest, English literature was utterly inert. That event, so fatal to the native aristocracy, seemed at first to have swept away in common ruin the laws, language and arts of the English people, and to 25 386 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. have blotted out England from the muster-roll of the nations. 15. Few English names of this (15th) century will live so long as that of William Caxton (1412- 1491). To him England owes her early participa- tion in the benefits arising from the art of printing. His printing press was set up at Westminster, and its first work, the " Game of Chesse," appeared in 1474. He gave to the world sixty-four books, many of them translations from the printer's own pen. To other books he added prefaces of his own composition, so that he is fairly entitled to a place, though not a very high one, among English au- thors. 16. William Tyndale (1480-1536), translated the New Testament, and the Pentateuch and the His- torical Books of the Old Testament. His New Testament first appeared in 1525. The version made by Tyndale was used to a large extent by all subsequent Protestant translators ; it is really the basis of our present version. There is in our pres- ent version more of Tyndale than of all the other translators put together. After translating the New Testament he proceeded with a translation of the Old Testament, and had completed the larger portion of it, when death put an end to his labors. He also made, in 1534, a careful revision of his New Testament. He was finally arrested and burnt at the stake, in 1536. His dying exclamation was, "Lord, open the King of England's eyes ! " 17. Sir Thomas More (1480-1535) was, next to Erasmus and Cardinal Wolsey, the most conspicu- ENGLISH LITERATURE. 387 ous and shining character in the reign of Henry VIII. He was a man of wonderful versatility as well as force of genius, being equally distinguished as a statesman, a man of lively wit, a scholar, and a devout Christian. More wrote many works, mostly of a controversial kind. The only work by which he is now known is " The Utopia." 18. Wyatt's (1503-1542) writings were princi- pally amatory and satirical. Surrey (1516-1547) is distinguished for his son- nets and songs, and especally by his being the first writer of blank verse in English. He translated the first and fourth books of VirgiPs ^Eneid. 19. The Elizabethan Age, or the Golden Age of Poetry, includes the names of more great men than any other age of literature. Elizabeth herself was finely educated, and sometimes wrote poetry. In this period lived Spenser, Sir Philip Sydney, Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord Bacon, Shakespeare. Ben Jonson, and many other eminent literati. 20. John Knox (1505-1572) was a great Scottish Reformer. He was a Catholic priest, but renounced Catholicism and became an earnest advocate of Protestantism. Richard Hooker (1553-1600) was the ablest advocate of the church organization of England that had yet appeared. 21. Francis Bacon Baron Verulam (1561-1626), commonly known as Lord Bacon was one of the greatest of modern philosophers. Bacon was gifted 888 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. by nature with abilities of the highest order, and he had every advantage which education and high birth could bestow for giving his abilities develop- ment and exercise. After holding various high offices, he was, in 1620, made Viscount St. Albans. The same year he also published his greatest work, "The Novum Organum." But he fell from his high position by his own meanness. Though in the receipt. of a princely revenue from the fees of his office and from his professional services, he added still further to his income by taking direct bribes as a judge and giving decisions expressly for money. He confessed his guilt, and was sentenced to pay a fine of 40,000, made incapable of holding office, and imprisoned during the pleasure of the king. This sentence was scarcely pronounced be- fore it was mitigated. He was sent to the Tower, but in two days was set at liberty. The fine was soon after remitted. Bacon's works have been published in seventeen volumes. He wrote chiefly upon science and law. No finer specimens of Eng- lish prose are to be found than in Bacon's Essays. 22. Edmund Spenser (1553-1599) is the nexl great name in English literature, after that of Chaucer. His principal work " The Fairy Queen,' 1 is one of the chief treasures of the language. Spen- ser was born in London, in humble circumstances. He was educated at Cambridge. In 1579 he pub- lished his first volume, "The Shepherds' Calender." His other works are, "The Ruins of Time," " The Tears of the Muses," "Virgil's Gnat," Mother Hubbard's Tale," " The Ruins of Rome," " The Fate ENGLISH LITERATURE. 389 of the Butterfly," "Dapnaida," " Prothalamion," and four " Hymns." 23. Sir Philip Sidney, Gabriel Harvey, Sir Wal- ter Raleigh, Thomas Sackville, William Warner, Samuel Daniel, Michael Drayton, Edward Fairfax, Giles and Phineas Fletcher, George Herbert, and William Drumrnond. 24. Dramatic. Hamlet is undoubtedly Shake- speare's masterpiece; Othello is his most finished piece, and Twelfth Night or As You Like It, is the most genial. But the two parts of Henry IV., and the play of Henry V. form a trilogy that re- veals the poet in his greatest vigor and flexibility. 25. Thomas Fuller (1608-1661), the ecclesiastical historian of Great Britain, is about as much known for his wit as for his learning. His principal works are the following : " The Church History of Great Britain, from the Birth of Christ to 1648;" "His- tory of the Worthies of England;" "The Holy and the Profane State;" "History of the Holy War;" "Good Thoughts in Bad Times;" "Good Thoughts in Worse Times;" "Mixed Contempla- tions in Better Times;" "The Unfortunate Politi- cian;" "David's Heinous Sin (a poem)," etc. 26. Jeremy Taylor, D. D. (1613-1667), is, by general consent, one of the greatest glories of the English people. He was born and educated at Cambridge. In the fierce conflicts then going on, Taylor adhered to the Royalists and shared their fortunes. He held offices under Charles I., but on the downfall of the Royalists he lost his position, 390 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. and was frequently imprisoned. During the Pro- tectorate he kept school in Wales, and officiated as chaplain to the Earl of Carberry. After the Restoration he became a member of the Privy Council of Ireland, and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Dublin. Taylor is the Spensei of theological literature. It seems a pity that Taylor could not have been born half a century earlier s and formed, with Spenser and Sidney, a part of the retinue of the stately Elizabeth. His works of most importance are pleas for religious toleration. While in his seclusion in Wales he wrote " Holy Living," " Holy Dying/' " Liberty of Prophesying," "A Life of Christ," and the "Golden Grove." 27. John Milton, the poet, t*he statesman, the philosopher, the glory of English literature, the champion and the martyr of English liberty. J/a- caulay. The old blind poet hath published a tedious poem on the Fall of Man. If the length be not considered as a merit it hath no other. Waller. The first place among our English poets is due to Milton. Addison. There is no force in his reasonings, no elo- quence in his style, and no taste in his composi- tions. Goldsmith. Milton was born in London, 1608, died 1674. His chief poem is Paradise Lost. This great poem was two years in finding a publisher, and the amount received for the copyright was only 28. Milton wrote several works on divorce, and was also a political writer of note. He became totally ENGLISH LITERATURE. 391 blind in 1653. Many of his best works were writ- ten after he became blind. 28. John Locke (1632-1704), is one of the names always quoted in speaking of the great thinkers who have largely influenced the current English opinion on science, morals, or religion. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), -devoted the greater part of his study to philosophical research. He also wrote some minor theological works. Hon. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) was greatly distinguished as an experimental philosopher of the school of Bacon, and as the chief founder of the Royal Society. 29. John Bunyan (1628-1688) was, of all writers of his age, the greatest marvel. With only the most limited opportunities of education, he pro- duced a work which is one of the greatest classics, not merely *of English literature, but of all litera- ture, ancient or modern. The "Iliad" itself is not more clearly a work for all time and all men than is the " Pilgrim's Progress," b} 7 John Bunyan, the Bedfordshire tinker. Bunyan was an illiterate tinker, and in early life shockingly profane. Be- ing brought under strong religious convictions, he abandoned his former way of life and became ever afterward a most earnest and devoted Christian. Bunyan wrote many works, the chief one, after " The Pilgrim's Progress," being his " Holy War." 30. John Dryden (1631-1700) fills a larger space in English literature than any other writer 392 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. between the age of Milton and that of Pope and Addison. "My conversation is slow and dull, my humor saturnine and unreserved. In short, I am none of those who break jests in company and make repar- tees." Dryden wrote dramas, satires, polemics, trans- lations, fables and odes. He was Poet Laureate from 1670 to 1688. 31. Newspapers were preceded in antiquity by the Roman Ada Diurna, which were daily, official written reports of public occurrences; and in mod- ern Europe by periodical publications in manu- script. Alexander Andrews gives the following ac- count of the origin of newspapers : "First we have the written news letter fur- nished to the wealthy aristocracy ; then, as the craving for information spread, the ballad of news sung or recited ; then the news pamphlet more prosaically arranged ; then the periodical sheet of news, and lastly the newspaper." The first regular series of weekly newspapers hitherto discovered was entitled, " The "Weekly Newes from Italy, Germanie, etc." (1622). The " English Mercury, of 1588," long regarded as the first printed English newspaper, was proved a forgery in 1839, and again in 1850, by Thomas Watts of the British Museum. Prominently con- nected with most of the early weekly sheets, which appeared under the name of "Weekly Newes," " Times News," " Newes,," etc., was Nathaniel But- ENGLISH LITERATURE. 393 ler, who is regarded as the father of the regular newspaper press. The first attempt at parliamentary reporting was made in 1641; the first advertisement was in- serted as early as 1648 ; and the first paper exclu- sively devoted to advertisements and shipping in- telligence appeared in 1657. The news given in the papers treated chiefly of foreign affairs. Home politics were scarcely discussed till after the aboli- tion of the Star Chamber in 1641. The press was for a long time subjected to many persecutions, and the licensing act was not abolished till after the accession of William and Mary. The first commercial newspaper, the " City Mercury," was published in 1675; the first literary paper, the " Mercurius Librarius," in 1680; the first sporting paper, the "Jockeys' Intelligencer," in 1683; and the first medical paper in 1686. The first daily newspaper, the " Daily Courant," was published in 1709. It consisted of but one page of two columns, and contained five paragraphs trans- lated from foreign journals. 32. Pope, Prior, Gay, Parnell, Addison, Steele, Jonathan Swift, Congreve, Vanbrugh, Farquhar, Collier, Bentley, De Foe, and others. 33. Young, Gray, Collins, Akenside, Beattie, Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, Sterne, Johnson, Goldsmith, Fanny Burney, Percy, Cowper, Burns. 34. Coleridge, Wordsworth, Southey, Thomas Campbell, Tom Moore, Walter Scott, Lord Byron, Shelley, Keats. 394 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 35. Edmund Spenser, Samuel Daniel, Ben. Jon- son, William Davenant, John Dryden, Thomas Shadwell, Nahum Tate, Nicholas Howe, Lawrence Eusdon, Colley Gibber, William Whitehead, Thomas Warton, Henry James Pye, Eobert Southey, William Wordsworth, Alfred Tennyson. AMERICAN LITERATURE. 395 QUESTIONS ON AMERICAN LITERATURE. 1. Into what periods is American literature di- vided ? 2. What was the character of the literary lead- ers in early colonial times? 3. What was the first work written on Ameri- can soil? 4. What was the first purely literary work written here ? 5. What was the first book published in Amer- ica? 6. What had literature to do with the success of the Revolution ? 7. From what standpoints may Benjamin Frank- lin be studied? 8. What ladies wrote in the Revolutionary Pe- riod? FROM 1800 TO 1830. 9. Who is the author of "Hail, Columbia"? 10. Who is the author of The Star-Spangled Banner"? 11. Who is the author of "The Old Oaken Bucket"? 12. Who is the author of " The American Flag " ? 396 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 13. Who is the novelist of this period? 14. Who are the naturalists of this period? 15. Who is the lexicographer of this period? 16. Who are the writers on political economy of this period ? 17. Who are the legal and political writers of this period? 18. Name some of the theological writers of this period. FROM 1830 TO 1850. 19. Who was the first American novelist that gained a national reputation ? 20. Give a sketch of Washington Irving, and name his principal works. 21. In what department of literature is Ralph Waldo Emerson a leader? 22. With what department was Horace Mann connected? 23. For what poem is Fitz- Green Halleek noted? 24. Who is called the Poet Laureate of America? 25. Who is the leading lyric poet of America? 26. By what poem did Bryant first gain a repu- tation ? 27. Who is called the Poet-Painter ? 28. Who is the most prominent humorous poet? 29. Who is, by general consent, at the head of novelists ? 30. Who is the ablest living American novelist? 31. Who is the best story writer for boys? 32. Who are the leading American humorists? 83. Give the names of Americans most eminent in literature and art. ' AMERICAN LITERATURE. 397 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON AMERICAN LITERATURE. 1. I. The Colonial Age. 1613-1760. II. The Revolutionary Period. 1760-1800. III. The Present Age. 1800. The time since the year 1800 may be conve- niently divided, so far as literature is concerned, into three periods, the first ending in 1830, the second in 1850, and the last coming down to the present time. 2. Nearly all the leaders in these enterprises were men of education, graduates of the English universities. They came to the new world quite as much in defense of opinion as in 'quest of for- tune, 3. The first works in English, written on Amer- ican soil, came from Virginia. The first was Whit- aker's " Good Newes," published in 1613. 4. The " Translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses," by George Sandys, 1621. 5. The first book printed was the celebrated Bay Psalm Book, Cambridge, 1640. 398 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 6. The battle of the Revolution was fought with the pen as well as with the sword. The lead- ers in the fight against the mother country, had not only to argue their case before the tribunal of the world, but to educate their own countrymen up to the point of armed resistance, and to hold them there during a long and gloomy contest. In the accomplishment of this great and varied work, the political writers of the period used freely almost every variety of style that could be made available for the purpose. They made grave and formal ar- gument; they employed also warm and patriotic appeal. They roused their own side by patriotic ballads; they stung the enemy with squibs. The wit of the Revolutionary Period, though not per- haps of a very high order of literature, was yet no insignificant part of the moral force by which the war of independence was brought to a successful termination. After the war was over, there was the not less grave and difficult task of guiding the opinions of the nation, and of moulding the politi- cal elements into form and symmetry. 7. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) may be viewed under three aspects, as a sage, a statesman and a man of science; in each aspect he stands among the first men of all time. 8. Susanna Rowson (1761-1824) was famous in her day as the author of " Charlotte Temple." Mrs. Mercy Warren (1728-1814) wrote satires on the royalists. 9. Joseph Hopkinson, LL.D. (1770-1842), is AMERICAN LITERATURE. 399 known in literature by a single brief production only, the patriotic song of" Hail, Columbia." 10. Francis Scott Key (1779-1843) is, like Hop- kinson, indebted for literary celebrity to the com- position of a single patriotic song, " The Star- Span- gled Banner. 11. Samuel Woodworth (1785-1842), a poet of some note, is the author of the familiar lyric, " The Old Oaken Bucket." 12. Joseph Rodman Drake (1795-1820), gave promise of the highest excellence as a poet. His early death caused profound regret. He is chiefly known as the author of " The Culprit Fay," which is his largest poem, and " The American Flag," which is the most popular. 13. Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810), was a novelist of good repute, and was the first American of any considerable note who made literature a pro- fession. 14. Alexander Wilson and John James Audubon. 15. Noah "Webster, LL.D. 16. Matthew Carey and Albert Gallatin. 17. James Kent and Joseph Story. 18. Sam'l Stanhope Smith, Ashbel Green, Elipha- let Nott, Nathaniel Ernmons, Leonard Woods^ John Henry Hobart, Henry Ware, Nathan Bangs. 19. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) was the first American novelist that gained a national rep- utation. He was also the first American writer that gained a general recognition in Europe. 20. Washington Irving (1783-1859), the Gold- smith of America, was born in New York. In his early manhood symptoms of alarming disease in- 400 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. duced a voyage to Europe. He returned to the Island of Manhattan with a mind expanded by new scenes, and his natural love of travel and elegant literature deepened. He became a law student, but his chief occupation was writing magazine pa- pers. His principal writings are : u Knickerbocker Papers," "Salamagundi," "The Wife," "Pride of the Village/' " The Broken Heart/' " Legend of Sleepy Hollow," Bracebridge Hall," " Tales of a Traveller," "Life of Columbus," "Anecdotes of an Enterprise Beyond the Rocky Mountains," "Life of Mohammed," "Life of Washington." 21. As an essayist and a lecturer on more famil- iar subjects, he is singularly attractive. It is, however, to a peculiar verbal facility and aphoristic emphasis, rather than to any construc- tive genius, that he owes the impression he cre- ates. 22. Horace Mann, LL. D: (1796-1859), is uni- versally known by his writings and labors in the cause of popular education. 23. Marco Bozzaris, a war lyric. 24. Longfellow is clearly our American Poet- Laureate crowned by general suffrage, alike of the learned and the unlearned, the critic and those who read only for the pleasure his sweet verse gives them. 25. John Greenleaf Whittier (1808-) is our lead- AMERICAN LITERATURE. 401 ing lyric poet, and, with the exception perhaps of Bryant, is the one most thoroughly American. 26. William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), by the publication of his " Thanatopsis," acquired, almost sixty years ago, a national reputation as a poet. 27. Thomas Buchanan Read (1822-1872) is al- most equally celebrated as an artist and a poet, and is familiarly known as the poet-painter. 28. John Godfrey Saxe (1816-) has a national reputation as a humorous poet. 29. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) stands, by general consent, at the heaw/\*i4slswk+- To receive all communications. rresiuent. To sometimes appoint committees. To state all motions. To put all questions to vote and give result. To decide a tie vote. . To give his signature when necessary. Vice President. { In absence of president to take the chair. t> Q To keep a record of the proceedings of the society. To write all letters, orders, etc., as the society may b direct. * To call the roll and mark the absentees. -4 ' To call the roll and register the votes when yeas and 05 nays are taken. H | Secretary. To read the minutes of previous meeting. To read all papers and documents. To notify committees of their appointment and bus- ff. iness. To give his signature when necessary. To keep charge of all documents belonging to the society. Corresponding f To conduct all correspondence with individuals or Secretary. (. societies. Treasurer. To receive and hold all moneys due the organization. To disburse all moneys as the society may direct. To report in full for all moneys so often as society may ask. 8. If, on any question, the members are equally divided, the President must give the casting or de- termining vote. PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 413 9. It is not customary for the president to par- ticipate in discussions ; however, if he desire, he may, by calling the vice-president or some other person to fill his place in the chair. 10. In reading, the chairman may, if he choose, sit; but, in stating or putting a motion, he should stand. The secretary may sit while calling the roll, but should stand when reading. 11. A president should be elected pro tempore. 12. One should be elected pro tempore. 13. A person's rights are dependent upon his du- ties, and a neglect to discharge those duties forfeits every claim to any prerogative. 14. The following diagram illustrates the duties and rights of members : To obtain the floor before speaking. To stand when speaking, if convenient. To avoid speaking upon any matter until it is prop' erly brought before the house by a motion. Duties of. Rights of. To keep upon the question then pending. To yield the floor to calls for order. To abstain from all personalities in debate. To avoid disturbing in any way, speakers of the asr sembly. To refrain from all words and acts of indecency. To offer any motion or resolution to the assembly. To explain or discuss that motion, or any matter prop* erly before the meeting. To call to order, if necessary. To hold the floor, when legally obtained, till through To appeal from the decision of the chair to that of the assembly. 15. When a member wishes to make a motion, or to speak to the meeting on any matter, he should first "obtain the floor," as it is called, by rising and addressing the presiding officer by his 414 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. title, "Mr. Chairman" or "Mr. Speaker;" which officer hearing himself thus addressed, responds by calling the member by name, thus saying that he is in order, introducing him to the assembly and com- mending him to the attention of his fellow-mem- bers. In case the name of the member is not known, the chairman requests and the speaker gives him his name. 16. Any member attempting to speak without the response from the president may, at any time, be called down as being out of order. 17. If several members rise and address the chair at once, or nearly at once, the president should grant the precedence to him whose voice is first heard. In case the mover of some question rise with some others to speak, after the motion has been seconded and stated, it is the general practice to give him the first recognition. 18. When a speaker is called to order by the president, or some member, he should yield the floor at once, until the decision is rendered. 19. In case of persistent disorder, it is the duty of the presiding officer to designate by name the offender. After a statement of the nature of the offense from the president, the assembly should decide upon the punishment, if any, due to the transgression. If the president find that, after repeated at- tempts to bring about order, and after he has put forth his most strenuous efforts to have harmony and good feeling prevail, the assembly does not support him, he will then be justifiable in permit- PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 415 ling disorder to reign, and his resignation will not be at all out of order. 20. When a member has obtained the floor, he can not be cut off' from addressing the assembly on the question before it; nor, when speaking, can he be interrupted in his speech by any other mem- ber rising and moving an adjournment, or any privileged motion. 21. From this decision any member may appeal by saying, U I appeal from the decision of the chair." If any one seconds this appeal, the chair- man at once states the question, " Shall the decis- ion of the chair be sustnined?" and puts it to vote, unless time is desired for its consideration. 22. The following diagram gives a general out- line of the management of a motion : Obtaining the floor I By add " essin g the chair - jor. -^ fiy receiv i ng tne response. Making the motion, verbally or in writing. Seconding the motion. Stating the motion to assembly by president. { Ver j3JSn by Remarks and discussion. Voting on the question. {** gjHfS"^ b ? ballot ' or . Announcing result of vote. 23. Were the rule strictly followed, no person would be permitted to second the motion without obtaining the floor as for any other purpose ; but it is becoming more and more customary for the member or members to respond, " I second," with- out rising from the seat. In the majority of cases this is better than a too rigid observance of the law. 24. There may be any number of motions before the second ; bu^as soon as any one of them is 416 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ended, it casts aside all the others, not only those already made, but the possibility of making any other, until that one is disposed of, unless there be a question of privilege. 25. The general rule in all deliberate assemblies, unless it is otherwise especially provided, is that no member shall speak more than once to the same question, although the debate on that question may be adjourned and continued through several days; and although a member who desires to speak a sec- ond time has, in the course of the debate, changed his opinion. However, the member may speak a second time in the same debate, to explain some particu- lar point that he advanced, or the like, but he is not to fall into the general question. 26. As a matter of favor, or concession, but not as a matter of right, a speaker who temporarily yields the floor in favor of another, is generally permit- ted, immediately after the interruption, to resume his remarks. If the privilege be denied he can not claim it as a right. 27. Privilege motions are so called because, on account of their importance, they take precedence over all other questions whatever. 28. A privileged question is one that takes prece- dence over others, while a question of privilege is one that involves the rights and privileges of individual members, or of the whole body taken collectively. 29. Motion to adjourn (unqualified), orders of the day, objection to considering a question, read- PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 417 ing of papers, withdrawal of motion, suspension of the rules, to lay on the table, the previous question. * 30. When a motion is moved, seconded and stated from the chair, it can not be withdrawn by the mover, but only by a vote of the assembly. 31.. The following diagram shows, at a glance, all the points relating to the appointment and work of committees : $ Select. ) f Of a part. 1 Standing. J \ Of the whole. Appointment / is By the president. f motion. ballot. f nominations. Duties. Privileges. Report. To consider the subject assigned, at large, or under especial directions. To obtain information, when directed, upon any matter, by inquiry, or otherwise. To digest and put into form, for the adoption of the assem- bly, all orders, motions, etc., which may be given them. To hold their sessions at the time and place appointed by the assembly. To transact their business just as a regular assembly. lo change their line of procedure at any time, when so or- dered by the assembly. To report their proceedings in full to the assembly. To elect their own chairman, if desired. To select their own time and place of meeting when not provided. To note disorderly words and conduct, but not to take any action thereon. To adjourn from time to time till their work is accom- plished. To take any desired action upon the assigned work, save changing the subject or title. To appoint sub-committees, f Should be in writing. J Should be made by the chairman, or some on appointed for the purpose. I Should be read by the one selected. I May be a statement of facts or opinions without any specified conclusion. May be facts or opinions concluded with a res- olution or resolutions May be resolutions merely, without any intro- duction. 418 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 32. "When an assembly desires to resolve itself into a committee of the whole, to act upon any particular business, it does so by a motion made and put to that effect. Immediately after the decision for the commit- tee above named, the chairman of the assembly frames some one to act as the presiding officer of the committee, resigns his position, and takes a seat among the members. If any one object to this appointment, a chairman may be elected by vote. The secretary of the general meeting acts as clerk of the committee of the whole. 33. A committee of the whole can not adjourn from time to time till the business is finished ; but if more than one sitting is necessary, the form for proceeding is for some member to move that the committee rise, report progress, and ask leave to sit again ; and if this motion prevails, the chair- man rises; the presiding officer resumes the chair of the assembly, and the chairman of the commit- tee informs him that the committee of the whole have, according to order, had under their consider- ation such a matter, and have made some progress therein ; but, not having had time to go through with the same, have directed him to ask leave for the Committee to sit again. The presiding officer then puts a question on giving the committee leave to sit again, and also on the time when the assembly will again resolve itself into a committee of the whole. If leave to sit again is not granted, the committee is dissolved. PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 419 The committee of the whole can not appoint sub-committees to assist in the work. In this committee a member must be heard as often as he desires to speak and can obtain the floor. In the committee no appeal from the decis- ion of the chair is allowed ; neither a vote by yeas and nays The motion for the previous question can not be made in the committee. 34. Strictly ov parliamentarily speaking, there can be no such thing as a formal report from the minority, and if any member desire anything of the kind, he must act as an individual. However, it is sometimes permitted, more as an act of court- esy than anything else, that the minority report may accompany the proper one, as the opinions of the minority ; in order to be adopted, it must be moved as an amendment to the report, when that is before the meeting for a hearing. 35. A quorum is such a number of members as may, by rule or statute, be required to be present at a meeting in order to render the transaction of the body legal or valid. 36. f 1. The call to order. 2. Calling the roll of members. fRead. 3. Minutes of previous meeting^ Correct. (Adopt. 4. Miscellaneous business. 5. Unfinished business. 6. Report of committees. 7. Communications. (Debate, 8. Orders of the day.X Declamations, (Essays, etc. 9. Critic's report. 10. General and mutual criticisms. 11. Election of officers. 12. Arranging the programme for next meeting. 13. Adjournment. 37. The side that affirms. 420 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 38. It is not only not out of order, but, in fact, the way, first, to accept the report by a regular motion to that effect, and then adopt the resolu- tion, if satisfactory, by a separate vote. 39. The annexed diagram shows the order in which privileged questions have precedence: Privileged proper, ^ C 1. Motion for adjournment. < 2. Motions as to privileges of members. V. 3. Motions for orders of the day. Subsidiary. 4. Motion to lay on the table (Motion for previous question. Motion to postpone to a cer- tain day. Motion to commit. Motion to amend. a. Prev. qu. and Postpone. Commit. Amend. b. Postpone and Previous qu. Commit. Amend. c. Commit and Previous qu. Postpone. Amend. d. Amend and Previous qu. Postpone. Commit. Incidental. 6. Motion to postpone indefinitely. Motions concerning questions of order. Motion for reading of papers. Motion for the withdrawal of a motion. Motion for suspension of rules. Motion to amend an amendment. Resolved: 40. (1) That the slanderer is a more pernicious character than the flatterer. (2) That national wealth is incompatible with national virtue. (3) That city life is preferable to country life. (4) That we can not reasonably indulge the hope of universal peace. (5) That party spirit is productive of more good than evil. PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 421 (6) That mankind suffer more from imagin- ary evils than from real evils. (7) That a lie is sometimes justifiable. (8) That it is more harmful to be too credu- lous than to be too suspicious. (9) That the miser is more injurious to soci- ety than the spendthrift. (10) That theaters are more beneficial than injurious. (11) That fictitious writings are more injuri- ous than beneficial. (12) That phrenology is entitled to rank as a true science. (13) That the mental faculties of males are not superior to those of females. (14) That banks are more beneficial than in- jurious to a community. (15) That the execution of Major Andre was justifiable. (16) That the virtues of the Puritans are gen- erally over-estimated. (17) That conscience is always a correct moral guide. (18) That inventions improve the condition of the laboring classes. (19) That savage nations posses? a right to the soil. (20) That men of action have been of more benefit to the world than men of thought have. (21) That there ought to be a property quali- fication for suffrage. (22) That a monarchy is the strongest and most stable form of government. 422 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. (23) That a man is justifiable in obeying a law of his country which he believes to be morally wrong. (24) That teachers exercise a greater influence than parents in forming the character of the young. (25) That a lawyer is justifiable in defending a bad man. (26) That the pulpit affords a better field for eloquence than the bar. (27) That many enemies are a higher proof of merit than many friends. (28) That very large cities are an injury to a country. (29) That the practice of granting special reduc- tions from school expenses to the children of minis- ters is not only an unjust but a pernicious system. (30) That inebriates have as good a claim upon society for aid as the insane or poverty stricken. (31) That parents are responsible for the phys- ical, mental, and moral condition of their offspring. (32) That a union of all churches would pro- mote the true interests of Christianity. (33) That a compulsory system of education is incompatible with a truly republican form of gov- ernment. (34) That the wages of laboring persons should be fixed by law. (35) That geology strengthens our faith in the Bible. (36) That civilization progresses faster than the churches do. (37) That public opinion be regarded as the standard of right PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 423 (38) That politics affords better opportunities for personal advancement than literature. (39) That the President of the United States should be elected for six years and made ineligible to a second term. (40) That the doctrine of endless punishment is taught in the Bible. (41) That the United States, as a nation, owes ;nore to England than to France. (42) That parents do injustice to their children by laboring to leave them a fortune. (43) That the veto power of the President of the United States should be repealed. (44) That a student should direct his studies with reference to a particular profession. (45) That the immigration of foreigners to this country be restricted. (46) That there is more pleasure in pursuit than in possession. (47) That excessive prosperity is more danger- ous than excessive adversity. (48) That women be granted the right of suf- frage throughout the nation. (49) That the Indians have been wrongly treated by the U. S. Government. (50) That lynch law is sometimes justifiable. ' 424 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. QUESTIONS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 1. What is psychology ? 2. What objection is there to defining psy- chology as the science of mind ? 3. What is the difference between mind, soul, and spirit ? 4. What is the educational importance of psychology ? 5. What different ways of studying psy- chology are there ? 6. What is the organ of mind ? 7. How do we get our first elements of knowl- edge? 8. What are the conditions of sensation? 9. What is the function of the nerves ? 10. What is the function of nerve-cells ? 11. Illustrate the process of sensation. 12. Define sensation. 13. Through what organs does the stimulation reach the nerve ? 14. What is the most important sense ? 15. What practical inference should be drawn from the above facts ? PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 425 16. What is the special value of the sense of sight in education ? 17. What attention should be paid to indi- vidual differences in sense organs ? 18. What is the ultimate aim in appealing to the senses ? 19. What is interest? 20. What is the psychological value of in- terest ? 21. What educational principle should be deduced ? 22. What are impulses ? 23. What should the impulse of imitation lead a teacher to be 1 24. What are sensation, interest, and impulse called ? 25. What is attention ? 26. What is voluntary attention ? 27. What is non-voluntary attention ? 28. What is the importance of attention ? 29. Show that the sensations of which we are conscious depend upon attention. ' 30. Can attention be secured by a direction of the teacher to "pay attention " ? 31. Is inattention on the part of a pupil a culpable fault ? 32. How can voluntary attention be secured ? 33. What is meant by the association of ideas ? 34. What are the two laws of association ? 35. What are the results of association ? 36. How is habit connected with the associa- tion of ideas ? 426 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 37. Infer the value of association from the value of habit. 38. What is the important principle in the formation of habits in early education ? 39. What are non-voluntary attention, volun- tary attention, and association sometimes called ? 40. What is perception, and upon what does it depend ? 41. State the importance of the training of perception. 42. What has been introduced into the schools in later years mainly for the purpose of training in the power to observe ? 43. What is apperception ? 44. What is retention ? 45. What should take the place of verbal memorizing ? 46. How does imagination differ from memory ? 47. Can the imagination be directly trained ? 48. Upon what does the stage of intellectual development called thinking, depend ? 49. What is meant by relations ? 50. What subjects best train thought ? 51. What are some of the conditions of emo- tional development, or of interest ? 52. What studies appeal to the emotions ? 53. When does impulse turn into volition, or will? 54. What studies particularly cultivate voli- tion? 55. Discuss method in teaching. 56. What has brought " methods" into dis- repute ? PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 427 57. Are any " set " methods profitable 1 58. What method (in the broad sense of the term) is best adapted to young pupils ? 59. To use the analytic method successfully, in what should a teacher be skilled ? 60. What danger is there in questioning ? 61. Give suggestions in regard to questioning. 62. In presenting a subject for the first time, to what should the first questions re- late ? 63. Of what use is an oral reproduction, or recitation ? 64. Of what further use is a written reproduc- tion ? 65. When is a topical reproduction in order ? 66. Does the analytic method conflict with the educational principle, " Proceed from the whole to the parts" ? 67. Does presentation of a subject exclude the use of text-books ? 68. Give arguments favoring the individual training of the pupil. 69. Does the present condition of the public schools favor such training? 70. What benefits arise from grouping chil- dren in classes ? 71. Give arguments for graded schools. 72. Arguments against. 73. What reasons hold for introducing so many subjects of study into the primary and grammar schools ? 74. What is the danger of presenting so many subjects 3 428 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 75. Criticise the present curriculum of high schools. 76. Of what use is a program of daily work ? 77. What care should be taken in making a program ? 78. How should good government be secured in school ? 79. What is the first condition of sound men- tal development ? 80. What knowledge does this necessitate on the part of the teacher ? 81. What is the body to the mind, or soul ? 82. What relation have the muscles to the will? 83. What is believed to be true of the mind and brain ? 84. Inferring from the above, what seems nec- essary under present conditions, when popula- tion is centred in cities and the farms are deserted ? 85. What hygienic conditions should receive the constant attention of a teacher ? 86. What opportunity does the school furnish for moral training ? 87. Should there be direct moral training ? 88. What was the character of the first study of pedagogy in this country ? 89. What is the later, and better tendency ? 90. State the general effect of child-study. 91. Specify some of the benefits of this study in actual practice. 92. At what period in the training of pupils is departmental teaching of greatest value I PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 429 93. What is the objection to it in the lower grades ? 94. What is the educational value of drawing? 95. What should be the character of a teacher ? 96. What is the true end of education ? 430 THE NOBMAL QUESTION BOOK. ANSWERS TO QUESTION ON PSYCHOL- OGY AND PEDAGOGY. 1. The science of the phenomena of mind. 2. Nothing is known of the mind itself, but only of what it does, or its phenomena. 3. They are one and the same, except that usage has given them slight differences in mean- ing. Soul suggests the close relation between mind and body, and spirit the moral and re- ligious activities of mind. 4. It is the science of the activities of mind, and it reveals the processes upon which educa- tional methods must be based. 5. One may study the action of his own mind. He may study children, and watch the develop- ment of mind. He may study lower animals to learn of the lower stages of psychical life, or defective and disordered minds. Or instead of studying mind he may study its products, and reason back to the activities of mind necessary to produce those results. 6. The brain. 7. Through sensation. 8. An external stimulus, nerves, and nerve centres. PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 431 9. They transmit stimulations from the sur- face of the body to the nerve centres, and trans- mit impulses from those centres to the muscles. 10. Tlisy receive the stimulations transmitted by the nerves, and send impulses along the nerves to the muscles. 11. The hand comes in contact with a hot coal. The nerve transmits the message to the brain, and it, in turn, sends it on to the muscles, and the hand is withdrawn. 12. A sensation is that simple mental fact that, under normal circumstances, directly fol- lows the last change in the brain, in consequence of the stimulation of a sensory nerve. (See Gordy's Psychology.) 13. Through the organs of touch, sight, hear- ing, smell, and taste. 14. Touch. The other senses are but differen- tiations of it. Biology proves this. It is also a well-known fact that the other senses rest upon it for assistance and confirmation. 15. That in early education the teacher must rely largely upon the sense of touch. The child is not perfectly satisfied until he has the object he perceives in his hand, and turns it over and over and learns its qualities for himself. It is not enough that the teacher holds the object. Each child, to secure the best results, must actually handle it. This kind of objective teach- ing, sensibly adapted to the stage of develop- ment reached by the pupil, rests upon a psychological basis. 16. When there is presented a whole, made up 432 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. of co-existent parts, the eye seems specially adapted to grasp the relations of a complex sub- ject. Hence the use of maps, charts, and all graphic representations. 17. Sometimes one sense predominates in one child, and another in another. For instance, if hearing predominates, a pupil will learn more easily by studying aloud or by oral teaching. Many people can more easily understand, or memorize what they write. In this case muscu- lar activity with touch takes the lead. A one- sided development of any sense is to be avoided, but a teacher can often be of great service to the pupil by knowing what sense predominates, and appealing to it. 18. To develop the self-activity of the child by putting into motion those processes that will apprehend the sensations so that they will grow naturally into memory, imagination, and thought. It must be borne in mind that sensation is not knowledge, but a stimulus to it, and material for it. 19. Interest can be felt better than defined. It does not give information, but it helps in acquiring it. It arises from the state of the mind itself. It is emotional. It is usually accompanied by pain or pleasure. 20. It is the means by which the mind is drawn to any subject, and led to exercise itself upon it. The mind is indifferent to whatever does not interest it. 21. That teaching should always appeal to some interest, and if the subject is of itself unin- PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 433 teresting, interest should be made to gather about it by an attractive method of presentation, or by the personal power of the teacher. 22. They are activities that arise from some feeling of want, for instance, the impulse for food. Impulses are classified according to the stimulus that arouses the sense of want, impulses of sensation, of perception, of imitation, and of expression. 23. As perfect a model as possible. When a pupil is in sympathy with a teacher it is a delight to imitate him. Thus all the character- istics of a teacher, self-control, energy, intellectu- ality, etc. , as well as personal habits, neatness, dress, voice, manners, have a powerful influence in forming the character of the pupil. 24. The bases of psychical life. 25. Attention is that act of the mind by which we bring into clear consciousness any subject, or object before the mind. (Gordy.) 26. Voluntary attention is that which comes through an exercise of the will, and not through the thing attended to. 27. It is that attention which results from the influence exerted upon the mind by the thing attended to, in and of itself. (Gordy.) 28. It is the one condition of learning that can not be dispensed with. Its importance can hardly be overestimated. 29. One may be absorbed by a book, and not hear the clock strike because his attention is concentrated upon the book. A person senses only that to which he attends. The strength of 434 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. the sensation depends upon the degree of atten- tion. 30. No. Attention, to be of great value, can- not be forced. The subject-matter must be made interesting, and then attention will follow. The importance of interest in securing attention is great. It is well to remember that interest and amusement are not synonymous. 31. It is not. Very few if any young pupils are capable of continuous voluntary attention. This power must be trained and cultivated. 32. Its basis is interest. Interest leads to non- voluntary attention, this in turn to voluntary attention, which is the test and condition of intellectual development. 33. When there arises oat of some presenta- tion or idea another idea, and out of that another, and so on, the whole process is called the association of ideas. 34. The law of association by contiguity, that thoughts, or ideas, or experiences that have been in the mind at, or about the same time tend to recall each other ; and the law of asso- ciation by similarity, that similar thoughts, or ideas, or experiences tend to recall each other. (Gordy.) 35. Through it order and regularity come into psychical life. Ideas are no longer isolated, but follow, one after the other, in a connected manner, forming a train of ideas having some unity. 36. By habit is meant such a thoroughly formed train of associations, that if one part of PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 435 the train comes into consciousness the rest follows without any exercise of the will. 37. It is by the formation of habits that the child learns to talk, to walk, or to control him- self in any definite direction. If habits were not formed each act of life would require conscious attention. Habit relieves the mind from the supervision of all acts that have become habitual, and leaves it free to devote itself to other matters. Hence the importance of the basis of habit, association. 38. Repetition. It is an unfailing law that the power and tendency to follow any course of action are measured by the frequency with which acts have been repeated. The law holds in all education, physical, intel- lectual, moral. A teacher understanding this can greatly aid in constructing for his young pupils a bulwark of strength against later encroachments, by sinking the primary elements of character into habits. 39. The psychical processes, which, acting upon sensation, interest, and impulse result in the three forms of psychical development, the intellectual, the emotional, and the volitional. 40. It is the recognition of some object present to the senses. It depends upon the power to observe. 41. Perception is the germ of all other stages of knowledge ; therefore, unless perception is rightly trained, memory, imagination, and thought, which grow out of it, will suffer, not only because there is not sufficient material for 436 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. them, but the mental activities necessary will be defective. Training in the power to observe should be one of the prime objects of a teacher's work. 42. Nature work. 43. It is a process of interpretation. When a new truth is presented to the mind, that which is already in the mind interprets the new as well as it can, and attaches it to the body of knowl- edge already there. 44. The effect which the. new has upon the old content is called retention. 45. Memory should be trained through the apperceiving powers. If the original perception is clear and comprehensive, memory will take care of itself, at least with the proper amount of repetition. 46. It is not, like memory, held to actual ex- perience. It takes the mind beyond its own experience, beyond the present and apparent. It idealizes. 47. Not to any extent. Imagination is the outgrowth of perception and memory, and if they supply scanty material it will be defective. Certain studies cultivate the imagination, such as geography, history, and literature, also the observation of the beauties of nature. 48. Upon all that precedes. Thinking is not a faculty by itself, apart from what is thought of. It is the outcome of perception, memory, and imagination. If the basis upon which thinking rests is weak, there will not be much power of thought. PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 437 Thinking deals with what is general, or with classes, and not with particulars. It also deals with relations. 49. Relations arise from comparison for the purpose of noting identity or difference. It involves analysis or synthesis or induction and deduction. Induction begins with particulars and proceeds to the general. Deduction begins with the general and proceeds to the particular. 50. Language and science. In both these are classification, grouping, selection. In science especially there is exact statement of relations, groups of relations, of reference, of fact to law and law to fact. In every step of science there is reasoning. 51. 1. ''Activity is a law of childhood." It may be added that it is a law of any normal mind. The mind strives to express itself in some way, and whatever calls forth this activity increases interest. This principle is almost the highest in educational importance. The child's own activity must be appealed to if he becomes interested in any subject. 2. Stimulus to mental activity must be adapted to the stage of develop- ment which the child has reached. Too easy material, or too difficult, fails to rouse interest. 3. Change or alternation in studies, or a new way of presenting them, will often arouse interest. The nerves, fatigued in one direction, will give stronger impressions in another. The personality of the teacher is an important factor in develop- ing the emotional side of a child's nature. 52. Art, music, and literature. 438 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 53. When it is controlled by the processes of attention and association, and harmonized by the conception of some end. This may be more curtly expressed by saying that not only know- ing, but doing, is included in an act of the will. 54. Manual training and laboratory work. 55. Method rightly understood is of the highest value. The whole subject of education practi- cally rests upon it. But in order to be of value it must be tributary to the natural processes of mind. True methods are ways of approach to the learner's mind, and ways of directing its activities according to well-understood laws. 56. Servile imitation of methods not appre- hended, mechanical adherence to empirical rules, and blind observance of pedagogical formulae, so that much that is called teaching is nothing but dead formalism. 57. No. A teacher should be sufficiently versa- tile to adapt his method to his pupil. A teacher with high aims, and enthusiastic devotion to his work, thoroughly versed in the subject he has to teach, 'knowing the laws that govern mental development, will be able to teach effectively without any knowledge of methods per se. His method is simply his way. He originates his method. 58. The analytic. The immature mind cannot perform the necessary analysis for itself. It is the work of the teacher to subdivide and analyze the matter to be taught, so that the pupil's mind shall work analytically. This method economizes mental energy, and ^x ' OF THE \ f UNIVERSITY ) OF FO PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 439 excludes what does not pertain to the subject- matter. It is also important in that it tends to form the analytic habit. 59. In the art of questioning. 60. Danger that the subject will be too minutely analyzed, and questions will be weak, and unstimulating. One writer says : " Witness the 'mob' of questions that the young teacher is recommended to ask on three or four lines of a reading lesson. Witness the trivial development questions recommended for the evolution of ideas already in the child's mind if he has a minimum of brain power." But in spite of this danger, an eminent authority has said that the art of teach- ing is the art of questioning. 61. Questions should be definite, and not vague. Questions should follow each other in logical sequence. Questions should be neither too easy nor too difficult. Questions should be varied in form. Questions should be given in clear and concise language. 62. To that which is already in the mind most nearly related to the new. This is in ac- cordance with the principle of apperception. A brief review of a previous related lesson puts the mind in the best attitude to receive the new. 63. To test the pupil's knowledge of the sub- ject. To cultivate oral expression. To detect and correct mistakes in knowledge, and to impart any necessary additional information. 64. To give opportunity for independent thought without the stimulus of answers from 440 . THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. other pupils. To furnish practice in composition, writing, spelling, and punctuation. 65. When questions have led to a thorough ap- prehension of the subject-matter, a summary, sug- gested by a few topics, should be given so that what has been grasped and expressed in isolated sentences may be reproduced in connected form. 66. It does not. Any part of a subject to be presented may be considered as a whole. It is one of the secrets of good teaching that every lesson should have a central truth, or a whole, around which the questions of the presentation should gather. 67. On the contrary it gives greater value to them. When the "ground" is once broken by judicious questioning, a pupil is able to " study" intelligently and with less danger of memorizing words and nothing more. 68. Reference has been made to the difference in the susceptibility of the sense organs of dif- ferent people. It has also been stated that memory, imagination, and reasoning are all built up on sensation. The inference must be that dif- ferences exist in the higher activities, and prob- ably in a greater degree. If the best training is that which most nearly accords with the nature of the child, the argument for individual train- ing is strong. 69. It does not. The large number of pupils for each teacher renders it difficult to look after the individual. Children are taught en masse, and consequently the results to individuals are often unsatisfactory. PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 441 70. To quote Colonel Parker: " A school is a community ; community life is indispensable to mental and moral growth. If the act of an indi- vidual in any way hinders the best work of the community , he is in the wrong. The highest duty of the individual is to contribute all in his power to the best good of all. How much worse shall these be in the school? Just enough to assist each and all to do their best work. How quiet shall it be ? Just enough to assist each and all to do their best work. How much whispering? Every rule, in order that it may be of educative influence, consists in carrying out this motto, 'Everything to help, and nothing to hinder.'" From the above it would seem that the moral effect of training in classes is greater than the intellectual. What if the moral tone of the school is not high? 71. Under present conditions the arrangement of pupils in grades seems a necessity. If they were ungraded, and the number as large as at present, it would result in confusion. Then, too, the work of the teacher in preparing to give instruction on many subjects, and in many branches of a subject, would be unbearable. 72. Grading pupils tends to turn the school into a machine, to lessen freedom in learning, to fur- nish unworthy incentives to study, that of pass- ing into the next grade being the main one ; also to bring about undue anxiety and worry for fear of falling short of requirements. 73. To open the eyes of young children to all about them, that they may better observe and 442 THE NOEMAL QUESTION BOOK. be interested in whatever of good comes into their lives. Dr. Stanley Hall says: "Graft the soul of the child all over with little buds." 74. Teachers, in their anxiety to be thorough and exhaustive, do not adapt the quantity of material presented to the capacity of their pupils. They forget it is only the germs of knowledge which the youngest are fitted to receive, and that no subject, even in the high school, can, with profit, be treated exhaustively. 75. Too much is attempted. Unlike the cur- riculum of the lower grade, that of the higher should be narrowed to fewer subjects, since there should be some approach to specialization in the high school. 76. It economizes time, and aids in the orderly prosecution of the work. It leads the teacher to give some definite thought to the lesson be- fore it is presented. 77. To arrange the various exercises so as to bring rest with change. Drawing, for instance, should not follow writing, nor a language lesson a reading lesson, nor should an arithmetic repro- duction follow immediately an arithmetic pres- entation. There should also be a change from day to day to relieve monotony. Care should also be taken that each subject receives its due share of time. Observance of these suggestions will greatly increase interest. 78. Not by many so-called " rules," nor by con- stant admonition, but by securing interest in the work and establishing a bond of sympathy be- tween teacher and pupil. PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 443 79. A healthy and well-trained body. 80. A knowledge of the mutual relations of mind and body. 81. It is not only the instrument of mind, but its processes enter into mental processes and results. If a sense-organ is defective, or absent, the corresponding sensation is absent. 82. They are the organs of the will, and their culture is largely the culture of the will. 83. That every mental process is accompanied with change in the brain centre. 84. That there must be some system of physi- cal culture to train the body, to make it the best medium of mind. 85. Temperature, ventilation, light, heat, pos- ture, and proper seating that is, the seat and desk should be, according to definite measure- ments, suited to the child. 86. Indirect moral training is given by the routine and work of the school. Punctuality, industry, and obedience should become habits after ten or twelve years of practice. Fidelity to work, accuracy, neatness, precision, in fact nearly all the more active virtues permeate the work of a good school. The personality of a noble teacher does more than all else. 87. As conditions are at the present day, the indirect training is not sufficient at all times. " Line upon line, and precept upon precept" are needed in many cases. 88. It was confined almost entirely to a study of methods. 89. To study the principles that underlie 444 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. methods, not so much in books as in children. The great child-study, movement and the study of adolescence have given the study of psychology an impetus never before felt, and this, of course, has led to pedagogical changes and discoveries. 90. No great discoveries in mental phenomena have been made, but what has heretofore been considered meaningless has been interpreted, and a new and better pedagogy has arisen. It has been instrumental in freeing a few teachers, at least, from the thraldom of rigid methods, and in arousing greater sympathy for children. It has added much to the science of education, inasmuch as it has called attention to everything pertaining to a child. 91. It helps the teacher to see at what stage in the development of his pupils the various sub- jects of study should be taken up. It helps him in determining how much pupils can learn. It helps in deciding how much work can be safely required of pupils. It helps in discovering the special gifts of pupils. (See Gordy's Psycho- logy.) 92. In the higher grammar grades and in the high school. 93. Before the child is able to infer correct relations between subjects of study, the teacher must make them for him. There is danger, when there is a different teacher for each sub- ject, that this correlation will not be made. 94. It cultivates observation, trains hand and eye, and aids memory. It may also aid in esthetic culture, if properly taught. PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY. 445 95. The requirements in character cannot be overstated in the ideal teacher. He should pos- sess good health, keen intelligence, lofty am- bitions, sympathy. He should be broadly educated, refined, and sensitive. Special train- ing is subordinate to the above qualities. 96. The development of character. 446 THE NOUMAL QUESTION BOOK. TEST PROBLEMS. PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED 1. The sum of two numbers is 12, and their differ- ence is equal to i of the greater. What are the numbers ? 2. A farmer made a mixture of barley, oats and peas, using two bushels of barley as often as 5 of oats and 1 of peas ; the whole number of bushels in the mixture was 32. How many bushels of each kind did he use? 3. A farm rents for 6 per cent, more this year than last. This year it rents for $1,060. What was the rent last year ? 4. A steamer whose regular speed is twelve miles per hour in still water, can make a trip up stream in 7 hours and down in 5 hours. At what rate does the river flow ? 5. A can do a piece of work in 6 days, B in 4 days. In what time can they both do it, working together ? 6. What time is it when i of the time past noon equals % of the time to midnight? 7. What fraction is that which if 1 be added to the numerator the fraction will be i but if 1 be added to the denominator the fraction will be i ? 8. Divide the number n into two such parts that the greater, increased by a, shall equal the less, increased by b. 9. A says to B : " Give me one dollar and I shall have twice as much money as you." B says to A : "No; you give me one dollar and I shall have just as much money as you." How many dollars have each ? JO. What is the length of one edge of that cube which contains as many solid units as there are linear units in the diagonal through the opposite corners? 11. The sum of two numbers is 100, and the differ- ence of their square roo's is 2. What are the numbers ? 12. What number is that consisting of two digits, units and tens, which is equal to three times the sum of TEST PROBLEMS. 447 its digits, and if 45 be added to the number, the order of the digits will be reversed ? 13. James is as old as John; 5 years ago he was ^ as old ; how old are each ? 14. What two numbers are those whose product is 36, and the difference of their squares is 65 ? 15. Divide the number 2000 into two such parts that the greater shall be to the less as 9 to 7. 16. There is a fish whose head is 9 in. long ; the tail is as long as the head and the body ; and the body is as long as the head and tail together. What is the length of the fish ? 17. A shepherd was met by a band of robbers who E hindered him of i of his flock and i of a sheep over ; e afterwards met a second band who took i of the remainder and i of a sheep over ; and a third band took i of the last remainder and i of a sheep over, when he had but 25 sheep left. How many sheep had he at first ? 18 . Simplify (^+/b-)(/a--/F-). (/a +/b~)(/a /b ) 19. A tree 80 feet high is broken during a storm; the upper part clinging to the stump strikes the ground 40 feet from the foot of the tree. How long is each part ? 20. A picture 12 feet by 18 feet is set in a frame of uniform width containing the same area as the picture. What is the width of frame ? 21. To find the area of a scalene triangle whose sides are a, b, and c. 22. How are the above problems solved arithmetically ? 23. How many strokes do the clocks of Venice, which go on to 24 o'clock, strike in a day ? 24. A company of travelers at a hotel incurred a bill of $12. If there had been two more in the company each would have been charged 30 cents less. How many were there in the company? 25. The sum of three numbers in arithmetical pro- gression is 27, and the product of the extremes is 77. What are the numbers ? 26. A tract of land in the form of a square is sur- rounded by a board fence, four boards high, each board 16$ feet long ; the number of acres in the tract equals the number of boards in the fence. How many acres of land are there ? 27- A boy being asked how many fish he had, 448 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 11 fish are 7 fish more than f of the number. How many had he ? 28. A man purchased a house with 10 doors, giving $1 for the first door, $2 for the second, $4 for the third, and so on. What did the house cost him ? 29. A man holds an endowment policy payable in 30 years, and of the time past equals i of the time to come. How much time has past? 30. One kind of wine is 40 cents a quart, and another 24 cents. How much of each must be taken to make a quart worth 28 cents ? 31. A farmer has two flocks of sheep, each containing the same number. From one he sells 39 and from the other 93, and then finds just twice as many in one flock as in the other. How many did each flock originally con- tain? 32. A man being asked his age, replied : If to my age you add its half, and third, and then deduct 10, the result is 100. What was his age? 33. A merchant has sugar at 9 cents and 13 cents a pound, and he- wishes to make a mixture of 100 pounds that shall be worth 12 cents a pound. How many pounds of each quality must be taken ? 34. A man was hired for a year for $100 and a suit of clothes ; but at the end of 8 months he left, and received his clothes and $60 in money. What was the value of the suit of clothes ? 35. Determine the 5th root of 31152784.1 by means of logarithms, knowing that the logarithm of 31152784.1= 7.493497. 36. A man sold a horse for $420, thereby gaining 25 per cent. What was the cost of the horse ? 37. Two men commenced trade together. The first put in $40 more than the second ; and the stock of the first was to the stock of the second as 5 to 4. What was the stock of each ? 38. A man traveled 36 miles in a certain number of hours ; if he had traveled one mile more per hour he would have required 3 hours less to perform his journey. How many miles did he travel per hour? 39. A person after spending $100 more than -J of his income, had remaining $35 more than J pf it. What was his income ? 40. A boy engaged to carry 100 glass vessels to a certain place, and to receive 3 f*wlft lot every one he de- TEST PROBLEMS. 449 livered, and to forfeit 9 cents for every one he broke. On settlement he received 240 cents. How many did he break? 41. The shadow of a tree measures 42 feet ; a staff 40 inches long casts a shadow 18 inches at the same time. What is the height of the tree? 42. Divide 8360 in the proportion of 2, 3, and 4. 43. What is the length of the sides of a rectangular field whose length is 3 ti mes its breadth and contains an area of 10,800 square rods ? 44. If 6 oranges and 7 lemons cost 33 cents and 12 oranges and 10 lemons cost 54 cents, what is the price of one of each ? 45. Divide the number 20 into two such parts that the product of their squares shall equal 9216. PROBLEMS OF PURSUIT. 46. A sets out from a certain place and travels at the rate of 7 miles in 5 hours ; and 8 hours afterwards B sets out from the same place, in pursuit, at the rate of 5 miles in 3 hours. How long before B will overtake A ? 47. The hour and minute hands of a clock are together at 12 o'clock. When are they next together? 48. At what time between 2 and 3 o'clock will the hour and minute hands of a clock be together? 49. What time between 2 and 3 o'clock will the hour and minute hands be at right angles to each other ? 50. At what time between 5 and 6 o'clock will the two hands of a clock be in the same straight line ? 450 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. STATEMENTS AND ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS. 1. The half sum of two numbers plus the half differ- ence equals the greater. The half sum minus the half difference equals the less. Let 2x=difference. 6+x=greater. 6 x less. 2x=6+x 3 Ans. Greater 7-^. Less 4f . 2. Let x=No. bushels peas. 2=No. bushels barley. 5x=No. bushels oats. 8x=32. Ans. 4 bushels peas, 8 bushels barley, 20 bushels oats. 3. Let x=rent last year. Ans. $1,000. 100 4. Let x=rate of river. Then 7(12 x)=5(12+x). Ans. 2 hours. 5. Let x=time required by both. Then x x 6 4 6. Let x=time past noon. 12 x time to midnight. Then x _12 x , H lf t 4 > clock =^= -TlTlo. Xlctll Udiou TC U OlULJx 3 5 7. Let x=numerator of fraction. y=denominator. Thenx +L,iand" y 447 TEST PROBLEMS. 45l 8. Let x=greater ; n x=less. Then x+a=(n x)+b. Ans. Greater ?d^=? less 2 9. Let x=A's money ; y=B's money. Then x+l=2(y 1) and x l=y+l. Ans. A's=87. B's=$5. 10. Let x=length of edge. /3x 2 =the diagonal. _ 4 _ x 3 =/3x 2 . Ans. /3. 11. Let x=greater ; y=less Then x+y=100 and /IF /~y~=2. Square second equation and subtract. -4ns. 64 and 36. 12. The local value of the digit in ten's place being ten times that in unit's place, if we let x=units and y=tens the number will be lOy+x. Then 10y+x=3(x+y) and 10y+x+45=10x+y. Ans. 27. 13. Let x= James' age ; y= John's age. Then x ^y and x _ 5= y-5 ^ James 10, John 30. o o 14. Let x=one number and y the other. Then xy=36 ?.nd x 2 y 2 =65. Find value of x 2 in each equation and compare. -4ns. 9 and 4. 15. Let x=greater number and y the less. Then x+y=2000 and x:y ::9:7 or 9y=7x. Multiply first equation through by 7 and subtract. Ans. 1125 and 875. 16. Let x=length of body and 9-Hx=length of tail. Then 9+9+x=x, or x=18+x. ^4ns. 72 inches. 17. Let 12x=number he had at first. 9x i=first remainder. 6x Jr=second remainder. 3x f=third remainder. 3x 1=25. Ans. 103. 18. In both numerator and denominator we have the product of the sum and difference of two quantities. Ans. 19. Let x=upper part and 80 x=lower part. Then x 2 42 2 =(80 x) 2 . 4ns. Upper part 50 feet. Lower 30 feet. 452 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 20. Let x=width of frame. Then 24x+36x+4x 2 =216. Transpose, unite and complete the square. Ans. 3 inches. 21. From the vertical angle let fall a perpendicular to the base b. Let x=the segment adjacent to the side c ; b x=the segment adjacent to the side a ; Then will c 2 x 2 perpendicular. Also a 2 (b x) 2 =r perpendicular. Then will c 2 x 2 =a 2 (b x) 2 . After finding the perpendicular multiply the base b, by the perpendicular. 22. Add the three sides and divide this sum by 2. Subtract each side separately from the half sum. Multi- ply the several remainders and the half sum togetner and determine the square root of the result. 23. s= 24. Let x=number in the company. x x+2 Divide both members by 30. Clear of fractions and complete the square. Ans. 8. 25. The formulas will not apply in this problem so let y=common difference. Then x y=first ; x=second, and x+y=third. 3x=27, x=9, x 2 y 2 =77. Ans. 7, 9, 11. 26. Let x=side of the square in rods. - =number of acres. 160 16x=number of boards, each board being 16 feet or 1 rod long. Then =16x. 160 After finding x, square it and divide by 260. 27. Let x=the number. Ans ~ Thenf+7=ll. Ans. 10. 28. tar"- 1 , I=lx2 9 . Substitute 1 in s= r 29. Let x=time passed ; 30 x=time to come. x _,30 x . 2 4 -4ns. 10 years, TEST PROBLEMS. 453 30. Let x=the amount required at 40 cents and y=the amount required at 24 cents. Then x+y=l and 40x+24y=28. Ans. i at 40 cents, and I at 24 cents. 31. Let x=original number in each flock. Then x 39=2(x 93). Am. 147. 32. Let x=his age. Then x+-|+|-10=100. ^ eo years old 33. Let x=number of pounds at 9 cents and y=number of pounds at 13 cents. Then x+y=100, and 9x+13y =1,200. Ans. 25 Ibs. at 9c., and 75 Ibs. at 13c. 34. Let x=value of clothes. Then 100+x_6Q+x. 12 8 Ans. $20. 35. 7.493497-5=1.498699, and by reference to the table of logarithms 1.498699 is the logarithm of 31.52. 36. Let x=cost of horse. AnSt 31 ' 52 * Then x+g=420. 37. Let x=what the first put in. Then x 40=what second put in. Then x :x 40 : :5 :4. Ans. $200, and $160. 38. Let x=number of miles traveled per hour. rm, 36 o 36 Then-- =^Y Ans. Smiles. 39. Let x =his income. 450 . 40. Let x=number he broke, and 100 x=number he delivered. Then 3x 9(100 x)=240. Ans. 5. 41. Let x=height of the tree. Then42:J|::x:g. A ^ ^ ^ 42. Let 2x=first ; 3x=second and 4x=third. Then 9x=360. Ans. $80, $20, $160. 43. Let x=length, and 3x the breadth. Then 3x 2 =10,800. Ans. Length 180, breadth 60. 44. Let x=price of one orange, and y=price of a lemon. Then 6x+7y=33 and 12x+10y=54. Ans. Oranges 2 cents ; lemons 3 cents. 454 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 45. Let x=tne greater and y=the less. Then x+y=20 and x 2 y 2 =9216. Determine the square root of both members of the second equation and compare with the first. Ans. 12 and 8. 46. Let x=number of hours before B will overtake A. Then b ~ 7 ~f=~. Ans. 42 hours, o 5 5 47. Let x=distance traveled by hour hand. 12x= distance traveled by minute hand. There being 12 spaces for the minute hand to gain on the hour hand, 12x x=12. Ans. 1 hour, 5 min., 27-ft- sec. 48. Let x=distance traveled by hour hand. 12x=distance traveled by minute hand. The minute hand must gain two revolutions on the hour hand. Then 12x x=24. Ans. 2 hours, 10 min., 54^ sec. 49. Let x=distance traveled by hour hand. 12x=distance traveled by minute hand. After the hands are together between 2 and 3 o'clock, the minute hand must gain three more spaces on the hour hand. Then 12x x=27. Ans. 2 hours, 27 min., 16 T 4 T sec. 50. Let x=distance traveled by hour hand. 12xi=distance traveled by minute hand. Here 5 revolutions and six spaces must be gained. Then 12x x=66. Ans, 6 o'clock. APPENDIX. APPENDIX. 457 RULES TO BE OBSERVED AT EXAMINATIONS CONTRIBUTED BY G. DALLAS LIND. 1. Of course the teacher should always keep his person as neat and clean as possible, and dress, not foppishly, not necessarily in costly clothes, but neatly, plainly and as well as his circumstances will justify. There are times when the teacher, like other persons, may become careless of dress and appearance, but that time should not be when he goes to Examination. Horace Greeley was care- less in dress and Henry Clay Dean is as filthy as a man can well be, but we should copy the good points and not the faults of great men. A generous use of soap and water and attention to the " real estate " which is apt to accumulate under the finger nails are points worthy of the teacher's notice. We were not all born with the brain of a Greeley, and therefore need other means to aid us through the world. 2. Be on hand early. Better too early than too late. Prompt- ness is one of the unfailing signs of a good teacher. Some per- sons are always late, late to rise in the morning, late to bed at night, late to school, late to church and Sabbath-school, and would be late at their own funerals if they were not carried against their will. The teacher should not belong to this class. Show by your promptness at Examinations what you will prob- ably be at your school. Learn a lesson from the man who missed the morning train. 3. Keep cool. If you get excited you can not tell half you know. Never think of the outcome of your work, but think only ot what you are to do at the present moment, knowing, that the outcome will depend entirely upon how well you perform each step. Do the best you can, and do not worry about the rest Ex^ 458 APPENDIX. eitement will spoil many an answer, and you will say many things you do not believe and would not say in calmer moments. Your memory will forsake you, and you will not be able to recall the name of your grandmother if you are scared. 4. Obey strictly the rules of the Examination. If you are seen to whisper to another or violate any of the rules laid down for you, it will be taken as evidence that you are trying to practice fraud, though your intentions may be far from any such thing. Above all things do not be tempted to use any unfair means, what- ever. Your work is expected to show honestly what you are capa- ble of doing, and nothing more. Do not give the Examiner any ground for suspicion in this respect. 5. Write legibly. No one cares about puzzling his brains and wasting his time over hieroglyphics that look like antediluvian bird tracks, and when deciphered possess no ethnological interest whatever. It was no credit to Horace Greeley that there was but one man in the United States who could read his manuscript. One should cultivate the power of writing rapidly, yet plain. 6. Be very careful about the use of capital letters, spelling and punctuation. A great many of the errors in this respect are made through carelessness, slips of the pen, which may be avoided. When you have finished a subject, examine your work carefully and you will be very apt to find some errors. 7. Be careful about the neatness of your manuscript. lots and finger marks do not speak well for any one. 8. Confine your mind as closely as possible to your work. Do not let it wander off upon other subjects. This is one of the qual- ities of genius, to be able to concentrate the mind upon one point- until it is elaborated. Yet do not present the appearance of being puzzled or weary. Sit still and work calmly and quietly, as though you knew perfectly what you were about. Do not be caught twirling your hair with your fingers, drumming on thr table, or with your head resting on your hand. 9. If you are allotted a certain time on each branch, occupy all the time given you. If you get through before the time is up, review your work critically, making such corrections and addi- tions as you may find necessary. There is much to be gained by a critical study of your own productions. 10. Do not guess at the answer of a question. " Guess work is as good as any when it hits," is the saying, but it rarely ever hits, and you would better leave the paper blank than return it filled APPENDIX. 459 with guesses, even though some of them may hit the mark. It is a bad habit to get into, that of guessing at things. 11. Write out as much as possible of your work. If you can tell what you know clearly and briefly, in writing, it is a mark of ability. But do not be verbose. Tell what you have to tell in as few words as consistent with clearness. Be pointed in all answers to questions. Avoid ambiguity of expression. Use short sen- tences. Write upon the question before you and upon nothing else, 12. As far as possible, write the answer to each question on a sep- arate slip of paper, so that you can arrange the answers in order when you have finished. If your paper is in large sheets better tear in smaller slips. When you have arranged them in order, number the pages and fasten them together at the top. Write upon one side of the paper only. 13. On receiving your paper of questions, read it over carefully. Take the easiest question first and write the answer, then the next easiest, leaving the most difficult until the last. The hardest may come first on the paper, and the candidate spend the whole of his time puzzling over it, or until he gets nervous and frightened, when he will not be able to answer the others, although they may all be easy. 14. In exercises in Grammar, write out the parsing or analysis in full, abbreviating terms only. For example, in the sentence l< Mary milks the cow," parse cow thus : Cow, n., com., 3rd, sing., fern., obj., object of v. milks. K., A noun or pronoun, etc. In Arithmetic, write out the analysis of examples clearly, giv- ing your full work on the same paper. You will be judged not so much by the correctness of your final result as you will by the process you used to obtain it. If your analysis be correct, a mistake in the figures affecting the final result will not be of so much consequence. 15. Do not study too much the week previous to the Examina- tion. If you tax your mind too much, you will not have the clear- ness of perception and mental power you would otherwise have. Especially do not sit up late the night before to study. Go to bed early, and think as little as possible about the work of the morrow. 16. Eat a light supper the night before, and your sleep will be sounder and you will have fewer dreams, and consequently you will rise more refreshed and better able to cope with intellectual problems. Eat lightly at breakfast and dinner on Examination day. It would be well to observe this rule through life. 460 APPENDIX. HINTS ON THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPT^ CONTRIBUTED BY G. DALLAS LIND. There are comparatively few persons who know how to write a letter, and a still less number who know how to write an article for the press. Postmasters are aware of the fact that few know how to address a letter properly, and editors and publishers are pain- fully aware that few know how to prepare a manuscript for pub- lication. It is humiliating, but true, that a large proportion of our teachers are remarkably deficient in such knowledge. It is something strange, for the means of instruction are not wanting. Perhaps it is because there are few text-books which give the re- quired information in a tangible and connected form. All gram- mars give the rules for capital letters. Spelling is taught from infancy up. Rules for punctuation are given in grammars. Yet in these three points do all most err. Works on rhetoric give the necessary information in regard to arrangement, style, etc., but the ordinary teacher does not always make use of such a text-book. Perhaps the greatest reason for this ignorance, is the lack of a feeling of the importance which should be attached to the subject. Too many scarcely ever devote a moment's thought to the matter. They write their letters and never read them over to see how they look. The teacher should make it a point in common schools and primary schools, generally to teach the use of the period and cap. ital letters. This much can be taught to very young children. As they grow older and are able to wield the pen with some de- gree of facility, they can learn, and pains should be taken to teach them, to properly address a letter, fold, address and sign the name. Frequent exercises should be given in writing sentences and words, until they become as familiar with the appearance of words APPENDIX. 461 and sentences In manuscript as they are with the alphabet. Were teachers more interested in this branch of learning, there would be less ignorance among the masses in this respect. We append a few rules, which, if followed, will be of benefit to the tyro in this branch : 1. In writing any kind of a manuscript which you expect other eyes to read, whether a letter of friendship or business, an article for the press, or any matter you wish to preserve, use a pen and black ink and white or light-colored paper. It is a kind of insult to write to a person with a pencil, and most articles sent to the press so written, go to the waste basket. 2. Learn to write in straight lines without ruling. All paper would be better if made without being ruled. The eye should be trained to guide the hand straight across the page without the aid of ruled lines. They only mar the beauty of a written page. The custom of writing on ruled paper has spoiled most persons, so that when they come to address an envelope where there are no ruled lines, they are sure to go crooked. 3. Of course you should spell every word correctly. It is best for beginners to have a dictionary by their side when writing, and every word about which there is a doubt, should be looked up. It should be made an unpardonable sin to misspell words in compo- sition, when there are so many dictionaries in the land. Study the rules for the use of capital letters. They are very simple, and no one who pretends to any learning, or to teach, should be ignor- ant of them. When you have written a sentence read it over and see that you have made no slips of the pen. These are very com- mon, such as omitting one of the final letters of a word or adding a letter to a word, omitting one of the letters when they are doub- led, etc. Not only read over each sentence as you write it, but read the composition over one or more times when you are through. It is a good habit, one we have been accustomed to for a long time, to read over every paragraph, as soon as written, then every page or a number of paragraphs together. You are sure to find some errors in this way, not only slips of the pen, but errors in spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, etc. Get into the habit of criticising your own work. 4. In regard to punctuation, little need be said. It is easy to learn the use of the principal point, the period. Never use long sentences. Short sentences are easily managed ; long ones are not. There is scarcely any use for the semicolon and colon. The use 462 APPENDIX. of the comma is somewhat arbitrary. The most common uses, however, should not be neglected. Between the terms of a closely- related series, or wherever the connective is omitted, or in general* wherever any word is omitted, there should be a comma. Terms which are contrasted should be separated by a comma, also words used independently should be set off by commas. The uses of the exclamation and interrogation points are sufficiently obvious. Never divide a syllable at the end of the line, and place a hyphen after a syllable at the end of the line when the remainder of the word is carried to the next line. For the use of the hyphen in compound words, you must go to the dictionary. Underscore every word you wish printed in italics, with two lines if in small capitals, three lines if in large capitals. 5. In commencing a manuscript, begin the first line an inch or loore from the margin of the paper. Every other line in the same paragraph should commence nearer the margin of the paper and should be kept as nearly even as possible. You can use your own judgment about paragraphing. You may put more than one subject in the same paragraph, but it is not best to make a new paragraph where the sense is closely con- nected. 6. It is not a good idea to write and then copy, except for very young beginners. It is best to form a habit at once of writing correctly, and of so analyzing and arranging your subject in the mind that you may write it but once. You are almost as apt to make mistakes in copying, and the time is lost. If the composi- tion is to be an essay, or any other species of writing, except an ordinary letter it is well to make an outline first, a kind of skele- ton, which you can elaborate and clothe at your will. 7. If you have made a mistake in spelling, correct, when possi- ble, without rewriting the word. If it is a letter or letters omit- ted supply them in the line above, using a caret to show where they should be inserted. If a letter is not needed strike it out by drawing a slanting line through it. If the word can not be cor- rected in this way, or if the wrong word is used, draw your pen through it horizontally and rewrite it in the space above, or after the word if the mistake is discovered in time. 8. If writing for publication, write on one side of the paper only. It is best to use small half sheets about the size of commer- cial note paper. Observe rules 5 and 7 of " Kules to be observed at Examinations" (p. 428). Be especially particular to write APPENDIX. 463 proper names legibly. The proof reader has no means of finding out whether you mean " Mr. Baker," " Mr. Barker," or " Mr. Bun- ker." He may guess from the connection what other words, badly written, are, but proper names he can tell nothing about. Always send your own name with the MS., not necessarily for publication, but the editor must know who is responsible for the composition. 9. In writing a business letter be brief and pointed, yet use words enough to make your meaning plain. Come at once to the point without any preliminary remarks. If an order for goods, be careful to make figures plain, and always give your full name, postoffice, county and state, and number of house and street, if in a city. Observe the same rule in addressing the letter. It is best, generally, where sums of money are mentioned, to write the amount in words and figures both, enclosing the figures in a pa- renthesis. 10. As a general rule in writing, use common words and such as convey your meaning best. If you have a natural talent for word painting and can use flowery and ornate language, remem- ber that it is all out of place in any kind of business correspond- ence. If you wish to let your Pegasus fly, take the opportunity to do so, when you write to some indulgent friend or write a love- letter. The more Anglo-Saxon terms you use the better. Avoid Latin and French phrases as much as possible. In writing an essay upon any subject, arrange your matter in the form of an out- line, as suggested in rule 6, saying all you wish to under each head before commencing another. In letter writing, however, you are at liberty to say whatever comes first to your mind. A letter of friendship may be something as you would talk to your corre- spondent if he were present. 11. To fold a sheet to go into an envelope you must be guided, of course, by the size of your sheet and envelope; but, for example, take the ordinary commercial note paper and the common busi- ness envelope, and you will fold it thus : Turn the bottom of the sheet up one-third of the way, then turn the top third down over the bottom and middle thirds, thus making three folds, and you will find it not only conveniently fit the envelope, but come ex- actly to the hand of the opener of the letter. 12. In addressing an envelope, never get above the median line, commencing the name near enough the left margin to get all the name and title on the same line. Never commit the unpardonable 28 464 APPENDIX. offense of getting a person's name or name And title on different lines. Your envelope when directed should look something like the following : STAMP. MR. JOHH SMITH, DANVILLE, HEHDEICKS Co. IND. APPENDIX. 465 PROGRAMME CONTRIBUTED BY P. P. ADAMS. Every man, in whatever line of business, should work by a programme. In consideration of the importance of the teacher's work and the vast amount to be done in so short a time, the neces- sity of closely following a programme can not be overestimated. The teacher should write in a conspicuous place a programme for the whole school, both for recitations and study. The same pro- gramme will not answer for any two schools. The following, though evidently not perfect, is intended to be suggestive : The school can be separated into four grades on the subject of Arithmetic. The abcdarians may be called the counting class or D Grade ; the class in addition will constitute the C Grade ; the class in division, the B Grade ; and the class in fractions, the A Grade. We give on the next page a Daily Programme of Recitations and Studies. EXPLANATIONS. 1. The recitations are indicated by italic type. 2. The time of commencing the recitations is given in the first column. 3. It is considered that the History classes can recite at the ame time ; also the two Geography classes at the same time. 4. It is presumed that the History and Physiology lessons can 6e prepared out of school. The teacher is measurably a failure if his pupils do not carry their books home with them and study them at night. 5. It is thought best to have pupils study a lesson immediately after recitation, rather than just before. The full benefit will thus be derived from the preliminary drills which are given by every iuccessful teacher. 466 APPENDIX, *>*-?WCOWN> ro o pjotoopo h- 1 cn oo oo WEO^ flit? &f SSJ.SJ ffiifi ?" p.a.0. OJ^OQ Reading Geograp Geograp Geograp P. as. 2. 2 o ft re n> S?.T.C: p p p p Arithmetic Arithmetic. Arithmetic Grammar. Grammar. fu *iaaa CLg^^n- 5'5'| B B (JQOQ S.(D fD ' ^P O i. O APPENDIX. 467 OUTLINE OF PERCENTAGE. CONTRIBUTED BY UNA HINKS. [The following outline is complete and sufficiently clear, we ihink, to be understood, if carefully studied.] I 1 Definition. That division of Arithmetic m which one hundred is taken as the basis of computation. 2 1 General rule. I. " Determine from the conditions of the problem that quan- tity which 100 per cent, will best represent." II. " Reason from many to one and from one to many, as the na- ture of the question may require." 3 1 Terms employed. I 8 Per cent. 1 s Definition : a term derived from the Latin words per centum, signifying by the hundred. 2 s Symbol=$. 2 3 Base. I 3 Definition: that quantity on which percentage is com- puted. 2 3 Symbol=B. 3 2 Rate. 1 s Definition: that quantity which expresses the number of hundredths to be considered. 2 s Symbol=R. 4? Percentage. I 3 Definition : that part of the base which is indicated bj the per cent. 2 3 Symbol=P. 5 2 Sum, or amount. 1 s Definition : the base plus the percentage. 2 s Symbol=S. or Am't. 468 APPENDIX. 6* Difference. 1* Definition : the base minus the percentage. 2 Symbol=D. 4 1 Cases. 1 Case I. I 8 Quantities given. 1* Base. 2* Bate. 2 Quantity required : Percentage. 3 8 Formula: P.=B.XR. 4 Example: (Prob. 1, p. 231, French). I 4 Statement : Find 20% o f 960 bu. 2* Solution: Let 100^=960 bu. Then 1%=^ of 960 bu.=9.6 bu. 20$=20 times 9.6 bu.,=192 bu. 8* Conclusion : /. 20$, of 960 bu. is 192 b. 2 Case II. 1 s Quantities given. 1* Base. 2* Percentage. 2 s Quantity required : Bate. 3* Formula: R=P.-f-l$ of B. 4* Example: (Prob. 11, p. 232, French). 1* Statement: 17 is what per cent, of 51? 2* Solution: Let 51=100%. Then 1=^ of 17=17 times 3* Conclusion: /. 17 is 33ff% of 51. 3 Case III. I 3 Quantities given. 1* Rate. 2* Percentage. 2 s Quantity required : Base. 3* Formula: B.=P.-r-E. 4 s Example : (Prob. 18, p. 233, French). 1* Statement : 465 mi. are 15$ of how many mij 2* Solution : Let 100$=the req. num. of mi. APPENDIX. 469 Since 15$=465 mi., l$>=iV of 465 mL,=31 mi., and 100$=100 times 31 mi.,=3100 mi. 3* Conclusion : .-. 465 mi. are 15$ of 3100 miles. Case IV. 1* Quantities given. 1* Base. 2* Bate. 2 s Quantity required : Am't or diflf. 3 8 Formulae. 1* When the amount is required : Am't=B.X(l-f &) 2* When the difference is required: Diff.=B.X(l B.). 4* Examples: (Prob. 25, p. 234, French). 1* When the amount is required. 1 5 Statement : Given, the B.=125, R=25$, to find the amount. 2 5 Solution : I 6 Preliminary work : 100$+ 25$=125$= Am'k 2 s Solution proper: Let 100$=125, l%=T>rs of 125=1.25. 125%=125 times 1.25=137.5. 3* Conclusion : .*. 137.5 is the amount of 125 plus 25$, 2* When the difference is required. 1 6 Statement: Given, the B.=125, R.=25$, to find the difference. 2 5 Solution. I 6 Preliminary work : 100$ 25$=75$. 2* Solution proper. Let 100 $=125. Then 1 $=rJi7 o f 125=1.25; 75$ =75 times 1.25=94.75. 3 5 Conclusion : .-. 94.75 is the difference of 125, and 25 per cent. Case V. I 8 Quantities. 1* Kate. 2* Amount or difference. 2 s Quantity required : Base. 3 Formulae. 1* When the amount is given. 470 APPENDIX. 2* When the difference is given : B.=D.-s-(l B,). 4 s Examples: (Prob. 33, p. 235, French). 1* When the amount is given. 1* Statement : 267.5 is 7 per cent, more than what nom* ber? 2 s Solution: Let 100$>=the required number. 10096+796=107$. Since 107$=267.5, I$=TT of 267.5=2.5; 100#=100 times 2.5,=250. 3 5 Conclusion: /. 267.5 is 1% more that 250. 2* When the difference is given. I 5 Statement: 267.5 is 7% less than what number? 2* Solution: Let 100$ the required number. 100$ 7$=9396. Since 9396=267.5, 1$=-^ of 267.5=2.8654- ; 10096=100 times 2.865,+=2S6.5-K 3 5 Conclusion : /. 267.5 is 7$ less than 286J. & Applications. 1* Insurance. 2* Commission and brokerage. 3* Profit and loss. 4 Stocks. 5* Taxes and duties. 6* Interest. 7* Discount. 8* Government securities. 9 2 Banking. JO 8 Exchange. }J* Equation of payments. APPENDIX. 471 CARTOGRAPHY. CONTRIBUTED BY DORA LIEUELLEtf. MAP DRAWING. I 1 Materials : I 2 Paper. I 3 Flat-cap. 2 s Brown. 2 2 Kulers: I 3 Straight a scale of twelve or fourteen inches. 2 s Flexible a piece of rattan or strip of zinc will answer. 3 a Lead-pencil Faber No. 3, with an eraser. 4? India-ink. Prepare it by dropping four or five drops of rain-water on a smooth piece of glass, then holding the stick of ink between the fingers, rub the glass un- til the water is black. This will be as much as any one will use in two hours. $ Rules : I 2 Determine the scale. 1 s The map should never be drawn the same size of the one in the book. 2 s One and a half times this is a convenient size, if flat-cap be used. 2 s The border-lines : I 8 The inner lines should be drawn first. 1* Determine the exact length of the north and east lines on the map. 2* Make due allowance for the increased or decreased size. 3* Draw the rectangle and ascertain the latitude and longitude of its angles. 2 s The outer border-line. I 4 Should not be drawn until the map is complete. 2* Should be heavier than other lines. 472 APPENDIX. 3 8 The center line : I 3 In all well constructed maps there is a straight line pass- ing from north to south through the center. This is th center meridian, and should be drawn and numbered accordingly. 4* Parallels : 1 s By careful measurement determine the points at which each cuts the inner border lines and the center merid- ian. 2 s Using the flexible ruler, draw a line through these points. 3 3 Number the parallels at their eastern extremities. 6 2 Meridians : I 3 Select the parallel nearest the center of the map. 2 3 Determine the points at which the meridians east of the center cut the inner border-lines and this parallel ; measure the same distances upon these lines west of the center-line. 3 8 Through these points draw the meridians. These should be numbered at their northern extremities. 6 2 Outline: 1 s Establish the key-points in the rectangles formed by the crossings of the parallels and meridians. 1* Begin at the north-west corner of the map, determine the latitude and longitude of a town, cape, mouth of of a river, or some other important locality, and place it in the corresponding position on the new map. 2* Locate a number of these points at convenient inter- vals ; if the coast is very irregular, many ; if com- paratively free from indentations, few. 3* Carefully observing the model, unite these with a zig- zag line, continuing in this manner until the entire outline is completed. 7 s Islands: I 8 These may be drawn in the same manner as the contL nents. 2 s As the physical and political features are added to the continent, so should they be to the islands. 3 s The outlines of th'e natural divisions and reliefs should be retraced in ink. 8* Mountains: APPENDIX. 473 I 8 There are many pretty ways to represent them. Care should be taken to leave no one in doubt concerning the importance of the range or peak, as it may be. 1* Single rows of widely scattered " fine divergent " lines represent hills. 2* Double rows, mountain ranges, several of these systems. 3* Several heavy strokes, shaded with lighter ones, peaks. 9 2 Deserts: I 3 Determine the area covered, then dot with a pen. 2 s The oasis should not be colored. JO 2 Lakes: I 3 Determine their position and draw their outline. 2 s The coast line shaded with several lines adds much to the effect. II 8 Kivers: 1 s Determine the most important systems. 2 s Observe through what parts of the rectangles they wend their way. 3 3 Draw the important branches, noticing that each widens at its mouth, and the width of the main river is in- creased by the blending of their waters. 12 s Political divisions : I 3 Trace the boundaries in a dotted line in lead or ink. 2 s Kepresent the capital by a circle within a circle, the principal cities by a single small circle. Other plans will suggest themselves. 13' Key: I 3 No names should be placed upon the map. If the mem- ory needs an aid this is a good one. 1* Prepare a slip of paper one-fourth of a sheet of fools- cap folded lengthwise. 2* Number the locality in lead, on the map, place a cor^ responding number on the Key, after it the name neatly written. 3* After completing it in this manner, it may t>fc fastened to the left corner at the bottom of the map, 3 1 Order: l a Indiana, or native State. 2 2 South America. 3 2 Australia. 4 2 Africa. S 2 Asia. 474 APPENDIX. 6 2 Europe. I 4 Empires. 2* Kepublics. 3 4 Kingdoms. T 2 North America. 8 2 United States. 1* Remark : For this, Bristol board is used. The foregoing rules and remarks are designed to aid those who wish a course in map-drawing, where, as we understand it, neatness, in general appearance, and accuracy in execution are de- sired as well as knowledge of location. We would not have it so, but should any one desire the latter only this might seem too tedi- ous ; to such we recommend the more expeditious process sketch- ing which is made comparatively simple by the use of the par- allels and meridians. APPENDIX. 475 SCALE OF CRITICISM. CONTRIBUTED BY F. P. ADAMS. The following is a scale of criticism for use in Khetoric and Literature Classes of the Central Normal College. The teacher, in looking over the essays, notes the mistakes by the use of figures ; thus, 1 placed over a word denotes incorrect spelling ; 2, wrong use of capital ; 27, obsolete word, etc. It is not supposed that every teacher will find use for the entire scale; but it may assist some in making out one for themselves. Only a few of the points should be used in criticising the essays of beginners. I. ORTHOGRAPHY, CAPITALS, ETC. 1. Spelling. 5. Word divided. 2. Capitals. 6. Paragraphing. 3. Compound. 7. Penmanship. 4. Syllable divided. II. PUNCTUATION. 8. For sense. 13. For style of type. 9. For abbreviation. 14. For divided word. JO. For possessive. 15. For omission of letters, words, 11. For quotation. or sentences. 12. For references. m. PURITY. The faults against purity are called barbarisms. 16. Archaisms: selection of obsolete words; as, list, wot, trow. 17. Alienisms : selection of words not domesticated in general use ; as, bizarre. 18. Provincialisms : selections of words used only in certain lo- calities ; as tote, critter, " right smart." 476 APPENDIX. 19. Technicalities : selection of words used only by a particu- lar class or profession. 20. Slang; as. chuck full, go 24. Hybrid; as, hemicircle. it, cahoot. 25. Faulty formation ; as, rcluo- 21. Newly-coined words; as, tate. shootist. 26. Vulgar contraction; as, AowV 22. Faulty suffix. for haven't. 23. Faulty prefix. IV. PROPRIETY. (1) Lexical 27. Words in obsolete use ; as, " Be buried quick with her." 28. Words of equivocal meaning ; as, " This translation was overlooked by many careful scholars." 29. Words of provincial meaning; as, "Directly the queen came the performances commenced." 30. Words in mixed imagery; as, " Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray through the thickest gloom." 31. Synonym with wrong shade of meaning ; as, " Tolerate me to introduce my friend, Mr. Johnson." 32. Synonym, or other word, inappropriate to style of dis- course; as, "The distinguished arbiters met, and after a long chat, agreed upon the award." 33. Wrong signification. (2) OramifiaticaL 34. Syntax faulty. 35. Wrong inflection ; as, " The clothes was made to order." " The boys likes to play marbles." 36. Wrong element ; as, " He spoke firstly of virtue ; second of righteousness." 37. Double use of an element ; as, 4 'These measures we have considered carefully and are turn presented for your review." 38. Ellipsis; as, " I had three sons all died in a year." 39. Pleonasm; as, "John, he knows." APPENDIX. 477 40. Tautology; as, " He works when he does work" 41. Redundancy. This is the use of more words than are nec- essary. V. CONCORD. 42. Su bject- words ; as, " He is the man wham they think would make a good leader.' 43. Predicate-words; as, " Neither of them are sociable." 44. Pronouns; as, " Each has their special work." 45. Appositives; as, "The work was John's him whom they had already ut off." 46. Object-words; as, " Between you and I." 47. Expression of time ; as, " They would join his party if they can." VI. ARRANGEMENT. 48. Principal elements. 64. Phrases. 49. Adjectives. 55. Parts of complex sentence. 50. Adverbials. 56. Members of compound sen- 51. Modals. tence. 62. Objectives. 57. Promiscuous words. 63. Pronouns. VH. PRECISION AND ENERGY. 68. Ambiguous word or 64. Ellipsis obscure. phrase. 65. Clearness. 59. Equivocal word or 66. Ambiguous antecedent. phrase. 67. Infinitive separated from its 60. Faulty definition. sign. 61. Deficiency. 68. Splitting a particle. 62. Strength. 63. Not specific. 69. Uncertain relation of a modifying word, phrase or sentence. 70. Omission or insertion of connective incorrect. 71. Omission or insertion of the article incorrect 72. Bad choice of word or phrase. 73. Verbosity. 74. Feeble ending. 478 APPENDIX. 75. Feebleness of expression. 76. Commonplace. 77. Lack of symmetry ; as, " The trader came to buy stock and for trading" 78. Anti-climax. 79. Antithesis faulty. 80. Negative form of expression. VIII. FIGURES. 81. Mixed imagery. 82. Inappropriate metaphor. 83. Trite simile. 84. Unreasonable figure. IX. PROMISCUOUS CRITICISMS. 85. Abrupt transition. 93. Method. 86. Euphony. 94. Selection. 87. Harmony. 95. Completeness. 88. Elegance. 96. Truthfulness. 89. Naturalness. 97. Business appearance. 90. Extravagance. 98. Carelessness. 91. Continuousness. 99. Promptitude. 92. Unity. 100. Miscellaneous. APPBNDIX. ' 479 GRAMMAR. CONTRIBUTED BY F. P. ADAMS. Shall the parsing lessons be written f On every favorable occasion we declaim against the hum-drum, sing-song plan that some teachers follow of having the recitations in grammar made up wholly of the repetition of committed rules and definitions and declensions and oral parsings. Some of the lessons, or even a part of every lesson, may be oral ; but no pupil can afford to be without the great advantages that result from written lessons. By writing the lessons, (1) the pupils will be more likely to prepare the entire work assigned ; (2) they will work with greater care ; (3) they will accustom themselves to de- finiteness and accuracy of thought ; (4) they will improve in (a) reading, (6) writing, (c) spelling, (d) punctuation, (e) capitaliza- tion, (/) and the general appearance of their manuscripts. We have tried this in crowded district schools, and we feel safe in aying that it pays in economy of time, and yields rich results in the points spoken of above. Infinitives and Participles. To master infinitives and participles is considered by many the most difficult task connected with grammar. It is perplexing and amusing to examine and compare the views of a few different au- thors with reference to these difficult parts of speech. We have not space to give, at present, the results of such an investigation. The best disposition to be made of both infinitives and participles is that made by Holbrook, Whitney and Pierce. This disposition will be understood by the following rule: "Infinitives and Par- ticiples have the constructions of nouns, adjectives and adverbs." 29 480 APPENDIX. OUTLINE. Infinitives : I 1 Constructions. I 2 Of a noun. 1 s Subject of a verb, 1* " To live in hearts we leave behind IB not to die." 2 s In predicate with a verb, 1* To die is to slzep. 3 3 Object of a verb, I 4 We want to go to school. 4 s Object of a preposition, I 4 He is about to go. 5 8 In apposition I 4 With a word, I 5 The task to sweep the streets was impowrt. 2 4 With a phrase, I 5 To shuffle off this mortal coil, to cease, is not < 2 s Of an adverb 1 s Modifying I 4 A verb, I 5 He came to get grapes. 2 4 An adjective, I 5 Let us be content to toork. 3 4 An adverb, I 5 He labored enough to deserve It. 3 9 Of an adjective 1 s Limiting I 4 A noun, I 5 There is a time to mourn. & A pronoun, I 5 She appears to be coming. We have endeavored in the outline given above, to show that every infinitive must have the construction either of an adjective^ of an adverb, or of a noun. The same position will hold for par- ticiples. If a participle limits a noun or a pronoun it has the construc- tion or nature of an adjective, since that is the office that an ad- jective performs. If it modifies an adjective, an adverb or a verb, then we say it has the construction of an adverb. When the participle is the subject of a verb, the object of a transitive verb in the active APPENDIX. 481 roice, the object of a preposition, or in apposition with a norm ar phrase, then we say it has the construction of a noun. The following outline shows this view in condensed form Participial constructions : I 1 Of a noun. 1* Subject of a verb. & Object of a transitive verb. 3 8 Object of a preposition. 4* In apposition. I 3 With a noun. 2 3 With a phrase. 2 1 Of an adjective. l a Limiting. I 8 A noun. 2 s A pronoun. 2* In predicate. 1 s With an intransitive verb. 2 s With a passive verb. ff Of an adverb, I 1 Limiting 1* A verb. 1* Transitive. I 5 Active. 2 s Passive. 2* Intransitive. 2* An adverb. S 8 An adjective. ANALYSIS. Sentences : I 1 Classes. 1 s As to structure. 1 s Simple. 1* Complete one whose verb is finite. 2* Abridged one whose verb is infinite. 2 s Complex. 1* Principal. 2* Subordinate. 8? Compound. 1* Members. I 5 Leading the first member. 2P Co-ordinate any other than the first member. 482 APPENDIX. 2* As to use. 1 Declarative. 2* Imperative. 3* Interrogative. 4* Exclamatory. 2 1 Elements. 1 s Principal. 1* Subject. 1* Simple. 2* Complex. 3* Compound. 2? Predicate. 1* Parts. I 6 Copula. 2 s Attribute. 2* Kinds. I 8 Simple. 2 s Complex. 3 5 Compound. 2? Subordinate. I 8 Kinds. 1* As to structure. I 5 Simple one whose baa* if jumodified. 2 s Complex one whose base is modified. 3 5 Compound two or mere simple or complex element* of equal rank, joir/ed by co-ordinate connectives. 2* As to relation. I 8 Adjective one wtioh modifies a noun or pronoun. 2 s Adverbial one which modifies anything but a noun or proa an, and is not the object of a transi' tive verb in the active voice. 8* Objective th., object of a transitive active verb. 4 8 Subjective objective subject of an infinitive. 3* As to base. I 8 First cJass-^rftde whose base is a single word. 2* Second cla*s one whose base is a preposition and its object or an infinitive. 3 6 Third claw a complete subordinate sentence. GUIDE FOB ANALYSIS. L Bead tke sentence. APPENDIX. 483 2. Classify it - (Simple, Complex, Compound. as to use. f Declarative, I Imperative, 1 Interrogative t Exclamatoryl 3. Give the complex subject. 4. Give the simple subject. 5. Point out its modifiers. {Simple, Complex, Compound. 6. Classify them as to relation. f Adjective, I Adverbial, 1 Objective, [Subjective. C First class, s to base. \ Second class, I Third class. 7. Give the base of each modifier and classify its modifiers. 8. Give the complex predicate. 9. Give the simple predicate. 10. Point out its modifiers. "J as to structure, V 11. Classify them > as to relation, J as to base. 12. Give the base and classify its modifiers. The class should copy this guide, be drilled on it, and thai recite the following outline, after which it should be written OB the board. as to rank, V - {Simple, Complex, Compound. Kinds of Elements. - as to relation, f Adjective. I Adverbial, j Objective, I Subjective. f First class, as to base, -j Second class, I Third class. 484 APPENDIX. Kinds of Sentences. - f Simple, as to form, j Complex, (. Compound. {Declarative, Imperative, Interrogative, Exclamatorj. APPENDIX. 485 OUTLINE ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. The following outline on the Objects of the Recitation and Qualifications of the Teacher was obtained in the teachers' train- ing class, Central Normal College, Danville, Indiana : I. OBJECTS OF RECITATION. 1. Examination of written work prepared by pupils. Topics, Keviews, etc. 3. Imparting additional information. 1. By Illustrations. 2. By Conversation. 3. By Explanation. 4. By Demonstration, etc. 4. Cultivation of 1. Accurate and ready expression. [ Spelling, 1. In writing, [ Syntax, etc. o T ' ^v: / By wearing off embarrassment. 2. In speaking, | ^h note f and without 2. Attention. 1. By reporting what teacher or pupils have explained or illustrated. 2. By mutual criticism. 1. In walking across the floor. 2. In rising. 3. Good manners, 3. In sitting. 4. In standing. 486 APPENDIX. r Interest. 5. Arousing J Love for study. Independent thought. [ Investigation. r Of the timid. 6. Encouragement Of the slow. I Of the diligent. 7. Direction of the pupils' work. 8. Mastery of self. QUALIFICATIONS OP THE TEACHER I 1 Physical. 1 2 Good health. 2 2 Good eyes. 3 2 Good ears. 4 2 Good voice. & Good looks. 2 1 Intellectual. 1 3 Natural. I 8 Good common sense. 1* Adapting one's self to circumstances, both in teaching and government. 2* In familiarity with patrons and pupils. 3* By not enacting rules which can not be carried into execution. 4* By not under or overtasking the pupils. 5 4 By not pandering to prejudice. 6* By not making a hobby of any single branch, but by making a hobby of all. 7 4 By not flattering or disparaging. 8* Teaching by example as well as by precept. 2 s Cheerfulness. 3 3 Firmness. 4* Patience. 5 3 Sociability. 6 s A love for the work and children. 7 3 Power of comparison. 8 s Aptness to teach. 2 2 Acquired : I 3 Knowledge of human nature. 2 s Knowledge of the common branches. 3 3 Knowledge of sciences. 4 3 General knowledge of history. APPENDIX. 487 6* General knowledge of government. 6 3 General knowledge of miscellaneous subjects. 3 1 Moral: I 1 Honesty with God and man. Temperate in all things. PERIODS OF THE MIND'S DEVELOPMENT. I 1 Objective, in which the child is to be taught by means of ob- jects. The length of this period depends upon the natural ability of the child and the amount and quality of culti- vation the mind receives. The question during this period is, What? 2 1 Transition, during which the change is made gradual ty from the objective to the subjective. Objects should not be ex- cluded during this period. We now have the question, Why? 3 1 Subjective, in which the mind can grasp abstract subjects. In which it can divide a subject into its parts and study them singly. Illustrations from objects not before the eye can be used successfully. WIE PERCEPTIVE, REFLECTIVE AND RETENTIVE FACULTIES DE- FINED. The perceptives are those faculties with which we observe the position, form, size, color, motion, etc., of objects. The retentive faculties are those by which we retain the impres- sions made upon our minds by the exercise of the perceptives. The reflectives are those faculties by the workings of which one is able to compare and contrast things which have come through the perceptives and retentives. TRAINING THE PERCEPTIVE AND RETENTIVE FACULTIES. I 1 Composition. V Have pupils write what the teacher does. 2 3 Narrate what takes place during a recitation. 3 a Tell about twelve things you saw on the road to school. 4 2 Tell about what happened during holidays or Sunday. 5 7 Listen to a story read and then reproduce it. 6* Description of some object placed before the pupils. 7 f Description of some object previously observed by the pupils. 488 APPENDIX. TRAINING THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES IK GEOGRAPHY. 1. Develop the ideas of boundary and direction by arranging objects on the table. 2. Drill on the direction of objects in the school-room. 3. Map the school-room. 4. Map the school grounds. 5. Map the adjoining farms. 6. Map the house and yard of your homo. 7. Map the township. 8. Map the county. 9. Map the state. APPENDIX. 489 TOPIC LIST FOR THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY. CONTRIBUTED BY ANNIE M. SHERRILL. Write the list on the board, and have each pupil copy it for use during the term. In studying the text of the several countries assign a certain number of topics to be investigated and reported upon at each recitation, instead of assigning the questions in the book. 1. Locality. 2. Boundaries. 3. Latitude and Longitude. 4 s.,rf/w / No - * feet above tn sea. rface ' I Mountainous or flat 5. Watersheds. 6. Mountains. 7. Volcanoes. 8. Plateaus. 9. Plains. 10. Deserts. 11. Peninsulas. 12. Isthmuses. 13. Capes. 14. Islands. 15. Oceans. 16. Seas. 17. Gulfs. 18. Bays. COM* what? 10 IS, , W hat? 20. Sounds. 01 nv i /Connect what? 21. Channels, ( g^^ what? 490 APPENDIX. Situation. {. Stream 22. Lakes. 23. Kivers. 24. Climate. 25. Soil. 26. Productions. 27. Animals. 28. Exports. 29. Imports. 30. Commerce. 31. Area. 32. Population. 33. Nationality. 34. State of Society. 35. Political Divisions. 36. 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