THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID , m u International Fisheries Exhibition LONDON, 1883 THE FISHERIES EXHIBITION , LITERATURE. VOLUME I. HANDBOOKS PART I. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. THE FISHERY LAWS. APPARATUS FOR FISHING. THE PLACE OF FISH IN A HARD-WORKING DIET, WITH NOTES ON THE USE OF FISH IN FORMER TIMES. A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN OF ALL COUNTRIES FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES. LONDON WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, 13 CHARING CROSS, S.W. 1884. LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. HANDBOOKS PART I CONTENTS. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. By His EXCELLENCY SPENCER WALPOLE i MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. By W. SAVILLE KENT, F.L.S., F.Z.S. '. . 73 THE FISHERY LAWS. By FREDERICK POLLOCK, Barrister-at- Law, M.A., &c. 205 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. By E.- W. H. HOLDSWORTH, . F.L.S., F.Z.S 251 THE PLACE OF FISH IN A HARD-WORKING DIET, WITH NOTES ON THE USE OF FISH IN FORMER TIMES. By W. STEPHEN MITCHELL, M.A. ... 327 A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE FISHERIES AND FISHER- MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES. By W. M. ADAMS, B.A. . . . . .461 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE BY His EXCELLENCY SPENCER WALPOLE LIEUT.-GOVERNOR OF THE ISLE OF MAN VOL. I H. CONTENTS. PACE INTRODUCTORY 3 FISHING POPULATION . . . . . . . -9 FISHING IMPLEMENTS . . 12 FISHING VESSELS AND THEIR CREWS 15 FISH TRADE AND FISHERIES 21 BOUNTIES 25 GOVERNMENT BRANDS . . . . . . . .29 TRAWLING 41 DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCE . 4$ BILLINGSGATE 5 2 EXHAUSTION OF FISHERIES 63 STATE REGULATION 68 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. FEW things are more remarkable in modern politics than the care which is almost everywhere taken to illustrate by statistics the science of government. In the United Kingdom elaborate arrangements are made with this object. Public officers are employed in enumerating the flocks and herds ; in recording the crops which are sown ; and in counting every bale of goods which is either imported into, or exported from, the country. The writer, who desires to procure statistical information on almost any subject connected with the growth, the health, the con- dition, or the industry of the people, is able to obtain it in an authoritative form, and in a convenient and cheap volume. The success which the " Statistical Abstracts " have achieved has induced their authors to extend their scope. The Statis- tical Abstract of the United Kingdom has been supplemented by statistical abstracts for the Colonies, for India, and for even foreign countries. A vast mass of information of almost immeasurable value has in this way been collected, and the student or the inquirer is able to obtain facts on almost every subject to which either his studies or his investigations may be directed. Yet the politician or the student, who has had occasion to consult the excellent statistics which are published by the British Government, has probably noticed one remark- B 2 4 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. able omission from them. While on every other subject he finds information, which is usually full and which is seldom inexact, on one subject he fails to obtain any information whatever. The editor of the Statistical Abstract does not seem to be aware that a large number of persons in the British Islands are dependent on fishing for their liveli- hood ; that a considerable proportion of the food of the inhabitants of these islands consists of fish ; and that one of the most important trades of the kingdom is the trade in fish. The quantity of fish which is imported into these islands from abroad or which is exported from them is included in the statistical abstracts. But on the much greater questions which are connected with the fisheries the employment which they afford, the capital which they attract, and the wealth which they produce the Statistical Abstract is uniformly silent. This silence arises from no fault of the editor of the Abstract. He gives no information on the subject of fisheries, because no full information is forthcoming which is worth publishing. The Fishery Board of Scotland, indeed, annually publishes elaborate and detailed accounts of the Scotch herring fishery. The Irish Inspectors of Fisheries also compile once a year some statistics which, however, are admittedly imperfect to illustrate the de- velopment, or rather the decay, of the Irish fisheries. But in England itself little information is afforded to the student who wishes to ascertain the condition of the English fisheries. The Inspectors of salmon fisheries are, indeed, required to report annually on the state of the English salmon fisheries. But the salmon fisheries of England and Wales stand in the same relation to the sea-fisheries of the country as Croydon to London, or Rutland to Yorkshire. The state of the more important fisheries has to be ascer- THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 5 tained by reference to a number of more or less authorita- tive publications, and to be inferred, rather than proved, from a number of incidental circumstances. There are no means of ascertaining with any precision such simple facts as the number of boats employed, or the number of persons engaged, in the sea-fisheries of England and Wales.* This absence of information naturally increases the diffi- culty of any writer who undertakes to describe the fish trade of the United Kingdom. Instead of moving on firm ground, he is perpetually fearing that the whole basis of his argument may give way as he advances. He is forced to adduce theories where he ought to state facts, and he has to prove elementary propositions which ought to be accepted as readily as axioms. The difficulty with which his task is thus surrounded is his fittest excuse for any imperfections on his part in completing it ; and the best service, which he can perhaps hope to accomplish, is to induce the Government to supply some of the information, the publication of which would have made most of his own labours unnecessary. And, in truth, if there be any subject on which statistical information is desirable, if there be any industry which * A return is annually published, by the Registrar- General of Shipping and Seamen, of the number of boats, registered under the Sea Fisheries Act 1868, belonging to each port in the United Kingdom. But the return is imperfect for the following reason : " On the 23rd of October, 1877, an Order in Council was obtained by the Board of Trade, exempting from registration, &c., undecked boats, fishing or dredging on the coasts of England, Wales, and Scotland, and the Islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Sark, and Man, and not going outside the distance of three miles from low-water mark along the said coasts." Since the date of this order, which however never applied to Ireland, and from the operation of which Scotland was exempted in 1880, the Registry of fishing boats has become more and more imperfect. 6 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. deserves to be illustrated by figures stamped with the impress of authority, the fisheries and fishermen of this country deserve that recognition. The British Islands, from a fisherman's point of view, enjoy a singular ad- vantage. There are no other waters in the globe so rich in food-producing fish as those of the North Atlantic Ocean ; and there is no portion of this great ocean so fishful as that part of it which surrounds these Islands. If, however, nature has placed the United Kingdom in a pre-eminently favourable position, the hardy inhabitants of its maritime counties have made the best use of nature's bounty. Their veins, still warm with the bold blood of their Saxon and Danish forefathers, the people of Eastern Britain especially have inherited a love for the sea. Few storms are so severe as to drive them from their occupation. Their well- found boats court dangers which other and larger vessels shun ; and, in the roughest as in the calmest weather, the dish of fish, which these bold men have risked lives and fortunes in catching, is procurable, if it consist of what the trade calls " offal," for a few pence ; if it be composed of what the trade calls "prime," for a few shillings in the London market. Yet it must not be supposed that the inhabitants of all the maritime counties of Great Britain or of the United Kingdom furnish fishermen in equal proportions. It is Eastern Scotland and Eastern England which supplies the majority of British fishermen. Cornwall, Devonshire, and the Isle of Man are almost the only other parts of the kingdom which furnish a class of men who make fishing the sole occupation of their lives. In Ireland, indeed, a movement has, for years past, been in progress to develop the Irish fisheries. But the seas of Ireland are swept by Scotch, English, and Manx boats, and, though Irish craft THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 7 are found fishing among them, the Irishmen rarely or never repair in their turn to the Scotch and English seas. In this respect they are not peculiar. The Highlanders and Islanders of Western Scotland, sprung from a common ancestry with the Irish, seldom leave their own lochs, or their own seas ; the Welshman like the Irishman rarely, if ever, leaves his own neighbourhood ; and Welsh boats are never seen in English seas. The Cornishman is perhaps the only example in the United Kingdom of a man sprung from a Celtic ancestry who follows his fish from sea to sea. In every other case, it may be suspected that the fishermen owe some of their skill and courage to the blood of the bold Saxon and Norse Sea Rovers, who, in the early days of English History, played their part in what the late Mr. Green has called the making of England.* This circumstance is of essential importance. In the olden time fishing, conducted chiefly in the estuaries of rivers, or on the coasts of the sea, was a trade which required little skill, and perhaps little courage. Our fore- fathers while fishing did not venture far out to sea, but kept in close proximity to the shore, either in consequence of the frailty of their boats, or of what an early writer has called " the fearfulness " of their minds. Much of the fish which was served up on table was intercepted in passing out to sea with the ebb tide by the dams which any * How far the Devonshire and Cornish people may owe their fish- ing propensities to the Conquest of South Western Britain by Egbert in 815 is perhaps doubtful. The Saxons, it is certain, did not succeed in rooting out the Celtic names which still distinguish this part of England. But the Saxon conquerors, in all probability, settled and fused with the Britons in Cornwall, while they only held a strategical position in Wales. No one, at any rate, can look at a Cornish fisher- man at the present time, and think that he is descended from the same exclusively Celtic stock as the Welsh. 8 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. labourer, who had no more brains than Caliban in "The Tempest," was competent to build.* But the increasing demands of a populous country have altered this state of things. Fishermen are no longer able to wait for the fish to come to them, they go to the fish. Every year which passes sees the fishing conducted at greater distances from our coasts. The best fish are frequently caught farthest from the land ; the most successful fishermen are consequently those who have the boldest hearts and the stoutest boats. They are those, therefore, who, other things being equal, have embarked most capital in their trade. But the man who has invested his fortune in any business cannot afford to let his stock lie idle. He must, if he hope to profit from his investment, constantly use it. The fisherman, however, who would fish throughout the year to advantage, must be prepared to lead a nomad life. Fish are caught in one part of the ocean in one month, and in another in another. The fishermen who follow the fish, or, in stricter phrase, go to those seas where the fish are found, will always beat the fishermen who fish their own seas, and, when fishing is no longer profitable there, eke out a scanty livelihood with other work. In the case of the latter, their capital lies idle while the capital of their rivals is employed, and they themselves are destitute of the experience which their rivals acquire. The fishermen of * The passage in " The Tempest " is curious. Caliban sings : " No more dams I'll make for fish ; Nor fetch in firing At requiring, Nor scrape trenchering, nor wash dish." The duties with whi:h Shakespeare associates Caliban are of a menial chara< ter requiring no skill ; and the dam was evidently a temporary and not a permanent structure. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 9 the east coast of Britain, the Manxmen, and the Cornish- men follow the fish from coast to coast, and, in conse- quence, the whole fishing trade of the country is passing into their hands. It may, perhaps, be convenient, before describing the fisheries themselves, to state approximately the employ- ment which they afford. In England and Wales there are probably about 15,000 fishing boats, affording permanent employment to 28,000, and temporary employment to 14,000 persons. The English statistics are, however, notoriously imperfect, and no great reliance can be placed on them. In Scotland there were, in 1881, according to the Report of the Scotch Fishery Board, 14,809 boats employing 48,121 persons ; in Ireland the Irish inspectors state that there were in the same year 6458 vessels employing 24,528 men and boys ; but they add that only 1844 of these boats and 7534 of these persons were exclusively engaged in fishing. In the Isle of Man some 450 boats gave almost continuous employment to 2872 fishermen ; while in the Channel Islands some 300 boats sustained about 1000 fishermen. In the British Islands, therefore, some 37,000 boats give constant or occasional employment to 1 1 8,000 fishermen. It will at once be seen from these figures that the fishing population is distributed unevenly through the different branches of the Empire. England and Wales has one fisherman for about every 600 of its people ; Ireland has one fisherman for every 200 of its inhabitants ; Scotland has one fisherman for every 75 ; and the Isle of Man has one fisherman for every 19 of its population. But the statistics would look very different if they were applied to particular localities. Of the 42,000 fishermen of England and Wales, nearly one-third, or 13,000, sail from the four great ports of the Eastern counties Grimsby, Hull, Yar- io THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. mouth, and Lowestoft nearly one-sixth, or 6,000, sail from the great Cornish and Devonshire ports Penzance, Fal- mouth, Fowey, Plymouth, and Dartmouth. These nine ports, therefore, supply nearly one-half of all the fishermen of England and Wales. The whole coast line of Wales does not support so many fishermen as the single town of Lowestoft, or the Isle of Man. It must not be supposed that the 118,000 fishermen of the British Islands are the only persons dependent on fishing. The Scotch Commissioners estimate that, while there are 48,000 fishermen in Scotland, there are 48,000 other persons (curers, coopers, &c.) dependent on the fisheries. It is unlikely that a similar proportion is to be found in other portions of the United Kingdom. The Scotch trade, as will hereafter be shown, is essentially a trade in cured fish ; the English, Irish, and Manx trade is chiefly a trade in fresh fish. It does not require any elaborate argument to show that a trade in cured fish must necessarily employ more persons than a trade in fresh fish. Perhaps it may be safe to assume that, while every fisher- man afloat in Scotland finds employment for one other person on shore, every two fishermen in the rest of the British Islands finds work for one other person. In that case the 48,000 fishermen of Scotland give work to 48,000 other persons ; and the 70,000 other fishermen in the British Islands afford employment to 35,000 other persons. And thus the grand total may be reached, that 201,000, or say 200,000, people are dependent on the fisheries of the British Islands for their livelihood. It is probably even more difficult to ascertain exactly the amount of capital embarked in the fisheries than to esti- mate the extent of work which they afford. But, in this respect, help may again be derived from the returns of THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 11 the Scotch Commissioners. They estimate the total value of the boats and gear of the Scotch fishermen at 1,400,000. It is certain that the value of each boat in Ireland is not greater than the value of each boat in Scotland. Placing it at about the same sum the capital employed in the Irish sea fisheries may perhaps be computed at 600,000. The value of the English boats is much greater than the value of the Scotch or of the Irish boats. In Ireland and Scotland most of the boats are engaged in drift fishing ; and a first-class drift boat, with herring gear complete, is worth about 5 50. But in England a large proportion of the boats is engaged either in trawling or in line fishing ; and a first-class trawler, ready for sea, cannot cost less than 1,000 or 1,200; while a cod-smack, fitted for line fishing, is worth 1,500. It is certain, therefore, that the average value of the 1 5,000 English boats is much greater than the average value of the 1 5,000 Scotch boats. Placing it at twice the sum, the capital embarked in the English fisheries must amount to 2,800,000. The capital em- barked in the Manx fisheries is about 240,000 ; and a gross capital of about 5,000,000 is, therefore, probably employed in the fisheries of the British Islands. Thus then, to summarise the conclusions which have been already stated, some 200,000 persons are probably em- ployed in the fisheries of the British Islands ; and some 5,000,000 of capital are embarked in these industries. These figures enable a rough estimate to be formed of the produce of the fisheries. If it be assumed that every person employed in fishing earns only "40 a year, and that only 10 per cent, is required to pay the interest on, and to replace, the capital engaged, the sea fisheries of the British Islands must yield a gross sum of 8,500,000 annually. If to this sum be added a further 800,000, 12 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. the estimated produce of the Scotch, Irish, and English salmon fisheries, it will be seen that the gross value of the British fisheries must be fixed at some 9, 300,000, or say from 9,000, ooo to 10,000,000 a year. It will be shown later on that other figures, derived from independent sources, go a long way towards confirming the accuracy of this estimate. The fish which are caught in the British seas may be divided, for the purposes of this argument, into two classes : I. Bottom fish, or fish which live at or near the bottom of the sea. 2. Floating fish, or fish which swim at or near the surface of the water. The former class comprises (a) flat fish, such as turbot, brill, halibut, sole, plaice, and others ; and (b) round fish, as they are called in contradistinction to flat fish, such as cod, haddock, and ling. The most important fish in the latter class are the cltipeidce (herrings, pilchards, sprats) and mackerel. It will be readily understood that fish which live at or near the bottom of the sea must be caught by engines different from those employed for the capture of fish swimming at or near the surface of the water. As a matter of fact the fish in the first class are caught mainly either by the trawl-net or by lines ; while fish in the latter class are taken chiefly in drift-nets and seine nets. It may, perhaps, be desirable, before proceeding further with the narrative, to describe very briefly these several modes of fishing. The hook and line, which is still extensively used, is one of the most ancient modes of fishing in the world. " Canst thou draw out Leviathan with a hook ? " so commences a well-known passage in Job ; while in Homer men fish with hooks, both in the Odyssey and in the Iliad, though in both poems the hooks are made of horn. Line fishing, however, as it is now practised differs widely from the art which THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 13 the ancients used. The Grimsby smacks employed in this trade are the largest and most costly vessels employed in fishing. . The " fleet " of lines which each boat places at the bottom of the sea is about seven or eight miles long ; and each " fleet " contains from about 4000 to 5000 hooks. It will be readily understood that the mere task of baiting these hooks involves an enormous amount of labour ; and that the work of supplying bait forms of itself a consider- able industry. The growing scarcity of mussels, which form the best and most convenient bait, and the irksome toil inseparable from baiting the long lines, are perhaps slowly tending to supersede this mode of fishing with trawling. A trawl net is a stout purse-like net, with a wide mouth at one end, tapering almost to a point at the other end. The mouth of the net is kept open by the upper portion of it being attached to a heavy beam of wood, which is sup- ported at either end by two heavy iron sledge-like con- trivances. The lower portion of the net lies at the bottom of the sea. The beam of the largest trawl nets is 50 feet in length ; and the great fish markets of the kingdom are dependent for a large portion of their supplies of fish on the operations of the trawlers. The fish caught in the trawl are usually dying or dead when they are drawn on to the deck of the vessel. The fish caught by the lines, on the contrary, are generally alive. The line smacks, there- fore, are usually fitted with wells or chambers into which the sea water is admitted, and the fish are brought in these wells alive to land. There, many of the cod are kept either in chests or cases anchored in the sea ; or more simply, though more cruelly, are tied together by the tails, and kept in salt water till they are required for the market. Then they are drawn up, killed, and sold as live cod killed, as the technical phrase runs, " to save their lives." 14 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. Such are the chief modes by which bottom fish are caught. Surface fish, it has already been stated, are mostly taken either by the seine or the drift net. The seine-net a net by which the fish are encompassed, and either drawn up on to the shore, or " tucked " into the boat in mid ocean is probably the oldest movable net used by man. It is largely employed by the Americans in mackerel fishing ; but, except in the pilchard fishery of Cornwall, in the herring fishery of south-western Scotland, and in the salmon fishery, it is not extensively employed in this country. The drift net a net which floats in the passage of the fish, and in which the fish are caught by enmeshing themselves is the engine by which the herrings and mackerel are chiefly taken. A first-class boat, fishing for herrings, will carry a drift net or fleet of drift nets nearly two miles long. It is computed that the Scotch herring nets alone would stretch four times across the Atlantic from Liverpool to New York. Drift nets were originally made of hemp ; in Ireland and the Isle of Man they were till lately made of flax ; they are now almost universally made of cotton. The greater lightness of the cotton has enabled the fishermen to extend the length of the net, and, in consequence, the efficiency of the engine. But the labour of hauling in even a cotton net two miles long is enormous ; and to facilitate the work, many of the best boats have of late years been provided with small auxiliary steam engines. It seems possible that, when these engines are brought into more general use, it will be found convenient to supplement the boats with an auxiliary screw ; and thus the whole fishing trade may, in consequence, be ultimately carried on, under certain conditions, by steam vessels. This revolution, how- ever, is not yet accomplished. Excepting a few steam THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 15 trawlers, fishing vessels are in all parts of the kingdom dependent on their sails, and, in consequence, great atten- tion has been paid to the rig of the vessels. There are probably few people, even among those who are best acquainted with the fisheries, who are at all aware of the great alteration which is taking place in this respect. Originally the boats used as trawlers were usually cutter-rigged ; the boats used for drift fishing were lugger- rigged. An example of the old rig of trawlers may still be found in Cornwall and in the south of England ; and the Scotch and east of England drift boats are still usually rigged as luggers. But experience is gradually leading to the supercession of both these rigs. As the trawlers increase in size, the large mainsail of the cutter is found too heavy for the men to work, and in consequence the large trawlers on the east coast have been built with a small mizen mast ; the size of the mainsail is thereby reduced, and a small manageable mizen added. A similar alteration is being gradually made in the rig of the drift-boats. The old lug- sail has to be lowered on each tack and re-hoisted. Such an operation in large boats naturally involves a great deal of labour. The lugger, therefore, is being superseded by the dandy-rigged vessel ; and the dandy promises to be the rig which will ultimately be adopted by all classes of fishing-boats.* * Fishermen use a " dandy " rigged boat, a " dandy " wink, and in hand-line fishing a " dandy " line. Mr. Holdsworth, in his book on deep-sea fishing, says that the "dandy" wink is the small wink or windlass astern of the boat used for hauling in the trawl (p. 67, note). The name " dandy " line, he writes in another passage, is not very intelligible .... The manner in which the line is worked by moving it gently up and down points strongly, however, to " dandle," as the real name (p. 154). But, if his interpretation be right in one case, why should it not apply to all three ? The dandy mast would then be the 16 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. Any change of rigging, which relieves the work of the fishermen, necessarily enables them to prosecute their calling with more profit, since it allows them to work their boat with a smaller crew. The crews which fishing-boats carry depend on the trade in which they are engaged. A first-class trawler will carry three, or in some cases four, men and a boy ; a first-class drift boat requires seven men and a boy ;* while a large Grimsby smack will carry nine to eleven hands. In most parts of the British Islands the fishermen have an interest in the proceeds of the fishery. The owner of the boat, the owner of the net, and the fisher- man, all taking a certain proportion of the profits. In most parts of the British Islands, again, the lads who are employed in the boats are the near relatives of the fishermen engaged. But on the east coast of England, and at Hull and Grimsby in particular, a different system has arisen, and large numbers of lads, strangers to the fishermen and unacquainted with the sea, are apprenticed to the fishing trade. As the condition of these apprentices has attracted a good deal of attention of late years, it may be desirable to add a few words upon it. It is not difficult to determine the reasons which have induced the boat-owners of Hull and Grimsby to engage apprentices. The large smacks which are fitted for line fishing require the services of many hands ; but they only need comparatively inexperienced labour. Almost any boy can be trusted to bait a hook ; to haul in a line ; or to take a fish off a hook. More unskilled labour is thus required short or small mizen mast ; the dandy wink the small windlass ; and the dandy line the small hand-line in contradistinction to the long line. * This is the crew carried in Scotland and the Isle of Man. A still larger crew is carried by the Yarmouth boats. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 17 in this branch of fishing than in any other. It so happens that Grimsby is situated at a convenient distance from the metropolis, where the Guardians of the Poor have always a large number of boys whom they are anxious to dispose of. A philanthropist might readily conclude that nothing could, under such circumstances, be better than to apprentice the boy to the healthy life of a fisherman. Yet philanthropy, unluckily, makes terrible mistakes when it acts without sufficient knowledge and without adequate inquiry. It is not every boy who has either the strength or the courage which fits him for the hard sea-faring life of a fisherman. It is not every master of a vessel who has the patience or the heart to make allowances for the short-comings of a timid, weak lad. In consequence, a system which was intended to work for good, has undoubtedly led to much evil. Some impatient masters have cruelly treated their boys, other boys have tried to escape the fate of their comrades by absconding from the boats and breaking their indentures. The magistrates have been compelled to punish the lads who have broken their engagement, while, in strict justice, the punishment ought perhaps to have fallen on the ill- advised people who sent them into an unsuitable calling. In 1875 no less than 375 apprentices or on an average, rather more than one apprentice each day were committed to the County Prison in Lincolnshire, or the Borough Prison in Hull. Some cases of unusual cruelty have since attracted the attention of the public to the position of these poor friendless boys, and the Board of Trade has appointed a committee to enquire into the subject. It may be hoped that the report which has thus been obtained may be the means of alleviating the lot of these lads. But the true method of terminating the abuses which have occurred, is to take care that the lads who go to sea VOL. I. H. C 1 8 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. shall be, as far as possible, the sons or relatives of the fishermen who go with them, or shall at any rate have parents or guardians living at the ports. The lot of a lad, far from home, far from friends, who is forced to spend much of his life on board a fishing-boat far from land, must be uncertain, unless it is protected by some such influences.* The trawlers, the line smacks, and the drift-boats, all frequently fish the same waters. Trawlers, indeed, can only work in those parts of the sea where the bottom is soft and smooth. The trawl easily gets caught by a rocky bottom, and the operations of the trawler are stopped or his gear lost. But, with this exception, trawlers and drift-boats commonly fish the same waters. It will be readily under- stood that different classes of fishermen, using different modes of fishing and working in the same places, occa- sionally come into collision. A drift-boat, drifting with two miles of net in front of it is almost helpless, and a trawler coming across the net may break through it and carry away a portion of it. The law, indeed, has pro- vided against losses of this character ; it has forbidden the trawlers to come within three miles of the drift-boat. But, * The following are the chief recommendations made by the Committee. (a) No lad under the age of 16 should be permitted to serve on board a vessel exceeding 20 tons net register tonnage, except under a written agreement, or an indenture of apprenticeship, to which the Mercantile Marine Superintendent or the Board of Trade Officer of the district must be a party, with the power to act as the guardian and protector of the lad. (b) No lad to be indentured before he has reached the age of 13, or for a longer period than seven years. (c) A month's trial of the sea life to be allowed to a lad before his indentures are made absolutely binding. ( whilst the Dutch imports into the same places declined from 5,019 to 1,300 barrels, and the Norwegian from 194,862 to 122,423 barrels. In 1879, however, Nor- way sold to Germany 630,127 barrels ; Scotland 545,993 barrels, and Holland 98,026 barrels. It is plain, if these figures are reliable, that the Dutch and Norwegian trades are increasing more rapidly than the Scotch trade. 30 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. ciple ; " but he hesitated to risk the possible " derangement and contraction " of the foreign trade, which he thought might result from its abandonment. He took the middle course, therefore, of suggesting that a fee should be charged for the brand, and that the enterprising curer should be encouraged, by the prospect of saving his fee, to rely on his own brand instead of that of the Government. Nothing came of the report till 1855, when the Treasury decided on abolishing the brand. The remonstrances, however, which the decision excited in Scotland induced it, instead of abolishing the brand, to appoint a new Commission to enquire into it. The new Commissioners spoke with an uncertain sound. One of them recommended the termina- tion of the system ; two of them adopted Sir John Lefevre's compromise, and proposed that the brand should be re- tained, but that a fee should be charged for it. The Treasury adopted the advice of the majority of the Commissioners, the brand was saved, and the fee was imposed. This arrangement has not, however, had the effect of terminating the controversy. In 1866 an able Commission, the ablest Commission to which the subject of fisheries has ever been referred, condemned the brand;* in 1870, however, a new Commission appointed by the Treasury declined " to undertake the responsibility of advising " its discontinuance. Finally in 1881, a Select Committee of the House of Commons recommended its retention. These various reports and conflicting opinions have necessarily involved the subject in a good deal of con- fusion ; and statesmen still hold contrary opinions on the expediency of the brand, who would be unanimous in * The Commission of 1866 consisted of Mr. (now Sir J.) Caird, Pro- fessor Huxley, and Mr. G. S. Lefevre, Sir J. Lefevre's son. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 31 condemning the introduction of a similar system into any other branch of industry. The great and increasing im- portance of the trade, the circumstance that the brand places, or is supposed to place, the small curer on a level with the large one, the knowledge that branded herrings command a higher price in the German markets than unbranded herrings, are all confidently quoted as reasons for continuing the system ; while the fact that the fees, charged for the brand, exceed the cost of the establishment which awards it, is cited as a conclusive argument for its retention. These views, however, would be stated with less confi- dence if men would condescend to apply general principles of policy to this particular question. If it be a legitimate function of Government to guarantee by its brand the quality or quantity of a particular article, there is no reason whatever why the Ministry should draw the line at herrings. The Government used to undertake to guarantee the quality of cured cod ; at an earlier period it actually stamped linen and woollen goods; and there is no very clear reason why if its action is justifiable in one case, it should not be extended to all industries. The advocates of the herring brand, indeed, declare that, as the pur- chaser is unable to examine for himself the quality of the herrings packed in the barrel, there is an exceptional reason for giving to him the guarantee which a Govern- ment brand affords. But it is obvious that the argument, if it has any cogency, is capable of almost indefinite exten- sion. Take, for instance, the most important industry in which Englishmen are engaged. The Chinese complain that cotton goods are constantly adulterated by excessive or impure sizing. Will the Government undertake to guar- antee that every bale of cotton goods is free from improper 32 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. sizing ? The cotton manufacturers might very possibly undertake to pay a small fee for the privilege of such a guarantee, and the Government might consequently obtain a remunerative duty. The folly of such a course would, however, at once prevent its adoption. Government, it would be said, has nothing to do with the manufacturers. It must leave them to attend to their own business, and to bear the consequences of their own errors ; or, if they are dishonest enough to commit them, to suffer the penalty which sooner or later attends fraudulent practices. Nor is it quite clear that the brand does afford the guarantee which it is its whole object to supply. Com- plaints of the bad quality of branded herrings occasionally reach Scotland from German buyers. Those who desire to see the complaints themselves will find samples of them in the " Appendix to the Report of the Select Committee on the Herring Brand." It was broadly stated to that Com- mittee that the brand was awarded to a low average of cure ; it was stated that even this average was not main- tained. Its existence, therefore, was alleged to discourage improvement, and to afford no real protection to the curer. It is said, however, that the brand has the effect of placing the small curer on a level with the large one ; and that its abolition would give an advantage to the large capitalist whose private brand would be known, and so tend to ruin the smaller one. It is an obvious reflection that this argument, if it be sound, is applicable to other industries besides that of the curer ; but it is equally evident that it is no part of the function of Government to try to remove the advantageous distinctions which men have secured from their own industry or from their own skill. If a large curer has from his success succeeded in THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 33 obtaining a certain reputation for his own fish, it is not just that he should be deprived of the advantage which he is entitled to derive from the pains which he has taken, or that he should be placed on a level with other and less successful men. Protection to the small curer may too often mean protection to the less energetic tradesman. But there is another and a graver objection to the continuance of the brand. Any government guarantee necessarily implies conformity with certain prescribed con- ditions. The brand has, therefore, the effect of stereotyping the trade and preventing improvement. The herrings must be packed in specified barrels, mao!e in one particular way ; they must be cured in a prescribed manner and mixed with a given proportion of salt. If an intelligent curer ventures to think that he can improve the process, he must do so at the certain risk of losing the brand, and so of lowering the value of his fish. If even, as happened in the great fishing of 1880, the stock of available barrels is exhausted, the curers are unable to supplement the deficiency by using Norwegian barrels, since their use would not entitle them to the brand. Everything, in fact, must be done by rule ; every departure from regulation must be followed by a pecuniary loss to the curer, and the trade, in consequence, is carried on, year after year, in the same unvarying manner, with a Conservative aversion from change, which would be worthy of the Chinese Empire. Nor is there any reason for assuming that the trade would, in any sense, suffer from the abolition of the brand. In the first place there is no brand on the west coast of Scotland ; and there is a large trade between the west coast of Scotland and the Continent in " matties," * or young herrings cured. In the next place, the brand does * Mattie is a Dutch word ; it signifies, literally, maiden. VOL. I. H. D 34 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. not fulfil the purposes for which it was designed. It has been already stated that the Continental buyers occa- sionally complain that they buy branded herrings which are not of a quality that would entitle them to the brand It is difficult to see how any other result could happen. The duty of the fishery officers, who award the brand, becomes more difficult precisely as the take becomes larger ; and, however zealous the officers may be, it is impossible for them to see all the contents of every barrel.* The brand, therefore, occasionally covers bad articles. It might be possible to argue that a brand, which proved the quality of the fish as accurately as the stamp of the Mint proves the quality and quantity of the gold in a sovereign, served a useful purpose. It is difficult to see what advan- tage can ensue from a brand which does not and cannot fulfil this object. It is a mere wanton restriction on the curer, which should be got rid of at the first opportunity. It is remarkable too that this conclusion, still stoutly resisted in Scotland and Parliament, has already been accepted by other nations. Some years ago Norwegian herrings were regularly branded; and in 1856 Admiral Sullivan, the member of the Commission of 1855, who dissented from the conclusions of the majority of its members, wrote of Norwegian herrings that "with the * The fishery officers are required to test the quality of the fish by opening a certain proportion of the barrels presented for the brand at the .rate of 9 barrels per hundred in parcels of loo barrels. 8 from 100 to 300 barrels 7 of above 300 barrels. The barrels selected for examination are, as a general rule, to be opened alternately ; i.e. No. I is to be opened at the head end : No. 2 at the bottom end, and so on. Report Select Committee on Herring Brand, p. 253. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 35 exception of a small and unimportant portion, they are so inferior in quality when caught that no mode of cure will enable them to compete on equal terms with the Scotch, which appear to have the entire command of the principal German and Polish markets." Since these words were written the brand or " brack," as it is called in Norway, has fallen into disuse ; and the Norwegian herrings now constitute the principal supply, and command the highest prices in the German markets. So plain a lesson, which has not yet been learned by statesmen in England, has not been lost on the Dutch, who, in their turn, have abolished the brand. The striking fact, therefore, remains that this country, which had the distinction of initiating free trade, is the only nation having an important fish trade which still clings to an obsolete and vicious system. The fishery continues to flourish ; but it flourishes in spite of, not in consequence of, the brand. It is perhaps necessary to add that the brand affixed to the barrel is supposed to indicate the quality of the fish. The highest brand is awarded to what are technically called crown full herrings, that is large herrings full of roe, care- fully gutted with a knife. The next highest brand is given to crown matties, a " maiden " fish that is, smaller herrings with minute roes. Shotten herrings, or herrings which have cast their roe, are branded as crown spent ; while herrings of all these qualities, packed in the same barrel, are branded crown mixed. The barrel contains 26f imperial gallons, or 32 gallons English wine measure. It has been already stated that the chief market for Scotch herrings is found in the Protestant States of Germany ; but a large number of herrings cured in a different way are sold in the United Kingdom. These consist of red herrings, kippered herrings, and bloaters. D 2 36 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. Red herrings are fish which after being kept in the salt pickle from two to fourteen days, are washed, dried, hung up in the smoking-house on spits, and smoked with oak or ash smoke for ten or fourteen days more. Kippered herrings, after being salted, are cut open and slightly smoked ; while bloaters are the best fish that can be procured, smoked for a much shorter period. Red herrings are usually packed in barrels or boxes, and are either exported or sold in the large towns. In this country, however, they are perhaps gradually being super- seded by the kipper and the bloater ; and a large and increasing trade is continually being conducted in these two kinds of cured fish.* In addition, however, to the trade in cured herrings, large and increasing numbers of herrings are annually sold fresh. The railways, in fact, by ensuring a rapid delivery, have enabled fish to be sold fresh, which half a century ago could not possibly have reached the fish markets in good order. The fish which are caught on the English, Manx, and Irish coasts, are to a great extent disposed of in this way ; and fresh herrings form one of the cheapest kinds of animal food procurable in the United Kingdom. Herrings are measured in Scotland by the cran. A cran contains thirty-six gallons and holds from about 800 to 1000 * The colour is given to the red herring which is occasionally a yellow herring by the fuel with which it is smoked ; by altering the fuel the curer can alter the colour of the cured fish. Perhaps few people know that the term kipper is derived from the kype or hook on the lower jaw of the spawning male salmon. The male salmon from this kype became known as the kipper. The male fish was usually cured, and known as kipper salmon. The term was soon corrupted into kippered salmon, and the word "kipper" turned into a verb became synonymous with to cure. Bloaters are an invention of the present century. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 37 herrings. A barrel of full herrings contains 700 to 750 fish. As, however, a certain proportion of herrings is unsuitable for the curer, probably one cran of herrings must be caught for every barrel of herrings that is cured. In other words, about 1,000,000,000 herrings must be annually caught in Scotland for the purposes of the curer. Assuming that only one herring is sold fresh in Scotland for every four that are cured, the surprising number of 1,250,000,000 of herrings must be annually taken in Scotland. In Ireland and the Isle of Man herrings are measured by the mease, which contains 525 fish ; and the Irish fishery, according to the Irish Inspectors, produces from about 50,000 to about 200,000 mease a year, or from about 25,000,000 to about 100,000,000 fish a year. In England, herrings are usually sold by the last, each last nominally containing 10,000, but in reality 13,200 fish.* It is impossible to give any accurate statistics of the yield of the English Herring Fishery. But it will, perhaps, be reasonable to assume that its produce is half as great as that of the Scotch fishery. In other words, that it yields 600,000,000 or 625,000,000 of fish a year. It is probable, therefore, that British fishermen draw nearly 2,000,000,000 herrings annually from the British seas. The value of these fish, placing them at a farthing apiece, must exceed 2,000,000. From a naturalist's point of view, sprats, or "garvies," as they are called in Scotland, are closely connected with herrings. They are caught in enormous quantities in the estuary of the Thames and in the estuaries of eastern Scotland. It is said that as much as 200 tons of these fish * The Last, a German word, is computed in this way : 4 herrings = I warp. 33 warps = I hundred, lo hundred = I thousand. 38 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. have been brought to London in a single day ; and they are sold wholesale in London by the bushel for from 2s. to 8s. They are so numerous that it is frequently impossible to dispose of them for food ; and large quantities are occasion- ally sold at a still lower price as manure. The season for sprat fishing commences early in November and lasts for about three months. No food equally nutritious is ever procurable at so cheap a rate by the poor. If sprats were only as dear as salmon, perhaps no food would be more prized on the table of the rich. No available means exist for determining the value of the Sprat fisheries : the same thing is true of Whitebait. The Whitebait of commerce consist of a variety of small fish ; but chiefly of young sprats and young herrings. They are mainly caught in the estuaries of the Thames and of the Medway, but they are found on almost every part of the British coasts, and fisheries for them are gradually springing up in various places. They are commonly sold in London at about is. a quart, and are thus included among the cheaper kinds of fish. The destruction of them year after year is enormous ; and there is perhaps no better proof of the marvellous fertility of the sea than may be deduced from the circumstance that the continuous destruction of white- bait is making no impression whatever on the supply either of sprats or of herrings. The Mackerel fishery is conducted in many places by the same boats and by the same fishermen as the herring fishery. Its importance has gained for the fish a singular exemption. By an old act of Charles II., which is still in force, no wares, goods, fruit, herbs and chattels, may be sold on Sunday. By an act of George III., which is also on the Statute Book, fish brought to London on Saturday night is expressly ordered to be publicly sold on Monday morning. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 39 But a different rule is applied to mackerel, and permission is given for its sale either before or after Divine Service on Sunday. The distinction probably arose from the convic- tion that a rich oily fish like the mackerel, which commonly reached London in hot summer weather, could not be kept fresh for the additional twenty-four hours. The strict observance of the Sabbath, however desirable it might be, could not compensate for the loss of valuable food. Mackerel used usually to be taken in the English and in the Bristol channels, but of late years a large fishery for this fish has sprung up at Kinsale in the south of Ireland. The fishery is attended by English, Scotch, Manx, and Irish boats, and is every year extending further and further round the south- west coast. The Irish inspectors compute the value of the mackerel caught off the coast of Kerry and Cork at nearly .150,000, but a further sum must be added to this amount for the fish taken off the coast of Clare. It is probable that the Irish mackerel fishery thus produces a gross sum of 175,000 annually : if the whole of the Channel fisheries for mackerel is only of the same value as those off the Irish coast, the mackerel fishery of the British Islands must be worth 350,000 annually. Thus the drift fishermen, fishing for surface fish, are dependent for their harvest on herrings, mackerel, sprats, and pilchards.* If the yield of the herring fishery may be placed at 2,000,000 ; that of the mackerel fishery at 350,000 ; that of the pilchard fishery at 50,000 36,000, for the foreign, and 14,000 for the home trade it will, * These fish are not, of course, solely caught with drift nets. Herrings in Loch Fyne are caught with a ground seine net ; or, as it is locally termed, a trawl net. Pilchards are also largely, and mackerel occasionally, caught with seines. Sprats are caught with seines in some places, and in stow boat nets in the estuary of the Thames. 40 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. perhaps, be justifiable to assume that these fisheries and the fishery for young sprats and young herrings, known as whitebait, yield to the fishermen a gross revenue of from 2,500,000 to 2,750,000 a year. This sum, which is purposely computed in the most moderate manner, repre- sents the value of the fish on the coast, and not its much higher value in the markets. Before proceeding to deal with the great line and trawl fisheries which form the main source of the fish supply, it may be convenient to add a few words on the fisheries for migratory fish. There are four kinds of migratory fish which are taken in this country : Salmon, including in the term all migratory fish of the family; smelts, the fyerlan of France, or the sparling of northern England ; shad or twait, and eels ; of these, salmon are by far the most important. They are caught by fixed nets on the coasts of Scotland and by fixed engines in the rivers, by seine-nets, or by net and coble, to use the Scotch term for a seine-net ; and by drift- nets off the coast of Northumberland and in some parts of Ireland. The Irish Salmon Fisheries are estimated to yield 579> a year. This estimate, however, has been made by computing the value of the fish at is. 6d. a Ib. Placing it at the more moderate price of is. a Ib., the yield of these fisheries may be estimated at about 400,000. The value of the Scotch salmon fisheries is certainly not less than 250,000 annually, and probably reaches 300,000. The yield of the English Salmon Fisheries has been frequently computed at 100,000 a year. It seems, therefore, not unreasonable to assume that the salmon fisheries of the British Islands yield to the fishermen some 800,000 annually. It is perhaps fair to suppose that the fisheries for other migratory fish eels, twait, and smelts produce at least 100,000 a year. If then the value of THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 41 the drift fisheries and of the analogous fisheries for pilchards, sprats and whitebait, may be placed at from 2,500,000 to 2,750,000, and that of the fisheries for migratory fish at 900,000, it is a safe and moderate estimate to compute the produce of the whole of these fisheries at 3,500,000 annually. These fisheries, however, important as they are, bear no comparison with the great fishery for bottom fish, which used to be exclusively taken by lines, but which are now chiefly captured by trawl-nets. It is no exaggeration to say that London and the great centres of population are dependent for their supply of fish on trawlers ; and that if, from any cause whatever, trawling were suddenly terminated, its ter- mination would be followed by famine in the fish market. No clear history of trawl-fishing has ever yet been written ; and its origin is uncertain. There are, however, many reasons for believing that trawling, to a limited extent, has been practised for centuries in British waters, and that trawlers worked in Torbay in the reign of Elizabeth. Trawling, however, if it were practised by our ancestors, was chiefly confined to Devonshire, and was carried on in only a humble fashion. The vast extension of this mode of fishing did not take place till our own time. Till, indeed, railways were invented the present system was impossible, since no means were available for carrying the tons of fish, which were thus caught daily, from the ports to the markets. Trawling is now carried on off almost all the coasts of this country. The Fleetwood trawlers work in Morecambe Bay, the Liverpool trawlers on the smooth bottom of the sea between the Isle of Man and Lancashire, while they occa- sionally leave their ordinary grounds and go as far south as Aberystwyth, The Brixham trawlers working mainly in Torbay and Mount's Bay also frequently visit the 42 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. Bristol Channel, while Dover, Ramsgate, Hastings, Rye, and other ports all contribute their trawlers to the English Channel. But the main home of trawling at the present time is to be found in the ports which fringe the North Sea, and it is no exaggeration to say that these ports form the most important fishing stations, and the North Sea the most productive fishery, in the world. Most people have some acquaintance with the shape of the North Sea. It is com- paratively small, it is shallow, and it is surrounded on three sides by the different countries of Europe which are watered by large rivers. All these conditions are favour- able for the production of fish of a high quality. The rivers bring down from the adjacent land a vast quantity of minute life which forms the food of young fish ; the sandy plateaux which fringe the shores are the nurseries for the fry ; while the deeper depressions, which are to be found here and there in the bottom of the sea, afford shelter for the mature fish in cold and stormy weather. The gulf stream is unable to force its way into the basin of this sea, and its waters are consequently colder than those of the Bristol Channel and the Irish Sea. Its colder waters, though unfavourable for mackerel and a few other fish, improve the quality as food of its cod, its haddock, and its other habitants. The bottom of the sea resembles the surface of the land. It is an undulating pasture intersected by valleys- in some places and hills in others. The submarine slopes and depressions in the North Sea are not indeed very great. The hills and valleys, like those of Eastern England, are of moderate height and depth, and there are few if any places in it, south of the 55th parallel, which are more than 300 feet deep. Just as the shepherd drives his flocks in THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 43 summer to the hills and in winter to the valleys, so in summer the fish frequent the sandy elevated plateaux beneath the sea, while in winter they withdraw into the deeper submarine depressions. The sandy or muddy eminences in which the fish are found in summer fringe the coasts of England, Holland, Germany, and Denmark. But in addition to the elevations which surround the basin of the sea, a great block of high tableland, about 200 miles long and about 30 miles broad, runs from south-west to north-east almost in the middle of the sea. This is the Dogger Bank where, rather more than a hundred years ago, Dutch and English fought a sharp and indecisive action, and where now hundreds of British, Dutch, and French fisher- men obtain a livelihood. In the immediate vicinity of the south of the Dogger, the land abruptly slopes away into a valley which was probably once a river estuary, and which is now known as the outer Silver Pit ; while south of this again the southern shore of the old watercourse is formed by some elevated ground known as the Well Bank. Between the Well Bank and the English coast the high tableland is intersected by two deep depressions, known as the Sole Pit and the Silver Pit. North-west of these again, the stony foreshore which runs from Flamborough Head bears the name of California. These salient features in the physical aspect of the North Sea ought to be understood by any one who desires to form a clear idea of the fishing trade of the United Kingdom. The names which, in modern times, have been given to some .of these submarine valleys and hills, such as the Silver Pit, the outer Silver Pit, and California, sufficiently indicate the importance which fishermen attach to the grounds. In cold weather, indeed, the flat fish are congre- gated together in the valleys and fall an easy prey to the 44 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. trawler ; and the chief fishing port of the United Kingdom, Grimsby, owes its origin and prosperity to the fact that it is immediately adjacent to the Silver Pit. This fact is so curious that it is worth while to trace the rise of Grimsby during the last half century. Rather more than fifty years ago, Grimsby is said to have owned one fishing- boat. In 1843 the Silver Pit was first worked, but it was worked by Brixham and other vessels coming to the port. But the trade, when it once began, rapidly developed. The Manchester and Sheffield Railway was carried into the port. Large sums of money were spent in building docks, the fishing fleet increased by " leaps and bounds," till, in 1 88 1, the port, which in 1830 had possessed one boat, owned 607 vessels registering 35,000 tons, and employing nearly 4000 persons. The North Sea trawlers follow two systems of fishing. Some of them, fishing the adjacent grounds, return con- stantly to port, and send their fish direct by railway to London or to other populous towns ; others of them repair in fleets to the distant grounds, and are absent from home for weeks at a time. In consequence of their prolonged absence they in turn have created a fresh industry. Steamers are employed to repair to the fleet and take the fish which have been caught from the boats, and carry them to England. Boats for this purpose ply from Hull, from Grimsby, and from London. The fish are carried from the smack to the steamer in open boats, and some loss of life unfortunately results from this ferrying trade. No means, however, have yet been invented of transferring the fish from the smack to the steamer without the assistance of the small open boats. In addition to the legitimate trade of carrying the fish from the fleet to the market, another more objectionable THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 45 system has of late years sprung up in the fishing fleet. When men are absent from home for long periods, they require to be supplied with various articles ; and, in conse- quence of the demand which has thus sprung up, smacks have been fitted out for the sale to the fishing fleet of spirits, tobacco, and other things. As these smacks buy their goods abroad, and do not return to a British port before they are sold, they naturally escape the customs duties, and are consequently able to sell spirits and tobacco at the lowest possible rate. Cheap drink is perhaps always objectionable, and an unregulated liquor traffic is usually liable to abuse. The boat-owners complain that the coopers, as these smacks are called, are floating grog-shops of the worst description, and that they are under no control whatever. They demoralise the fishermen and tempt them to part with fish and gear for spirits and tobacco. It is not, however, easy to see how these evils, great as they are, can effectually be terminated. If coopering were forbidden in English vessels, the only result would be to drive the trade under a foreign flag. The true method of terminating abuse probably consists in endeavouring to make the trade itself more respectable. If the boat-owners would encourage smacks sailing under proper control, and dealing not merely in spirits but in coffee and other necessaries, to attend the fleet, the respectable trade might perhaps in the long run destroy the disreputable one. If people will not condescend to supply a well-ascertained demand in a regular way, irregular means of meeting it are certain to arise. It is not very easy to obtain any reliable statistics of the value of the trawling trade. The same ports which own the chief trawlers own the chief smacks engaged in the line trade ; and the fish which "both classes of vessels produce are consequently sold through the same markets. Nearly 46 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 75,000 tons of fish are, however, sent away annually by railway from Hull and Grimsby alone. It is, perhaps, a fair assumption that for every three tons brought away from Grimsby by land, one ton is either Carried direct from the smacks to London or sold in the neighbourhood. If this assumption is accurate, some 100,000 tons of fish must be annually caught by the Hull and Grimsby boats. Placing the value of these fish at the ports at rather less than 2d. a lb., or 20 a ton, the smacks of these ports must annually obtain fish worth 2,000,000. It is almost^ certain that the fish caught by lines and trawls in all the other ports of the kingdom exceed in quantity the fish caught by the trawlers of Hull and Grimsby alone. If it is only equal to the quantity caught by the boats of these two ports the trawl and line fish of the British Islands must be worth 4,000,000 annually. Thus, if the estimates in the foregoing pages be reliable, it is possible to form some idea of the value of the fishing industry of the British Islands. It was shown on an early page of this essay that merely testing it by the value of the capital employed and the number of fishermen engaged, it was probable that the fishery produced from 9,000,000 to 10,000,000 a year. It has now been shown specifically that the trawl and line fisheries in all probability yield 4,000,000, the herring fishery 2.000,000, the salmon fishery 800,000, the mackerel fishery 350,000, and that the fisheries for pilchards, whitebait, and smelts bring up these totals to at least 7,500,000 annually. To these must be added the fisheries for fish, which, strictly speak- ing, are not fish, for crustaceans, such as lobsters, crabs, prawns, and shrimps : and for molluscs, such as oysters, mussels, whelks, and winkles. It is no easy matter to give any estimate, which is worth THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 47 publishing, of the value of these fisheries. It is stated in the last edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " that 2000 gallons of shrimps a day are sent away occasionally from Leigh in Essex. Assuming that the whole annual catch is only fifty times the catch of a single day, 100,000 gallons of shrimps must be taken at Leigh alone. Their value, at I s. a gallon, would be 5,000 a year. But Leigh is not the only or the chief home of the fishery. Wherever a sandy shore fringes the coast shrimpers are at work, and their gross take must be very large. If it be only twenty times the take at Leigh, it must amount to 100,000 annually. Perhaps it will surprise still more persons to learn that the cockles which are gathered in Morecambe Bay are sold for at least 20,000 a year,* and that more than 2,500 tons of peri- winkles are annually consumed in London. Yet More- cambe Bay is not the only place in which cockles yield a fertile harvest to the neighbourhood, and London is not the only large town where people buy periwinkles by the ton load. Shrimps, cockles, and periwinkles form, however, only a small portion of the trade in shell fish. The more important portions of this trade are the trade in mussels, the trade in lobsters and crabs, and the trade in oysters. More than thirty years ago, according to a return which was published by the Deep Sea Fishery Commissioners of i866,f 498,000,000 oysters, or, in round numbers, 500,000,000 oysters were sold in London. Placing them at only a halfpenny apiece, and omitting the large quantities sold on the coast and other places, the value of the oysters sold must have exceeded 1,000,000. There is reason for fearing that the continual decrease of oysters during the last quarter of a century must have diminished these sales. But, if the number has decreased, the price has increased ; * See " Fisheries Comm.," 1879, P- 2 38 t p - 457* 48 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. and the total value of the smaller quantity of oysters sold now must be at least as great as that of the larger quantity of oysters sold thirty years ago. If, however, the oysters alone are worth 1,000,000, it is not a very excessive estimate to presume that the other shell fish lobsters, crabs, prawns, shrimps, mussels, cockles, whelks, and winkles produce another 1,000,000. In other words, while the fish taken off our coasts yield some 7, 5 00,000 annually, the shell fish raise the total yield of the harvest of the sea to 9,500,000. These figures, it will be seen, agree with the original esti- mate based on the number of fishermen employed, and on the estimated capital embarked in the fisheries. And, if attention be paid to another portion of the trade, it will be seen that the calculation is further corroborated. Hitherto this essay has dealt chiefly with the catching of the fish ; but no account of the fish trade would be complete without some explanation of the manner in which the fish caught are distributed. The distribution is effected in four ways : (i) The largest proportion of the fish caught is conveyed inland by railway to the great markets ; (2) a further pro- portion is carried to the markets by sea or river ; (3) large quantities of fish are exported ; and (4) considerable numbers of fish are consumed near the ports where they are taken. In 1881, 206,000 tons of fish were conveyed inland by railway from the English ports, 59,000 tons were conveyed inland from the Scotch ports, and 7000 tons were conveyed inland from the Irish ports. The fish sent away from the various ports by train amounted in the aggregate to 272,000 tons. If the value of the fish is placed at 20 a ton, the fish so carried must have been worth 5,440,000 ; 42,000 tons of fish were carried direct from the sea to THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 49 Billingsgate ; estimating them again at 20 a ton, the total value of the fish carried by railway to inland towns, and by water to Billingsgate, must be worth 6,280,000. It has been already shown that the value of the fish exported exceeds 1,820,000 a year. It is possible, therefore, accu- rately to account for fish worth 8, 100,000. If it be recol- lected that Liverpool, one of the most important fish markets in the country, is largely supplied by water, that Shields, Edinburgh, and, to a certain extent, Glasgow, are also supplied by water, and that all round the coasts a population counted by tens of thousands in the summer season is consuming fish, it seems not unfair to assume that another 1,000,000 or 1,500,000 worth offish may be accounted for, and that the gross yield of the fisheries may again be raised to 9,000,000 or 10,000,000 a year. There are several points connected with these figures which are well worth attention. The first circumstance which will strike everyone is the insignificance of the yield of the Irish fisheries. Only 7,000 tons of fish were conveyed inland by Irish railways. It is true that large quantities of fish are taken direct from the Irish ports to Holyhead and Milford ; but, if it be assumed that the whole of the fish taken inland from these two ports was Irish, the Irish fisheries will still only supply 20,000 tons of fish to the markets. The Irish fishermen are mainly engaged in supplying the home markets ; the Scotch fishermen are largely occupied in supplying the foreign markets ; and yet Ireland only sends one ton of fish to the home markets for every three tons which the Scotch fisheries, after complying with the requirements of a great foreign trade, are able to consign to them. It may be thought that the situation of Ireland, its distance from London, and the intervening channel are responsible for this state of things. But there VOL. I. II. E 50 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. are islands on the west of Scotland which are as remote from the markets as Ireland itself. The Western Hebrides, till lately, sent their fish to London either by Glasgow or by Strome Ferry. In 1880 the opening of the Oban railway gave them a new outlet for their industry; and, in iSSi, upwards of 12,000 tons of fish were despatched from Oban alone by railway, while upwards of 1,000 tons were sent from Strome Ferry. The remote islands, which are known as the outer Hebrides, are probably, therefore, sending two tons of fish to the British markets for every three tons that arrive from the whole of Ireland. The desultory operations of the Irish fishermen will be still better understood if the figures are examined in another way. The 42,000 fishermen of England and Wales despatch to the home and foreign markets 260,000 tons of fish, or about six tons for each fisherman. The 48,000 Scotch fishermen send about 60,000 tons of fish to the home markets, and about 100,000 tons of fish to the foreign markets, or nearly 4 tons to each fisherman. But the 24,000 Irish fishermen only send away about 20,000 tons of fish, or less than I ton for each fisherman : and these figures, striking as they are, do not, it must be recollected, represent the whole truth.* A large proportion of the Irish fish are not caught by Irish fishermen, but by Scotch, Manx, and English fishing-boats. A large proportion of the English and Scotch fish, moreover, is consumed on the coasts, while there is no large consumption of fish on the Irish coasts. These facts will appear still more remarkable if they be * In the preceding figures I have assumed (i) that all the herrings exported were exported from Scotland ; (2) that 10 barrels of herrings weigh i ton ; (3) that all the other fish exported were exported from England. I have computed this at 22,000 tons. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 51 compared with the statistics for Wales. Irish fishermen have been the favourite object of state patronage for years : so long as this patronage continues there will always be a race of Irish fishermen. But no politician has yet risen up who has demanded state patronage for Welsh fishermen ; and in consequence, the Welsh fisheries can hardly be said to exist at all. If Holyhead and Milford be excluded, the whole of the Welsh ports did not send 1,000 tons of fish by railway to the markets in 1 88 1. Yet North Wales on a clear day can look upon the hills of the Isle of Man, which has nurtured the hardiest race of fishermen in the world ; South Wales is not much more distant from the opposite coasts of Cornwall whose people draw a rich harvest from the sea ; while in West Wales stranger boats pursue a profitable herring fishery. It is almost an inevitable deduction from these facts that the Welsh and Irish fisheries do not prosper because the Welsh and Irish people do not take readily to sea-fishing as a pursuit. Of the 272,000 tons of railway-borne fish, which were carried inland in '1881, about 90,000 tons were brought to London. The Metropolis, therefore, in addition to the large quantities of fish which it received direct from the sea, absorbed one-third of the whole of the fish carried inland by railway. The supply of fish to London has been steadily increasing for several years ; rising from about 95,000 tons in 1875, to about 130,000 tons in 1880. Out of this vast supply of 130,000 tons, more than three-fourths, or 100,000 tons, were drawn from the North Sea. London, however, is not the only market which is dependent on the North Sea. Out of the 206,000 tons of fish which are borne annually from English ports by railways, 164,000 tons are carried from ports situated on the North Sea. The North Sea, therefore, is the main source of the fish supply of the United E 2 52 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. Kingdom, and its fisheries are more productive than many countries. If it be recollected, indeed, that in addition to British fishermen, its waters are fished by Norwegian, Danish, German, Dutch, Belgian and French fishermen, some idea will perhaps be formed of the fertility of this sea. It is probable that fishermen extract from its waters every year fish worth 25,000,000. It must not be supposed that the whole of the fish brought to London are consumed in the Metropolis. On the con- trary, London is the central source of the supply of a district which every year tends to become larger. One of the most certain consequences of improved locomotion is the con- centration of trade. It is found practically more convenient for buyers and sellers to meet in one place than to scatter themselves among a great many places. In nothing is this tendency more perceptible than in the fish trade. London and Birmingham, and, to a lesser extent, Manchester and Liverpool, are the markets from which nearly the whole of England is supplied with fish ; and London is annually becoming to a greater extent the centre of the supply. Gentlemen residing in distant counties have their dish of fish regularly sent to them by a London tradesman : fish- mongers in provincial towns receive their fish uniformly from Billingsgate ; and Billingsgate is thus becoming a central fish exchange for the whole country. This state of things could not have arisen except from two circumstances. In the first place, the development of the railway system has enabled large and small parcels of goods to be despatched at a comparatively slight cost to distant places ; and, in the next place, the importation and the manufacture of ice have made it possible to keep perishable goods from decay during transit. As distributors of fish, the railways would have -lost half their utility without THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 53 ice ; while ice, as a preservative, would have been too heavy for the old conveyances to have carried. Ice, as an article of commerce, has not had a history of fifty years. Before the development of railways and the trade in ice, fish were brought to London in welled smacks. The welled smacks are not even now entirely superseded. They are still used in the Grimsby line trade, and Dutch eels are brought to the Thames in the same way.* But the railway has become the great carrier of fish ; the railways bring the fish whole- sale to Billingsgate ; they distribute them subsequently in small parcels throughout the country. If these facts be borne in mind, it will be easily under- stood that space is eminently desirable at Billingsgate. A market which is already the centre of an enormous trade, and which every year is required to transact a larger business, must provide adequate accommodation for those who frequent it. Unfortunately Billingsgate does not fulfil these requirements. Built originally at a time when London was, compared with its present dimensions, a small town, and when the fish trade was only a humble undertaking, it is inadequate to supply the wants of the largest capital in the world. Nor is it easy to see how its shortcomings can be dealt with. Situated as it is in the centre of London, the surrounding land is occupied by property of a valuable * There is a curious circumstance connected with the carriage of Dutch eels which is worth recording. The increasing pollution of the Thames made it impossible to bring even eels alive to London. " For ten years," so said Sir Robert Peel in the House of Commons in 1828, "the water was deteriorating in quality, as was found by various fishermen who had found it necessary to abandon this mode of obtaining a livelihood, in consequence of the insalubrity of the water driving away the fish. In truth, the fishermen's trade was destroyed ; and, strange to tell, eels imported from Holland would not live in Thames water." 54 THE BRITISH FJSH TRADE. character, and the expense of acquiring additional space in the immediate neighbourhood would strain the resources even of so wealthy a corporation as the Court of Common Council. This* circumstance has induced some authorities to believe that the true way of relieving Billingsgate is to build a new wholesale market in another part of the city. The Corporation has actually, in the last few months, devoted to the fish trade, a market constructed for other purposes, The reason commonly assigned for the construction of a second market is plausible. Part of the fish which London receives so it is said arrives by railway ; another portion of it comes by water. The railway-borne fish, it is argued, should be consigned to a market conveniently near to the termini of the great railways ; the river-borne fish should be sold in a market contiguous to the river. One class of fish should, therefore, be sent to a place like Smithfield ; the other class can continue to be disposed of in Billingsgate. This argument, plausible as it is, crumbles away when it is tested, What is a wholesale market ? It is obviously a place where buyers and sellers meet, and where all the operations of the trade should be concentrated. The ordi- nary tradesman, if he can get all his fish at one market, will not take the trouble or incur the expense of driving every morning to two markets. He will select one of the two markets, and to that market he will go ; and his selection will not depend on mere considerations of geography. The best fish reaches London by water. The tradesman who wishes to have the best possible turbot, for instance, on his slab, must go to the waterside market. But it is easy to see that, if this be true, the railway-borne fish will also go to the same market. The salesman at Aberdeen or at Grimsby will not consider which of the two markets THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 55 will be most accessible from Liverpool Street or King's Cross ; he will simply ascertain which of the two markets is attended by the retail tradesmen, and at which of the two markets his fish will consequently command the best price. No expenditure on the part of the Common Council will induce the retail fishmonger to drive to Smithfield if he can get all the fish which he requires at Billingsgate. It is certain that he will be able to get fish at Billingsgate which he will not get at Smithfield ; and to Billingsgate he will accordingly go. The moment this is made plain to country salesmen they will as a matter of course send all their fish to Billingsgate ; and Billingsgate will thus be never super- seded except by a new market on the waterside. It does not, of course, follow from this reasoning that it is inexpedient to establish other fish markets in other parts of the Metropolis for the convenience of the retail trade. The only possible argument against the institution of retail markets seems to be that they are opposed to the habits of the ordinary London householder who, as a rule, seems to expect that his tradesman shall come to him, and that he shall not be required to go to his tradesman. But the suc- cess which has attended the establishment of co-operative stores proves that the householder, for the sake of an ap- preciable advantage, will change his habits ; and, if fish can be bought more cheaply at a retail market than in a shop, the householder in the long run will probably go to the market. But a retail market of this description will depend on the wholesale market for its daily supply. Its institution will in no way remove the necessity for one wholesale market. What then are the requirements which a wholesale market should possess, and does Billingsgate fulfil them ? "A market does not deserve the name which does not $6 THE BRITISH FISH TRApE. afford (i) accommodation for buyers and sellers; (2) standing room, and, where perishable articles are con- cerned, standing room under covered ways for the vans which are being unpacked ; and (3) easy access." * The accommodation in Billingsgate itself is scanty ; but it is perhaps sufficient. The accommodation outside the market is disgracefully insufficient. The vans which bring the fish into it are forced to stand while they are unpacked in the adjoining street ; and this street which only extends along one side of the market is a narrow and inconvenient thoroughfare. The vans, therefore, are often delayed in their approach to the market, they are frequently forced to move on while vans with other fish for which there might be a greater demand at the moment are being brought up and unpacked, and these operations, which would be objec- tionable in any case, are doubly objectionable in the case of a perishable article like fish on a hot summer morning. The time, therefore, has obviously arrived when the market and its approaches should be rendered adequate, or the market itself should be removed to some other situation. It must rest with the Corporation of London to determine which of the two courses should be taken. The Corpora- tion owns the market, and is therefore the only body which can be expected to improve it. The reasons which make improvement preferable to removal must be plain to every one. Nothing is so conservative as trade, and nothing is so difficult as to alter the channel in which a particular trade flows. It may take time before any market, however convenient it may be, can supersede Billingsgate. On the other hand, the expense of making the approaches adequate for the trade is enormous. Bil- * I have quoted in this paragraph a report of my own on the subject THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 57 lingsgate stands on one of the most valuable sites in London. It is no exaggeration to say that unless its area is doubled, and Thames Street is broadened from end to end, all the necessary conditions of an adequate market will not be fulfilled. Improvements of such a character, however, will not cost merely thousands, or tens of thou- sands, but hundreds of thousands of pounds ; and it is for the Corporation to determine whether the game is worth the candle, or whether it would not be better to build at once a new market on another and new site at the waterside. People who think hastily, or who do not think at all, usually suppose that the high price of fish in London is consequent on the inconvenience of Billingsgate ; and they frequently use the oddest of arguments to support their conclusions. Fish they say is cheap enough at Billings- gate, it may be purchased for 2d. per Ib. ; but it is dear in the west end shops, and is not procurable for less than %d. a Ib. It may be doubted whether such statements as these have any real basis. Those who have most ac- quaintance with the case will hesitate to believe that the average price of all the fish sold at Billingsgate ever falls so low as 2d. per Ib., or that the average price of all the fish sold by retail in London ever rises so high as 8d. Large as the profits of the retailers may be, they are not so large as common rumour supposes. If, however, the price of fish in west end shops is high, it is certain that the crowded streets of Billingsgate is not solely responsible for it. If the inconveniences of the market enhanced the price, it is obvious that they would raise the price in Billingsgate itself. They can have no effect on the price when the fish has once passed into the hands of the retailer. The whole gist of the ordinary complaint, however, is that 58 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. fish is cheap at Billingsgate and dear when it reaches the consumer's hands ; and it is plain, therefore, that if the complaint is well founded the cause must be sought outside of the market. It may, under the circumstances, be worth while to consider what are some of the causes which legitimately raise the price of fish to the consumer. It has hitherto been assumed in this paper that the fishermen on an average receive 20 a ton, or rather less than 2d. a Ib. for the fish which they catch ; but it must be recol- lected that this average price is computed from a great many items. The average price of salmon for instance exceeds is. per Ib. ; the average price of sprats on the coast is represented by a fraction of id. a Ib. It cannot, under such circumstances, be possible to state the average value of all fish with anything like precision ; but the esti- mate of id. a Ib. is perhaps sufficiently accurate. It requires very little reflection to perceive that this sum must be largely increased before the fish reach the hands of the consumer. In the first place the fish are sold on the coasts by a salesman ; they are packed in the railway vans ; in hot weather they are packed in ice ; the railway freight from the ports to London has to be paid ; the carriage from the railway terminus to Thames Street has to be charged ; the porterage from the van to the market has to be added ; market dues at Billingsgate raise the price still further ; the salesman at Billingsgate necessarily expects his own profit ; and, lastly, the retailer has to charge his own expenses in driving to the market to buy his fish, the rent of his shop, and the cost of distributing the fish to the consumer. In addition to all these expenses, a certain loss must be experienced in dealing with a perishable article like fish in hot weather. The price which the consumer THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 59 must pay, therefore, must be sufficient to cover this loss, and the retail price of fish must exceed and largely exceed the price received for it by the fishermen on the coasts. It may perhaps be possible to place approximately this excess of cost in figures. The charges on the coast, for selling and packing the fish and for ice, may probably be placed at about 1 a ton, the cost of conveyance to London at 2 IQS. to 3 a ton, the carriage to the market, porterage and market dues and the salesman's commission at another i. The initial price, therefore, on the coast is raised from an average of 20 to an average of 24 ios., or 2$ before the fish leaves the wholesale market. If the retailer's profits and his labour in going to and in carrying the fish from Billingsgate be placed at 25 per cent, the price will further be raised to 31 5^., and if a further 15^. be added to cover the cost of fish which either decays, or which is sold at a nominal price to prevent its decay, the average retail price will be raised from 20, the value of the fish on the coast, to 32, its price to the consumer. This additional price, it must be recollected, would be much more serious in the case of the cheap fish which the trade, by a most unlucky name, calls " offal," * than with respect to the dear fish which are technically known as " prime." The transit charges, the market dues, the sales- men's commissions, and the expenses and a portion of the profits of the retailer would, in every case, have to be borne before the fish reached the consumer. If these charges reached on an average 10 or 11 a ton, they would repre- * "Trawled fish is divided for market purposes into two classes, distinguished by the names of 'prime' and ' offal' ; the former con- sisting of turbot, brill, soles, and dorys, and the latter of haddock, plaice, and other kinds of inferior fish." Holdsworth's " Deep Sea Fishery," p. 15. 60 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. sent an addition of id. a Ib. to the price ; and the fish, therefore, if they were given away on the shore, could not be retailed in London for less than a id. a Ib. It is no doubt true that one half of these charges could be avoided if the consumer went to Billingsgate and purchased his own fish ; and it is alleged that if Billingsgate were made more convenient and more accessible many con- sumers would take this course. But very little reflection will show that this course could not be taken by the ma- jority of householders. It must be a more inconvenient and costly thing for a householder to travel to Billingsgate for the sake of buying sixpennyworth of fish than to pay a tradesman a shilling for bringing the fish to his own door. Even then if the smaller householder could afford to pay as much as a is. for his fish, and the price of fish in the retail market was twice as much as its cost at Billingsgate, most people would find it cheaper and easier to employ a retail tradesman. The retailer, in fact, is carrying out the great principle of the subdivision of labour which is, in one sense, the cause and in another sense the consequence of modern progress ; and it would be absurd to suppose that his services could be dispensed with by a civilised com- munity. Fish sold at Billingsgate are sold as a rule by auction. Fish sold on the coast in smaller ports, where there are no licensed auctioneers, are usually sold by what is called Dutch auction. On the coast the fish is generally bought by a buyer who is in direct communication with some firm at Billingsgate, which acts as the buyer's salesman. At Billingsgate the fish is either bought by the retailer direct, or by a middleman, who is known in the market as a " bomaree." The " bomaree " fulfils the same functions in the fish market which the " regrater " used to discharge in the THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 61 corn market. He buys fish for which there is no imme- diate demand at the moment, and sells it again later on in the day. A good many people think that the interposition of the " bomaree " has the effect of fui ther raising the price of fish and that it is therefore injurious. The clamour which Englishmen of another generation used to raise against the "regrater" is raised now against the "bomaree." The " bomaree," however, is really fulfilling a useful purpose. But for his intervention many small retail tradesmen would be forced to attend the market at an hour when their attendance would be inconvenient to them. The " bomaree " enables the small costermonger to postpone his visit to Billingsgate till he has disposed of his purchases of the previous day. Middlemen are never popular characters, yet the middle- man, if his functions are examined, will generally be found to supply a public want, and to fulfil a useful purpose. Such are some of the features in the trade of fish. An army of 120,000 persons is employed in catching them; an army of 80,000 other persons probably find employ- ment in curing them, or in other ways are dependent on the fishermen ; and an army of io,ooo to 20,000 persons is employed in selling them. There is a singular distinction between the tastes of different parts of the community in respect to fish.* Some of the fish which the English eat are disliked by the Scotch, while the Scotch in their turn eat some fish which are not relished by the English. The Scotchman rarely eats a mackerel, and never eats an eel. He carries his dislike of * The distaste of some nations for fish is remarkable. In the I2th Book of the Odyssey, Ulysses' companions would not eat fish till they were actually starving. Menelaus in the 4th Book says the same thing of his own companions ; and Plutarch declares that " among Syrians and Greeks to abstain from fish was esteemed a piece of sanctity. 62 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. eels to such an extent that he does not even catch for the English market the eels with which many Scotch rivers abound. The herring, the haddock, and the salmon are the fish ordinarily found on Scotch tables ; and the haddock in Scotland almost fills the position which is occupied in England by the sole. On the other hand, Englishmen neglect many excellent kinds of fish. The pilchard, perhaps from the difficulty of carrying so oily a fish, rarely finds a market in England outside Cornwall. So excellent a fish as the halibut is not commonly eaten in London. The skate and the ling are comparatively seldom seen in the west end shops ; while the poorer classes, who eat cockles in Lancashire, and mussels in the Midland Counties, buy whelks and periwinkles in the London streets. Perhaps, however, the most curious distinction between Scotch and English may be found in their respective pre- ferences for the female and the male crab. In England the female crab is hardly saleable ; and probably the roe, which she carries inside her shell till it is ripe for extrusion, is chiefly used as dressing for turbot. In Scotland, on the contrary, the male crab is hardly ever eaten, and people will not buy a whole crab which is not a female. In the shops in Aberdeen the claws of the male crab are sold separately ; the bodies are frequently unsold. It would probably be difficult to find another instance, so marked, of the different habits or tastes of two people who are united in one nation by the tie of a common language and common interest* It has been the object of the preceding pages to describe * In the same way the French send their lobsters to England ; while the crav fish of Cornwall find a rare market in London, and are sold in Paris. The " trout " of the Tweed (salmo eriox) would be rejected by any London epicure ; they command in the Paris market as high a price as salmon. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 63 briefly the salient features of the fish trade of the United Kingdom. With this purpose an attempt has been made to show how fish are caught, to estimate the amount of capital, embarked in the fisheries, the extent of the employ- ment which they afford, and the value of the food which they produce. The fish have subsequently been followed from the markets to the consumer ; and the manner in which their distribution is effected has been described. This account, however, would be hardly complete if it were to stop at this point. Most people who pay any attention to the subject of fisheries, are occupied rather with the future than with the present condition of the industry. It is hardly possible to take up a paper, or to hear a conver- sation which relates to fishery matters, witho.ut listening to or reading gloomy* anticipations of the approaching ex- haustion of the fish of the sea ; and it is therefore necessary before concluding these pages to make a few remarks on this part of the subject. And, in the first place, people do not seem to be aware that the predictions which are freely hazarded of the approaching exhaustion of the sea are not new. They anb almost as old as English literature. Three hundred and thirty years ago a Bishop of St. David's declared that the scarcity of herrings was due to the covetousness of fishers, who in times of plenty took so many that they destroyed the breeders. The good Bishop who pronounced this positive opinion was burnt shortly afterwards at Carmarthen for heresy. But his opinions on fishery questions survived his martyrdom ; and a few years afterwards Parliament complained that "in divers places they fed swine and dogs with the fry and spawn of fish ; and otherwise, lamentable and horrible to be reported, destroy the same, to the great hindrance and decay of the Commonwealth." " Lamentable and horrible 64 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. to be reported " the destruction continued, notwithstanding the action of the Legislature ; and it occurred to another Bishop that, as Parliamentary action had failed, recourse might be had to a Higher Power. Bishop Wilson, probably convinced like all around him of the decay of the fishery, added a paragraph to the Litany, and desired his clergy to pray every Sunday to God to restore the blessings of the sea. But though the prayer was offered up and abundantly answered, the same complaints continued. A few years afterwards, according to Mr. Lecky, the Irish fisheries decayed in consequence of the introduction of trawling on the Irish coast ; while, to come down to our own time, in the year in which the Queen ascended the throne, a petition presented to Parliament declared that the fishermen of Scotland, Ireland, and Holland had found out the breeding places of the herrings, and had resorted there to catch them, and that since the discovery was made the fish generally, throughout the west and north of Scotland, had annually decreased. What would the good Bishop of St. David's have said, 330 years ago, if some seer had told him that the time was coming when British fishermen would draw 2,000,000,000 herrings annually from the British seas, and that the fisheries would still go on increasing ? What would Parliament have said in 1558 if it had known that the " lamentable and horrible " practices which it denounced would be continued for upwards of three centuries, and that at the end of that time the British fisheries would yield a produce twenty times as valuable as the revenue which Elizabeth had at her disposal ? What would Parliament have said in 1837 if some statesman had used such language as this : This fishery which you declare is being destroyed, has never yet produced 500,000 barrels of cured herrings a year ; a little more than forty years hence it will regularly produce 1,000,000 barrels? Yet such a prediction would THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 65 have been literally fulfilled. The statements which thus have been made for 330 years of the approaching ex- haustion of the herring fishery have, one after another, been falsified by the result. Of course the wolf may come at last. But the shepherd, who has been told for 330 years that the wolf was always coming, and has never yet known him come, may venture to hope for the security of his flock for a little time longer. But some people are not satisfied with such an argument as this. Their ancestors, they think, may have been wrong in supposing that the limited machinery at their disposal was capable of exhausting the sea. But modern energy has developed the fishery to such an extent that existing appliances for the capture of fish bear no comparison with the old engines which they have superseded. All fish, so they argue, must in one stage of their existence be young and small ; if they are killed when they are young, it is impossible that they can grow till they are old; and, by destroying a fish when it is young, we are really killing a creature of no value, which, if we only wait patiently, will become of great value. But, in the first place, people do not act in this way in other matters. They do not hesitate to eat an egg worth a penny, because it might, if it were put into an incubator, be gradually developed into a chicken worth three and sixpence ; and in the next place there is no certainty, there is even no reasonable probability that the little fish which a man declined to kill would develop into a mature fish fit for food. On the contrary the chances against it doing so are extraordinarily great. The mortality among fish in the earlier stages of their existence is so large that the destruction of small fish by man, wasteful as it may seem, can have no appreciable effect on the stock of fish in the sea, VOL. I. II. *" 66 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. To make the foregoing assertion good, it may perhaps be legitimate to use an illustration, which the present writer has used twice before, and which has never been answered. It may be assumed as a matter beyond dispute that European fishermen are drawing more than 3,000,000,000 of mature herrings annually from the North Sea. It has been proved that predaceous birds and predaceous fish catch annually at least as many herrings as are caught by the fishermen. Yet at the end of the fishing season there is no perceptible diminution in the size of the shoals. It is unlikely that one herring out of every thousand has been killed : it is improbable that one herring out of every hundred has been killed : it is certain that one herring out of every ten has not been killed ; but, to put the matter beyond all doubt, it shall be assumed that one herring out of every two is killed. In that case 6,000,000,000 herrings are killed, and 6,000,000,000 herrings are left alive. In order to maintain the existing stock of herrings in the sea, these 6,000,000,000 herrings ought, in the course of the succeeding year, to produce another 6,000,000,000 adult herrings, or, if half the surviving herrings are females, each female herring must produce two adult herrings. But each female herring deposits from 20,000 to 50,000 eggs. Take the lowest of these numbers. Out of every 20,000 eggs which the female herring extrudes, 19,998 herrings must either fail to be hatched, or must perish in some of the earlier stages of existence. Suppose that man by his so-called wasteful operations succeeds in destroying 8 out of the 19,998 eggs or fish, or in other words 24,000,000,000 whitebait, nature will still have to account for the destruction of the remaining 19,990 eggs or young fish. If she did not do so, the North Sea in the course of a few years would become a solid mass of herrings. THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 67 It is obvious, therefore, that the destruction of fish by man, large as it seems at first sight, is like a drop of water in the bucket when it is compared with the prodigious natural waste which is simultaneously going on. It is absurd, therefore, to suppose that any necessity can exist for restricting the operations of the fishermen. It may perhaps be added that it is almost impossible to devise any regulations which will effectively prevent the cap- ture of immature fish, and which will not simultaneously interfere with the legitimate operations of the fishermen. Most, if not all, the modes of fishing involve some waste, The most efficient engines of capture are precisely those which are the most destructive ; and any legislative pre- cautions, calculated to preserve the fry of fish, will un- doubtedly diminish the supply, and consequently increase the price, of fish as food. People, therefore, who are interested in cheap fish should cease to demand restrictive legislation. The fisheries of the British Islands languished under the patronage of the great, and made no real progress under the patronage of the Legislature. They have attained their present prosperity under a system of freedom. "When the subject enjoys the fruit of his industry," wrote Pope in a note on a well-known passage of the Odyssey, " the earth will always be well cultivated and bring forth abundance ; the sea will furnish the land with plenty of fishes, and men will plant when they are sure to gather the fruit." It was the misfortune of England that her statesmen for one hundred years did not realise the full moral of this passage, or see that the true way to promote every industry was to leave it alone.* * The passage in Homer is a very remarkable one. " Under a good government," says Ulysses to Penelope, "the land brings forth its fruit, and the sea yields its fish." F 2 68 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. These truths require perhaps to be impressed on the public at a moment when one section of the people is endeavouring to impose restrictive regulations on fishermen, and another section is trying, by an unnecessary and there- fore unwise patronage, to develop an industry which is already prosperous. But it must not be supposed that, because free trade in fishing is better than protection, and the independence of an honest man is worth more than all the patronage of all the aristocracy, nothing can be done either by legislation or in other ways to promote the deve- lopment of British fisheries. The few pages to which this essay may still extend, cannot perhaps be more usefully occupied than by considering this portion of the subject. In the first place, the State can do what no private individual can possibly do. It can collect and publish periodical and authoritative statements of the condition of the fisheries. This information can easily be collected by officers who already exist, and no appreciable expense will therefore be incurred in obtaining it. Its publication will be of great advantage. In State affairs, as in other matters, the possession of knowledge is essential to the administrator ; and many of the wild proposals which are constantly made for the regulation of the fisheries, would probably be dropped if the steady and satisfactory progress of the industry were established by figures. Those who desire to resist the introduction of restrictive laws as well as those who clamour for their passage, are, or ought to be, equally interested in procuring the statistics, by which the sound- ness of their own opinions must ultimately be tested. In the next place, the State can provide, or can ask other nations to aid it in providing for what for want of a better word may be termed the Police of the Seas. The con- tinuous development of the fishery is constantly making THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 69 regulations for preserving order and preventing collision more and more necessary. A central authority alone can devise means for regulating the traffic of the ocean, or can determine what lights or other marks shall be borne by distinctive classes of vessels. The State has, from the first, recognized its obligation to discharge this function. But it has still much to do before it can rest from its labours. The whole question of lights at sea the most important of all the subjects arranged by the State which affects the fisheries is in a confused and unsatisfactory position. The decision of the Hague Convention is still unratified. These and other questions await solution ; and the State, and the State alone, is capable of solving them. In the third place, though in this respect greater caution is necessary, the State may probably do something to pro- mote the construction of harbours in which the fishing-fleets may find shelter in bad weather, or in which facilities may be afforded for landing fish. The State, indeed, could pro- bably undertake no more pernicious function than the construction of fishing-harbours. If it be once known that the Treasury is willing to build harbours for localities, local bodies and individuals will cease to build them for them- selves. The Imperial Exchequer, however liberal it may be, can never hope to do so much as the localities them- selves, and its readiness to build harbours will actually lead to fewer harbours being built. The true course, apparently, for the Government, is to encourage local efforts by offering to advance money for the purpose on easy terms. It will thus avoid the embarrassing duty of selecting the precise spots which are most worthy of attention, and it will escape the invidious distinction of preferring one place to another. Much may, indeed, be urged for the policy of constructing one or two harbours of refuge at exposed points of the 70 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. coast. But such harbours are not required, and ought not to be made for fishing reasons alone ; and their provision must be defended on broader grounds than it is possible properly to bring forward in an essay on the fish-trade of the United Kingdom. These three things the preparation of adequate statis- tics ; the provision of proper police regulations for ensuring order at sea: and the facilitating the construction of adequate fishing-harbours are the three points on which the action of the State may properly be employed in promoting the fishing industry. There are one or two minor points in which it is possible that interference may be beneficial, but speaking broadly, on all other matters, State intervention is probably injurious; and the best service that the Govern- ment can render to fishermen, is to leave them alone. Mr. Huxley once stated that fishermen should be left to pursue their calling " how they like, when they like, and where they like." As a general proposition, to which Mr. Huxley would probably himself admit a few minor ex- ceptions may be made, the present writer is convinced of the truth of Mr. Huxley's dictum. Though, however, the action of the State should thus be limited, other persons may do something to promote the fishing-trade. The Corporation of London might assist in this way by improving Billingsgate and its approaches, or by substituting for it some more convenient water-side market. The various railway companies might do something in the same direction by reconsidering the terms on which they now carry fish ; while private enterprise might also be of use in devising some adequate scheme for the in- surance of fishermen's lives, their boats and their gear. These are means by which both the State and the public may usefully promote the fisherman's industry. Except THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. 71 by such expedients as these, the truest method of assisting fishermen is to leave them alone. The fisherman of the British Islands has attained his present position by his own unaided efforts ; his best friends desire that he should be neither hampered by the restrictions of law nor spoilt by the smiles of patronage. To both dangers he is exposed at the present time. His importance has won for him friends ; and his new friends are always suggesting new legislative regulations for his protection, or for the protection of the fish which he takes. Hitherto these suggestions have been disregarded by Parliament. It may be hoped that the time will never come when they may receive more attention. In fishing, as in other industries, freedom is the first condition of success, and the man who is fettered by restrictive laws is little better than a slave. Perhaps some readers may recollect what was said of the slave : " Jove fixed it certain that whatever day Makes man a slave takes half his worth away." MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS BY W. SAVILLE-KENT, F.L.S., F.Z.S. AUTHOR OF 'A MANUAL OF THE INFUSORIA ;' LATE ASSISTANT IN THE NATURAL HISTORY DEPARTMENTS OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM, AND PRACTICAL CURATOR AND NATURALIST TO THE BRIGHTON, MANCHESTER. AND WESTMINSTER AQUARIA CONTENTS. _ PAGE SPINE-FINNED FISHES 82 SOFT-FINNED FISHES . .150 PHYSOSTOMI !6o LOPHOBRANCHII 175 PLECTOGNATHI .180 GANOIDEI .183 ELASMOBRANCHIATA ^5 PHARYNGOBRANCHII ........ j^ APPENDIX , , . . , . . . .20! INTRODUCTION. THE object of this handbook is to place before the reader a brief descriptive summary of the entire fish-fauna of the British Islands. Within the limited space at disposal it has been found impossible in certain instances to give more than an enumeration of the various specific forms, though in most such cases, as exemplified by the Cod-fish, Herring, and Salmon tribes, compensation for this deficiency is made in the corresponding handbooks published or about to be published on the several subjects of "Food Fishes," " Fish Culture," and " Distribution and Consump- tion of Fish." In a similar manner all complete details relating to the morphological structure and developmental phenomena of fishes have been left in charge of the writers engaged upon the treatises pertaining to " Fish Morpho- logy" and the "Life History of Fishes," while all legis- lative enactments and statistics concerning our home- fisheries are appropriately relegated to the handbooks entitled " The Law in relation to Fish and Fisheries," and " The Fish Trade of the United Kingdom." Apart from the several topics now enumerated, there remains to be recorded a vast fund of information concerning the habits of fish, their peculiar modes of locomotion, variations and adaptations of form and colour, assumed during their growth to the adult state, or adopted for the purpose of 76 BRITISH MARINE A AD FRESHWATER FISHES. concealment, and in connection with their breeding seasons ; the nest-forming propensities and parental solicitude often displayed in the protection of the eggs and young, usually by the male fish, are all matters of high interest both to the biologist and general reader, that can be studied successfully in connection only with living examples accli- matised in aquaria. Many original observations in this direction, made by the author during the times he held the position of Naturalist and Curator to the several large public aquaria of Brighton, Manchester, Great Yarmouth, and Westminster, and for the most part previously recorded in the columns of 'Nature/ the 'Field/ and the official guide-books written by him for the above-named institutions, have been accordingly embodied in these pages. In this connection attention may be more particularly directed to the accounts here given of the Red Mullet, p. 88, the Black Bream, p. 92, the Angler, p. 101, the Dragonet, p. 127, the Smooth Blenny, p. 136, Whitebait, p. 171, and the Sea Horses, p. 177. In such manner it is anticipated that this little handbook will be found a useful guide to the numerous visitors interested in that highly popular section of the Exhibition buildings, the Aquarium Corridor, flank- ing the west side of the Horticultural Gardens, and which it is hereafter proposed to retain as a permanent and highly important adjunct of the Science and Art Department. With the assistance of this handbook they will have an opportunity of identifying the various fish exhibited, and of comparing and verifying the descriptions here given of their more remarkable habits and peculiarities. To facilitate such reference and comparison the index at the end of this book will be found to include all the names of the various fishes living in the Aquarium, and whose titles are affixed on tablets at the sides of the tanks. INTRODUCTION. 77 This handbook has at the same time been compiled with the view of providing a complete reference catalogue 01 index to the fine series of spirit-preserved British marine and freshwater fishes collected by Dr. Francis Day, which after exhibition in their present position in the East Quadrant will be given to the nation, and placed perma- nently on view in the Buckland Fish Museum. This museum, it is hopefully anticipated, will on the close of the Exhibition be enriched by many kindred acquisitions. As will be observed, the numbers quoted in these pages in con- secutive order after the popular and technical titles of each fish, coincide with the same numbers inscribed on the labels attached to the jars which contain the above-named fish collection, while an extended special description of the individual specimens thus exhibited is frequently given in the text. In like manner, by way of exemplifying certain rare forms, not in the Day Collection, and the larger sizes to which our indigenous fishes not unfrequently attain, reference is constantly made to the magnificent series oi coloured plaster casts prepared by the late Mr.. Frank Buckland, and to the many preserved specimens contained in the Buckland Museum, now thrown open to the public in conjunction with the Exhibition Courts. The classificatory system adopted in this handbook accords substantially with that adopted by Professor Huxley in his ' Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals/ the diagnosis of the minor subdivisions or families being derived mainly from the special works on fishes by Dr. Albert Giinther and Dr. Francis Day. English readers desirous of extending their acquaintance with the morphology offish, and with the varieties and distribution of our indigenous icthyological fauna, may advantageously consult the following books, 'The Anatomy of Verte- 78 BRITISH MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES. brated Animals/ by Professor T. H. Huxley, F.R.S., 1871 ; Gegenbaur's ' Elements of Comparative Anatomy/ trans- lated and revised by Professor E. Ray Lankester, 1878; 'A History of the Fishes of the British Islands/ by Jonathan Couch, 4 vols., with coloured figure of each species, 1858; 'A History of British Fishes/ by William Yarrell, 2 vols., 1859; 'An Introduction to the Study of Fishes/ by Dr. Albert Giinther, 1880; a 'Familiar History of British Fishes/ by Frank Buckland, 1878 ; and 'The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland/ by Dr. Francis Day, F.L.S., F.Z.S., now in course of publication. The author has, in conclusion, to acknowledge his in- debtedness to Messrs. Cassell, Petter & Galpin, the Com- mittee of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and Messrs. Adam & Charles Black of Edinburgh, for their kind courtesy in supplying him with electrotypes of the wood engravings in their possession, utilised for the illus- tration of this handbook. BUCKLAND FISH MUSEUM, SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT, SOUTH KENSINGTON. May 22nd, 1883. MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. CLASS PISCES. FISHES. THE class of fishes embraces an extensive series of vertebrated or backboned animal forms exhibiting the utmost diversity in size, form, habits, and organisation. The more highly organised fish types so closely approach structurally certain members of the class Amphibia in- cluding the Frogs, Newts, and Salamanders as to be with difficulty distinguished from the representatives of that section, while the lowest known type (Amphioxus), No. 232, is so deficient in all those characters by which ordinary fish are recognised, and is in other respects so structurally modified, as to form a connecting link with the lower or invertebrate animal series. Defined in its most general and comprehensive sense the class of fishes may be described as a group of vertebrate animals of essentially aquatic habits. The limbs, when present, take the form of two pairs of ventrally developed appendages, which, while homologous with the fore and hind limbs of the higher vertebrata, are not divided in a similar manner by articula- tions into the distinct regions of arm, forearm, and hand, or 8o MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES thigh, shank, and foot, as obtains in such higher animals ; the wrist-like development of the pectoral fins in the Angler-fishes or Pediculati may be cited among the nearest modifications in this direction. In place of this the limbs are composed, for the most part, of a series of soft parallel bony or cartilaginous rays invested by a continuous expansion of the integument, and thus form efficient paddle-like locomotive organs or fins, the fore and hind pairs of these appendages being known respectively as the pectoral and ventral fins. In addition to these paired fins all fishes invariably possess a greater or less number of median unpaired fins, these are the dorsal or back fins, the anal or vent fins, and the caudal or tail fin. All of these unpaired fins are supported by cartilaginous or bony fin rays, which are joined to the body through the medium of special spinous processes ; this structural constitution of the median fins is especially characteristic of fishes, and obtains in no other animals. The heart in all fishes, except- ing Amphioxus, consists of a single auricle and ventricle, the blood is cold and red, its component corpuscles being distinctly nucleated, and of an oval shape. All fishes respire the oxygen dissolved in the water by the means ol gills or branchiae. These are supported upon a greater or less number of bony or cartilaginous structures, the visceral arches, developed immediately behind the head, and which are brought into direct relation with the surrounding water in front by the opening of the mouth, and behind by the gill cleft or clefts. The skin, naked in some fishes, is more usually covered with overlapping scales, or may be pro- tected by a series of closely set bony plates, or by variously distributed tubercles or spines. All fishes are dioecious (bisexual), the majority being oviparous, but some, in- cluding notably certain representatives of the Shark tribe, OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 81 are viviparous, that is, produce their young alive. The fecundity of fishes is in excess of that of any other division of the animal kingdom. The number of eggs contained in the roe of a single Cod frequently exceeds eight or nine millions, while the roe of a large Turbot weighing twenty pounds was found to contain over fourteen million eggs. The average number of eggs produced by a Salmon having a weight of twenty pounds is twenty-seven thousand, and that of a Herring from twenty to fifty thousand. The number of known species of fish distributed through- out the salt and fresh waters of the globe falls but little short of nine thousand, out of which as many as two hundied and thirty-two are included in the fish-fauna of FIG. I. AUSTRALIAN MUD-FISH (Ceratodus Forsteri). the British Islands. Of these, some twenty-eight or thirty are inhabitants of purely fresh water, twelve or thirteen are " anadromous," migrating periodically from salt to fresh water or the converse, while the remainder are exclusively marine forms. The fish class as a whole is sub-divided by our highest authority (see Professor Huxley's 'Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals ') into as many as six leading sections or orders. These, commencing with the most highly organised, and descending to the lowest or least specialised group, take the following sequence : I. The Dipnoi or Mud-fishes ; II. The Teleostei or ordinary bony fishes ; III. The Ganoidei or Sturgeon tribe ; IV. The Elas- mobranchii, including the Sharks and Rays ; V. The VOL. i. H. G 82 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES Marsipobranchii, comprising the Lampreys ; and VI. The Pharyngobranchii, represented only by that lowest known and very remarkable vertebrate form, the Lancelet, Amphi- oxus. Of the six foregoing groups, but one, that of the Dipnoi, is wanting to our indigenous fauna. This order, which among existing forms includes only the African and American Mud-fishes Protopterus and Lepidosiren, and the Australian Ceratodus, is of especial interest to the biologist, since it constitutes a stepping-stone to the tailed amphibia, or Newts and Salamanders, with which, indeed, anatomi- cally, the species possess many points in common. The African type, Lepidosiren annectans, has been frequently brought alive to this country, and several fine casts, illus- trating its singular form, are on view in the Buckland Museum. A figure of the yet more remarkable and very recently discovered Ceratodus Forsteri, inhabiting the fresh waters of Queensland, Australia, is given overleaf. The enumeration and description of our highly representative British fish-fauna may now be proceeded with. ORDER l.Teleostei. Fishes having a spinal column that always contains dis- tinctly ossified vertebral centra, and the primordial cartilage of the skull more or less completely replaced by bone. SUB-ORDER L SPINE-FINNED FISHES (A canthopterygit). A greater or less portion of the rays of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins not articulated, but represented by sharp- pointed indurated spines; the lower pharyngeal bones usually distinct. Air-bladder in the adult fish without a pneumatic duct OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 83 FAMILY I. THE PERCH TRIBE (Percida). This most highly organised group of the Acanthopterygian or spine-firmed fishes, typified by the common Perch of our freshwater ponds and rivers, is represented by five additional British species, all of which, with but one exception, are in- habitants of salt water. The subjoined characters may be cited as common to all its members, and as serving to distinguish them from other spine-finned fishes, which in many points they closely resemble. The body is usually of an oblong form ; the branchiostegal rays, supporting the membraneous gill covers, are from five to seven in number ; the anterior portion of the dorsal fin is distinctly spinous ; the scales are in most instances conspicuously ctenoid or pectinated, and do not extend over the surface of the vertical fins as in the exotic Squamipinnes, e.g. Chcetodon ; the cheeks are not protected by bony plates as in the Gurnards, and there are no filamentous processes, barbels, developed upon the lower jaw as pbtains among the next family of the Red Mullets (Mullida). An air-bladder is almost invariably present. The Freshwater Perch (Percafluviatilis\ No. I, relegated by most ichthyologists to the first place among the members of its tribe, is too familiar in form to need elaborate description. Its rich ground colour of golden-brown, varie- gated usually by five or six transversely-set broad bands of black, and bright red ventral, anal, and caudal fins, render it one of the most beautifully marked of our freshwater species. With the angler it is a prime favourite, being of essentially gregarious habits, and taking baits so freely as to afford most excellent sport. In the famous Norfolk Broads, where Perch are very abundant, and grow to large dimensions, it has been observed that the fish assemble G 2 84 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES together in shoals according to their sizes, the smaller and larger individuals keeping to themselves, and repelling the intrusion of those that materially differ from them in this respect ; a similar phenomenon has been observed in the case of many gregarious marine species. Perch may attain to a weight of as much as five or six pounds, one scaling two pounds, however, being considered a fine fish. The spawn of the Perch is a very beautiful object, and is not unfrequently deposited by the fish in the tanks of aquaria. The individual eggs are very minute, about the size of millet seeds, but when extruded are invested with and FlG. 2. THE i-ERCH (Perca fluviatilis). bound together by a copious matrix of semi-transparent mucilage, and in this form deposited in reticulated lace-like bands upon or among water-weeds or other suitable sub- merged objects. The spawning season of the Perch ranges from March to June. The number of eggs contained in the roe of two fish, weighing respectively three pounds two ounces and two pounds eleven ounces, was calcu- lated by Mr. Frank Buckland to amount to no less than 155,620 in the former and 127,240 in the latter of the two examples. Casts of these two fish are now on view in the Buckland Museum. Perch obtained from different localities are subject to considerable colour OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 85 variation ; the characteristic transverse bands may be increased from the more normal one of five or six to as many as eight ; in place of being distinct they may combine with each other either superiorly or inferiorly, or they may on the other hand be altogether absent. The American Perch, formerly distinguished by the title of Perca fia- vescens, is now generally recognised to be a variety only of the British and continental species. The only other British freshwater representative of the Perch family is the Pope or Ruff (A cerina cernud], No. 3, a fish corresponding closely in its general form with the Perch, but readily distinguished from it by the confluence of what in the Perch constitutes a first and second dorsal fin, and by its more sombre colouring, which consists usually of a ground tint of yellowish brown, diversified with thickly sprinkled black or dark- brown spots. The Pope is a small fish, rarely exceeding a length of four or five inches ; the example in the Day Collection, (No. 3B.), measuring as much as six inches, being of exceptional dimensions. First among the series of fishes belonging to the marine division of the Perch family must be mentioned the Bass or Basse (Labrax lupus), No. 2. The silvery sheen of the scales of this fish, combined with its somewhat salmon-like size and proportions, has won for it in various parts of our coasts the local title of the " White Salmon ; " and as a variety of such noble fish, the prickly dorsal fin having first been carefully removed, it is not unfrequently foisted upon the uninitiated. Its Latin name of lupus or " wolf," which it has inherited from the Romans its Greek generic title of Labrax also signifying a " sea- wolf " is presumed to have been conferred upon it with reference to its voracious appetite, and to its habit of congregating in shoals, and hunting down the smaller species of fish upon which it 86 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES feeds. The Bass grows to a large size, examples of fifteen, sixteen, or even twenty pounds being not uncommon, such finer specimens being mostly taken near the mouths of rivers and the entrances of harbours to which they are especially partial. Though strictly a marine fish the Bass will ascend rivers into brackish water, and, as the writer proved in the tanks of the Manchester Aquarium, may be cultivated in purely fresh water. The ancient Romans, from whom we might even yet take many a useful lesson in the art of pisciculture, were well aware of the accommo- dating habits of the Bass, and are asserted, on the authority of Columella, to have even bred it in their freshwater ponds. The Bass is one of the few sea species that may be success- fully fished for with a rod and fly, excellent sport being obtained with it in this manner, more especially along the rocky coast-line of Devonshire and Cornwall. The cast of a fine specimen of the Bass, length two feet nine inches, weighing sixteen pounds, will be found among the collection in the Buckland Museum. The Comber or Smooth Serranus (Serranus cabrilla), No. 4, met with in tolerable abundance on the coast of Cornwall, is a fish of relatively small dimensions, not exceeding one foot in length, whose aspect, colour, and habits greatly resemble those of the Wrasses (Labridce). As a species of this last- named group, the writer has indeed received it from the above-named locality, in company with living examples of the Ballan, Blue-Striped, and other Wrasses, for stocking the tanks of the Brighton, Westminster, and other Aquaria. The entire absence, however, in the Comber of the protru- sile fleshy lips that constitute so prominent a character in the Wrasses, serves at once to distinguish this fish from all members of that family. The ground colour of the Comber is usually a tawny yellow, becoming lighter towards the OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 87 ventral region, interrupted by three or four narrow longi- tudinal bands of a stone-grey or pale-bluish hue which extend from the region of the head to the root of the tail, more or less numerous spots of the same tint decorating the elongated dorsal fin. This fish is not of sufficient size nor sufficiently abundant to be used as food, and when caught is usually cut up for bait. A close ally to the Comber is the so-called Giant Perch or Dusky Perch (Serranus gigas\ No. 5, a perfect monster compared with the freshwater representatives of the Perch family, attaining in its full growth to a length of three to four feet, and a weight of from sixty to over one hundred pounds. It is a somewhat rare visitor to our shores. The Mediterranean and Atlantic sea- board, as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, being its more ordinarily frequented habitat. The examples so far cap- tured in British waters were taken at Polperro, Falmouth, Penzance, and other points on the Cornish coast. The small example preserved in spirit in the Day Collection is necessarily a very young one. The Stone Bass (Polyprion cernium), No. 5, is another of the Sea Perches, local and irregular in its appearance on the British coast, and whose headquarters, as in the preceding form, are to be sought in the Mediterranean and other southern seas, where it attains to a size equal to, or it may be even greater than that of the so-called Giant Perch examples of as much and even over six feet in length having been recorded. It has been observed as a peculiarity in the habits of the Stone Bass that it is almost invariably captured in the neighbourhood of floating timbers and other wreckage, which it apparently frequents to feed upon the small fish and various Crustacea, Molluscs, and other animals so abundantly associated with the flotsam of the ocean. In a similar manner these fish will also attach themselves to a vessel, whose bottom after 88 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES a long voyage has become foul with Barnacles (Lepadid elongated body and elevated forehead, very nearly resembles the typical " Dolphin " (Coryphcend) of the Mediterranean. The capture of but two examples in British waters has been so far recorded, both from the Cornish coast. One of these, measuring three feet nine inches, has been deposited in the British Museum. Its colours in life, like those of the Coryphcena, are very brilliant, those of the VOL. I. H. ii 4 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES specimen above referred to, as described by Mr. Cornish (' Zoologist,' p. 500, 1866), being back, steel-grey ; a broad, scarlet band along the sides, which are likewise, as it were, sprinkled with gold dust; the abdomen silvery, fins and tail bright crimson. The young of this species differ so remarkably in shape from the parent form, that it was up to within a recent date regarded as a distinct fish, and figured and described in works on ichthyology under the title of Diana semilunata. Several very superiorly stuffed examples of the Classic Dolphin (Coryphcena hippurus) are included among the fine collection of Indian fishes brought to this country by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, when returning from his famous Indian tour, in the year 1876, and which, after exhibition at the Zoological Society's Gardens, he generously deposited as a loan in the Buckland Museum. This Indian collection will be found well worth the visitor's attention ; the skill with which many of the fish have been preserved by native taxidermists being rarely surpassed by British artists. FAMILY XII. HORSE MACKERELS (Carangida). Body more or less compressed, oblong or elevated ; teeth conical ; the pre-operculum without a bony stay ; the spinous dorsal fin continuous with or separated from the more considerable softer portion ; no extensive series of dorsal and anal finlets as in the true Mackerels ; a more or less complete row of keeled, spine-bearing plates or scales usually developed along the lateral line ; branchiostegal rays seven in number. The Scad, Horse-Mackerel, or Bastard Mackerel (Caranx trachurus). No. 47, enjoys an almost cosmopolitan dis- tribution, and is occasionally so abundant on our south- OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 115 western coast-line, that as many as ten and even twenty thousand have been enclosed and brought to land at a single haul of the seine. This fish is but little valued for the table. Its distinction from the common Mackerel may be at once recognised by the absence of the series of minute dorsal and ventral finlets in the region of the tail, which characterise the last-named species, and also by the presence of a row of sharp, spinous scales or plates, which form a continuous series throughout the entire length of the lateral line. Twenty inches represent the longest dimen- sions attained by the adult Scad ; its colour is usually dull blue along the back, and silvery beneath the lateral line. The well-known Pilot-fish (Nancrates ductor\ No. 48, is so called by reason of its characteristic habit of associating with various species of Sharks, which fish it is asserted to swim in front of, and guide to its prey. On this account it is popularly known among sailors as the " Shark's provider." In illustration, however, of the fact that the partnership established between the two fish is not always to the advantage of the Shark, it has frequently been known to entice its bulky companion to swallow a baited hook, which it would otherwise have left unnoticed. The Pilot-fish, like the Remora, frequently attaches itself to vessels for the sake of the discharged garbage, following them with such perseverance as to be often brought into harbour. On one occasion two Pilot-fish were thus known to accompany a sailing-vessel during a voyage of eighty days, between Alexandria and Dartmouth, they having become so tame on its arrival at the latter port, that they were easily captured, and, it is a matter of regret, killed and eaten. The Pilot-fish rarely exceeds a small Mackerel in dimensions, its colour being likewise somewhat similar, consisting of a bluish-grey ground, variegated by five or six broad transverse I 2 ii6 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES bands of a darker hue. The Rudder-fish, or Black Pilot (Pammelas perciformis), No. 49, and the Derbio, or Glaucus Mackerel (Lichia glauca), No. 50, are two rarer forms, some- what resembling the true Pilot-fish, but with relatively shorter bodies, that are usually referred to the Carangidte, and lead the way to the compressed, short-bodied species known as the Boar-fish, or Cuckoo-fish (Capros aper), No. 51. This little fish, which in shape much resembles a John Dory, but rarely exceeds six inches in length, and is usually coloured a bright orange-red, with occasionally a variable number of darker vertical bands, is not uncommon off the Cornish coast, preferring moderately deep water in the neighbourhood of rocks. Though of no value as a food- fish, it is a great favourite for exhibition in aquaria, its quaint shape, bright colours, and habit of swimming fearlessly in the middle of the water, rendering it specially suited for such a purpose. It has been observed by the writer, of examples imported by him from Mr. Matthias Dunn, of Mevagissey, Cornwall, to the Brighton, Manchester, and Westminster Aquaria, that the ordinary slow locomotion of the Boar-fish, as in the case of the John Dory, is accomplished solely by the screw-like undulations of the soft-dorsal and anal fins. FAMILY XIII. THE DORY TRIBE (Cyttida). Body elevated, greatly compressed ; naked, or covered with small scales or bucklers ; teeth, small, conical ; no bony stay to the pre-operculum ; the dorsal fin composed of a distinct, soft and spinous portion ; branchiostegal rays seven or eight in number. This small marine group contains less than a dozen existing species, referable to the two genera Zeus and OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. u 7 Cyttus, and of which but one form, the well-known John Dory (Zeus faber\ No. 52, is an inhabitant of British waters. Its popular name is apparently a corruption of the French "Jaune Doree," significant of its typical hue of golden-yellow. The large, dark circular spot, with a surrounding lighter annulus developed immediately behind the pectoral fin, gave rise in earlier days to the tradi- tion that this fish represented the species from which St. Peter obtained the tribute-money, the spot on each side FIG. 9. JOHN DORY (Zeus fader). being regarded as inherited marks left by the Apostle's finger and thumb when capturing the fish. Unfortunately for the tradition the Dory is not an inhabitant of Lake Gennesaret whence the fish was taken, while a like distinc- tive mark is common to numerous marine and freshwater species. The high reputation enjoyed by the Dory as a table delicacy will be found duly chronicled in the hand- books treating of fish as food. The habits of the species as observed by the writer, of several examples successfully introduced into the tanks of the Brighton Aquarium, are ii8 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES highly interesting. The manner in which the Dory swims by the rapid undulation of the soft dorsal and anal fins only, referred to in the account given of the Boar-fish, was recorded by the writer so long since as the year 1873,* the only species of which a very similar mode of locomotion, by means of the unpaired fins, had been hitherto observed, being the Sea-horses and Pipe-fishes, belonging to the Family Syngnathidce. As a rule, when undisturbed, the Dory remains perfectly quiescent in mid-water in the vicinity of the rockwork of its tank, and against which it frequently leans for support. Like the Angler it is a fish that captures its prey by stealth, and not by the exercise of superior activity. That the Dory is a most voracious feeder, is exemplified by the fact that as many as twenty-five young Flounders and three half-grown Sea- Bullheads have been abstracted from the stomach of an example measuring only twelve inches and a half in its total length ; while another Dory, weighing but I Ib. I oz., was found to contain eighteen Sprats, two Sand-Smelts, and a Cuttle- fish, with the remains of other species in a decomposed state. When confined in an aquajium it is necessary to supply it with living food, and in the case of those so kept at Brighton, it was observed that the Dories either waited passively until the fish provided swam sufficiently near as to be engulphed by a single snap of their highly-extensile jaws, or they approached them so slowly and stealthily by means of the scarcely-perceptible vibratory action of the two vertical fins, before referred to, that their advent was either not noticed or viewed with unconcern, until, with the rapidity of a flash of lightning, one or more victims in the shoal had disappeared within the Dory's capacious mouth. * W. Saville Kent, " On Fish Distinguished by their Action." 'Nature,' July 31, 1873. OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 119 A length of from eighteen to twenty-two inches, with a weight of from twelve to eighteen pounds, represent the largest proportions which the John Dory attains upon our coasts. It enjoys an almost cosmopolitan distribution, extending from Norway throughout the Atlantic ; and a variety of the same species, according to some autho- rities, is met with at the Cape of Good Hope, South Australia, and Japan. FAMILY XIV. SWORD-FISHES (Xiphiidce). Body compressed, naked, or with rudimentary scales ; the upper jaw, comprising the ethmoid, vomerine and pre- maxillary bones, produced into an ensiform or sword-shaped process ; teeth absent, or very minute ; branchiostegal rays seven in number. The European Sword-fish (Xiphias gladius), No. 53, common in the Mediterranean, where it is the subject of an important fishing industry, is not an unfrequent visitor to our own shores. It is one of the largest Acanthopterygian fishes, attaining to a length of twelve or fifteen feet and upwards, in aspect not unlike a Tunny, having superadded to it the very formidable sword-like rostrum from which it takes its name. The precise use of this structure, except as a weapon of offence, is one of the zoological problems that have yet to be solved. According to ancient tradition the fish is accustomed to use its sword for impaling the fish, upon which it feeds, like larks upon a spit ; a difficulty connected with such an interpretation is, however, an ex- planation of the method by which after capture in such manner he detaches his prey and conveys it to his mouth. Modern writers have suggested that it uses its 120 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES rostrum for turning up the sand in search of worms and other bottom food ; the fact, however, that Pilchards, Cuttles, and other pelagic forms have generally been found within the stomachs of examples that have been dissected, tends to negative this interpretation. As another alterna- tive it might be suggested that the Sword-fish uses its weapon for securing food, as the Saw-fish (Pristis anti- quorum) is reported to do its saw, namely, by swimming, or metaphorically running a-muck among the shoals of smaller fish, numbers of which, by vigorously applied lateral strokes of its rostrum, the Saw-fish thus disables and then devours at leisure. The irreconcilable enmity subsist- ing between the Sword-fish and all species of the Whale tribe is a matter of tradition, the Fox-Shark (Alopecias), being its reputed ally in its attacks upon the leviathan of the deep. Many instances have been recorded in which Sword-fishes have attacked moving vessels, probably mistaking their submerged hulks for their hereditary foe. In the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons is the section of the bow of a South-Sea whaler, the solid wood of which has been transfixed by the rostrum of one of these fish to the depth of thirteen and a half inches, the weapon having luckily broken off in the hole, and so prevented what might have proved a dangerous leak. In the Buck- land Museum will be found two fine casts of specimens of the Sword-fish, each measuring over eight feet in length, captured respectively at Ramsgate, and Leigh near South- end ; and also the portion of a ship's side, which had been pierced, first through a sheathing of one inch thickness, next through a three-inch plank, and beyond that into four and a half inches of solid timber, by the sword of the tropical form (Histiophorus). It was estimated by a mechanical OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 121 engineer that it would have required nine strikes of a hammer weighing twenty five pounds to drive an iron bolt of similar shape and size to an equal depth in the same hull. FAMILY XV. MAIGRE FISHES (Scicenida). Body elongate, compressed, mostly clothed with serrated scales ; teeth disposed in villiform bands, sometimes with supplementary canines ; the pre-operculum unarmed and without a bony stay, branchiostegal rays seven in number ; air-bladder usually present, frequently with branching diverticula. The Maigre or Scicena (Scicena aquila), No. 54, is the only member of this family that can with certainty be included among our British species, the reported capture of the Umbrina (Umbrina cirrhosa\ on one occasion, at the mouth of the river Exe, not being accepted as trustworthy. In shape and size the Scicena bears no slight resemblance to the Giant-Perch (Serranus gigas), already described ; but from which and all other members of the Percoid family it may be readily distinguished, from the absence of conspicuous spines and serrations on the opercular bones. Its colours during life are, according to Couch, very brilliant. The general surface of the body being a rich bronze-yellow, the antero-dorsal region and head light green, the first dorsal fin brilliant pink, the remaining fins being darker with perhaps a tinge of red. After death the brilliant colouration of the body soon fades to a coppery or neutral tint, leaving the fins a more or less uniform dull red. The Scicena is in the habit of congregating in shoals, and it has been observed that it possesses the faculty of emitting sounds, audible at the surface of the sea from a considerable 122 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES depth, such sounds having been variously compared by fishermen to bellowing, buzzing, purring, and whistling. It has been suggested that the reputed song of the Mythological Sirens took its origin from the noises emitted by shoals of this fish. The casts of two fine Scioenae, measuring each about five feet with a weight of eighty pounds, are on view in the Buckland Museum. A young spirit-preserved specimen will also be found among the series forming the Day Collection. Many of the exotic members of the genus Scicena ascend the mouths of rivers into perfectly fresh water. FAMILY XVI. HAIRTAILS (Trickiuridce). Body elongated, much compressed, scales rudimentary or absent ; the gill openings wide ; teeth well developed ; the dorsal and anals fins greatly elongated, many rayed ; ventral fins absent or rudimentary ; caudal fin sometimes wanting ; branchiostegal rays seven or eight in number.. The flattened, somewhat Eel-like fishes comprised in this family are represented in British waters by two species, both of which are of rare occurrence in these latitudes, their native habitat being the warmer regions of the Atlantic. The first species, known as the Silver Hairtail (Trichiurus lepturtis\ No. 55, taking its name from the almost hair-like tenuity of its caudal termination, attains to a length of about two feet six inches, its colour, when fresh, being, as described by the late Mr. Frank Buckland, comparable to that of a new shilling or a lady's satin shoe. This silvery pigment, which invests the whole body in the form of a very delicate membrane, becomes so readily detached after death, that it is almost impossible to preserve an example representing any approach to the OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 123 aspect of the fish in its living state. An half-grown specimen of this rare type will be found among the spirit- preserved series belonging to the Day Collection, and the cast of an adult in the Buckland Museum. The second British representative of the Trickiuridcz is the so-called Scabbard-fish (Lepidopus caudatus\ No. 56, a fish of much larger dimensions, attaining to a length of five or six feet or more, its body in shape being very elongated, flattened, or sword-like, and, as witnessed by the writer off the coast of Portugal, flashing when freshly taken from the water like burnished silver. In the spring months of the year, when FIG. 10. SILVER HAIRTAIL (Trichiurus lepturus). it migrates from the deeper waters of the ocean towards the shore for the purpose of spawning, it is very plentiful along the coasts of southern Europe, and there constitutes an important fishery. The Scabbard-fish is distributed abun- dantly throughout the tropical waters of the Atlantic, and has been taken so far south as the Cape and New Zealand ; examples recorded from the last-named station are, ap- parently, as is the case with British specimens, accidental wanderers only from warmer latitudes. A dried specimen, and also a cast of the Scabbard-fish, will be found in the Buckland Museum. 124 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES FAMILY XVIL GOBIES (Gobiida). Body elongate, naked or scaled ; teeth usually small, sometimes including distinct canines ; spinous dorsal fin or moiety of the dorsal fin the less developed, its membrane supported by simply flexible spines ; the ventral fins usually (in all British species) united with each other in such a manner as to form a funnel-shaped disc ; branch- iostegal rays four to six in number. The Goby family includes a very large number of small carnivorous fishes that are essentially inhabitants of the literal zone, some of them adapting themselves to a fresh- water habitat. As many as nine species are included in the British list, the largest form, known as the Black Goby or Rock Goby (Gobius niger), No. 59, attaining to a length of eight or nine inches, while certain of the smaller ones measure no more than one or two inches. The Black Goby, which may be taken as the type of its family, is frequently met with beneath large stones at low water, it selecting such a habitat not only as an ordinary domicile, but as a nursery where it may safely deposit and hatch its spawn. The eggs, as frequently observed by the writer, are of a very singular shape, being elongate, ovate, or fusiform, about three times as long as broad, and are attached vertically by one of the smaller ends in a single, closely approximated layer, that may extend over an area of many square inches of the undersurface of the rock selected. Over these eggs the male fish now mounts guard, vigorously repelling all would-be intruders with whom he can cope on equal terms, and in those instances in which the disturbing influences are apparently too strong for him such as human interference resorting, in self-defence, to an artful stratagem. On several occasions, when shore- OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 125 V collecting in the Channel Islands, the writer has, in fact, on turning the rocks over in search of specimens, dislodged what at first sight, from the apparently large size of its head, w,as taken for a Bullhead (Coitus), but which on closer examination proved to be an example of the Rock Goby, with its opercula and branchiostegal membranes abnor- mally distended, with the evident intention of passing itself off as one of those spiny-headed Cottidce, which are not to be handled with impunity. A like imitation of a hurtful or stronger form is adopted, as a means of protection, by harmless and weaker species in many departments of the Animal Kingdom. The coalescence into a single funnel- shaped organ of the usually separated pair of ventral fins, is a very distinctive feature of the Gobies, and prepares the way for that further modification of this region, that obtains among the true Sucking-fishes, Discoboli and Gobiesocidce. This funnel-shaped fin expansion is, indeed, utilised by the Gobies as an adherent organ or acetabulum, these fish, as may be verified by watching them in an aquarium, being able with the aid of such structure to adhere firmly to the smooth surface of the glass front of their tank. Some of the smaller Gobies are remarkable for their brilliant colouration, one in particular, the Paganellus (Gobius paganellus\ No. 58, having its brown-mottled body relieved by the dorsal fins, which are ornamented with two broad, longitudinal bands of red and blue. This fish grows to about half the length of the Black Goby, but is relatively shorter and thicker. On the Jersey coast, at very low spring tides the vertical rise and fall averaging at such times between forty and fifty feet the writer has obtained a species of Goby that is yet more brilliantly coloured, and which he has not yet been able to identify precisely with either any British or Continental form 126 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES hitherto described. In form and general details it most closely resembles the Two-spotted Goby (Gobius Ruthen- sparri), No. 59, and, like it, has a dark spot or ocellus on each side, both at the base of the tail and near the axilla of the pectoral fin. The proportions of all the fins are, how- ever, much larger, and the second dorsal and anal ones in particular have their hinder rays so much prolonged as to reach nearly to the base of the tail. In life the two long dorsal fins have each three narrow, sub-parallel, bright crimson longitudinal bands on a pale blue ground ; about fourteen or fifteen conspicuous bright emerald-green spots are developed at somewhat irregular distances along the lateral line, the remaining surface of the body being variegated with various shades of brown, grey, and yellow. Possibly this form is identical with Couch's (Gobius bi-ocellatus\ which Dr. Day, " British Fishes," proposes to unite with G. ruthensparri, but it is certainly distinct from the type specimens of the last-named form contained in the Day Collection, and the colouration, here described from living examples, though possibly assumed only at the breed- ing season, has not been recorded of any other species. The remaining British members of the Goby family are the One- spotted Goby (Gobius minutus), No. 60 ; the Speckled Goby (G. parnelli), No. 61 ; the Painted Goby (G. pictus), No. 62 ; the Four-spotted Goby -(G. quadrimaculatus\ No. 63 ; the Transparent Goby (Apkia pellucida), No. 64 ; and Nilsson's Goby (Crystallogobius Nilssonii), No. 65. FAMILY XVIIL DRAGONETS (Callionymidcz). Body elongate, usually somewhat depressed, the pre- operculum without a bony stay ; teeth not developed on the palate, only in the jaws ; dorsal fins two in number, the OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 127 anterior one often abnormally prolonged its membrane supported with from four to seven flexible spines ; branchiostegal rays, five or six in number ; air-bladder absent. The Dragonets, classed with the Gobies by some autho- rities, but differing from them in the normal, separated condition of their ventral fins, are distinguished by the same literal habits, one species, the gemmeous Dragonet or Yellow Skulpin (Callionymus fyra), No. 66, being not uncommon on the flat, sandy shores of the south-east coast. The male is remarkable not only for its brilliant colouration but also for the extraordinary development of the anterior FIG. II. DRAGONET (Callionymus lyra). dorsal fin, the first ray of which in the adult fish reaches, when folded back, from its origin a little behind the head to the base of the tail, the fin when erected bearing no slight resemblance to the narrow lateen sail of an Oriental fishing- yawl. The colour of the body in the same fish is orange or yellowish, diversified with numerous longitudinal stripes, spots and markings of blue and lilac, a similar variegation extending to the dorsal fins. At the breeding season these colours are yet more highly intensified, the darker shades developing to deep ultramarine and violet, reflecting a metallic sheen. The female, which is dressed in paler tints of russet-brown, and is devoid of the prolonged dorsal fin 128 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES which characterises the male, was originally described as a distinct species, under the title of the Dusky Skulpin (Callionymus dracunculus\ and it is interesting to find that the male, in its immature condition, agrees in form and colour with the adult female. The phenomena attending the spawning operations of the Dragonet, as witnessed by the writer of examples confined in the tanks of various aquaria, are very remarkable, and were briefly referred to by him in ' Nature' of July 30, 1873. At such times, the male, resplendent in his bridal livery, swims leisurely round the female, who is reclining quietly on the sand, his opercula abnormally distended, his glittering dorsal fin erect, and his every effort being concentrated upon the endeavour to attract the attention and fascinate the affections of his chosen mate, much after that manner of courting commonly pursued by the male birds of the Pheasant family and other Gallinacese usually termed "shewing." The female, at first indifferent, becomes at length evidently dazzled by his resplendent attire and the persistency of his wooing, she rises to meet him, the pair so far as such a course ii; practicable with fishes rush into each other's arms, and, witl their ventral areas closely applied, ascend perpendicularly towards the surface of the water. In connection with thes manoeuvres, it may be safely predicated that the ova ar-* extruded and fertilised, but in the limited depth of wate of an aquarium tank, the matrimonial tour cannot apparently, be sufficiently prolonged to assure the consum mation of this act ; the fish after reaching the surface being projected by their previously gained impetus slightly above the water, when, falling apart, they sink slowly to the bottom, and the process after short intervals is repeated. It is, however, by no means impossible nor even improbable that the fertilisation of the eggs in Callionymus may take OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 129 place while the fish are projected above the surface of the water, as has been actually recorded by Alexander Stenzel, of Tankow, of the freshwater Continental " Nase " or " Zupe " (Chondrostona nasus}. A fine pair, male and female, of gemmeous Dragonets will be found mounted side by side in the spirit series forming the Day Collection. Un- fortunately no method yet attempted has resulted in the successful preservation of the colours as in life of the male. A second more southern form, the Spotted Dragonet (Callionymus maculatd), No. 67, has on one occasion been taken off the British coast. FAMILY XIX. LUMPSUCKERS (Discoboli). Body inflated, transversely expanded or oblong, naked or tuberculated ; teeth minute ; the gill openings narrow ; one or two dorsal fins ; the ventral fins, each with one spine and five rudimentary rays, the pair being so united by membrane as to form a round, strongly adhesive suctorial disc or acetabulum ; branchiostegal rays five or six in number ; air-bladder absent. The Lump-fish, Lumpsucker, Sea-Owl, Sea-Hen, or Cock-and-Hen-Paddle, as it is variously named (Cyclopterus lumpus), No. 68, is one of the most grotesque-looking of our British fishes. Its inflated, ungainly body, peculiar semi-transparent consistence, and tubercular armature, con- duce to impress a stranger that he has before him some quaint organism from the waters of China and Japan, in the composition of which, as not infrequently happens, nature has been materially assisted by human intervention. The efficient adhesive organ or sucking disc, modified from the ventral fins developed on the under surface, completes the sum of its peculiarities, and provides the fish with an efficient VOL. I. H. K 130 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES grapnel wherewith the animal, naturally a weak, clumsy swimmer, can, as it were, lay to in a storm, or ride securely anchored within the swirl of the strongest current. The young of the Lump-fish or Sea-Hen, which may be appro- priately named Sea-Chickens, are, in the living state, even more remarkable in appearance than the adults, they being much more transparent and of a bright sea-green hue, as though modelled in green glass or beryl. In marine aquaria,, where they are usually exhibited during the spring months of the year, they form most attractive objects, swimming fearlessly in the water, or ccming to FIG. 12. LUMP-FISH (Cydopterus lumpus). anchor on the glass-work of their tank, and manifesting apparently a strong predilection for a game of hide-and- seek with the visitors from behind the supporting mullions. In this position one or more specimens are usually to be detected, through the sudden apparition of a comical green head with goggle eyes, or the momentary flourish of a little stumpy tail. In another minute, perhaps, one little fellow, finding himself an object of admiration, takes "heart of grace," shuffles forward for a few inches along the glass, still adhering by his sucker, and thus permits an unobstructed view of his entire organisation. These Lump- OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 131 fish, young and old, feed voraciously on live shrimps, the " chickens " exhibiting extraordinary precocity in the chase and capture of these Crustacea. Any one of them will rush after and attack a Shrimp as Jong or longer than himself ; generally, too, he contrives to master it, and with much puffing and panting, and many a struggle to swallow it whole, with the exception perhaps of the long horns or antennae, which will not go down, but are left ludicrously projecting from the little glutton's mouth. Such indeed is the greediness of these youthful Lump-fish, that if allowed this crustaceous diet without discretion they literally gorge themselves to death. The Lump-fish is not only the largest representative of its tribe, but, as compared with other forms, attains to a considerable size. Examples mea- suring in length from twenty inches to two feet, and with a weight of from twelve to fifteen pounds, are not infrequent. Several admirable casts of such fine adult specimens will be found in the Buckland Museum, the most interesting illustration being, however, included in the Day Collection, where in the jar No. 68 a-e is exhibited a series ranging from a length of half an inch only to six inches, or about one third the size of the adult fish. It is interesting to observe that in the younger stages a membraneous first dorsal fin is distinctly developed ; but, as growth progresses, this becomes gradually imbedded within, and finally entirely obliterated by an outgrowth of the rough skin of the dorsal surface. The periodical arrival of the Lump-fishes upon our coasts during the earlier spring months is for the purpose of spawning. The eggs, deposited in a large mass among fissures of the rocks, are bright salmon-colour, and other- wise much resemble in size and aspect masses of dryly- boiled sago. Mr. Frank Buckland ascertained that the roe of a female fish weighing eleven pounds contained no less K 2 132 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES than 194,112 eggs. These, after deposition, are jealously guarded by the male, who will not hesitate even to attack so formidable an antagonist as the Wolf-fish (Anarrhicas lupus} in defence of his prospective progeny. The remaining British representatives of the family Discoboli are the two small smooth-skinned fishes, the Sea-Snail or Unctuous- Sucker (Liparis vulgaris\ No. 69, and the Montagu's or Network- Sucker (Liparis Montagui), No. 70. Examples of these varieties, which rarely attain to a greater length than from three to six inches, will be found among the spirit series forming the Day Collection. FAMILY XX. FLATHEADED SUCKERS (Gobiesocidce). Body elongate, depressed anteriorly, devoid of scales ; teeth conical or compressed ; a single spineless dorsal fin, developed towards the caudal region of the body ; ventral fins widely separated, having developed between them an adhesive apparatus whose periphery is limited anteriorly by these fins but posteriorly by a cartilaginous ex- pansion of the coracoid bones ; branchiostegal rays five or six in number. The family of the Gobiesocida is represented in British waters by three or four species only, belonging to the genus Lepidogaster. All are of small size, rarely exceeding two or three inches in length, and are for the most part inhabitants of the literal zone, being abundantly met with under stones in the rock-pools left by the receding tide. All of them are noted for their brilliant colouring, which often varies considerably among individuals of the same species, though even here there are certain distinctive markings generally to be found. Thus in the Cornish Sucker (Lepidogaster gouanii\ No. 71, two OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 133 large dark blue ocelli are constantly developed on the top of the head immediately behind the eyes. In the Connemara Sucker (L. decandolii), No. 72, two or three posteriorly converging brilliant scarlet lines ornament the sides of the head, while in the third form, known as the Bimaculated or Doubly-spotted Sucker (L. bimaculatus), No. 73, two dark ocelli are developed on the sides of the body, just behind the distal termination of the pectoral fins. During several years residence in the Channel Islands the writer has become acquainted with what will probably have to be regarded as a fourth British species of the genus Lepidogaster, but which, by Couch and other writers, has apparently been overlooked as a variety only of L. bimaculatus. While exhibiting manifold variations in the general ground colour of its body, which may be repre- sented by different shades of red, green, or brown, the two lateral ocelli, distinctive of the last-named type, are never found ; but in lieu of this a single, very conspicuous dark- coloured streak is developed along each side of the head, the eye being stationed immediately in its centre and interrupting it at this point. Additionally to these dis- tinctive markings, important structural differences are found to exist in the composition of the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, and more especially in that of the ventral acetabulum. Finally it is found to affect a different habitat, for while L. bimaculatus is to be obtained only with the aid of the dredge at some little distance from the shore, the form here introduced is a strictly literal species, obtainable beneath stones in the rock- pools at all ordinary ebb-tides. This distinction in the habitats of the spotted and so-called unspotted varieties of the last-named type is alluded to in Couch's " British Fishes," as important evidence in support of the probable specific distinctness of the unspotted form. 134 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES Being unable also to identify it with any of the various non- British Continental members of the same genus, the writer has proposed provisionally to distinguish this apparently new type by the title of Couch's Sucker (Lepidogaster couckii), No. 73. While most plentiful on the shores of Jersey and Guernsey, this little fish is tolerably abundant also on the Devonshire and Cornish coasts. All of the flat- headed Suckers are most interesting additions to small aquaria, they speedily becoming so tame as to feed fearlessly from the hand, and their bright colours and lively habits adding greatly to their attractiveness. They breed freely in captivity, a favourite nidus for the deposition of their ova being the empty shells of bivalve molluscs. The males, as in the case of the Lump-fish (Cydopterus), mount guard over the eggs till hatched. FAMILY XXL BLENNIES (Blenniida). Body elongate, compressed, naked, or clothed with minute scales ; teeth well developed, diversely modified ; a single dorsal fin usually extending throughout the entire length of the dorsal region, the boundary between its spinous and soft portions being indistinct or indicated by a simple notch ; ventral fins composed of but few rays, often rudimentary or absent ; branchiostegal rays five to seven in number ; air-bladder absent. The majority of the members of the Blenny family are small literal fish, distributed abundantly throughout the temperate and tropical seas, and represented by as many as eight British species. Among these there occurs an excep- tional type inhabiting deeper water, which, compared with its congeners, is a perfect monster. This is the well-known Wolf or Cat-fish (Anarrhicus lupus), No. 74, the first popular OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 13$ appellation bearing reference to its ferocious disposition, and the second to the somewhat cat-like form of its large, rounded head. In the adult state the Wolf-fish attains to a length of as much as five or six feet or more. The most striking structural feature concerning this species is the complex armature of its mouth, a series of long, conical, canine-like teeth, being developed anteriorly, shorter, pointed, tubercular teeth at the sides, and a median band of massive, flattened crushing teeth, functioning as molars, occupying the centre of the palate. As might be anticipated from its formidable dental formula, just described, the food of this species consists essentially of hard-shelled organisms such as Molluscs, Crustacea, and Echinoderms, crushed remains of each of which zoological groups will be abundantly found among the stomach contents of freshly caught specimens. For the capture of such prey, and more especially for the detachment from submarine rocks of strongly adherent Molluscs and Echini, and for the subsequent trituration of their hard shells the prehensile canines and massive palatal teeth are respectively eminently adapted. In common with other members of the Blenny family the Wolf-fish is unusually pugnacious, turning savagely upon its assailants, and capable with the aid of its trenchant teeth of inflicting exceedingly severe wounds. For this reason it is customary with fishermen, on cap- turing this fish, to knock out its front teeth, and to dispatch it as soon as possible. An instance is recorded of an example caught by some North Sea trawlers, which seized a mop handle that was held out to it so savagely and pertinaciously that it allowed itself to be swung overboard before it would release its hold, and one of its teeth being even then left embedded in the wood. Living examples of this very formidable and somewhat I 3 6 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES repulsive-looking type were imported by the writer, through Messrs. Jeffs and Blake, of Gt. Grimsby, from the North Sea to the tanks of the Manchester Aquarium. Its habits, as there observed in confinement, were found to be essen- tially nocturnal, the fish remaining perfectly quiescent throughout the day on the shingle at the bottom of their tank, but arousing from their lethargy and swimming about in search of food on the approach of night. Preserved specimens and also several casts of fine examples of the Wolf-fish are on view in the Buckland Museum. Among the typical Blennies, considerably resembling the FIG. 13. SMOOTH BLENNY (Bknnius pholis). Wolf-fish in shape, but of relatively pigmy proportions, are the Gattoruginous Blenny (Blennius gattorugieri), No. 75, eight or nine inches long, having two curious antennae-like tufts on the top of its head ; Montagu's Blenny (Blennius galerita), No. 76, two or three inches long, with a single head tuft ; the Butterfly Blenny (Blennius ocellaris\ No. 77> length six or seven inches, and so-called with reference to the elevated, wing-like contour of, and eye-like spot developed upon, the dorsal fin, and lastly, the Shanny, or Smooth Blenny (Blennius pholis), No. 78, whose dimensions nearly accord with those of the last-named fish. Examples of each of these types will be found OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 137 among the spirit-preserved series in the Day Collection. The Smooth Blenny, which is the commonest of all these forms, occurs abundantly in rock-pools between tide-marks all around our coasts, and is remarkable as a species that will voluntarily leave the water in the pools and bask on the rocks in the sunshine, hurriedly tumbling or scrambling into its native element again on the sound of approaching footsteps, or other cause of alarm. The spawning habits of this fish, as witnessed by the writer in connection with examples acclimatised in the Manchester Aquarium, proved highly interesting, certain of the phenomena observed demonstrating the possession by the male, at least, of an amount of attachment and sagacity rarely if ever previously recorded of fish life. In a tank containing some forty or fifty examples of this Blenny, a pair had selected a narrow ledge, high up on one side, for the purpose of a nursery. The eggs were deposited in a single layer upon the ledge, first by one and subsequently by a second female, the species being thus shown to be polygamous. The male had mean- while undergone a wonderful colour transformation, much after the manner of the male of the Black Bream (Cantharus lineatus), previously described. All the gay mottlings of yellow and brown that usually characterise the species had given way to a uniform tint of deep sooty black, the large, prominent lips alone remaining nearly white, his appearance under such circumstances being particularly ferocious and forbidding. Thus attired he now mounted guard over the female fish and eggs, his self-appointed task, as presently seen, proving no sinecure. The discovery was soon made, in fact, by the other members of the community, that Blennies' eggs were a choice gastronomic delicacy, and thenceforward our little friend was scarcely allowed an interval of peace. While one fish was being repulsed in front, another descended upon 138 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES and made off with the coveted booty in the rear ; or, as frequently happened, there was a concerted attack along his lines of more than half-a-dozen fish. Thus overpowered by numbers, there was but little chance of a young family descending from the rocky fortress, and, indeed, several times within the course of an entire month spent by the little Blenny in the arduous endeavour to guard his embryo brood, the little aerie was mercilessly stripped of every egg. At the end of that period an untimely end befel our little hero ; wearied out with his exertions he was at length unable to cope with the odds arrayed against him, and was found one morning literally torn to pieces at the foot of the ledge he had so long defended, a huge fellow, nearly twice his size, and who had doubtless been chiefly instrumental in bringing about his overthrow, now occupying the post of honour. One other little episode concerning the object of this notice remains to be chronicled : While the female was depositing her spawn, an operation which extended over several days, her brave little partner was seen on several occasions to descend to the bottom of the tank, and hurriedly snatching up a fragment of the food supplied for the general weal, to return with it aloft and place it at the disposal of his lady-love. The remaining members of the family Blennidce include Yarrell's Blenny (Carilophus ascani\ No. 79, a rare form, somewhat resembling (Blennius gattorugine), examples of which are among the desiderata of the Buckland and Day Collections ; the Spotted Gunnell, or Butter-fish (Centronotus gunnellus\ No. 80, an elongate, much compressed Eel- like form, attaining a length of ten or eleven inches, and the Viviparous Blenny, or Eel-pout (Zoarces viviparus\ No. 81, remarkable as representing the only undoubtedly viviparous British Acanthopterygian fish. The young when born are OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 139 about an inch and a quarter long, and from 200 to 300 are usually found within an adult female fish. Large adult examples of this species measure as much as two feet, but a length of about one foot or fifteen inches represents the more ordinary size. The still larger dimensions of from two to three feet long, is said to be attained by an allied American species, Zoarces anguillaris. FAMILY XXIL BAND-FISHES (Cepolida). Body very elongate, compressed, clothed with minute cycloid scales ; teeth moderate in size, pointed ; preoperculum without a bony stay ; dorsal and anal fins very long, more or less continuous with the caudal fin ; branchiostegal rays six in number. The Red Band-fish, or Red Snake-fish (Cepola rubescens), No. 82, an elongate form with an attenuate tail not unlike that of Trickiurvs, is the only British representative of this small family group. Although generally regarded as a rare fish, few winters pass without one or more specimens being washed up by the storms upon our shores, from the deeper waters which they normally inhabit. Its colours when living are very attractive, the ground hue being bright red or even carmine, intermixed with yellow, and the fins being more or less tinged with rose-colour. A length of twenty- two inches represents the longest recorded British example. It is a common form in the Mediter- ranean. A preserved specimen, captured at Exmouth, is included in the Day Collection. 140 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES FAMILY XXIIL RIBBON-FISHES (Trachypterida). Body elongate, compressed, riband-shaped, devoid of scales ; dorsal fin extending the whole length of the body ; anal fin entirely wanting ; caudal fin absent, or if present, rudimentary, and developed at an angle diverging from the normal longitudinal axis ; branchiostegal rays six in number. The Ribbon-fishes, represented by two British species, the Deal-fish, or Vaagmaer (Trachypterus arcticus\ No. 83, and Bank's Oar-fish, or Ribbon-fish (Regalecus Banksii), No. 84, are rare forms, inhabiting the deeper, colder waters of the ocean, diseased or disabled specimens only being at long intervals found floating helplessly on the surface or cast upon our shores. Both species are remarkable for the relative thinness of their compressed bodies, whence their name of Ribbon-fishes. Bank's Oar-fish, more especially, attaining to a length of from sixteen to twenty feet, yields no more than from two to three inches as its greatest thickness. Casts of a fine example of this species, captured at Dunnett Bay, Caithness, in July, 1877, as also of a shorter specimen from the Mediterranean, will be found in the Buckland Museum. In both instances, unfortunately, the very slender, oar-like pectoral fins and crest-like elevated rays at the commencement of the dorsal fin had been removed or lost at the time of capture. The development of these elongated appendages would appear to vary at different ages, and probably in connection with the separate sexes. The fish known as Hawkin's Gymnetrus, figured erroneously in Buckland's "British Fishes" as possessing a large fan- shaped tail the caudal region was actually wanting in the type when stranded near Penzance and four pedunculated, paddle-shaped ventral rays, is now generally regarded as OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 141 an imperfectly observed example only of Regalecus BanksiL It is by no means improbable that many of the tales concerning the existence of the Sea-Serpent have originated in connection with these Ribbon-fishes, and which, swim- ming along the surface of smooth water, would create an undulating wave behind them, which would add apparently very considerably to their actual length. FAMILY XXIV. SAND-SMELTS (Atherinidce). Body more or less elongate, sub-cylindrical, clothed with cycloid scales ; teeth minute ; dorsal fins two in number, the first armed with feeble spines ; branchiostegal rays five or six in number ; air-bladder present. The Sand-Smelts are small, gregarious fishes, rarely exceeding a length of six or seven inches, distributed throughout the temperate and tropical seas, one form, the common Sand-Smelt, or Atherine (Atherina presbyter), No. 85, being exceedingly abundant upon the south coast of England. It must not be mistaken for the true Smelt (Osmerus eperlanus\ one of the Salmonidce, whose family affinities will be at once recognised by its possession of the characteristic functionless or adipose posterior dorsal fin. A reputed second but much rarer British Sand-Smelt is Boyer's Atherine (A therina Boyeri), No. 86, more usually inhabiting the Mediterranean and the Atlantic as far south as Madeira, but which is reported to have been taken on one or two occasions upon the Cornish coast. The first-named, commoner species, is much esteemed as an article of food 142 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES FAMILY XXV. GREY MULLETS (Mugilidd). Body more or less oblong and compressed, clothed with cycloid or ctenoid scales ; cleft of the mouth narrow, teeth absent, or feebly developed ; dorsal fins two in number, the anterior one composed of four strong spines ; branchiostegal rays five or six in number ; air-bladder large. The Grey Mullets are gregarious, shore-frequenting fishes, which not infrequently ascend the mouths of rivers into brackish and even fresh water. All the species are much esteemed for the table, two of them, the common or thin- lipped Grey Mullet (Mugil capita), No. 87, and the Lesser or Thick-lipped variety (Mugil chelo), No. 88, being abun- dant on the British coasts. When fished for and enclosed by nets, Grey Mullets display much ingenuity in their endeavours to avoid capture, one or more of the number often making its escape by leaping over the corked border of the net into the open sea again, and the whole shoal quickly following suit at the same point like a flock of sheep over a meadow fence. Being acquainted with the proclivities of these Mullets, the Levant and other Mediter- ranean fishermen take the precaution to extend extra netting above the surface of the water, from pieces of cane fastened perpendicularly to the cork line the escape of the fish in the manner above described being thus effectually debarred. Fine examples of the larger or common Grey Mullet attain to as great a length as two or three feet ; all the species closely resemble each other in colour, their ground tint being a silvery grey, variegated by from six to eight darker steel-blue longitudinal lines along the sides, the head and cheeks usually reflecting a bronze or golden tint. Grey Mullets become remarkably tame when acclimatised in aquaria ; examples introduced by the writer to the OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 143 Manchester tanks were accustomed to take their food quite leisurely from their keeper's hand. The entire absence of cirrhose appendages or barbels upon the lower jaw readily distinguish the Grey Mullets from the members of the true Mullets or Surmullets, family Mullida, previously described. FAMILY XXVI. STICKLEBACKS (G aster osteidce). Body elongated, compressed, scaleless, but more or less protected by bony scutes ; the mouth cleft oblique ; teeth villiform, opercular bones unarmed ; the first dorsa) fins composed of isolated spines, ventral fins articulated with FIG. 14. THREE-SPINED STICKLEBACK (Gasterosteus acukdtus). the pubic bones, each consisting usually of one spine and one soft ray ; branchiostegal rays three in number ; air- bladder present. The Stickleback family includes some half-a-dozen known species of small-sized fish, distributed throughout the Arctic and Temperate regions of the northern hemi- sphere. All of these are referable to the same genus (Gasterosteus), and are, with one exception, naturally inhabi- tants of fresh water, but at the same time susceptible of acclimatisation in brackish and even salt water. Of the three British species the commonest and most familiar type is the three-spined Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus\ No. 89, abundant in almost every canal, pond, or stream in the 144 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES. neighbourhood of our larger cities. Under its various local names of the "Tittler," "Tittlebat," and "Jack Sharp," it there, not infrequently, first awakens and stimulates into activity among the youthful population that passion for distinction in the art of angling, which in after years yields more substantial fruit in the form of many a distinguished votary of that gentle craft, of which the famous Sir Isaac Walton was at once the founder and high priest. The nest-building habits of the Sticklebacks, including both the marine and freshwater species, are well known and of great interest, and may be easily observed of examples kept in confinement. The task of building the nest devolves upon the male fish, who at the breeding season usually the spring or early summer assumes as his nuptial attire, in the case of the present species, G. actdeatus, the most gorgeous tints of scarlet, green, and silver. The nest itself is composed of fine vegetable fibres, matted together into an irregular spheroidal mass, having a hollow centre and a round hole at the top. His work completed he now sallies out, and after the apparent exercise of much persuasive eloquence, induces first one and subsequently several female fish to return with him and deposit their eggs within the little arbour. Over the nest with its enclosed treasures, and, indeed, over a considerable area surrounding it, he now mounts guard, and vigorously repels the too close approach of either a comrade of his own species or any other fish. It not infrequently happens that two individuals select such contiguous spots for their nests, that there is a constant trespass on one side within the magic circle over which the other fish would exercise a monopoly. This gives rise to implacable hostilities between the rival claimants, which are usually prosecuted with such vigour, that the weaker .of the two is either slain, being OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 145 literally ripped open by the ventral spines of his opponent, or is driven ignominiously from the field. It has been observed that the victor in these combats immediately ac- quires a far more brilliant hue than he previously possessed, with an augmented display of activity and defiance in his bearing. The vanquished, on the other hand, if he escapes with his life, loses all his gay tints, and retires into obscurity among the females and more peaceable members of the shoal. The Three-spined Stickleback is remarkable for the great number of sports or varieties into which it developes in different localities, and in accordance with the nature of its surroundings. Such varieties are manifested chiefly in connection with the protective armature of vertical bony plates developed along the sides of the body ; those affecting a salt-water habitat, and thus being exposed to a greater number of enemies, being the most completely armed, and those confined to quiet inland waters being the least protected in this respect. Dr. Day, in his ' Fishes of Great Britain,' enumerates, in addition to the normal form, as many as six such local varieties of this type, the majority of which will be found in the spirit-preserved collection that bears his name. These include the Rough-tailed Stickle- back (G. trackiurus), with from thirty to forty plates each side, the Half-encuirassed Stickleback (G.semiloricatus), with twenty-two or twenty-three vertical plates, the Half-armed variety (G. semiarmatus], with ten to fifteen such plates, and the Quarter-armed or Smooth-tailed Stickleback (G.gymnu- rus), with from four to six shields only. The two remaining varieties are the Short-spined form (G. brachycentrus), with very short dorsal and ventral spines, and the so-called Four- spined Stickleback (G. spinulosa), with a rudimentary fourth dorsal spine developed between the two hindmost spines VOL. I. H. L 146 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES of the normal type. These several varieties have been regarded as separate species by many writers, but since every gradation between them may be successfully traced, they evidently possess no sound claim for such distinction. A length of three and a half inches represents the largest dimensions recorded of British examples of G. aculeatus. A second undoubted freshwater indigenous species is the so-called Tinker or Ten-spined Stickleback (Gasterosteus pungitius), No. 90, which takes its first name from the almost black tint it usually assumes in the breeding season, and its second one with reference to the number of spines which usually occupy the position of the ordinary first dorsal fin. It is the smallest British freshwater fish, it but rarely exceeding two inches in length. In habits it closely resembles the three-spined species, and in some localities is the more abundant of the two. The third British species, known as the Sea or Fifteen-spined Stickleback (Gasteros- tius spinackia), No. 91, is an essentially marine form that occasionally ascends rivers into brackish water. With reference to its somewhat snake-like contour it is known in some localities as the "Sea-Adder," a title, however, which is more commonly applied to the Pipe-fishes (Syngnathidce) . From five to six inches represents the length to which it most ordinarily attains. FAMILY XXVIL TRUMPET-FISHES (Centriscida). Body oblong, or elevated and compressed, covered with minute scales, or protected by a cuirass of non-confluent ossifications ; the anterior bones of the skull forming an elongated tube with a small terminal, toothless mouth ; dorsal fins two in number, the first one containing a single, OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 147 abnormally developed spine ; branchiostegal rays three or four in number ; air-bladder large. The Trumpet or Bellows-fish (Centriscus scolopax\ No. 92, a small compressed form, not altogether unlike the Boar- fish (Capros aper), but distinguished from that form by its elongated snout and single, long dorsal spine, is the only member of this small family that has been taken, and then on very rare occasions, in British waters. In common with a few other allied forms it is an essentially sub-tropical type, finding its home in the warmer waters of the Medi- terranean and more southern seas, stray wanderers only reaching these latitudes accidentally. An illustrative example of this singular species is still a desideratum for the Buckland Museum. FAMILY XXVIII. WRASSES (Labrida>\ Body oblong or elongated, clothed with cycloid scales ; the lips often highly protrusile ; teeth absent from the palate, elsewhere well developed ; dorsal fin single, the spinous portion as long or longer than the soft ; branchiostegal rays five or six in number ; air-bladder present. The family of the Wrasses, or Rock-fishes, as they are sometimes called, includes a large number of literal rock- frequenting fishes, abundantly distributed throughout the temperate and tropical zones, seven or eight species frequenting the British seas. A structural peculiarity that specially distinguishes many of these fishes, and whence they derive their technical name of Labridce, or Lipped-fishes (from labrum, a lip), is connected with the formation -of their lips, which are very large, fleshy, prehensile, and so folded as to permit of their protrusion to some distance beyond the oral aperture. The family, as a whole, is L 2 148 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES further remarkable for the brilliant colouration of its com- ponent members, many of the British species in common with their allies the Parrot-fishes of the tropical seas having to be reckoned amongst the most gorgeously tinted examples of the entire fish series. In this connection it is further found that the two sexes are often so differently coloured as to have been for a long time regarded as separate species, while in other instances, again, it is difficult to find two individuals of the same form that correspond precisely with one another in the hue and pattern of their markings. The Spotted, or Ballan Wrass (Labrus macu- latus), No. 93, is our commonest and largest indigenous type, FIG. 15. BALLAN WRASS {Labrus maculatus). adult examples often measuring from fifteen to eighteen inches in their total length. The ground colour of this fish may run through various, shades of brown, blue, green, or yellow, diversified usually by reticulations on the cheeks and anterior regions of brilliant red, similar coloured spots and other lines and markings being developed over the remaining surface of the body. The bright grass-green variety of the Ballan Wrass shading off to yellow on the abdomen, and with yellow streaks along the sides, was formerly named by Couch, the Green-streaked Wrass (La- brus lineatus)\ and another form, the Comber, or Dunovan's Wrass (Labrus Dunovani). A yet more brilliantly coloured OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 149 species is the Cuckoo, or Blue-striped Wrass (Labrus mixtus), No. 94, the male of which, in the adult state, has numerous irregular broad bands and markings of the richest cobalt- blue, distributed upon a general ground colour of orange or paler yellow, these colours during the breeding season becoming greatly intensified, and usually supplemented by an opaque whitish or pale green patch on the top of the head and dorsal region. The female, for a long time regarded as a distinct species, and known by the title of the Three- spotted Wrass (Labrus triinacttlatus], has an orange- red ground colour, variegated only by the presence of three conspicuous black spots, with intervening white patches on the dorsal region in the neighbourhood of the tail. It is a remarkable fact that the young males are similarly coloured, but gradually develope the blue lines, patches, and other markings of the adult fish as they advance towards maturity. The Corkwing, or Baillon's Wrass (Crenilabrus melops\ No. 95, a smaller specise, rarely exceed- ing six inches in length, somewhat resembles young examples of Labrus maculatus, its normal ground colour being green, with bright scarlet and blue reticulations ; but it is to be distinguished from that form by the usual presence of seven or eight obscure vertical bands upon the sides of the body, and a single darker spot close to the base of the caudal fin. Jago's Goldsinny (Ctenolabrus. rupestris), No. 96, has likewise a black spot at the root of the tail, but the ground colour is a rich golden-brown. In the Small-mouthed Wrass, or Rock-cook (Centrolabrus exoletus\ No. 97, the male fish is resplendent with brilliant violet stripes and markings. Two remaining members of the Wrass family that occur very rarely on the British coasts, are the Scale-rayed Wrass (Acantkolabrus palloni), No. 98, and the Rainbow- Wrass (Coris. julis), No. 99, which is a 150 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES common form in the Mediterranean. The majority of the preceding types will be found well represented in the preserved series forming the Day Collection. Unfortunately no method has yet been discovered of preserving their vivid colours as in life. Visitors to the Exhibition will, never- theless, have an opportunity of verifying the descriptions given of these Wrasses, by an examination of the living examples of various species that have been already introduced into tanks of the Aquarium in the West Arcade. A highly interesting fact connected with the Wrasses, is their habit of moving about only by daylight, and of repairing to the rocks to sleep at night. On taking a lantern to their tanks after dark, they will be found in various recumbent positions on the ledges or on the crannies of the rockwork, and are so lethargic that they may be handled. Grey Mullets likewise sleep at night, but floating at the surface of the water. ORDER. II. SOFT-FINNED FISHES (Anacanthini). Vertical and ventral fins, without spinous rays ; the ventral fins, if present, jugular or thoracic. Air-bladder, when developed, without a pneumatic duct. FAMILY I. COD TRIBE (Gadida). Body more or less elongated, covered with small cycloid scales ; the gill openings wide ; dorsal fins one, two, or three in number, occupying nearly the whole length of the back ; one or two anal fins ; the caudal fins free, or united with both the last dorsal and anal fins ; bran- OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 15 1 chiostegal rays seven or eight in number; an air-bladder usually present ; one or more cirrhose appendages, barbels frequently developed from the chin or upper lip. The Cod family, restricted in its distribution to the colder waters of the Temperate and Arctic seas, represents one of, if not quite the most commercially important group included within the fish fauna of the world, and since in such connection it will receive especial attention in the Hand- books devoted to Food Fishes and Sea- Fishing, an enume- ration is simply here given of the large number of forms that frequent British waters. The well-known Cod (Gadus morrhua), No. 100, which occupies the head of the list with respect to size, abundance, and general utility, is remarkable FIG. 16. LING (Alolva vulgar is). for developing several very distinct local varieties, which, with a certain class of zoologists, have been admitted to the rank of separate species. The so-called " Lord-fish " is one of these in which a greater or less number of the caudal vertebrae having coalesced together, the head is relatively very long, and in reference to which peculiarity it formerly received the title of Gadus macrocephalus. In the so-called Speckled-Cod (Gadus punctatus], of Fleming, numerous black dots are thickly developed over the dorsal surface, which have been shown by Dr. Day to be due to the presence of a parasitic organism. While the " Red Cod " is a variety inhabiting the deeper waters of the ocean, and apparently owing the colour from whence it derives its name to its dietary, which is said to consist almost entirely of i$2 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES young Lobsters and Star-fish. The largest recorded example of the Common Cod, captured on our coasts, would appear to be the fish weighing seventy-eight pounds, and measuring five feet eight inches, taken at Scarborough in the year 1755, and said, on Pennant's authority, to have been sold for the modest sum of one shilling. The Haddock (Gadus in which the entire body is beset with formidable spines, and distensible at will into a spheroidal form. The inflated skins of these fish are largely used by the Chinese for the purpose of making ornamental lanterns. Of the species known as Sun-fishes, included in the same family 182 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES group, one variety, the Short Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus mola), No. 193, is not unfrequently taken during the summer and autumn months in British waters, the second form, or Oblong Sun-fish (O. truncatus). No. 194, being much more rare. Both species share the remarkable feature of having the posterior region abruptly truncated, resembling in this respect an ordinary fish cut in half; the tail is almost obliterated or reduced to a mere frill-like border, continuous with which are produced from above and beneath the large FIG. 25. SUN-FISH (Orthagoriscus truncatus\, equal-sized dorsal and anal fins. Both species attain to large dimensions, a measurement of from six to eight feet, with a weight of several hundredweight, being frequently represented. Casts of several fine specimens of the short Sun-fish (O. mold) will be found in the Buckland Museum. The colours of a young example of this species forwarded alive to the writer from Mevagissey, Cornwall, by Mr. Matthias Dunn, a few years since, were brilliant silver variegated with irregular blotches and bands of flesh- pink. OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 183 ORDER ll.Ganoidei. Skeleton partly cartilaginous, partly ossified ; the optic nerves forming a chiasma, not decussating ; the aortic bulb provided with but a single row of valves ; the intestine with a spiral valve ; branchiae free ; the gill cavity covered by a gill-cover. FAMILY I. STURGEON TRIBE (Acipenseridcfy* Skeleton partly cartilaginous ; the integument naked, or protected by osseous bucklers ; the caudal fin un- symmetrical, heterocereal ; the snout produced above and in front of the mouth, four barbels disposed in a transverse row developed from its lower side ; the mouth small, toothless, highly protractile ; air-bladder large, communi- cating with the dorsal wall of the oesophagus. The Broad-nosed Sturgeon (Acipenser maculosus), No. 195, and the Common Sturgeon (A. sturio\ No. 196, are the only British examples of the Ganoid fishes, represented at the present day by some half-a-dozen remarkable exotic genera, but which in older Geological times were among the most abundant of the finny tribes. The Sturgeons are either exclusively inhabitants of fresh water or migrate periodically from the sea into the larger rivers to deposi t their spawn. Both of the above-named species attain to a large size, a length of eight or ten feet being an ordinary measurement of the common sort, while the broad-nosed variety is stated to grow to over twice these dimensions. The flesh of the Sturgeon is much esteemed by some as an article of food. In Russia, where the two British and other allied forms are so abundant as to constitute a most 1 84 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES important fishery, the delicacy known as " Caviare " is prepared from the roes, while isinglass is manufactured from the inner lining of their air-bladders. Living ex- amples of the Common Sturgeon have been frequently acclimatised in aquaria ; one over six feet long has now been a resident for many years in one of the larger tanks, sixty feet in length, in the Brighton Aquarium, as also a shoal of small specimens, two of which have been kindly spared by the authorities, and are now on view in the Aquarium Corridor of the Fisheries Exhibition. In cap- tivity they feed voraciously on the common lug-worm FIG. 26. STURGEON (Adpenser sturio). (Arenicola), using their snouts and dependent barbels with much dexterity in groping for and detecting the presence of their favourite food ; this is immediately seized by the pro- trusible tubular mouth, which, under ordinary conditions, is retracted out of sight beneath the projecting snout. The Sturgeon was originally denominated a Royal fish, and by an Act of Edward II., now in abeyance, but still unrepealed, was claimed as the property of the Crown. Casts of adult examples of both of the two British species and several preserved specimens will be found in the Buckland Museum. OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 185 ORDER HlElasmobranchiata. Skeleton entirely cartilaginous ; tail unsymmetrical (heterocercal), the upper lobe being the more produced ; branchia attached to the skin by their outer margins with usually several intervening gill-openings (deciduous external gills developed in the embryo); the aortic bulb provided with several series of valves ; ova large, few in number, impreg- nated, and in many instances developed within a uterine cavity. SUB-ORDER l.Holocephala. Gill-opening single, covered by a fold of the skin ; the maxillary and palatal apparatus coalescent with the skull ; teeth few in number. The Arctic Chimera, Rabbit-fish, or King of the Her- rings, as it is popularly called (Chimcera monstrosa), No. 197, is the only representative of the Holocephalous division of the Elasmobranch fishes taken in British waters, and then upon very rare occasions, it being more strictly an inhabitant of the deep and colder waters of the polar seas. From the ordinary sharks, with which in many anatomical points it closely agrees, it differs most essentially in the possession of a single gill-opening, and in the character of the dentition, the conspicuous teeth being but four in number, two above and two beneath, their contour, in addition to their number, much resembling the incisors of a rabbit. A sharp and formidable spine arms the front border of the first dorsal fin, and in the male a remarkable erectile spiniferous appendage is developed from the front of the head ; the upper lobe of the tail, which is very long, tapers off gradually to the fineness of a thread. The 186 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES large eyes, which in freshly caught examples are of a brilliant sea-green hue, seem specially adapted for its accredited deep-water habitat. An excellent cast of the Arctic Chimera, made from a specimen captured on the coast of Norway, will be found in the Buckland Collection. A length of from two and a half to three feet represents the ordinary measurement of this species. SUB-ORDER II. SHARKS AND RAYS (Plagiostomata). Gill-openings five to seven in number ; palatal apparatus united to the skull through the intermedium of a suspen- sorium ; the teeth numerous. DIVISION I. SHARK TRIBE (Selackoidei). Body elongate subcylindrical, terminating anteriorly in a more or less pointed snout, beneath which the mouth is situated, and posteriorly in a powerful flexible blade-like tail ; gill-openings lateral. Although usually relegated by the popular mind to the seas of the tropics, a very considerable number of Sharks either permanently inhabit, or more or less frequently visit, British waters. Including the Dog-fishes, whose anatomical structure is essentially identical with that of the larger Sharks, no less than sixteen species claim admission upon the British list, the order assigned to them in the leading ichthyological text-books being as follows : The Blue Shark (Carcharias glaucus), No 198, a rapacious species growing from eight or ten to upwards of fourteen feet in length, not unfrequent off our coasts so far north as the Orkneys during the summer months, and which on rare occasions has been known to attack the human species. OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 187 The Toper, or White Hound (Galens cams), No. 199, some- times attains to a length of six feet, and in shape and aspect much resembles the Picked Dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris\ No. 210, excepting that the defensive spines stationed in front of the two dorsal fins are in this species entirely wanting. The Hammer-headed Shark (Zygcena mallens), No. 200, common in the Mediterranean and tropical seas, is a very rare visitant to our shores, remark- able for the lateral elongation of the orbital processes of the skull, that communicate to the head its characteristic ham- mer-like contour, and upon the extremities of which the eyes are developed, the visual range of the fish by this arrangement being greatly increased. The cast of a small exotic example of this species, which grows to a length of ten or twelve feet, will be found in the Buckland Museum. It is usually described as among the most ferocious examples of the Shark tribe, though authentic records seem wanting to show that man has been the subject of its attacks. The Skate- toothed Shark, or Smooth Hound ( Mustelus vulgaris\ No. 20 1, is among the smaller species, rarely exceeding a length of three or four feet. In common with the Toper and Picked Dog-fish, it has frequently been acclimatised in the tanks of our larger aquaria. In the year 1875 a pair of these fish, male and female, were captured the same night in Mr. Parry Evans' Salmon Weir at Colwyn Bay, North Wales, and secured by the writer for the Manchester Aquarium. Soon after arriving at their destination, the female gave birth to eleven young ones, which, with the exception of one example which was apparently devoured by the male fish, were successfully reared. The name of Skate- toothed Shark has been conferred upon this fish with reference to the flattened tesselated character of the teeth, which more nearly resemble those of the Rays and Skates 1 88 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES than the usually sharp-pointed, trenchant weapons of the ordi- nary Sharks. The cast of a female with its newly born litter of young, similar to the one just described, is on view in the Buckland Museum. The Porbeagle, or Beaumaris Shark, as it is occasionally called (Lamna cornubicd), No. 202, is by no means unfrequent on the southern and western coasts of England and Scotland ; though rarely surpassing a length of six or eight feet, it possesses all the characters of the most predacious species, and is armed with a very formidable array of trenchant recurved teeth. Several casts of this species are exhibited in the Buckland Museum, and on the opening day of the Fisheries Exhibition, May I2th, 1 883, a specimen about four feet long was exposed to view on one of the stalls in the fish market. Among the more remark- able members of the Shark tribe must be mentioned the Fox-Shark, or Thresher (A lopecias vulpes\ No. 203, the strik- ing feature in which is the enormous development of the upper lobe of the tail, which is shaped like the blade of a scythe, and whose length equals or exceeds that of one-half of the fish's body. This formidable appendage it is asserted the Fox Shark uses with terrible effect in its attacks upon various of the larger Whales, with whom it is said to wage a constant feud, its ally in arms being the Sword-fish (Xiphias), which attacks the Whale from beneath while the Sharks, leaping out of the water, fall upon the Cetacean from above. In accordance with the latest observations there is, however, reason to believe that it is another Cetacean the Grampus (Delphinus gladiator) that is usually the aggressor and which has been mistaken for the Shark. Casts of the Thresher, including that of an example thirteen feet six inches long, captured in the Mackerel nets off Folkestone in October 1867, may be seen in the Buckland Museum. OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 189 The Basking-Shark, or Sun-fish, as it is sometimes incor- rectly termed (Selache maximus\ is the largest of our British fish, not unfrequently exceeding a length of thirty feet. It makes a regular migration along the west coast of Ireland and western isles of Scotland during the spring months of the year, and on account of the value and quantity of the oil obtainable from its liver is the object in such localities of an important fishery. Although of such enormous bulk, it is a very quiet and inoffensive species, armed with teeth scarcely larger than those of an ordinary Dog-fish. A fine preserved example of this species has been recently added to the collection now in course of transfer from the British to the adjacent New Natural History Museum. The fish takes its names as above given from its habit of basking in the sun at the surface of the water, and under which condi- tions it falls an easy prey to the harpooners. The Six- gilled Shark (Notidanus grisens), No. 205 ; the Centrina (Centrinasabriani), No. 209 ; the Black Shark (Spinax niger) No. 210 ; the Greenland Shark (Lcemargits borealis], No. 212 ; and the Spinous Shark (Echinorhinus spinosus\ No. 213, are among the larger forms that are but rarely taken in British waters ; the cast of a fine example of the last-named species, between seven and eight feet long, will be found in the Buckland Museum. The remaining British Sharks, including the Lesser Spotted Dog-fish, or Rough Hound (Scyllium canicula), No. 206; the Larger Spotted Dog- fish, or Nurse Hound (S. stellaris), No. 207; and the Black-mouthed Dog-fish (Pristiurus melanostomus), No. 208, are all of relative small size, not exceeding from three to four or five feet in length, accustomed to prey upon Crus- tacea and other animals inhabiting the bottom of the ocean, and are for this reason known as " Ground Sharks." The two first-named species, which are beautifully spotted with 190 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES black upon a tawny ground, after the manner of a leopard, adapt themselves readily to the artificial conditions of a marine aquarium, and breed freely in the tanks. Contrary to the preceding forms which are all viviparous, these Ground Sharks deposit eggs, usually two at a time, enclosed in horny cases several inches long, not unlike those of the Skates, but having their extremities produced into long cord-like tendrils which during deposition are wound tightly round stones, sea-weeds, and other submarine objects, the eggs being thus securely anchored until the escape of the young fish. The gradual development of the embryo Dog-fish, which in its earlier days possesses tufted external FIG. 27. SPOTTED DOG-FISH (Scy Ilium stellaris}. gills, like a Tadpole, may be distinctly observed through the more transparent egg-cases, and affords one of the most interesting and instructive exhibitions furnished by a well- ordered aquarium. The Spotted Dog-fish are essentially nocturnal in their habits, rarely active, unless when fed or dis- turbed, during broad daylight, but waking into life with the approach of dusk, and then swimming swiftly to and fro or around their tanks with a peculiarly graceful gliding motion. The eye-coverings in these fish are remarkably complex ; within the first or outer eyelid, which closes upwards like that of a bird, is a second protective envelope, acting as a diaphragm, and which throughout the day is, with the OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. lgl exception of a narrow oblique slit, entirely closed over the true eye. When darkness has fully set in, this diaphragm is completely retracted, leaving the eyeball free and gleam- ing like that of a cat or other nocturnal mammal. This phenomenon, observed by the writer of examples in the Brighton and Manchester Aquaria, may be corroborated by an examination of the specimens now on view in the Exhibition tanks. In the Skates, presently described, it will be found that a very beautifully constructed fimbriated membrane takes the place of the diaphragm that covers the eye of the Spotted Dog-fish. FIG. 28. EGG OF SPOTTED DOG-FISH. The last upon the list of the Shark tribe is the Monk-fish or Angel-fish (Rhina squatind), No. 214, which in its flattened form, and the great development of the pectoral fins, closely approaches the Rays, the lateral position of its gill -openings, partly hid by the pectoral fins, being how- ever accepted by ichthyologists as of sufficient importance to justify its retention among the present group. Addi- tional evidence in support of its preponderating affinities in the same direction is afforded by its mode of locomotion in the water, observed by the writer of examples in aquaria, and which is entirely that of a Shark, beiner effected bv the 1 92 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES powerful sculling action of the oar-like tail, and not by the aid of the pectoral fins, as in the Rays. In recognition of the intermediate positions it occupies between these two groups, it is in some localities distinguished by the name of the, Shark-Ray; the Fiddle-fish and the Kingstone are other local titles, the first suggestive of its peculiar form, by which it is locally known to fishermen. Those of the Monk and Angel-fish have been conferred upon it respectively with reference to the fancied resemblance of the rounded head and pectoral fins to a monk's hood and cowl, or of the last-named structures to the wings of a seraph. As acclimatised in aquaria it has been found to be an essen- tially nocturnal species, reposing sluggishly on the sand or shingle at the bottom of its tank, and unless disturbed exercising its locomotive functions only after darkness has set in. Some fine casts of this species are on view in the Buckland Collection. DIVISION IL SKATES AND RAYS (Batoidet). Body greatly depressed ; gill-openings ventral, five in number; the pectoral fins usually enormously developed around the flattened trunk ; terminating posteriorly in a thin and slender tail, upon which the dorsal fins, if present, are developed ; spiracles always present. The flattened form of the ordinary Skates and Rays with their huge pectoral fins and attenuate tail is too familiar to need elaborate description. Among them, how- ever, are included several highly specialised types which demand closer attention. As such are the Torpedoes, Electric Rays, or Cramp-fishes, as they are sometimes called, of which two species, the Plain Torpedo (Torpedo hebetans\ No. 215, and the Spotted Torpedo ( T. marmoratd). OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 193 No. 216, are occasionally taken in British waters, their head- quarters being the Mediterranean and tropical seas. The remarkable feature concerning these fish is their possession of a complex electrical apparatus. This apparatus, which is developed in equal proportions on each side of the anterior region of the body, consists, as described by Professor Huxley (' Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals'), " of nearly parallel lamellae of connective tissue, enclosing small chambers, in which lie what are termed the electrical plates. These are cellular structures, on one face of which the final FIG. 29. TORPEDO (Torpedo hebefans). ramifications of the nerves that supply the electrical organs are distributed. In the Torpedo the nerves of the electrical organs proceed from the fifth pair and from the ' electric lobe ' of the medulla oblongata, which appears to be deve- loped at the origin of the pneumogastric." When laid open with the dissecting knife this electrical apparatus presents to the ordinary observer much the appearance of a honey- comb, being composed, as viewed from above, of numer- ous perpendicularly-set hexagonal compartments, the wax walls of the honeycomb being represented by a gelatinous membrane of extreme tenuity, and containing within them VOL. i. H. o 194 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES a transparent fluid of jelly-like consistence. Finer trans- verse partitions or septa " the electrical plates " subdivide the hexagonal compartments into smaller chambers which subserve the purpose of store cells, after the manner of a Leyden jar, and in these the electricity, converted from excess nervous energy, is stored up for use. There can be but little doubt that the Torpedo employs its formidable battery for disabling and securing food which it is too inactive to capture by ordinary means. This interpretation is substantially supported by the fact that large active fish, such as Salmon of four or five pounds weight, Eels and other species, have been taken from the stomachs of full-grbwn Torpedoes, showing no trace of a struggle, as would have been inevitably apparent had the captor been an Angler, Monk-fish, or other ordinary ground-frequenting species of similar size. Several casts of the Torpedo, some illustrating the aspect and position of the electric apparatus, will be found in the Buckland Museum. Of the typical Skates and Rays, genus Raia, as many as eight species are included in the British list, these varying among each other chiefly with respect to their markings, the greater or less development upon their upper surface of defensive spines, and in the contour of their snout-like anterior regions. The species that have to be thus enumerated are, the Thornback Ray (Raia clavata), No. 217; the Spotted Ray (R. maculata), No. 218; the Starry Ray (R. radiatd), No. 219 ; the Sandy Ray (R. cir- cularis), No. 220 ; the Common or Blue Skate (R. batis\ No. 221 ; the Bordered Ray (R. marginata), No. 222 ; the Shagreen Ray (R. fullonica), No. 223 ; and the Long-nosed Skate (R. vomer), No. 224. All of these Rays exhibit in common that remarkable method of locomotion, through the flapping action of their large pectoral fins, which OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. '95 confers so much grace upon their movements in the water, and which may be more suitably likened to the flight of some heavy-winged bird, such as a Heron, than to the swimming action of an ordinary fish. The simile here suggested is yet further increased by reason of the fact that the long slender tail of the Ray, dependent in the rear while the fish is swimming, bears no inconsiderable resem- blance, and fulfils the same function as the long extended FIG. 30. SPOTTED RAY (Raia maculata). legs of the Heron or other Grallatorial bird during flight, it being subservent in like manner for balancing and steering purposes. The Rays, like the Spotted Dog-fish, deposit their eggs enclosed singly in large oblong membranous cases, the four corners of which are produced into simple tags like the four handles of a butcher's tray, in place of into long flexible cord-like filaments. These cases, when empty, having the aspect and colour of gutta-percha, and O 2 196 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES popularly known as " Skate-barrows," or " pixie's purses," are among the "commoner objects of the sea-shore," left with the flotsam and jetsam of the ocean when the tide goes down. The Sting Ray or Fire- fta.lre(Trygon pas tmaca), No. 225, is remarkable among the Skate tribe from the circumstance that one or two long sharply serrated spines are developed towards the centre of the tail in place of the first dorsal fin. In life, as observed of examples in aquaria, the tail with its spines is elevated above the back after the manner of the tail of a Scorpion, and constitutes a very formidable J FIG. 31. STING RAY ( Trygon pastinaca}. offensive and defensive weapon, with which the fish can deal lacerated, extremely painful, and even dangerous wounds. The spines of certain exotic species are utilised by the natives of Polynesia and various savage tribes as barbs for their arrows, spears, and other weapons. A fine example of the Sting Ray is contained among the spirit- preserved series forming the Day Collection, casts being also on view in the Buckland Museum. A close ally of this type, but a much larger and rarer form is the Eagle Ray (Myliobatis aquila), No. 226, bearing like the last- named species a formidable defensive spine, but having a OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 197 slender tail developed in the form of a cord or whip to as much as two or three times the length of the body ; specimens measuring no less than fifteen feet across their extended fins, with a weight of three hundred pounds and upwards, have not unfrequently been recorded. The cast of a small example of this species is included in the Buckland Collection. The last, but by no means the least formidable in point of size among the group now under discussion, is the huge Ox Ray or Horned Ray (Dicerobatis giorn conservators may fix the minimum lawful size between the limits of i \ and 2% inches. 224 THE FISHERY LA WS. which is being already worked, until that other is drawn in and landed. 1 Fine up to $ is the penalty for breaking either of these rules. The use of nets may be regulated in various other ways, and net fishing at night, except for eels, prohibited altogether, under local by-laws made by conservators. 2 Further, no salmon fishing of any kind may be carried on in a fishery district without a licence, on pain of fines which (as far as I can make out from the different pro- visions of two Acts) may amount to 20 for using any unlicensed instrument other than rod and line "for catching salmon," and $ for assisting in such use, or fishing for salmon with any such instrument ; or killing them with any such instrument without actually catching them ; or taking or killing them, or attempting so to do, without any instrument at all. In the case of the un- licensed angler or user of an instrument, the penalty must not be less than double licence duty. There is a distinct penalty up to I for every salmon caught. 3 The money paid for licences goes to defray the expenses of administering the Acts. 4 Local boards of conservators now have power to extend the licensing system to trout and char as well as salmon fishing, if they think fit. 5 Against the wholesale destruction of fish, whether by design or by negligent pollution of rivers, there are special pro- 1 1873, s. 14- * 1873, s- 39- 8 1865, ss. 35, 36; 1873, s. 22, which purports not to affect the former enactments, in other words, makes a Chinese puzzle of them by leaving it as uncertain as possible what addition to the law was really intended. I suppose it was thought doubtful whether the offence of using an unlicensed instrument "for catching salmon" would be committed if none were in fact caught ; if so, the fear was groundless (see Ruther v. Harris, i Ex. D. 97). * 1865,5. 33. 1878,5.7. POLLUTION OF RIVERS. 225 visions. Dynamite or other explosives must not be used to catch or destroy fish in a public fishery in any part of the United Kingdom, or in the adjacent seas within a marine league of the coast, nor in a private fishery in England, on pain of fine up to ^20 or imprisonment, which may be with hard labour, up to two months. 1 The poisoning of any salmon rivers, 2 as well as of any waters where there is a private right of fishery, 3 with " any lime or other noxious material," in order to destroy fish, is an offence punishable with penal servitude up to seven years. Pollution of salmon rivers " to such an extent as to cause the waters to poison or kill fish " (though not intended to have that effect) is punish- able by fine on an increasing scale, ending in 20 a day after a third conviction. But the party may escape these penalties, if his act in sending refuse, or whatever it may be, into the river, is not otherwise unlawful 4 and he can show that, being thus in the exercise of his right, " he has used the best practicable means, within a reasonable cost, to render harmless the liquid or solid matter so permitted to flow or to be put into 5 waters." Probably it is not difficult to satisfy justices of this in a manufac- turing district ; again, if the stuff poured into the river is so noxious that there are not any practicable means at all of rendering it harmless, it is by no means clear whether any penalty is incurred. 6 The person complained of may also, if a decision against him would cost him more than^ioo, 1 1878, s. 32. z 1873, s. 13. 3 24 & 25 Viet. c. 97, s. 32. It has been suggested that this would apply to acts done by an owner of strictly private waters (ponds or the like) on his own land ; but I do not think it will bear such a construction. 4 It might be unlawful, for example, as amounting to a public nuisance, or being forbidden by a local Act. 6 The wearisome but inevitable " such " of accustomed parliamentary style appears to have dropped out of the text. 6 1861, s. 5. VOL. I. H. Q 226 THE FISHER Y LA WS. require an action to be brought in the High Court of Justice to settle the question whether he has used the " best practicable means," and it is not hard to guess what, on such a question, the bias of jurymen in a manufacturing country is likely to be. Altogether, this enactment has the air of belonging to the family, well known to English lawyers and administrators, of excellent commands of the legislature so cunningly and tenderly fenced about with safeguards for the liberty of the subject that in practice nobody minds them. For whatever reason, the pollution of rivers has in fact not ceased, and it is by no means confined to the manufacturing districts. In the mining country of the West of England it not infrequently happens that an abandoned mine is started afresh for merely speculative purposes, the foul water of the old workings pumped out into the nearest river, and the fish destroyed, without the conservators being practically able to apply any remedy. Should they not have power in such cases to issue an injunction and stop the mischief beforehand ? The power of entering which may now be exercised on a magistrate's order, 1 or a special order of the conservators, 2 is hardly enough. 3. As to close times. This class of regulations is designed to prevent fish from being recklessly taken during their periods of breeding and migration so as to destroy the stock for future seasons. Young salmon must not be taken or destroyed, bought or sold, or kept in any one's possession, except for artificial propagation or other scientific purposes. A like rule applies to " unclean or unseasonable " 3 salmon, trout, and 1 1865, s. 31. 2 1873, s. 37. 3 " Unseasonable salmon seem to be all salmon out of season, that is, all salmon taken during the annual close time. Unclean salmon would seem to be salmon unfit to be taken, wherever and whenever CLOSE TIMES. 227 char, and the mere attempt to take them is also punishable. The punishments are fine up to 5, and separate fines up to 1 for each fish unlawfully dealt with, and on a third conviction imprisonment up to six months (which may be with hard labour) at the discretion of the court. 1 There is an exception in favour of scientific purposes, and it is provided (perhaps superfluously) that a fisherman taking unseasonable fish by accident incurs no penalty if he forthwith puts them back in the water. It has also been judicially decided that it is not an offence under the Acts to catch young salmon in fishing for trout, and keep them in the mistaken belief that they are trout. All salmon fishing is prohibited between the 1st of November and the 1st of February ; between the 1st of September and the 1st of November angling, but no other kind of fishing, is allowed. 2 The close time may be varied by the local conservators, but must begin not later than the 1st of November for nets, or the 1st of December for rods. 3 For putts and putchers a longer close time is fixed without power of variation, from September 1st to May 1st inclusive. 4 There are similar provisions as to trout and char, 5 with similar power to the conservators to vary the close time within the limits of September 2 and November 2 for its beginning : 6 if they do not fix it by any by-law, the close time is from October 2 to caught, even if during the open season ; thus a kelt would be an unclean salmon, a clean run fish caught in December an unseasonable fish." Willis Bund, Law of Salmon Fisheries, p. 336. 1 1861, ss. 14, 15; 1873, s - l8 > sub-ss. (3) and (8); and (as to penalties) 1865,5. 56. 2 1861, s. 17. 3 1873, s. 39, (i). 4 1879 (42 & 43 Viet. c. 26). 5 1865, s. 64, extended to char, 1873, s. 18, (7), and to all English waters, whether salmon rivers or not, by the Freshwater Fisheries Act, 1878. 8 1876 (39 & 40 Viet. c. 19) ; 1878, s. 10. Q 2 228 THE FISHER Y LA WS. February I. As to salmon there is also, during the fishing season, a weekly close time for net fishing, generally from noon on Saturday till six on Monday morning, but conservators can vary it within limits. 1 The penalties are similar to those already mentioned for fishing with illegal instruments. During the annual close season fixed engines must be removed altogether, and during the weekly close season a free passage must be left through them. 2 Penalties are likewise imposed on selling fish in the close season, and the exportation of unseasonable salmon between the 3rd of September and the 3Oth of April is specially provided against. 3 As to trout and char it has fallen out in the complication of additions and minor amending Acts that there is no power to vary the time during which they may be lawfully sold ; so that in districts where the close time for capture has been varied absurd results may follow. It may be an offence to sell fish while it is still lawful to catch them, and while it is still unlawful to catch them they may be sold with impunity. As an additional protection to salmon rivers, eel-pots and the like, except eel-baskets used with bait, not more than ten inches across, and not at a dam or weir, must not be set in them between the 1st of January and the 24th of June, 4 and during the same time " any device whatsoever to catch or obstruct any fish descending the stream," is un- lawful in any inland water, whether frequented by salmon or not. In 1878 a new close season (March 15 to June 15 in- 1 1861, s. 21 ; 1873, s. 39, (2). 2 1861, ss. 20, 22. 3 1865, s. 65; 33 & 34 Viet. c. 33. 4 1873, s. 15 (but elvers maybe taken at any time, subject to certain special close times for the Severn Fishery : 39 & 40 Viet. c. 34.) This extends to the use of a permanent eel-trap, which existed before the passing of the Act : Briggs v. Swanwick, 10 Q. B. D. 510. FRESHWATER FISHERIES ACT. 229 elusive) was established for freshwater fish in general, not being migratory fish, 1 or pollan, trout or char, on pain of fine up to forty shillings. But the owner of a private fishery, or the conservators of a public one, may dispense with this prohibition as to angling ; and the owner of a private fishery "where trout, char, or grayling are specially preserved " may keep down the inferior fish. 2 Conservators have a further power of generally exempting their district with the approval of the Home Secretary. Altogether the exceptions are so large that they seem to leave but little room for the operation of the rule. The majority of freshwater fisheries are private, and as nobody knows exactly what is meant by " specially preserving " trout, &c., the owner of a private fishery has only to say that he preserves the trout in order to go on doing as he pleases. Notwithstanding its defects both of form and of substance, however, the Act of 1878 has on some rivers done much good in the hands of willing and able conservators. The key to its policy, which is not evident from the text itself, appears to be furnished by the late Mr. Buckland's evidence when the Bill was before a Select Committee. His doctrine was that the main point was to establish a close time for nets ; and that it was desirable to be very in- dulgent to angling, that it might be the interest of anglers to assist in enforcing the law. As early as 1558 an attempt was made for the general 1 " Those kinds which migrate to or from the open sea." These words raise troublesome questions of natural history ; as to eels, for instance. Probably the framers of the Act were thinking only of salmon and sea-trout. 2 1878, s. ii. Does this include an occupier who has the general right of fishing ? 230 THE FISHER Y LA WS. protection of freshwater fisheries (" An Act for Preservation of Spawn and Fry of Fish," I Eliz. c. 17). It does not appear that this Act, except as to salmon, has ever been expressly repealed ; its provisions are wider than those of the Freshwater Fisheries Act, 1878, but I am not aware that they have been enforced in recent times. The Act of 1 86 1 repeals the Act of Elizabeth (originally a temporary one) so far as relates to salmon, and then repeals without qualification an Act of Charles I. which made it per- petual. The legal effect of this is not very clear. 4. As to local Authorities and Administration. The first of the modern Salmon Fisheries Acts, that of 1 86 1, left the enforcement of its provisions to the County Sessions under the general direction of the Home Office. This direction was to be exercised by two inspectors, for whose appointment the Act gives authority. At present the only inspector is Mr. Huxley, and it is not intended to fill up the vacant place. By the same Act the justices had power to appoint conservators, but no provision was made either for expenses or for the co-operation of the conservators of different counties traversed or washed by the same salmon river. In consequence of these grave omissions 1 the Act of 1865 provided for the creation of Fishery Districts. The Home Office was empowered to make a fishery district including the whole of any salmon river, on an application from the justices of any of its riparian counties. 2 The Home Secretary may alter fishery districts 3 on the application of the conservators. In 1873 1 1865, preamble. 2 1865, s. 4, &c. 3 1873, s. 5, &c. A list of the fishery districts constituted in England and Wales down to 1878, and of the variations of close times, &c., adopted in many of them, may be seen in Oke's Handy Book of the CONSERVATORS. 231 the constitution of boards of conservators was varied by -adding a representative element in certain cases, and in 1878 the provisions of the former Acts were extended to trout as well as salmon rivers. By the combined effect of these Acts, the constitution of boards of conservators is shortly as follows. There are three classes of members : 1. Members appointed by the justices in quarter sessions. In the case of a fishery district extending into two or more counties, the process was this : the justices in the several quarter sessions appointed fishery committees, who together formed a joint fishery committee for the district and appointed conservators and regulated various incidental matters, after which the committee was dissolved. 1 The conservators hold office for one year; after the first year the appointments are made by the several counties in the proportions which have been fixed by the original joint committee. The like proceedings would still have to be taken for the formation of a new fishery district not wholly in one county. In the case of estuaries formed by the union of more than one salmon river, the Home Secretary may assign the jurisdiction over it to one or more of the local boards of conservators, or form a special combined board : 2 but this provision has not been found of much use. 2. Ex officio members. The owner or occupier of every fishery in the district of the rateable annual value of ^30, Fishery Laws, ed. Willis Bund, London, 1878. The map in the i8th Report of the Inspectors (1879) shows the districts at a glance. But any one wanting to know the rules in force at any place for practical purposes should by no means omit to obtain the latest information on the spot. 1 1865, ss. 7-13. 8 1865, s. 19. 232 THE FISHER Y LA WS. and every landowner having in the district at least a mile of riparian frontage on either or both sides of a salmon or trout river, and the right of fishery therein, and having paid licence duty for the last season, is an ex officio member of the board of conservators for the district. * He is required to declare his qualification before acting on the board. 2 3. Representative members. In a district where there is any public or common fishery, those persons who exercise the right of fishing therein, and have taken out licences for net fishing for salmon, are entitled to elect one member to the board for every .50 of licence duty paid by them. 3 The election is by plural voting according to the amount of duty paid by the elector, and the voting is also cumulative : the voting papers must be attested, and may be sent in by post. * Elections are held yearly, and it is the business of the board of conservators to ascertain the persons entitled to be electors and give them notice of their rights. 5 These provisions seem practically to apply only to the sea-coast and tidal waters ; for there are few if any public fisheries anywhere else. As to common rights of fishing (as distinguished from public) the tenants of an inland manor may no doubt be entitled to fish in the lord's waters within it, and such a right is known to the law as common of fishery. I do not know, however, that it is frequent or important in practice ; and I rather doubt whether any 1 1873, s. 26 : (extended to "any river frequented by salmon, trout, or char," 1878, s. 6). Provision is made for the representation of persons under disability by s. 27. 2 1873, s. 28. 3 1873, s. 29. The Act does not say that the public or common fishery must be a salmon fishery. 4 The Act says the voter " shall send the voting paper by post to the returning officer," &c., but I suppose a voting paper delivered by the voter in person would be good. 6 S. 30. CONSER VA TORS. 233 definite meaning was attached by Parliament to the term "common rights of fishing" which is used in the Act. A Board of Conservators, being duly constituted, may appoint water bailiffs, issue fishing licences, acquire dams, weirs, and fixed engines for the purpose of removing them, take legal proceedings against offending persons, and generally supervise and protect the fisheries in their district, 1 and expend funds in their hands in the improve- ment of them in any lawful manner. 2 Water-bailiffs appointed by the conservators have extensive powers of search, and the same privileges and protection as constables in the execution of their office. 3 They may also, with special authority from a magistrate or the conservators, enter on private grounds to detect or prevent breaches of the law. 4 Any one authorised in writing by the conser- vators may also enter upon lands to inspect weirs and other obstructions. 5 Conservators may also make by-laws as to sundry matters of detail (which for the most part have been incidentally mentioned in their places), subject to confirmation by the Home Office. 6 The by-laws must be printed and published, and every one taking out a fishing- licence is entitled to a copy. 7 Penalties under the Salmon Fishery Acts are enforceable by proceedings before Justices according to the directions of the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. 8 Besides these general Acts, there are special Acts of Parliament regulating the fisheries of divers rivers and districts ; the chief rivers 1 1865, s. 27 ; as to the conditions of licences, 1873, ss. 21, 24, 25, 57. 2 1873, S. 23. 8 1873, S. 36. 4 1865, s. 31 ; 1873, s. 37. 6 1873, s. 56. 6 1873, s. 39, &c. 7 1873, s. 43. 8 1873, s. 62. 234 TH E FISHERY LA WS. subject to special rules are the Thames 1 and the Severn. In a summary account like the present it is of course impossible to go into these matters ; the working of local rules, for the rest, is useful to be known only where they are in force, and is better ascertained there than anywhere else. It may be just worth while to mention that the rules of the Thames Conservancy as to close times extend to all river fish including eels, though not by name, as the Court of Common Pleas decided in 1871. Almost all the rivers of any importance in England are now either included in fishery districts or under special local Acts. The chief exceptions are in the north the Derwent of Cumberland, and in the south the Itchen. Others are in the north-west the Mersey, long since hopelessly destroyed as a fish river, and in the east the Witham, Welland and Great Ouse, which have never been salmon rivers at all. Roughly speaking, a line following the valleys of the Trent and the three several Avons of Gloucestershire, Somersetshire and Hants, will leave to its north and west the part of England where fishery districts are the rule, to the south and east that where they are the exception. Thus much as to the laws for the general protection of inland fisheries in England. A few enactments give par- ticular protection or remedies to the owners of private fisheries against trespassers. Taking fish unlawfully in private waters is a misdemeanour punishable by fine, and a trespassing fisherman's rod, net or other tackle may be seized by the owner of the land or fishery ; but an angler against whom this right is exercised in the day- time escapes any further penalty. 2 There used to be in 1 The Thames Conservators, I need hardly add, are charged with a number of matters of public interest, of which fishery regulation is only one. 2 24 & 25 Viet. c. 96, ss. 24, 25. SCO TTISH LA W. 235 the annual Mutiny Act an odd clause for the better preser- vation of game and fish in places where officers were quartered, it being supposed, apparently, that officers were more likely than other persons to take game and fish without leave. This was dropped in the general revision of military law which took place in 1879 and 1 88 1, pre- sumably because the security of the ordinary law is now enough. 5. Law of Scotland as to Freshwater Fisheries. Scotland is under a system of statutory regulation of the same general kind as the English Acts, which is less complicated and minute, but is pronounced by those who have watched its working to be also less efficient. The leading modern Act on Scotch salmon fisheries was passed in 1862. Under it a board of three Commissioners was formed, with power to fix a district for each river, determine close time, and make other general rules. District boards are elected by the fishery proprietors with voting power according to value, the largest fishery owner in the district being ex officio a member and chairman ; their functions are more limited and purely ministerial than those of conservators in England. 1 It appears that this system fails to provide good working boards, though in particular cases it may furnish an energetic landowner with useful powers. The Duke of Sutherland, it is stated, constitutes in his own person the district boards for several rivers. In i868 2 further provisions were made for the appoint- ment and proceedings of district boards, and the Home Office was empowered, on the application of a district 1 25 & 26 Viet. c. 97, ss. 1 8, 22, &c. 2 31 & 32 Viet. c. 123. 236 THE FISHER Y LA IVS. board, to vary the regulations as to close time and other- wise. Fishing in close time, 1 obstructing the passage of salmon, using illegal instruments, and the like, are specifically forbidden by the same Act. The prohibitions and penalties are, as far as they go, so like those of the English Acts, though they are not identical, that it seems needless to give them in detail. In the matter of fixed engines they are a long way behind the English rules, and grave complaint is still made in Scotland of the inadequacy of the law as it stands. The border rivers Tweed and Esk formerly occasioned much petty contention between the two kingdoms : for some time the Tweed was carefully excepted from the rules laid down by Acts of the Scots Parliament, who thought it hard that if Englishmen were free to pursue salmon poaching on their own side of the Tweed the dwellers on the Scottish bank should not have their share. At present the Tweed is under special statutes of its own, and the Esk is by the Act of 1865 annexed to England for the purposes of the Salmon Fishery Acts. By an Act of last session 2 a Fishery Board was es- tablished for Scotland, consisting of three sheriffs selected and six other members appointed by the Crown. They have the general superintendence of the salmon fisheries of Scotland (as well as the herring fishery, of which presently), and may exercise the powers given by the former Acts to Commissioners. The Home Office is authorised to appoint 1 There is a curious little reservation in s. 15, sub-s. 2. It is an offence to fish for salmon during the weekly close time, except during Saturday or Monday by rod and line. We can hardly suppose that angling on Sunday is thought specially injurious to the fishery at times of year when it is harmless on Saturday and Monday ; the only con- clusion therefore seems to be that angling on Sunday is prohibited as being wicked in itself. s 45 & 46 Viet. c. 78. IRISH LA W. 237 an inspector of salmon fisheries for Scotland, who is to work under the Board and report to them. Trout and other freshwater fish must not be taken in Scottish waters by nets or several other specified means (practically, may be taken only by angling) by any one not having the right of fishery or licensed by the person having it. 1 Law of Ireland as to Freshwater Fisheries. Ireland, again, has a separate legislative history, be- ginning, as far as modern practical purposes are concerned, in the year 1842, when a consolidating Act was passed, 2 and a great number of old Irish statutes as to salmon and other fisheries were repealed. This Act appears to have been to some extent the model for the English Act of 1 86 1. Its provisions are very full and elaborate. In i848, 3 commissioners and conservators were established and the system of licences introduced ; the powers and proceedings of these officers were further defined in 1850.* Fresh regulations were introduced (partly, in turn, adopted from the English Act of 1861) by the Salmon Fishery (Ireland) Act, i863. 5 In I86Q 6 the duties of the former Special Commissioners were transferred to inspectors, who now have 'the power (among other things) of making by-laws, varying local close times, and issuing certificates and licences. They are styled the Inspectors of Irish Fisheries, are three in number, and are appointed by the Lord Lieutenant. 7 1 8 & 9 Viet. c. 26, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 45. 2 5 & 6 Viet. c. 106. 3 ii & 12 Viet. c. 92. 4 13 & 14 Viet. c. 88. 6 26 & 27 Viet. c. 1 14. 8 32 Viet. c. 9, 32 & 33 Viet. c. 92. 7 An analysis of the Irish Statutes on the same scale as that above given of the English ones would be wholly beyond my means and 238 THE FISHERY LA WS. A remarkable feature about the administrative part of the Irish Acts is that the cruisers of the Royal Navy and the coast guard on the sea coast, and the con- stabulary inland, are specially authorised to enforce their provisions. B. SEA FISHERIES. I. Generally. Of all sea fish the most important to mankind, in our seas at any rate, is the herring. Long ago his pre-eminence among fish was attested in the quaint fancy of the North German tale, which tells how the fish needed a king to maintain order among them, and swam a race for the kingdom ; how the herring surpassed the rest in swiftness, and was proclaimed king, but the sole, angry and envious at being far behind in the race, reviled him, and has been punished by having a wry mouth ever since. 1 And the legislation of these kingdoms (notably of Scot- land) has for centuries endeavoured to protect and foster space. The present account, short as it is, may be of some little use, for the Index to the Revised Statutes (tit. Fishery, Ireland) gives nothing but the year and chapter, though the English Acts are pretty fully abstracted. 1 Die Fische waren schon lange unzufrieden dass keine Ordnung in ihrem Reiche herrschte . . . und vereinigten sich den zu ihrem Herren zu wahlen, der am schnellsten die Fluthen durchstreichen und dem Schwachen Hilfe bringen konnte. Sie stellten sich also am Ufer in Reihe und Glied auf, und der Hecht gab mit dem Schwanz ein Zeichen, worauf sie alle zusammen aufbrachen. . . . Auf einmal ertonte der Ruf, " der Hering ist vor ! " der Hering ist vor ! " Wen is vor ?" schrie verdriesslich die platte missgiinstige Scholle, die weit zuriick- geblieben war, "wen is vor?" " Der Hering, der Hering" war die Antwort. " De nackte Hiering ? " rief die neidische, " de nackte Hiering ? " Seit der Zeit steht der Scholle zur Strafe das Maul schief. Grimm, Kinder und Hausmarchen, No. 172. Observe the local colour given by the sole speaking Platt-deutsch. HERRING FISHERIES. 239 the herring fisheries in various ways, of which most have been abandoned as contrary to modern commercial policy. Almost the only surviving part of these provisions is the Scotch system of herring branding, which, even if open to some theoretical objections, is found effectual and popular, and has been deliberately maintained. In England the western counties obtained, as long ago as 1604, a whole- some exemption from the strict rights given to landowners by the common law. The statute recites that "the trade of fishing for herrings, pilchards and sean-fish 1 within the counties of Somerset, Devon and Cornwall is, and of late time hath been, very great and profitable " ; that " divers persons within the said counties, called balkers, huors, condors, directors, or guidors . . . time out of mind have used to watch and attend upon the high hills and grounds near adjoining to the sea-coasts within the said counties," to watch for the shoals of fish, and give directions to the fishermen, and that landowners have begun to object to their land being entered on for this purpose, and to treat the watchers and fishermen as trespassers ; and for the benefit of the fishing trade it enacts that the use of the shore shall be free both to the "watchmen, balkers, huors, condors, directors, and guidors " for their look-out, and to the fishermen for drawing in their nets and landing the fish. 2 1 Sean (now commonly written seyn or seine) is a large draw-net. The statute seems applicable chiefly to the pilchard fishery, in which the seine has not lost its importance, though in the herring fishery drift-nets are more commonly used. Drift-net fishing and trawling are now prohibited within two miles of the coast of Cornwall below Trevose Head : Sea Fisheries Act, 1868, s. 68. And by a local Act, 4 & 5 Viet. c. Ivii., which regulates the pilchard fishery in St. Ives Bay, a close time (25 July-25 December) for hook fishing, ground fishing, and trawling is established (s. 48) for the space of 1000 fathoms from the shore within the limits of the fishing stations specified by the Act. 2 i Jac. i, c. 23. 240 THE FISHER Y LA WS. Like rights are given to fishermen everywhere on the Irish coasts by the Irish Fisheries Act of 1842.* In Scotland no legislation of this kind, local or general, was needed ; for the common law, by a wiser and more liberal policy than the English, admits the common right to use both the shores of the sea and the banks of public rivers for " white fishing," that is, for catching any fish other than salmon, as to which the Crown has special privileges. An Act of 1770 "for the encouragement of the white herring fishery " declares that all persons employed in that fishery are to " have the free use of all ports, harbours, shores and forelands" up to high water mark, and 100 yards beyond it, on any waste or uncultivated land, for the purpose of landing nets and stores, curing fish, and drying nets, without payment except of harbour and pier dues. This appears to give by implication a right to enter on private lands in England to the extent specified ; but it is odd that there is no particular mention of owners or occupiers, nor are the fishermen expressly protected from being sued as trespassers, though they must not, under a penalty of 100, be obstructed. 2 There were many statutes of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries regulating the sea-fisheries of England or of Great Britain. So far as they applied to England they were swept away, I believe without exception, by the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868. On the Irish coast fixed or drift nets must not be used to catch herrings in the daytime, nor must any net be used (except in dredging for shell-fish) which is "covered with 1 5 & 6 Viet. c. 1 06, ss. 3, 4 (may be re-enactment of some older statute : the language seems modelled on that of the English local Act of James I.) 8 ii Geo. 3, c. 31. HERRING FISHERIES. 241 canvas, hide, or other material, by which unsizeable and young fish may be taken or destroyed." Further special prohibitions may be established by means of by-laws. 1 It must be remembered that within three miles of the coast fishermen who use nets or other instruments capable of catching salmon may come under the Salmon Fishery Acts. This has given rise to some difficulties, especially on the Welsh coast. 2 2. Scottish Herring Fisheries. The law of Scotland as to the herring fishery is con- tained in a number of statutes of various dates, from 1808 to i882. 3 The earlier ones created a system of bounties, to which a system of official certificate of the herrings properly taken and cured was incidental 4 ; and the system of certifying the casks of cured herrings by an official brand is still in force. All that is left of the bounties is a com- paratively small annual grant for repairs of fishing-boats ; and the official brand is sought merely as a kind of trade- mark, for which purpose it is found useful in the export trade. Fishermen whose business is not large enough to set up a private brand of their own which could become known in the market can by means of the Government mark, if their wares are up to the standard quality, put 1 5 & 6 Viet. c. 1 06, ss. 6-10, 44 & 45 Viet. c. 66 (close time for pollen). 2 1 8th Annual Report of the Inspectors of Salmon Fisheries, 1879, Appendix I. to Mr. Walpole's Report. 3 The Acts ought to have been consolidated long ago : the older ones exist in a sort of living death, being repealed not specifically, but "in so far as necessary to give effect to," or so far as inconsistent with, the later Acts. These things are not necessarily the draftsman's or anybody's fault ; but they do no credit Jo the law. 4 48 Geo. 3, c. no, s. 35. VOL. I. H. R 242 THE FISHERY LA WS. themselves on a level with the larger dealers ; and a Select Committee which inquired into the matter in 1881 reported against the abolition of the brand. Since 1858 the expense of branding has been provided for by a fee of fourpence a barrel, so that on this point the last trace of the old bounties is removed. 1 The Fishery Board 2 (formerly the " Commissioners of the British white herring fishery") have power to make police regulations ; and there is an old rule, never ex- pressly repealed, that the mesh of herring nets must not be less than an inch across. But this appears to be abrogated, except within three miles of the coast, by the operation of the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868 ; all restrictions on means of fishing beyond that limit being abolished by the Convention with France annexed to the Act, and thereby made law for British subjects. This brings us to the consideration of a fresh matter : namely, the regula- tion of sea fisheries by International Convention. 3. International Conventions. In 1843 a Convention was made between England and France for the establishment of a common set of fishery rules on the coasts of either country ; the purpose being not so much the preservation of sea-fish as the prevention of strife between fishermen of the two nations, and avoidance of difficulties about jurisdiction. In 1868 a new Convention was made, intended to supersede the former one ; and being confirmed by Parliament 3 and gazetted as the Act provided, it became, and it is at present, the law governing British fishermen in British 1 21 & 22 Viet. c. 69. * 45 & 46 Viet. c. 78. 8 31 & 32 Viet. c. 45. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS. 243 waters. But it was never ratified by the French Legis- lature, so that in French waters the old Convention of 1 843 is still in force ; and French fishermen cannot be proceeded against except under that Convention for offences against the fishery police of our coasts. 1 Under the Act of 1868 all British fishing boats have to be lettered, numbered, and registered. The letters indicate a port or station having a separate collectorship of customs, and every station has its own set of numbers. The details are worked out by an Order in Council of June 1 8, 1869. By supplementary regulations of February 26, 1880, open boats not going out beyond the three-mile limit are exempt. Naval and revenue officers and the coastguard have by the Act and Orders in Council large powers of search and seizure, and the fines for not having the name, number, &c., duly painted on a boat may amount to 20. The Convention lays down a number of rules (which it is impossible to abridge) as to fishing-vessels carrying lights, 2 not interfering with one another's operations, and abstaining, except in certain cases of necessity, from entering the French fishery limits. In 1 88 1-2 an International Conference was held at the Hague to discuss proposals for establishing a joint fishery police in the North Sea. The result was a Convention signed on May 6, 1882, by the delegates of England, 1 See 40 &4i Viet. c. 42, s. 15. 2 The rule as to lights was made more specific in 1879 by an Order in Council (Regulations for preventing Collisions at Sea) under the Merchant Shipping Acts. Since September i, 1881, till which date the operation of the Order was afterwards suspended, fishing-vessels out with drift-nets ought to carry two red lights on the mast, and trawlers a red and a green light. I doubt whether the rule is much observed in practice. R 2 244 THE FISHER Y LA WS. Germany, Belgium, Denmark, France and the Netherlands (power being reserved for Sweden and Norway to come in). It contains rules as to lettering, numbering, and official papers ; as to the duty of boats not to interfere with each other's fishing, with a special prohibition of " any instrument or engine which serves only to cut or destroy nets ; " * and as to the manner in which the Convention is to be carried out, and the superintendence of the fisheries exercised, by the cruisers of the several contracting Powers. This Con- vention has not yet acquired legal force as regards British fishermen ; but it is understood that a Bill to confirm it will be introduced in the present session of Parliament. When- ever the North Sea Convention takes effect, the present anomalous relations between England and France as to the Channel fisheries will have to be reconsidered. It will be remembered that British fishermen are under one law and French under another ; and an additional complication may be introduced by the limits of the new Convention, to which France is a party, overlapping those of the old ones at some points. This seems not unlikely to lead to total abrogation of the former Conventions, and the adoption, as between England and France, of the North Sea Con- vention (with whatever not inconsistent additions the local circumstances may require) for the Channel fisheries also. The Treaty of Washington, made in 1871 between England and the United States, contained articles (after- wards confirmed by Parliament) 2 giving American fisher- 1 Such an instrument, known as the "devil," has been used by Belgian sailors and fishermen to the great grievance of the fishermen of other nations. Its use, sale, and manufacture are now prohibited by a Belgian law of March 27, 1882. 2 35 & 36 Viet. c. 45. The Act seems to have been required only for the purpose of repealing earlier inconsistent statutes. OYSTERS. 245 men the right of sea-fishing and landing nets and fish on the Canadian coast, and the like right to British fishermen on the east coast of the United States above 39 N. lat. There are no detailed regulations or police provisions of any kind. 4. As to Oysters and Shell-fish. A close time for oyster fishing (May I to September i) has long been established in Ireland. 1 For Great Britain as to all shell-fish, and for Ireland also as to crabs and lobsters, the law now in force is contained in an Act of 1877 (40 & 41 Viet. c. 42). Deep-sea oysters must not be sold or trafficked with between June 15 and August 4, nor any other oysters between May 14 and August 4. Pre- served oysters, and oysters taken in foreign waters or foi the purpose of oyster cultivation, are excepted. (Fine up to 2 for a first offence, 10 for repeated offences, and the oysters may be forfeited.) And the Board of Trade may, on the application of certain local authorities, restrict or prohibit for limited periods the taking of oysters from any particular bed. Crabs less than four inches and a quarter broad, and lobsters less than eight inches long, may not be taken, sold, or dealt with for sale. The same prohibition applies to spawn crabs and " casters " or " soft crabs " (crabs which have recently cast their shells.) The penalties are the same as for selling oysters in the close season. Any crabs, however, may be taken for bait. The Board of Trade (or in Ireland the Inspectors of Irish Fisheries, with the approval of the Lord Lieutenant), may restrict lobster and crab fishing within specified areas. All shell-fish exposed for sale con- 1 5 & 6 Viet. c. 106, s. 32. 246 THE FISHER Y LA WS. trary to the provisions of the Act may be searched for, seized, and condemned. Under the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868, and certain Irish Acts of which the principal one was passed in 1 866, 1 the Board of Trade in Great Britain, subject to confirmation by Parliament, and the Inspectors of Irish Fisheries with the approval of the Lord Lieutenant in Ireland, 2 have power to grant exclusive rights of oyster and mussel fishery, which may be revoked if the grantees do not cultivate their allotted ground properly. Power to regulate a fishery and take tolls from persons fishing in it for oysters and mussels may also be given by an order of the Board of Trade. 3 That authority issued regulations in July, 1872, setting forth the principles and conditions on which either exclusive rights of fishery or regulative powers over fisheries would be granted, and the procedure to be observed in applications and inquiries. Hardly so much use has been made of these provisions as was expected ; but it is hoped that they will in course of time produce appreciable results in increasing and cheapening the supply of oysters, though they may not avail to bring back the golden age of our fathers, when natives were a shilling a dozen. Under a recent Act 4 the Board of Trade may, for the protection of clam and bait beds, prescribe or authorise restrictions on the use of beam trawls for limited times, and within an area defined in each case by the order, anywhere in the territorial waters of Great Britain. The power can be exercised only on the 1 Oyster Fishery (Ireland) Amendment Act, 1866, 29 & 30 Viet. .97. 2 32 & 33 Viet. c. 92, s. 14. The wording of the English and Irish Acts is different, but their general effect is much the same. 8 There does not seem to be anything corresponding to this in Ireland. * 44 Viet. c. 11. OYSTERS. 247 application of local fishermen or authorities, and after inquiry. As to the general policy of regulating oyster fisheries by close times and otherwise there is much difference of opinion. The evening before the opening of this Exhi- bition (May n), Mr. Huxley delivered a discourse on this question at the Royal Institution, in which he called attention to the fluctuations in the supply of oysters from the principal French beds. These have long been under a system of restrictions far more severe than anything that has been or could be proposed in England ; but the in- crease or falling off in the number of oysters taken (and in many years the variations have been very great and sudden), appears to have no intelligible relation whatever to the rules imposed by the State. In fact, there have been violent fluctuations both ways while the rules and their administration were unchanged. Mr. Huxley's con- clusion is that the abundance or scarcity of oysters depends on causes which cannot be sensibly affected by any restric- tive legislation. All such legislation is in itself objection- able, inasmuch as it creates new offences and tends to make the administration of justice odious, and the burden of proof is always on those who advocate it to show that its utility is so great and manifest as to outweigh the in- convenience. If Mr. Huxley's inferences from the French statistics are right (and I do not myself see the answer to them), the improvement of the oyster fisheries is to be sought, not in multiplying penal laws, which at best are troublesome to enforce and uncertain in their working, but in the judicious encouragement of oyster cultivation. 2 4 8 THE FISHER Y LA WS. 5. Seal FisJtery. The Greenland seal fishery does not, perhaps, come properly within the scope of this handbook. But it may be convenient to mention shortly that, in order to put a stop to the reckless destruction of the young seals, an Act was passed in 1875 (38 Vict.c. 18), which empowered the Queen in Council, being satisfied that other Powers concerned had made or would make the like regulations as to their ships and subjects, to prescribe a close time for the seal fishery between the parallels of 67 and 75 N. latitude, and the meridians of 5 E. and 17 W. longitude from Greenwich. In I876 1 an Order in Council was made bringing the Act into operation, and fixing the 3rd of April as the earliest day in the year on which seal fishing should be lawful. Conclusion. We have now gone through the substance of one of those bodies of special legislation which, though their existence is hardly known except to the persons interested in their subject-matter, are of considerable extent and intricacy, and may raise important questions of general legislative policy. Thus it is evident that in the case of the fishery laws the question of interference with private discretion by the authority of the State has constantly to be decided one way or the other. In dealing with fresh- water fisheries the tendency of modern law-making has been to impose new restrictions, in dealing with sea- fisheries to remove old ones. There is not necessarily any inconsistency in this, for the circumstances and the 1 Nov. 28 : see the order in Maude and Pollock's Merchant Ship- ping, 4th ed., Appendix, p. 104. CONCLUSION. 249 purposes of the law are widely different. Particular questions of no small delicacy may, however, occur in the administration of the law. The State has decided that salmon rivers are worth preserving at the cost of some compulsion and restriction ; and few persons who are not extreme partisans of the individual citizen's freedom to do as he pleases will object to this in principle. But how far are we to go in each case ? Is the preserva- tion always worth the cost ? Paper-mills and salmon, for example, cannot thrive on the same water ; nor can it be said in every case that the paper-mill may go where there are no salmon, for not all river water is fit to make paper with. Are we then bound to sacrifice a great paper-mill for a small and poor salmon river, as might conceivably be the result in some cases of a strict execu- tion of the Salmon Fishery Acts ? These are the problems which English statesmen and legislators have hitherto refused, and most wisely refused, to deal with by general formulas, and have left to be worked out by the good sense and discretion of the persons concerned A law- maker who thinks and speaks as if he were dealing with a nation of fools will never make good laws ; a passion for formulas is the mark not of an exact but of a petty mind, and is capable of becoming the ruin of legislation and politics. It is enough for us, as regards the matter in hand, to know that our fishery laws, since their im- provement was seriously taken up some twenty years ago, have on the whole worked well and prevented much mischief. From a lawyer's point of view (and, I should think, from the point of view of any one who desires to understand them) there is much to be mended in their form. But with all their faults they are a fairly creditable specimen of the manner in which that complex and over- 250 THE FISHER Y LA WS. burdened instrument of government, the Parliament of the United Kingdom, contrives as it were from hand to mouth, and almost without knowing it, to keep abreast of the multifarious wants and grievances of a state of society which its founders could never have imagined ADDENDA. Since this Handbook was published, an Act has been passed which regulates the engagements of seamen and boys in the sea fishing service : The Merchant Shipping (Fishing Boats) Act, 1883, 46 & 47 Viet. c. 41. The North Sea Convention has also been confirmed by the Sea Fisheries Act, 1883 (46 & 47 Viet. c. 22), APPARATUS FOR FISHING BY E. W. H. HOLDSWORTH, F.L.S., F.Z.S. SPECIAL COMMISSIONER FOR JURIES, INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION AUTHOR OF 'DEEP SEA FISHERIES AND FISHING BOATS,' 'BRITISH INDUSTRIES SEA FISHERIES,' ETC. VOL. I. H. CONTENTS. PAGE NETS 2 54 THE BEAM-TRAWL 255 THE OTTER-TRAWL . . 274 DRIFT-NET FISHING . * . . . . .278 THE SEINE OR SEAN .287 SHRIMPING 293 THE STOW-NET . .295 TRAMMELS OR SET-NETS 299 LINE-FISHING 302 BAITS ... 313 FISH TRAPS .315 CRAB AND LOBSTER POTS 319 OYSTER DREDGES . . 322 HARPOONS , , . . 323 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. IN the following pages it is proposed to give only a general account of the various kinds of apparatus which are employed for fishing, but an endeavour will be made to describe in an intelligible manner the principal methods of fishing, so as to enable the reader to understand something of the means by which our fish-markets are supplied, and constant occupation given to the large class of fisherfolk many of whom too commonly have to spend their lives in the midst of dangers and hardships but little understood by the great mass of the public who look on a regular supply of fish as a matter of course, whatever the weather may chance to be. An important distinction exists between sea fishing and freshwater fishing, which gives to each an interest peculiar to itself. Sea fishing is a great commercial industry. Freshwater fishing is mainly connected with sport and amusement. The first will therefore naturally claim the principal share of our attention, as being the means of providing a very large supply of wholesome food, and consequently of wide-spread interest. Some of the appli- ances for fishing being used in both salt and fresh waters, it will be convenient to consider our subject with reference rather to the different methods of fishing than to any distinction between the waters in which they are carried on, calling attention, however, as occasion may arise, to the use of particular appliances in the capture of freshwater fishes 254 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. as well as of those found exclusively in the sea. We shall therefore roughly divide the apparatus into Nets, Lines, and Traps, and begin our descriptions with the important group of nets, which may be again separated into those which are movable, or fixed, when in use. NETS. a. Movable Trawls, Drift, Seines, etc b. Fixed Trammels, Set-nets, Bag-nets, etc. Trawls. Among the several methods of fishing in general use in our seas none is of more importance than that known in England as trawling, as by its means we obtain the greater part of the turbot, brill, and soles which are brought to market, and soles are very rarely caught in any other way. But besides the value of this mode of fishing in the capture of what are known as " prime " fish, its importance is even greater as a means of catching plaice, haddock, whiting, and other kinds of common fish, which, inferior as they are usually considered when compared with turbot and soles, yet are in great and constant demand in the market, and from the abundance in which they are caught, they can be sold at so low a rate as practically to be within reach of everyone. Another point of importance in trawling is that it is carried on throughout the year, although as a good deal of wind is desirable for its effective working, it is more generally productive in winter than at any other season, and there- fore at a time when some kinds of sea fishing are difficult on account of bad weather. There are two kinds of trawl-net in use, the beam-trawl and the otter-trawl ; but the only one .used by professional fishermen is the beam-trawl, and of that we will now endeavour to give a description ; but an examination of THE BEAM- TRA WL. 255 the net itself will be almost necessary to enable its con- struction to be clearly understood. THE BEAM-TRAWL. The Beam-trawl is a triangular, flat, purse-shaped net, with its wide mouth kept extended by a horizontal wooden spar called the "beam," which is raised a short distance from the ground by two iron supports or " heads," one at each end ; the upper edge of the mouth of the net being fastened to the beam, and the under portion or lower edge of the opening dragging on the ground as the net is towed over the bottom. The size of the net used depends very much on that of the vessel that has to tow it, and the length of the beam of course varies with the size of the net. The total length of the net is usually rather more than twice that of the beam. In the large trawl vessels or " smacks," as they are generally called, the beam ranges from 36 to 50 feet in length, and the net in corresponding proportions. As there is an enormous strain on the beam when the net is at work, great care is necessary to select a good piece of wood for it, Elm is generally preferred, chosen if possible from timber grown of the proper thick- ness, that the natural strength of the wood may not be lessened by any more trimming or chipping than is absolutely necessary. If the required length and thickness cannot be obtained in one piece, two pieces are scarfed together and the joint secured by iron bands. Appearance here is not of so much' consequence as strength and toughness to resist the strain to which the beam is exposed. It will be understood from what has been said that the purse-shaped net has one of its flat sides on the ground, and the mouth is kept extended by the beam lying across it ; but in order to give room for the fish to enter, the 256 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. beam and with it the back or upper edge of the mouth of the net fastened to it must be raised a certain distance from the ground. For this purpose each end of the beam is fastened to the top of an iron frame, shaped something like an irregularly formed stirrup, which is fitted to it at a right angle by a square socket at the top. By these iron frames, called " heads or irons," the beam is raised about three feet from the ground, and, contrary to the popular idea, never touches the bottom. It could do so only if the net and beam were to reach the ground with the back undermost, and then the mouth of the net would close and no fish could enter. The lower part of the trawl-head or iron is straight and flat, just like the corresponding part of a stirrup. It is called the " shoe," and is the part which slides over the ground as the net and beam are towed along. There is some slight variation in the shape of the irons used on different parts of the coast. What is called the Barking pattern is quite symmetrical and stirrup-like in shape, and is used by the Barking and many of the Great Yarmouth trawlers ; but at Brixham, Grimsby, Hull, and most other of our stations the back of the trawl-iron is made straight and sloping backward to the heel of the " shoe," thus giving greater length to that part of the iron which rests on the ground, and consequently, it is thought, more steadiness. Other devices, both foreign and British, for keeping the beam off the ground, will be observed among the trawl-heads in this Exhibition. The purse-shaped net consists of several portions, each having its own name. An old-fashioned bed watch-pocket laid on its face will give a very good idea of a trawl, when in a position for working. What is then its upper surface is called the " back," and the under portion the " belly " of the net. The straight front edge of the back, or " square " THE BEAM-TRAWL. 257 of the net is fastened to the beam, and is therefore raised two or three feet from the ground. The corresponding lower part of the mouth, however, is cut away in such a manner that the margin of the net forms a deep curve extending from the foot of one trawl-iron to the other, and therefore resting on the ground ; the centre of the curve or "bosom" being a considerable distance behind the beam and in front of the narrow part of the net. The usual rule in English trawls is for the distance between the beam and the centre of the curve to be about the same as the length of the beam. In foreign trawls this distance is generally less ; but in all cases there is a considerable space of ground over which the beam and back of the net must pass, when the trawl is at work, before the fish lying under them on the bottom are disturbed by the lower edge of the net. This curved lower margin of the mouth of the net is fastened to and protected by the " ground-rope," which is made of a stout but old hawser " rounded " or covered with small rope to keep it from chafing and to make it heavier. Its purpose is to protect the edge of the net, which other- wise would soon be torn by contact with the ground, and especially to keep it evenly on the bottom so as to sweep it thoroughly and disturb the fish, which, passing over the rope, then find their way into the farther narrow end of the purse or bag. The ends of the ground-rope are fastened on each side by a few turns round the back of the trawl- iron, just above the shoe, so that the rope rests upon the ground throughout its entire curve. There is no chance therefore of the fish escaping at either the sides or bosom of the net, and their only outlet, when once the beam has passed over them, is in front, for the back of the net is then above them, so that they must dart forward in the direction VOL. I. H. s 258 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. in which the net is moving, to enable them to get clear of it Their chance of escape is, however, very small, for when fish are disturbed without being much alarmed, they seldom move very far, and even should they escape under the beam, the net moving forwards in the same direction would most probably again overtake them. It has been mentioned that the ground-rope is made of an old hawser, and there is a reason for such being used. Although trawling is carried on as a rule over smooth ground, it sometimes happens that there may be an occasional piece of rock in the way, and then if the ground-rope were sound and strong the probable result would be the breaking of the beam or the more serious accident of the parting of the rope by which the trawl is connected with the vessel. In the latter case the whole trawl would be lost; but if the ground-rope were to become hitched in a rock or any obstruction at the bottom, an old rope would break, and the most serious result would be the tearing of the under part of the net. This, of course, is to be avoided if possible, but it is better to tear the net than lose it altogether. We have so far spoken only of the front half of the trawl, with its back entirely made up of netting and the under part of the same material cut away into a deep curve which is fastened to the ground-rope. The remain- ing part of the trawl, that is, the portion extending from the bosom to the extreme end, forms a complete bag of netting, and gradually diminishes in breadth until within about ten feet of the end. This last part of it is of uniform width, and is called the " cod " or " purse ; " it is here that the fish which enter the net are mostly collected, and they are prevented from escaping by the end of this bag or purse being closed by a draw-rope when the net is THE BEAM-TRAWL. 259 in use. As soon, however, as the net is hoisted in, the draw-rope is cast off, and the fish fall out on the deck of the vessel. The under part of this purse is exposed to a good deal of wear from the weight of fish and sometimes stones collected within it, and to protect it as much as possible, layers of netting, called "rubbing-pieces," are laced across it, one layer slightly overlapping the next one. In French trawls a stout hide is frequently fastened under this part of the net for the same purpose. Such is the main construction of the trawl as seen from the outside ; but we have still to notice certain arrangements within the net by which any fish which have once made their way into the cod or purse at the end are prevented from returning and making their escape. The net has been described as tapering away from the mouth until the purse is reached, and it is at the junction of the purse with the main body of the net that by a very simple arrangement two pockets open, into which the fish make their way and often become closely packed. The pockets are made by simply lacing together parts of the upper and under portions of the main body of the net, beginning close to the purse, at about one third of the distance across, and running up towards the outer margin, gradually tapering away to a point for a length of about sixteen feet backwards from the purse. They are there- fore within the outer edge of the net, and their mouths open into and face the purse. The mouths of the pockets occupy one-third each of the breadth of the net at that part, and the intermediate third is the passage by which all the fish enter the purse from the main body of the net. Over this opening hangs a curtain of netting called the " flapper," which gives way before any fish pushing through into the purse, but then falls back so as to prevent its S 2 260 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. return. On each side of, and just beyond, the flapper, however, is the entrance to a pocket ; and the fish, being unable to return through the passage closed by the flapper, very commonly enter the pockets and press on till at last the gradual narrowing of the space stops their further progress in that direction. To understand clearly the facilities offered to the fish to enter the pockets it is necessary to remember that the trawl when at work is towed along with just sufficient force to expand the net by the resistance of the water. But this resistance acts directly only on the interior of the body of the net between the pockets, and then on the purse. When the trawl first begins to move, the pressure of the water inside the net does not distend the pockets, but rather tends to flatten them, because they are virtually outside the cavity of the net, and their openings are at the farther end of it and facing the other way. The water, however, which has expanded the body of the net, then makes its way under the flapper and enters the purse, which, being made with a much smaller mesh than the rest of the net, offers so much resistance that it cannot so readily escape in that direction ; return currents are consequently formed along the sides, and these currents open the mouths of the pockets, which face the purse or last part of the net ; and the fish in their endeavours to escape, finding these openings, follow the course of the pockets until they have no room to proceed any further. The whole of the net becomes therefore fully expanded, but it does so by the pressure of the water in one direction through the middle, and in the opposite one through the pockets at the sides. Such then is the beam-trawl an enormous bag-net, frequently 50 feet wide at the mouth and upwards of 100 feet in length, which sweeps slowly and quietly over the THE BEAM-TRAWL. 261 bottom of the sea, disturbing, perhaps without much alarming, such fish as may come in contact with the ground- rope, and, we may venture to say, ultimately securing them in the purse and pockets, from which there is no deliverance till the trawl is hoisted up on board the vessel and the contents are turned out on deck. In an ordinary deep-sea trawl-net the meshes are of four sizes, diminishing from four inches square near the mouth to an inch and a half at the purse or small end ; and the twine for the under side of the net is usually a size larger than that for the back. The net is generally made of the best Manilla hemp, and is well tarred before being used. The only remaining part of the trawl apparatus is the warp by which the trawl is towed over the ground. This is usually a six-inch rope, 150 fathoms long, and made up of two lengths of 75 fathoms each, spliced together. The end of this warp is shackled to two other pieces, each 15 fathoms long, and called the "spans" or "bridles," which lead one to each end of the beam, and are shackled to swivel-bolts in the front of the head-irons, so that the pull of the rope comes directly on those parts of the apparatus which are the most exposed to friction by contact with the ground. As most of the trawling is carried on far out at sea, and very commonly at long distances from land, good sea- going vessels are required, and vessels of from 45 to 70 tons, or even more, are generally employed in this kind of fishery. They are usually called " smacks " from their smack or cutter rig, which until recent years was the one- almost invariably adopted. Forty or fifty years ago they w r ere of comparatively small size, ranging from twenty to thirty-six tons. They were stoutly-built vessels, able to hold their own in almost any kind of weather, but were 262 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. then not remarkable for fast sailing. Sea-going qualities were especially necessary in vessels which had to work in rough weather, and often at some distance from any harbour. The improvements in modern ship-building have not been, however, lost sight of, and the great and in- creasing demand for fish, and the long distances from land at which trawlers now work in the North Sea, have led to the construction of larger vessels, capable of working much heavier nets, and with much finer proportions, so as to give greatly increased speed so that the fish may be brought to market with as little delay as possible. The large main- sail in these smacks has great driving power, and is there- fore a very important sail ; but the increase in the size of the vessels has made a change of rig desirable so as to be able to work them without proportionately adding to the expenses. The larger mainsail in these new vessels would require additional hands to look after it in bad weather, when a heavy boom is likely to strain everything to the utmost ; and fishing is a pursuit in which expenses must be closely looked after. This sail has accordingly been reduced in size, and a mizen mast has been added on which a small gaff-sail is carried. By this plan a proper quantity of sail can be carried, but the great pressure on it is brought lower down, and consequently it is more manageable and causes less strain on the vessel. The new trawlers are built of greater proportionate length than formerly, and this gives them greater speed. This new "ketch" rig, as it is called, is generally adopted at the great North Sea stations, Hull, Grimsby and Yarmouth, and is gradually coming into fashion at Brixham and other Channel ports. One important advantage in the increased size of these fishing vessels is the additional room provided on board. This not only adds to the comfort of the crew, THE BE A M- TRA WL. 263 but enables a considerable quantity of ice to be carried, now a necessary condition of North Sea trawling. Stow- age is. also provided for the produce of several days' fishing, when, as is the rule, except during the calm summer months, these trawlers stay out for several days at a time, and bring home their own fish instead of sending it in by carrying vessels, which at certain seasons collect the fish from a fleet of trawlers and take it to market. The cost of trawl-smacks has greatly increased of late years, not only on account of their larger size, but because of the higher price that has now to be paid for everything connected with their construction. In 1862, a trawler, ready for sea, and what was then considered one of the larger class, could be built and fitted out for 700 or ;8oo ; but one of the new class of vessels cannot be turned out at the present time for less than about 1 600. This includes a fit-out of all that is required for fishing, which costs from 70 to 80. A fit-out consists of a double set of almost every part of the gear, to provide against acci- dents, and to save the time which would otherwise be lost if the vessel were obliged to return to port before she had done a fair quantity of work. If a trawl-net meets with no serious accident it will last from three to four months, according to the nature of the ground worked on ; but during that time parts of it will have to be renewed. The back of the net, being exposed to least wear, lasts the longest ; the under parts will generally require renewing twice, and the cod or purse five or six times, before the whole net is finally condemned ; so that trawling gear* involves considerable expense to keep it in good working order at the best of times, and in case of accidents, by which sometimes the whole net and beam are lost, the cost is greatly increased. 264 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. The importance of the trawl fishery is so great that we have thought it desirable to give tolerably full details of the apparatus employed in it, and it may be interesting if we also give some account of the manner in which the net is worked. Of course, nothing but practical experience on board a trawler will enable one to thoroughly understand all the points to be considered in working under the varying conditions of wind and tide, but the general mode of proceeding may be more easily explained. A favourable tide is the first thing to be desired, one of only moderate strength, as the trawl, which is always towed as much as possible in the direction of, but a little faster than, the stream, then works steadily and is easily kept upon the ground. Supposing the vessel to be on her fishing ground, the first part of the tide is chosen for commencing work, as she can then tow in one direction for several hours, and the usual practice is to keep the trawl down till the tide has done, about five or six hours at a time. The vessel is put under easy sail in the direction in which she is going to tow, depending on the wind being suitable for going with the tide. This is of such importance that when the wind is dead against the tide it is impossible to work, and the fishermen can only beat up against the wind so as to take up a suitable position for trawling in the opposite direction as soon as the tide has turned, or if the fishing ground be a large one, as in some parts of the North Sea, they heave-to and wait for the favourable time. Most persons who have seen a trawl-vessel in harbour, or coming in or going to sea, will have noticed the long trawl-beam, with the curiously- shaped head-irons at each end, resting on the top of the bulwark, usually on the port or left side of the vessel, and the immense net lying in irregular folds along the top of the beam. This is where the trawl is stowed when it is THE BEAM- TRA WL. 265 not in use, and is conveniently placed for putting overboard when the net is to be lowered. This then would be the position when they are going to begin fishing. The vessel then being slowly sailed along her intended course, the first thing to be done is to get the net overboard, beginning with the small end and throwing it out or " shooting " it until the whole is hanging from the beam and towing alongside. The rope holding up the front end of the beam is then slacked away till that part of the beam is well clear of the vessel, and, being caught by the water, is turned outwards at nearly a right angle, or square with the stern. The other end is then lowered from the stern till the whole beam is level in the water with the net streaming away behind it ; and if the trawl is then in a proper position, that is, with the back uppermost and the ground-rope below, more sail is put on the vessel, the two ropes fastened to the head-irons at the ends of the beam are slowly and evenly paid out till the shackle joining them to the trawl- warp is reached ; then if all appears to be going right the warp itself is steadily given out, and the trawl is allowed to slowly sink to the bottom. It will hardly be necessary to point out why the vessel should be moving through the water, although not very fast, when the trawl is being lowered. It will be obvious that if the apparatus is to reach the bottom with the trawl- irons under the beam, and the lower part of the net and the ground-rope in their proper position below, no risk must be run of the net turning round or twisting as it is being lowered. There would, of course, be great danger of this happening if the vessel were not moving ; the net would in such a case hang perpendicularly, and the beam would be very liable to twist round, so that it would be a mere matter of chance whether the upper or under side of the net and 266 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. beam would be the first to reach the bottom. If, however, as has been described, the net be got into a proper position when at the surface, and the vessel be slowly sailed along, the net is then towed after it, and as the warp is given out, the net gradually sinks without changing its position, until at last it reaches the ground. Of course, experience teaches the fishermen how to regulate the speed of the vessel and the rate at which the warp should be given out so as to ensure just sufficient strain on the trawl to keep it steady whilst it is sinking. These are matters which none but the practical fisherman thoroughly under- stands ; they require some little judgment to prevent mistakes, and mistakes will sometimes be made ; the strength of the tide may be miscalculated, or something else ; and the irregular action of the trawl, owing to the beam instead of only the irons touching the ground, tells the fishermen that the trawl is "on its back." When this happens there is nothing to be done but to heave up the net often a long and laborious process and then, after getting it into the proper position, to lower it once more. Supposing the trawl to have reached the bottom all right and to be moving evenly over the ground, as can be readily felt by the steady strain on the warp, the master uses his judgment as to how much more warp should be paid out. It should be remembered that the weight of the net and the trawl-irons, without considering the beam itself which, from being so continually under water, soon becomes more or less saturated, and loses more of its original buoyancy is such as to keep the whole apparatus at the bottom, whilst the pull of the warp by which the trawl is towed along, is in a direction slanting upwards. There are therefore two opposing forces, one tending to keep the net on the ground, and the other lifting it. The object is to regulate these forces THE BEAM-TRAWL. 267 so that the pull from the warp shall move the trawl lightly along the bottom, but without raising it from the ground, If then there be too little warp allowed and there be not slope enough, the pull will be too much upward, and the net will be lifted ; but if, on the other hand, there be too much warp, the trawl-irons and net will be dragged too much on the ground, and the friction will be greatly increased. One of the conditions on which this regulation depends is the amount of wind ; for if there be very little breeze to drive the vessel along, the friction of the net and irons on the bottom may be sufficient to stop her way entirely. In such a case, very little extra warp is required, so that the lifting power may be increased, and the friction over the ground lessened. But if there be a great deal of wind, which will drive the vessel along even with comparatively little sail, and especially if, as in such a case is likely to occur, there is a good deal of sea, and the strain on the warp becomes irregular and jerking, then more warp is allowed to counteract the tendency there is to lift the net off the ground. This, as has been said before, is a matter of experience ; and the ready way in which these rough fishermen make their calculations, often, we may venture to say, without being able to explain their reasons, is shown by the successful manner in which they commonly fish in all kinds of weather. There is no other kind of sea-fishing which requires so much skill as deep-sea trawling ; as, independently of the necessary knowledge of the ground to be trawled over, hours may be wasted unless attention is given to the proper management of the net from the moment at which it is put overboard. We have spoken of the construction of the beam-trawl, and the way in which it is managed when it is being used ; we may now say a few words about the action of the trawl 2 68 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. when it is at work. This net is specially constructed for catching what are called ground-fish, those which, as a rule, keep at the bottom, and naturally hide more or less under the sand or mud. With trifling exceptions, all the turbot, brill, soles, and plaice brought to market, are caught by the trawl ; the various kinds of skate or ray are obtained for the most part by the same means ; and notwithstanding the peculiar habit all these fish have of lying quite close to the ground and partially covered, they have very little chance of escaping when once the trawl-beam has passed over them. Rough stones or rocks on the bottom would soon tear the net to pieces ; and even on smooth ground there is danger of meeting with obstructions big enough to hold the net, sometimes resulting in breaking either the beam or the trawl-warp. Clean ground is therefore of the first importance for trawling ; it is there that flat-fish are, most likely to be found, and the action of the trawl is specially such as to secure them. The trawl, as has been said, is always towed with the tide, but a little faster than it is running. Were it otherwise, the net, being lighter than the beam, weighted as it is with the trawl-irons, would be liable to be drifted forwards and to prevent the entrance of the fish. The resistance of the water caused by the trawl going a little faster than the tide this excess of speed varying according to circumstances from half a knot to a knot and a half in an hour keeps the net expanded and in a proper position behind the beam. The ground- rope then does its duty. Its "biting" action, or close pressure on the ground over which it is towed, is of the greatest importance when soles, turbot, and other flat-fish are worked for, as these fish when disturbed do not rise from the ground as is the habit with whiting, haddock, gurnards, etc., but seek safety in the sand. When, there- THE BE A M- TRA WL. 269 fore, as the trawl is slowly towed along, the ground-rope disturbs the flat-fish, their first impulse is to move a short distance forwards and again bury themselves ; but the ground-rope is steadily pressing on as the trawl advances, and they are again soon disturbed. This proceeding almost certainly ends in the fish, sooner or later, passing over the ground-rope and entering the net. They cannot then escape upwards, because the back of the net is above them, and if they dart forwards towards the entrance they may have to go perhaps forty or fifty feet, the distance between the centre of the curved ground-rope and the beam, before they can get clear of the advancing net. When fishing for whiting, haddock, or other round fish, the trawl is towed a little faster than when working for soles, and although such fish on being disturbed may dart some little distance, the fact of their not trying to bury them- selves, but to rise from the ground, often enables the ground-rope to pass under them without further distur- bance. The great resistance offered by the trawl to the forward movement of the vessel towing it a resistance sufficient to reduce her speed in a good breeze from perhaps seven or eight knots to one knot in the hour is very commonly ascribed to the supposed great pressure of the beam and net on the bottom, and to their not being towed lightly over the ground, but dragged through it. This has been the foundation of most of the arguments used by those who believe that trawling tears up the ground and destroys any fish spawn there may be upon it, they apparently being unaware that the trawl can only do its work when the beam is raised well clear of the ground by the trawl-irons, and that the weight of the net is very materially lessened by the fact of its being expanded by the water. 270 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. The question of spawn being destroyed by the trawl is further disposed of by the knowledge that has been gained in recent years of the spawning habits of sea-fish. It has been now distinctly proved by Professor G, O. Sars and M. Malm on the coasts of Norway and Sweden that the eggs of several of our best known sea-fish float during the whole period of their development, and that the herring is the only one among our market sea fishes whose spawn is positively known to be deposited on the bottom. As the usual spawning ground of the herring is in rough places, where the trawl cannot be worked, there is little probability of that net doing much mischief to herring spawn. We now come to the last part of the operation of trawl- ing the taking up the net. After the trawl has been towed over the ground for five or six hours, the tide having come to an end, or the limit of the particular fishing ground having been reached, the net is then hauled up. There is not the same custom on all parts of the coast as to the position in which the vessel is placed when the trawl is hoisted up. At Brixham and Plymouth, the old trawling stations in the Channel, it has long been the practice to haul in the trawl-warp over the bow by means of a winch placed just in front of the mast, and the vessel is therefore brought head to wind with the trawl out ahead of her ; and even when one of the improved patent capstans, placed in the middle of the vessel, is used, the warp is still led in over the bow ; but among the trawlers in the North Sea the capstan is always employed, and the rope is hauled in over the port side of the vessel, just opposite the capstan. These, however, are very much a matter of fancy, and in either case there is long and often very laborious work to be done before the trawl comes to the surface. It rarely THE BE A M- TRA WL. 271 takes less than three-quarters of an hour's steady work, and in bad weather it may take two or three hours. The long warp is coiled away down below as it comes in, and the beam, having been swung alongside, hoiste'd up and secured, the net is gathered in by hand until nothing remains in the water except the cod or purse of the net, in which all the fish are collected, those which had entered the pockets having been shaken down into the purse as the main body of the net was hauled in. Now comes the exciting moment, and all hands have a look over the side of the vessel to see what has been the result of the day's work. If there are only a few fish in the purse it is lifted in by hand and better luck hoped for next time. But when, as often happens, there is from half to three-quarters of a ton of fish, the bag is hoisted up by a tackle, and before being lowered on board, the draw-rope, which has been previously mentioned as closing the end of the purse, is cast loose, and the whole quivering mass of fish falls out on the deck. The scene is a remarkable one, for most of the fish are alive and display such beauty of colouring as can only be observed when they are just taken out of the sea. The variety of fish is also frequently very great, and twenty different kinds good, bad and indifferent may be turned out after one haul of the net. At certain seasons, and in particular parts of the North Sea, the catch consists almosts entirely of haddocks, at other times plaice may be the principal fish, or the vessel may have been working on ground specially frequented by soles ; but in any case there is sure to be a market for what has been caught, and if soles or turbot fetch a higher price than the commoner kinds, the latter are always more abundant. Sorting the fish is at once proceeded with. The prime fish are picked out and packed separately, and if the vessel is far away 272 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. from the land, as in the North Sea, pounded ice is plenti- fully strewed among the fish, and every care is taken to preserve them in good condition till the opportunity comes for sending them to market. The vast numbers of had- docks which are taken by the trawl are not always packed in boxes like the prime fish, but, after being roughly cleaned, are stowed away with layers of ice between them in the hold of the vessel till in the course of a few days she returns to port. Although a great number of haddocks are sold fresh, the majority of those caught by the trawl are dried and smoked, for which there is an unfailing demand. During the last few years one of the most important changes which have taken place in connection with deep- sea fishing has been the application of steam-power to trawl vessels. Many experiments have been tried from time to time with this object, but although there has been no doubt of the advantage of using steam for fishing boats, there has been great difficulty in keeping the attendant expenses within due limits. The system is indeed still in only partial operation, but enough has been done to show that its more general adoption is only a question of time. For many years steam vessels have been employed as " carriers," collecting the fish from the fleets of trawlers in the North Sea, and taking it to market. But experience has shown that time and labour can be profitably saved by applying steam to the actual fishing vessels. It enables them to go to and return from their fishing grounds quickly, and to work their nets independently of wind a matter of the first importance in the light summer weather which sometimes for days together keeps the sailing trawler almost idle, and a large amount of time and labour is saved bv the use of steam in hauling up the trawl. The THE BEAM-TRAWL. 273 numerous designs and models of steam-trawlers in the Exhibition point to the attention now being given to this important subject. The fishing grounds systematically worked over by the trawlers are scattered over a large area, and lie principally on the southern half of the North Sea, a locality to which we have frequently had occasion to refer. The oldest known trawling grounds are, however, on the Devonshire coast, where the Brixham men have regularly worked for probably not much less than a hundred years. Brixham claims to be the " mother of trawling," although a similar claim has been put in by Barking, on the Thames. So far as we can ascertain, small trawls may have been used inshore for many years before these nets were tried in deep water, but it seems probable that Brixham took the lead in trawling at sea ; and there is no doubt that Brixham men introduced trawling at Ramsgate, and in 1845, many of them migrated to Hull, and thence systematically worked the important North Sea fishery now carried on from that port. In 1858 five trawlers left Hull for Grimsby, nearer the mouth of the Humber. It was the year before the opening of the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway at Grimsby; and since that date the Grimsby trawl-fishery has gone on increasing until it has become the most important in the United Kingdom, and the railway from the port daily conveys very large supplies of fish to the centre of the manufacturing districts. Yarmouth is another great trawling port on the North Sea, and received her first trawlers from Barking through the enter- prise of the late Mr. Hewett, who, beginning his career as a boy on board one of these fishing smacks, lived to see a large fleet of vessels the property of himself and some members of his family. If deep-sea trawling were by any VOL. i. H. T 274 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. chance to come to an end, or even materially diminished, the result would be the loss of many thousands of tons of wholesome food to all classes of people in this country. THE OTTER-TRAWL. This net, although used in the same manner as the beam- trawl, differs from it essentially in having no beam, and the mouth of the net is kept open by means of long wings of netting, at the end of each of which is what is called an otter-board. On the action of these otter-boards depends in a great measure the proper working of the net. But before describing them we will say a few words about the construction and shape of the net. As the size of the net may vary according to that of the vessel from which it is to be worked, and as its use is practically confined to yachtsmen who have them made of suitable dimensions for their vessels, we need only give the general proportions of the two essential parts the body and the wings. The body of an otter-trawl say, 28 feet long consists of a bag 28 feet in length. 10 feet square at the mouth, and the small end or purse about four feet square. This is closed with a draw-rope as in the same part of the beam-trawl. The wings for a trawl of the size we are describing are each about 36 feet long, and are fastened one on each side of the square mouth of the net, their height when joined to the trawl being 10 feet, the same as the trawl itself at that part. From this point the height of the wing gradually diminishes through its entire length of 36 feet, till it becomes reduced to two feet at the other end. The foot of the wings and of the mouth is weighted to keep it on the ground, and the upper edge or back of the same parts is buoyed up with pieces of cork. A nice adjustment of weights to corks is important to enable the net to work THE OTTER-TRAWL. 275 lightly over the ground, although at the same time closely touching it. We now have the funnel-shaped bag with a long wing of netting extending from each side of the mouth, and the remaining parts to be noticed are the all- important otter-boards by which the wings of the net are kept extended. Most persons are familiar with the principle of flying paper kites, but a few words may be here said on the subject When the kite is thrown up in the air, the wind would of course blow it away if it were not for the string which keeps a strain upon it in an opposite direction ; and if this strain or pull upon it by the string were exactly at the centre of pressure of the wind on the surface of the paper, the kite would either remain steady or sway about in any direction. But if the string be fastened rather more on one side of the centre of pressure of the wind on the kite than on the other, then that part of the kite would be turned a little towards the wind and the rest of it in a corresponding degree away from it. The wind would therefore strike the kite at an angle and with the greatest effect on the part behind the string, tend- ing to blow it away were it not that the pressure of the wind also, although in a less degree, on that part in front of the string, kept it from turning away too much. The kite is thus brought into the same position with respect to the wind as the sail of a vessel is when she is going what is called close to the wind. In both cases the wind strikes at an angle and flies off at the further edge, resulting in the sail and the kite being forced in the opposite direction. The kite, being weighted with the tail, turns its head upwards, and that being the part on which there is the least pressure of the wind, the kite rises in the air. Now if we substitute an otter-board for the kite and water for the wind, we shall find precisely the same principle in action. T 2 276 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. The otter-board for such a net as has been described is an oblong piece of stout board two feet high and nearly three feet and a half long ; the front lower angle is rounded off so as not to catch in the ground, and the whole lower edge of the board is weighted with a heavy iron shoe, as it is that part which is to be kept at the bottom. The end of each wing of the trawl is fastened to the square end of an otter-board, the round end of the board going in front, and all that is now wanted is to make fast a rope to the inner side of the board, in just such a position as a string is fastened to a kite. These ropes from the otters exactly correspond with the two ropes or bridles, one from each end of the beam in the beam-trawl, and like them the ends are shackled on to the warp by which the trawl is towed. Putting out or " shooting " the otter-trawl is generally done over the stern of the vessel, and the two ropes are brought round one on each side of it, so as to separate the wings of the net as much as possible from the first ; and when the vessel begins to move slowly along, the pressure of the water acts on the otter-boards as the wind does on the kite. The direction of the otters, however, is not upwards but out- wards, as they are weighted on the lower side and are too heavy to float ; and as the strain on them continues they gradually work their way out in opposite directions until the two wings and the mouth of the net are expanded in a wide curve, the weighted foot of the whole extent of net being on the ground, and the corked back-rope keeping the upper edge of the net fully extended above it. The net is then towed with the tide, and is worked in just the same manner as has been described in the case of the beam-trawl. The two ropes or bridles leading from the otters, are much longer than would be used with a beam- trawl, as the front of the net with the wings spreads out to a THE OTTER-TRAWL. 277 great width. There being no beam to this trawl, it is very convenient for use in yachts, as it can be stowed away in a comparatively small space when not wanted, but pro- fessional trawlers cannot be induced to work with anything but the beam-trawl. Each has its advantages, but it may be a question whether our deep-sea trawlers would do better, or as well, with the otterrtrawl as with the one to which they have been .always accustomed. A net of just the same shape and construction is, we believe, still in use on some parts of the Irish coast, but it has no otter-boards, and the wings of the net are kept apart by the ropes from them leading each through a block at the end of a pole which is put out on each side of the trawling vessel. The end of each wing is kept upright by being fastened to a contrivance very much like a long double-headed hammer, the head being a long stout piece of flattened iron like the shoe of an otter-board, and with a stiff piece of wood like the handle of a hammer inserted into the middle of the iron, thus completing what we have called a long double- headed hammer. The top of the end of the wing of netting is fastened to the top of the handle, and the lower edge of the wing to one end of the iron shoe or hammer- head. The tow-rope or bridle from each wing is fastened to a loop extending from the front of the hammer to the top of the handle, so that when the trawl is at work, the hammers slide along over the ground with the handle standing upright in the middle. This trawl is known as the " Pole or Hammer " trawl, and the application of otter- boards to a trawl of this construction must be considered a decided improvement. A simple, but cumbrous and primitive mode of working the deep-sea trawl is that adopted on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Spain, where, instead of using the beam to keep the mouth 278 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. of the net open, the trawl is towed between two vessels, which, from their always working together, are known as " Parejas " or pairs. Two problems in connection with trawling have been the subject of much consideration at various times, but as yet have not been satisfactorily solved. One is to ensure the trawl reaching the bottom at all times in the right position for working ; and the other is to provide for the escape of small fish without running the risk of losing the larger ones. The difficulty in the latter case arises from the fact that the strain on the last part or purse of the trawl when towed over the ground is so great that the meshes, no matter what size they are, are pulled straight and therefore closed ; and if the meshes were made much larger than they are now, fair sized soles would have strength enough to open them sufficiently to squeeze through where the young fish would be unable to do so. Some suggested improvements on the latter point deserve attention among the variety of trawling gear exhibited. DRIFT-NET FISHING. This method of fishing, although not the oldest recorded, has yet been in use for a very long time, and there is good reason to believe that the long-famous Yarmouth herring fishery, of which we hear in the sixth century, has always been carried on by means of drift-nets. The importance of drift-net fishing is shown by the fact that it is the only method by which such fish as herrings, mackerel, and pilchards, which generally swim at or not very far from the surface, can be readily caught in the open sea, at any distance from land, and in any depth of water sufficient for the nets to float in their natural position. The term "drift-nets" is derived from the manner in DRIFT-NET FISHING. 279 which the nets are worked. They are neither fixed, towed, nor hauled within any precise limit of water, but are " shot " the fisherman's expression for throwing out or putting a net into the water at any distance from the land where there are signs of fish, and are allowed to drift in any direction the tide may happen to take them, until it is thought desirable to haul them in. When at work, they are extended in a long single line, with their upper edge supported at or near the surface by means of floats, the nets hanging perpendicularly in the water, and forming, as it were, a perforated wall or barrier many hundred yards long and several yards deep. The shoals of fish, in their endeavours to pass through this barrier of netting, force their heads into the meshes, the size of the mesh used, of course, depending on whether herrings, pilchards, or mackerel are expected to be caught, and being such as to allow the head and gill-covers to enter, but not to permit the thicker body of the fish to pass through. When the fish has found its way through the net beyond the gill- covers, it may generally be looked upon as effectually meshed. There is then indeed very little chance of its escape, for the mesh is only large enough for a fish of an average size of its kind to push its way so far when the gill-covers are pressed close to the neck ; but it is necessary for them to open again that the fish may breathe, that is, that the water which enters the mouth may, with the air it contains, pass over the gills, and after purifying the blood within them, just as the air we take into our lungs purifies the blood they contain, escape through the gill opening on each side of the head. This process must be familiar to anyone who has watched a living fish in an aquarium. While this is taking place, and the fish is at the same time struggling to pass through the net, the mesh slips forward 2 8o APPARATUS FOR FISHING. and catches in the gill opening, from which it cannot easily be cleared without more or less injury to the fish. In drift-fishing then the floating nets act as barriers to inter- cept the moving shoals, and the fish become meshed in their attempts to pass through. Long experience has shown that certain conditions are favourable to drift-fishing. It will of course be easily understood that the more indistinct the net is in the water, the more likely the fish are to swim against it and to become meshed. The night is, therefore, with very rare exceptions, the time chosen for drift-fishing ; and it is noticed that just after sunset and just before sunrise, when the change is taking place from light to darkness, or the reverse, herrings especially are most likely to " strike " the net, as it is called. This is one point among many in connection with the habits of the herring which cannot at present be explained. A ripple on the surface of the water is also a favourable condition for fishing, and this will be readily understood ; for if the surface of the sea be at all broken, such, light as falls upon it, be it ever so little, is reflected or turned off by every little wave, and therefore does not penetrate to the nets so as to make them visible. During the last few years some very interesting observa- tions have been made on the coast of Scotland on the temperature of the sea whilst the herring-fishing has been going on, and its possible relation to a successful fishery. The late Marquess of Tweeddale, who was President of the Meteorological Society of Scotland, provided a number of deep-sea thermometers to be used by the fishery officers and the fishermen for the purpose of testing the tempera- ture of the sea at different periods of the fishery. The Committee who had charge of the experiments state that the conclusions arrived at so far must be considered as DRIFT-NET FISHING. 281 only provisional ; but they point to a high degree of tem- perature in the sea being unfavourable to fishing, and that when the sea is found to be colder in any one district than in that on either side of it, the herrings are more abundant, and the fishery is more successful in the colder than in the warmer water. They also state that the influence of thunderstorms has been perceptible in several years. If there is a thunderstorm of some magnitude extending over a large portion of the east of Scotland, good takes of fish may be made on that day, but on the following one few if any fish are caught over that part of the coast, unless at the extreme verge of a deep part of the sea, as if the fish were retreating thither. Observations on the influence of winds and the temperature of the sea have also been made by the Dutch fishermen ; and Herr von Freedon of Hamburg, Director of the German See- Warte, believes from an analysis of these observations that 57 degrees Fahrenheit is most favourable for the herring fishing, and that the chances of success diminish with higher and lower temperatures. These investigations are of great interest ; and although it is yet early to predict what they may lead to, there are so many problems to be solved in connection with the movements of wandering fishes like the herring, pilchard, mackerel and sprat, that any bit of distinct knowledge we may gain about their habits may help materially to guide us in subsequent inquiries. The nets used in drift-fishing or "driving," as the fishermen call it, are made either of cotton or hemp, the latter being generally known as " twine ; " some fishermen preferring the one material, some the other ; and it is not unusual for the two kinds to be placed alternately in the same train of nets. Not many years ago flax nets were 282 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. used on some parts of the Irish coast. Cotton nets are now in general use ; they are finer in the line and more flexible than those made of hemp, and they are generally believed to be more effective in meshing the fish. Very beautiful and ingenious machinery is employed in making these nets, as may be seen in the Exhibition, and large supplies for some years past have been turned out from the factories at Bridport, Musselburgh, and other towns. When new, cotton nets are first saturated with linseed oil, then squeezed through a machine, afterwards dried, which takes some days, and finally they are put into a vat, and hot bark liquor poured upon them ; in this they remain for two or three days. The bark liquor is a preparation in which catechu, an Indian gum possessing great tanning properties, is an important ingredient, it having practically superseded the oak bark formerly used for tanning nets. In some cases, however, the nets are dressed with coal tar instead of being barked. The herring-nets come from the factory in "pieces " 60 yards long and 9 or 10 yards deep, the depth of the net containing 200 meshes ; and it is the custom of the fishermen when speaking of the size of a net, to say that it is so many yards long and so many meshes deep. Each "piece" is divided into two nets 30 yards long. When a net is prepared for use, it is " mounted " or fastened along one edge of its length to a small line only 1 8 or 20 yards long, that length of line being appropriated to the 30 yards of net, so that the " lint," or netting, is set slack and gives way a little when the fish strike it ; and from its flexibility the net meshes the fish better than would be the case if it were fully stretched. The ends of the net are called the "heads," the roped edge of the length the " back," as that is uppermost when the net is in the water, and the lower edge the " foot " or " sole.* 1 The DRIFT-NET FISHING. 283 heads are roped as well as the back, but the foot is left free, so as to be less likely to hitch in anything at the bottom when the nets chance to be used in rather shoal water or near the ground. The back of the net is further fastened at intervals of a few inches by very short lines termed "nossels" or "norsals," to the cork-rope, a small double rope enclosing at various distances pieces of cork to keep that part of the net uppermost, but without suffi- cient buoyancy to float it at the surface. The number of nets used by each vessel depends very much on her size, and in the case of the Yarmouth luggers ranges from eighty to a hundred and thirty, or even more. These are fastened together end to end, and, thus united, form what is called, " a train, fleet, or drift of nets," frequently extend- ing to a distance of more than a mile and a quarter. The mesh of a new herring net is about an inch and a quarter square, equivalent to from 30 to 32 meshes to the yard ; but after long use and frequent barking or tarring, it becomes contracted to an inch, or even less, which is too small to catch the full-sized fish. Twine nets have been hitherto netted by hand, and for convenience in manufac- ture are usually made up of several narrow pieces called " deepings," which are laced together one below the other, there being three or four deepings in the depth of one of these nets. Twine nets are much heavier than those made of cotton, and consequently involve more labour in working them. There is very little doubt also that the compara- tive stiffness of the meshes prevents the fish being easily caught in them. On the other hand it has been said that the sharpness of the fine cotton mesh cuts into the neck of the fish, and tears off the head when the net is being hauled on board. The now general use of cotton nets shows, however, that the objection to them cannot be very serious. 284 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. We have mentioned that these drift-nets all have corks along the upper edge in order to keep that part of the net uppermost, at the same time with not sufficient buoyant power to float them. The reason for this last is that the herrings do not always keep at the surface or at the same distance below it. The nets have therefore to be sunk to various depths at different times, and it requires considerable experience in the fishery to enable the fishermen to judge of the most suitable depth on any particular night. The various conditions which guide the fishermen on this point would take up too much space to fully consider, but the result of their judgment in the matter is of the first importance, as it is a question of success or failure in the night's fishing. It is consequently the frequent practice of the fishermen to haul in the first of the nets, after they have been in the water for a time, to see in which part of the depth of the net most fish have been meshed, and to raise or lower the nets in the water as may seem most desirable. The nets are kept at the desired distance from the surface by means of buoys or small kegs, which for some reason are called "bowls," one of these being fastened by a long or short rope, as the case may be, to each net in the train, so that the nets can be allowed to sink to any reasonable distance that may be desired ; and in order to secure the nets from loss, in case they should be cut through by some passing vessel or steamer, a long warp or stout rope is used to which each net is made fast by what is called a " seizing " a small rope long enough to allow the warp to hang down considerably below the upper edge of the nets, and to take almost all the direct strain off the nets when they come to be hauled in. The fishing boats used in drift- fishing vary in size from those employed in the Yarmouth fishery decked vessels of 36 tons to the small open DRIFT-NET FISHING. 285 cobles on the Northumberland coast, and the number and size of the nets differ accordingly ; but they are all worked on the same system, and if we say a few words on the method adopted at Yarmouth it will no doubt be sufficient to enable the general mode of working to be understood. The time universally chosen for " shooting " or putting out the nets is just before sunset ; and the vessel having arrived in what the master has reason to think a likely place for fish a point about which there is generally some degree of specu- lation, she is put before the wind, and as she sails slowly along, the net is shot over the quarter, that is, over the side near the stern. Whilst this is going on the men are distri- buted at regular stations, some handing up the net from the net-room, others throwing it overboard and taking care that it falls in the right position, others, again, looking after the warp and seeing that the seizings, or ropes from the net, are made fast to it at their proper distances. Everything has to be done in the most methodical manner, or the net may become twisted, or something else may go wrong so as to spoil the night's fishing. When, however, all the net is in the water, and fifteen or twenty fathoms of extra warp, termed the " swing-rope " are paid out, the warp is carried from the stern to the bow of the vessel ; she is then brought round head to wind, the ordinary sails are taken in, the principal mast is lowered backwards until it can rest on a wooden crutch, and a small sail called the " drift-mizen " is set on the mizen mast so as to keep the vessel head to wind. The regulation lights one over the other, to show she is fishing are then hoisted, and part of the crew being told off as a watch upon deck, the vessel and nets are allowed to drift with the tide. As it is important that a strain should be kept on the nets so as to extend them, it will be understood why the 286 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. nets are shot in the direction in which the wind is blowing ; for the vessel being to leeward of the line of nets, and of course offering more resistance to the wind than they do, drifts more rapidly, and consequently pulls upon the warp and the nets fastened to it, and keeps them comparatively straight. This being the case a large number of fishing boats are enabled to work at short distances from one another, their nets being in nearly parallel lines. There is no advantage, however, in the vessel drifting with the wind so fast as to drag the train of nets through the water ; on the contrary, so long as the line of nets is kept tolerably straight, that is all that is wanted ; and when there is a good deal of wind so as to blow the vessel away, more swing-rope is allowed, the " spring " of the warp easing the strain on the nets. After the nets have been in the water a few hours, they are hauled in again, and this operation is performed in the same systematic manner as was mentioned in connection with shooting the nets. The men all have their regular stations, and a certain number of them work at the capstan by which the warp and with it the nets are hauled on board. As soon as the fish are all shaken out of the nets they are sprinkled with salt, and then stowed away in proper com- partments of the hold of the vessel. The night's fishing being over, the mast is got upright again, the sails are set, and the vessel either returns to port with her fish, or moves to another likely place for the next night's fishing. Drift-nets for mackerel are made and worked on pre- cisely the same principle ; but as these fish generally keep near the top of the water, the nets are well corked so as to make them float quite at the surface. They are not so deep as herring nets, but the train is very much longer, THE SEINE OR SEAN. 287 extending to as much as two miles and a half in length. The meshes are of course larger than those of a herring net, there being usually twenty-two or twenty-three meshes to the yard. Pilchard drift-nets, principally used on the coast of Cornwall for the pilchard is essentially a Cornish fish in this country are about the size of those used for herrings, but with a slightly smaller mesh ; in fact, shrunk herring nets are frequently used in the pilchard fishery when the meshes have become too small for their original purpose. Drift-nets are occasionally used in deep water estuaries for the purpose of catching salmon, but practically they are employed only in the open sea ; and a very large proportion of the enormous numbers of herrings, mackerel, and pilchards, which are annually caught around our coasts, are taken by mea ns of these nets. THE SEINE OR SEAN. The sweep-net, commonly known in this country as the seine or scan, is one of the oldest implements of fishing of which we have any record, for there is evidence of the seine or draw-net having been in use by some nations long before the Christian era ; and in the New Testament we read of fishing having been carried on by some of the men who afterwards became Apostles, in a manner which agrees entirely with our present mode of working the seine. It was well known to the Greeks and Romans, and in this country its history in Cornwall dates back so far that it is believed to have been introduced by the Phoenicians, who were accustomed to use this net, and who at a very remote period traded for tin and other things to that part of our country which is now known as Cornwall. Seines are 288 APPARA TUS FOR FISHING. worked on various parts of our coasts, and in rivers and other inland waters ; in fact, they may be used almost everywhere if there is a tolerably smooth bottom, and sufficient room to cast out the net in a sweep or semicircle, or it may be used at some little distance from the shore as a circle-net. For ordinary sea fishing seines may be divided into three classes, namely, the circle-net or seine, the tuck-seine, and the ground-seine. The two first are especially used in the Cornish pilchard fishery, and as that is of considerable importance, we will give some account of the nets employed in it. . We may first mention, however, that all these nets are used for surrounding or encircling the fish. They consist of a long train of netting varying considerably in dimensions, but are always of greater depth at the middle or " bunt " than at the ends, which are called the " wings " or " sleeves," and they are shot in a circle if the net is to be worked entirely from a boat, or in a semi- circle if it is to be hauled on shore. The back or upper edge of the net is buoyed up by corks to keep it at the surface, a point of great importance, as the net is princi- pally used for catching surface-swimming fishes, such as mackerel, herrings, and pilchards ; and the foot is weighted with lead to keep that part of it down, so that it may hang perpendicularly in the water. At St. Ives and a few other places on the Cornish coast pilchard-seining is carried on more or less every year, depending on whether the fish come into certain bays which, for many years past, have been so often visited by the shoals of fish that it has been worth while to keep a number of seines there in readiness for instant work when the fish make their appear- ance. Two, or sometimes three nets are employed there for enclosing a shoal of fish, or as much of it as can be managed at the time. The first or principal net, there THE SEINE OR SEAN. 289 called the " seine," is about two hundred fathoms long, and ten fathoms at its greatest depth ; to this another net of the same kind, called the " stop-seine," is fastened, and the two are shot together, each boat with its own net, starting from the same place, rather on the outside of the shoal of fish, if it be not very large, but moving in different directions, although with the intention of ultimately reuniting. It may be mentioned that men called " huers " are stationed on the hills surrounding the bay, and signal to the men in the boats the direction the fish are taking, the appearance of the water over the fish plainly showing to these men what their course is. The seine is at first carried along outside the shoal, parallel with the shore, and then brought round towards it, thus cutting off as large a portion of the shoal as the net will compass, whilst the stop-net, which is fastened to the other, is shot at a right angle to the large seine and towards the land, across the course of the fish, so as to stop them. If one stop-net is not long enough for the purpose, a second is joined to it, and the ends of this and of the large seine are gradually hauled towards each other on the shore side till they meet, and the fish are entirely surrounded. The circle is then gradually con- tracted by taking out the stop-nets, till the whole catch is enclosed within the single large seine, the ends of which are at once fastened together. The whole concern is then slowly hauled towards the shore, into some quiet part, out of the run of the tide, if possible, till the foot of the net touches the bottom, and there it is securely moored with anchors on every side, and the upper edge with extra buoys. The advantage of having the bunt or middle of the seine deeper than the wings will be obvious when it is remembered that if the foot of the net does not touch the ground all round, the fish may escape underneath ; and as VOL. L H. 290 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. the shore is always more or less shelving, a greater depth of netting is required for the deeper water. Such an enormous body of fish has been sometimes enclosed by one operation of the seine that it has taken a week to land them ; and even with more moderate captures two or three days may be required. It is necessary therefore in the first place to have the net and enclosed fish securely moored. The next operation is "tucking" the fish or taking them out of their net prison. This is done with the tuck-seine, a net only seventy or eighty fathoms long, but very deep at the bunt or middle. It is shot inside the circle formed by the large seine, and as the two ends are hauled into the boat the bunt is gathered up so as to bring it under the fish and raise them to the surface, when they are dipped out with large baskets and put into the boat to be taken on shore. The circle made by the large seine is gradually contracted as the fish are taken out until the whole catch has been landed, and the nets are then taken on shore. If the shoal of fish is apparently a small one, then perhaps only a single net may be used, and the enclosed fish are at once tucked into the boat. The seine when used in this manner in Scotland is called a circle-net, and seine-fishing in general is there spoken of as " trawling " an unfortunate expression which has led to great confusion among writers on the fisheries, as the so-called " herring-trawl " is entirely different in its con- struction and mode of working from those nets which in England and Ireland have always been properly called trawls. It is very difficult to induce fishermen to give up using a name they are accustomed to ; but if the Scotch fishermen alone, among the fishermen of the United Kingdom, cannot be persuaded to call a seine by its proper name, it would at least simplify matters and prevent THE SEINE OR SEAN. 291 confusion if, instead of calling it a "trawl," they would generally adopt the more intelligible name of "seine-trawl" for this net. The commonest form of seine is that usually known as the ground-seine or foot-seine, sometimes called a scringe- net. It is in very general use, for it can be worked without any difficulty, and even when of very small size may be the means of catching a fair variety and number of fish. The peculiarity in its working is that it is always hauled in on shore, and, that being the case, there is no necessity for the wings to be made of such fine netting as is desirable at the middle or bunt where the fish sooner or later collect, and the greatest pressure is felt. Each wing has an upright pole to which the ends of the upper and lower edges the back and the foot of the net are fastened, and to this pole a long drag-rope is attached for the purpose of hauling in the net. When the seine is to be shot the end of one of the drag-ropes is left on shore in charge of some of the fishermen, and the whole of the net with the rope at the other end is put into the seine-boat, which is then rowed out from the shore, and after shooting the net in a semicircle, returns with the second rope to the beach. The two ropes are then slowly hauled in, the two parties of fishermen, one at each rope, gradually approaching each other as the seine comes to land until at last they meet, and the bunt of the net in which all the fish are collected is then drawn on shore. As the ground-seine may be made of very moderate dimensions it is very convenient for amateurs who may not be able to muster hands enough to work a large net. It is therefore frequently used by yachting men in the harbours they are in the habit of visiting, and it can be easily worked, as we have said, wherever the bottom is tolerably smooth and there is a bit U 2 292 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. of beach on which the net can be landed. It is employed in precisely the same manner in fresh or brackish water for salmon fishing within the mouths of rivers. As might be expected from its antiquity, it is used in almost all parts of the world, and in some countries is made of such a large size as to occupy two hours or more in making a single haul. The ^casting-net is another very ancient implement of fishing, and although in this country it is little employed except in fresh water and for the purpose of catching small fish for bait, it is well known in many parts of the world, and we have often watched the native fisherman on the Ceylon coast advance almost waist-deep in the sea, and then throw his net into a heavy breaker as it curled over on the shore, and catch eight or ten fish of perhaps two or three pounds weight each of a kind that delights in those great rolling seas which month after month keep up a continuous roar on that stormy coast. The net is a circular one about sixteen feet in diameter, weighted with lead all round the margin, and it is thrown in such a manner that although, when ready for casting, it is held by the centre and the sides are all folded together, the act of casting, when skilfully done, spreads the weighted margin into a circle which covers a considerable space as it falls, and then the weights bring the edges together and are drawn close so as to secure whatever fish may have been covered by the fall of the net. In some nets the edges are brought together by means of a line ; but the native fisherman has no fear of wetting his skin he has little clothing on such occasions to think about and boldly faces the breakers, springing up as the sea threatens to take him off his feet and gathering in the net with his capture as if it were as in fact it is with him a most ordinary proceeding. SHRIMPING. 293 SHRIMPING. This kind of fishing is carried on either by hand-nets or some form of trawl. The hand or " shove-net " varies a little in shape on different parts of the coast, but it may be described generally as a large shallow semicircular or triangular net, extended in front by a light wooden scraper eight or ten feet long, into which a handle or pole of the same length is fixed at right angles. The net extends from the scraper to within two or three feet of the farther end of the pole, and generally has a pocket of netting below it at that part. This net the shrimper pushes or shoves before him as he walks through the shallow water over the sands where the shrimps abound, and he every now and then raises the scraper that the shrimps in the net may be thrown back into the pocket. On the Thames a net of quite a different construction is used, and is worked generally two at a time from large sailing boats. In general form the Thames shrimp-net resembles an ordinary trawl such as has been previously described, but instead of the under part being cut away in a curve, it is quite square with the front of the upper part, which has a light pole across it corresponding to the beam of the beam-trawl. This Thames shrimp-net consists, in fact, of a triangular purse-shaped net, like a trawl, the lower part of the mouth being fastened to a flat wooden scraper weighted with lead, and about ten feet long, instead of having a ground-rope ; and parallel to it, and supported by an upright stick a foot and a half long, fixed in the middle of it, is a pole six feet long, to which the upper side of the net is fastened, as in the beam-trawl, the pole and the scraper being kept square by ropes leading from the one to the other at their extremities. Trawl-heads 294 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. are not required here, as the upright stick keeps the mouth of the net open. The net itself is about twelve feet long and tapers rapidly to the cod-end. The meshes are necessarily very small in order to retain the shrimps, and are made of three sizes, ranging from half an inch square at the mouth of the net to a quarter of an inch at the small end. A simple but ingenious plan is adopted to prevent stones and small rubbish entering the net whilst it is being towed over the ground, and at the same time not to interfere with the capture of the shrimps. It is founded on the observed habit of these animals to rise a few inches from the ground when they are disturbed, and consists in leaving an open space of two or three inches between the lower edge of the mouth of the net and the beam or scraper to which it is fastened. Through this opening, sand, seaweed, and such small rubbish as is likely to be met with on the shrimping ground, easily pass, whilst the shrimps spring above the gap, and find their way into the net. A three-span bridle from the two ends of the lower beam or scraper and the top of the central stick is made fast to the warp by which this shrimp-net is towed. The shrimping boats are small-decked smacks about thirty-two feet over all ; they carry a good deal of lofty sail, and are no doubt familiar to all who are in the habit of visiting the mouth of the Thames, where, in the early part of the summer especially, a large fleet of shrimpers may generally be observed at work. Two and sometimes three of these nets are used by each boat, and they are kept down from a quarter of an hour to an hour at a time, depending on the wind and the extent of ground they have been over. The shrimps are sifted as soon as caught, and those of the size permitted to be landed under the regulations of the Thames Conservancy are at once put into the boat's well to be kept THE STOW-NET. 295 alive until they are taken on shore in the afternoon. They are then boiled and sent off by train from Leigh the great headquarters of the Thames shrimpers in time for the London market the next morning. Large quantities of shrimps are thus procured from the Thames, and as many as 2000 gallons are sometimes sent thence to market in one day. Prawns or " red shrimps " are also taken in some parts of the estuary of the Thames by means of small trawls of the ordinary construction ; but the prawns thus caught are usually small, and the fine large ones, which are sold by the dozen, instead of by the pint or quart, are taken in more rocky situations by means of hoop-nets which are set in suitable localities, and are baited with fish fastened to the centre of two cross lines on the hoop. Another contrivance for capturing these large prawns is a sort of cage of the same kind as is used for catching crabs, and which will be described presently. FIXED NETS. The nets we have now to notice, although of somewhat varied forms, possess this character in common, that they are fixed to one place, and are either secured by means of anchors, or are fastened to stakes driven into the ground. They are used in both the open sea and in estuaries or the mouths of rivers ; and being fixed, they must of course depend for their successful working on the fish finding their way into them, either by chance or by having their course directed towards them by the set of the tide or other means. The most remarkable of them is the gigantic bag- net known as THE STOW-NET. This enormous bag-net, exceeding in length the largest beam-trawl, is exclusively used for catching sprats. Num- 296 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. bers of these nets are employed every winter at the mouth of the Thames, in the Solent, and in the Wash on the east coast of England. The season for working them is from November to February, at which time the sprats make their appearance in countless myriads on certain parts of the coast, and nowhere more abundantly than at the entrance to the Thames. The net has the shape of a long, narrow funnel with a nearly square mouth, the opening or entrance being thirty feet from the upper to the lower part and about twenty-one feet wide. From this it tapers for a length of ninety feet to a diameter of five or six feet, and further diminishes to nearly half that size in the remaining part of the net, which is also about ninety feet long. The whole net is therefore about a hundred and eighty feet, or sixty yards in length. It is divided into several portions, the first being called the " quarters," as it is composed of four distinct pieces of netting corresponding to the four sides of the mouth ; the next portion is called the " enter," and forms the last part of the most funnel-shaped portion of the net. The remainder of the net, which tapers very gradually, is made up of from two to four divisions, the last one being called by the names of the " cod," " dock- hose," or "wash-hose," and the intermediate portion or portions the " sleeves ; " the number of sleeves inserted in the net depending very much on whether there is a pros- pect of the fish being abundant or otherwise. The meshes vary in size in different parts, diminishing from an inch and three-eighths near the mouth to from half to three-quarters of an inch at the smaller end, there being a slight enlarge- ment of the meshes in quite the last part of the net. The dimensions here given of a stow-net are those of such as are in general use, but they vary a good deal in size, and some are much smaller than others. The way in which THE STOW -NET. 297 the net is used is very simple. The boat or vessel small smacks which at certain seasons in the year are engaged in oyster-dredging are commonly employed in winter in what is called " stow-boating " takes up a position at the beginning of the tide where there are signs of fish, or in localities where the experience of previous years teaches the fishermen to look out for the shoals. She then anchors, and at the same time the net is put overboard, and takes its proper position at a certain depth immediately under the vessel. In order that this may be effectively managed, a rope is made fast by one end to the anchor of the fishing boat before it is dropped; the other end is fastened to four ropes leading each to one corner of the square mouth of the net, thus forming what is called a double bridle ; and to facilitate the mouth of the net being kept open when set in the water, two wooden spars or " balks " are fastened to the mouth of the net, one on the upper side of the square and the other at the foot. More than this, however, is necessary to keep the mouth pro- perly open, and this essential part of the arrangement is provided for by having a rope from each end of the upper balk to the corresponding side of the vessel, and by weighting the lower balk in order to sink it. When, therefore, the vessel has taken up her position for fishing, both vessel and net are moored by the same anchor, and the depth at which it is thought best for the net to remain is regulated by the ropes from the ends of the upper balk leading to each side of the vessel. The strain on this enormous bag-net by the force of the tide is often very great ; but the net, being held by the same anchor as holds the vessel, both keep in the same relative position, even if the combined strain on both should cause the anchor to drag. In this position then, the vessel and net remain till 298 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. the tide has nearly done, the sails being all taken down, and only one man left on deck as a watch to see when it is getting slack-water and to keep a general look-out. It will be understood from what has been said that while the vessel, and the net straining away under her, are thus anchored, the shoals of sprats are being brought with the tide to the mouth of the great funnel-shaped net, and, of course, myriads of them are carried into it, and by the constant pressure of the water are ultimately driven to its farthest end, from which there is no chance of their getting out until the net is taken up. As soon as the tide is becoming slack, shortly before turning, all hands prepare to haul up the net. The first thing to be done is to close the mouth of the net so as to prevent the possibility of any of the fish escaping. This is effected by means of a chain fastened to the middle of the lower balk at the foot of the square mouth, and leading through an iron loop at the middle of the upper balk upwards to a small davit at the bow of the vessel. By heaving in this chain the two balks are brought close together, and ultimately hoisted above the surface of the water under the vessel's bowsprit, the net with all the contained fish streaming away alongside and astern of the vessel. The net is then hauled on board by a long- handled iron hook, and overhauled till the cod or end of it is reached. This is then hoisted in by means of a rope which has been fastened to the end of the net all the time it has been in the water, and by which the extremity of the net has been kept closed. This rope having been cast off and the end of the net consequently opened, the sprats are turned out and measured into the vessel's hold, in quantities of about three bushels at a time, the master superintending the work, and using a kind of wooden hook, called a " mingle," to hold the net in such a manner that TRAMMELS GR SET-NETS. 299 only a certain quantity of fish shall pass out at once. In this way all the fish there may be in this long tube of netting, which the free end of the net really is, are worked through it into the vessel's hold. Often, when the sprats are very abundant, many tons of these fish are taken by one of these nets during a few hours. " Stow-boating," as this kind of fishing is called, is carried on both by day and night during the season ; and the quantity of sprats thus taken is so enormous as often to glut the markets, and then the surplus, consisting of hundreds of tons, are sold at very low prices to be used as manure. A smaller net of the same general character, but with a triangular instead of a square mouth, and called a trim-net, is used at the entrance of some small streams running into the Wash, and several kinds of small fish are there taken in it. A still smaller .net of the same description is used on the Thames for catching whitebait, which should be pretty well known now to be nothing but young herrings. Very small sprats are also often caught with them ; but when they are brought to table they all do duty as "whitebait." So difficult, however, is it to get rid of popular delusions that we will venture to prophesy that at any time within the next fifty years, or perhaps longer, the question as to what the whitebait is will be brought up and discussed in the newspapers with as much earnestness as if it were an entirely new problem, and treated in perfect ignorance of its having been shown that, after the most searching examination, no difference can be discovered between very young herrings and the most orthodox whitebait TRAMMELS OR SET-NETS. Although the nets we are now going to speak of agree in the special character of being anchored or set, there is 300 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. considerable variety in the size of their meshes and the purposes for which the nets themselves are used. The true trammel is a combination of three nets placed side by side, and its name is derived from the Latin tres macula?, signifying three meshes, represented by the French words trois mailles, having the same meaning ; from these comes the French compound tremail, or the modern word tramail, and the English word trammel has evidently the same origin. The trammel, then, is made up of three long nets placed side by side, and fastened together at the top or back, the foot, and ends. Each of the outer nets or " waitings " has a depth of five meshes ten inches square, and is forty or fifty fathoms long. These two wallings or outer nets are so mounted or arranged that the meshes of both exactly correspond in position, and a fish might pass through them as if they were a single net. The third net, however, is placed between the other two, and has meshes only two inches square ; but it is twice as long and as deep as the outer ones, the extra netting being gathered in at short intervals along the edges where the three nets are fastened together. The consequence is that there is a large quantity of slack netting between the two outer nets. The object of this will be shown presently ; but, thus prepared, the trammel is ready for use, and is set at the bottom with its length in the direction of the tide, never across it. It is anchored and buoyed at each end, the back or upper edge being well corked, and the foot weighted to keep the whole length in a proper position. Thus set, the trammel stands like a wall in the water, just the same as a drift-net, but fixed to one place at the bottom instead of moving along near the surface with the tide. The action of the trammel is quite peculiar among fishing nets. The outer nets or wallings stand with their meshes fully open TRAMMELS OR SET-NETS. 301 and exactly opposite each other, with the small-meshed net between them : and a fish, in trying to pass through the first one, meets the second, which is very slack, and carries a portion of it through the third net, thus producing a bag or pocket beyond it. The more the fish struggles in this bag the more it becomes " trammelled ; " and sometimes in its efforts to become free, it carries the pocket back through the adjoining large mesh, making its case still more hopeless. The advantage of a walling on each side of the slack net is twofold ; it obliges the fish to strike it just where it can be forced through the large mesh beyond it, and it makes the trammel equally effective if the fish strike it on one side or the other. It is very much used at Guernsey for catching the red mullet, for which that island is celebrated ; and many yachting men, in these days when so many people have a turn at sea-fishing on their own account, carry a trammel on-board-ship for use when they find a suitable locality for working it in. Professional fishermen in this country, however, do not very readily take to this particular kind of net. Set-nets of a more simple description, but in many places called trammels, are in general use for catching several kinds of fish. They are, however, only single nets, anchored and buoyed in the same manner as the true trammel ; but, whilst the back and foot of the net are kept tight, the body of netting is set rather slack, and the fish are caught in it by being meshed just as in a drift-net. Herrings, hake, turbot (on some parts of our eastern coast still called by the old name of " bratt "), and skate among unlikely fish are thus taken ; and under the name of " gill-nets," this particular kind of net has for the last few years been largely used instead of lines for the capture of cod by American fishermen. We hear, however, that rill-nets have caused some disappoint- 3 03 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. ment as they can be worked with advantage only at the season when the cod are found in shoals, and now a great number of these nets would be gladly disposed of by their owners, who are returning to their accustomed mode of fishing. Fixed salmon-nets may be more properly noticed farther on under the head of Traps. LINE-FISHING. We now come to what is probably the oldest known method of fishing, with perhaps the exception of some form of fish-spear, which, from the fact of spears being used by savage nations generally as one of the weapons of warfare, were no doubt readily adopted also for the purpose of striking at and killing such fish as passed within reach. Fish-hooks, however, of a very primitive character, and made either of bone or shell, were invariably among the curiosities brought home by the early exploring expeditions to the South Seas ; and so universal now is the use of the hook and line for fishing, that the manufacture of fish- hooks has become an important industry in many countries, and numerous varieties of shape, size, and material bear witness to what in some cases may be thought to be the fastidiousness of anglers and the attention that is being given to supply their wants. Line-fishing at sea is, how- ever, comparatively simple work, requiring but little of the skill so often needed for the more delicate operations in fresh water ; and although in many cases greater success undoubtedly attends the use of finer tackle and more varied baits than tradition and example have led most of the professional fishermen to adopt, a knowledge of the localities frequented by the different kinds of fish at the various seasons is generally the most important part of the LINE-FISHING. 303 fisherman's education. In one form or other line-fishing comes within the reach of all classes, and the scale on which it is worked by our sea-fishermen depends more on capital and locality than on any essential difference in the kind of gear or the manner of using it There are two principal methods by which our line fisheries in salt-water are carried on, namely, by long-lines and hand-lines. Both are very simple in their character, and a short account of each as practised on a large scale in this country will probably be sufficient for their explana- tion, as the general subject must be more or less familiar to all who have either visited or resided on the coast. The long-line, spilliard, spiller, bulter or trot, all of these names given to the same kind of line, according to locality, size, or the purpose for which it is used, is a very general means of fishing, as many kinds of valuable fish are caught by it, and any length that is convenient may be worked. It is extensively used far out in the North Sea and on the northern coasts of our islands, for the capture of cod, ling, holibut and haddocks, and some of these fish, especially cod and haddocks, when taken by hook and line, have a better appearance and command better prices in the market than when caught by the beam-trawl. In Scotland the haddock is highly esteemed, being regarded as one of their best fish, and these are all caught by the line. We may here mention, to prevent confusion, that the long-lines we are now speaking of are on the whole west coast of the North American continent called "trawls," the fact that the word " trawl " is the same as to " trail or drag along" being entirely lost sight of. As the long- line is anchored at both ends and at intervals along its course when in use, it is evident that no more unsuitable word than " trawl " could be applied to it. 304 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. The most important long-lining in this country is carried on from Grimsby by large smacks, which mostly fish for cod in the neighbourhood of the Doggerbank in the North Sea. These vessels carry from nine to eleven hands each, and remain at sea until they have a fair cargo of fish, which are kept alive as long as possible in a well built in the vessel. The construction of this well will be explained presently, and we will now say a few words about the long-line itself. A complete set of long-lines, as used in one of these vessels, consists of about fifteen dozen, or 180 lines forty fathoms in length, each supporting twenty-six hooks on smaller short lines called " snoods ; " these are fastened to the main line at a fathom and a half apart, that distance being sufficient to prevent the snoods fouling one another and the hooks becoming entangled. A "string" of this description, made up of the 180 lines all fastened together into one is 7,200 fathoms long, equal to more than seven nautical miles, or about eight ordinary ones, and has 4,680 hooks. The bait used on these lines is the common large whelk, which is an attractive bait for cod and ling, and from its toughness and substance is not so easily worked off the hook, as that more favourite bait with fishermen generally, the common mussel. The operation of baiting so many hooks of course takes up a good deal of time, and gives plenty of occupation to the numerous hands on board before this great length of line can be shot. Long-lining by these vessels is only carried on during the day, as light is wanted to enable the men to see what they are about when hauling in the line and taking off the fish. The lines are therefore shot about sunrise, or earlier if the weather is fine, and it is not very dark, and sometimes a second shot is made if there is time in the course of the LINE-FISHING. 305 day, but they are always hauled up before night. They are laid across the tide so that the snoods, or short lines to which the hooks are fastened, may drift clear of the main line. When a "shot" is to be made, the smack is put under easy sail, and kept as much as possible with the wind free, so as to lay out the line tolerably straight. In some parts of Scotland, however, the opposite course is adopted, the fishing boat being sailed against the wind when putting out the lines. In either case the line must be shot across the tide, and the local custom is not very material. With such a large number of hooks to deal with, of course great care is necessary to prevent entangle- ment, and accordingly the lines are neatly coiled, and with the baited hooks are laid in trays all ready for running, each tray containing from twelve to sixteen pieces of line, and they are paid out one after the other as the vessel sails along, until the whole length of line is overboard. No corks or floats of any kind are here used to raise it off the ground, but the line is kept steady at every forty fathoms by a very small anchor, and its position at the two ends and at every intermediate mile is marked by a conical hooped buoy or "dan," with a light pole or staff passed through it, and carrying a small flag at the top. The line is usually shot at half-tide, and when the operation has- been completed, the smack heaves to in the neighbourhood till the tide has nearly done running. Then the hauling up begins. The foresail of the smack is lowered, and the end buoy being taken on board, the vessel makes short tacks along the course of the line, which is shown by the buoys placed at every mile ; the line is hauled in as the vessel works along, and the fish are taken off the hooks as fast as they come in. . Sometimes the line is hauled into the smack's boat, which is about 1 8 feet long and very VOL. I. H. X 306 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. roomy ; and in this a watertight compartment is built, in which the fish are kept alive until the boat returns to the smack. But this plan can only be adopted in very fine weather, as the water far out in the North Sea is not often smooth enough for it to be carried out satisfactorily. As cod are not only the most valuable fish taken on these lines, but command a specially good price, everything is done to ensure their reaching the market in the finest possible condition, and this can be best accomplished by keeping them alive. They are accordingly placed in the vessel's well as soon as possible after being taken off the hook, having first undergone the operation of puncturing the air-bladder or "sound," which, apparently from the long struggles of the fish to get clear of the hook, becomes unusually inflated, and would often keep it floating in an unnatural position at the surface if it were put into the well in the condition in which it came off the hook. The use of welled vessels for keeping the cod alive was first tried in this country in 1712, at Harwich, a port for many years famous as the head-quarters of the home cod- fishery, and still used as a station, although Grimsby has in recent years become the great centre of the English cod supply. It is said that the idea of wells on board ship was 'taken from the Dutch fishermen, but it has long been adopted in this country with particular advantage to the cod fishers. " Welled smacks," as they are called, are specially constructed for the purpose, the well not being a large tank fitted into the vessel, but a part of the smack itself. Two strong watertight bulkheads or divisions are built entirely across the vessel from keelson to deck, enclosing a large space in the centre of the vessel ; this is the " well," and a constant supply and circulation of water direct from the sea is kept up through large auger holes bored in the LINE-FISHING. 307 bottom of the vessel at various distances below the water line. The entrance to the well is through a hatchway leading from the deck for a short distance downwards, where it opens in the " well-deck," which covers the whole upper part of the well except the opening just mentioned. The object of this lower deck, placed as it is a little above the water-line, is to keep the level of the water within certain limits when the smack is rolling about or pressed down under sail ; it also helps to prevent the water splash- ing up through the hatchway on the main deck. Cod are the principal fish put into the well ; and when they have been caught in only a moderate depth of water they thrive better than those taken at greater depths. There is some mortality, however, among the best of them, arising from their being knocked about in the well during bad weather. This cannot be altogether prevented when there are many fish on board ; but they are taken out at once and packed in ice, and each line-smack on returning to port generally has a number of such fish preserved in that manner, includ- ing also cod, ling, and haddock, which were not thought likely to live in the well when they were taken off the hook. It is no uncommon thing for a smack to return from the Dogger with from twenty to twenty-five score of fine live cod, besides perhaps two-thirds of that number of fish in ice. The season for long-lining is during the winter months, and the fishing is carried on from November to March or April, depending partly on what ground the smack is at work. The great enemy the cod-fishermen have is the dogfish, which at certain times, but fortunately not every year, commit great havoc among the cod which have become hooked. One case is recorded of nearly every fish on the line having been more or less eaten by the X 2 308 ; APPARATUS FOR FISHlfrG. "dogs," and the smack returned to harbour with her rigging covered with skeletons. Of six and a half score of cod on the line only six fish were found alive. The clearer the water the more danger there is from dogfish, as the cod can then be seen at some distance when struggling on the hook, and once having attracted attention there is little hope of escaping their enemies. We have so far spoken only of the manner in which the cod are caught, but a few words on their treatment when they are brought into port may be of interest When the smacks arrive at Grimsby with their cargoes of live and dead fish, the cod are taken out of the wells by means of long-handled landing nets, and are placed in wooden boxes or chests, which are kept floating in the fish- dock ; and there the fish are stored till they are wanted for the market. Each chest is seven feet long, four feet wide, and two feet deep ; the bottom is made of stout battens a short distance apart to allow free admission to the water, which also has access through the sides and ends between the planks of which they are constructed. The top is wholly planked over except in the centre, where there is an oblong opening for putting in and taking out the fish, and which is closed by a cover when the chest is afloat and in use. Two rope or chain handles are fixed at the ends of the chest for convenience in moving it about and hoisting it up from the water. These chests will each hold forty good-sized cod, or a proportionately larger number of smaller ones, and the fish do not show any material loss of condition if they are thus imprisoned for about a fortnight. As many as from 15,000 to 20,000 live cod are sometimes stored at one time in the Grimsby fish-dock. But the time comes when the fish are wanted for the market, and must be taken out of the chests and sent away by rail. This happens every day LINE-FISHtfrO. 309 during the cod season from some of the stores, and then a remarkable scene takes place, and one peculiar to Grimsby and Harwich the latter being also a storing place for live cod. A chest of fish is towed alongside an old hulk kept for the purpose close to the quay of the fish-market, and is hoisted just out of the water, which drains through the bottom of the box and leaves the fish dry. The cover is then taken off, and a man gets into the opening and takes out the fish, seizing them by the head and tail. The commotion amongst perhaps forty or fifty cod just out of the water is of course very great, and it is often no easy matter to get a firm hold of them ; but, one after another, they are lifted out and thrown upon the deck of the hulk, where they are taken in hand by another man who per- forms the duties of executioner ; he grasps the fish tightly behind the head with his left hand, holds it firmly on the deck, and giving two or three heavy blows on the nose with a short bludgeon, kills it at once. It is sometimes a difficult thing to hold a large and lively fish by one hand, but the work is generally skilfully performed, and the dead fish rapidly accumulate into a large heap, whence they are taken on shore to be packed in bulk in the railway trucks waiting close by to receive them. Each truck will hold about twelve score of good-sized fish, and they are sent off so as to arrive at Billingsgate for the market the next morning. Such fish are known in the trade as " live cod," and command the best prices. Long-lines are used on various parts of our coasts for catching several kinds of fish, and in parts of Scotland the deep-sea lines are known as " great-lines " as distinguished from the smaller ones employed nearer the land for catching haddocks. In the Shetlands long-lines are used entirely for the important home fishery for ling and tusk, 3io APPARATUS FOR FISHING. the latter a northern species of the cod family intermediate in shape between the ling and the cod, but very much smaller than either of them. The boats used by the Shetlanders are the famous Norway skiffs, in almost every respect the same as whale-boats ; they are about twenty- eight feet over all, and eight feet beam, and, wonderfully handled as they are by their crew of six men, they face a good deal of bad weather and go long distances from land. They are called "haaf" or deep-sea boats. Hand-line fishing is carried on almost everywhere around our coasts, and with every variety of tackle, according to the kind of fish worked for. Cod-fishing by hand-line in the North Sea commences in July and is carried on till near the end of October, when the fishermen prepare for the winter fishery by long-line already noticed. The same smacks are used for both, but hand-lining is worked only a few miles from the coast, as the cod come inshore after the herrings, which at that time are making towards the land. The gear employed is a stout line 45 fathoms in length, fastened to a long leaden sinker of from Sj to 7 pounds weight, with a strong iron wire called the " sprawl-wire " fixed in it near the top at right angles to the body of the lead and slightly curved downwards at the ends ; to each of these a snood of smaller line six feet long is fastened, and supports a large cod-hook twice the size of those used on the long-line, as with these hand-lines nothing but cod is generally taken, whereas on the others haddock and other smaller fish are caught, and themselves often serve as living bait to attract the cod. The hook on these large hand-lines is often fastened to the snood by means of a bunch of open strands of soft twine about three inches long, so that the fish cannot bite through the line, the teeth passing between the strands without injuring them. Whilst LINE-FISHING, 3 1 1 hand-line fishing the vessel is hove-to, and each of the crew works one line, keeping the baits a few inches from the bottom, unless the herrings are about, as then the cod come nearer the surface, and it is often only necessary to allow one or two fathoms of line. It is found that the fish do not bite very freely during a great part of the day, so that it is not necessary for everyone to be at work till towards sunset ; then all hands are kept fully employed. The cod are put into the well as soon as caught, just as in the case of long-lining. In the Channel, and especially on the Devonshire coast, there is an important fishery for whiting during the summer months, and this is carried on entirely with hand-lines, but with smaller lines and hooks, and with leads varying in weight according to the strength of the tides. In whiting-fishing the boats come to anchor, and the fishing is begun at some few miles from the land, the fish coming closer in as the summer advances. On the other hand, mackerel-fishing is, as a rule, carried on when the boat is moving well through the water ; lines with boat-shaped or short pear-shaped leads being towed after her. When a light lead is used from a rowing boat, the method of fishing is called " whining," and working witty a heavier lead from a sailing boat " railing " ; but practically there is little difference but the weight of the lead between the two modes of fishing. In the west of England it is the practice with the fishermen in the small sailing boats they work in to have a pole piojecting on each side of the boat and to these the lines are fastened, an in-haul to each enabling the line to be brought on board. With these contrivances the lines can be more spread and an additional number used. Another mode of line-fishing is by a plan perhaps better known in freshwater fishing than in the sea. The line is properly called a " paternoster," and has a 312 A PPARA TUS FOR FISHING. leaden sinker or plummet of varying weight according to the kind of fishing to be done. On some parts of the Scotch coast this line is called a "dandy-line" or "jigger," and has a weight of four pounds at the end, whilst above it, at intervals of eight inches, pieces of whalebone or wire nine inches long are fastened across the line, having at each end a short bit of fine line supporting a bright tinned hook. Eight or ten of these spreaders are thus fastened at the middle to the line, and the whole apparatus is lowered to the bottom and then gently moved up and down. In this case no bait is used, the bright hook proving a sufficient attraction to the herrings for the capture of which it is employed. It is, however, not in very general use for this purpose. When used for fishing in fresh water the pater- noster is made of a few feet of gut-line with a small lead at the end, and short pieces of gut fastened at intervals to the line in such a manner as to stand out clear of it. The hooks are at the end of these short pieces, and in perch- fishing, for which it is chiefly used, live minnows are employed as bait. The apparatus is worked with a short rod, and in much the same manner as its coarser repre- sentative, the dandy-line. Cross-lining is a mode of fishing carried on in rivers by means of a line fitted with a number of hooks on short pieces of gut fastened at intervals along it, the bait used being the artificial fly of some kind. It is on the same principle as the long-line used in salt water ; but in this case the line is extended and worked by two rods from boats on opposite sides of the river, and of course at or near the surface. The same kind of fishing is managed by a person on one bank of the river by means of an otter-board at the other end of the line, and which, by its peculiar action, as described in our account of the otter-trawl, keeps the line extended as the fisherman LINE-FISHING. 313 walks along the bank up-stream. Both these methods are considered as rather poaching devices, but they are too well-known for this short notice of them to increase their employment. The various other and more recognised methods of fishing with rod and line in fresh water would require more space than we have at our command to give even an intelligible sketch of ; for it may be fairly said that from fly-fishing for trout and salmon to the humble yet lively sport of gudgeon-fishing, there are niceties in rods and tackle, and in the ways of using them that can only be properly understood after plenty of practical instruction and experience. Angling, as we said at the beginning of these pages, is mainly connected with sport and amuse- ment ; and the large and varied exhibition here of rods, lines, arrangements of hooks, winches, and artificial baits of different kinds, tells plainly that the sport in its true sense means the exercise of such skill in the gentle art as can usually be acquired only by years of practice. Baits. In sea-fishing the variety of baits used is by no means so great as might be supposed. In the North Sea cod fishery of which we have spoken, the principal bait in request is the common whelk or " buckle," and so great is the demand for them that several small craft from Grimsby are regularly employed in procuring them. The mode of catching them there adopted is by shallow hoop-nets baited with refuse fish, and sunk to the bottom in likely places. In these hoop-nets, the top of which is partly covered with netting, the whelks collect in large numbers, and are caught without difficulty. Another more elaborate method is that called " trotting." The trot is only another name for a long-line of small dimensions ; but instead of having baited hooks, common green shore-crabs are threaded on the snoods or short pieces of line, about 314 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. twenty on each snood, and the whelks, which are carnivo- rous in their habits, seize and keep as firm hold whilst devouring the crabs, as if they were hooked, and when the line is hauled up the snoods are found covered with whelks. This fishing for whelks, besides contributing so largely to the capture of cod and other fish, results in the diminution of one of the most inveterate enemies of the oyster and mussel, and thus performs a double service. The bait, however, of all others the most in request for general fishing, is the common mussel ; but it requires some care in putting it on the hook to make sure of its remaining there ; it is therefore generally used when the fishing boat is at anchor, or when the line itself is fixed. For this reason also it is frequently employed on long-lines, and in such cases may attract good-sized fish, or if only small ones, the latter may themselves become converted into living bait for their larger brethren. It is a curious circumstance that the two baits which appear to be specially attractive to fish are to be found in the mussel and the whelk animals which are naturally so well protected by their shells that they can rarely become the prey of cod and other kinds of fish. Of baits made of portions of fish there is not a great variety in use. Pilchards in the west of England are often used as bait for whiting, and prove attractive to several other kinds of fish. For mackerel of course everyone who has had an opportunity of fishing for them is familiar with the " lask " or slip cut from near the tail of that fish, and so excellent a bait. Its attractiveness is evidently due to its resemblance to a small silvery fish glistening in its passage through the water. A mackerel strikes across the line of the bait, hence anything that readily catches the light and attracts attention, even for a moment, is likely to be effective. There is no other explanation of the success FISH-TRAPS. 315 which so often attends the employment of an old sixpence or a bit of the white stem of an ordinary pipe as a bait on a mackerel hook. Sand worms of more than one kind are in favour, especially for pollack, and for various kinds of fish no bait is more attractive than the living sand-eel. This little silvery fish is the favourite bait, living or dead, with the fishermen at Guernsey, and is coming into use on parts of our own coast. Among other attractions offered to the fish which frequent our coasts are the tail of the hermit or soldier-crab, and squid or cuttle-fish, the latter used in many parts of the world, and valuable on account of its toughness. In recent years many artificial baits for sea-fishing have been invented, all of them intended more or less as imitations of such natural baits as have proved to be generally attractive. The same principle applies to the multitude of artificial flies and other imitations used in freshwater-fishing, but we believe the original of the gaudy salmon-fly has still to be discovered. The use of artificial baits is, however, by no means confined to this country, and we have often successfully fished on the coasts of Ceylon, with an extraordinary combination of cocoa-nut and fibrous bark tied on the roughest description of hook ; and this bait, in supposed imitation of a flying-fish, is the one in general use there for catching the seir-fish a very large species of the mackerel tribe, and one of the best fishes for the table which are met with in the Indian seas. FISH-TRAPS. Some account having been given of the largest and most important methods of fishing, we propose now to say a few words about those kinds which hold a less conspicuous position, although in the aggregate contributing a fair proportion to the market supply of food, and giving 316 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. occupation to a great variety of people. So many of the contrivances used in the smaller fisheries have so essentially the character of " traps ; " in other words, forms of apparatus from which escape is so difficult, that practically it becomes almost impossible when once the fish or other object of capture has entered them, that the heading we have chosen for them has the advantage of being both suitable and comprehensive. Conspicuous among them are those arrangements of salmon-nets which are included among what are known as "fixed engines." The principle of their construction has a very wide application, and, in some form or other, may be recognised in almost all parts of the world. The plan on which they are arranged is such as to direct the fish into a partially enclosed space, having a wide entrance at one end and a narrow exit at the other ; this exit from one enclosure forms the entrance to another, which has a still narrower opening into a third, from which there is no means of escape except by returning through the narrow entrance. In some modified forms there is only a single enclosure, and as an illustration of this we may take the stake-net. It consists of a long line of netting fastened to stakes driven into the shore between tide-marks ; this is called the " leader," and terminates at the lower end at the entrance to a broad enclosure, into which the " leader " turns the fish. The two sides of the entrance do not terminate abruptly, but are curved inwards and form a kind of labyrinth from which the fish can hardly escape. The " kettle-net," used for catching mackerel on some parts of our south coast, is of this description, excepting that the enclosure or "pound" is quite simple, and the escape of the fish is cut off by the falling tide. A more elaborate net for salmon-fishing, and known as a " fly-net," is of an oblong shape, broader at the entrance than at the FISH-TRAPS. 317 outer end, and having wings of netting fastened inside the mouth, one on each side, and making a kind of flat funnel- shaped entrance. The fish pass through this opening into the body of the net, which is covered above and below, and after a distance of some few feet, a second pair of wings is arranged in the same manner as the first, but with a narrower opening, through which the fish pass to the next enclosure, where a still narrower space between a third pair of wings leads to the final enclosure where the salmon are practically entrapped. This fly-net is kept in position by means of stakes at the sides and ends, and the leader is placed as with the stake-net ; in fact, some stake- nets are just the same as the fly-net except in not being covered with netting above and below. Both are placed between tide-marks. Another salmon-net which is much used and known as a " bag-net," is exactly like a fly-net in its construction, but is a floating one instead of being on the ground. It is moored to stakes like the other, but with more freedom of motion within certain limits. The bag-net itself is set below low-water mark, the leader extending from it to high-water mark. The "snap-net" is another contrivarice for catching salmon, but not so strictly a trap as those, just noticed. It is worked with two boats, each containing a couple of men, who hold the ends of a straight piece of net of moderate length and depth, which hangs in the water between the boats as they drift down the river, one man in each boat holding the head of the net, and the other the foot. When a salmon strikes the net in running up-stream it is immediately felt by the net-holders, the foot of the net is raised and the fish is secured. A different class of fishing apparatus includes the various contrivances which come under the name of weirs. Their construction depends to some extent on the locality in which they are 3 i8 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. placed. On some parts of the coast, where a considerable extent of sand is laid bare at low-water, the weir consists of a wattled fence so placed as to form a number of zig- zags along the line of beach, the lower angles of the weir being just at low-water mark. In one we had an oppor- tunity of inspecting, each arm of a zigzag was about two- hundred yards long, and at the low-water angle a conical wicker-basket with a mouse-trap entrance was firmly fixed at the place where the two arms or fences almost met. The manner in which such a weir works is very simple. At high-water the whole weir is covered by the water, and fish may in some cases enter it above the fence, but as there is nothing to prevent fish from passing round the two ends of the long zigzag weir, no doubt many of those which are caught enter in that direction, and swimming along between the weir and the shore, find their way into the V shaped enclosures, from which, as the tide ebbs and the top of the fence appears above water, they cannot make their escape. Ultimately many of the fish make their way into the wicker-baskets we have mentioned. The fishing-weir used in a salmon-river is of a different kind, although the principle is much the same. Two substantial arms of stone are built in a sloping direction down-stream, one from each bank, but one of the arms is usually much longer than the other, so as to direct the fish towards one side of the river. Between the ends of these arms a series of "cruives" or " cribs " is constructed by means of which all the fish which come down the river may have a good chance of being caught unless they pass through an opening in the centre which is always clear and is called the Queen's Gap. A line of cruives has some resemblance to a battlemented wall, being composed of a long solid mass of masonry a few feet in breadth, having gaps at regular distances along CRAB AND LOBSTER POTS, 319 the line. These openings form effective traps. The lower end of each gap has an upright grating to allow the water to pass through, but to stop any fish that may enter, and the upper end or entrance has two swing transverse gratings or " gills " which can be placed at any angle with each other, so as to regulate the width of the entrance, and which interlock when closed. The shutting of these gratings of course closes the cruive, and the fish which may be inside are then taken out with a landing net. The ingenuity of man has devised a great variety of contrivances for catching salmon, and the names by which many of them are known vary according to the locality in which they are used, but they all come within State regulation as to seasons or in some cases even the numbers that may be worked Lastly, we may shortly notice those traps which are made of basket- work. It is only on the Severn that the contrivances called " putts " and " putchers " are used, and they are long conical baskets with a mouse-trap entrance a short distance inside. Putchers are only small putts. The latter are fastened down in rows with their mouths facing the stream ; and putchers are commonly fixed in a wattled fence, technically called a " hedge," each alternate putcher having its mouth in an opposite direction. Eel bucks and lampern wheels are constructed on the same principle, and work in precisely the same manner. CRAB AND LOBSTER POTS. There is one great principle adopted in almost all, methods that are in use for catching crabs and lobsters and that is the one familiar to everybody in the common mouse-trap. The entrance to the trap, for such it must properly be called, is funnel-shaped, that is, the external opening is a comparatively wide one, and the passage into 3 2o APPARATUS FOR FISHING. the trap terminates in a much narrower opening projecting into the interior. It is what is commonly understood as a mouse-trap entrance. The shape of the trap varies on different parts of our coasts, but the peculiar form of entrance is adopted not only by our own fishermen generally, but by those who are engaged in the same kind of fishing in other parts of the world, and in very many cases it is applied to nets for true fish of different sorts as well as to the ordinary kinds of Crustacea. In the west of England the form of trap in universal use is the flattened hemispherical contrivance made of basket-work, commonly known as a " pot." The mouse-trap entrance to this is at the top, and the bottom is weighted with stones in- side to ensure the pot falling in the right position when it is thrown overboard. The crabs and lobsters are attracted by the smell of the bait usually some kind offish and crawl down the funnel-shaped entrance at the top, but having once made their way through the funnel and got into the pot, they seem unable to find the inwardly projecting end of the entrance tube, and so cannot escape. Several of these crab-pots are worked together, all being fastened to the same rope, but at some little distance apart ; and when they are all sunk to the bottom, the end of the rope, with plenty of slack in it to allow for the rise of tide, is kept afloat by means of corks, and thus the pots can be readily discovered and hauled up several hours after they have been set and left by the fishermen. There is, we believe, a heavy penalty incurred by any unauthorised person who hauls up crab or lobster pots. This is a necessary protection, as the pots must be left to take care of themselves for many hours at a time. The apparatus used on a very large part of our coast for catching crabs and lobsters is of quite a different form and construction CRAB AND LOBSTER POTS. 321 from that just mentioned, and consists of an oblong cage rounded over the top and made up of a slight wooden frame covered with netting, the bottom being of wood and of a substantial character, although composed of battens or narrow pieces of wood nailed across the lower frame. The usual mouse -trap entrances are made either in the sides or ends of the cage, the funnel being kept in shape by cane or cord supports. These cages are in most places known as "creels," and they are baited, weighted, and set in just the same manner as has been described in the case of the west country pot. Amateur sea-fishing is now almost unlimited in its scope, and although drift-fishing is still entirely in the hands of professional fishermen, there is hardly any other kind to which yachting men do not give some atten- tion, and crab and lobster fishing has not escaped their notice. One excellent result from this is a vast improvement in creels, although from the greater first cost of the apparatus there is an impediment to their general use by fishermen. The improvement consists simply in having the creels made entirely of zinc or galvanized iron, and wire netting is used instead of that usually made of hemp. These creels always keep in good order, and, notwithstanding the usual prejudice against any alteration from established methods, prove very successful in working. Lastly, we may mention what is called a " trunk," which is simply a ring of iron about two feet across with a shallow bag-net fastened to it below. This is much the same as the hoop-net for large prawns, but with a very much shallower net. It is said that much finer lobsters are caught by the trunk than by the creel, there being of course some limit to the size of the lobsters and crabs which can enter the latter kind of trap, whereas the trunk being entirely open anything that chances to come within the breadth of the iron ring may be VOL. I. H. Y 322 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. caught. But there is an objection to the use of the trunk, inasmuch as it requires some little skill, there being nothing to prevent the escape of the lobster if it should take alarm when the trunk is being hauled up, and the greatest care is necessary just when the trunk is being lifted out of the water, as then the lobster is especially liable to spring backwards and escape. We were once told by an old trunk-fisher that a tailor might work a creel, but it wanted a fisherman to manage a trunk. It is only in parts of the East coast of England that we have seen or heard of trunks being used. OYSTER DREDGES. The special instrument used for collecting oysters is the well-known dredge, which has everywhere much the same shape, but differs somewhat in size, as may be seen in the examples exhibited, according to whether it is to be worked from an ordinary rowing boat, or by the small vessels which dredge in comparatively deep water. It consists of an oblong iron frame a few inches wide and having one side, which comes on the ground, flattened and turned forwards at such an angle as to enable it to scrape the surface of the bottom without absolutely tearing it up. The body of the dredge consists of a flat bag, the under part of which is made of iron rings two and a half or three inches in diameter and looped together with strong wire. There is some variation in the construction of this iron network, as may be observed in the Exhibition ; but the principle is the same in all that of providing a strong under surface to the bag, capable of passing over rough ground without liability to injury, and with openings in it large enough to permit the escape of any but fair-sized oysters. The upper surface of the bag is made of stout hemp netting, HARPOONS. 323 and the iron frame, before spoken of, has the mouth of the bag laced to it and forms its mouth. The handle of the dredge is made up of two stout iron rods firmly welded to the narrow ends of the frame, and joined together at a distance of three feet or more, according to the size of the dredge, and at this point of junction the rope by which the dredge is towed is made fast. The free end of the bag is usually fastened to a stout piece of wood which, placed across it, gives a convenient hold when the contents of the dredge are to be shaken out. Very little skill is required for working the dredge, but some care must be taken to ensure its falling on the ground with the scraper underneath, or it will not work. This difficulty has been got over in the improved dredges, first used by naturalists, by putting a scraper on both sides of the mouth, but such a plan is not so well adapted to the large oyster dredges in use in deep water, as the double scraper, fitted for working properly on whichever side it falls, requires the whole bag to be made of iron ring-net, and adds much to the labour of handling it. From one to six dredges are used at once according to the size and power of the boat. The quantity of tow-rope allowed to the dredge is such as may be necessary, according to the depth of water, to keep the scraper at the proper angle for working over the ground. HARPOONS. Although whales do not properly come under the head of "fish," being warm-blooded, air-breathing mammals, they are so commonly spoken of under that name, and their pursuit is so entirely a sea-going business, that a short notice of the instruments used in their capture may be expected. The narratives of Scoresby and others have Y 2 324 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. made us all more or less familiar with the dangers and difficulties attendant on whaling, one of the most serious arising from the necessity for the very close approach of the harpooner to the whale, so as to allow of the harpoon being thrown by him with sufficient force to obtain a good hold in the animal. Having secured this object, the next is to kill the whale as quickly as possible. The hand harpoon of the original form with a simple arrow-head was for a great number of years the only one in use by the different nations which devoted themselves to any extent to whaling, but such an instrument may now be considered obsolete, its place having been taken either by hand harpoons with barbs which are closed in when the harpoon is thrown, and projected as soon as there is a backward strain upon them, or by harpoons or darts fired from a gun, and containing very commonly some kind of explosive substance. Harpoon-guns are of a comparatively ancient date, and their merit consisted only in the force with which they propelled the dart, there being always a difficulty, not yet entirely overcome, in properly directing the course of the harpoon owing to the weight of the rope attached to it. A long series of ^improvements made in both the United States and England has resulted in bringing the gun and the harpoon to great perfection ; and the large interest that America for many years past has had in whaling has naturally led to the production in that country of many of the most valuable improvements which have been made. The guns employed are of two kinds those fired from the shoulder, and swivel guns. The former are mostly used, and the breech-loading principle for the explosive is now applied to them. The harpoon or dart is of course inserted at the muzzle of the gun. Having " fastened " to a whale with the harpoon, the next HARPOONS. 325 thing is to kill the animal as speedily as possible, and this is accomplished by means of what is called a bomb-lance, which is fired from a shoulder-gun, the discharge of which ignites a time-fuse communicating with the powder within the lance and bursting it inside the animal. Such then are the modern means employed in the capture of the largest inhabitants of the ocean ; and it will be evident that with such " apparatus for fishing " as we have now briefly noticed, the chance of the whale's escape when once he has been found has been most materially lessened. In the foregoing sketch of the principal methods of fishing in use, we have been enabled to describe somewhat fully those which are most important and productive in consequence of their being largely carried on in our own waters, as well as elsewhere. The descriptions have been based therefore chiefly on our own ways of fishing. Every country, however, which includes either sea or freshwater fisheries amongst its industries has to some extent national, and, more frequently, local, peculiarities in its mode of working them. But although differences of detail may be found in the construction, dimensions, and fitting up of the nets, lines, and other fishing appliances, not only of foreign countries, but also of our own, the same general principles of working will be recognised in the fishing gear employed throughout the world. One particular method may have special importance in one country, and a different kind may predominate in another ; but each is carried on practically in the same manner in whatever seas it may be worked. Methods of fishing new to fishermen generally can hardly be looked for ; but there is probably no kind of fishing gear which is not capable of some improvement either in material, fitting, or some other point. It is only in recent 326 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. years that cotton has been advantageously substituted for hemp in the manufacture of drift-nets ; and the special object of bringing together in the present International Fisheries Exhibition the fishing appliances of all nations is that they may be examined and compared, like with like, so that the people of each country generally interested in the success of its fisheries may see how others are working, and have an opportunity of studying the different plans adopted for the effective use of the gear they are them- selves most concerned with. Nowhere in the world are all the most important methods of fishing in more general use than on the coasts of Western Europe ; our own seas especially abound in various kinds of valuable fish ; and no persons have a greater interest in making themselves acquainted with improvements in fishing apparatus than those who depend for their livelihood on the important fisheries around the British Islands. ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN A HARD-WORKING DIET WITH NOTES ON THE USE OF FISH IN FORMER TIMES W. STEPHEN MITCHELL, M.A. (CANTAB.) " Explanation follows impulse." " If their money spent in food were laid out to the best account, and if they were able to cook the food in the most useful manner, without waste, their incomes would go a long way further in preserving them in health." Front Dr. G. BUCHANAN'S " Report on Health of Operatives." Parliamentary Papers, 1863, xxv. p. 309. CONTENTS. SECTION I. PAGE The present way of regarding the values of fish as food is explained. This includes a brief account of the chemical investigations of foods generally, in order that the principal considerations in their particular application to fish may be understood in their relative importance. Introductory ........ 331 Present way of studying food values .... 346 Tables of daily outgoings and therefore of intakes . 352 Sources of supply of intakes . . . . . 355 Fish analysis ........ 362 Probable use of fish in a " hard-working " diet . . 366 The application of these considerations in relation to cost 367 Recapitulation ........ 372 SECTION II. References are made to the monumental and written records of the use of fish among the Egyptians, Hebrews, Assyrians, and Babylonians . . . . . . 375 A few references are given to allusions of the use of fish by Greek and Roman writers . . . . . . 378 Some travellers' notices are summarised or quoted, showing how much more largely fish is used in some countries than it is in Europe at the present time . . . . 382 Some particulars are given of the use of fish in this country in former times. These include a. Historical notices ....... 384 b. Opinions as to the effects of the use of different kinds of fish ......... 423 APPENDIX. There are added details and notes which it has been thought advisable to keep clear from the body of the work . . 439 %* There also are appended tables in illustration of the text and a bibliographical list. PREFACE. THERE is an old anecdote told of a clergyman who used, after writing his Sunday sermon, to read it through to his cook, feeling sure that if she could understand it his congregation would. Having considerable doubts as to whether the parts of this book which refer to the amounts of Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen in foods would be understood, I have read them to many whom I have taken to be fair types of the intelligence of the kind of readers I have had mostly, though not solely in view the well-informed artizans who use public libraries, and their wives to whom they retail what they have read. The result of these various interviews has been that I have received many sugges- tions to put in fuller explanations in one place, to leave them out in another, because " everybody knows it," to mention where Carbon and Hydrogen and Nitrogen can be seen as it is, " no use talking to people about things they cannot see," or not to trouble about chemistry at all, but to tell people how to get cheap fish and explain how to get over little domestic difficulties about fire- places and hobs and frying-pans I had never dreamt of. I have realized the beauty of the old Greek fable of the man and his sons and his donkey, far more vividly than I ever did as a schoolboy. Though I find there are still parts which to some are not clear, I fear I must let the book go as it is. 330 PLACE OF FISH IN A HARD-WORKING DIET. It is no new experience that you can explain things better by showing them than by writing about them, and where I have been allowed to burn candle ends, collect Carbon on clean plates, mess tumblers by blowing into lime water, dirt shovels with sulphur, make candles of fat and do such other things as are described in pp. 341 to 346, everything has seemed intelligible. To those who are young enough not to resent a word of advice, I would say, do the simple experiments men- tioned before attempting to read the book through. It will save the time of those who already have acquaintance with the chemistry of foods to commence at page 3 5 5. I respectfully commend p. 366 to the consideration of those who have the management of public dietaries. ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN A HARD-WORKING DIET. THE astonishment of Moliere's much -quoted M. Jourdain in ' Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme,' on learning that " prose," of which he so wanted to know the mean- ing, was what he had been talking all his life, might We live on Carbon, probably find a parallel in the minds of many people, Hydrogen, if, on asking what Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen Nitrogen, mean, they for the first time learnt they had been living on them all their lives that though we find them doing many other things in the world besides being our food, our bodies are to a large extent made up of them and that it is the union of them in our bodies with the Oxygen we breathe that gives us the power to do any work at all, that keeps up our warmth, maintains our circulation, and performs other functions essential to our animal life. If they further learned how close seems to be the And the amounts of connection between the power to do hard work of them we re- quire vary different degrees and the proportions of Carbon, with the Hydrogen, and Nitrogen taken in food, and that Jo r k wedo. many of our public dietaries have been for some years past calculated on the knowledge obtained about this 332 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN connection, astonishment might be followed by a desire for information on the subject. The intention of this part of the book is to set out information for those in whom such a desire arises, How can and to do so in a simple way. But at the outset there simply ex- & is felt this difficulty : What may be considered a plained? simple way? The saying has been often repeated, that if there is anything you have to explain, and fail in trying to explain it to the first man you come across in the street, you must regard yourself as not a clear or good exponent. This does not, however, point out that, unless you know beforehand something about the stock of knowledge possessed by the man you meet, there may be some time taken up in finding out whether he understands what you mean by the words Difficulties of you are using. Many difficulties in explanations explanations often arise arise from a want of mutual understanding about from a want of mutual words used. understand- ,-, , 111 " i ing about the For example, a man may be able to explain m a wav tllat wou ld be quite intelligible to most of his companions the series of events that led to his book on the Derby coming out so differently from what he had confidently expected. But if he endeavoured to relate his disappointments to the first man he met in the street he might find it requisite to give him an explanation of terms he was using, though they are often to be seen in columns of sporting news in the daily press. He might by degrees even find that he would have to go so far as to point out that the % meaning of horses starting at 5 to 2, 3 to 2, or 7 to 2, has nothing to do with the meaning railway porters would expect passengers to understand by the same A HARD-WORKING DIET. 333 words in reference to the starting of trains, or that a horse's "price at starting" would have no reference to the cost at which it could be purchased even in a " selling stakes " race. If you want to explain to the first man you meet, so that it may be of any practical use to him in the arrangement of his daily diet, what is the present way of regarding the relative use of fish as compared with other foods, you must make sure that there is a mutual understanding between your hearer and yourself about the sense in which you use such words as "work," "force," "burn," " element," " oxidise," and that he knows what you mean when you use such words as Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. Your listener would very probably tell you he could not follow you, as he was not familiar with your words and terms, and had no idea what they meant. You might by degrees find out you had to give him very rudimentary information before he could follow you at all. At the outset, a misunderstanding would very The sense in probably occur about the use of the words "element " wor ds "de- and "compound." The old alchemists meant b " the elements " Earth, Air, Fire and Water, and the are used - term still lingers in our language. It is not uncommon to meet with the expression "the raging of the elements " in a description of a thunder-storm, and, in' an account of a large fire, " the all-devouring element " is pretty sure to be mentioned. The modern chemist, however, uses the word " element " only in contrast to " compound." A compound can be split up into two, and, in many cases, three or more essentially different materials, as, for example, brass can be split up into 334 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Names used by chemists have more exact mean- ings than familiar names. copper and zinc, and table-salt into chlorine and sodium. An " element " cannot be split up into any- thing different from itself. When an element is not combined with another element to form a compound it is called " free." That is how the words are used. As to knowing what are elements and what are com- pounds that is a matter of examination and trying. Oxygen was found to be an element in 1774, Hydro- gen in 1781, and other bodies have been at different dates discovered to be elements, to which names have been given to distinguish them. Most of the names have Latin or Greek terminations, and the significance of the distinction between these and the familiar English names, where there are any, is this : the chemical name is definite and exact, the familiar name is loose and inexact. As an example, Aurum is used only for gold absolutely pure, but we speak loosely of " gold " coinage or " gold " rings which are not pure. One reason, then, why the words Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen are not more often met with, is that, unlike many words in common use, they have very definite and exact meanings and can only properly be used when referring to the elements to which these names are given, though the words "oxygenated" and "carbonised" are often loosely and inaccurately used. As these elements can be obtained separate and pure only by special precau- tions the names are seldom used except in relation to laboratory work. The most satisfactory way of conveying correct ideas about them is of course to show by a few simple experiments some of their characteristic ways of A HARD-WORKING DIET. 335 behaving, but where it is not convenient to do this, perhaps it is still possible to convey some ideas about them, if not very complete and exact. To those who feel, " A fire's a good companionable friend, Who meets your face with welcome glad," and love to loiter in the gloaming and gaze into it, OXYGEN is a perfectly familiar though unseen friend. Oxygen. The old adage " seeing is believing " is taken by some as equivalent to "do not believe what you cannot see." But we believe in many things we cannot see, when we can see what they do. We cannot see the wind, but we are constrained to believe in it if it brings a chimney pot down through the roof. When, sheltered by a window, we watch the boughs swaying and the clouds scudding along in fantastic forms, or perhaps smile at undignified chases after runaway hats, we do not hesitate to say "see what a wind there is ! " Oxygen is a perfectly familiar gas, because any one watching a fire is seeing one of the things the unseen Oxygen is always somewhere doing. One-fifth of the air is free Oxygen. Every one knows that a fire or a lamp will not burn without air, though they may not know that it is only the Oxygen of the air that is con- cerned in the burning. The rest of the air has nothing to do with it so far as we know. In pure Oxygen, which can be obtained in several ways, burning is much more brilliant. The burning of a watchspring in Oxygen is a sight young and old enjoy, for as a professor at the Royal Institution used to say to his audience, one is never tired of seeing it. 336 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Oxidation. It may giva rise to light or not. Without Oxygen animal life as it now exists on this planet would be impossible, and every one, whether they know the fact or not, has had life maintained by Oxygen from the earliest moments of their existence. The word that is used to express union with Oxygen is OXIDATION. It is the oxidation of the elements of which coal is composed that gives rise to the heat and light of a fire. Oxidation appears to always give rise to heat. In some cases the heat is so slight it requires delicate instruments to detect it, in some it can be readily observed, while in many cases it is so great it gives rise to light. Very familiar cases of oxidation are those which give rise to much light the oxidation for example which occurs in lamps and candles. Here the substances oxidized are purposely selected in consequence of their rapid oxidation producing light. This depends upon the rate of oxidation. Slow oxidation frequently accumulates so much heat that after a while light and flame are produced, and this not unfrequently occurs in places, as for example in hay-ricks and cotton factories, where such rapid oxidation is not desired. Because the word ." burning " is so commonly used for those cases of oxidation which give rise to light, some writers, for the sake of avoiding the unfamiliar word, speak of all oxidation as "burning." So long as a definite meaning is kept to, it is entirely a ques- tion of words, but if "burning" is used instead of " oxidation," then it must be applied to such a case as the oxidation of iron, which is commonly called " rusting," and to similar cases where oxidation does not A HARD-WORKING DIET. 337 produce light. But it is hardly in accordance with the popular use of the word to speak of an iron nail which is rusting in the damp as " burning." There is this more serious objection to employing the more familiar word " burning " instead of " oxidation." People have lately dropped into the habit of speaking of an electric incandescent arc lamp as " burning " steadily or badly, though this light does not depend on oxidation at " Oxidation " not always all. " Burning is then not always an equivalent for equivalent to "oxidation." It is desirable to have a clear mutual understanding about the use of this word " oxidation," as it will have to be frequently used in the following pages. Oxida- tion is the act of combining with Oxygen. All the elements except Fluorine combine with Oxygen. The Oxygen is Oxygen may come from the air of which, as mentioned, a ir and in ., r r/vi i i , -, r combination it forms one-fifth by weight ; it may come from water in many of which it forms eight-ninths by weight ; it may come com P ounds from nitre of which it forms nearly one-half by weight (for which reason it is used in making gunpowder,) ; it may come from chlorate of potash of which it forms two-fifths by weight, or permanganate of potash (Condy's fluid) or from many other compounds. The combination may be rapid as in the case of gas- burning, or slow as in the case of the " tarnishing " of kitchen coppers ; it may give rise to but little heat or to dazzling light. In any case the combination with Oxidation, it seems, oxygen is called oxidation, and OXIDATION, it seems, always gives ALWAYS GIVES RISE TO HEAT. The way in which n! our life depends on this is spoken of on p. 347, &c. CARBON is perhaps generally felt to be more fami- Carbon. liar than Oxygen as it can be seen. Fine particles of it are a solace to the eyes of a weary man as VOL. I. H. Z 338 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Complete oxidation of Carbon always gives rise to Car- bonic acid. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. he watches them in a beam of sunlight curling slowly upwards from his pipe, and, rolling gently into lazy folds, linger over him with an air of tranquillity and rest. Larger particles of it are the terror of the laundry- maid as she sees them settling on the linen she has carefully washed to such dainty whiteness. Carbon, too, makes the fortune of the chimney-sweep (whose occupation the Smoke Abatement Committee are trying to abolish), and his sack is valued by many. Under the name " black lead," which contains no lead at all, it is used for drawing-pencils, and it is met with in its purest form in the diamond. Mixed with small quantities of other things Car- bon forms the bulk of coal, charcoal and wood. Fine heated particles of it are the source of light of ordinary flames. The union of Carbon with Oxygen forms invisible gases, and THE COMPLETE OXIDATION OF CARBON ALWAYS PRODUCES CARBONIC ACID, an invisible gas of which more will be presently said. HYDROGEN is a gas which occurs naturally in com- bination with some other element, and when it is wanted for use (as for the oxy-hydrogen light) or for the purpose of examining it, some compound con- taining it is " split up " so that the hydrogen is set free. The compound usually chosen for this purpose is Hydrogen-Oxide, commonly called water (see P- 339). NITROGEN, like Oxygen, occurs free (that is, not as a compound) in the air. It also forms many com- pounds, of which two familiar ones are nitrous oxide (laughing gas) and nitre (saltpetre.) A HARD-WORKING DIET. 339 Most people know something about other com- pounds of Nitrogen. Nitric acid, which is a compound of Nitrogen and Oxygen, is an example, and so is ammonia, commonly called hartshorn, which is a compound of Nitrogen and Hydrogen. In considering Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and We do not live on ele- Nitrogen as foods, it is only in the form of compounds ments as they come under our notice. We do not, and perhaps only' in the cannot, live on them as elements. We eat plants compounds (roots, fruits and leaves) and we eat "beasts, birds and fishes " that have fed on plants. Simple com- The com- pounds are pounds of two elements pass into plant structures par ts of plants first and form more complicated compounds, and we w r e s ca ^ ^ make use of these compounds direct from plants, them- or after they have formed fresh compounds as parts of fish, flesh or fowl. These compounds are very various in their composition, and are various in their uses to us. These uses will be spoken of later on, after more has been said of the compounds themselves. Compounds of these elements some of two together, Compounds some of three and some of all four are perhaps more familiaTthan familiar to everybody than are the elements them- elements are - selves, though they are familiar under other names. Water is an instance. It is a compound of Water is a Hydrogen and Oxygen, and the chemist calls it caSedHydro- Hydrogen-Oxide that is, if it is absolutely pure and contains nothing but Hydrogen and Oxygen. But the water of our rivers, wells, and springs contains Hydrogen, small quantities of other things besides the Hydrogen and Oxygen of which it is essentially composed, small quantities of matter dissolved in it, very often lime, which makes the water hard. We also loosely, under the term "water," often include small quantities of Z 2 340 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN matter suspended or floating about in it. They of course really do not form part of the water any more than a boat floating on water does for when left at rest, they settle down in the vessel containing the water. By careful distillation an ordinary water can be freed from almost all traces of matter it has dissolved, and the Hydrogen-Oxide is left almost pure. Even if the temperature is so reduced it becomes solid it is still Hydrogen-Oxide, though in ordinary language it is then called ice ; if the temperature is so raised that it passes to the gaseous state it is still Hydrogen-Oxide, though in ordinary language it is called vapour. There are several ways in which Oxygen and Hydrogen can be caused to unite to form water, and ways in which water can be split up into Oxygen and Hydrogen. Just as carbonic acid results from the oxidation of Carbon, water results from the oxidation of Hydrogen. Water a loose The name Hydrogen-Oxide is an exact name water and inexact . name. is a loose and inexact name. Every one then is quite familiar with Hydrogen-Oxide though they know it in its impure state and under the name of water, or other native name for it, aqua, 1'eau, wasser, &c. Carbon, When some few facts like these are mentioned your " first man at the corner of the street " would no longer regard Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitro- gen as unknown strangers, even though their names may cbme as new. To those not accustomed to considering foods as consisting of so many ounces of Carbon, Hydrogen, Written for Oxygen, and Nitrogen, generally written for short short, C, H, Q H> o, and N,* the subject may at first sight seem * See note in Appendix. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 341 somewhat complicated. But it is really not difficult, it requires only a little careful attention, principally in guarding against a confusion of ideas from attaching to terms meanings not intended ; and it is far easier to follow when practical acquaintance has been made with C, H, O, and N by even simple experiments with them. It may help to clear away a preliminary difficulty to C H O N cannot be mention that although, as just stated, every one has recognised as been living on C, H, O, and N, all their lives, they tne C om- could not see the individual elements, not even the {^ Q s u * at solid carbon, in the compounds as they occur in food - foods. These can only be got at by separating them out by chemical analysis at different temperatures. It is just the same as with many familiar things we just as do not use as food. In brass, for example, which is an alloy of the elements copper and zinc, the copper and zinc cannot be recognised as such, though they can be msed ln brass * separated out ; or in bronze the tin and copper cannot . be recognised, though they can be separated out. Elements cannot be recognised in a chemical compound, though they may be in a mechanical mixture. A simple experiment that can be made on The meaning a shovel over a fire will serve to illustrate what is ^^ < 2 the difference that is meant by the terms " mechanical com P und - mixture" and "chemical compound." Get some fine copper filings and some powdered sulphur well mixed together on a sheet of paper. The copper and the sulphur can still be separately distinguished if not with the unaided eye, they can be with a magnifying glass and the sulphur can be washed away. This is called a " mechanical mixture." But put such a mixture on a shovel over the fire till it glows, and on cooling there will be found a black 342 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN substance, differing in properties from both copper and sulphur. This is an example of what is called a "chemical compound." Neither the copper nor the sulphur can now be distinguished, but they are there and can be again separated out by proper chemical means. They can Chemical compounds may pass through many nised by* ^' changes, in none of which can the elements be re- thenToutf cognised, and yet it can be proved they are there by their being separated out afterwards. To take one example only, the well-known " blue vitriol," or "copperas" of the oil shops. It is a compound of copper and sulphur, but neither of them can be dis- tinguished whether the compound is in the state of the yellow solution, or of the greenish blue crystals, or of the white powder to which these crystals turn on heating. Yet the copper and the sulphur can be obtained in their original state and original quantity by chemical separation. Many illustrations of this kind might be given, but any one of them rightly understood will make it easier to comprehend the nature of the more obscure changes our food com- pounds pass through both in being prepared as foods by plants and animals, and also within our bodies after we have taken them as foods. The C, H, O and N can always be " separated out " at any stage, though they pass through many complicated combinations. We " live " only so long as C, H, O and N are under- going combinations within us. An example The gas we burn in our houses will furnish a simple of separating out. illustration of " separating out " or " splitting up. It is, leaving out impurities, Carbon and Hydrogen in a gaseous state. When a gas tap is turned on A HARD-WORKING DIET. 343 there is nothing to be seen, but if we raise the tern- Oxidation of Carbon and perature by applying a highly heated wire or a Hydrogen light the Carbon and Hydrogen both begin to unite carbonic acid with the Oxygen of the air and "burn." Hydrogen and water< and Oxygen when combined form Hydrogen-Oxide or "water," as mentioned before, and, if a plate or any- thing cool be held over the flame, drops of water can be collected. The Carbon which thus loses its companion Hydrogen, and has not united with the Oxygen of the air, can be collected in a solid form, and, indeed, smuts and smoke are small particles of it. It has travelled through the pipes, however, as a gas. The Carbon which does unite with Oxygen forms car- bonic acid, with which everybody may be familiar (though it is a gas which cannot be seen), and a test for its presence is given below. Thus from the gas there is obtained by "splitting up " by heat, a solid (carbon), a liquid (water), and a gas of totally different composi- ^J^j[h tion (carbonic acid). This is a rough chemical analysis, analysis. The same results can be obtained from an oil lamp where the Carbon and Hydrogen are present as fluid, or from a candle where the Hydrogen and Carbon are present as solid. The water and carbonic acid can be collected most conveniently, perhaps from a candle, as the experiment can be made on a table. For observing the formation of the water it will be an advantage to support the plate slightly tipped on one side as the drops will run together, and also to keep the plate cool by putting cold water in it. The fact of being able to collect solid Carbon is mentioned for the sake of the illustration of an element being present in a compound without its being recognised till it is separated out. It can only 344 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Carbonic acid. Test for its presence. be obtained, however, by interfering with the flame, for in a flame properly burning it will all be oxidized and pass away as carbonic acid. Indeed, if the Carbon collected on the plate be scraped off and put on to a shovel over the fire, the oxidation will be resumed, and it will all pass away as carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is an invisible gas, but there is a very simple way by which its presence can be detected. It readily unites with lime to form the compound carbonate of lime, and is therefore frequently used as a test for the presence of lime in water. The carbonate of lime forms as a fine white powder which gives at first a milky appearance to the water, clearing as the powder settles to the bottom. As the result of the combination of the two is always the same, lime water is a ready test for the presence of carbonic acid. It can be obtained cheaply at a druggist's. The carbonic acid given off by a flame can easily be collected in any jar, which will not crack with heat, by holding it so that the flame is well within its mouth. It will be known when no more will be formed, as the light will then " go out," that is oxidation will cease, because there is no more free Oxygen within the jar. If the jar is then turned over, and a little clear lime water is poured in and well shaken about, so as to absorb the carbonic acid, the milkiness, due to the white powder being formed, will be seen. It will probably help to bring home more forcibly some facts that will presently be referred to, if the experiment be repeated with some fat such as would be used for food. It is not much trouble to make a sort of candle of it with some darning worsted as a wick, so that the fat can be oxidized (i.e. burnt, A HARD-WORKING DIET. 345 see p. 336). The Hydrogen and Carbon of the fat will be found to form water and carbonic acid, just as those from the other sources. When fully oxi- dized they always do, whatever the source from which they come, and whether that source be in a state of gas or liquid or solid. This is a rough and ready way of showing that C Fats and oils. and H are present in fats. Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen are called hydro-carbons. Fats and oils are all in the main hydro-carbons, though not always pure. Every one is familiar then with compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen, though the names may be new to them. When the amounts of C and H have Compounds to be known by weight, the simple apparatus here ar e separated used does not suffice. The principle of proceeding {jn is however the same that of converting into Car- bonic acid and water, but this has to be done in a water - way that admits of their being weighed. As the composition of Carbonic acid is always everywhere the same (three-elevenths Carbon and eight-elevenths Oxygen) it is easy to calculate how much Carbon there is in a known weight of Carbonic acid, and as the composition of water is always every- where the same (one-ninth Hydrogen and eight-ninths Oxygen) it is easy to calculate the amount of Hydro- gen in a known weight of water. If therefore we By weighing the amount want to know the weight of Carbon and Hydrogen in of Carbonic any Hydro-Carbon, we get at them by separating out wa ter we the Carbon as Carbonic acid, and the Hydrogen as water. This is the simple method that has been followed in investigations of the AMOUNTS OF c f ta ] n weight of a Hydro- CARBON AND HYDROGEN IN A HYDRO-CARBON Carbon. COMPOUND. 346 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN in a com pound is known by separating it out as ammonia. The weight The weight of N in a compound is ascertained by in a^com- ent separating it out in the form of ammonia which is a compound of N with H, the only one they form to- gether. This is accomplished by heating some of it with caustic soda, which causes all the N to pass off in ammonia. The simple fact that ammonia is given off in such a process can easily be known from smell by heating any substance which contains much N, a piece of cheese for example, with caustic soda, which can be obtained at any druggist's. To secure that all the ammonia given off is col- lected without waste, special apparatus is of course required. This is not intended as a book of instruction for doing chemical operations, but it is hoped that the few homely experiments described on pp. 341 to 346 will suffice to enable those who take the trouble to do them, to realise that C, H, O, and N are actual weigh- able forms of matter, and to understand the nature of the work, sketched in the next few pages, only in out- line, by which facts have been learned about foods and the uses of different kinds of them. Of all the immense numbers of elements and compounds, our knowledge of which is frequently increasing through the industry of experimental chemists, all that it is essential to pay attention to for our immediate purpose is that the union of H with O produces the compound water. C O carbonic acid. N and H' ammonia. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 347 It is one of the important discoveries of recent years Combinations that take that THESE COMBINATIONS, WHICH TAKE PLACE IN place in the world around THE WORLD AROUND US, ALSO TAKE PLACE IN OUR us a i so take OWN BODIES. T! We take in compounds of C, H, and N in our foods, we take in O from the air we breathe. The H combining with the O forms water, which leaves us as perspiration (more as invisible perspiration than in visible " sweat "), as moisture in our breath (visible on a frosty day), and through the bladder. The C combining with O forms carbonic acid, which leaves the body mostly through the lungs. The N combining with H forms ammonia, which leaves the body through the kidneys. The solid excreta which leave the body consist for the most part of actual waste that is, material which has not been made use of at all. It is the knowledge of these forms of outgoings of oxidized C and H that is, C and H, which have within our bodies combined with the O we have taken in in our breath and of ammonia that forms THE FOUNDATION OF OUR PRESENT WAYS OF The founda- T tion of our STUDYING FOOD VALUES. The quantity Of C, H, pre sent ways and N taken in as food is weighed, and the out- f 00 Vvaluel goings in perspiration, breath, urine, and excreta are weighed. They have been ascertained for different conditions of exercise and different conditions of health, and to some extent for different conditions of surrounding weather, so that the intakings and the various outgoings of the body can be balanced up, like the introduction of raw material and the turning out manufactured stuff in a mill can be. That was a great advance when the genius and 348 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN The source of animal heat is oxidation. clear intellect of Liebig, grasping the meaning of various isolated experiments of workers in all countries and devising methods for observation not known before, elaborated the ' Thier Chemie,' which he gave to the world in 1840. England received it simulta- neously with Germany in the translation 'Animal Chemistry,' the preparation of which was entrusted to Dr. Gregory, one of his pupils. Though others had been previously feeling their way here and there, and had made slight inroads on the borders of a then unknown realm of research, he was the first to push boldly on, exploring with instru- ments of his own invention, and to point to further conquests waiting to be made in the domain of the Chemistry of Organised Beings. That with all his energy he was but a partial explorer he knew full well, but that he had mapped out the right lines in laying down " oxidation " as the source of animal heat he felt confident. Oxidation, it seems, always gives rise to heat (p. 336 and Appendix.) It is strange or, remembering humanum est err are, perhaps it was not strange that he should fall into the very error he so strongly deprecates in others that of drawing conclusions from an insufficient number of observations. While, as repeated subsequent expe- riments have shown, he was right in pointing to the oxidation of carbon as a source of animal heat, he missed the track in the explanation of the source of muscular power. His theory, that muscular work was accompanied by the destruction of muscular substance itself, could not be verified. On the contrary, whether little or much muscular work is done seems to have hardly any effect. As the destruction of muscular A HARD-WORKING DIET. 349 substance results in the formation of ammonia, then if the theory be correct, the heavier the work done the more should be the amount of ammonia given off. But several trials showed this does not take place. The difficulties led to many experiments in many lands. The correlation of the physical forces, now so familiar to everybody, was then but dimly seen or guessed at rather than seen in the far distance. But while many of Liebig's pupils and followers were experimenting on themselves and other people as to the connection between food, work and the amounts of carbonic acid and ammonia given off, Joule was working out questions connected with the conversion of heat into motion and motion into heat. At last, in 1866, Frankland, taking the results of many experiments, and his own laboratory work, as his data, worked out the figures showing the CON- NECTION BETWEEN MUSCULAR FORCE AND THE OXIDATION OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN, and at a lecture at the Royal Institution, made the triumphant announcement HERE IS THE SOURCE OF MUSCULAR The source of muscular POWER. (For " hard work, see p. 358.) power. Liebig, loving truth more than self-glorification, eventually recognised his former mistake, and the controversy that existed has passed into oblivion. The same rough and ready way of showing that How to ex- carbonic acid is formed by the oxidation of candle fat recognise the (p. 343), will suffice to show that carbonic acid is given thestudy! off in the breath. It is only requisite to blow through a tube into clear lime water to see by the formation of carbonate of lime that there is much carbonic acid in the air we breathe out. Again, it requires no apparatus 350 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN to see on a frosty day that there is more water in the air we breathe out than that we breathe in. As we breathe out, then, more carbonic acid and water than is in the air we inhale, we know that carbon and hydrogen are being oxidized somewhere within the body. This oxidation gives rise to heat (p. 337) and heat and motion go together. This may suffice as a rough and ready way of know- ing by observation what are the principles on which calculations as to C, H, O, and N, in foods are based. The principle Experiments have, however, been carried further is the same in ,, . . , . . . scientific work than this not simply to find that carbonic acid and arrangements water are formed by oxidation in the body, but how elaborate much of each is formed. To do this of course requires special arrangements. For example, Dr. Edward Smith, in ascertaining how much carbonic acid was given off during exertion of different degrees, wore a sort of mask covering his nose and mouth, and a flexible tube carried his breath to his apparatus for ascertaining the weight of water and carbonic acid given off in certain time. Pettenkoffer carried out observations on a watchmaker who consented to work inside a case, one day doing no harder work than reading, another, doing his usual light work of watch-fitting, and another day working a treadle. The amount of food and of oxygen admitted to him, and of carbonic acid and water, &c., given off, were accurately weighed. The experiments of Pick and Wislecanus are men- tioned in Appendix. The two mentioned here may serve as examples that the statements and figures given by scientific chemists about "the C, H, and N taken in as one set of compounds in food, and given A HARD-WORKING DIET. 351 out as different compounds, are based upon careful observations and calculations. By such methods as these mentioned above we know the sum total of the C, H, O and N that is given off under different amounts of exercise or exertion. If the amounts given off in 24 hours are greater The materials are sometimes than those taken in; if for example the amount of < stored." carbonic acid given off is greater than can be accounted for by the oxidation of carbon taken in, then it is evident there has been a demand made on what has been previously stored up in the body. It is well known that people store up fat who habitually take more carbon and hydrogen than the body actually demands for the work they do, and often store it up to an extent inconvenient to themselves. And the reverse of this is also known, that additional exertion without increase of carbon and hydrogen leads to a reduction of fat, and that a total amount of food inadequate to meet the daily demands, so uses up the stores, that emaciation follows. It has been found that the harder the work a man Carbon used does the more carbonic acid he gives off in his breath, which means that more Carbon has been oxidized. The Oxygen comes freely in the air, the Carbon has to be taken in as food. When a man is doing a spell of hard work he should therefore have a care he is taking in more Carbon than when he is doing light work. Those who are continually doing hard work need more than those doing light work. These are facts that do not rest simply on the experiments and calcula- tions of men of science, but have been found true by navvies. Two well-known instances are those of making a railway in Sicily and the laying of the 352 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN narrow gauge on the Great Western Railway. In both cases the amount of nitrogen compounds was increased also. (See Appendix.) It is the oxidation of Carbon in the body which is the chief source or origin of muscular power as apart from muscle structure. The oxidation of Hydrogen is known to have much the same duty, though the extent is hardly so well established by experiment. As the result of the comparison of many sets of observations we get the following table of Da jl y out . DAILY OUTGOINGS. goings. CARBON given off in Ib. oz. gr.* Carbonic acid by lungs . . . 320 by skin ... 40 Organic matter by kidneys . . 170 ,, by intestines . 308 9 400 HYDROGEN given off in Water formed in body by lungs and skin 1 70 Organic matter by kidneys and intestines . . 100 1 170 OXYGEN given off in Carbonic acid by lungs ... 17 325 by skin ... Ill Organic matter by kidneys and intestines . . 357 Water formed in body by lungs and skin 9 130 2~2 47 NITROGEN given off in Urea, etc. by kidneys . . 245 Waste by intestines . . 46 291 * Reckon 438 [strictly 437*5] grains to oz. and 16 oz. to Ib. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 353 In this and the following table the amounts of common salt and other minerals, and of water taken in are not mentioned, for these undergo apparently no changes in passing through the body. By water formed in the body is meant water which results from the oxidation of Hydrogen as distin- guished from water taken in as such. The above table represents a fair average of daily outgoings of an adult in health and of ordinary activity. Heavy exertion, whether of work or sport, will cause, we know, an increase in these outgoings. It will be readily seen, the DAILY OUTGOINGS BEING KNOWN FROM EXPERIMENTS, it is easy to state what the daily intakes must be to keep up the balance so that there may be no over-storage or no undue demand on the natural storage. For a person whose outgoings are as in the above table there must, of course, be as follows : THE AVERAGE DAILY INTAKES. Average daily CARBON taken in Ib. oz. gr. intakes - In starches, fats, and Nitrogen compounds 9 400 HYDROGEN taken in In starches, fats, and Nitrogen compounds 1 170 OXYGEN taken in In the air breathed 1 10 115 In starches,, fats, and Nitrogen compounds 7 370 2 2 47 NITROGEN taken in In Nitrogen compounds 291 As Carbon and Hydrogen are associated together in compounds, and the heat produced by oxidation of VOL. I. H. 2 A 354 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN C 4,900. NSOO. What the figures mean. Hydrogen is nearly as well known as that of Carbon, it is usual to sum up the whole intakes as Carbon and Nitrogen, and the nearest convenient round numbers that can be selected are CARBON NITROGEN 4,900 grains. 3 The mere suggestion of speaking to hard-working men about grains of Carbon and Nitrogen in food with any hope of being understood may perhaps raise a smile of half-pity, half-mockery, for it has been known to provoke downright derisive laughter. This, how- ever, need not prevent some mutual understanding about the meaning of these figures, with the possi- bility that some may find them of use. It perhaps should be explained that In the first place they are not given as the result of any one particular experiment on any one particular person, doing a particular kind of work. They give an approximate average of the results of many ex- periments. They are intended to represent the daily requirements of a man about thirty, weighing 1 1 stone, and doing moderately hard muscular work. They mean the amount of Carbon and of Nitrogen he must get out of his food and into his blood. The quantity of food he will have to take to obtain this carbon and nitrogen depends on the perfection of his digestion and the kind of food he takes. The question of the kind of food is shown in the tables further on. A variation in the amount of work will lead to a varia- tion in the amount of Carbon and Nitrogen needed. A variation in the power of digestion may necessitate a change in the food taken so as to ensure getting the Carbon and Nitrogen out of it. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 355 In the second place it is not for a moment to be expected that any one succeeds in calculating out his daily diet with the exactness of a scientific chemist making an analysis of a food, or conducting ex- periments on the amount of carbonic acid given off during work of a particular kind. Even with the most rigidly routine life any attempt to meet the daily needs with exactness would be upset by changes in the weather. The nearest approach to exactness is perhaps in training for boat-racing, but every one with any experience knows how a muggy day or roughish water will " take it out of you," and make a slight increase of food necessary. The practical utility of the experiments such as those referred to at p. 350, which these figures summa- rise is that they show this the more the muscular work done, the more carbonic acid and water are given off, and the more C and H must be taken into the blood for oxidation. These figures C 4,900, and N 300 give an average. (For N, see p. 358.) Knowing then the amounts of C, H, and N that From what sources can are needed, the next inquiry is the sources from our intakes be which these can be obtained. Side by side with the investigations mentioned above, many chemists were engaged in examining the chemical composition of many substances we use as (ood. Leaving out of consideration the various methods of giving the results, as this does not affect our present inquiry, the important point to look to is the total amount of C, H and N. It has been found that there is so important a dif- 2 A 2 356 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Two impor- tant groups of food compounds. Nitrogenous compounds. ference, as to what they do in the body, between the compounds which contain N, and those which do not, .that this forms the ground of division into two great groups. It is customary to speak of the C H O compounds as Carbon compounds, and C H O N compounds as Nitrogen compounds. It has often been found that in some minds a confusion exists between the element Carbon itself and carbon compounds, and the element Nitrogen and nitrogen compounds. It would avoid this confusion to adopt the names " C H O com- pounds," and " C H O N compounds," but it would be an untried innovation, and the usual custom of using the names is followed. The important point to notice is that both groups contain C and H, and the distinction of names is not meant to imply that one group contains only Nitrogen and the other Carbon. Both have C and H, which produce heat and force, but the nitrogenous group only can, so far as we know, in addition to producing heat and force, form muscle. It will, of course, not be forgotten that though muscle cannot be formed without nitrogenous com- pounds, the mere fact of having a plentiful supply of them in the blood will not form muscle. A muscle increases only by use use, with a plentiful supply of nitrogenous compounds in the blood. The importance of fish diet in relation to this plentiful supply will be seen from the table on p. 362. It is found that all the NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS used as food have very nearly the same proportions of C, H and N. The elements in them are differently grouped, and to the scientific chemist they present A HARD-WORKING DIET. 357 differences which are important. Viewed, however, simply as sources of C, H and N, they are nearly of equal value. Three for comparison may suf- fice C H O N Albumen . . . 53 7 15 Fibrine of muscle 54 7 3. 16 Casein. . . . 53J 7 These are given in parts per hundred, omitting very small fractions. In this and the next table the amount of oxygen is purposely left out, as the object here is to fix atten- tion on the amounts of C, H and N. It is, however, about 22 per cent, in the nitrogen compounds, 50 in starch and sugar, and 1 1 in the fats. As fair types of CARBON COMPOUNDS (which have Carbon compounds. no N) there may be quoted to be compared with the nitrogenous compounds C H O N Oils and Fats . . 76 12 g none. Starches ... 44 6 ^- none. Sugar . . 40 to 42 6 J ? . none. Starch is one of those words about which perhaps there is need for a "mutual understanding." It is not used by the chemist exactly in the household or laundry sense, as the " starches " used as food in this country are in wheat, rice, potato, corn flour, sago, arrowroot, &c. The range of sugars here given includes cane- sugar, beet-sugar, grape-sugar, &c. Looking at the above tables it will be seen that oils and fats contain the largest percentage of carbon. As illustrating how the practical experience of many 358 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Explanation follows impulse. Chemistry cannot ex- plain all. Nitrogen compounds and hard work. generations preceded the explanation which chemistry now offers of why certain things are habitually done, there is the well-known fact that in cold countries and during cold weather more fat is eaten than in hot, and the explanation is that fat contains so much Carbon, the oxidation of which produces heat. As heat is the basis of force in the body this is also the explanation of why labourers eat " hunks " of cold bacon and fat pork. The oxidation of the Carbon furnishes force for their work. Because the nitrogenous compounds as shown above contain 53^ or 54 per cent, of carbon it would at first appear that they can furnish more heat and force than starch or sugar, which contain only 44 or 40 per cent. But it has been found that when nitrogenous matters are oxidized in the body a portion (about one-seventh) of the Carbon and Hydrogen passes away unused. Deducting 8 as the nearest whole number to represent one-seventh of 54, we see that not more than 46 per cent, of the C is oxidised, which brings it down nearly to the value of the starches. This is as far as chemistry is able to offer any help at present, but so far, repeated experiments confirm what has been arrived at. Still there are some facts for which chemistry at present can offer no explana- tion. One of these affects those doing severe work. It is this that severe muscular work requires an increase in the quantity of the nitrogenous compounds in food. This does not appear to be the case with the mere increase in the number of hours of work, it is the seventy or as it is commonly called the " hard- ness " of the work that makes the difference. Though the scientific chemist cannot explain it, it is accepted A HARD-WORKING DIET. 359 as a fact and practically acted upon in public dietaries aiid by artizans and navvies, who, without knowing anything of carbon and nitrogen, eat what experience tells them they require. (See Appendix.) It is only within the last fifty years, roughly speak- ing, that any attention has been paid to the proportion of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen in foods, and only quite recently since 1866 that the work they do in the body, and the amounts of them needed for different kinds of work, has been understood. It may perhaps seem leaving the immediate subject of " Fish in Diet " to pause to allude to this at all, but it will be seen that unless the values of different foods in general use is understood, the relative value of any particular food, whether beef, mutton, bacon, or fish, cannot be understood. Further than this, there is a wide difference in the values of different kinds of fish. Though it would add much to the interest of under- standing this modern study to go through the history of how it came about, it would take time, and it is not essential to understanding the present views. Chemistry cannot explain everything with regard Influence of thought on to the connection between food and work. There is digestion. that mysterious connection between thought and digestion and digestion and thought. We cannot say give a man so much C and N and he will be able to do so much muscular work. The receipt of depressing news may quite upset his power to eat the food or to digest it, and the C and N must be in the blood before it can be of practical use, so that the mere fact of eating so many ounces of carbon and nitrogen compounds does not necessarily imply the power to do work All that chemistry can do is to show what 3 6o ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN are the proportions of C and N on which it is found the work is done, and to ascertain the proportions in which they are met with in certain sources of food. Differences in As a slight illustration of the great variation there the amounts . ., r , . ~ of C and N 1S in these proportions, the following figures are foods. U m arranged for ready comparison. The object of giving the table is to fix attention on the relative propor- tions of nitrogenous and carbon compounds, there- fore the proportions of water and of small amounts of mineral matter are not given. The figures are taken from the labels of the Food Collection at Bethnal Green Museum, and those who wish for complete details can find them there. One hundred parts of Nitrogen compounds. Carbon compounds. Starch. Sugar. Fat. Parts. Parts. Parts. Parts. Wheat contains . 11 69 .. 1 Fine flour . 10 74 .. 1 Oatmeal . 16 63 .. 10 Pearl barley 6 76 .. 1 Rice 7 76 .. ft Indian corn 9 64 .. 5 Peas contain . 22 51 .. 2 Haricot beans ,, . 23 32 .. 2 Lentils . 24 49 .. 2 Potatoes 2 17 .. .. Skim milk contains . 4 . . 5 tg Milk 1 . , 6 2 Cream 6 Bt 2 36 Butter 1 tt ,, 87 Cheese . 29 .. 2 29 Eggs, white . 12 1 1 yolk 15 .. .. 30 Streaky bacon 8 65 A HARD-WORKING DIET. 361 Such vegetables as cabbages and carrots contain so large a proportion of water about 90 per cent. they cannot be looked upon as sources of either nitrogen or carbon compounds, as the quantities that would have to be eaten are enormous. A pound of cabbage gives no more muscle-forming material than rather less than a quarter of an ounce of meat. Sixteen pounds of cabbage would furnish only as much as a quarter of a pound of meat. Vegetables have, however, other valuable uses. It may perhaps seem that a difficulty arises in regard to this table in working out the connection between these nitrogen compounds (which contain C H O N) and the carbon compounds (which con- tain C H O) see p. 356 with the figures given on p. 354. C 4,900, N 300. A table is given at the end of this handbook for helping calculations as to the amount of N present in N compounds. As ex- plained in the pages previous to p. 348, it is only by getting at the quantities of the elements taken in and given off in different forms we can know what chemi- cally takes place within our bodies. Recollecting what was mentioned on p. 358 about nitrogenous com- Can we obtain our pounds, it seems highly important to look at the nitrogen amount of N present in foods used in a hard-working from fish? diet. In this next table they are therefore given in single column. Meat and fish are compared, for if, as seems not improbable, " The roast beef of old Eng- land " is to become merely a tradition, and the cheery song preserved as a curiosity among the ancient music in libraries, then it may be useful to know what fish most nearly correspond in the amounts of nitrogen 3 62 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN compounds they contain, unless such foods as cheese, lentils, haricot beans or peas (see table on p. 360) are to be a substitute. The following analyses of fresh meat and fish are taken from the tables of the Food Collection at the Bethnal Green Museum. One pound of Water. Nitrogen compounds. Carbon compounds. oz. oz. (Fat.) oz. Beef contains . 8 - 4f Mutton ... 7 2 6i Pork ... 6 li 8 Veal .... 10 2i 1 2 Lamb ... 8 2 ! Salmon ... Mackerel ... 103 3f i Sole ... 13| If little Herring ... 12} li 1 Conger eel ... Hi 3i i Pike ... 12i 3 little On pages 364 and 365 is given a series of analyses of fish from Koenig's Nahrungsmittel. A more recent analysis of mackerel by Professor Church gives the nitrogenous matter as no higher than 2% oz., but the fat as high as 2. Every one knows that fish change according to season, the most observ- able changes being in the amount of fat, but there is A HARD-WORKING DIET. 363 also a variation in the amount of nitrogen compounds. There is also a considerable difference between lean meat and fat meat in the proportion of nitrogen and carbon compounds. A single series of analyses alone taken at any one We need more time of the year does not give us all the information we ai want. We are only on the outskirts of the subject as yet. It would appear from chemical analysis, as shown Mackerel in the table, that such a fish as mackerel is well suited the same N. for taking the place of meat as a source of nitrogenous compounds. It is a fish, 'too, which has this advan- tage it is tasty when grilled, and a man not working at home who can grill or fry his own piece of steak, could equally well prepare his mackerel. Herring, Herring, too, which can be similarly cooked, has about the same nitrogen value as pork, though its carbon value is much less. Boiled fish loses its value, a fact which any one can infer from noticing the water, when cold, in a dish on which, say, a plaice has been taken to table. This is not a book on cooking, but it must be men- Effect of tioned that the chemical value of a fish as bought and as put on the table are often very different. This is a matter for the wives to think out. It is also a matter for them to consider, that while the husband is using his muscle, the children are growing theirs, and unless all our physiology and chemistry is wrong, muscle cannot be formed without nitrogenous food. It does not matter whether we can explain the " why," the fact seems to be clear. Possibly muscle value is dying out ; steam cranes, steam printing machines, steam ploughs, are doing away with the need for any consideration of a " hard- working diet," except perhaps that the need for muscle 364 777^ PLACE OF FISH IN i -d 'S - . 'S . -o *2 . *d "2 . ^ * S a a-g d a-g - - .d - g 9 ^ g^ S 3 S sp'fe 8 8 8 wig 3 *>' ^ >^o 5 b S H . ^>^d j^'S^'S'S^ . * *1 P rt 3 :o :O rt o rt W .H rt :Q ^ ^ :O ^ O O :O .H PL, pq W fe PL, W [x, g PL, PH W PH fe PQ ^fe S | ^ W *i ** m " o cooco ONOO Th f^NONOOco ^ t*^ ^hvO^ -< 4>c^ir>copvp vncoc ON.VO s i - b b U , : .: : 5 C ir> O M OO vr> vOOOOONN r*x"-i *-i ^HH Q\ J CO CO t^ cO CO CO CO VO t^* t^ \O *^ *-O ON CJ vo H ^* ^* M b b bbbbp<^b f^oo vn c< io SON'-' O ON ON QONvOvO vn t^ >-< c^ co O OO CO 1 " 1 O O O ONcocooo^d'ON'-i KH t-xco>^ "cocovb voKi^H.bbNONc>o b Nh b Si-ii-i c^ i-i 1-1 t^coMHii_i H-I M c wn w 'Q O vg ON vrv i^x Ococor^ON N <-< ON ONI^ >-> o ^^ O oo ON ON vO O vo co ON HI %, ^" oo vo oo oo HI <^- Cx t^ *'t' ^oo vO vo M-l M [ ] " ] I * i I * " i - ^ Q 2 S 4S .- fi 1 - a, 6 ff OT " ' ^3 ,d ^^ *^ *2 ^tS^ g* S^^ I 5 '!!! I 1 ! 2 II j ffi CO W ffi CO A HARD-WORKING DIET. 365 .1 . U 1 ^ 1" 1 is H 1 11 C2 ,<-> v S .2 u O r 0> rt .? 3 .f> g J .to 3 2 ft 1 1 i! i S~ -S B p^'o $ t2 2 w 5 w PQ C C S f, ^ e^L >' !^L ___, ! 1 14 CM CO ^ c "^ "7^ t-^t-HOOCJcO'Tf^ co ONVO O VOOOI-H I i -Pi HH 1 1 yj . "S Jj ^3 oo ^^ S ' 3 ^^'S Ji O ^ 0) t5 rn*Z oinj^ ^ 'S c' g ON U-> N CO t-l hH C1 ON CQt^ 3 .S^ 1 "^ co ^ . . . vo .corivo^-^t- .2 ^_oo 52 C rt .JJ Q . Q , C1 vb O t-^ O co ^11 ^ i 111 gj^ "1 g, i^_ !> N vo ""k ON oo co t^* rh t^ vo i-n o co '^Ot^c^OvO'-' co HH oo co t^OO StSi^l4ll b"^vbb>-'r OO rj- ^f- r+ vO ^-ONN^PNOOOO vp p p t^ co\OO O 1 tCfcvooo v R v Rrico N ^ 2 s ?l fcfe^ 1 | ri 1 I a s s s 4 . ... in .2 2.2.2 oS O X -^ O *o *O *O W y C?C/3 ."2 "2 ."2 12 J3* N'S J^^^^ ^ . . . Ifl^^l .S ^ *- m^ . " OV S U p,p.Q,a&8 -,- - t'5 H * rC fe ^ 1> *"* rt 2 ^^ " . .^.S .s'.s' s" w Illllll III | | ' - 8 9 . 366 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN work, or the alternative decay as a nation, is recognised and acted on in open-air sports. Perhaps one or two generations of a particular family may go on without much muscle, but the consideration is a national one. No direct Unfortunately we are without any direct evidence as to the value of fish in a hard-working diet - That in diet for fish-eatiner people are strong and healthy is remarked hard work, by travellers. But the question is on what fish do they live ? When the nitrogen value of different fish is considered, this is seen to be an important question. We have no records of railway making, pile driving, or even training being effected on fish. Even in the nor for work- attempts to introduce fish into workhouse dietaries, house diet. not hing is said of what fish is used. The best practical answer that could be given to "What is the place of fish in a hard-working diet ?" Should be would be for a certain amount of work to be under- practically _ tried. taken on fish instead of meat. At present all we can say is, that as far as what is commonly called chemistry goes, as apart from spectrum analysis investigations, of dissociation, and apart from that yet unexplained polarization, there seems no reason why cheap fish should not take the place of dear meat in a hard-working diet. Fish cost nothing to rear. But it must be tried, as it has not yet been tried ; for though there seems no reason for doubt, test tubes and reagents may not cover the whole question. If the British workman, after con- sidering the facts which chemistry seems to teach, such as here sketched out, decides for the future to work on fish not twelve hours stale, instead of oatmeal or tinned meats, he can do it, always, however, pro- viding fish-shoal movements remain as experienced A HARD-WORKING DIET. 367 fishermen believe them to be. For what the British workman determines to do, by CO-OPERATION he can do. Truck loads might be had direct. As regards hard work, it must be remembered before a man is able to do this he must keep himself alive, and only one-fifth of the energy he obtains from his food can be used for what is called " external work." The work of mere living is hard work the work involved in the beat of the heart and the action of the lungs alone, which goes on during sleep as well as by day, and the maintenance of heat. Here is a table by Professor Frankland, showing alternative foods of a person even lying quite idle. WEIGHT OF VARIOUS ARTICLES OF FOOD REQUIRED TO SUSTAIN RESPIRATION AND CIRCULATION IN THE BODY OF AN AVERAGE MAN DURING TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. Only one-fifth of energy obtained from food is avail- able for ex- ternal work. Requirements for "internal work." Name of Food. Weight in ozs. Name of Food. Weight in ozs. Cheshire Cheese VO Whiting i6'8 Potatoes IV4 White of Egg 2V I ADDles 2O*7 Hard-boiled Egg T8 Oatmeal V4 V6 Flour V S Milk 21 * 2 Peameal . V 5 Carrots 2T6 Ground Rice .... v6 Cabbage TI'8 Arrowroot .... Bread 3*4 6-4 Cocoa Nibs .... Butter I'9 1*8 Lean Beef .... Lean Veal .... Lean Ham (boiled) . Mackerel 9'3 11-4 7'9 8-3 Cod Liver Oil ... Lump Sugar .... Commercial Grape Sugar i'S 3*9 4*o Then, besides the chemical aspects of the question, there is that very practical one of relative cost a subject to which Dr. Edward Smith paid much attention, and on which he drew up suggestive Tables, which he included in the Reports to the Privy Council, made under such circumstances as mentioned in the next few pages which seemed to fully justify Consideration of relative cost. 368 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN It is desirable to have a knowledge of food values to lay out money for most use- ful foods. a Government Enquiry as to how people live at home. It would take too much space to reproduce them. (See Appendix.) Here, however, is a concise table of Professor Frankland's, of relative values, which may suggest thoughtful consideration for the wives who keep the weekly accounts. EXTERNAL WORK = -^TH OF ACTUAL ENERGY. Name of Food. Weight in Ibs. required. Price per Ib. Cost. I'I56 s. d. O 10 s. d. Us 5-068 I o 5i 7-815 l| Ilf 28l -2f o 3^ 311 2f o 3f Peameal .... Ground Rice .... *335 34i 287 o 3* o 4 I o 4i o 5* i 3 Bread 2 ' 345 O 2 o 4! Lean Beef 3'53 2 I 3 6 Lean Veal 4-300 I O 4 3* Lean Ham (boiled) .... MACKEREL WHITING .... 3' i 3-124 3-69 i 6 o 8 i 4 4 6 2 I 9 4 White of Eggs '745 2*200 o 6 o 6 4 4a I 2 ISINGLASS .... 1*377 16 o 22 Milk 8-021 id. per qt. 32 Carrots 9-685 o ii 2| Cabbage 2'020 O I pi Q'735 i 6 \l Butter 0-693 i 6 0* Beef Fat o'555 10 o 5* COD LIVER OIL .... Q'553 1-505 3 6 o 6 I Ili i 3 Commercial Grape Sugar . Bass's Pale Ale (bottled) . . i'537 o bottles. 6| o 3* O IO 10 IO o 5, 7 6 5 7z As market prices vary from time to time, and wages vary and work varies, it would be a great help to an artizan or labourer to have just that acquaint- ance with the results of chemical research to avoid laying out his money for one food when another would be more to his advantage. Health is pro- verbially the greatest df all blessings, and health A HARD-WORKING DIET. 369 depends on the judicious selection of food suited to the individual constitution, or idiosyncracy, as the old Greeks called it. THE SUBJECT OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS IS NOW RECOGNISED AS OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE. In 1862 a piteous time befell South Lancashire and The first the bordering counties. The people of the cotton enquiry into trade had a long rest from labour. The greater part of the district wore an air of quiet. The habitual din of the mills was hushed, the engine fires did not send their accustomed rolls of smoke up chimney stacks to blacken the sky, the bleach works ceased to taint the air, the busy clatter and thud of the cotton-and-silk hand-looms was stilled in the little dwellings. Looking down from neighbouring hills on groups of towns, the aspect day by day appeared that of a Sabbath. But the women were not in their Sunday dress, and the men were not afield with their dogs or flying their pigeons. Their rest was no holiday of choice ; anxiety marred attempts at enjoy- ment. The quiet meant only no work was to be had. No work meant no money, and no money meant no food. The sufferings of the people were described by the deliberately thoughtful pen of a contemporary historian, well known to students of blue books, though perhaps but little known to readers furnished only with volumes through sub- scription or free libraries. "The staple industry of these densely-peopled districts, the industry which previously gave liveli- hood, direct or indirect, to two millions of population, had for some months been declining, and was now probably at not more than a sixth part of its usual activity. Widespread bitter poverty was of course VOL. I. H. 2 B 370 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN the result; and this poverty was in strong contrast with former circumstances. The affected class was not a common low type proletariat, familiar with parish doles, and preferring pauperism to labour. On the contrary, it was a people .... legitimately proud of its old self-supporting power and independence. Borne down of late by the increasing stress of a poverty which was quickly tending to become absolute privation, the sufferers had not clamoured as to their growing need for help. Even to the last they had rather shrunk from disclosing it .... As wages had begun to fail, first in many cases, there were previous well-earned savings to be exhausted ; then in nearly all cases there was household furniture and bedding, or at least clothing, which might be pawned or sold. Gradually during the summer these resources had been drawn upon .... And now in October a crisis in this long contest was at hand. Besides the pauper- ism which was known, there was an unascertainable but enormous amount of impending destitution. The ill-nourished were in myriads ; . . . . there was im- minent danger that death on a large scale might result directly or indirectly from starvation." Such is the description as addressed by Mr. John Sirnon to the Privy Council. The long-continued suffering was a severe trial. Worse off than people in a besieged town, to whom a successful raid might bring food that would be common store, the starving ones had to regard the rights of property, and to exist amid supplies they could not buy as their own. How the people through all the land sent their money to relieve those who had fallen into such grievous straits through no fault of theirs is commemorated in the window of the Guildhall. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 371 This calamity, which in many of its lessons was so important an event in the commercial history of the country, and which so aroused kindly feeling for those in temporary need, was the cause of the first official inquiry into the diet of any portion of the artizans of England. Workhouse dietaries had before been an object of investigation ; but workhouses contain people who have drifted there from different causes and from different occupations, and after varying periods of struggles for existence in health and weakness. The returns sent in are in a form that suggest that economy in management was the prin- cipal point. There may possibly have been some philanthropic motive in the background, but it is not apparent. Those inquiries went but little to show what was the necessary diet for any particular class of artizan in work as could be learnt from their usual habits. The theory that an Englishman's home is his castle was so far disregarded that Dr. Edward Smith, who had already distinguished himself by inquiries into the kind of foods that furnish muscular power, was sent down in accordance with instructions of the Privy Council to make inquiries into the lives of people in their little castles. Dr. G. Buchanan had been already sent down to be in the suffering districts, at the request of the Lords of the Privy Council, that they might " satisfy themselves that due local precau- tions were being taken to prevent the destitution which breeds diseases " (p. 1 8, Report). The object in sending down Dr. E. Smith is recorded thus " Their Lordships found it expedient also to provide themselves with more exact scientific information than was at the moment available with regard to the 2 B 2 372 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN This was the minute economies of diet." The details of the inquiry first time the . N and C in are lengthy, but the important point for us to re- cakulatS in member is that for the first time the carbon and the enquTry lal nitrogen of diet was recognised in an official inquiry as a basis for its working value. This enquiry, together with others subsequently made in other parts of the country, furnished facts as to how artizans lived, and at the same time Professor Frankland's work furnished the explanation of the origin of muscular power (p. 349). The subject The knowledge gained has hardly yet become national a subject of national education, even though the education. Food Collection" now at Bethnal Green Museum has been successively under the care of Dr. E. Lan- kester, Sir Lyon Playfair, Professor Huxley, Professor Frankland, and Professor Church, who has laboured that its teachings shall contain the latest results with exactitude. The Parkes Museum contains a collec- tion arranged by Mr. Thomas Twining, and Professor Corfield has done much to spread information, yet we can hardly say the subject forms part of national education. Each must think out for himself. RECAPITULATION. Heat and force from Carbon and from Hydrogen. It has been shown that : 1. The complete oxidation of C always results in the formation of CO 2 carbonic acid. The complete oxidation of H always results in the formation of H 2 O water. 2. The supply of O may come (a.) Direct from the air as in such simple ex- periments as those described on pp. 343 and 344. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 373 (b.) Or from a compound that readily gives up its O, (p. 337), which admits of oxidation being made to take place in a closed vessel. (c.) Or, as in the body from the blood where the O is mainly conveyed in the corpuscles. 3. The results of the oxidation of C and H within the body are carbonic acid and water, just the same as if they were oxidized in a candle or lamp. 4. That C and H when oxidized, as all the ele- ments (except fluorine) do give rise to heat, often accompanied by light. 5. That the oxidation of C and H in the body give rise to heat and force, but not such heat as to give light. 6. That the results of the oxidation of C and H with- in the body (the carbonic acid and the water) are, with small exceptions, (p. 352) carried away from the place of oxidation by the blood to the lungs, which, while at each inspiration supplying fresh O to the blood, at each respiration relieves it of some of its CO 2 and H 2 O. 7. That the amount of CO given off by the lungs is therefore a nearly exact measure of the amount of C oxidized. 8. That the result of many careful experiments in collecting and weighing the amount of CO 2 given off at different times shows that more is given off during hard work than during light work. 9. Whether the carbon is being oxidized at a rapid or slow rate, the supply whether immediately used up or stored has to be furnished by the blood to the parts where it is wanted, and the blood receives it from the stomach and associated parts, which, in their turn, obtain it from the foods. 374 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Briefly, carbon enters through the mouth as some form of compound, becomes oxidized in the body, giving rise to heat and force, and leaves the body as carbonic acid. Hydrogen enters also as some compound, becomes oxidized in the body, giving rise to heat and force, and leaves the body as water, mostly in the breath. The amounts given off have to be supplied by foods (see p. 353). Nitrogen. 1. The union of N with H forms ammonia. 2. The N taken into the body in foods leaves it as ammonia. 3. A calculation of the amount of ammonia given off tells therefore the amount of N given off. 4. The amount given off has to be supplied by foods (p. 353). 5. Muscle cannot be formed without N. 6. It appears from experience that a HARD- WORKING DIET must be largely made up of nitro- genous compounds compounds which contain all the four elements, C, H, O, N (p. 358). These must be accompanied by carbon compounds. 7. There are some fish, herring, mackerel, sprats, &c. (see pp. 362 to 364), which have nearly the same N value as beef, mutton, or pork, and, so far as chemistry can tell, hard work can be done on them as well as on meat. 8. We are without the direct evidence of experience. The average daily requirements of those doing only moderate work is (see p. 354) C, 4,900 grains; N, 300 grains. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 375 SECTION II. HISTORICAL. The history of the people of that marvellous land Egypt. of Egypt, the cradle of so many of the arts, is gene- rally, for the convenience of chronological reference, divided off into periods corresponding with the dynasties of its rulers, even though the dates are uncertain. Sir Gardner Wilkinson supposes the date of the reign of Thothmes III. to be B.C. 1463, and assigns the fourth year of his reign as the time of the departure of the Israelites from their bondage. The wars of annexation of this powerful monarch, and of Rameses II. [B.C. 1355] commonly called the Great, who victoriously carried his arms right into the heart of Asia, mark an important era in the history of the nation. Military successes were followed by social changes among the wealthy, who prided themselves on having many luxuries for their use brought at great expense from distant lands. Foreign fish were among the rarities prized. Before this period, however, the use of fish was entirely confined to the toilers of the land. To the higher and priestly class it was forbidden. The home supply in Egypt, as we know from Herodotus, was chiefly derived from the Nile and the numerous canals and lakes, and large quantities of fish were taken after the subsidence of the annual inundation, being stranded on the fields. From the monumental paintings at Thebes and Beni Hassan we have representations of fish capture and curing. Fishing with ground bait, using a landing-net, drawing nets weighted with leads, carrying in and opening fish preparatory to salting, carrying the dried fish on a pole, and groups of people eating fish are 376 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN all depicted. Angling for sport was practised by the wealthy, as is indicated by the dress of the angler comfortably seated, and by the presence of attendants. The net was used by the poor, and the spearing trident by the sportsman. Fishing was under Imperial control, and Herodotus mentions that the profits from the fisheries of Lake Mceris and its canals paid daily into the treasury amounted to a talent of silver, about 193 15^., during the six months the waters were retiring. After the time of the XlXth dynasty, B.C. 1269 to 1 1 80, when fish became a recognised luxury of the banquet, and was imported from the distant waters of the Orontes, Euphrates, Halys, and the lakes of Palestine and North Syria, the Egyptians, like most nations in periods of luxury, turned their attention to fish culture : and the vivaria, or ponds, formed an important part of the domestic establishment of an Egyptian retem or noble. Salted and dried fish, as well as fresh, formed a portion of the diet of the Egyptian ; and the former was especially prescribed as the food to be eaten on fast days. In consequence of the attention given to fish as an article of diet during the golden age of Egypt, three kinds were strictly prohibited. These were the Oxyrhynchus the mezdeh of the Arabs ; the Phagrus, or eel, which to this day is avoided by Orientals, chiefly on account of its unwholesome qualities; and the Lepidotus, which Dr. Birch suggests as the Kelt-el- Bahr, or Nile dogfish, which was not eaten, probably on account of its unpleasant appearance. The Hebrews. The Hebrews, who had formed part of the poorer A HARD-WORKING DIET. 377 population of Egypt, during the time of bondage had been fish eaters. There are many references in their history made to this, e.g. in the book of Numbers (xi. 5). " We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely." They adopted a somewhat similar division between the clean and unclean to that in vogue in Egypt. The Mosaic distinction, which classed fish which had not fins and scales as unclean, was proved by experience to be ambiguous, and led . to many ingenious comments and evasions by Talmudic writers. It was, however, similar to that of the Arabic lawgiver, El Hakim, who would allow none of the finless and scaleless fish to be sold in the markets of Egypt. Long prior to the conquest of Canaan that land had been one of the chief sources of the fish . supply of Egypt, and the names Sidon (Saidu), "the fish town," and the two villages of Bethsaida ("house of fish ") on the Sea of Galilee, still remain to tell of the fisher life of the people. In the time of the historian Nehemiah, Tyrian merchants traded in Jerusalem in sea fish, in the market near the fishgate. The Sea of Galilee furnished the markets of Jerusalem with fresh fish, and during Roman rule a high rent was paid for the right of fishery over the lake, a distinct body of tax collectors being appointed to gather the dues. In the richly watered valleys of the Tigris and Assyria. Euphrates fish was also largely adopted as an article of food, and the monuments of Nineveh furnish illustrations of the various modes of capture employed. As in Egypt, fishing both by net and by line was practised, while attached to the palaces of the kings 378 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN were tanks in which fish were bred and fattened. Among the zoological inscriptions from the palace of Assurbanipal (B.C. 664), the Sardanapalus of Greek writers, are several lists, some of them fragmentary, of the various kinds of fish known to the Assyrians. In the religious calendars found at Babylon, dating about B.C. 550, we find that fish was ordered to be eaten on certain days by the people. The Greeks. Among the ancient Greeks diet received much at- tention, even at an early t period of their history, for Homer is careful to give details of the feasts of his heroes, whom he describes as living not on dainty dishes, but on such foods as were calculated to make them vigorous in body and mind. The characteristic feature of the diet of the Homeric age is, with tem- perance, that the banquet is composed of " viands of simple kind " and " wholesome sort." The chief seem to have been mutton, beef, or pork, roast and in some cases boiled, though the former mode of dressing was more frequent. These imply the possession of herds which represent wealth. To the meats were added bread in abundance, and wine, but no fruit or game or fish are mentioned. We may fairly conclude that the diet thus set forth by Homer as that of the neroes was such as was most regarded at the time Greeks as so o f the wr i te r as productive of mental and bodily muscle- forming as vigour. Familiar with the rich fisheries of the Medi- beef or mutton. terranean, he seems to have regarded fish as the wealth of the sea for the masses of the poor only, but he never once represents fish any more than he does game as being on the table of his great men. For the banquet of the later luxurious age of Greece, so vividly described by Athenaeus in " The A HARD-WORKING DIET. 379 Deipnosophists," we find a much wider scope in diet was adopted, and fish assumes an important place, Its place whether from a falling off from heroic taste or from age of luxury, enlarged knowledge is not clear. It is evident how- ever from his statements that fish was by some not only eaten as a matter of taste, but also from an empirical knowledge of the principles of dietetics. He quotes in his work (bk. iii.) the opinions of several Greek writers and epicures as to the relative suitability of certain fish and preparations of them for the table. On the authority of Diphilus the Siphnian, salt pickled fish was to be avoided on account of its irritant character. Diocles, the Carystian, is his au- thority on the various kinds of tunny (bk. iii., sec. 85), while Archestratus, the epicure, who sailed round the then known world in search of delicacies, is his au- thority as to the most wholesome modes of cooking. In the banquets fish appears in both the first and second course, oysters and salt or pickled fish being taken as hors cFceuvres. Quoting che parodist Matron (bk. ii.) he thus describes the course. After the bread which formed the first part of the Greek banquet both in the Heroic and later ages " Then all to pot herbs stretch their hands in haste, But various viands lur'd my nicer taste, Choice bulbs, asparagus, and, daintier yet, Fat oysters help my appetite to whet." It is probable that the Egyptian birth of Athenseus, he being a native of the city of Naucratis, may have made him so ardent an admirer of fish, and led him to devote the greater part of his seventh book to their study, and to laud in flowing hexameters the various edible kinds. This lavish praise by 380 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN The later value. General inferences. Athenaeus and the numerous authorities he quotes shows that fish was a rec g nised article of diet> anc i that the greatest care was taken in the se- lection of the best and most digestive species for the table. More than forty kinds are enumerated as eaten by the Greeks. Among the shellfish were oysters from Abydus, mussels from JEnus, and cockles from Messene, which were eaten raw, but on account of the amount of salt water they absorb, which rendered them indigestible, Mnesitheus, the Athenian, recom- mends their being boiled ; the reason he states being that when boiled they get rid of all, or at all events of most, of their saltness. Of the sea-fish eaten we find mention of tunny, turbot, mullet, char, and conger eels as most in favour, while pike, eels, and gray- ling represent the freshwater fish. The great fond- ness of the epicure for fish is illustrated by an anec- dote preserved to us by Athenaeus. Philoxeus of Cytheras, learning from his doctor that he was going to die of indigestion, from having eaten too much of a most exquisite fish "Be it so," he exclaimed ; " but before I go allow me to finish the remainder." So far as we can gather the history of fish-eating among the Greeks seems to have been this : the poor always used them as the many streams and countless bays and inlets of the irregular coast furnished them in abundance. The wealthy who relied on their herds and flocks for food, despised fish till in the later period of fastidious luxury the daintier kinds, or those which could only be obtained at trouble and cost, became fashionable delicacies. Those who A HARD-WORKING DIET. 381 studied their use from a dietetic point of view are sure to have been a minority. It is so in every land. We know very little of fish eating among the The Romans. Romans. It is probable that whether under kings ^ntylnfbr- triumvirs emperors, or after the dismemberment of ^oTfishb* the nation, it was much used by the people of the ^ mass f the popula- land as it was plentiful, but what everybody did no tion. one thought of recording. From the satires written on the follies of the luxurious age, we know more of occasional freaks of extravagance than we do from history of the regular habits of the people. No Roman banquet was complete without its fish course, and most lavish prices were paid for tur- bot and mullet. As with the Greeks, the Romans used oysters from Britain or from Lucrini Lake with pickled tunny, similar to the scabeccio of modern Italy as hors d'ceuvres, while turbot, mullet, sturgeon, char, eels, lamprey, and pike, dressed with a skill probably little, if at all, behind that of the chef of the present day, were part of the first course. The taste of the Romans for fish was so fine that not only were various species of fish selected, but those from certain waters or fed in certain pools were held to be especially good. This attention to condition led to the con- struction of stews or fish-ponds in which fish were preserved and fed for the table, In the reign of Domitian, Vedius Pollio is reported to have fed the eels in his pools with the flesh of slaves put to death for that purpose, but though strongly rebuked by the emperor this act met with no serious punishment. In the main the use of fish among the Romans 3 82 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN The use of fish in other countries at the present time. was similar to that of the Greeks, but the gourmets of the empire had invented many varied modes of dressing them, and had sent far and wide over all the empire in search of delicacies for the banquet. Not content with the rich supply of the Mediterranean and the lakes and rivers of Italy, fish was imported from Britain, from Greece, Egypt, and the Danubian provinces, and even the rivers of Syria and Asia Minor furnished their delicacies to the Imperial banquets. Of both the Greeks and Romans, however, we know next to nothing of the way in which fish was used by the masses of the people. At the present day fish forms a very large element in the diet of many nations and tribes. So largely is fish eaten in China that the home supply is not sufficient, and vast numbers of the population find employment in obtaining it from other countries. One of the chief imports is the beche-de-mer or trepany, a species of sea-slug, much prized as a delicacy by the Chinese gourmets. Fiji and the islands of Polynesia furnish the largest quantities, and from them also there is a steady supply of dried sharks' fins, which are regarded as especially nourish- ing on account of the great amount of gelatinous matter they contain. The great salmon fisheries of Yezo, so well described by Miss Bird, find a ready market in China, but for some reason not wholly for home consumption, as several million pounds of dried or preserved salmon are exported every year. Throughout China the millions who form the A HARD-WORKING DIET. 383 population dwelling entirely on boats or rafts on the rivers and canals, find their chief sustenance in fish or water-fowl. The tribes of Beloochistan feed almost entirely upon fish, and fish boiled or dried is even given to the cattle during times of scarcity. The Tartar tribes of Siberia and Central Asia, the Esquimaux, Coreans, Greenlanders, the coast tribes of North America, and the Indian races of both North and South America, as well as some of the Aboriginal tribes of Australia and New Zealand, live almost entirely upon fish diet. In some cases it is consumed in a raw state, as in Hawaii, where a meal is thus described by M. Ruschenberger : " The earth floor was covered with mats, and groups of men squatted in a circle, with gourd plates before them. They ate of the raw fish, occasionally sopping the torn animal in salt water, as a sauce, then sucking it." The diet of the inhabitants of New Guinea is described by Admiral Moresby as consisting of " Roots, fruits of trees, vegetables, &c., but chiefly fish caught in holes in the bed of the river." Again, " fish of all sorts is everywhere so plentiful along the shore that they may be caught with the greatest ease in uncommon abundance." That fish diet is conducive to the health and Fish diet - . conducive to stamina of the people is shown by the opinion of the health, people expressed by a traveller who says, " They (the Papuans) have a large stature beyond European, and larger than that of a people of more miscellaneous diet." This latter statement is quite in agreement with the opinion of fish diet expressed by Dr. Davey, who directed much attention to the subject, and thus sums up his results : " In no class than that of fishers 384 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN do we see larger families, handsomer women, and more robust and active men, or greater exemption from illness." SELECTIONS FROM HISTORIC NOTICES OF THE FORMER USE OF FISH IN ENGLAND. The following extracts are made for the con- venience of those who do not find them in their own public libraries. They may suggest ideas as to the extent fish may be again used in diet as well as objects for sport, or for being kept in ponds only for ornament. Some of them are curiously quaint, but they all seem to show that, whatever the period from which the quotation is made, more attention was paid to the use of fish than has been in this iQth century up to the time of the Fisheries Exhibition. Time of I. TIME OF EDWARD IV. Edward IV. From Joannis Lelandi, in ' Collectanea de Rebus,' vol. VI., " Out of an old Paper Roll." The great feast at the intronization of the Reverende Father in God, George Nevell, Archbishop of Yorke and Chancellor of Englande in the 6th year of the reigne of King Edward the Fourth. And first the goodly provision made for the same. Amongst other things there were the following fishes : > Pikes and Breames, Porpoises and Scales. Here followeth the serving of fish in order. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 385 First Course. First potage, Almonde butter, Red Herringe, Salt fish, Luce salt, salt Eel, boiled Keyling, boiled Codling, boiled Haddock, Thirlepoole (roast), Pike in Rarbite, Eels (baked), Salmon chynes (broiled), Turbot (baked), and Fritters (fried). Second Course. Fresh Salmon jowles, salt Sturgeon, Whitings, Pilchards, Eels, Mackerel, Plaice (fried), Barbelles, Conger (roast), Trout, Lamprey (roast), Bret, Turbot, Roches, Salmon (baked), Lynge in jelly, Breame (baked), Tench in jelly, Crabbes. Third Course. Jowles of fresh Sturgeon, great Eels, broiled Conger, Chenens, Breame, Rudes, Lamprones, small Perches (fried), Smelts (roast), Shrimps, small Menewes, Thirlepoole (baked), and Lobster. 2. HENRY VII. Time of In the following record of a celebrated series of fish " meals " it is difficult to know whether to call them feasts or not. The " Sabbati " means Saturday. " Intronizatio Wilhelmi Warham, Archiepiscopi Cantaur, in passione Anno Henrici 7, vicesimo et Anno Dom. 1504, nono die Martii." " The hye stewarde of this feast was Lord Edward, Duke of Buckingham, and was also chief butler, making his deputy Sir Thomas Burghey, Knight." Die Sabbati ad prandium Ducis. Summa sercu- lorum in die Sabbati seq. Cum servit Archiepiscopi et Ducis. Primus Cursus. Lyng in oil, Conger in oil, Pike in satin sauce, Conger (roast), Salmon in oil (roast), Carp in sharp sauce, Eels (roast), Custarde (planted). Secundus Cursus. Frumentie royall Mamonie to potage, Sturgeon in oil with Welkes, Soles, Breame (sharp sauce), Tenches (floryshed), Lam- pornes (roast), Roches (fried), Quynce (baked), Tart Melior Leche Florentine, Fritter ammel. VOL. I. H. 2 C 386 ON THE PLACE OP FISH IN Die Sabbati ad coenam. First Cursus. Lyng, Pike, Salmon in sorry, Breames (baked), Conger (roast) in oil, Eels and Lamperones (roast), Leche comfort 7, Creame of Almondes, Sturgeon and Welkes, Salmon (broiled), Tench in jelly, Perch in sorry, Dulcet amber, Tart of Proynes,* Leche Tramor. On the following day, Passion Sunday, the 9th of March, the year of our Lord 1 505, in the 2nd yeare of the reigne of King Henry the 7th. The first course at my Lord's table in the great hall was as follows : Primus Cursus. Frumentie royal and mainmonie to potage, Lyng in oil, Conger p. in oil, Lampreys with galantine, Pike in latmer sauce, Conger (roast), Halibut (roast), Salmon in oil (roast), Carp (sharp sauce), Eels (roast), Salmon (baked), Custarde (planted), Leche Florentine, Frittered Dolphin. Secundus Cursus. Tolie Ipoccas and prune dreudge to potage, Sturgeon in oil with Welkes, Turbot, Soles, Breame in sharp sauce, Carp in armine, Tenches florished, Crevesses, Lamprons (roast), Roches (fried). Lampreys (baked), Tart Melior, Leche Florentine, Fritter ammell, Fritter pome.f Afterwards the Duke is served in his chamber with a separate meal : Frumentie and Hamonie for potage, Lyng in oil, Conger in oil, Lampreys with galantine, Pike in latmer sauce, Turbot, Salmon in oil, Carp in sharp sauce, Eels (roast), Breame in paste, Custard (planted), Leche Comfort, Fritter Dolphin. At the Archbishop's board end. First course like to the Duke's, except two dishes less in the whole course, that is to say, Salmon in oil and Eels roasted. At which board the Archbishop did sit. * ? Prawns. t ? Apples. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 387 At the Lord Stewarde's board : Second Course. Jolie Ipocras tart to potage, Sturgeon in oil with Welkes, Conger, Breame in sharp sauce, Carp in grenine, Tench (flory- shed), Crevesses, Lampreys (roast), Salmon in Alowes, Soles (fried), Lamprey paste, Tart Melior, Leche Florentine, Fritter ammell, Quinces and orange paste. At the Archbishop's board end same as the Lord Steward except two dishes, Crevesses d.d. Lampreys. For the hall at the Bretherns Board. First Cursus. Rice molens potage, Ling in oil, Conger in oil, Lamprey with galantine, Salmon, Pike in latmer, Custarde royal, Leche Damaske, Fritter Dolphin. Second Cursus. Joly Amber, Sturgeon in oil, Torbut in oil, Soles, Breame de river, Carp (sharp sauce), Tench (floryshed), Eels and Lampreys (roast), Tart Lombarde, Quince paste, Leche Cyprus, Fritter. Messes to be served for another suite for the Great Hall and Chambers : First Course. Rice moiens potage, Lyng, Lamprey or Eel, Pike in herbiage, Cod or Haddock, Breame paste, Leche Damaske, Frittered Dolphin. Second Course. Joly Amber potage, Sturgeon in oil, Carp or Breame in sharp sauce, Salmon in oil, Eels (roast), Orange paste, Tart Lombardi, Leche Cyprus, Frittered Columbine. For the little Hall: Eels in sorry pot, Lyng, Salmon or Eel, Sturgeon, Turbot or Bret, Whiting, Bream or Eel paste, Leche Cyprus, Quince paste, Frittered pome. 2 C 2 388 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN For the Vailes : Eels in sorry pot, Lyng, Haddock, Whiting, Plaice, Eel paste, Leche Cyprus. For the Hall at second dinner of servitors : Lyng in oil, Conger in oil, Pike (latmer sauce), Lampreys with galantine, Conger, Halibut, Salmon in oil, Custarde (planted ), Leche comfort,* Frittered Dolphin. For my Lord Archbishop, Lord Steward and other Lords sitting at a board at night : Joly Ipoccas, Leches (floryshed), Lamprey paste, Quince and orange paste, Tart Melior, Leche Florentine, Marmalade, Succade, Comfettes, Wafers, with Ipoccas. On the following Monday. For my Lord : First Course. Rice molens potage, Lyng in oil, Conger in oil, Eels, Pike in oil, Haddock or Plaice, Salmon, Breame paste, Leche Damaske, Fritter pome. Second Course. Homonie potage, Sturgeon and Welkes, Breame in oil, Tenches in grisell, Roaches (fried), Carp (broiled), Chynes of Salmon (broiled), Eels and Lamprey (roast), Quince paste, March pear, Leche Florentine, Fritter orange. For the Knights' and Dukes' Council : First Course. Rice potage, Lyng, Conger, Eels, Pike in sharp sauce, Haddock, Plaice, Salmon, Breame paste. Second Course. Homine potage, Sturgeon, Breame in oil, Tench in grisell, Carp (broiled), Chynes of Salmon (broiled), Eels and Lampreys (roast) Quince paste, Leche Florentine, Frittered orange. * ? Comfit. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 389 For the principal mess in the Hall : First Course. Eels in sorry pot, Lyng, Salmon, Eel, Pike in sharp sauce, Haddock. Second Course. Plaice, Salmon, Breame paste, Leche Florentine, Fritter orange. The common fare of both the Halls : Eels in sorry pot, Lyng, Salmon, Eels, Pike (sharp sauce), Haddock or Plaice, Plaice, Quinces and tart paste, Leche Florentine. 3. DATE 1512 to 1525. A. \\\)d. (33^. $d.} To the same parties for white herrings follows, on 390 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN the same account for the "hole yeare," \rnli. xs. For Salt Fishe do. do. (18 For Rede Herringe, do. do. (63* For Sprootis (sprats ?), do. do. (los.) Far Salmon Salt somme c. s. do. do. (5.) For Salt Sturgeon IDS. the ferekyne, ditto ditto. (30^.) What is allowed for breakfast. This is the ordre of suche braikfast as shal be allowed in my Lord's house, every Lent begynnyng at Shrovetide, and ending at Easter. What they shall have at breakfast Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday except my Lord's children, which shall have breakfast every day in the week in Lent. For my Lord and Lady. First a loaf of bread in trenchers, ii manchets, a quart of beire, a quart of wine, ii pieces of salt fish, vi baconned herrings, iv white herring or a dish of sproits, i. Breakfast for my Lord Peircy and Master Thomas. First a loaf of bread in trenchers (same as preceding, only half the quantity). For the nursery for Lady Margaret and Master Tugeram Peircy A manchet, a quart of beer, a dish of butter, a piece of salt fish, a dish of sproits or four white herrings. For my Lady's gentlewoman a loaf of bread, a pottell (bottle ?) of beer, a piece of salt fish, or three white herrings. For my Lord's Breder and head officers of house- hold two loafs of breed, a manchet, a gallon of beer, two pieces of salt fish and four white herrings, i. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 391 Then follow directions in similar style, for gentle- man ushers and marshalls of hall. For gentlemen of household, viz. korvers, cup- bearers, &c. For ii meas (mess ?) of gentlemen o' th' chapel and a meas of children. For my Lord's clerks viz. clerks of the kitchen, &c. For goemen officers of household, &c. Here follows flesh days. Then comes breakfast of fish to be allowed within my Lord's house on Saturdays throughout the year " OUTE OF LENT." My Lord and my Lady, a loaf of bread in trenchers, two manchets, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, a dish of butter, a piece of salt fish or a dish of buttered eggs. And so on all the household salt fish or buttered eggs. [Another extract, date 1610, is given at the end of the book.] 4. DATE 1259 to 1400. ROGERS' ' HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE AND PRICES IN ENGLAND.' Vol. I. THE following is a curious old memorandum of the 1 4th century : " Be it rememberyd that y Elys holcote wardeyne Prices A.D. of Merton College in Oxforde owe to Will Thommys Cytesyn and Stokke fysch monger of londone for dyverse ffysche bowght of the same Will xiii li. vis. iiird. (payabyle) to be payd at Wytsontyde next comynge aftyr the date of the bylle. In wytneise whereof y have sett my seal to the present bylle yevyn at londone on the feest of Seynt valentyn 392 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Stock-fish. Herrings. the yere of the Reyne of Kynge Kerry the vj th aftyr the Conquest xxv*V This acknowledgment also contains endorsement of receipts on account written by the creditor or his agent. The original is in Holcot's writing. Stock-fishmonger was a regular branch of trade in medieval times. Salt herrings, red and white, salmon, eels, sturgeon, lampreys, haddock, lyng, morucae (which are said to be cod), mulvells, melyng, hake, haburden, cropling, dogdrave, and hard, stock and salt fish, were all cured. Fish was then expensive. In those days whale and porpoise were favourite dishes, as well as conger eels. Piscaries were very valuable property, farmed by owners or let at high rents. The eel fishery of Wythornesemere is made the object of an annual account and audit on the part of the Countess Isabella de Fortibus, as was also the salmon fishery of Westshene, the property of the King (Edward II.). The piscary of Dibden was rented by fishermen under the Provost and Corpora- tion of God's House in Southampton ; and the fishing in Cherwell at Oxford was let by the warden and fellows of Merton, whenever this Corporation did not consume its produce in their own commons. Herrings were usually bought by the thousand (1,200)) occasionally by the last (containing ten such thousand). They were purchased sometimes in very large quantities, as, for instance, in Winchester in 1259 on behalf of the Bishops ; at Rochester, for the purpose of victualling the castle against the siege, 1263 ; at Sandwich, and especially at Acle, where Roger Bigod appears to have had a castle. Large quantities were bought at Wolrichston against harvest time; the A HARD-WORKING DIET. 393 proprietors of that manor dealing out a certain number of herrings to their servants at that time. In Norfolk and Suffolk, the centre of the herring trade, prices were comparatively moderate ; going inland, carriage added considerably to the price of the fish. O spring, in Kent. There are sixteen entries, prices uniform, between the years of 1277 and 1295. Herrings then were 8s. ^d. the thousand in that place, and lowest in price at Waleton on the Eastern coast. Prices were high in 1311-1320, and during the last fifty years of this enquiry seven herrings were sold for one penny, and at about fourteen a penny, on the average of the previous ninety years. Before and after the plague herrings were sold by the cade (500 or 600 of fish) at the rate of $s. %\d. All these entries are at the close of the I4th century. Prices * varied. In 1318 it was as low as ^d. a Salmon, pound at Oxford ; as high at Gloucester in 1327 as 6s. $d. At Westshene (Richmond) * : d. Salmon sold in 1313 were worth 513 o 3 10 o 210 990 8 i o 6 14 o o 13 6 This was Crown property, and besides the profit derived from the sale of the fish caught, the manor * In 1846, and later, salmon was purchased at 6d. a Ib. in the south-west of Ireland. Do. I3IS Do. 1316 Do. 1317 Do. 1319 Do. 1320 Do. 1321 394 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN received certain payments from fishermen licensed to angle or net parts of the piscary. On an average these licences amount to los. \\d. annually. Thames salmon sold at very high prices ; their value, when expressed in present money, being on an average 2 i$s. lod. No salmon are now taken in the Thames, sewage having destroyed them. Christchurch fish was about the same value. But none equal the value of Severn fresh fish, sold at Gloucester at 6s. $d. each. This is enormous despite the traditional price of Severn fish. Eltham they were sold for is. 6d. In this record salt fish is expressly named ; thus fourteen are named as being purchased at Gloucester at 2s. 9%d. ; six at Conway in 1392 at 2s. 6d. ; three at Hardlaugh that is Harlech at I id. each. In 1 3 1 6 a sturgeon was caught at Mortlake which the bailiff of Westshene purchased for i for the King's use. By a statute of the same reign (16 Ed. II. cap. i) all sturgeon, wherever caught, are declared vested in the Crown by virtue of its dignity or prerogative, and are to be delivered without purchase. Lampreys. Lampreys were considered the choicest of fish. They were expensive luxuries in the year 1284, selling in Clare at *js. a dozen, and in Bridgnorth, in 1392, 6s. 8d. was the price for a single dish. Eels. The dearest eels were those caught at Wythornese- mere in Yorkshire, which sold at 3^. 8d. the stick of twenty-one. All these entries are before the plague. After those are two entries of salt eels, in 1392 at 6d, in 1398 at 2s. y the stick. Conger eels were bought at Winchester in 1259, at Branndon in 1327. The latter gives an entry of porpoise purchased at 8d. If these A HARD-WORKING DIET. 395 were bought, as would appear to be the case in War- wickshire, both porpoise and conger must have been salted. The earliest date at which pike (Lupi aqudtici) are Pike, quoted is 1277, Lambwaith (probably the present Lambeth). Two years after they are found three suc- cessive years at the same place, and called " pikerell." They were also taken at Cherwell, Gosford, and at Oxford. With one exception (Cambridge, 1342) all other pike were taken from the lower portion of the Cherwell, and probably in medieval times these pike had as great a reputation as they bear now. There are few entries of oysters. But the rate of Oysters, those taken at Thorney in Sussex is uniform half- penny the hundred. And at Sharpness in Kent yd. the bushel. Mussels are also quoted from this place at $d. the bushel. 5. DATE 1401 to 1582. A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE AND PRICES IN ENGLAND.' Rogers. Gives average prices of fish for the last fifty years Prices A. D. of the fourteerich century : J. d. * J. d. Herring (red), cade . 6 4J o 10 ii i 58 Do. (white), barrel ii 6 o 12 9 i 98 Sprats, cade . o i 6J o 2 8 i 75 Salmon, barrel I 7 3i 2 15 8 2 04 Ling 1 , c . c 4 ^ Q ^ I 76 Cod c ..... J 2 i A Q s 2 v/ IS y I / Stock fish, c. . I T- 7 y 4i I A J 7 oi I 38 Salt fish, warp . O i 8* O 2 4 I 24 The first column is the average between the years 396 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN 1401-1540, the second that of 1541 and 1582, the third is the ratio of the rise in the later period approximately calculating to two places of decimals, the first column being taken as a unity. There is also another entry. Before the Reformation religious houses consumed a vast amount of fish, and a fish diet, partly ecclesias- tical rule, partly from necessity, occupied a large portion of the year. After the Reformation the Anglican Church continued to prescribe a fish diet on fast days and in Lent, partly to sustain a national industry, partly as a relic of ancient rule. Most of the prices here collected are of salt fish for keeping, for winter and Lenten diet. Monks are said to have imported the grayling of the Shropshire and Here- fordshire streams. All fish was dear at the beginning of the fifteenth century, lowest during the forty years 1481-1520 inclusive. White herring were purchased at Cambridge only, the red at Oxford also. Fresh salmon, Canterbury, 1404, sold at the enor- mous price of 7s. each ; at Bicester and Cambridge in 1439 fr m IO< ^ to !* io< At Oxford in 1450 price from is. ^d. to is. lod. s. d. At Netley Abbey 1455 at i 4 Cambridge . 1461 i 3 1463 i 2 Oxford . . 1471 ,,05 Wymondham 1492 i 2 Cambridge . 1495 o 8 Thornbury . 1507 3 o A HARD-WORKING DIET. 397 At Durham in 1530 there were purchases of fresh salmon at low prices, while in 1529 the King bought five fresh salmon at is. each. Salmon was far more commonly sold salt and by the barrel, also by the pipe. The Severn salmon is best quality, and always takes the highest price. No salt salmon sold between 1421-1440, but nine fresh were bought at is. each in 1437. Eels were purchased salt by the barrel, and its sub- Eels, division, the stick ; price generally high. Eels were frequently bought during the fifteenth century, but ceased to be purchased in the sixteenth century. Bought in 1404 at 3^., in 1406 at is. i^d., in 1451 Salt Conger. at 6d. each, in 1456 at is. t in 1527 at is. yd., in 1534 at 4s. 8d., and in 1537 at 5^. It is asserted pike was brought to England in 1537 (vide Albin), and carp imported in 1514 by Leonard Maschal. However, the entries quoted show pike and pickerell to have been in this country in the fourteenth century. * d. In 1404 cost 500 the hundred. Pike. 1472 o 2 o each. J 530 o 3 6 1531 ,,040,, Dentrice vary from 4^. to 3^. qd. each, though in Dentrice. 1435 half a hundred were bought at los. the hundred. Dentriculi were cheaper ; sixty cost 4$. 6d. in 1452. Pentriculi. s. d. Trout in 1429 cost 2 2j each. Trout. 1530 o I Durham. 1533 o 74 Lewes. 398 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN d. Tench. Roach Dace. Flounders. Porpoise Denison, 1492, on best season for fish, In 1451 cost o o I J each. 1530 '533 2 8i 1 19 6 were given in Durham for 237- were is. 4d. to $\d. each. In 1535 2s. the hundred. Do. do. was much bought ; the Duke of Bucks gave ?s. lod. for a quarter of one in 1444 ; while Sion Abbey paid los. for the same delicacy in 1502. In 1530-3 at Durham their price varied from 15^. to 6s. 8d.,m 1531 from 4s. to 13^., in 1532 9^., in 1533 one whole porpoise cost is. 8d. There follows a regular table of prices of all kinds offish from the year 1401-1582. 6. DENISON (ALFRED). 1492. The earliest Treaties on A ngling. (Privately printed 1872 translated from Flemish.) Best Season for Fish. SALMON. April and May, and a little while after it is at its very best, and remains so till the day of St. James. Then it must be left until St. Andrew's day, and is best between St. Michael's Mass and St. Martin's. PIKE CARP. Pike is best in July. Only the pike is good at all times, only except when he sees the rye he spawns. Item : the fore part is best, as it is with other fishes. TENCH FLIE. Always best in June. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 399 PERCH. Good except in April and May. BREAME MACKEREL. Good in February and March. MULLET. Is good in March and April. KULLINCK. Is best at Candlemas day, and continues good in April. RUDD. Good in February and March, falls off in 'May. GUDGEONS. Good February, March, April, until May only the young gudgeon is always good with parsley. BLEAK. Best in autumn. STICKLEBATS. Are good in March and the beginning of May ; when they are full they shall be stirred with eggs. EEL. Eel is good in May, till the day of the Assumption of our Lady. LAMPHREY. Is never better than in May. And LAMPHERN, its brother, is good from the 13 Mass to the day of our Lady's Annunciation. CRAYFISH. Best March and April, particularly when the moon increases they are best. Here ends this little book, that is very profitable. And this book was caused to be printed by Matthias Van der Gose. 7. 'Hc-LiNSHED CHRONICLES.' 1586. HOOKER. Hooker, 1586. Vols. /., //. Third book, chap. 3. " Of Fish value taken on our Coasts" There is no house, even of the meanest houses, which hath not one or more ponds, reservations of water, stored with some of them (fish), tench, carp, 400 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN breame, roch, dace, eels, or such like, as will live and breed together. It is not possible to tell the names of all the fishes to be found in our rivers. Yet, lest I seem incurious to the reader, in not delivering so many of them as have been brought to my know-v ledge, I will not let to set them down as they do come to mind. Salmon. First, salmon, which is not to be taken from the middst of September to the middst of November, are very plentifull in our greatest rivers, as their young store are not to be touched from mid- April to Mid- summer. We have Trout, barbell, graile, powt, chenin, pike, gudgeon, smelt, perch, menan, shrimps, crenises, lampreies, and such like, whose preservation is provided for by divers laws ; not only in rivers but in lakes and ponds which otherwise would be small value to their owners. Friendship of The pike is friend unto the tench. The fish- pike to tench. monger openeth the side of the pike and layeth bare the fat unto the buyer, for the better utterance of his ware, and cannot make him away at the present ; he laieth the same again in the proper place, and sewing up the wound, he restoreth him to the pond where tenches are ; who never cease to lick and suck his greeved places till they have restored him to health and made him ready to come again to the stall when his turn come about. I might here make report how pike, carp, and some other of our river fishes are sold by inches of clean fish, from the gills to the crotch of the tail, but it is needless ; also how the pike as he ageth receiveth divers names ; as from a frie to a gilthed, pod, tacke, pickerell, pike, and last of all luce. Also that salmon is A HARD-WORKING DIET. 401 first a gravellin, then salmon peale, then pug, finally salmon. I might finally tell you how in fennie rivers sides, Eels. if you cut a turf and place it grass downward on the earth, so that the water may touch it as it goes past, you shall have a brood of eels. It would seem a wonder, and yet it is believed by some, that if you lay a horsehair in a pail of the like water, it will shortly stir and become a living creature. Sea Fish. All have particular season, few fish being in season Soles, all the year round. December and January 'is the season for herring and Seasons of red fish, rocket &n.<\ gurnard. February and March for plaice, trout, turbot, mussels, etc. In April and May, mackerel and cockles. In June and July, conger. In August and September, haddock and herring doth most abound. Of fishes, therefore, I find five sorts, the flat, the Five sorts round, the long, the legged and shelled ; so the flat are divided into the smooth, scaled and tailed. Of the first are the plaice, the but, the turbot, vict floke First, or sea flounder, dory, dab, etc. Of the second, the Second soles. Of the third our chaits, maidens, kingsons, Third, flath and thornbark ; whereof the greater be for the most part either dried and carried into other countries, or sodden, sold and eaten at home ; while the lesser be fried or buttered soon after they be taken as a provision, not to be kept long for fear of putrifaction. Under the round kinds are comprehended lumps ; Fourth, an ugly fish to sight but very delicate eating. The Lumps< whiting, the rochet, sea breame, pirle (?), hake, sea-trout, VOL. I. II. 2 D 402 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN gurnard, haddock, cod, herring, pilchard, sprat, and such like. Under this kind also are the great fish Thirlepole. contained, the seal, dolphin, porpoise, the thirlepole, whale, and whatsoever be round of body, be it great or small. Fifth. Of the long sort are congors, eels, garefish, and such other of that form. Sixth. Finally of the legged kind we have not many ; neither have I more of the sort than the Polypus, called the English lobster, crayfish or crenis, and the crab. As for the little crayfish, they are not taken in the sea, but in our fresh rivers. Lobster. Carolans Stephanus doubted whether lobster be fish or not , and in the end concluded them to grow of the purgation of the water as doth the frog ; and those also not to be eaten, for that they be strong and very hard of digestion. Oysters. We have plenty of oysters, whose value in old time for their sweetness was not unknown in Rome (although Mutianus, as Pliny noteth, lib. 32, chap. 6, prefer the czicena before them) ; we have mussels and cockles. We have likewise no small store of great winkles, scalops and periwinkles, and each of them far into the land from the sea coast in their several seasons. And albeit all our oysters are generally forborne for the foure hot months, May, June, July, August, which are void of the letter R, yet in some places they be continually eaten, where they be kept in pits. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 403 8. ' BUTTES ' (HENRY). I 599. Henry Buttes, I599- "Dyets, Dryr Fish. Choice, whenever you can get it, great or little. Carp. Nourished! best, tasteth most excellently and ex- quisitely ; in all men's judgment a fish of chief note. Only it soon tainteth, therefore dress it presently. Lay it scaled and gutted five hours in salt, then fry it in oil and besprinkle it with vinegar in which spice and saffron have boiled. Temperately hot and moist, in the beginning of the first. For any season or constitution. Thick ; caught in May, in a swift running river, Trout. full of deep downfalls and rocks, and not out of standing pools. Nourisheth well ; soon digested ; yields a cool juice for an over-hot liver and blood ; therefore good in hot agues. It soon putrifieth. Scarce fit for old men and weak stomach. Seeth it in just so much vinegar as water ; eat it with sour sauce as soon as you can. Seasonable in hot weather for all but decrepid ; every temperature but phlegmatic. Our vulgar proverb hath it, " As sound as a trout." River sturgeon is fatter and therefore more grateful Sturgeon. to the palate than sea sturgeon. Seasonable in summer, the belly the best. A friendly dish on the table, very dainty and of chief account. Nourisheth well ; inciteth Venus ; cooleth the blood moderately. Naught for the sick or in recovery, for it is some- what fat ; makes thick and clammy juice, slowly digested. Seeth it in water and vinegar with a little cinnamon or fennel in it. Seasonable in hot weather for all but those plagued with distillations and diseased joints. 2 D 2 404 ON THE PLACE OP FISH IN Mullett or Barbell. Lamprey. River. In March or April for then it is notably good and the backbone marrow tenderest. It hath a most excellent fine relish, nourisheth passing well ; increaseth seed. A lordly dish. Somewhat slow of digestion, specially not boiled enough ; naught for the gout, or feeble sinews. Choake it with white wine, stop the mouth with a nutmeg, and the other holes with cloves ; then fry it with nuts, bread, oil, spices and white wine. For any season, age, constitu- tion, but decripit, goutie, and diseased sinews. Of the lesser size are best, not taken in muddy water but on clear gravel. Pleasing to the palate ; the flesh applied cures the biting of venemous things. The wine wherein mullet is cooked is injurious should not be used, destructive to fecundity, the meat is hard and slow of digestion. Roast upon a gridiron sprinkled with oil and the juice of oranges ; or boiled with vinegar, sweet herbes and saffron. Suitable for youth and cholericke young stomackes. The Romans prized this fish at a wonderful high rate, and it is incredible what Asinius gave for a mullet. Tench, Small river, in autumn or winter most seasonable. It little benefiteth the body, only some think cut lengthway and applied to the feet stancheth the heat of ague. Is slow of digestion, heavy on the stomach, bad nourishment, specially in the dog days. Bake it with garlic, sweet herbs and spices, oil, onions, and raisins, garlic, parsley and vinegar. Fit for youth, collerick and very labouring men. Pike. River rather than pond. Great, fresh, new and fat ; nourisheth much. The jawbones burnt to powder and given, the weight of a french crown, in wine will break the stone. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 405 Hard of concoction. Bad nutriment, burdens the stomacke not for the sick. Seeth with sweet herbs and oil ; eat with vinegar, or boiled with wild marjoram and vinegar. Fit for winter, youth and chollerick. The following is a curious rhyming account of opinions of the value of certain fish. Dray ton, in his Polyolbion, has (in 25 song), Holland's oration " What fish can any shore, or British sea town show, That's eatable to us, that it doeth not bestow Abundantly thereupon ; the Herring king of sea, The faster-feeding Cod, the Mackerell brought by May, The dainty Sole and Plaice, the Dab, as of their blood ; The Conger finely sous'd, hote summer's coolest food ; The Whiting knowne to all, a general wholesome dish ; The Garnet, Rochet, Mayd, and Mullet, dainty fish ; The Haddock, Turbet, Bert, fish nourishing and strong; The Thornback and the Scate, provocative among ; The Weaver, which although his prickles venom bee, By fishers cut away, which buyers seldome see ; Yet for the fish he bears, 'tis not accounted bad : The Sea-flounder is here, as common as the Shad ; The Sturgeon cut to keggs (too big to handle whole) Gives many a dainty bit out of his lusty tole, Yet of rich Neptune's store, whilst thus I idely chat, Think not that all betwixt the Wherpoole and the Sprat, I goe about to name, that were to take in hand The Atomy to tell, or to cast up the sand." 1 598. Epigram De Piscatione. " Fishing, if I a fisher may protest, Of pleasures is the sweetest, of sports the best; Of exercises the most excellent ; Of recreations the most innocent. But now the sport is marde, and wott ye why ? Fishes decrease, and fishers multiply." COLLIER'S Poetical Decameron, vol. ii., p. 108. 406 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Dennis de DE COETLOGON (DENNIS). Coetlogon, I745> Vol. I. ' Universal History of Arts and Sciences: Fishing. First sal ting Salting herring was not discovered until 1416, though some date it from 1397. Willoughby, in his ' History of Fishes/ observes that Will Buckelty or Baccbalen, a native of Bier-ulict, rendered his name immortal by the discovery of the secret of curing and pickling herring. He adds that the Emperor Charles V. coming into the low countries made a journey to the Isle of Bier-ulict with the Queen of Hungary, on purpose to see the tomb of this first Barreleer of herrings. The Dutch are of first quality. Comparison of The Irish next in value after the Holland, prin- juaiity her- cipally those of Dublin, which are scarce inferior to those of the best Rotterdam or Enkuysen. The Scotch are not so well prepared, salted, etc., as the Dutch. It is not doubted that if the Scotch were as careful as their neighbours, their herring would be the best in the world. First fishing The Hollanders were the first to begin herring fishing (they are the most industrious people in the world to acquire wealth). Their first regular fishing is fixed to the year 1163. They begin 24 June, and employ 10,000 vessels therein, called Busses ; they carry from forty-five to sixty tuns, and two or three small cannon. They are not allowed out of port without convoy, unless there be enough of them together to make eighteen or twenty pieces of cannon. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 407 A Brief Note of the Benefits that growe to this Realme J. Erswicke, by the Observation of Fish-daies. With a Reason * and Cause wJterefore the Law in that behalf is made. J. ERSWICKE, 1642. The first cause mentioned is for the maintenance of the navy. Second cause, that many towns and villages upon the sea coast are of late years wonderfully decayed, and some depopulated, which in times past were replenished not only with fishermen and great store of shipping, but sundry other artificers, as shipwrightes, smiths, rope-makers, net, sail makers, &c., and others mainly supported by fishing. That hereby they may be renewed, the want wereof is, and has been, a cause of numbers of idle persons with whom the realm is greatly damaged ; and this happeneth by the un- certainty of the sale of fish, and the contempt which in eating of fish is conceived. Many other things for confirmation hereof might be spoken, the weath and commodity that fishing doth bring to this realm ; the cause that certain days and times for expence of fish must of necessity be observed, growne by reason the provision of fish for the people's diet must be certainly provided. . . will be sufficient to persuade such persons as esteem more the benefit of their country than their own lust or appetite, setting before their eyes the fear of God in obedience to the Prince's commandment, especially in such things as concern the benefit of a common- wealth. An estimate of what beefs may be spared in a year in the City of London by one day's abstinence in 408 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN the week. First in the year are 52 weeks to every week 7 days 365 the Lenten Friday and Saturday in every week, and the other collected fish days being collected together extend 153. So in the year is 153 fish days and 21 1 flesh days. That is 58 flesh days more than fish days. So the year having 52 weeks, abate 7 for the time of Lent wherein no beef ought to be killed, and there remaineth but 42 weeks. Then let us say there be three-score butchers freemen, . . and every butcher kill weekly the one with another, five beefs apiece. The same amounts to 13,500 beefs. The foreigners in the suburbs and such as come out of the country to supply the town are four times as many 54,000. The beefs entered by freemen and foreigners together extend to 67,500. . . . The beefs spared by the days mentioned to be observed as fifty days' abstinence, would be 13,500 .... And this does not increase any of the fast days already in vogue, only orders a better observance of them. 1547101585. 'STATUTES OF THE REALM' (1547 to 1585), Vol. IV, part I. Anno 5, o. Elizabeth, cap. v., sec. n. And for the encrease of provision of fishe by the more usual eating thereof, bee it further enacted, that from the feast of St. M. the Arch Angels, anno Dui, fiftene hundreth three score four every Wednesday in every week through the whole year shall hereafter be observed, and kept as the Saturdays in every week ought to be, A HARD-WORKING DIET. 409 and that no person shall eat flesh no more than on common Saturdays. [N.B. Not Fridays.] Sec. 1 2 orders for the benefit of the realme and to save flesh meat, it shall not be lawful for any person to eat meat on fast days ; penalty forfeit 3 for every time. 5 Elizabeth, c. 5, A.D. 1562-3, sect. 12. Penalty on not keeping fish days. Every person to pay 3 or suffer three months' close imprisonment every time they offend. The owner of every house where fish is eaten, and who shall not inform thereof, fine 2. All forfeitures for same to be divided as follows : One part to use of her Majesty, her heirs or successors, one part to the informer, one part to the common use of the parish where offence is committed. To be levied by churchwardens after any conviction in that behalf. Sec. 13 gives licences to eat meat on payment of money. The lord or his wife shall put in parish poor- box on certain days twenty-six shillings and eight- pence. Knight or knight's wife, yearly, six shillings and eightpence. This permission excludes the eating of beef at any time of year ; veal from Feast of St. M. Arch Angel unto ist day of May. Licence also for sickness, proceeds thereof go to curate of parish. Sec. 14 confirms old fish licences of previous kings, archbishops, and all ecclesiastical laws, &c. Sec. 20 goes minutely into further penalties how to be levied and applied. Sec. 22 allows only one competent dish of meat on Fish Wednesdays at the same meal, and three com- petent usual dishes of sea fish of sundry kinds, &c. Further, says no man is to mistake the intent of this 410 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN statute limiting orders to eat fish and to forbeare from flesh. It is intended and meant politically for the increase of fishermen and mariners, &c., and not for any suspicion to be maintained in the choice of meats. That whosoever shall by preaching, teaching, writing, or open speech notify that any eating of fish and for- bearing of flesh, mentioned in this statute, is of any necessity for the saving of the soul of man, or to the service of God, or otherwise than as other politic laws are, shall be punished as spreader of false news. 'STATUTES OF THE REALM* (1586 to 1624), Vol. IV., part 2, chap, xxviii., p. 1058. James I. in 1603 issued a proclamation reminding his English subjects to keep Lent. This his Majesty did to help Scotch herring trade. Charles I., 1627, sent a royal decree from Whitehall to same effect. Froissart mentions (1429) when the English were be- sieging Orleans, the Duke of Bedford sent from head- quarters (Paris) five hundred cartloads of herrings for the use of the camp during Lent. The French Xaintraille, Lahire, de la Tour de Chavigny, and the Chevalier de Lafayette made a desperate effort to stop the convoy, but were routed with much slaughter. 1825 to 1835. Lent. 'APOLOGY FOR LENT.' "Father Prout " (Rev. F. Mahony, P.P., Watergrass Hill, co. Cork) says : Lent is an institution which should long since have been rescued from the cobwebs A HA RD- WORKING DIE T. 411 of theology, and restored to the domain of common sense and political economy, for there is no prospect of arguing the matter in a fair spirit among conflicting divines : and of all things polemics are the most stale and unprofitable. Loaves and fishes have, in all ages of the Church, had charms for us of the cloth ; yet how few would confine their bill of fare to mere loaves and fishes ? So far Lent may be a stumbling block. In Edward III., A.D. 1338, Rymer's 'Fcedera,' page 1021, says that before the battle of Cressy fifty ton of Yarmouth bloaters were shipped for the troops. The enemy sorely grudged them their supplies, for it appears by the chronicles of Enguerrand deMonstrellet, the continuator of Froissart, that in 1429 they had a battle which Rapin calls " La journee des harengs." The cultivated Athenians appreciated the value of fast days. Accordingly on the eve of certain festivals they fed exclusively on figs and the honey of Mount Hymettus. . Plutarch tells us a solemn fast preceded the celebration of Thermophoria. It appears that Numa fitted himself by fasting for an interview with the mysterious inmate of Egeria's grotto. Gibbon, in the ' Causes of the Decline and Fall/ notices the vile propensity to overfeeding, and shows that nothing but a bond fide return to simpler fare could restore the mighty system of dominion. The hint was acted upon. The Popes, frugal and abstemious, ascended the vacant throne of the Caesars, and ordered Lent to be observed throughout the Eastern and Western worlds. The theory of fasting saved the Empire, taught self-control, and gave a jnasterdom over barbarous 412 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN propensities ; did more originated civilisation and commerce. Prout's Reliques in his ' Apology for Lent ' says fasting is of very remote antiquity. It was in vogue at the first general council that legislated for Christen- dom at Nice, in Bithynia, A.D. 325 ; the custom was ratified by Assembly of Bishops, Laodicea, A.D. 364. 1525101553. 'Liber Domicilii,' 1525 1553, published by the Ballantyne Club, enumerates the material daily ordered for the king's table. Amongst other fishes Seal was purchased for the larder, either whole or in quarters, and entered as Phoca or Selch. The Porpoise too was in demand under epithet of Pellok. It may be added the monks of Dunfermline had a grant from Malcolm IV. of the heads of Porpoises caught in the Forth, except the tongues. Herrings were much used, both fresh and salt ; while, contrary to the general supposition, "Aleca rubea " was not unknown in those days. Many kinds of white fish appear to be referred to, Mulones recentes and Mulones aridi, terms by which the Cod seems to have been known. Other allied kinds are called albi pisces, Ware Codling, Podlokis, Codlinges, Merlingis, Merlingis cestivales, Lithis, and Leing, in addition to Stockfish, Speldings, and pisces aridi. The flat fish, under the terms Turbones, Holibut, Roues, Turbot, Bronoscopi (hranoscopi), Flounders, seem to have been liberally supplied ; also occasion- ally Sole. No reference is made to the Skate, unless we are to consider the fish termed Rigadia as of that sort. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 413 Many other sea fish are referred to, as Sand Eels, Fundolis ; Blennies, Greenbans ; Gurnards, Crtmans ; Lump fish, Padils ; Angler, Murlycon ; Sea Cat, Cattus marinus. The Spirling, Conger Eel, and Lamprey, also have a place ; while M^fische, a term of frequent occurrence, is of doubtful import. At the head of freshwater fish is the Salmon, used fresh, salted, kippered.* Trout, Eels, Perch, and Pike, are also constantly used. Pike being purchased in 1525 (see Yarrell) is in opposition to the received idea that this fish was imported in the reign of Henry VIII. in 1537. It is more probable it had become so scarce it was re-introduced. Among the molluscous, Polupi, or Cuttle-fish, fre- quently occupies a place ; also Oysters, Mussels, Cockles, Concis ; Razor-fish, Spouttis ; Scallops, Pectines ; and the Horse-mussel, Pectines aqucz dulcis. The Bucky and Limpet conclude the list. Of the crustaceous animals the supply appears to have been only of common Crab and Shrimps. Dr. Parnell, as referred to by Mr. Yarrell, informs us of an example of Lampris opale washed ashore near North Queensferry, July, 1835. It was found by those who eat it to have flesh red and good as that of a Salmon. The Doree is generally considered a great luxury for the table, and the derivation of its name, from adoree, with the fact that the appellation applied to it by Ovid is Rarus, are often referred to in illustration of the unanimity of this opinion. Mr. Couch says of the Surmullet that it is now, as * This is one of the earliest notices of kippered salmon. 414 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN it ever has been, an object of injury to those who indulge in the luxuries of the table, so that it became a proverb that those who caught it never knew the taste of it ; but to obtain it in its perfection it ought to be in the hands of the cook within a few hours after it has been taken out of the water. The ancients were aware of this, and it was something more than curiosity which led the Romans to produce living fish on the table for the inspection of the guests, before they de- livered them to the cook. Seneca tells us they were scarcely valued unless they died in presence of the guests. In no article of luxury does it appear that the Romans of the Empire went to such extravagant and even ridiculous extent as in regard to this fish. Stone Bass. They form an excellent dish at table. Red Mullet. Lucullus is sufficiently known for the great expense he was at in forming his ponds, . . . and yet he was blamed by Hortensius for want of care in allowing his fish to remain in what he considered an unhealthy situation. Martial has an epigram on one who sold a valuable slave, that with the price he might for once thus indulge himself and be talked of, although, in fact, he gave his guest little else to eat. Under these cir- cumstances the price might be expected to be high. A Mullet of 2 lb., each pound 12 ozs., was expected to bring its weight in silver. This value, however, was often exceeded, and specially when the fish had grown scarce in their own waters, and in consequence were sought for on the distant coasts of Corsica and the south of Sicily. . . . Juvenal speaks of a single Sur- mullet as having obtained the price of almost fifty A HARD-WORKING DIET. 415 pounds. . . . The more sober Suetonius tells us that on one occasion three of these Mullets were sold for thirty thousand sesterces at least seventy pounds for each fish. Bass, though thought excellent for the table with Bass, us, was regarded much more highly by the Romans in the time of the Empire. They set the highest value on those caught in a recognised district of the Tiber, and which those who prided themselves on their exquisite taste professed to be easily able to re- cognise ; . . . yet it was the fish preferred by the epicure that ought to have excited disgust ! for the favourite station was indebted for its excellency to the great cloaca or principal drain of the city. Mr. Couch in his book on fishes does not often Dolphin, mention which are used for food ; but he says, Porpoise, speaking of the Dolphin and Porpoise, they were esteemed fashionable dishes for the royal table as late as the time of King Charles I., although Wil- loughby and others are so candid as to admit that they were not thoroughly relished by all tastes. Rondeletius goes further, and says the smell itself was so nauseous as to destroy the appetite for all besides that was on the table. The value of Skate as an article of food is very Skate, differently thought of in different parts of this kingdom and of Europe. Risso says it is not a common fish at Nice, but that it is highly held in esteem ; and Lace- pede also speaks of it as a delicacy. But the most favourable account is by Willoughby, who records a remarkable instance, in which, owing probably to excellent cookery and exquisite sauce, a single fish of this sort weighing 200 Ibs. was found to satisfy 120 416 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN learned gentlemen at St. John's College, Cambridge. Lac6pede says it is salted and dried for exportation, particularly in Holstein and Sleswick, and in that state it is sent to Germany for sale. It is also so prepared in our own country, and sold in market at Penzance. YARRELL, ' HIST. BRITISH FISH/ Vol. I. Atherine. Like smelt, they are common at Brighton, Worth- ing, Eastbourne, Down in Ireland, Youghall, Dublin. The liver and roe are delicious ; superior in spring when full of milt and roe. Pike Pike were rare formerly in the latter part of the 1 3th century. Edward I., who condescended to regulate the prices of different fishes, that his subjects might not be at the mercy of the venders, fixed the value of pike higher than fresh salmon, and more than ten times greater than that of the best turbot or cod. In the reign of Edward III. I refer to the lines of Chaucer (see p. 336). Pike are also mentioned in the Acts of Richard II., 1382, regarding the fore- stalling of fish. Pike were dressed in the year 1466, at the great feast given by George Nevil, Archbishop of York. Pike are also mentioned in the famous 'Boke of St. Alban's,' printed 1481. They were so rare in Henry VIII.'s time, that a large one sold for double the price of a house lamb in February, and a pickerel or small pike for more than a fat capon. Pennant says they live to ninety years of age. Gesner relates that in 1497 a P*ke was taken at Halibrun in Suabia, with a brazen ring attached to it, on which were these words in Greek character : " I A HARD-WORKING DIET. 417 am the fish which was first put into this lake by the hands of the Governor of the Universe, Frederick II., the 5th of October, 1230!" This fish was therefore 260 years of age, and weighed 350 Ibs. The skeleton, nineteen feet in length, was preserved in Manheim as a great curiosity. In Ireland they have been caught of 70 Ib. weight ; but Isaac Walton says : " Such old or great fish have in them no great goodness." Those of the Medway, when feeding on smelt, acquire excellent condition and fine flavour. Found on coast of Cornwall ; its flesh is good food. Red Wrasse. The Comber Wrasse is mentioned by Couch, Jago, and Pennant as found on our coast, and good food. Though taking colour from its food is not injured Tench, thereby. One taken at Munden Hall, Fleet, Essex, was dyed black as ink from fetid lake, yet, when eaten, none could taste sweeter, or be better grown. Some caught at Leigh Priory of about 3 Ib. weight looked beautiful, but when dressed smelt and tasted so rank, and of a particular weed, no one could touch them. Yarrell (Vol. II.) says of Holibut :- Occasionally seen in London market, common on coast of Ireland ; flesh firm and white, though dry, muscular, fibre coarse, little flavour, head and fries best part ; sold at low price by the Ib. VOL. I. H. 2 E 4i 8 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN HlGDEN, POLYCHRONICON (BABINGTON). Vol. II. ' Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland' (\$th Century). CHAPTER XLI. NOTE. Beda y libro primo. Fysches whiche be callede dolphynes be taken there (Britain) oftetymes, and porpas and other great fish, excepte diverse kyndes of schelle fisches, as muscles, in whom margarites be founde of every coloure, as redde of a purpulle coloure, and of the coloure of a jacinte, but most specially white mar- garites. Also there be schelle fisches habundantly with whom a nowble redde coloure is made and diede. The beautuous reddenesse of whom may not appaire in eny tyme thro the heete of the sonne, neither thro the injury of reyne (rain) ; but ever the more hit (it) is werede, and in age, hit is the moore feire in coloure. WHAT LONDONERS USED TO HAVE. The Thames From ' Harrison on the Noble River Thames ' in in 1593- I593) as published by the ' New Shakspere's Society.' (London : 1877.) Speaking of the Thames, he says : It is the longest of the three famous rivers of this isle, so it is nothing inferior unto them in abundance of all kinds of fish, whereof it is hard to say which of the three have either most plenty or greatest variety, if the A HARD-WORKING DIET. 419 circumstances be duly weighed. I will invent no strange things of this noble river, therewith to nobili- tate and make it more honourable, but this I will plainly affirm, that it neither swalloweth up bastards of the Celtish brood, or casteth up the right begotten that are thrown in without hurt into their mother's lap, as Politian fableth of the Rhene (Epistolarum lib. 8, epi. 6), nor yieldeth clots of gold as the Tagus doth ; but an infinite plenty of good fish, wherewith such as inhabit near unto its banks are fed and fully nourished. What shall I speak of the fat sweet salmon, daily Salmon, taken in this stream, and that in such plenty (after the time of the smelt be passed) as no river in Europe is able to exceed ! What store also of barbels, trouts, chenins, pearches, smelts, breames, roches, daces, gudgins, flounders, shrimps, &c., are commonly to be had therein. I refer me to them that know, by reason of experience of their daily trade in fish, better than I. Albeit it seemeth from time to time to be as it were defrauded in sundry wise of these her large commodities, by the insatiable avarice of the fishermen, yet this river complaineth (commonly) of no want, but the more it looseth at one time, the more it yieldeth at another. Only in carps it seemeth to be scant, Carp, since it is not long since that kind of fish was brought over into England, and but of late into this stream, by the violent rage of sundry land-floods, that brake open the heads and dams of divers gentlemen's ponds, by which means it became (somewhat) par- taker also of this said commodity, whereof earst it had no portion that I could ever hear. (Oh ! that this 2 E 2 420 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN river might be spared but even one year from nets, &c. ! But, alas ! then should many a poor man be undone.) The tide rises and falls twice a day as high as seventy miles above London. There are floods when the Thames overfloweth her banks in the falls and changes of January and February wherein the lower ground are soonest drowned ; this order of flowing is perpetual. These land floods also do greatly strain the fineness of the stream, insomuch that after a Haddock. great land flood you shall take haddock with your hands beneath the bridge, as they float upon the water, whose eyes are so blinded with the thick- ness of that element, that they cannot see where to become and make shift to save themselves before death take hold of them. Otherwise the water of itself is very clear, and in comparison next unto that of the sea, which is subtle and pure of all other. Extracts from 'THE PAMPHLETEER.' Vol. I. 1813. It is a singular but ascertained fact, that when the largest quantity of mackerel is in the British Channel, which supplies the London market, the fishermen who frequent Billingsgate almost wholly discontinue the mackerel fishing. It is thus accounted for the fisher- men depend on the fishwomen who daily attend Billingsgate with baskets on their heads to purchase their fish. But as soon as the common fruit comes into season these women find the sale of gooseberries and such like produce them a larger and more secure profit, with less risk and trouble. Being disappointed of a sale for the mackerel at the A HARD-WORKING DIET. 421 time when they are most abundant, the men give up in a degree their employment for the season, and an immense amount of palatable and nutritious food is thereby annually withheld from the inhabitants of the metropolis. On the 1 5th June, 1812, upward of 17,000 mackerel were purchased by Mr. Hall at $ the thousand, and sold to the working weavers at the original cost, one penny each. They were purchased with great avidity not merely for immediate consumption, but also put into small pots with vinegar to keep ; they continued good for some time and eat like pickled salmon. Five hundred thousand mackerel arrived and were sold in one day. They were purchased at six and even nine for one shilling. They brought down the price of meat, as butchers sold at twopence a pound under the usual price. Improvements in agriculture and economy in the use of food are remedies usually prescribed for excess of population. There are acres of water around our coasts inexhaustible in nutritive and palatable food. These fields are perpetually white with harvest, and we have only to reap the harvest which Providence benignly supplies. An objection is made to fish diet for the labouring class as being passed lightly by digestion, it is therefore unfit to support labour. But, first, the labouring poor in fishing ports who make it their principal diet are stout, hardy and strong. 422 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Secondly, fish is not proposed as a sole article of food, only an addition to, or improvement on, what they now have. Thirdly, the objection may be removed by the mode of cooking it. In America cod and other kinds of fish are dressed with pork, bacon, fat beef, potatoes, thickened with rice or oatmeal, and small suet dumplings, and seasoned with savory herbs, and pepper and salt, the whole producing a palatable and nutritious stew which they call choudep. The benefits to accrue from a more general use of fish are food, occupation, nursery for seamen, and increase of trade. Norway derives five-sixths of its food from fisheries, without which its population could not exist. It is not desired, nor may it be expedient or necessary, to carry the use of fish to even a third of that comparative amount. But if one-fourth only of the subsistence of this country were derived from fish (the other three parts being chiefly composed of corn, meat, and potatoes and an equal quantity were exported in exchange for the wheat, rice and other foreign produce), it would not only provide for an additional population of above four million, but would supply the whole of the inhabitants of Great Britain with more nutritive and palatable diet than they now enjoy, as the saving of butchers' meat by the middle classes might allow a greater proportion of it for the poor, instead of their present scanty and too general diet of bread, water and tea. Fisheries would afford employment to a numerous A HARD-WORKING DIET. 423 class of courageous, adventurous individuals, who are too volatile to fix any settled steady course. The addition to our export trade would be great, the saving of money enormous, as for many years past we are drained of millions of bullion annually remitted to foreign states as the price of our daily subsistence. March 10, 1813. As an illustration of the way in which the use of T. Venner, fish was studied before the chemistry of foods was studied, there is given the following long extract from T. Venner's Via Recta ad Vitam Longam (1650) : OF FISH. Section 5. It is because fish increaseth much gross, slimey, and superfluous flegm, which, residing and corrupting in the body, causeth difficulty of breathing, gout, the stone, the leaprie, the scurvy, and other foul and troublesome affects of the skin. Wherefore I advise men that are much delighted with the use of fish, that they be careful in the choice of it ; as that it be not clammy, slimy, neither of a very gross and hard substance, not oppleted with much fat (for all fat is of itself ill and noisome to the stomach; but of fish it is worst), neither of ill smell and unpleasant savour. Where- fore of sea-fish the best swimmeth in a pure sea, and is tossed and hoist with wind and surges ; for by reason of continual agitation it becometh of purer and less slimey substance. And for the same cause, the fish that is taken near a shore that is neither earthy or slimey, is of a harder digestion, and of a more slimey and excremental substance. The fish also that taketh itself from the sea to the mouths of great rivers and swims in fresh water, quickly become better or worse. If in slimey rivers they lose much of their 424 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Sole. Plaice. Dab. Gurnard. Whiting. Smelt. Breame. Shad. Mackrell. goodness, if in pure gravel improve, and the farther they go from sea the better they are. Fish in standing pools, unwholesome by reason of impurity of the place, it breedeth a very slimy excrementall nourishment, very hurtful to them who are subject to gout, and stone, and obstructions of the breast. The sole is somewhat hard, is remarkable for whiteness and purity of substance, pleasant taste, good juice, and far exceedeth all other sea-fish ; therefore may be called sea- capon. It is verily to be reckoned amongst meats of primest note; and for such as are infirm and sick, non magis qndm salutaris cibus. Severn soles excell all others. Plaice is pleasant to palate, easily digested, and, in the judgment of some good men, a good fish. But my opinion is that it is watery, and giveth excremental nourishment, special if not well grown. It is agreeable to those who are by constitution choleric ; but to the phlegmatic very hurtful, because it aboundeth with phlegmatic juice. The dab, or little plaice, is worse. The gurnard is of harder digestion than any of the former. The red is the best. Both kinds give good nourishment and nothing slimey ; therefore they are better for the phlegmatic than plaice or flounder. The whiting, notwithstanding that it is unsavoury and nourisheth little, is much liked. It is easy of digestion, and the nourishment which it maketh, if little, is good. The younger and smaller are more sweet and pleasant, and give the best nourishment. Smelts have fragrant odour, which doth commend them They delight the palate, and yield good nourishment. Breame is somewhat acceptable to the palate, and is of meetly good nourishment. It is best for choleric bodies, and worse for phlegmatic. Some love to eat the eyes of the breame ; but they are very excremental, as are the eyes of all fish. Shad and mackrell are both sweet in taste and soft in substance ; they are not very wholesome, quickly producing A HARD-WORKING DIET. 425 loathing and sickness of stomach, and breed excremental nourishment. They are convenient for labouring-men and those who have strong stomach. Dogfish and hake are near of nature ; not of hard con- Dogfish, coction, but yet scarcely of laudable nourishment, for they Hake - increase crude and waterish humours. Codfish, for whiteness of colour, and moderate hardness Codfish, and friability of substance, is commended. It is easily digested, and yieldeth meetly strong nourishment, and not very excremental. Being salted, dried, and so kept, it becomes of harder concoction and worse nourishment. Haddock is pleasant to taste, in nature somewhat like Haddock, cod, but it is of lighter concoction, and not of so firm and durable nourishment. Mullet is somewhat of a hard substance, yet if taken in Mullet, gravelly and stony shore, is not of hard digestion. It is of pleasant taste, and meetly good nourishment ; but if taken in a muddy place, is not easily digested, is hurtful to the stomach, and breedeth gross and excremental humours. The smaller mullets are the best. Bass is, in goodness of juice, inferior to mullet, for it is Bass, of harder concoction, and breedeth a more gross and slimey nourishment. Both mullet and bass are agreeable for them who are of hot temperature and have strong stomachs. Salmon is ranked with the best sort of fish ; it is pleasant Salmon, to taste, and not hard of digestion. It maketh good nourishment ; in consistence neither clammy or gross, yet it quickly oppresseth a weak stomach ; wherefore let such as have weak stomach and are infirm so carefully moderate appetite, as that the jucundity of it intice them not to a perilous and nauseative fulness. And it is not good for them that have strong stomachs to eat too much of it, for it soon weakeneth the stomach, subverteth appetite, and that oftentimes with the danger of a deadly surfeit. The belly is to be chosen before any other part, because it is tenderer, and of a more sweet and pleasant taste. The eyes of a salmon are far wholesomer than the eyes of any other fish. 426 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Salmon-peale. The young salmon, salmon-peale, is far better than that which is fuller grown; for it is of a softer and whiter substance, of a pleasanter relish, of easier concoction, more acceptable and agreeable to the stomach, and of very good wholesome nourishment. The salted salmon loseth much of his goodness and pleasant taste, and is therefore much inferior in point of wholesomeness. Turbut. Turbut or birt is meetly pleasant to the taste, and if it be well digested maketh good and firm nourishment. It is of somewhat hard substance, and therefore not easily digested. But it is very good meat for such as are healthy and have strong stomachs. But for the aged and those who are phlegmatic, and that have weak stomachs, it is very inconvenient and hurtful. Sturgion. Sturgion is a very acceptable dish, and best welcome at tables. Whether this is because of rarity, goodness of meat, pleasantness to palate, and inducing withal a smoothing delectation to the gullet, is doubtful. I will plainly deliver my opinion. The flesh is white, and meetly pure substance, consequently laudable nourishment; if it were not inter- mixed with a gross and nauseative fat, for which reason it is not so easily digested, and is quickly offensive to the stomach, making gross and clammy nourishment. Where- fore let such as are aged or have weak or cold stomach refrain from it. It is most accommodated for the hot season. The little or young Sturgion is wholesomest. The belly of the Sturgion, like that of salmon, is the best. The Sturgion, both old and young, is very hurtful unto them that are troubled with rheumes and articular griefs. Hallibut. Hallibut is a big fish and of great account, white, and of hard substance, therefore not easily digested ; but it is very pleasant to the taste, and for goodness of meat scarcely inferior to Sturgion. The belly is best. It is a convenient meat for young men, and for hot choleric bodies ; but for phlegmatic, and them that have weak stomachs, hurtful. Doric. Doric for substance is of a mean consistence, and not very delectable to the palate. It giveth mostly good A HARD-WORKING DIET. 427 nourishment. But it is not good to eat too much of, specially for those of weak stomach, or who suffer from gout or stone, because it breedeth gross and phlegmatic juice. Allowes is taken in the same place as salmon, it is Allowes. meetly pleasant to the taste. Yields much, and some- what a thick nourishment, yet not ill, so it be well con- cocted in the stomach; but it is of hard concoction, wherefore it is hurtful to them of weak stomach, and ^that are by constitution phlegmatic and melancholy. The allowes that tarry in and are taken in sweet waters is wholesomer than that of the sea; for it is fatter, of tenderer substance, of easier concoction, and of better savour. The guilthead or goldine is whiter, and not quite so Guilthead. hard as the allowes, therefore of easier concoction and better nourishment. It is only in season in the winter, when he is sweeter in taste ; and is convenient for every age, temperature of body, so that the stomach be strong enough to take it. The calaminary sea-cur or cuttlefish and poure-cuttle are Calaminary. even of one and the same nature ; they are of hard concoc- tion, and fill the body with crude and gross humours. They may, when in want of better meat, serve mariners and rusticall bodies, who through strength of stomach and hard labour are able to convert any gross meat into good nourishment. The small ones are best, being more tender and easily digested. They are all hurtful to them who have weak sinews, and are subject to the palsey. The wolf-fish is of cold, moist temperature, pleasant taste, The Wolf, and easy of concoction. It breedeth a cold, thin, waterish juice, and therefore such as are phlegmatic and rheumatic perpetually shun the use of it. The lump or lomp-fish, so named from his shape, is in Lompfish. taste agreeable to the name ; it is hard of concoction, and of gross excremental juice. The conger is a large round fish like unto an eel, and is Conger. 428 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN called conger-eel. It yieldeth gross excremental nourish- ment as the common eel doth. It is a meat notwithstanding pleasant to most men's palate, but is only convenient food for those of strong stomach and firm body. To the phleg- matic, those of weak stomach, subject to dropsy, gout and stone, it is very hurtful. Lampreys. Lampreys are of some greatly esteemed, but very un- worthily; they are of the nature of eels, yet somewhat wholesomer, not being so clammy or gross. They are pleasant to taste, but not easily concocted. They give much nourishment; but the same somewhat clammy and tough, therefore they are not fit for weak stomach or those suffering from obstruction. They also increase melancholy, and are hurtful to the gouty and those with weak sinews. The small lampreys are the best, they are not so tough, and give most nourishment. Thornback. Thornback is of moist substance, of gross excrementall and putrid juice; whereby it cometh to pass that it is a meat of ill smell, unpleasant savour, unwholesome nourish- ment, noisome to the stomach. The use breed eth cold diseases, and epilepsy very speedily if it be eaten hot. The noisome quality doth (as I think) in cooling sometimes evaporate, and sooner arise being eaten hot, for that it is a moist fish and full of superfluity. It is a meat fit for hard labouring men. The tunie, porpuise and such like great bestial fish are of very hard digestion, noisome to stomach, of a very gross excremental and naughty juice. Herrings are somewhat pleasant to the taste, yet not wholesome, as is often proved. Through eating fresh herrings some quickly surfeit and fall into fevers. The salt herring giveth saltish unprofitable nourishment. They are good for them who want better meat. Pilchard. Pilchard is of like nature of herring, but of pleasanter taste and better nourishment. Yet it is not good for those of weak stomach, or it soon cloyeth with a nauseatif fullness; but, being well salted before using, the superfluity of their Tunie. Porpoise. Herrings. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 429 excremental is much corrected, and they become less fulsome and hurtful. Red herring and sprat give a very bad and adusted Red Herring, nourishment; they are only good to excite thirst, and to make drink acceptable to palate and throat. They are hurtful to them of choloric constitution and melancholy. I commend them to the Spaniards and Italians, whereby our merchants make a good commodity. Anchovas, the famous meat of drunkards and of them Anchovas. who desire their drink to oblectate their palats. They are used as sauce with meats, as with mutton, etc., and is in great esteem with them who affect sauce and meats of strange relish and taste. They nourish nothing at all but naughty choleric blood. They may excite the appetite of some peevish stomachs, and by reason of their saltish acrimony are thought to cleanse phlegm from the stomach and intestines ; wherefore, if they be good for any, it is for the phlegmatic, so that they pour not too much drink with them. But in my opinion the special good they have, if it may be termed good, is as of pickled oysters, to commend a cup of claret to the palate and stomach. They are therefore chiefly profitable to the vintners. In shellfish it is to be observed some are of soft sub- Shellfish, stance, and are easily digested ; some hard and more diffi- cult of concoction, though of firmer and better nourishment. Of shellfish oysters are of a most soft substance and Oyster. easily digested, and least offend the stomach, except they be taken, as we commonly say, against stomach. And also, by reason of the saltness of their juice, they make the belly soluble; they give a light, salt, phlegmatic nourishment; and therefore they are not only very hurtful unto them that be phlegmatic, but also unto all such as have cold weak stomachs, because in them they abundantly increase flegm. Unto choloric bodies and such as have strong stomachs they are agreeable. They must be eaten with pepper and vinegar, a cup of good claret or sack drunk presently after them, for then they will be the better digested. Onions also 430 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Pickled Oysters. Muscles. Cockles. Crab. Lobster. sliced in the vinegar and eaten with them is an excellent correctory to the flegm if they be not offensive to the eater. But why are oysters eaten a little before meals, and that with one-way bread ? For two reasons I conjecture. The first is, because of their subductory quality concerning the belly, which also is holpen with one-way bread ; the second is, because through their saltness they excite appetite. Oysters roasted on the coals or stewed in white wine, with butter, pepper, and a few drops of white or claret wine vinegar, and so eaten, do oblectate the palat and stomach, and nourish better than if eaten raw. Pickled oysters, by reason of their heat and saltness, please the palate of drunkards as anchovies do ; the fewer that are eaten the less the hurt. They are least hurtful, and if at all beneficial, to the phlegmatic that have cold, moist stomachs; but they are most pernicious to choleric and arrabilaric. Amongst shellfish muscles are of grossest juice and worst nourishment, and most noisome to the stomach. They abundantly breed flegm and gross humours, and dis- pose the body unto fevers. I advise all such as are respectful of their health utterly to abandon use of them. Cockles are not so noisome as muscles ; they are of lighter concoction, and better nourishment, yet not laudable meat for such as lead studious or easy kind of life or have weak stomach. Crab is not very hard of digestion, somewhat pleasant to taste, and yieldeth to the body much gross nourishment. It is meat best fitted to labouring men, who have strong stomachs ; but to old men, students, and all such as have weak stomachs, and are subject to oppilations of the breast, distillations from the head, or are otherwise wont to be affected in the head, it is very hurtful. The freshwater crab is wholesomer than the sea crab, and the sea is whole- somer if it is taken out of fresh water. Also is not easily digested, and therefore it quickly offendeth a weak stomach ; but, if well digested, giveth A HARD-WORKING DIET. 431 much good and firm nourishment. But the same is of a hot and ebullient nature, and therefore I advise young men and such as are of choleric natures and hot temperament to refrain from the use thereof, for unto hot natures they are hurtful, and greatly offend the head. Prawns and shrimps are of one and the same nature ; for Prawns, goodness of meat they excell all other shellfish. They are of good temperament and substance, of a most sweet and not of hard concoction, and of excellent nourishment. By reason of their moist and calorisical nature they proritate Venus ; they are convenient for every age and constitution of body, if the stomach be not too weak. The prawns and shrimps of Severne excell all others of this kingdom. OF FRESHWATER FISH. The trout is best, of a somewhat cold and moist tern- Trout, perament, of an indifferent soft and friable substance, of pleasant taste, easy concoction, and good juice. It yieldeth somewhat of a cold nutriment, ve'ry profitable for them that have their liver and blood hotter than is convenient, there- fore it is with good reason given to them who are in fevers. Trout is good food for every age and constitution of body, except for the phlegmatic who have cold and moist stomachs. The smaller trout are best. The pike is somewhat of firm hard substance, and pike, therefore a little harder of concoction than the trout. It is pleasant meat, and giveth good nourishment. It is agreeable to all, specially the young and such as are by constitution choloric. Pickrell is the young of pike. It is easier of concoction, pleasant of taste and goodness of juice, (in my judgement) ranks with trout, and to be given to invalids (only river pickrell). That taken in meers, or muddy water, is somewhat excremental and hard of concoction. Perch taken in pure water is of white and pure substance, Perch, for taste and nourishment equal to trout or pickrell. Perch is usually sauced with butter and vinegar ; but add thereto the powder of nutmeg, which to this fish is very proper, it 432 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Carp. Barbell. Tench. Roach. Gudgeon Dace. Eeles. becometh delectable to the taste, and grateful to the stomach. The spawn of perch is of delicate and whole- some nourishment, very good for the weak, or of cold temper of body. The lesser perch are best. But if the great ones are kept a day or two, specially if transported from the place where they are taken, their substance becomes more tender very good for every condition of body, age, and con- stitution. Carp is of sweet exquisite taste, but the nourishment doth not answer to the taste; if it were, it would be numbered amongst fishes of primest note. It giveth slimy, phlegmatic, excremental nourishment, and quickly satiateth the stomach. Let all who are of weak stomach eschew it. The head and spawn of the carp are the pleasantest and wholesomest ; to be preferred before the rest of the fish. The barbell is soft and moist, of easy concoction, and very pleasant taste; of good nourishment, but somewhat muddy and excremental. The greater excel the lesser for meat, because their superfluous moisture is amended by age. The spawn of them is to be objected to as most offensive to the belly and stomach. The tench is unwholesome. Hard of concoction, un- pleasant of taste, noisome to the stomach, and filleth the body with gross slimey humour. Notwithstanding, it is meat fit for labouring men. The roach is of easy concoction, of light and meetly nourishment; not hurtful to any age or constitution of body, so long as the stomach desire it. The gudgeon, though but a small fish, yet for goodness may challenge the prime place of freshwater fish. It is delightsome to taste, easy of concoction, and good nourish- ment for all ages and constitutions. The dace is much the same, but of lesser nourishment. Eeles are pleasant to taste, but they are hard of digestion, slimey, gross, phlegmatic, and soon noisome to the stomach. They breed obstructions, because they make a gross and glutinous nourishment, and are most hurtful to those subject A HARD-WORKING DIET. 433 to gout and stone and obstruction of the breast. Those in pure water and gravel soil are best. In meeres and pools not so good. I recommend only those to eat of them who are more addicted to their palate than to their health. More- over, in impure places they oftentimes couple with snakes, and so receive venomous quality, wherefore they are not commendable for any age or temperament. They are most hurtful to the aged, phlegmatic, or subject to obstructions. Roasted or broiled they are least injurious, the fire ex- hausteth their worst qualities. For like reason the powdered eel is wholesome, though not so taken by the dainty- mouthed. To conclude, they are only convenient food for hard labourers, or those who indulge their appetite. Crawfish are of meetly good nourishment, and not hard Crawfish. of concoction, yet I do not approve of them for those who have weak stomach, or are subject to obstruction of the mesaraick veines. They are best agreeable to such as are of choleric temperature of body. The puffin is neither fish nor flesh, but a mixture of Puffin< both ; for it liveth altogether in the water, yet hath feathers, and flieth as fowls do. Whether they be eaten fresh or powdered, they be of an odious smell and naughty taste are unwholesome. Yet great drinkers esteem well the puffin, because it provoketh them to drink, which is the best faculty it hath. But mark the end of such, and you shall com- monly see them, even in firm and constant age, to have turgid and strouting-out bellies and a dropsie, the upshot of all their outrageous drinkings. Fresh fish is the best for food. Salt fish, if it be much eaten, hurteth the sight. Of all sorts of salt fish, ling and milwell be the best. Of all other salt fish, those who are careful of their health refrain from using. VOL. I, H. 2 F 434 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN 1625. " TREATISE OF FASTING." Henry Mason. CHAPTER II. Voluntary fasts are of two sorts. They are either worldly and profane, or religious and holy. Worldly and profane I call those whose end is for some worldly use, or for some respect belonging to this life. And these are divers. For sometimes men may fast for effecting of some worldly business with better speede, as Saul and his soldiers did, when the people tasted no food, because the king had adjured them, saying ; Cursed be the man that eateth any foode untill evening, that I may be avenged on my enemies. We see the reason of this fast was, because the King would not allow them any time of eating, for that they might bestow all the time in pursuing of the enemie. And so in like sort a man may fast for his health, that he may get rid of undigested humours ; for his gain, that he may spare his purse ; and for the public good, that he may preserve the breede of cattell ; yea, and for very luxury and of a gluttonous disposition, that he may keep his stomach for better cheer. When men fast for these or any such like ends, their fasts are worldly 'and profane, and therefore have no place amongst religious exercises. The second are holy and religious fasts. And so I call those which are intended and do serve for some special use, which concerneth God's glory and the good of men's souls. CHAPTER X. He says of Lent Because the fast of Lent was antiently observed in divers churches and countries after a very diverse and different maner. First, there was a difference in the number of weekes appointed for this use ; some observing eight weekes, some seven, some six, and some, as we now doe, six weekes and foure daies. Secondly, there was difference in the A HARD-WORKING DIET. 435 fasting dales of Lent ; some places they fasted every day save Sunday; in some other, every day except Saturday and Sunday ; in some other every second day ; and in some, but every week only. For on those other daies in Lent, though they abstained from some meats, yet they did eat their dinner : and then the Antients thought it to be no fasting day. i st. Politic reason for keeping Lent Because at this time of the yeare is a time of breed, and of the increase of creatures ; and the sparing of the increase by abstinence and slender diet, might cause plenty and store in the common wealth for all the yeare after. 2nd. A physicall reason Which is because at this time of the yeare there is most increase of blood in a man's body; and the heat thereof might breed fevers and hot diseases; but spare diet, especially consisting of fish and herbs and roots will serve to qualify the blood and bring it to a right temper. DATE 1610. A.D. 1610. "A COLLECTION OF ORDINANCES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF THE HOUSEHOLD ROYAL," DIETS FOR THE PRINCE His HIGHNESS UPON A FISH DAY. DINNER (HENRY, A.D. j6io). Bread, beere, ale and wine as upon a flesh day ; Chickens (boyled), 4 services ; Mutton (boyled), 2 services ; Veale (boyled), i service; Lambe (boyled), quarter; Shoulder of Mutton (rost), i ; Veale (rost), 2 services ; Legge of Mutton, i ; Capon in greace, i ; Chickens, 5 ; Partridges, 2; Lapwings, 3; Larkes, 18; Conyes, 3; Peares, i pye; Custard, i ; Tart, i ; Lyng, i service ; Pyke, i service ; Carpe, i ; Whiteings, i service. Diet to the Chamberlain, Treasurer, Comptroller, Steward and Groome of the Stoole upon a fish day. Dinner- Bread, beere and wine as upon a flesh day ; Lyng and 2 F 2 436 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN cod, 2 ; Pyke, I. ; Whiteing, i. ; Gurnard, i. ; Scales, i. payer; Playce, i. service; Custerd, i. ; Tart, i.; Butter, Sweet, i. Ib. Supper breade, beere, and wine as at dinner aforesaid ; Lyng and Codde, n. services ; Pyke, i. ; Whiteing, i. ; Gurnard, i. ; Scales, i. payer ; Playce, i. service ; Dulcets, i. service ; Tart, i. ; Butter, Sweet, i. Ib. Covenants concluded and made by the officers of the Greencloth with Robert Parker and George Hill, Yeoman Purveyors of fresh-water fish, both for the more honourable and also more profitable serving of the King, His most excellent Majesty, in the household of all kindes of fresh- water fish in manner following : First, it is determined by the Lord Great Master, Mr. Comptroller, and all the officers of the Greencloth at Durham Place, Saturday, the loth of December, 34 Henry VIII., that neither the Purveyors of fresh-water fish shall bring in any fish to the King's use, but he shall present with the same a bill of all such prices as he doth pay unto the parties of whom his fish was bought, with also the names of the said parties; and that he present not one farthing above the same his payment, upon paine of looseing of his service, and further to be punished by the discretion of the officers of the Cornpting house. Item: It is further agreed that the said Purveyors of fresh-water fish shall have for every fish day, that he or they shall bring fish into the Court, 1 2d. per day for every horse and man ; and for every carriage horse 6d. per day. Item : To be given to the Yeoman-Purveyors of fresh- water fish for Friday and Satterday, for every of those days 9*. per day, that is per Septiman, 18*. If there be three fish dayes in the weeke they are to have 6s. 8 anc ^ Dr. T. Wislecenus, Professor of Chemistry, Zurich, made their celebrated ascent of the Faulhorn, celebrated, not in connection with any sensational narrow escapes, but because it was selected as a form of exercise undertaken to test whether muscular exertion was associated with the oxidation of nitrogen. The bearings of their investigations on the then state of the question of the origin of muscular power are set forth in a paper they communicated to the . Philosophical Magazine ' through Professor Wanklyn. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 44i They regarded the theory that " muscular action was brought about by chemical changes alone," as having found such acceptance it might be said to be a universally acknowledged fact. That these chemical changes were processes of oxidation they thought almost equally well established, but the exact point as to what element it was whose oxidation gave origin to muscular power was still a matter of doubt, demanding further experiments. They allude to the recognition that the mechanical work of muscles represented only a part (see p. 367) of the actual energy resulting from the oxidation of the carbon or nitrogen or whatever it was. The limits of the problem narrowed down practically to this was it the oxidation of nitrogen or of carbon which furnished the store of energy? Smith's experiments, referred to above (p. 350), they did not regard as a direct disproof that waste of tissue by the oxidation of nitrogenous matter was the source of power. (Refer- ence to Voit and Bischoff.) They proposed to them- selves direct experiment. Here is their own state- ment, with some few omissions, as rendered in English in the ' Philosophical Magazine.' There is one way in which the question whether muscular force can be generated only by the oxida- tion of albuminoid compounds* might be decisively negatived, and that possibly by a single experiment. It is suggested by the following simple line of thought : granting that a person might accomplish a certain measurable amount of external labour, say m metre- kilogrammes, and that in so accomplishing it he oxidized / grammes of albumen in his muscles ; * For composition of albumen, see p. 357. 442 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN granting also that we know the amount of heat which is liberated when a gramme of albumen is changed by oxidation into the products of decomposition in which the constituents of albumen leave the human body ; then if the thermic equivalent of the manual labour m be greater than the amount of heat which could possibly be produced by the oxidation of p grammes of albumen, the question may be negatived with the most complete certainty. But if, on the contrary, the thermic equivalent of m metre-kilo- grammes is less than that of the heat arising from the oxidation of / grammes of albumen, the question has by no means received an affirmative answer. It is only in the former case that the experiment has a decisive result. Such an experiment has been made by us con- jointly. . . . As measurable external labour we chose the ascent of a mountain peak, the height of which was known. ... Of the numerous peaks of the Swiss Alps, the one most suitable for our purpose appeared to be the Faulhorn, near the lake of Brienz, in the Bernese Oberland. It was necessary that the moun- tain which was to serve for our experiment should be as high as possible, and nevertheless should permit of our passing a night on its summit under tolerably normal circumstances ; for had we been obliged immediately to descend again, the measurable amount of work would have been at once followed by an undeterminable but violent exertion of the muscles, in which much metamorphosis would occur, the thermic equivalent of which would be, however, entirely libe- rated as heat. The Faulhorn satisfies all these re- quirements - for although its height is very consider- able, rising to about 3000 metres above the lake of A HARD-WORKING DIET. 443 BHenz, yet there is an hotel on its summit Besides, it can be ascended by a very steep path, which was, of course, favourable for our experiment, because the amount of muscular action which is lost and not calculable (being reconverted into heat) is thus reduced to a minimum. We chose the steepest of the practicable paths. . . . [The details of the experi- ment are then given.] In order to diminish as far as possible the unne- cessary consumption (Luxus consmntion) of albumen during the experiment, they took no albuminoid food from midday on August 29 until 7 o'clock in the evening of August 30. . . . The experiment proper began on the evening of the 29th of August at 6 P.M. and ended at 6 A.M. August 3 1 st. The composition of the products of the body leaving through the kidneys during that time was sub- sequently strictly analysed, and the results obtained, too long to give here, furnished a new testimony to the fact, which has often before been experimentally proved, that muscular exertion does NOT notably in- crease the quantity of nitrogen in such products. Note to p. 352. In the case of the Great Western Railway referred to > P- 35 2 > when in 1872 500 miles of rails were shifted within a fortnight, the extra nitrogen, together with extra carbon supplied, was in the form of oat- meal. The men carried their own bacon, bread, cheese, cocoa, &c., as usual ; but a pound-and-a-half of oatmeal (see the value of oatmeal on p. 360), and half-a-pound of sugar was allowed daily to each man, and for each gang of twenty-one men a cook was 444 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN provided. Temporary fire-places of stone were built, and the oatmeal was well cooked and served out in pannikins. Three thousand men were employed working double time, and no case of sickness occurred, while it is said the men much appreciated this form of extra diet. In making the recent extension of railways in Sicily the progress was retarded by the slack work done by the Sicilian navvies compared with the Eng- lish gangs. The former took scarcely any meat, preferring to save wages their comrades expended in that way. The idea occurred to the contractor of paying the men partly in money and partly in meat ; and the result was a marked increase in the amount of work executed, which was brought up nearly to the British average. (See Encly. Brit. 9th ed.) Note top. 352. Tables of Outgoings and Intakes. In most works on foods and diet it is usual to give the chemical composition of the human frame, the average selected being for 5 ft. 8 in. high, 1 1 stone weight, and about 30 years of age. Such an analysis is printed below, the figures being taken from the ' Handbook of the Bethnal Green Museum Food Collection,' as revised by Professor Church. It is here purposely kept far apart from the daily outgoings and intakes mentioned on p. 352 to prevent confusion in the minds of those who have not pre- viously studied the subject, between the continuous needs of the body for work internal as well as ex- ternal (see p. 367), and the "balance" between these outgoings and intakes. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 445 Daily variations, even during health, in the amount of fibrin (No. 2), fat (No. 4), and albumen (No. 9), are often considerable, as the " storage " referred to on p. 35 1 fluctuates. The fact of such fluctuations is familiar. For example, it can be observed with some exactness by those who during the training of the University crews watch the daily accounts of weights as given in all the newspapers, or by those who at Turkish baths keep records of their own fluctuations. The amount of phosphate of lime (No. 3), probably nearly constant, depends mainly on the dimensions (partly the density) of the bones, and heredity, feeding, habits, and atmosphere, determine this during the first, eighteen or twenty years of life. The amount of fluoride of calcium (No. 12), and phosphate of mag- nesia (No. 1 3) differ from the same cause of individual structure. Such a table cannot of course be taken as an exact account of the composition of all men of the size, weight, and age mentioned. The chemical analysis is given first in compounds and then as elements. COMPOUNDS. Ibs. ozs. grs. 1. Water, which is found in every tissue and secretion, and amounts altogether to .. 109 o o 2. Fibrin, and similar substances, forming the chief solid material of muscular flesh, and also occurring in blood .. .. .. 15 10 o 3. Phosphate of Lime, in all tissues and liquids, but chiefly in the bones and teeth .. .. 8 12 o 4. Fat, a mixture of three chemical compounds, distributed throughout the body .. .. 48 o Carried forward .. .. 137 14 o 446 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Ibs. ozs. grs. Brought forward .. .. 137 14 o 5. Ossein, the organic framework of bones and the chief constituent of connective tissue; it yields gelatin when boiled .. .. .. 47 350 6. Keratin, with other similar and nitrogenous compounds, forms the chief part of the skin, epidermis, hair and nails, weighs about .. 42 o 7. Cartilagin, a nitrogenous substance, is the chief constituent of cartilages ; it resembles the ossein of bone, and amounts to .. .. i 8 o 8. Hemoglobin, a very important nitrogenous substance, containing iron ; it gives the red colour to the blood, and amounts to .. i 8 o 9. Albumen, a soluble nitrogenous substance, is found in chyle, lymph, blood and muscles .. i i o 10. Carbonate of Lime, is found chiefly in bone .. i o 350 11. Kephalin with myelin, cerebrin, and several other nitrogenised, sulphurised, or phospho- rised compounds, is found in brain, nerve, &c. o 13 o 12. Fluoride of Calcium, is found chiefly in bones and teeth .. .. .. .. .. 07 175 13. Phosphate of Magnesia, chiefly in bones and teeth .. .. .. .. .. ..070 14. Chloride of Sodium, or common salt, occurs throughout the body .. .. .. .. 070 15. Cholesterin, Inosite and Glycogen are com- pounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, found in brain, muscle and liver .. 030 1 6. Sulphate, Phosphate and Organic Salts of . Sodium, are found in all liquids and tissues .. 02 107 1 7. Sulphate, Phosphate and Chloride of Potassium, are found in all tissues and liquids .. .. o i 300 1 8. Silica, occurs in hair, skin and bones.. .. o o 30 Total.. .. 154 o mm ELEMENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY. Oxygen, a permanent gas, the great supporter of combustion. This gas constitutes f of the water and f of the air. The quantity in the human body would fill a space of about some 1290 cubic feet, and would weigh about .. 109 2 335 A HARD-WORKING DIET. 447 Ibs. ozs. grs. 2. Carbon, a solid, occurs nearly pure in charcoal. The carbon in the body is variously combined with other elements, and by its burning sets free heat, and produces carbonic acid gas .. 18 n 50 3. Hydrogen, a gas, and the lightest substance known. It occurs mainly in water ; the quantity in the human body would fill a space of some 2690 cubic feet, and would weigh about .. .. .. .. .. .. 14 3 150 4. Nitrogen, a gas without energetic properties. It is an essential part of all bones and blood and muscle. The quantity in the body would occupy about 66 feet cubic, and would weigh about .. .. .. .. .. 4 14 o $. Phosphorus, a solid. It occurs specially in various compounds of the bones and of the brain. It burns so readily in air that it is here kept in water. In the human body we find about I 12 25 6. Sulphur, a yellow combustible solid, often called called brimstone. Like all the pre- ceding elements, it is found in all the tissues and secretions of the body, but always in combination. It amounts to .. .. 08 o 7. Chlorine, a greenish-yellow gas found in the body chiefly with sodium, the compound being common salt. The chlorine in the human body would fill a space of 2 cubic feet and 510 cubic inches, and would weigh .. 04 150 8. Fluorine, hardly known in the separate state, but probably a gas. It is found united with calcium in the bones and the teeth. The quantity in the body would fill a space 2 cubic feet and 150 cubic inches. It would weigh .. .. .. .. .. .. o 3 300 9. Silicon, a solid occurring in union with oxygen in hair, bones, blood, bile, saliva and skin.. o o 14 10. Calcium, a metal, the basis of lime. It occurs chiefly in bones and teeth .. .. .. 3 13 190 11. Potassium, a metal, the basis of potash. It is lighter than water, and when placed on it 448 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Ibs. ozs. grs. burns with a lilac flame. It occurs mainly as phosphate and chloride 03 340 12. Sodium, a metal, the basis of soda, and must be kept from the air. It occurs chiefly in union with chlorine as common salt, but also in other compounds and bile .. .. .. o 3 217 13. Magnesium this metal is found in union with phosphoric acid, mainly in bones .. .. o 2250 14. Iron this metal is essential to the colouring matter of the blood. It occurs everywhere in the body o o 63 15. Manganese -, a metal much like iron. Faint traces occur in the brain, and decided traces in the blood. 1 6. Copper traces of this metal are invariably found in the human brain, and probably also in the blood. Note top. 359. It has been suggested that it is the instability the readiness for change of the nitrogen compounds which makes them so serviceable for hard work. All that can be said at present is, that though the facts as to their use seem clear, the explanation has not yet been satisfactorily arrived at. Note on Dr. E. Smith! s popular form of putting, the results of his work, p. 368. The following is an example of the way in which Dr. E. Smith illustrated that cost and economy in foods are different things. Two breakfasts are here selected for comparison, both of the same cost per head (i-^.) while one gives 909 grains of carbon and 41 grains of nitrogen more than the other. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 449 Breakfast of tea, bread and butter : Tea, i oz. ; sugar, \ oz. ; skimmed milk, i pint ; water, \ pint ; bread, 6 oz. ; butter, -- oz. [The quantities refer to the share for each person.] Amount of carbon, 1081 grains; nitrogen, 46 grains. Breakfast of oatmeal brose, treacle, bread and bacon : Oatmeal, 5 oz. ; skimmed milk, -! pint ; water, -L pint ; treacle, I oz. ; bread, 3 oz. ; bacon, I oz. Amount of carbon, 1,990 grains ; nitrogen, 88 grains. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. The table of anatomists and physiologists from 1500 is given for the purpose of showing how large a number of brains have been occupied in finding out what our bodily organization is, and in the collateral column how many brains have been occupied in finding out methods of investigation which have come as aid, in explaining ourselves. It may help the realisa- tion of the meaning of such an expression as " There are many things we do know," being something different in significance from the answer of a school- boy, "Don't know, Sir," to a question say such as what is the aorist of opaco ? or, what is the capital town of Northamptonshire ? The table is based, with modifications, on one of Professor McKendrick's. In the latter part it is meant to be suggestive rather than complete. VOL. I. H. 2 G 450 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Period 1540 1550 1610 1620 1650 1660 1670 1680 l/OO 1710 1720 1730 1740 Anatomists and Physiologists. Faliopius, 1523-1562. Eustachius, d. 1574. WILLIAM HARVEY, 1578- 1657 (Circulation). ASELLI, about 1622 (Lacteals). PECQUET, about 1651 (Thoracic duct). JOLLYFE, b. about 1622 (Lymphatics] MALPIGHI, 1628-1694 (Circulation under the Microscope}. LOWER, 1631-1691 (Transfusion of Blood], HOOKE, 1635-1703 (Artificial respiration). MAYOW, 1645-1679 (Respiration^. RUYSCH, 1638-1731 (A rt of Injecting) . Boerhaave, 1668-1738. Keill, 1673-1719. STEPHEN HALES, 1677- 1761 (Circulation). Rdaumur, 1683-1757. HALLER, 1708-1777 (Muscular Irritability]. Whytt, 1714-1766. Representatives of Collateral Sciences. Stephen Gray, d. 1736. Nicholas Bernoulli (I.), 1687-1759- Maclaurin, 1698-1746. Bradley, 1692-1762. John Bernoulli (I.), 1667- 1748. Linnaeus, 1707-1778. Maskeleyne, about 1732. Hajvksbee, about 1731. Dollond, 1706-1761. Euler, 1707-1789. Dan Bernoulli (I.), 1700- 1752. Boscovitch, 1711-1787. Kastner, 1719-1800. Lacaille, 1713-1762. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 45* Period. Anatomists and Physiologists. Representatives of Collateral Sciences. 1760 1770 1780 1790 I800 Needham, 1713-1781. Trembley, 1700-1784. Lieberkiihn, 1711-1756. JOHN HUNTER, 1728-1794 (Blood-vessels). SPALLANZANI, 1729-1799 (Digestion, respiration, generation"). GALVANI, 1737-1798 (A nimal electricity] . HEWSON, 1739-1774 (Blood glands). LAMARCK, 1744-1829. Blumenbach, 1752-1840. BICHAT, 1771-1802 (Life of tissues). THOMAS YOUNG, 1773- 1829 (Measurement of time, colour). J. F. Berard, 1780-1828. Rudolphi, 1771-1832. John Bernoulli (II.), 1740- 1790. James Watt, 1736-1819. Hutton, 1726-1797. Lavoisier, 1743-1794. Joseph Black, 1728-1799. Coulomb, 1736-1806. Bailey, 1736-1 793. Franklin, 1706-1790. William Hunter, 1718- 1785, Biot, about 1774. Cavendish, 1731-1810. Sir J. Banks, 1743-1820. Gmelin, 1748-1840. John Bernoulli (1 1 1.), 1744- 1807. Priestley, 1734-1804. Jacobi, 1743-1819. Playfair, 1748-1819. Berthollet, 1748-1822. Scheele, 1742-1786. Bramah, 1749-1814. D aniel Bernoulli (II. ) 1751- 1834. Jenner, 1749-1823. Fourcroy, 1755-1809. Legendre, 1752-1833. Count Rumford, 1753-1814. James Bernoulli (II.), 1759- 1789. Chladni, 1756-1827. Fourier, 1768-1830. Brunei, 1769-1849. Leslie, 1766-1832. W. Humboldt, 1738-1822. A. Humboldt, 1769-1859 Playfair, 1749-1819. Dalton, 1767-1844. Cuvier, 1769-1832. Ampere, 1775-1836. Gauss, 1777-1855. Pfaff, 1773-1852. Malus, 1775-1812. Seebeck, 1770-1831. Oersted, 1777-1851. 2 G 2 452 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Period 1810 1820 1830 Anatomists and Physiologists. CHARLES BELL, 1774-1842 {Sensory and motor nerve). Treviranus, 1776-1837. Edwards, 1777-1842. Purkinji, b. about 1787. Sir B. Brodie, 1783-1862. MAJENDIE, 1783-1855 (Absorption). Sir E. Home, 1756-1832. Krause, b. 1797. BEAUMONT, about 1824 (Digestion). Gmelin, 1788-1853. Serres, 1782-1862. E. H. WEBER, d. 1878 (Circulation, muscles'). J. L. Prevost, 1790-1850. Von Baer, b. 1792. MARSHALL HALL, 1790- 1857 (Reflex action). FLOURENS, 1794-1867. ( The brain). Ehrenberg, b. 1795. POISEUILLE, b. 1799 (Manometers). Dupuy, 1774-1849. JOHANN MULLER, l8oi- 1858. SCHLEIDEN, 1804-1872 (Cell theory). Representatives of Collateral Sciences. Arago, 1786-1853. Thomas Thomson, 1773- 1852. Peltier, 1785-1845. Dobereiner, 1780-1849. Hare, 1781-1858. C. Ritter, 1779-1859. Gay Lussac, 1778-1850. Fresnel, 1783-1827. Niepce, 1765-1833. Wollaston, 1766-1828. Frauenhofer, 1787-1826. Bessel, 1784-1846. Nobili, 1784-1835. Ohm, 1787-1854. Christopher Bernoulli, b. 1782. Braconnet, 1781-1855. Brande, b. 1788. Cagniard de la Tour, b. 1776. Chevreul, b. 1786. A. C. Becquerel, b. 1788. Berzelius, 1779-1848. Basevi, b. 1799. Despretz, b. 1792. Chasles, 1793-1880. Struve, 1793-1864. Daniel, 1790-1845. Cauchy, 1789-1857. Mitscherlich, b. 1794. Audouin, 1797-1841. Poggendorff, .^1 Payer, b. 1795. Bischoff, b. 1792. Moebius, b. 1790. Faraday, 1794-1867. Colladon, b. 1802. Sturm, 1803-1855. Lassaigne, b. 1800. * The dates of the decease of comparatively recent authorities have not been in all cases ascertained. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 453 Period Anatomists and Physiologists. Representatives of Collateral Sciences. 1840 1850 Volkmann, 1801-1877. Schroeder van der Kolk, 1797-1862. CLAUDE BERNARD, 1813- 1878 ( Vaso motor nerves}. SCHWANN, b. 1 8 10 (Cell theory). John Reid, 1809-1849. JOHN GOODSIR, 1814-1867 (Secretion). FECHNER, b. 1801 (Psycho-physik}. Carpenter. Bowman. Henle. Wasmann. Ranke. Ludwig. Von Helmholtz. Bonders. Briicke. Brown-Sequard. Du Bois Reymond. Schiff. Lister. Vulpian. Vierordt. Huxley. Pettenkofer. Czermak. Lothar Meyer. Frdmy, b. 1814. Listing, b. 1808. Melloni, 1798-1854. Amici, b. 1786. Balard, b. 1802. Von Bibra, b. 1806. Boussingault, b. 1802. Christison, 1779-1880. Mulder, b. 1802. Gassiot, b. 1797. Dumas b. 1800. Foucault, b. 1819. Gorup Von Besanez, .1817. Thomas Graham, b. 1805. Lord Justice Grove. A. W. Hofmann. J. P. Joule. Lehmann, b. 1812. W. H. Miller, b. 1801. J. R. Mayer, b. 1814. % Regnault, b. 1810. Liebig, 1803-1873. Draper, 1811-1882. Andrews, b. 1813. Bunsen, b. 1811. Cahours, b, 1813. Kopp, b. 1817. Wertheim, 1815-1861. A. E. Becquerel. A. Beer. Berthelot. Sylvester. Clausius. Tyndall. Kekule. Kirchoff. Knoblauch. Moleschott. Pasteur. Frankland. Lyon Playfair. Lawes & Gilbert. 454 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN p E.2 & * ( I OO ON OO OO A HARD-WORKING DIET. 455 G O r CJ G O K/j 3 l-i G 3 ^ O "-' i^j 8j o S c | ^ gl U r* -2 fl ' 23 So G SI'S I--S6 1 fl? 8 1?* 3 I1|1 % s sdlf -| i i| 1 S 'SS S^. CO o 2- * W O- w ft* s |||g !|| J.S 00 ^ 00 00 Professor Corfield's course of lectures at Birmingham. 1880. Professor Church lectures at School of Cookery. fi fl DJO a c j o o ^g o o aj | || | || ." uj ^ g ^ ^ ^ w S "cS ^CjTO Gc3 Go . gnO .^ G 5 .^ .^ VH- | ^"'O^ ^ ^"1 1 S | *** 8 I ^ 1*2 . **- CO 42 S ^2 iT* Q^ a .5 a) g ^ bo w .5 2'C a3 SO d > ft g- ^ 2^ S ^ G 'r! **- ^3 * -^ w o cj 'aJ C 'c3 [> " . OH ^ *-- [^ >-H ^ G ^ lll^l fl | UJ.1J. I'l J. , vO ^O ^O ^^ MD vO O t^N. 00 00 00 00 00 00 CO OO OO 456 ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN AN EASY WAY TO CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF GRAINS OF NITROGEN PRESENT IN DIFFERENT WEIGHTS OF NITRO- GENOUS COMPOUNDS. Though fractions of a grain are important in a chemical analysis it is near enough in practical dieting to be within i of an ounce. The daily range of nitrogenous compounds taken is between 4 and 5^ ounces. Calculate 438 gr. to oz. ; 219 to J oz. ; no to i oz. (near enough). For ready reference expressed in grains 4 oz. = 1752 gr. ; 4^ oz. = 1862 gr. ; 4^ oz. = 1971 gr. ; 4} oz. = 2081 gr. ; 5 oz. = 2190 gr. ; 5^ oz. = 2300 gr. ; 5J oz. = 2409 gr. (more exact than 2410). If the analyses of various nitrogen compounds is ex- amined it will be seen that about 15 J or 16 parts per hundred (three examples of which are given on p. 357) are nitrogen. This is so uniformly the case in all analyses that for the convenience of calculation without analysis 1 6 parts in the hundred of any nitrogenous compound are taken as nitrogen. In making calculations in grains every 100 grains of a nitrogenous compound is taken to contain 1 6 grains of nitrogen, every 50 contains 8, every 25 con- tains 4, and so on. Beginning at the 4 oz., that is 1752 grains, there are 17 hundreds (17 times 16= 272) and one fifty (=8 grains N), and the odd 2 may be omitted; so 1752 grains of nitrogen compound contain 272+8= 280 grains of nitrogen. Working out this way or any other more convenient, the results come : Nitrogenous 4 or expressed in grains . 1752 contain . , 280 4j . 1862 . . 298 4J 1971 . . 314 4f 2081 . . 333 5 2190 . . 350 5 . 2300 . . 368 5 2409 . . 385 This can, of course, be worked the reverse way. Suppos- ing a diet is wanted to contain 350 grains of nitrogen, then 5 ounces of some nitrogen compound must be taken. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 457 Many curious references will be found in the sixteenth and seventeenth century books mentioned in this list. Some few are quoted in the previous pages. Date. Author. Title of Work. 1259 1306 1402 1494 1519 1532 1535 1541 1547 1548 1568 1577- 1586 1593 1599 Rogers, James E. T. . Ballantyne Club . . Rogers, James E. T. . Vincentius, Bellova- censis, Glanvilla, Bartholo- meus de. Arlunus, Joannes Petnis Glanvifla, Bartholo- meus de. Elyot, Sir Thomas . Gibson, Edmnnd, D.D, Thevet, Andre' . . Holinshed, Raphaell . England . Buttes, Henry . A History of Agriculture and Prices in England. (London, 8vo., 1876, &c.) Scotland, The Accounts of the Great Chamberlain of State. (Edinburgh, 1817, 3 vols., 4to.) A History of Agriculture and Prices in England. (London, 8vo., 1876.) Speculum Naturale. Ventiijs. FoL Venerandi patris . . . Opus de pro- prietatibus rerum. (Koberger, Nu- remberg, 1519, folio.) De faciliori alimento summula (Milan, 1539, fol.) Anno MDXXXV. De Proprietatibus Rerum (Translated into English by J. Trevisa, B.L.) MS. Notes by W. H. Ireland. (London, 1835, folio. The Castel of Helth. (London, 1541, 4to.) Statutes of the Realm. (Vol. iv. Parts i and 2.) Codex Juris Ecclesiastic! Anglican!, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1761, fol.) The New Found Worlde, or Antarc- tike (Translated from the French, by T. Hacket, B.L.) (London, 1568, 4to.) Chronicles (Hooker). (London, foL, 1587.) A Brief Note of the Benefits that grow to this Realme by the Observation of Fish Days. (London, Roger Ward, 1593, fol., 5 vols.) Dyets Dry Dinner. Fish (36). (Lon- don, I2mo., 1599. ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Date. 1601 1608 1616 l6l7 1625 1626 1640 1642 1650 1679 1680 1682 1685 1705 1709 1710 1713 1720 Author. Glanvilla, Bartholo- meus de. Cains, Bernardinus . Munday, Anthony Castellanus, Petrus . Mason, Henry . . Mason, Henry Somner, William . Erswicke, John Venner, Tobias Trapham, Thomas Mundy, Henricus Collins, John . Valvasor, John Weich- ard, R.S.S. Lemery, Louis' Hecquet, Philippe Andry de Boisregard, Nicholas. North, Roger . Albin, Eleazar Title of Work. De genuinis rerum .... proprieta- tibus libri XVI 1 1. (Francofurti, 1 60 1, 8vo.) De alimentis quae cuique naturae con- veniant, de voluptatis natura, de saporibus. (Venetiis, 1608, 4to.) Chrysanaleia : the Golden Fishing ; or, Honour of Fishmongers. (Lon- don, 1616, 4to.) Vitae illustrium medicorum qui . . . ad haec usque tempora floruerunt. (Antverpiae, 1617, 8vo.) Christian Humiliation, or a Treatise of Fasting. (London, 1625, 4to.) The Epicure's Fast ; or, a Short Discourse, discovering the Licen- tiousness of the Romane Church in her religious Fasts. (London, 1626, 4to.) The Antiquities of Canterbury. (Lon- don, 1640, 4to.) A Brief Note of the Benefits that grew to this Realme by the Observation of Fish-days. (London, 1642, 4to.) Via recta ad vitam longam. (London, 1650, 4to.) A Discourse of the State of Health in the Island of Jamaica. (London, 1679, 8vo.) Bioxp^oroXoyia seu commentarn de casre vitali, de esculentis, de potu- lentis, cum corollario de parergis in victu. (Oxoniae, 1680, 8vo.) Salt and Fishery : a Discourse there- of, &c. (London, 1682, 4to.) Philosophical Transactions, vols. xv., xxi., xxii. (London, 1685, &c., 4to.) Traite des Aliments. (Paris, 1705-04, I2mo. Two Parts.) Traitd des Dispenses du Careme, &c. (Paris, 1709, I2mo.) Le regime du caresme, conside're' par rapport a la nature du corps et des alimens. (Paris, 1710, 8vo.) A Discourse of Fish and Fishponds . . . done by a Person of Honour. (London, 1713, 8vo.) A Natural History of English In- sects. London, 1720, 4to. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 459 Date. Author. Title of Work. 1721 1731 1734 1738 1740 1745 1746 1748- 1752 1758 1759 1760 1763 1787 1790 1794 1796 1797 Brookes, Richard . Arbuthnot, John, M.D. Hilscher, Simon Paul Forster, Win., Practi- tioner in Physick. Brooke, Richard, M.D. De Coetlogon, Dennis Griffiths, Roger, Water Bailiff. pomers .... Borlase, William . Mackenzie, James Lelandi .... Brookes .... Brichoz, Pierre Joseph Arundel Collection (MS., No. 344.) Thompson, Benjamin (Count Rumford). Thompson, Benjamin (Count Rumford). A History of the most remarkable Pestilential Distempers that have appeared in Europe for 300 years. (London, 1721, 8vo.) An Essay concerning the Nature of Aliments, and the Choice of Them. (London, 1731-32, 8vo.) Prolusio II. de Methodo Ciceronis tuendi Valetudinem. (Jena, 1734, 4to.) A Treatise on the Various Kinds . . . of Foods, &c. (Newcastle-upon- Tyne, 1738, 8vo.) The Art of Angling. (London, 1740.) An Universal History of Arts and Sciences. (London, 1745, fl' 2 vols.) An Essay to prove that the Jurisdic- tion and Conservancy of the River Thames, &c., is committed to the Lord Mayor. (London, 1746, 8vo.) Tracts, vol. ii. (London, 4to.) The Natural History of Cornwall. (Oxford, 1758, folio.) The History of Health, and the Art of Preserving it, &c. (Edinburgh, 1759, 8vo.) Feast of Fishes, Archbishops. (Lon- don, 1760.) A New and Accurate System of Na- tural History, vol. iii. ; 6 vols. (Lon- don, 1763, I2mo.) L'Art Alimentaire, ou Mdthode pour pr^parer les alimens les plus sains pour I'homme. (Paris, 1783, I2mo.) Royal Household. A Collection of Ordinances. (London, 1790, 4to.) The Gentleman's Magazine, vol. Ixiv., Part II. Essays, Political, Economical, and Philosophical, vol. i. (London, 1796-1802, 8vo.) Essays, Political, Economical, and Philosophical, vols. vi. and vii. (London, 1797, 8vo.) Additional MS. Parlyament Proposal to King, as to fishing. 28,07915,15515,15415,156. 4 6o ON THE PLACE OF FISH IN Date. Author. Tide of Work. I 79 8 1801 1802 1809 1809 1813 1813 1814 1817 1820 1836 183? 1838 1838 i$4i 1841 1843 1850 Thompson, Benjamin (Count Romford.) Brookes, Richard, M.D. Thompson, Benjamin " Accounts of the Great Seal." Tobias, Gentleman . Park Bernard, Sir Thomas Lord Somers . Ballantyne Cub . Brewster, Sir David Ballantyne Club . Swainson, William Martin, Robert Yarrel By a Correspondent Bellamy, J. C. . . Barral . Essays, Political, Economical, and Philosophical, vol. vii. (London, 1798, 8vo.) The Art of Angling. (London, 1801, I2mo.) Essays, Political, Economical, and Philosophical, vol. iii. (London, 1802, 8vo.) Antiquarian Repertory, vol. iv. (Lon- don, 1809, 4to.) Harleian Miscellany, vol. iii. (' Eng- land's Way to Win Wealth.' Lon- don, 1809, 4to.) Harleian Miscellany, vol. x. (London, 1813, 4to). No. XIV. Oldy's Cata- logue of Pamphlets (237). Soap Making, 1631. The Pamphleteer, vol. i. An Account of a Supply of Fish for the Manu- facturing Poor. (London, 1813, &c., 8vo.) Somers' Tracts, vol. xi. England's Path to Wealth and Honour, in a Dialogue between an Englishman and a Dutchman, p. 371. (London, 1814, 4to.) Scotland, The Accounts of the Great Chamberlain of Scotland, 1306-1453. (Edinburgh, 1817, 4to.) Edinburgh Journal of Science, &c., vol. iii. (Edinburgh, 1830, 8vo.) J ames V. , King of Scotland. Excerpta e libris domicilli Dni. Jac. quinti R. Scot. 1525-33. (Edinburgh, 1836, The Magazine of Natural History, and Journal of Zoology, Botany, &c. (London, 1837, &c., 8vo.) Cabinet of Natural History. (London, 1838, 8vo.) The History, Antiquities, Topography, and Statistics of Eastern India, 3 vols. (London, 1838, 8vo ) Penny Magazine, vol. x. (London, 1841, 410.) Housekeeper's Guide to the Fish Market. (London, 1843, I2mo.) Statique Chimique des Animaux. A HARD-WORKING DIET. 461 Date. Author. Title of Work- I8 5 I Household Words. (London, 1841, 8vo.) 1851 Lehmann, C. G. . Lehrbuch der Physiologischen Chemie. 1851, 5J * Physiological Chemistry. (Cavendish &C. Society, London.) Translated from 2nd Edition by G. E. Day, M.D. 1851 Davy, Sir Humphry . Salmonia, or Days of Fly-Fishing. (Murray.) 1852 Bidder und Schmidt . Die Verdauung Safte 1 und der Stoffwechsel. 1854 Lehmann, C. G. . Handbuch der Physiologischen Chemie, Leipsig. 1854 Young, Andrew The Natural History and Habits of Salmon. (London, 1854, 8vo.) 1855 Davy, John, M.D. The Angler and his Friend. (Long- mans.) 1856 Hildesheim Die Normal-Diet. 18^7 Voit Physiologisch - chemische Unter- AO J/ suchen. 1857 Hammond, Edward . Researches on Food. (New York.) 1857 Rankine, W. J. Mac- Applied Mechanics. (Black.) quorn. 1859 Simmonds, Peter Lund The Curiosities of Food. (Bentley.) 1859 Vogt, C Moleschott's Untersuchungen. 1860 Henneberg und Stoh- Fiitterung der Weiderkauer. mann 1860 Parkes . Urine. 1860 Bischoff und Voit Die Gesetze der Ernahrung des Fleischfressers. 1862 Bellamy (Surgeon) Housekeeper's Guide. (Plymouth, 1862.) 1862 Couch, Jonathan . A History of the Fishes of the British Islands. (London, 1860, &c., 8vo.) 1862 Savory Uses of Food. 1863 Pettenkoffer und Voit Respiration. (Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie.) 1864 Carpenter, William . On the Mutual Relation of the Physical and Vital Forces (Quarterly Journal of Science) . 1865 Payen, A. .... Des Substances Alimentaires (4th Edition). 1865 Playfair, Lyon. The Food of Man in Relation to his useful Work. (Lecture.) (Edin- burgh : Edmondston and Douglas.) 1866 Parnell, H. C. Fishing Gossip. (Edinburgh, 1866, 8vo.) 1867 Erdaile, David . . Contributions to Natural History, chiefly in Relation to the Food of the People. 2nd Edition. (Edin- burgh, 1867, 8vo.) 462 THE PLACE OF FISH IN A HARD-WORKING DIET. Date. Author. Title of Work. 1871, 1876 1872 1872 1874 1875 1877 1877 1879 Borlase, William Denison, Alfred Gardener,Samuel Raw- son. New Shakspeare So ciety. Simmonds, Peter Lund All the Year Round, vols. xxv. and xxxv. (London, 1871 and 1876, 8vo.) Naenia Cornubise : a Descriptive Es- say ... on Cornwall (London, Truro, 1872, 8vo.) A Literal Translation into English of the earliest known Book on Fowling and Fishing. Translated from Flemish of 1492 by A. D. (Lon- don, 1872, 8vo.) Chambers's Journal. (London, 1874, 4to.) History of England under the Duke of Buckingham and Charles I., 1624 to 1628. 2 vols. (London, 1875, 8vo.) Good Words. Description of England (W. Harrison). (London, 1877, 8vp.) The Commercial Products of the Sea. (Griffith and Farran.) A POPULAR HISTORY OF FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN OF ALL COUNTRIES FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES BY W. M. ADAMS, B.A. FORMERLY FELLOW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD VOL. I. H. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. THE CONDITION OF FISHERMEN IN EVERY AGE . 465 II. EGYPT AND THE ICTHYOPHAGI . . . . .471 III. THE TIMES OF THE CLASSIC WRITERS . . . 478 IV. THE FISHERIES OF MANY CENTURIES . . .487 V. MODERN DEEP SEA FISHING . . . . .509 VI. DIMINUTION AND REPRODUCTION . . . . 519 VI L A GLANCE AT FOREIGN COUNTRIES . . . .525 VIII A PRACTICAL CONCLUSION . , . . .536 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN OF ALL COUNTRIES. CHAPTER I. THE CONDITION OF FISHERMEN IN EVERY AGE, Twas a fat oyster. Pope. Poverty is the badge of all our tribe. Merchant of Venice. 3RD FISHERMAN. Master, I marvel how the fishes live in the sea. IST FISHERMAN. Why, as men do a-land : the great ones eat up the little ones. Pericles. A KAKI or oyster of venerable appearance and high reputation for wisdom, whose remarks have been preserved by the learned Kiuo in his famous Japanese sermons, was lying at ease one day amid the rocks beneath the Eastern waters, and was watching the sunlight which played among the reeds and grasses of that pleasant retreat. Now it needed but a very slight glance down through the blue limpid depths to see that this oyster, as we shoulc^ call him, with his well-developed beard and general expression of cool tranquillity, was a highly distinguished member of his order. A gentle murmur proceeded from his half-open mouth as he addressed a youthful kurumayebi, or lobster, standing respectfully near him ; and any one acquainted VOL. I. H. 2 H 466 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN with the mollusc language might have perceived that he was comparing the relative advantages of shell-fish and their captors for the benefit of his friend " I know quite well," whispered the Kaki languidly, "that unfortunate human race which cannot even breathe this delicious atmo- sphere. They are all an unhappy lot, and have very little idea of the pleasures of existence ; but those who are the particular enemies of us and of others who dwell in the ocean, are worst off by far. Just look at the whole race of fishermen I don't care of what country or what age I defy you to mention a single man of wealth, or leisure, or importance amongst them, unless it was Masaniello and how long did he keep his power. They are all as poor as a periwinkle, and as unprotected as a jellyfish. As for their houses, did any one ever hear of a fisherman living in a cottage lined with mother-of-pearl ? And then look at the dangers which they are incessantly incurring. There comes a little puff and over they go, while I lie here and watch their bodies floating about upon the surface." Just at this moment a strange shadow passed across the sunlight ; quick as thought the Kaki stopped his discourse and closed his shell with a snap. At last, when a long period had elapsed and he felt that all danger was past, he opened his eyes, and found himself deposited upon the cool white marble of a fishmonger's stall. In the sensations experienced by the hero of this little Eastern apologue, that of surprise would doubtless have pre^ dominated, but we question whether his astonishment would not have been higher in degree, as well as pleasanter in kind, if, instead of finding himself upon a stall in the Japanese mar- ket, he had awoke amid the magnificence of the International Fisheries Exhibition. For many of the remarks made by the acute, though rather too self-confident, mollusc were perfectly OF ALL COUNTRIES. 467 correct. As, standing in the midst of the great palace, we look back upon the history of fishing and fishermen from the earliest times, it seems as if the abundant wealth and devices around us had risen from the ocean beneath the wand of an enchanter. Rich and varied as are the products here collected, there is no trade or occupation so peculiarly distinguished through all times and all nations by the poverty of its pursuers as that of fishing. From the boat- less, netless, shiftless race of Ichthyophagi, described by Arrian and Strabo, to the big-booted and oilskin-coated individual who forms to the observant eye one of the most picturesque and familiar objects of the seashore, poverty is the badge which marks the fisherman. Among primitive and unsettled communities the prin- cipal pursuits of life consist of fishing and hunting ; yet even there the hunter claims the greater share of im- portance, since before either agricultural and pastoral pursuits have taken root, both food and clothing are alike supplied from the produce of the chase, while fishing must be content to confine itself to the former of these departments of the commissariat. As civilisation advances and the growth of agriculture converts hunting from a benefit into a detriment, rivers and streams no longer lie open to every chance comer, but yield their wealth only to a privileged and limited number. But though the waters which formerly supplied an industry for the many may now afford only an amusement for the few, yet little improvement has accrued to those who still follow that calling for their livelihood, no longer in the streams and rivers, but on the wild and dangerous seas. In character, as in habits, the fisherman seems little changed from the days of Oppian. Physically, he is still well-made, active and athletic ; morally, he must needs be patient and enterprising. No calling indeed 2 H 2 4 68 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN demands so severe and constant a strain upon the moral virtues of patience and fortitude. His labour is incessant, his reward slight and uncertain. He must face the chance of sudden and violent end far more habitually than either soldier or sailor, yet must hope for no special glory or memorial as his recompense. He must be content often to leave wife and children with a smiling face, and know that as likely as not he may come back to them within twenty-four hours only as a corpse cast up by the treacherous sea. Death in its . most rapid and startling form is his familiar companion, but he never can suffer his hardihood or his cheerfulness to be dimmed for a moment by that ghastly presence. A sudden gust, a bucket thrown carelessly over the side, an awkward movement at an inopportune moment, may in an instant snatch him away beyond recall, with no further memorial than a simple inscription of " Drowned at Sea." The church at which he worships is full of such records ; and from his own family perhaps, a father, a brother and a son have all perished by a sudden death.. Yet nothing daunts his unconquerable courage, or wearies out his inexhaustible patience. This it is which makes the fisheries of a nation so valuable a nursery for their national defences. England is not the only country which owes her greatness upon the seas in no slight measure to the qualities of her fishermen. The navies of Athens and Greece in the olden time, as of Holland and France in modern days, were largely recruited from the same ranks. Upon their calling, too, was conferred the most splendid destiny that has adorned the human race. From amongst the fishermen of Galilee came forth the spiritual princes of the earth, and the poverty and humility in which they lived is the very type of the apostolic life. Such a race of men, it is evident, must form not merely an OF ALL COUNTRIES 469 integral, but a most vital portion of a nation's strength ; and no pains can be too great for the purpose of ascertaining their customs and for developing their capabilities to the utmost possible degree. No doubt it may not be easy to obtain detailed information as to their customs in the earliest ages, for the very simplicity of their habits and retirement of their lives tends inevitably to create obscurity, though when we descend to modern days the copiousness of the treatment grows indeed apace. Fully to illustrate so vast and intricate a theme would require a lifetime of research and a volume or rather a bookshelf of no inconsiderable dimensions. Yet even the brief and unpretending sketches here presented can scarcely fail to catch some interest from the scenes in which they are laid, and the incidents by which they are diversified ; and may serve at least to indicate new fields or rather oceans for investigation to the student of historical philosophy, no less than new tracks of sympathy for the general public. Whether we stand by the Indian, as, in the glare of his midnight torch, he spears the leaping salmon in the reddened waters, or follow our own hardy fishermen to their wild and dangerous haunts in the northern sea ; whether we note the similarity of thunny catching in the heroic days of Greece with the mode pur- sued even now in parts of Southern Europe ; whether we learn from the Chinese the endless subtleties of device born of long observation and yet longer patience, or look back upon the efforts of a mediaeval monk as they develope slowly through the centuries into a vast system of European pisciculture ; whether we descend with the learned Italian into the tomb, or inhale the breezes of ocean as we pursue the flying whale ; through whatever age and whatever land we stray, the same mingled sense of natural and moral beauty greets us on everv hand. To the fishes with their 470 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN marvellous forms, their glowing hues, their lovely homes ; belongs a world scarce penetrated yet by the eye of man. To the fisherman has been assigned the nobler privilege of offering an example of patient industry, of unrepining poverty, of discipline and self-restraint at least during his labours at sea, and of utter insensibility to danger in the pursuit of duty, which marks the followers of that craft in every country, even, so far as we can trace, from the very earliest times. OF ALL COUNTRIES. 471 CHAPTER II. . EGYPT AND THE ICHTHYOPHAGI. She was used to take delight, with her fair hand To angle in the Nile. Beaumont and Fletcher. EGYPT, the China of the Western world, was the cradle of piscatorial as of other industrial arts and inventions. So prominent a part was played by the fishermen in the domestic economy of that country that the prophet Isaiah alludes in special terms to their desolation. In the sepul- chral monuments of that extraordinary land where the living have the appearance of being already dead, and the dead vociferously claim to be considered alive, we find many allusions to the practice and illustrations of the methods pursued. Drag-nets and clap-nets are constantly represented full of fish, and bronze harpoons and fish-hooks still remain to bear witness to their early ingenuity. The tomb of Nevophth, built as early as the seventeenth dynasty, contains a representation of two men angling, with the hiero- glyph of fishing inscribed above them. Another picture of about the same period shows five men engaged in net-casting : one standing in the water, and the other standing in the middle of the net. At Elethyia in a similar painting, ropes are attached to each extremity. One of the hieroglyphs collected and conjecturally translated by the learned and 472 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN ingenious Italian, Rosellini, yields a suggestion that the device of using cormorants, or at least some kind of birds as intermediaries between themselves and the inhabitants of the waters, a kind of fish-hawking common enough in China, was not unknown to the Egyptians. As, however, the special point does not appear to have occurred to the professor, it may be as well to quote his own words, especially as they will illustrate the nature of the records from which our knowledge of these most ancient occupations is derived, and the amount of the skill required for their interpretation. The author speaks of the hiero- glyphic word representing a net, and then, says he, there follows the figure of a bird with the signs of plurality. Then comes another bird with beak and claws, and that character expresses, as is evident from other places, a mode of taking fish, and in general the idea of fishing. More often one finds this symbol preceded by the phonetic word which in the spoken language expresses the same idea with the armed hand following the words indicating the action. In fact, it is the figure of a fish with the note of plurality. From these premises the learned and ingenious author concludes that the inscription represents the inspector of bird-snaring and fishing. "Si esprime dunque in questa iscrizione : f ispettore della caccia colle reti agli uccelli, e delta, pescagione del pesci, che e Tuffizio deiruomo in quella scena figurato." But with the most sincere deference to so high an authority, we cannot help thinking that the representa- tion may have relation, not merely to birds and fish, but to catching the latter by means of the former. Snaring crocodiles was another favourite industry or amusement with the people of ancient Egypt, as is shown by the tomb of Sciumnes at Kum-el-Ahmer. Men in flat- bottomed boats covered with palm or papyrus seduced the OF ALL COUNTRIES. 473 unlucky reptile into shallow water where he could not dive, and speared him then and there. This somewhat resembles the process of cockatoo-shooting in Australia, which can only be effected by the sportsmen dressing themselves up in green boughs, and creeping along with the utmost caution so as to elude the vigilance of the two sentinels always on the look-out from the highest boughs of a gum-tree. As one reads all the various designs for the entrapping and destruction of these helpless creatures, one is visited some- times with a qualm of compunction on thinking of the tremendous catalogue of never-ending treacheries which characterise the whole dealings of man with every other portion of living creation. Nor was Egyptian ingenuity confined merely to capture, but extended also to modes of preservation. The art of drying and curing fish, not dis- covered in Europe till the fourteenth century, that parent period of so many modern employments, was known of old in the land of the Pharaohs ; and pictures are still extant representing the different stages of the process, and showing amongst other things how the big fish were cut in pieces previous to being desiccated. In one respect, too, that of the wholesale destruction of the fry, the fishermen of Egypt seem to have been open to the same charge as the most reck- less of modern caterers. Every year, after the inundation, there were found in the receding waters numbers of small fish from six to nine inches long, which Djewhari calls Sir, and identifies with the /JLCUVIS ; while Dioscorides considers them to be the same as the Sahnat or Sihna, though Makrizi distinguishes the two, as does also Avicenna according to De Sacy. This may be true enough, and the species may have been one incapable of attaining a larger growth ; but when we read of the immense quantities caught after the closing of the sluices at high Nile, and find that throughout the rest of the year the great river was but 474 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN scantily supplied with inhabitants, and those of very large size ; a remembrance of the Stormontfield experiments naturally recurs to the mind, and one wonders whether, as the parr were formerly distinguished from the salmon, so in this instance the Sir may have been nothing else than the young of some larger species, and their destruction have given rise to the scarcity prevailing in the waters of the Nile. Holy wars seem to have been as much in fashion in Ancient as in Modern Egypt ; and the controversy assumed the curious form of one tribe with the utmost irreverence eating up the fishes which the inhabitants of the adjoining territory held in divine adoration. This was a fertile source of recrimination and dispute, and the quarrel between the Ombitae and their neighbours on this knotty point attained the dimensions of a very respectable war. A very ancient exercise of royal prerogative has been preserved for us by Diodorus. Mceris or Thothmes IV. made over to his queen all rights in the lake which bears his name, for her to buy ornaments with the produce ; and if it be correct that twenty-two different kinds of fish were found there in great abundance, her Majesty had no reason to be dissatisfied with the amount assigned for her pin-money. In more recent times Ebn Modalbir, according to Abd Alatif, an Arab physician of the fourteenth century, was the first to lay a tax upon fishing, and for this purpose established regular inspectors at Alexandria, Damietta, the Cataract of Oswan, and other places. Isis, under the form of a fish-tailed woman, the common object of adoration to the Egyptians, was also worshipped by the ancient Suevi as the discoverer of the sail. Doubtless Horace had her image in mind when he penned his famous comparison for an incoherent simile. " Dcsinit in piscem mulier formosa supcrne." OF ALL COUNTRIES. 475 Which we may render A woman lends the lovely bust, a fish supplies the tail. The following hymn in her honour, taken from the Magic Papyrus, bears some resemblance to the style of Hiawatha. " I sis has struck With her wing And closed the mouth of the rain, She caused the fishes to remain lying in the stream, Not a jug of water could be drawn out of it. Sinking of the water, rising of the water ! Her tears fell (like) water, Her tears fell into The water ; a cubit of fishes at the mouth of the ape ; A cubit of wood at the mouth of the star. By I sis was uttered the cry : No crocodile ! And was effected the act of salvation. Come, act of salvation. PAPALUKA! PAPARUKA! PAPALURO." These latter lines form an invocation of the fish-god. Akin to this deity, in substance if not in name, was Dagon, the fish-god of the neighbouring Phoenicians, whose grand temple stood at Azotus. The origin of his apothe- osis is attributed by Sanchoniathon to his having been the inventor of the plough and the loaf; a noble title indeed, which makes one half inclined to look with leniency upon the idolatry, especially when it is compared with the heavy fine which would now be imposed upon any one who conferred such a benefit upon the world at large, unless indeed he con- sented to be robbed of all his due. Dagon was probably identical with the KIJTCO worshipped at Joppa, and Ae/o^ro) at Ascalon, all three towns being close together, and the nature of the worship being: identical ; but a doubt may be permitted whether the transformation of Dagon on the one 476 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN hand into Straw or Sidon, and on the other into Atergatis, is a convolution possible to any except an etymologist of a happily extinct period. The two deities however, Dagoda (or Zephyr) of the ancient Suevi, and Dagoun, the beneficent principle worshipped at Pegu, may indicate some trace of earlier connection before historic times. One or two points related by ^Elian of Egyptian fish may here be cited as curiosities. He observes that the Egyptian sea-tortoise hides its eggs in the sand and then swims off to sea, and he points out the Darwinian adapta- tion of the polypods to their environments in assuming the colours of the rocks to which they cling. Egyptian frogs also exhibit a remarkable intelligence in the art of self-defence. When a frog, he says, sees a river serpent coming, he snaps off a piece of reed or cane, and holding it tight athwart him presents an impregnable defence against his opponents. Sea-foxes in Egypt were, it appears, quite equal in intelligence to their brethren on the land ; and the angler who was so unfortunate as to make a catch of one of them found his line snapped like a flash of lightning before ever he could draw bait or prize from the sea. To the same author we are indebted for the information that fly-fishing was familiar to the Macedonians, and that tickling trout was a device by no means uncommon amongst the fishermen of that time in general. Hard by the eastern borders of Upper Egypt dwelt, in ancient times, the tribe of Ichthyophagi, divided in Ptolemy's map, which accords with the best classical authorities, into two races, both exceedingly poor, one inhabiting the eastern coast at the entrance of the Red Sea, and the other to the east of the Persian Gulf, close to the land of the Gedrocians, and between what is now Cape Malan and Cape Jask. Pliny says this coast was thirty days' sail in length, but Pliny's OF ALL COUNTRIES. 477 statistics are not always precise. To the former of these tribes, as Herodotus informs us, Cambyses sent messengers before going to war with their neighbours the Macrobians, in order to obtain ambassadors who could speak the Macro- bian language. From the account both of Diodorus as to the Ichthyophagi on the western shores of the Red Sea, and from that of Arrian as to the portion of the tribe settled towards the east of the Persian Gulf, it is evident that the greatest poverty prevailed amongst them. Though they lived almost entirely on fish they had neither boats nor nets, and their implements, after the very rudest stage of industry, were made of stone. 478 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN CHAPTER III. THE TIMES OF THE CLASSIC WRITERS, All the old ones He hath sent a fishing. Massingsr. MANY allusions to topics connected with fishing are con- tained in classical works, though they do not frequently occur in the earlier writers. Homer, for instance, merely dedicates a short epigram, of no great merit, to some fisherboys who had pleased him ; while Hesiod, so far as we remember, except in a single line, is altogether silent. Thunnies, in especial, afforded excellent sport with the people of ancient Greece, and are a frequent subject of reference. Their capture was effected by driving them in shoals into the harbour, and then battering them to death with harpoons and instruments of every kind, after the method still practised in Sardinia, where lagoons seven miles in length are divided by thick partitions of reeds, and the thunnies are beaten to death within the enclosures. This barbarous form of proceeding supplied ^Eschylus with a vivid image of the destruction of the host of Xerxes, an image placed with more' poetic than dramatic aptness in the mouth of the Persian messenger, who describes the scene to Atossa. " But the Greeks kept striking," says the messenger, "hacking us with the fragments of oars and splinters of OF ALL COUNTRIES. 479 wrecks, as if we were thunnies or a draft of fish." What a whirlwind of applause must have greeted that bold and glowing picture, which combined in one line the popular national pursuit and the most splendid victory ever achieved since warfare began ! Aristotle mentions the thunnies, saying that they belong to a gregarious and carnivorous class, and deriving their Greek name of hamiae, or com- panions, from their going always in shoals, a derivation which may have been more justifiable than it would seem ; and Archestratus gives a poetical receipt for dressing them, which has been translated into Italian verse by Signer Domenico Scina. According to Pliny, in whose mouth a story never grows less, they weighed as much as fifteen tons, the tail alone being nearly four feet in width. Fried slices of them made a capital dish for the Athenian poor, like fried plaice with our own population. " Who do you match with me, I'd ask ? " says the Bobadil of Aristophanic Comedy. " I'll just eat some hot thunny and drink a gallon or so of wine, and then I'll blackguard you every general in Pylos." In the Idylls of Theocritus, whose every line breathes of pure air and summer skies, and compared with whom the idylls of other writers are like plants in a con- servatory, occurs more than one allusion to the habits of fishermen, one eclogue in particular being especially assigned to those characters. Ausonius, too, in his poem on the Moselle, after describing the " High-crested towns wrought from the hanging rocks, Hills green with Bacchus' leaf, and pleasant flow Of MosePs silent stream that flows beneath," goes on to speak of "the grey crowd" of fishes swimming in the pleasant waters. Nor must we here pass over the interesting work entitled ' Geoponica,' drawn up, according 480 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN to the best authorities, by Cassianus Bassus at the com- mand of the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. This curious treatise forms an admirable illustration of classic science, containing excerpts from Aratus, Hippocrates, Zoroaster, and numerous other writers on rural matters ; and together with information of all kinds, botanical, agricultural, and piscatorial, it furnishes such items as receipts for universal bait, and charms for driving away mice from any particular field.* It is, in fact, an encyclo- paedia of ancient rural lore. Hook, rod, line, and net, every weapon in fact now used by man in his finny warfare except that potent instru- ment the trawl was apparently common to classic times. When the enemy is so easily caught, there is little induce- ment to waste ingenuity in devising new means of offence. Still, the variety of methods, especially in relation to nets, was considerable ; and fishermen, to follow Julius Pollux (or rather Polydeikes), might be divided into three classes the anglers, the employers of nets and torches for night use with the spear, and the divers for sponges, or for the purple-fish. The ordinary implements were as follows : the nassa, or net, said to be made of twigs ; baskets of various kinds ; the casting-net ; the drag-net ; the yasyyapov, or sagena, the time-honoured seine ; corks ; bamboo fishing- rods ; poles or stakes to fix into the ground ; fishing-lines ; flax and sewing-thread ; hooks ; leads and fishing-spears. To this list the author adds the boat utensils ; and observes * I am indebted for a knowledge of the existence of this curious treatise, as well as for many other courtesies, to Mr. Garnet, the well- known superintendent of the reading-room at the British Museum ; and I am glad to avail myself of this opportunity for expressing my thanks to the numerous officials in that department who have aided me in my researches. OF ALL COUNTRIES. 481 that m the night fishing the fishermen propelled the boat down the stream with poles, and had ropes for mooring on land, machines for drawing the boat, connected with towing, the boats being drawn up trenches ; skins used to protect their hulls from injuries ; and props, or perforated stones, to which they attached the mooring-ropes. Eels were caught by letting down into their haunts from the top of a high bank some cubits' length of sheep's intestines, the lower end of which was seized by the eel. Thereupon the angler placed the other end, to which was attached a small wooden tube, in his mouth, and by means of inflation caused the eel to swell until it was hopeless to attempt escape. At Marseilles boats used to be shaped like swordfish, and then circled round to drive home the catch. Pilots possessed a large measure of influence, for to them was entrusted the important duty of determining the omens. It is to filial piety that we are indebted for the most perfect and poetic description of this 'subject, whether of ancient or of modern times. A learned citizen of Anabar- sus, being aged and infirm, failed to present himself before Severus when the emperor paid a visit to that town. For this omission the old man was banished to the island of Malta, and his son Oppian went with him into voluntary exile. To win his father's freedom was the object of this excellent youth ; and the mode he took was as brilliant as it was original. He wrote a poem descriptive of the whole range of fish and fishing ; and when Severus visited Malta recited it before him in the theatre. The emperor, struck with the beauty of the verses and the novelty of the idea, offered him what would now be considered a very respectable sum for a well-known writer in a first-class magazine, and upon his declining the money, promised to grant the author whatever boon he asked ; whereupon Oppian interceded for VOL. I. H. 2 I 482 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN his father, and obtained a remission of the sentence for both. The whole incident as it is recorded in history illustrates in many points if fresh illustration were needed the numerous anomalies inevitably attaching to such a system of personal caprice as obtained under the heathen emperors ; but it must never be forgotten that even in contemporary affairs, and at the present day, men ignorant of the inner workings of political machinery constantly set down to personal influence that which is strictly governed by precedent, and that a more accurate knowledge of the Roman organisation might reveal all kinds of subtle limi- tations and modifications by which the imperial power was bound and restricted. Here is a list of fish from Draper's translation which might entitle the author at once to take rank with ichthyologists " Fish have no common rule of life assigned, Not to one place, or to one choice confm'd. The sev'ral kinds pursue their proper good, Diffrent their dwellings, and unlike their food. Some near the shore in humble pleasures blest, Approve the sands, and on their product feast. The flouncing horse here restiff drives his way, And soles on sands their softer bellies lay. Sea-roach in ruddy shoals frequent the land, And puny black-tails range the shelving strand. The clouded mack'rels choose the sandy ground, And with their speckled train the beach surround. Flat folios here stretch on the shaded seas, Here spiny scads and fruitful carps encrease. The broad-tail here, and dainty mullet feed, Frisk on the sands, or batten on the weed. Close to the shore soft slender swaths reside, And the gay mormyl shows his spotted pride. But what these love the slimy offspring hate j The cod and whiting kinds, the prickly skate, The thornback-ray an arm'd and hardy race, The pois'nous fire-flaire, and the smoother plaice, OF ALL COUNTRIES. 483 Stretch on soft slime ; in slime the sea-cow hides, And on the yielding bed reclines her sides. The cramp-fish rightly nam'd from numbing pain, And wide-mouthed lizards sandy heaps disdain. In grosser filth they pass their wanton days, Search the rich mud and wreath thro' hidden ways." Or again, to take the account of the diet affected by the various kinds of fish given in the third book " Sea-crows, the tunnie, shrimps, the wolf approves, The bream's voracious gust the gaper moves. Ox-eyes excite the sharp-teethed ruff's desire, Horse-tails the various rainbow's paint admire. The oerve surmullets tempt to certain fate, For yellow-tails with bright-ey'd pearches bait. Cackrels the gilt-heads glitt'ring race invite, And tender prekes the lamprey's taste delight. Thus larger kinds ; the fair one of the seas, Nam'd from his beauteous form, young tunnies please. On the small cod the full-grown tunnie feeds, When wolves attract the wounded anthie bleeds. To crested horse-tails, hungry sword-fish haste, And mullets please the shark's judicious taste." Yet one more passage, in which we not only set the net, but descend with it into the deep abyss, and watch it gather in the frightened prey " Down thro' the gloomy regions of the bay The leaded snare divides its silent way, Impatient till it seize the destined prey. The spikes impetuous reach the dark profound, At once they reach, and dart the num'rous wound. Th' inverted barbs confine in cruel chains The captives writhing with the steely pains. " The various tortures of the bleeding shoal Command a pity from the stoutest soul. Here gasping heads confess the killing smart, There bleeds a tail, and quivers round the dart. 2 I 2 484 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN This in his sides receives the rushing wound, Hung by the back another twirls around ; Another's breast the thirsty steel divides, Breaks through the veins and drinks the vital tides. But gentler arts ensnare the youthful train, Entangled in the thready bosomed seine. When gloomy night obscures the frowning deep, In oozy beds the scaly nations sleep, All but the tunny's brood ; with wakeful care Each sound they dread, and ev'ry motion fear, Start from their caverns, and assist the snare. " The silent fishers in the calm profound With circling nets a spacious spot surround, While others in the midst with flatted oars The wavy surface lash, old Ocean roars ; Murm'ring with frothy rage beneath the blow, And trembles to remotest deeps below. The dreadful din alarms the tim'rous fry ; They fondly to the net's protection fly." Some notice of an imperial edict published' by Dio- cletian may form an appropriate conclusion to this brief review of classical fishing. It is remarkable, both because it fixes the current price of fish at the time, and also because from the form of the titles it favours the belief that the empire was not recognised as a formally amalgamated entity, but as a collection of separate kingdoms united under a single head, like the crowns of Austria and Hungary, and not those of England and of Scotland. " [Imperator Caesar Caius Aurelius Ualerius Diocletianus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus Po]ntifex Maximus Germanicus Maximus VI Sarmaticus Maximus nil Persicus Maximus II Brittanicus Maximus Carpicus Maximus Armenicus Maximus Medicus Maximus Adia- benicus M Tribunicia potestate xvni Consul vn Imperator xvm Pater Patriae Proconsul. Et Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Ualerius Maximianus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus Pontifex Maximus Germanicus Maximus v Sarm[aticus Maximus ill Persicus Maximus Brittanicus Maximus Carpicus Maximus Armenicus Maximus Medicus Maximus Adiabenicus Maximus Trijbunicia Potestate xvn Consul vi OF ALL COUNTRIES. 485 Imperator XVII Pater Patriae Proconsul. Et Flavius Ualeritis Con- stantius Germanicus Maximus II Sarmaticus Maximus II Persicus Maximus II Brittanicus Maximus Carpicus Maximus Armenicus Maximus Medicus Maximus Adiabenicus Maximus Tribunicia Potestate vin Consul in Nobilissimus Cassar. Et Galerius Ualerius Maximianus Germanicus Maximus II Sarm[aticus Maximus II Persicus Maximus II Brittanicus Maximus Carpicus Maximus Armenicus Maximus Medicus Maximus Adiajbenicus Maximus Tribunicia potestate Yin Consul ill Nobilissimus Caesar. Dicunt. Porcelli lactantis ... in po I * sedecim Agnus duodecim Hcedus Sevi ital po I * sex Buturi sedecim Item pisces Piscis aspratilis marini . viginti quattuor Piscis secundi .... sedecim Piscis fluvialis optimi . . po i * duodecim Piscis secundi fluvialis . . ital po I * octo Piscisalsi ital po I * sex Ostrea n centum . . . centum Echini n centum . . . quinquaginta Echini recentis purgati . ital/unum * Echini salsi * centum Sphonduli marini . . n centum * quinquaginta " Mr. Leake, the editor of this interesting edict, gives a translation from which we make the following extract : Den. Sucking-pig by the pound 16 Lamb 12 Kid 12 Tallow one Ital. pound 6 Butter 16 Item fish Sea-fish of the best quality, or from) deep water \ Second-rate fish 16 Best river-fish ....... ,, 12 Second-rate river-fish ..... 8 Salt fish 6 486 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN Oysters a hundred 100 Sea-urchins 50 Salted sea-urchins 100 Sea-cockles ........ 50 These latter prices, if we could fix the value of the denarius at this epoch, would prove an interesting subject for comparison with those now current at Billingsgate. OP ALL COUNTRIES. 487 CHAPTER IV. FISHERIES OF MANY CENTURIES. May't rain above all almanacks, till The carriers sail and the king's fishmonger Ride like Arion upon a trout to London. Beaumont and Fletcher. ALTHOUGH the records of fisheries and fishermen during the earlier part of the Christian era are for the most part buried in obscurity, yet indications are not wanting of the importance attaching to them. For many centuries mariners and fishermen continued to be governed by the Rhodian Laws, a code originally promulgated by Tiberius, and confirmed by the Emperors Hadrian, Antoninus, Pertinax and Septimus Severus. Their origin is quaintly recorded in the preamble. " When," says Tiberius, " all the merchants and sailors petitioned me to furnish them with a report upon the general laws affecting maritime matters, Nero said to me : ' Most Illustrious Emperor, why not send a Commission to Rhodes to find out all about them?'" And so the Commission was sent. Some of the regulations thereby imposed were of a highly practical and ingenious order ; as, for instance, the rule ordaining that when seamen quarrel they may fight it out as much as they like in words, but are on no account to proceed to blows ; a regulation recalling the advice of Athene to the angry 488 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN Achilles. If, however, one hits another on the head he is to defray the doctor's bill, and pay his victim's wages until the date of recovery. Another proviso alludes to the practice of fishing by means of torches, for it forbids fishermen to display lights at sea lest they should deceive other vessels. About the eleventh century, when respect for the laws of Rhodes had in a measure worn out, and civilisation had gravitated towards the West, another island supplied the laws of mariners and fishermen to Europe ; and no incon- siderable tribute to the maritime influence of France during the Middle Ages is testified by the wide prevalence of the laws forming the code of one of her islands. From Oleron off Saintonge in Aquitain, between the Isle De Re and the river Charente, proceeded a code of laws recog- nised by the wide circle of the Hanseatic towns, though not published until the year 1536. As for the credit of the work, the French, and espe- cially those of Aquitain, assume it to themselves, alleging that Queen Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitain (the wife of Henry II. of England, and mother to Richard I.), having returned from the Holy Land, made the first draft of these laws, and called them Roole d'Oleron, by the name of this her beloved island. To which laws, says she, her son King Richard, having likewise returned from his expe- dition to the Holy Land, made some additions still under the same title. These assertions are backed by the argu- ments, that the laws were written in the old French, after the Gascon dialect, and not in English ; that they were made particularly for Bordeaux voyagers, for the landing of wines, and other commodities in that place, and for trans- port and unloading at St. Malo. Caen, and Rouen, seaport towns of France ; and lastly that there is not so much as any mention made of the Thames, England or Ireland. OF ALL COUNTRIES. 489 According to these laws, if any man happen to find in the sea or sea-shore precious stones, fishes, or the like, of which no man was ever a proprietor, it becomes his own ; but as to great (or Royal) fishes that are found on the sea-shore, regard must be had to the customs of the country where such fishes are found and taken. For the lord of the country ought to have his share. So a master that has hired seamen for voyage, is to keep the peace and to act the part of judge at sea. If the master himself gives the lie he shall pay 8 deniers. If any of the mariners gives the master the lie, 8 deniers. If the master strike any of his mariners, he ought to bear with the first stroke whether it be with the fist or open hand. But if the master strike more than once, the mariner may defend himself. If any of the hired mariners strike the master first, he shall pay an hundred sous or lose his hand. And again, if two vessels go a fishing in partnership, as for mackerel, herrings, or the like, and set nets and lay their lines for the purpose, the one of the vessels ought to employ as many fishing engines as the others, and so they shall divide the profit equally according to the covenant made between them. And if one perish, relations and heirs may require to have their part of the gain, and like- wise of fish and fishing instruments upon the oaths of those escaped. But they are to have nothing of the vessel if it survive. All these regulations seem to be dictated by justice and common sense. Of a similar stamp were the laws of Wisby in Gothland, in use with the Great International Confederation of the Hanseatic League. About the middle of the fourteenth century the right of fishing upon our coasts was secured to the Spaniards by special treaty, and two hundred years afterwards a like privilege was granted as to the north coast of Ireland to 490 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN Philip II. at an annual rent of a thousand pounds. The high estimation attaching to this pursuit is evidenced more than once. When Richard III. summoned all the shipping of England against an anticipated invasion of the French, he nevertheless excepted the fishermen of Cromer and the neighbouring ports, lest their absence should impair the interests of the occupation in which they were engaged. For the furtherance too of this vital industry a Statute of Herrings was passed by Henry VII., directing that for every 60 acres of land fit for tillage one rood shall be sown with flax or hemp to provide materials for the manufacture of nets, as well as for linen ; and a further measure passed in the reign of Elizabeth gives the Queen power to revive by proclamation the law for the better provision of nets and for furtherance of fishing, though in this case the manufacture of linen is not mentioned. The gradual dis- regard of days of abstinence and fasting during this reign much diminished the profits of the fishmongers ; and com- mercial probably rather than theological zeal dictated their presentment against the butchers for selling flesh meat in Lent, which is preserved in one of the Lansdowne manu- scripts. Some little time afterwards the decay of the fish- ing towns of the eastern coast aroused the alarm of the House of Commons, which poured forth its indignation on the inhabitants for their lazy and disgraceful practice of going half seas over to buy fresh fish from Flemings, Hollanders, Picardy men and Normans, instead of catch- ing it for themselves, and ordained that any one guilty of such a proceeding should forfeit ten pounds every time he himself was caught. What a collection of curiosities in political economy might be discovered in the efforts of Parliament to " improve " the condition of trade ! With the general outburst of maritime enterprise which OF ALL COUNTRIES. 491 followed upon the revelations made by Columbus at the close of the fifteenth century, renewing in a more civilised form the daring of the ancient Vikings, commenced also a new and energetic era in the history of fisheries and fishermen. Coast and river no longer sufficed for the restless spirits of that adventurous age, and the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans became the resort of the daring fisher- man. As far back as the fifteenth century England enjoyed piscatorial rights in the seas of Iceland, and we learn from a reply, preserved in one of the Cotton MS., to a remon- strance addressed a hundred years later by the Danish Ambassador to the Government of England, that three sorts of localities alone were excepted : those which were reserved for the King, those which were private property, and those which were the subject of special grant. During a long period, however, the Flemings held pre-eminence upon the seas, but the persecution of the Duke of Alva gradually weakened the industries and drove citizens and commerce alike into foreign countries, until the victory of the Duke of Parma gave a finishing blow to their pros- perity. Manufactures migrated to England, fish-curing and navigation to Holland, and the traditional contest between the Dutch broom and the British whip was the result. Two years before the close of the same century a British vessel, with that spirit of mingled business and romance specially characteristic of the time, though even yet not wholly extinct, went sailing further and further from home towards what is now known as the Greenland coast, in search, like princes in a fairy tale, of whatever adventures might happen to befall them, when they came suddenly upon a veritable enchanted ground in the shape of a region frequented by schools of whales. This was, indeed, an 492 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN episode which Sinbad himself might have envied. One can hardly conceive an excitement more full of fascina- tion than a whaling enterprise. As for fox-hunting, it pales before it. What is a five-barred gate compared with an iceberg, or the cry of " Gone away ! " as against the ecstatic shout " She blows ! she blows ! " All the sur- roundings are full of spirit-stirring adventure. The wild' voyage over the stormy northern seas, the long-continued watch for the sign of the first prize, the intense anxiety as the harpooner poises his weapon, the shout which hails the successful stroke, the mad gallop of the monster through the deep, dragging behind him the boat to which he is irre- vocably harnessed, the frantic struggles of the indignant beast, the troubled sea lashed into foam on every side, the imminent peril lest boat and crew should disappear at a rush beneath the waves as the creature dives, or rises sud- denly high in the air at a blow of his enormous tail, such incidents as these afford no common excitement, and are not to be found in ordinary occupations. Equally attractive to a different and larger class* of minds is the value of the take when captured. The Great or Greenland whale is a magnificent creature, measuring sometimes some sixty feet, but the well-known adventurer, Scoresby, says that though he killed 322, he never saw one more than fifty-eight feet long. A whale of the South Seas, for they exist in both hemi- spheres, will bring in from eighty to one hundred barrels of oil, at 4 to 5 a barrel, besides whalebone to the value of 140, and those of the North will fetch double the amount. Every portion, too, of the huge fish, or rather beast, is available for the service of man. The flesh serves for manure, containing 14 to 15 per cent, of azote, its bones for charcoal, its intestinal linings give material for travelling OF ALL COUNTRIES. 493 garments, and its very excrement is used as colouring matter. The inhabitants of those savage and desolate parts are greatly indebted to fishing for the support of their existence. During the whole of the long summer day they are engaged either in this pursuit or else in hunting. Whales, seals, and dog-fish afford them food, clothes, and even shelter, for their summer tents are made of the skin of the latter ; and their frocks, their boots, and their stockings are manufactured from the entrails. A strange taste also leads them to prefer the blood of the dog-fish to any other less horrible beverage. The canoes of these tribes are of two kinds, and betray some ingenuity in construction, for they consist of pieces of wood fastened together in thongs, and being covered with sealskin are so pliable and elastic that they can weather the roughest sea. The larger, called the uniak, is flat-bottomed, and serves to convey the families from one place to another. The smaller canoe, or rajak, is used for the pursuit of the fish. These latter boats have room for one man only, who sits in a hole made in the middle of the upper surface, which he covers wjfh his frock so as to prevent any water from entering. One oar, six or seven feet in length, is his only instrument of progression, and yet a man will, in this fashion, row sixty or seventy miles a day, about the same distance as an Indian will walk in snow-shoes. The external concomitants of whaling soon promised to become as exciting as the incidents connected with the pursuit itself. For fourteen years the English managed to keep this splendid gold mine, as they were wont with perfect truth to describe it, all to themselves ; but such a monopoly could not in the nature of things be made to last for ever. In 1 612 the Dutch sent some vessels to work in the adja- 494 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN cent waters not yet occupied by British vessels. Highly indignant at what they considered an invasion of their rights, the commanders of the British ships attacked the Dutch and carried off the contents of two vessels fully loaded and valued at 1 30,000 guilders. Nothing daunted, the Dutch returned to the charge in the following year, and this time succeeded in capturing an English vessel. At last the original monopolists were compelled to cede some- thing of their pretensions and to confine themselves within certain pretty broad limits, while the Dutch settled to the North of them, the Danes coming afterwards between the two, the Hamburgers to the West of the Danes and the French to the North of the Hollanders. Many of the names now borne by the bays and islands of that part attest the international division of the respective whaling grounds. Other causes, more particularly the depopulation caused by the Civil War, now arose to depress our Greenland trade, and by far the greater portion of it fell into the hands of the Dutch, who in 1670 sent out 148 ships and captured 792 whales. Bad management on the part of the principals tended still further to deteriorate the British interests. An absurd system or at least a system which seems absurd now, though it may have had its origin in some necessity of the moment had grown up of allowing the captains of vessels to hunt deer, and to have the horns and skins for their perquisites ; the result being that the whales were left undisturbed, and the ships came home laden with cargo for the benefit of the captain, and exceed- ingly lightly burdened on behalf of the owners. One would have thought that so great an abuse would have been sufficient to correct itself. Yet this was not the case ; and OF ALL COUNTRIES. 495 when the number of vessels sent from Holland had risen to 1 80, and those of Bremen and Hamburg to 52 and 24 respectively, the British trade had left little behind it except incessant and well-merited lamentations on the part of the British public. Very shortly after the Restoration we find these same industries occupying the anxious attention of Court and Ministry. Before Charles II. had been seated two years upon the throne of his father, Lord Sandwich took advantage of a great assembly of naval officers at Jermyn Hall gathered at the funeral of Sir R. Stayner, to announce that the King had determined to give 200 to every man who would undertake the equipment of a new-made English buss, or fishing smack, by the middle of the following June. Two years afterwards a Royal Fishery Company was formed, one of its governors being Mr. Pepys, secretary to the Admi- ralty, to whom we are indebted for many a glimpse into the political and social life of that period, and whom we most unjustly and ungratefully call a gossip in return. That Mr. Pepys was no mere trifler but a very good man of business, is shown not merely by such a suggestion as that the Com- mittee should refrain from limiting the number of bankers' assignments to the various ports until they had some idea as to the number of persons desirous of responding to the invitation, but by several of his observations in regard to this matter. It seems that a proposal had been made to raise money for the undertaking by the coining of farthings, and to this measure he readily gave his consent ; but he is much displeased with another suggestion that lotteries should be established for the same purpose. "I was ashamed to see it," he writes indignantly, " that a thing so low and base should have anything to do with so noble an undertaking." His quaint accounts are, as usual, so full of 496 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN matter and spiced with his usual simplicity and directness, that it is impossible to refrain from quotation. " loth March, 1664. At the Privy Seal I enquired, and found the Bill come for the Corporation of the Royall Fishery ; whereof the Duke of York is made present Governor, and several other very great persons, to the number of thirty-two, made his assistants for their lives : whereof, by my Lord Sandwich's favour, I am one ; and take it not only a matter of honour, but that it may come to be of profit to me. /th July, 1664. To White Hall, and there found the Duke and twenty more reading their commission (of which I am one, and was also sent to, to come) for the Royall Fishery, which is very large, and a very serious Charter it is ; but the Company generally so ill-fitted for so serious a work, that I do much fear it will come to little. I3th September, 1664. To Fish- mongers' Hall, where we met the first time upon the Fishery Committee, and many good things discoursed of, concerning making of farthings, which was proposed as a way of raising money for this business, and then that of lotterys, but with great confusion ; but I hope we shall fall into greater order. loth October, 1664. Sat up till past twelve at night, to look over the account of the collections for the Fishery, and the loose and base manner that monies so collected are disposed of in, would make a man never part with a penny in that manner. 22nd December, 1664. To the 'Change : and there, among the merchants, I hear fully the news of our being beaten to dirt at Guinny, by De Ruyter, with his fleet. The particulars, as much as by Sir G. Carteret afterwards I heard, I have said in a letter to my Lord Sandwich this day at Portsmouth ; it being almost wholly to the utter mine of our Royall Company, and reproach and shame to the whole nation." OF ALL COUNTRIES. 497 These records are of the greater interest, because in the very next year the Fire of London swept away all the books and accounts of the Fishmongers' Company. Herrings are another fertile source of wealth and dispute, and they have left their traces through many hundreds of years. The earliest written record which appears in relation to them is a charter, dated 28th September, 1295, granting to the Hollanders, Zealanders, and Frieslanders free liberty of fishing on the coast about Yarmouth. Again, we find them figuring as a staple in the commissariat of the British Army, and the battle of the Herrings, fought in 1429, when the Due de Bourbon was defeated in an attempt to surprise a convoy carrying herrings to the English camp at Orleans, is by no means the least celebrated in our military annals. A fame of a more lasting and peaceful character was conferred upon them in the intervening century by a certain Englishman named Will Belkinson, or Belkelzoon, as the Hollanders are pleased to call him, who invented the mode for pickling and curing the herrings, and who, probably finding England as ferocious towards any of her sons possessed of original genius in the fourteenth century as she is at the present day, set an example still pursued by all wise English inventors, and carried his discovery to a foreign land. To this English stranger the Dutch are indebted for the material foundation of their political celebrity and maritime ascendency in after years, and the nation proved grateful to their remunerative guest. His memory was honoured by a public monument at Bieroleit in Flanders, where he died, and no less a personage than the Emperor Charles V. considered the tomb of that great benefactor of his adopted country not unworthy of a visit. With the lapse of time the value of the herring fishery continued to increase, and in the days of Elizabeth it was VOL. I. H. 2 K 498 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN considered of such importance that a proposal was made for the establishment of a fleet around England for its protection. Some quaint Dutch plates still preserve for us . the full details of the occupation, and illustrate with a minuteness worthy of a number of the Graphic each par- ticular scene connected with this special industry, from the seaside cottage of its pursuers, and the preparing and victualling of the buss, up to the grand junketing festival and congratulation banquet, with the proprietor and his wife looking, like the immortal Mrs. Fezziwig, " one vast substantial smile." In the succeeding reign the Dutch fitted out in a single season 900 vessels and 1500 busses for the benefit of cod and herring, and each of these 1 500 busses employed three more vessels to supply them with salt and empty barrels, and to transport the take, so that the number of vessels engaged amounted to little short of 7000. At the zenith of their prosperity, the Dutch, it is said, sold herrings in one year to the value of 4,795,000, besides what they themselves consumed, 12,000 vessels being engaged in this branch alone, employing about 200,000 men in their service. Well might they deck the steeple of Vlaardingen and ring a merry peal upon the bells when the first vessel came in sight of harbour. At this time, as we learn from a manuscript account, our own port of Barrow-in-Furness possessed a small fleet of five ships- two of them, it is curious to remark, being the Vanguard and the Swiftsure maintaining together a crew of 660 men, whose pay and rations amounted to about 13,000 a year. Sir Walter Raleigh, the Paladin of Elizabethan and Jacobean adventure, did not allow so tempting an oppor. tunity to escape his notice ; and he pointed out to James the immense number of foreign vessels and men who took OF ALL COUNTRIES. 499 advantage of our coasts, adding significantly that twenty busses of herrings were sufficient for the maintenance of 8000 souls, including women and children. M. d'Aitzana, President of the Hanse Towns at the Hague and his- toriographer of the United Provinces, as well as the learned Du Moulin, testify to the Hollanders having drawn 300,000 tons of herrings and other fish for salting annually from the sea in these parts ; and to the tripling of the returns between the accessions of James I. and that of Charles II. Under the latter monarch, Dr. Worsley, whose position may best be described as that of Secretary of State for the Department of Trade and Plantations, was sent to Holland to enquire into all matters connected with the question ; and on his return reported to the King that the Dutch herring fishery, at the lowest computation, yielded an annual revenue of three millions sterling. In support of this estimate he adduced the number of busses employed, the quantity taken by each, the Custom House accounts of Holland, Zealand, and Friesland, and the prices of each export market ; and he affirmed that the value of the herrings and cod yearly taken by the Dutch greatly exceeded the produce of the manufactures either of France or of England, and more than equalled the sum then drawn by Spain from her rich colonies in America. Herrings, in truth, were as profitable to the whole people of Holland as the great goddess Diana to the silversmiths of Ephesus. Portugal and Spain furnished them in return for this prolific export with wine, oil, honey, wool, lemons, and golden ingots, then familiar to the Spanish Empire. Salt, too, was procured in the same way, itself no incon- siderable item in the expenses of curing. From the Mediterranean came in exchange for the same commodity, raisins, oil, silk, velvet, satin, and all that brave apparel 2 K 2 500 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN which delighted the honest burghers no less than their wives. Half the art and glory of the Flemish cities are built upon no more substantial foundation than the herring. Germany supplied them with iron, wine, and all sorts of arms and munitions, while Nuremberg, having nothing apparently very attractive in its markets, was forced to send large sums in ready money, which is after all not the least attractive of commodities. To such a height did this industry attain that during the war of the Spanish Succes- sion, its promoters were enabled to pay the States-General a German crown for every ten barrels of herrings with a view to maintaining a sufficient naval force to defend the busses from privateers. Sober calculations made with regard to the annual revenue derived from these sources show that Holland took more by these fisheries annually than Sweden could produce in twelve years from all her iron mines put together. So much for the expatriated Englishman. During the eighteenth century the current still continued to set in the same direction. By an Act of George the First it was provided that ^"2000 a year should be applied to the encouragement and protection of the fisheries of Scotland, and about the middle of the century was founded the Free Fisheries Company, which had the Royal Exchange for its head-quarters, and transacted considerable business in the seas off Yarmouth and the north of Scotland. The letter- book of the Company gives a suggestive hint as to the political condition of the country, in the shape of a com- munication under date July 1756, from the secretary to a certain grocer and " considerable magistrate of the good town of Salisbury," asking him whether, as there were so many German troops quartered in the neighbourhood, he could not get the commanding officer to order some of his fine OF ALL COUNTRIES. 501 herrings just fresh from the Shetlands. At the present day German troops quartered at Salisbury would raise some very different considerations from that of turning an honest penny by the sale of Shetland herrings. From the same source we find that no slight care was taken for the comfort, and even the caprices, of the crews, for the secretary, writing to the contractor who supplied the biscuits, apologises for the dissatisfaction which would probably be felt by the crews on finding the biscuits to be made of rye. Not that there was any fault to be found with the contractor, he hastens to say, " but that our men like everything of the best." In France the laws affecting these matters entered into very minute and exact details. By an ordinance of Henri III., containing a hundred articles for the regulation of maritime matters, all pares or artificial fis'uing-grounds constructed for forty years at the mouths of navigable rivers were ordered to be destroyed. Nearly a hundred years later a decree of Louis XIV. defined the foreshore as belonging to the crown, and laid down rules as to the permissibility of ravoirs, courtines, and vinets, or vonets, which are different collections of nets or filets constructed upon the foreshore so as to be hidden at high water and uncovered when the tide is low. Under the same statute amber, coral, whales, poissons-ti-lait, and various miscel- laneous productions of the ocean, belonged, if taken in the deep sea, wholly to the captor ; if on the strand, then one- third went to the King, one-third to the admiral, and one third only to the discoverer of the prize. At Maremmes the government nets were placed on the shifting sands, so that they had to be removed at every tide, small boats being used for the purpose. The nets were formed into angles, more or less obtuse, following the lay 502 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN of the shore, and exposed at will to the ebb or flow. In this kind of fishery, when the net is stretched and the tide coming in, the fishermen get into their boats and wait for the turn, and as soon as the sea has gone sufficiently out, they pull up the stakes and put the nets with their contents into their boats. Courtines of this kind are appropriately called vagabonds, because of their continual change of position. They cannot be used in the winter, because the violence of the gales frequently endangers the safety of the nets. Another sort of courtine is called volant, or flying courtine. A peculiar system of nets also prevailed at Nantes, called rets traversants ; and another on the coasts of Guienne, which bore the local name of pullet. Some allusion to two or three quaint works published at various times during the period described in the present chapter may not be here out of place. One of the earliest printed works, published on vellum in 1496, was that of Dame Juliana Berners, a lady celebrated for her love and knowledge of masculine sports. This Diana of the English gives very practical and exact directions for the making of hooks, observing at the same time that that portion of the whole outfit was the most difficult to make. Amongst other lore she describes twelve manners of impediments that cause a man to take " noo fysshe," " Now shall ye wyte," says this Rosa Bonheur of mediaeval literature, " that there ben twelve manere of ympedyments whyche cause a man to take noo fysshe, w e out other comyn that maye casuelly happe. I, badly made harness. 2, bad baits. 3, angling at wrong time. 4, fish strayed away. 5, water thick. 6, water too cold. 7, wether too hot. 8, if it rain. 9, if hail or snow fall. 10, if there be a tempest II, if there be a great wynd. 12, if wind be east." And so forth through twenty-three pages of the best vellum. A somewhat OF ALL COUNTRIES. 503 similar production was given to the world two hundred and fifty years later in the shape of a work entitled 'The Gentleman's Recreator.' This remarkable production, re- versing the process of the celebrated treatise on tar-water, begins the encyclopaedia of a gentleman's instruction with a description of astronomy and other sciences and arts, and concludes with some instructions in cock-fighting, that being an equally essential branch of knowledge in a liberal education. Among the various polite accomplishments here mentioned, such as horsemanship, hawking, fowling, and hunting, fishing is by no means forgotten. Its pages are adorned by a chart, exhibiting the various features of the art, and some peculiar kinds of nets and methods are described in its course. The wolf-net and the raffle are both mentioned, the former bearing a resemblance to a lobster-pot, and being designed for use in ponds and streams ; the latter differing in that it was prevented from touching the bottom. A suggestion is given for storing and preserving fish in the midst of any river by making a warren, as it were, for the fish to retreat ; and the method of taking pike with a running noose of horsehair as they lie sunning themselves in the sun, is also to be found there. A work of a different and far graver stamp, though con- taining much matter which would hardly pass current with our present knowledge, is the history written by Olaus Magnus, the venerable Archbishop of Upsala, who was born at Linkopin towards the close of the fifteenth century, and after being sent by the Pope to attend the Council of Trent, died at Rome in 1568. His ably written and enter- taining history, in addition to the information which it affords as to the condition of Biarmia and Finland, gives many details as to fisheries and fishing. He speaks of many kinds of fish being salted, dried, and hardened in 504 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN smoke : such as " pikes, mullets, prasnie and borbochi, and those they call syck in Gothland," and he describes a custom common in that country, where the rivers are frozen up for months together, of fishing through the ice and using horses to assist the men. The natives would walk on the ice clad in iron-pointed shoes, and in default of these would go barefoot rather than use the ordinary oiled leather which soon froze and became as slippery as the ice itself. The freezing of the river did not hinder them from pursuing their favourite occupation. Two great holes were opened in the ice some eight or ten feet broad, and distant about 150 or 200 paces from each other. Between these limits thirty or forty lesser openings were made, and cords, having nets attached to them, being dropped into the water at one extremity, were guided by means of spears penetra- ting through the smaller holes to the great opening at the further end. Here the cords were drawn out of the water and given to men on horseback, who rode off at a smart pace in order to drag the net out quickly and prevent the fishes from having time to break the mesh. Jacopo Sanazzaro, a poet whose fishing eclogues were published by Aldus at Venice in 1570, with the well-known and appropriate emblem of the dolphin and anchor, had already obtained the praises of two Popes for the religious sentiment displayed in a former poem. As for his piety we readily concede it, but as to poetry we may be permitted to exercise an independent judgment. His verses are as correct, and about as much worth reading, as those of a fourth form schoolboy of twenty years ago. They teem with allusions to Melisaeus, and Damon, and Alexis, and all the regular stock-in-trade of the Latin eclogue maker, and they have not a breath of nature about them. With the execrable, if accountable, taste of the time, Sanazzaro OF ALL COUNTRIES. 505 evidently considered himself bound to produce still paler shades of those pale shadows, the Eclogues of Virgil, just as their author, the most precedent-loving of poets, rarely ventured to introduce an image or an incident without the authority of some Greek original. All the strong energy and love of maritime dominion animating the British nation of that period is well brought out in Sir John Burroughes' work on the British Sove- reignty of the seas. Caesar, he says, found the islanders independent and absolutely repulsive of strangers, a pheno- menon not even now wholly unfamiliar to our clubs and drawing-rooms. He quotes, too, the grandiloquent decree attributed to Edgar, wherein that monarch claims "by the wide-flowing clemency of the high-thundering God (altitonantis Dei largifluente dementia)" to be the Basileus of the English, and of all matters and islands of the ocean, and of all the nations which are contained within it. But, as the more sober Evelyn observes, the fact that the savages of Britain drove strangers from their coasts by no means argues any sovereignty over the waters; nor does Edgar's decree, even if we grant its authenticity/ assert anything more than a dominion over the islands and the dwellers within them. Very strong arguments against the absurd assumption of an universal jurisdiction possessed by England over the waters of every ocean are brought forward by the latter author, though he is not ashamed to own that he lends it his public support. The licences imposed by the Scottish Parliament upon the fishermen of England are sufficient in themselves to destroy the notion, while the protest of the Danes at Breda against the proposed acquisition by the Scotch of the right of fishing at Orkney, on the occasion of the marriage of James the First and Sixth with the daughter of the King of Denmark, is another irrefutable proof that the 506 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN sovereignty of the seas could never have been acknow- ledged to be the property of England, or indeed of any one nation alone. A matter of greater moment treated by Sir John is the disposition of the fisheries around our coast about that time. Herrings were caught from July to November. Cod visited Lancashire in the spring, the west coast of Ireland during the summer, and took up its winter quarters near Padstow. Pilchards appeared from May to Michaelmas. Hake favoured the Irish seas rather late in the year, and ling both the north-east and south-west coasts of England. One not unnatural consequence of the fury for adven- turous enterprise was an amount of reckless speculation which could end at last only in disaster, and which in fact collapsed with so wide-spread a deluge of ruin as almost to attain the dimensions of a national calamity. During the early years of the eighteenth century, the speculation in fisheries attained its height, and all sorts of bubble com- panies sprang into ephemeral existence. There were Greenland companies and Orkney companies, private com- panies, such as Cawood's and Garraway's ; there was to be a royal company of ten million, a company to fish up coral, and another to fish for wrecks off the Irish coast. But of all the projects then fostered none attained such importance or created such misery as that of the South Sea Fisheries Company. The scheme was founded upon grounds not unworthy of consideration ; and a similar plan had been advocated a hundred years before by Sir B. Rudyerd in the House of Commons in order to cut out the King of Spain. Its designs, however, were probably too large for the machinery of the time, and the economical fallacy of the mercantile theory entered too prominently into its calculations. Its chief promoter was Sir John Eyles, one of the Commissioners for the Estates forfeited in the OF ALL COUNTRIES. 507 Rebellion of 1715; and it was constituted upon a petition for a Grand Fishery Company presented in January, 1718, and signed by seven peers and many merchants and gentlemen. Many petitions on such matters were presented at the same time, and all were opposed by counsel, the Fishery alone excepted. On this the Crown lawyers reported that a Fishery Charter under proper regulations might be very beneficial to the nation. In regard to the same, the House of Commons passed a resolution on the 27th of April, 1720 : "That the undertaking proposed to be carried on by the name of the British Fishery, wherein the seaports and royal burghs are concerned, may be successfully carried on, and thereby prevent great sums from going annually out of the nation ; may secure a valuable trade ; and may, upon any emer- gency, furnish seamen to man the royal navy ; and there- fore highly deserves encouragement." The following ex- tract shows an inflation startling enough no doubt to the speculators of those days, though they rather pale before the records of Ballarat and San Francisco : Original Money paid in or due. Royal Fishery Commis- sion, Fish pool, for bringing fresh fish by sea to London (Sir Richard Steele's project). Orkney Fishery. For a Whale Fishery (Sir John Lambert). National permits for a Fishery (George James's) 50,000 per- mits at six pounds each. The Grand Fishery. 10 d. o per cent. 25 o o o 10 500 per share Highest sold for in 1720. s. d. 25 o o per cent 1 60 o o per share, before any money paid down. 250 o o 3 10 o 60 o o each permit before any money paid down. o 10 o per share 500 508 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN Another project, of somewhat later date, for conveying fish to town by means of post horses, gives us an opportu- nity of comparing the rates of carriage existing about this time with those current at the present day. The company proposed to convey from eight to ten hundredweight of fish daily to the Hercules Inn, on the Surrey side of the me- tropolis, by relays of post horses, and put forward an elaborate calculation of the expenses involved. Taking as a basis half a ton, and assuming a rate of six miles with fresh relays at every second hour, we get the following items for the accomplishment of seventy-two miles in twelve hours : * d. 72 miles @ is. a mile 3120 Post boy @/ i \d. a mile ..090 Greasing the carriage oio Ostler, 6d. a stage 030 Total, exclusive of turnpikes (which, says the author) of the proposal, cannot be ascertained) . . . ) Upon this scale, therefore, half a ton could have been conveyed 144 miles in twenty-four hours at a rate now sufficient to convey an ordinary parcel by goods train for 400 miles ; a contrast not quite so deep as one might have fancied would be the case. OF ALL COUNTRIES. 509 CHAPTER V. DEEP SEA FISHING AT THE PRESENT DAY. Ho ! come, and bring away the nets. Pericles. DEEP SEA FISHING, at least in its general form, is a creation almost of the last half-century. In Grimsby, for example, the capital, if we may so call it, of the deep sea trade, thirty years ago the imports of this kind hardly equalled those of Southport or Grossmont at the present day, and nowhere nearly approached Hartlepool or Filey. In 1854 the number of tons conveyed inland was 453. Ten years later it had decupled, in 1869 it had become sixtyfold, and by 1881 had attained a growth of nearly one hundredfold in little more than five-and-twenty years. Trawling is the method to which this great increase is principally due, and it may be well here to describe the peculiarities of the different kinds of nets used in deep sea fishing. On the open sea there are two kinds of nets chiefly in use : the trawl for those fish, such as turbot, which love to hide themselves at the bottom of the ocean, and the drag for such as like the herring prefer the surface. The trawl is in fact a kind of sea plough, one essential object of it being to stir up the inmates of those deep recesses, and it is fashioned with a view to effect this purpose, no less than to capture them when once driven 5io FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN out of their hiding-places. It consists of a single spar, called the beam, about as long as from the stern of the boat to the mast, fixed upon two large iron supports or heads, and having a long flat and pocket-shaped net attached to it, the mouth of which is extended by being fastened to either end of the spar. These supports keep the trawl off the bottom, the apparatus being lowered in such a way that the spar always remains uppermost ; and a ground-rope is fastened to the lower margin of the net so arranged as to clip the bottom, and to cause any prey that may be lurking there to pass over it into the meshes. As this rope may by chance be caught in some irremovable obstacle, it ought to be somewhat old and easily broken, otherwise the more valuable part of the apparatus might be in danger of fracture from the resistance. It is, however, protected by a series of gutta-percha rubbing pieces from immediate contact with any rocks or stones, though fair ground only is suit- able for trawling. The net itself is shaped in a very peculiar way. At its extremity is a smaller sort of bag called a purse or a cod, made with a lesser opening and with finer meshes; and half-way from the mouth the upper and lower portions of the net on either side are sewn together for about 16 feet, forming two enormous pockets or valves, the mouths of which opening towards the cod leave a kind of valve or curtain flapping in front of it, on account of the greater resistance of the water due to the finer meshes with which that part is made. When the trawl is lowered, it is necessary that the vessel should be under sail, and proceeding through the water at a greater rate than the tide. This is required to keep the net extended as it descends, and to prevent it from twisting or otherwise getting out of gear. As soon then as the ground-rope reaches the bottom the fish disturbed from OF ALL COUNTRIES. 51 1 their lurking-places rise up and dart forward, find that the head of the net has already passed over, and hurrying back are caught in the cod at the end, from whence there is no escape, except into the flaps and pockets at the side, Many countries are engaged in this modern but highly important form of capture. Belgium, Holland, France, all have their fleet of trawlers (though the occupation which goes by the name of herring trawling in Scotland is nothing else than seine fishing), and numerous stations in England, more particularly on our east and southern coasts, such as Hull, Grimsby, Dover, Ramsgate, Plymouth and Brixham, send out their boats to the Inner and Outer Well Banks, the Great Silver Pit, the Botney Gut, and other famous resorts not yet exhausted. Of late years these vessels have been built larger than of old, the length of the boats having been increased. A mizen has been added, so that the pressure on the sails has been lowered in its centre of gravity. Ice is now commonly carried in large quantities and wells have been added, so that the fish can if neces- sary be kept on board for a week, though their condition is undoubtedly deteriorated thereby. Accordingly steam cutters attend the different fleets and convey the catch either to the nearest port or else direct to London. The well is at the bottom of the vessel, the extremities of which are pierced with auger-holes in order to allow the sea to pass through freely, and it is said to have been imported from Holland, and to have been first tried at Harwich in 1712. These additions have of course increased the cost of the smacks employed, and I2OO/. is required now for engaging in the trade, where a few years ago fool, would have sufficed. A double set of gear is requisite in order to provide against mishaps. A net, which should be made 512 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN of cotton, and dressed with cutch, may be reckoned to last about three or four years, though different parts will require repair from time to time. Carrier pigeons are in use with the men of some ports to bring early news of the take from the catcher on the ground ; but the device has not yet become general. One practice con- nected with trawling, that of packing them in boxes, and placing them on board a steamer to carry into port, is attended with a good deal of danger, particularly if per- formed in rough weather, as is not unfrequently the case. Much complaint was made with reference to this practice before the Royal Commission held last year for the purpose of inquiring into the condition of our fishermen ; but it seems impossible to suggest a substitute. Fish habitually frequenting the surface of the water, such as herrings, mackerel, pilchard and the like, are caught by drift-net, mackerel being taken by line as well. Drift-nets, which catch their prisoners by the gills, are probably the oldest form of piscatory implement known to society, and are those of which mention is so frequently made by the writers of the New Testament. They are supported by floats, and at the present day are of enormous length, several being joined together so as to form a train from one to two miles long towed by a single vessel. The nets are kept afloat by small buoys or bowls, of which all but five are painted black. These five, called " gay bowls " are used for marking the extent of the net as it is hauled in, the first or casting bowl being painted wholly red, the next three-quarters red and one quarter white, and so forth, the last, or " puppy bowl," being wholly white. At the close of all is attached a buoy, with a flag, which remains always above the water and marks the end of the line of nets. Sunset or sunrise are the best times for casting, and OF ALL COUNTRIES. 513 a slight ripple on the water is of much advantage. Off the Scottish coast a good take frequently succeeds a thunder- storm, but on the following day hardly any catch is to be made except at the verge of the deep sea. Herrings, it may be observed, are taken in largest quantities when the water has a temperature of about 54 or 55 Fahr., according to the best German authorities. Two kinds of nets, more of local than of general use, may also here be mentioned : the trammel, employed in some parts of Devon and Cornwall, on the south coast of Ireland, in Guernsey, and on different parts of the Scotch coast ; while the kettle-net is confined to the parts about Beachey Head and Folkestone. The trammel derived, according to Mr. Holdsworth, from the French tremail, or tramail, a corruption of trois mailles, consists, as its name implies, of a combination of three nets or wallings placed side by side and fastened together at the back, foot, and ends. Of these three nets the two on either side have their meshes wide and exactly corresponding to each other, but that in the middle is of much finer make and of nearly double the size, the result being a quantity of slack netting between the two. When therefore a prisoner having entered the first, endeavours to pass through the third net, he carries with him a portion of the second, and the more he struggles the more hopelessly he becomes entangled. The kettle- net is an arrangement of stakes and nets, used principally for the capture of mackerel when they come close in shore in the locality above mentioned, and not altogether unlike the nets in connection with towers on the Rhine, built for the purpose of catching salmon. The seine, used for opera- tions performed from the shore, must be familiar to many who have spent their holidays at the seaside. In shape it used to be deeper in the middle than at the sides or VOL. I. H. 2 L 5 i4 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN sleeves at Tahiti one was used in the form of a V as the fish congregate towards the centre, and its extremities are pulled together by two boats rowing towards each other, the towing boat being followed by a smaller vessel called the follower. On the Cornish coast, when a shoal of pilchards is expected, it is customary for a look-out man, called the crier, to ascend an eminence overlooking the sea, and to give notice of their approach by throwing up his arms. Amongst the lines used at sea the principal are the spiller and bulter, the former being employed for whiting or other smaller fish, the latter for catching cod, ling, halibut, and haddock. Fifteen dozen, with twenty-six hooks a-piece, are sometimes attached to the Grimsby smacks, the whole string being not less than seven miles in length, and carrying with it 4680 instruments of death. Some years ago a great outcry was raised to the effect that trawling was destroying the fisheries by stirring up the spawn, and that the fishery grounds themselves were undergoing the same process of depopulation as the inland waters. In particular, difficulties arose with the men of Tarbert and Oban, and a Commission having been appointed to inquire into the matter, a sort of Melian conference took place, related in a strictly Thucy- didean manner by the Commissioners. The drift-net fishermen and their supporters urged that immature herrings may be caught by the method of seining ; that the shoals of fish, being disturbed and dispersed by the seine-nets on entering the estuaries from the sea, would soon desert the waters, which they would otherwise have frequented ; that the shoal once scattered does not again unite ; that the seine fishers sweep across the beds where the fish are depositing their spawn, and not only take the spawning herring, but destroy the spawn which OF ALL COUNTRIES. 515 has been deposited ; that the herring caught by the seine are not fit for curing, on account of the injury received by them in their capture ; that the trawlers or seiners are a turbulent set of men, who wanton in mischief, and love to cut away drift-nets or stab the buoys which float them, and thus produce much damage to property ; that the two systems cannot be carried on together in narrow waters, as the trawlers get foul of the drift-nets, and drive away the fish which would have meshed themselves ; and that the extravagant gains of the trawlers, monopolised by a few, alter the market prices by sudden fluctuations, to the great detriment of the drift-net fishermen, who prosecute their labour in a more steady and less gambling manner. To this indictment the trawlers replied that when the mesh is less than that of the legal standard they catch immature fish, but that it is not their interest as a class to do so ; that larger and finer herrings are caught by the trawl (meaning the seine) than can be got by the drift-net ; that the enclosure of herrings in a circle by a net drawn gently round them in a retired locality on the coast cannot disturb the general shoal offish as much as their meeting numerous walls of netting, often miles in length, let down into the sea to obstruct their progress ; that their nets do not interfere with the spawning- beds ; that there is only a small market for full fish on the west coast, and for this reason alone it is not their interest to catch fish in an immature condition ; that the destruc- tion of the spawning-beds was not produced by them, but by the drift-net fishermen on the coast of Ayrshire, who sink their drift-nets as trammels to catch the fish in the act of spawning ; that the fish caught by trawling is, by the admission of all, good for the fresh market ; and that the fish so caught are quite fit for curing, though there may be an occasional inferiority in this respect, on account of the rapid and careless handling to which the fish are 2 L 2 516 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN subjected in the prosecution of an illegal fishing, which may at any time be interrupted. They denied too that as a class, they injure the nets of the drift-net fishermen ; they pointed to the records of collisions between the drift- net fishermen themselves before trawling was introduced, and averred that the alleged instances of mischief on the part of the trawlers have never been substantiated when submitted to official investigation. They saw no difficulty in carrying on the two systems of fishing together, as the trawlers chiefly fish close to the shore in shallows, where the drift-nets are rarely placed ; and they further asserted that instead of driving the fish away, so that they will not mesh in the drift-nets, they drive the shoals out of the shallow into deeper water, where the drift-nets are enabled to capture them ; and finally that the large hauls got by the trawlers are of great benefit to the consumer of fish, by enabling him to get herrings at a much cheaper rate than he could by the old method of drift-net fishing, so that the poor especially benefit by the abundance of fresh fish thus thrown into the market. After full examination of petitions and evidence on both sides, the Commissioners gave an elaborate judgment that in their opinion the fishery of Loch Fyne had suffered no diminution by the operations of the trawlers, but that, on the contrary, it is a steadily progressive fishery, when the periods of comparison are made sufficiently long to correct the annual fluctuations, which are always considerable in this as in all other herring fisheries. In support of this statement they adduced the following return for a period of thirty years : General annual average take from 1833 to 1843 18,994 barrels. > 1844 1848 . . 15,427 1849 1853 . . 19,149 w 1854 1858 . . 25,744 * 1859 1862 . . 42,165 OF ALL COUNTRIES. 517 This steady increase of the fishery during the period when trawling was practised, they went on to say, could not be ascribed to any augmentation in the number of drift-net boats ; for these, on the average of the same years, with the exception of 1862, show no increase, while the number of square yards of netting employed remains also com- paratively stationary. Hence they were forced to the con- clusion that there were no grounds for the alarm that the fishery of Loch Fyne was being destroyed by the operations of the trawlers. The same reasoning was found to apply to the west coast of Scotland as a whole, viz., that there is a steady increase in the fishery during the periods when trawl- ing was prosecuted ; and that trawling (or rather seining) for herring has been an important means of cheapening fish to the consumer, and has thrown into the market an abundant supply of wholesome fresh fish at prices which enable the poor to enjoy them without having to come into competition with the curer. They pointed out also that by prohibiting the use of herring for bait during the close period from 1st January to 3ist May, the white fish, like cod and ling, have been allowed to multiply. A single herring used for bait is employed to catch three of those fish, each of which if left in the sea would have devoured annually at least between four and five hundred herring ; so that the cod and ling actually caught and cured on the Scotch coasts in 1861, would, if left in the sea, have destroyed more herring than 48,000 fishermen. As only 42,75 1 fisher- men and boys were engaged in fishing in the year, the magnitude of this destructive agency will be readily per- ceived. The close time which diminishes the capture of such fish must necessarily prove destructive to the herring. Nothing can be more satisfactory than to find that so far as regards the ocean, no danger of scarcity need be 5 i8 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN apprehended in our day, and that there are still more fish in the sea than ever came out of it. According to Prof. Huxley, one of the greatest living authorities on these matters, the ravages of man are but very trifling in character when compared with those arising from other and natural causes, and more particularly from the depredations of the birds and the larger members of their own tribe. According to the illustrious Professor, in the case of the herring at least, bird, fish, and man form a kind of joint-stock company, the latter having to be content with a modest 5 per cent, of the annual dividends. In fact, so far did the trawlers turn out to be from destroying the herrings by routing up the spawn, that they tended greatly to their preservation through the capture of such fish as turbot, brill, sole, and plaice, who possess an epicurean appetite for that kind of food. Such a declaration is undoubtedly reassuring, but yet one cannot altogether repress a certain qualm of ap- prehension when we read upon an authority of such great practical experience as Mr. Olsen, of ground after ground, in which the abundance of fish is a matter of the past. In the Off-ground near Grimsby, formerly abounding with all kinds of fish, there has been a scarcity of late. In the California Ground, a small one no doubt, large quantities of soles used to be caught. On the Doggerbank codfish have been caught abundantly in former years, but have been scarce of late. From the Great Silver Pits large quantities of soles were taken for the first three years. The Botney Ground formerly abounded with a great variety of fish, but of late years it has not been so productive. Off the N.N.E. Hole the supply of soles, formerly abundant, is now fluctuating, though still occasionally large ; and so on in the case of nearly every fishing resort mentioned by this high authority, that fatal past tense is continually recurring. OF ALL COUNTRIES. 519 CHAPTER VI. DIMINUTION AND REPRODUCTION. Others will come, my lord, all sorts of fish. May. LIKE almost every other commodity, fish experienced the effect produced upon commerce by the introduction of railways, not merely in the increased production of the staple, but in the relative importance of the different kinds. Freshwater fishing in modern days has sunk almost into insignificance in comparison with coast fisheries, hardly noticed at the commencement of the present century, from the multiplied facilities for sale and transit ; but the increased activity in regard to our streams and rivers has by no means been followed by the same gratifying results. For that the inhabitants of our inland waters have disappeared with alarming rapidity in proportion as the numbers of fishermen have grown larger, cannot, unfortunately, be doubted for a moment. We may or may not give implicit credence to the venerable story of the apprentices' objection to the salmon, though it is strange that no indenture of the kind has ever been brought to light in spite of the handsome reward offered for a sight of it ; just as we may or may not altogether believe the parallel case of the little pauper child who was taken out to Canada, and there ran away from an excellent situation, for no other reason than 520 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN that her employers persisted in giving her turkey so fre- quently for dinner. But whatever our opinion maybe upon the stipulations of the apprentices, there can be no question whatever that in former days many of our streams abounded with excellent fish, where few or none are now to be found. Nor is the evil by any means confined within the limits of England, or even of the United Kingdom. Switzerland sends forth a lamentation over her failing resources, so does Hungary, so does Belgium, so does Norway itself, the fruitful mother of cataract and fjord. Many causes, no doubt, combine to produce this disastrous result : the poisoning of streams by the sewage of towns, and by the refuse of manufactories, the greediness of fish-eating birds, surpassing, it would seem, even the voracious rapacity of fish-selling man, are all elements tending to the destruction of the aquatic creation. Rigid rules as to close time and prohibitions as to the discharge of deleterious matter en- forced by active inspection have done something to arrest the wholesale waste of the material of food, but preventive measures alone will not suffice to restore the lost fruitful- ness to our empty streams. To give back to the rivers the stock they once possessed and to vivify with fresh abundance our waste and desecrated waters, is a task requiring much intelligence, no little capital, and almost infinite patience. Yet so widely has it been attempted, and so beneficial are its results when carried on under the conditions neces- sary for success, that although these breeding-grounds are rather nurseries for the spawn than actual fisheries, still no history of the latter can have any pretension to complete- ness which does not afford some slight indication of the numerous efforts made in this direction. Pisciculture in its simpler form was without question commonly practised in ancient times, and the classic writers OF ALL COUNTRIES. 521 allude almost as familiarly to the fish ponds of the great as to the farms of the humbler class of citizen. Attention too was paid to the diet of the denizens of these ponds, but rather with a view to heightening the flavour to please the palate of the rich than to increasing the stock in order that the poor might have a more abundant and cheaper supply. Civil wars, however, jointly with foreign invasion, destroyed all traces of this art in classic lands, so that centuries elapsed during which little is heard of pisciculture in the western world. Its revival is due, according to the Baron de Montgaudry, to Dom Pinchon, a monk of the Abbey of Reome, in the C6te d'Or, during the fifteenth century. A very simple apparatus was all that the good father used long boxes, wooden at top and bottom, and latticed at the extremities with osiers, were filled with fine sand as a lining, and covered at top and bottom with latticework. After the lapse of nearly three centuries, a second step was taken by a fisherman of Lippe in the direction of discovering the artificial propagation of trout, and a series of experiments was carried on for sixteen years by Jacobi, of Hohenhausen, the results of which were communicated some time after- wards by Sir Humphry Davy to our own countrymen. About 1824 Professors Agassiz and Voght had occasion to make experiments on a class of the salmonidae in Neufchatel, and employed artificial fecundation for obtain- ing the eggs required. Next came Shaw's experiments at Edinburgh ; and the evidence given at Stormontfield irre- fragably established the various stages of parr, smoult, grilse, and salmon. To another fisherman of Bresse, a village in the Vosges, is due the observation of the causes leading chiefly to the destruction of the fry to be found in the consumption of the eggs by other fish, the floods, the droughts, and the attacks of insects. And from him too 522 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN proceeded the suggestion of pierced tin-boxes for the eggs, which has proved so highly successful. A word of com- mendation must be paid also to the remarkable institution established by the French Government at Huningue in 1863, for the artificial stocking of rivers and streams throughout France, which has resulted in restoring many of her waters to their naturally prolific condition, although the territory containing the institution itself has passed into other hands. Sweden, no less than France, had recourse to pisciculture in order to restore to its waters their exhausted fertility, and her efforts have been crowned with equal success. A large establishment has been instituted by the Swedish Government at Ostan-Beck for the distribution of spat through the neighbouring localities, and very happy results attended the labours of Monsieur Widegren ; while the experiments at CEstersund have also attained celebrity. Norway, once revelling in the wealth supplied by her streams, has of late years experienced great sterility, but owing to the efforts of Professor Rasch steps have been taken toward remedying this terrible calamity. Since 1852 an Inspector of Fisheries has been instituted, and more than one hundred localities are now furnished with the means of repairing the loss inflicted by former carelessness and greed. Salmon has been restored in various parts of Sweden. Eight lakes, situated in Roraas, have been stocked with Salmo-Fario, and kindred sqrts. Three lakes in the same neighbourhood have received similar advantages, as has also the large lake of Stort Jernet, near Sjovold, and others in the neighbourhood of Sondrevik, Hitterdaal, and Folgen. Almost the same experience has happened to the Russian Empire, which since 1854 possesses at Nikolks, in OF ALL COUNTRIES. 523 the principality of Novgorod, an establishment of pisci- culture, founded by M. Vrasski, whose efforts, though unattended at first with success, have since produced the very best results. The locality chosen by M. Vrasski is admirably adapted for the purpose on account of the abundance and the purity of the water, and the establish- ment being located at the point of separation between the basins of the Volga and the Ladoga, is especially suited to the purposes of acclimatisation. From half a dozen other countries of Europe the same story reaches our ears. Bel- gium and Hungary, Germany and Switzerland, all tell the selfsame tale of anxious effort to repair exhaustion caused by wanton carelessness ; and in the last-mentioned of the countries, at Meilen, near Zurich, 200,000 trout are annually produced to repair the ravages of former years. The new country too is in the same category with the old, and in the United States, to quote a single example, the Commissioner, Mr. Atkins, states that the " passage of fish was interrupted by building impassable dams for manufacturing purposes on the Kennebec and Penobscot, in 1837. On the Kennebec the first fall is 17 feet at the head of the tide-waters." These two rivers of 500 miles had previously produced 180,000 salmon, and are now reduced to a catch of 2100 annually. Two other rivers, the Androscoggin and Saeo, of 320 miles in length, which had previously produced 50,000 salmon annually, now produce only 2000. "Most of the rivers in the State are in the same condition as the Ken- nebec." The three rivers that previously produced 230,000 fish are 580 miles in length, and now produce only 4100 annually. We may fairly estimate the loss of 225,900 salmon, of average weight, 9 Ibs., or upwards of fifty thousand pounds, at only 6d. per Ib. value, as the annual loss of valuable nutritious food paid for the erection of a 524 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN few mill-weirs for water-power upon the three rivers. Thus, from every quarter rises up a chorus of testimony to the national injury and loss inflicted by neglecting the care of our Fisheries. It may be that we have yet to learn the still higher penalty attaching to the neglect of the interests of our Fishermea OF ALL COUNTRIES. 525 CHAPTER VII. A GLANCE AT FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Winged ships . . . and thousand fishers. Spencer. FRANCE with her coast-line of 1 500 miles and her traditions of adventure, naturally claims to be one of the first rank in all matters relating to maritime affairs, and has held no less than three special exhibitions at Boulogne, at Arcachon, and at Dieppe, with a view to promoting her interests in this direction. Out of 90,000 sailors constituting her fine navy, not less than 65,000 are fishermen, a proportion well illustrating the expression, so often recurring in our own annals, to the effect that the fisheries are the nurseries for seamen. Whaling is the principal occupation of the major portion of this fleet, and a very remunerative employment it is. Establishments for the manufacture of fish products are found in France, as in Norway and Newfoundland : and yield excellent returns. The seas about Iceland and the rich banks of Newfoundland attract another large section of French vessels. In 1866, no less than 448 ships with lopoo to 12,000 men on board, a formidable squadron of the naval nursery, left the shores of France for the cod fishing in the north-west Atlantic ; the wages of the men varying from 3 12s. to 4 a month. The preserve of the French in 526 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN these parts is connected with many associations of our own history, and one can the better understand the miserable antipathy between the two nations, now happily almost for- gotten, when we find them fighting tooth and nail over such easily comprehensible matters as the pounds, shillings, and pence, derived from the fisheries. Some one has, or ought to have, already observed that war never yet broke out which had not for its real intention a change in the ownership of territory; but most persons would be surprised at the number of Treaties in which the right of fishing claims the dignity of especial mention. Nearer home the capture of herrings employs some 4000 or 5000 Frenchmen from July to November, but the method of carrying is hardly so suc- cessful as that of Holland, and the fish suffer much in con- sequence of the want of wells in the boats. In the earlier part of the year, or rather during the spring, mackerel are obtained on the northern, western, and southern coasts ; and what are popularly supposed to be sardines on a holiday excursion from their home in the Mediterranean, make their appearance in the fashionable month of May. At Dieppe there is a school for giving instruction in the mending of nets, two of which differ in their action from those hitherto described, the carelet being a net for upward, and the epervier for downward capture. Norway, dotted with its innumerable islands and indented by fjords stretching far inland among the mountains, is the very home for cod and such like fish. From 20 to 25 millions are taken every year off the Lofoten district alone. Herrings are very capricious in their visits to the coast, or at least their movements are subject to laws not yet discovered. From 1 650 to 1 699 they stayed away altogether, and again from 1784 to 1808, both from the Norwegian and the Swedish coasts ; a subject now receiving illustration from OF ALL COUNTRIES. $27 the labours of Professor Sars. Their favourite resort in Norway during the seasons of their advent is Bergen, the capital of the south-western district, at no great distance from the beautiful Hardanger Fjord. The herrings, however, when they arrive make up for their absence by the magni- tude of their shoals, giving employment to some 6000 boats and 30,000 men. Oysters are found in abundance in the Christiana Fjord ; and, as many an English tourist well knows, salmon frequent the rivers and rushing streams, though even their saltatory powers are not equal to such leaps as the Riukan or Voring Voss would require. In the mackerel fishery, according to the report of M. Her- mann Baars, Special Commissioner of Norwegian Fisheries and Navigation, each, boat produces from about 1000 to 3000 each night, but by the barrage nets the fishermen sometimes catch 10,000 to 20,000 in a single haul. This fishery has been so much developed the last few years, that it now counts about 2500 boats, which have caught from 30 to 35,000,000 of fish during a season. This immense abundance is preserved in ice and sent to England ; and the roe ot the mackerel consumed in Norway, as well as the cod roe, are sent to France as bait for sardines. Lobsters are of great importance in the northern districts of Norway. They not only supply highly-prized food for the population, but also an export of commerce amounting to not less than from 700,000 to 800,000 francs a year in addition to crab fish. Oysters are distributed all along the coast from Namsen Fjord to Christiana Fjord. Banks of large extent supply the wants of the country ; but through ignorance or negligence many have been destroyed or ex- hausted. Men are beginning, however, better to understand their value. Existing banks are treated with much more care ; oyster culture is becoming more general ; and there 528 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN is every reason to believe that it will become one of the most important products of the country. From time out of mind, or at all events from the close of the ninth century, Sweden has been renowned for its fisheries and fishermen. A little more than a thousand years before Professor Nordenskjold commenced his suc- cessful voyage, Flosco, a native of that country, set forth for Iceland, or Snowland as it was then called, discovered a few years previously by a roving pirate. During the middle ages there are various allusions to Swedish fisheries, and in 1555 Olaus Magnus published his book entitled, ' Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus/ to which we have already referred. In more modern times Cederstrom's treatise which appeared in 1857, ano ^ Christoffel's work, published in 1829, may be mentioned as giving informa- tion. From the situation of the country and the formation of the coast, indented in every part with innumerable bays and fjords, Sweden offers a natural resort for fish of almost every description frequenting the Northern Waters, except, perhaps, the whale ; and her splendid rivers provide a home for many of the principal kinds of those inhabiting fresh water. Sea-fowl in great numbers are found on the Baltic and the coasts of Bothnia ; but though their presence is doubtless prejudicial to the development of the spawn, it does not perceptibly affect the vast abundance of supply. Turbot and cod, salmon and mackerel, ling, herrings, lobsters, oysters, and crabs, all find their way from the ocean to the Swedish shores, while the rivers are full of perch, pike, roach, char, salmon, grayling, bleak and eels. No less than sixty kinds of fish are said to be sold in the market of Gothen- burg; but this estimate includes different kinds of the same fish. Stroemming, about the size of a sprat, visit the eastern coasts of Sweden, especially of the province of OF ALL COUNTRIES 529 Bohus during certain parts of the year. Herrings, which, with salmon, form the staple of the fisheries, are found chiefly on the western coasts north of Gothenburg off the ports of Uddevallen and Stronstad in the winter months. Here also the visits of herrings are subject to considerable fluctuation, and in connection with this subject M. von Yhlen, Inspector of Swedish Fisheries, has carried out some interesting investigations, based on the theory that the occurrence is dependent on a natural law ; the shoals of anchovies taking precedence, the smaller shoals of herrings following them, the larger bringing up the rear ; and the return of fish in large numbers indicating the advent of another fruitful period of seventy years. Lastly, it may be mentioned that Sweden is not wholly at liberty to dispose of her fisheries as she may see good, at least in one particular direction. By the treaty of 1855, signed at Stockholm between Great Britain, France, and Sweden and Norway, the latter kingdom bound itself not to cede or exchange any rights of fishery or pasturage with Russia, and to make known to the two former monarchies any proposals to that effect which Russia might put forward ; and on the other part Great Britain and France guaranteed to defend Sweden and Norway in the event of insistance on the part of Russia. It may be questioned whether this peculiar relic of the Crimean War is not liable to create the very complications it was originally intended to prevent. In the Russian Empire the fishing is chiefly conducted upon the five great Inland Seas, or Salt Lakes the Caspian, the Azov, the Baltic, the Black and the White Seas. The navaga frequents the Gulf of Onega and the mouth of the Petchina, while the chimaia prefers the Sea of Azov and the Caspian. Fish being the only food allowed on fast- VOL. I. H. 2 M 530 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN days, of which the Russian Calendar contains an exceed- ingly large number, the demand is very great, the men being hired for the season, and bringing their produce to the vataga, or central establishment. Throughout the Oural districts a guardian is appointed over each yatove or deep basin ; and the most stringent precautions are taken to prevent the fishes from being disturbed, even fires being pro- hibited at certain periods. In the fresh and brackish lakes of the Caspian, says Count Danilewsky, President of the Russian Commission, everything unites to create an abundance of fish : the quantity of organic matter and the great growth of vegetable life producing insects and infusoria on which the fish are nourished. Both seas are extremely shallow, the Caspian having a depth only of 50 feet, and that of Azov, 6 feet less, whereby a great fertility in plants and animal food is obtained for the inhabitants of the waters. The mouths of rivers, too, separate into many small streams before leaving the lakes, thereby affording convenient spawning-grounds where the young may be well fed and protected from their enemies. There are four species of sturgeons, better known under their commercial name of red fish. Again, certain sorts are used in the manufactories for oil, and other products, viz. the sandre, two kinds of herrings, breme, tarane, and smelts, valued at I75,ooo/. Cod, carp, salmon, and white salmon, may be estimated at 8/,5oo/. Salmon is found in the North Sea and the rivers ; white salmon in the Volga, the Dwina, and the Petchora in very large quantities ; and lastly, navaga is found in the White Sea, in the Gulf of Onega, in the Dwina, in the Mezene, and near the mouth of the Petchora. Turning from Russia and crossing the Atlantic Ocean we arrive at an island the fisheries of which have been the scene OF ALL COUNTRIES. 531 of what is probably the most extraordinary political history recorded of any country whatsoever. About the year 1497 John and Sebastian Cabot set sail from Bristol with a small equipment of five ships and 300 men, furnished by the financialist monarch Henry VII., who had just discovered the penny wisdom and pound foolishness involved in ignoring the dreams of Columbus. On the 6th of June, according to some accounts, they sighted the island now called New- foundland, destined from that time to be considered, as a public writer recently observed, in the light of a ship moored in the Atlantic for the benefit of British fishermen ; though the country was not formally annexed to the Crown of England till Sir G. Peacham took possession in the name of Elizabeth in 1583. This was a proceeding which to men of the present day bears no slight resemblance to an act of unblushing impudence, inasmuch as the French numbered 150 vessels in those parts, the Spanish 120, the Portuguese about one-third of the former number, and the English not so many as the Portuguese. But overweening scrupulosity was not the most marked characteristic of the worthies of Bideford and Barnstaple, and Bristol, who composed the crews of that famous Elizabethan era. To Sir G. Peacham succeeded Sir Humphrey Gilbert, with the illustrious Walter Raleigh as second in command ; but that halcyon period soon came to an end, and then commenced what may fairly be pronounced to be the most outrageous poli- tical experiment ever tried upon a body of helpless colonists. By a decree of the Star Chamber the immediate govern- ment of the island was placed in the hands of an individual dignified with the title of Admiral ; and that officer obtained his post neither by nomination of the Crown nor by election of the colonists, nor by any other process known to civilised law, but simply by being the skipper of the vessel which arrived at Newfoundland the first of the season. This 2 M 2 532 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN extraordinary system of happy-go-lucky administration, founded apparently upon the principle of " first come first served," gave rise as might be expected to endless struggles between the fishermen and the regular settlers, whose inte- rests were sacrificed upon every occasion. To such an extent did the Government carry out the policy of discoun- tenancing settlement a policy absolutely unintelligible to modern minds in order to favour the supposed interest of the fisheries, that no one was allowed to cut wood for firing within six miles of the port. Nay, one of the most promi- nent merchants connected with the fish trade in Newfound- land, Sir Josiah Child, went so far as to advocate the entire displanting of the inhabitants of the colony on the ground that, since the growth of the colony, the vessels engaged with cod had declined by more than one-half in a lapse of less than seventy years, and orders were actually issued to put this monstrous decree into execution. After the treaty of Ryswick confusion was rendered worse confounded by the addition of two fresh officials, styled respectively Rear and Vice-Admiral, in the shape of the skippers of the second and third ships arriving for the annual sojourn ; and the affairs of the colonists continued in the utmost depression until in 1728 Captain H. Osborne and Lord Vere Beauclerc restored some sort of order and justice by restraining the autocracy of those ignorant and incompetent despots. Several years later Labrador was placed under the same jurisdiction, and the whole colony was raised to a Crown plantation. Of late the rights of the permanent inhabitants have been suffered to develop them- selves with greater freedom from restraint ; but traces of the old restrictive policy are still to be seen in the uncultivated condition of the rich lands lying almost unknown in the heart of the island. Passing over to the American coast we arrive at another OF ALL COUNTRIES 533 scene of British adventure and another locality teeming with associations for the student of history in later times. More than two hundred and fifty years ago Massachusetts had already twenty sail engaged in this occupation, and a century and a half later the fishermen of North America left no inconsiderable record in the military annals of that country. At Louisberg they took a fortress defended by 250 cannon ; and in the course of two years of the Revolu- tionary War they captured 733 ships together with property amounting in value to twenty-five million dollars. The records of Marblehead in particular serve as a comment on Gray's well-known line upon the path of glory. In 1772 the voters of that town numbered 1203, in eight years afterwards only 544 were left of them. Nor were the succeeding generation unworthy of their fathers, and the offspring of those fishermen who had perished for the independence of their country manned the frigates of 1812. Immutable, immemorial China, on the far western coast of the Pacific, with its highly developed industries and long descended customs, the land from which many a product, both of nature and of art, has found its way to western countries, forms an appropriate connection between ancient and modern times. Amongst other occupations fishing received its full measure of attention, and the various forms under which it is practised are far too numerous to be here described, though a few of the principal must be noticed. Rather more than a century and a half ago, the encyclo- paedia, Koo Kin Too Shoo Tseih Ch'ing, in one thousand volumes, was drawn up by Imperial authority, and two articles on fishing are contained in it under the section Shuh Teen. A few plates are to be found in connection with the 534 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN article ; but most students will probably prefer to consult the French work of M. Dabry de Thiersant, whose abundant illustrations are only equalled in interest by the excellence of the invaluable information conveyed in his text. There are many sorts, both of lines, nets, and modes of capture. The Kuen Keon is a line two or three hundred feet in length, with several branches. It is made of hemp, and is soaked in a strong decoction of oak-bark (ko-chou), or else in the blood of a pig. Pe-Chen-Keon, a line of a somewhat similar character, differs from the Kuen Keon in having its hooks rather smaller, and being suitable for the lesser kinds of fish, more especially eels. Amongst the snares may be noticed the Pan-ta-tseng, a large net in the form of a square, having in its centre a pocket with a bamboo box for the reception of the captives. Four pieces of bamboo, fitted to the corners of the net, meet at the top, and are fixed to the extremity of a lever about ten or twelve feet long, itself reposing upon a strong bamboo which forms the fulcrum of another lever resembling the first, and intended to keep it in equilibrium. This second lever is furnished with leads to counter-balance the weight of the nets, and the machinery is so devised that these heavy nets can be manipulated by the slightest touch. Cormorants are another famous means applied by this ingenious people to the capture of fish, the bird being trained to release his prey at the touch of the rope encircling his neck, with as great certainty as hawks are taught to obey the call of the keeper or the retriever to secure the game. Domestic affairs are conducted with the same strict attention to economy, and consequently attain the same astonishing results among the fishermen as among all other classes of inhabitants through- out the celestial Empire. Although the whole annual family expenses do not average more than about 24, or a little OF ALL COUNTRIES. 535 over IOJ. a week, that is to say, the wages of an English agricultural labourer, out of which the head of the family has to make provision for medicine, and to procure what we should consider luxuries, such as tobacco, and a kind of oil (mien-tse-yeou) for the preparation of food, yet he can repair his net, set apart something for religious purposes, and spend an appreciable portion of his income upon three annual festivals. Opposite the Chinese coast stands another mighty empire, in which the fisheries form an element of almost incalculable importance. Somewhere about thirty-five millions is considered to be the number of fish consumers in Japan, and the persons employed in that trade amount to 70,000 in Nagasaki alone. Salmon in particular gives a constant dish to their dinner-tables. Triangular nets are used for its capture, and the take is said to be sometimes 10,000 at a time. With their quaint love of symbolism, the Japanese use this fish to inculcate morality upon their children. When a boy is born, the parents place over the house a paper salmon, made with round head and open mouth, so that the wind blowing in at the aperture expands the entire body. When the feast celebrating the birth of the child is over, the fish is taken and preserved among the household gods. The boy is bidden to imitate the perse- verance of the salmon, which never ceases to make its way upwards until it has attained the position it desires. 536 FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN CHAPTER VIII. A PRACTICAL CONCLUSION. Fare you well. The fool shall now fish for himself. Beaumont and Fletcher fjifv yap yaia KCLKCDV, TrXci'j; 8e 8d\a, crab-pots, 319 ,, creels, 321 dredges, 322 ,, drift-net, 278 ,, eel traps, 228, 319 ,, hand-lines, 310 ,, harpoons, 323 VOL. I. H. 2 N 54 6 INDEX. Apparatus for fishing, kettle-net, 316 lobster-pots, 319 ,, long-lines, 304 ,, otter trawl, 274 salmon-nets, 316 seine-net, 287, 513, 5 14 set-nets, 254, 299 shrimp-net, 293 snap-net, 317 stake-net,J3i6 stow-net, 295 ,, trammels, 299 Apprentices to fishing trade, 17 Arctic chimera, 185 Argentine, 160 Archestratus, 379 Armed bullhead, 100 Armed gurnard, 100 Arms of the sea, 207 Artificial baits, 315 ,, cut leading out of salmon rivers, 220 ,, fishing grounds, 501 ,, obstruction to passage of salmon, 220 Atherine, 141, 416 Atherinidse, 141 Atkins, Mr., 523 Authorities, local, powers of, 230 BAARS, Mr. Hermann, 527 Bag-nets, 221, 254, 317 Bait, 13, 223, 228, 245, 304, 313 Bank's oar-fish, 140 Barbel, 168, 404, 432 Barking as a trawling station, 273 Barrow-in-Furness, 498 Basking shark, 189 Bass, 85, 425 Batoidei, 192 Beam-trawl, general description of, 255 ,, ground favourable for use of, 268 introduction of, at various localities, 273 ,, restriction on use of, 246 ,, steam-power adapted to, 272 Bearded ophidiom, 154 Belgian law, 244 Belgium, 511 Belkinson, 497 Bergylt, 95 INDEX. 547 Berners, Dame Juliana, 502 Best season for fish, 398 Bib, 152 Billingsgate Market, 52, 56, 70 Black bass, 201 ,, bream, 92 fish, 112 pilot, 116 Bleak, 168, 367, 365, 399 Blennies, 134 Blenniidse, 134 Bloaters, 35 Blue Shark, 186 Boar-fish, 116 Board of Trade, restrictions by, on oyster and shell fishing, 24$, 246 drifting, 15, 20 Boats used for trawling, 261 Bogue, 92 "Bomaree." See Middleman. Bonito, in Boops, 92 Borer, 199 Bottom fish, 12 Bounties, 25 Branding of fish barrels, 29, 239, 242 Bream (freshwater), 168 Bream (sea), 91, 399, 424 Breeding and migration of young fish, 226 Bridport net factories, 282 Brief Note of the Benefits that growe to this Realme by the Observation of Fish-daies, 407 Briggs v. Swanwick, action at law, 228 Brill, 12, 157 ,, caught by the trawl, 254 British fishermen subject to conventions with foreign powers, 208 Fishery, 507 fishing boats, registration, &c., of, 243 white herring fishery, 242 Brixham, 273, 511 Buckland, Mr., evidence of, before Select Committee, in 1869, 221, 229 Bullhead, 96 Bulter or long-line, 303 Bund, Willis, Mr., on law of salmon fisheries, 222, 231 Burbolt, 152 Burroughes, Sir John, 505 Butter-fish, 138 Buttes, Henry, 1599, quotation from, 403 By-laws may be made by local conservators, 233, 241 2 N 2 548 INDEX. CABOT, John, 531 Sebastian, 531 Calaminary, 427 California ground, 518 Callionymidse, 126 Canadian coast fishing, 245 Canoes, 493 Carangidae, 114 Carbon, 337, 351, 355 Carbon compounds in food, 357 Carbonic acid, 344, 346, 349>*35o> 35 1 Carelet net, 526 Carp, 168, 365, 398, 403, 419, 432 Crucian, 168 Gold, 169, 204 ,, Leather, 202 ,, Prussian, 169 Cases : Briggs v. Swanwick, 228 Leconfield v. Lonsdale, 212, 217 Pearce v. Scotcher, 209 Reece v. Miller, 209 Rolle v. Whyte, 218 Ruther v. Harris, 224 ' 'Casters" (crabs), 245 Casting-net, 292 Cataphracti, 99 Cat-fish, 134 Caviare. See Kaviar. Cederstrom's treatise, 528 Centriscidse, 146 Centrolophus, 112 Cepolidse, 139 Ceylon, 292 Channel Fisheries, 244 Char, 165 Char fishing, 223-228 Charter re herrings, 497 Chemical nomenclature, 334 Child, Sir Josiah, 532 China, 533*534 fish-hawking in, 472 Christiana Fjord, oysters in abundance at, 527 Christoffel's treatise, 528 " Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland," 418 Chub, 168 Circle-net, 288 Clam and bait beds, protection of, 246 INDEX. 549 Climbing perch, 203 Close times, 215, 226-230, 236, 245, 247 Clupeidoe, 12, 170 Coal-fish,. 1 52 Cobles, 284 Cockles, 47, 62, 428 Cod, 12, 13, 22, 23, 42, 150, 304, 308, 425, 506 "Coetlogon Universal," extract from, 406 Collier's Poetical Decameron, 405 Collisions of fishing gear, 18 Comber, 86 Commission of inquiry into state of fishermen, 538 Common law rights of private owners of fishings, 217, 235, 236 Common right of fishing in navigable portions of tidal rivers, 31, 209, 232, 233 Compounds of chemical elements, 339-342 Compulsory purchase of weirs, dams, &c., 220 Conger, 174, 362, 365, 427 Conservators, Constitution, &c., of Local Boards of, 215, 219, 224, 227-233 Constables, powers and privileges of, 233 Constitution and administrative rules and powers of local authorities, 215, 232 Consumption and expulsion of chemical dements by the human frame, 352, 353, 354 Conventions with foreign powers, 208, 242-245 Conveyance of fish, 48 Cooking, effects of, 363 Co-operation, advantages of, 367 Coops, 216 Cormorants, 534 Cornish sucker, 132 Cornwall, pilchard fishery of, 239 ,, nets in, 280 Corregonus, 165 Coryphcenidae, 113 Coryphcenoid, 155 Cost of trawl-smacks and fit-out, 263 Cottidse, 96 Cotton drift-nets, 282 Courtines, rules for use of, 501 Crabs, 46, 62, 245, 365, 430 Crab-pots, 319 Cran (Scotch herring measure), 36-37 Crawfish, 433 Crayfish, 399 Creels, 321 Crocodiles, snaring, 472 Crown grant, before Magna Charta, 209 Crucian carp, 168 Cruives, 216 550 INDEX. Cultivation of oysters, 245 Curing processes, 23 Customary rights of fishing from river banks, 220 Cut, artificial, leading out of salmon rivers, 220 Cuttle-fish, 427 Cyprinidoe, 168 Cyttidae, 116 DAB, 158, 424 Dace, 1 68, 398, 432 Dagon, fish god of Phoenicians, 475 Damietta, fishing first taxed at, 474 Dams, 212, 217, 219, 220, 228, 233 Danilewsky, Count, President of the Russian Commission, 530 Dartmouth, fishing port of, 10 Dear fish, 140 Decay of Irish Fisheries. See Irish Fisheries. Deep-sea fishing, 507, 509 trawling, 243 Denison (Alfred), work by, 398 Dentex, 88 Dentrice, 397 Dentriculi, 397 De Piscatione, 405 Derbio, 116 Destruction of fish by pollution of rivers, 22, 224 De Thiersant, M. Dabry, 534 Devonshire coast, 273 Diana-fish, 113 Diet cannot be calculated with scientific accuracy, 355 Diminution of fish, reasons for, 520 Discoboli, 129 Distribution of fish, 48 Dog-fish, 1 86, 308, 425 Dogger-bank, 304 Dolphin, 415 Dory, 117, 413, 426 Dover, 511 Draft-nets, 223 Dragonet, 49, 127 Drayton quoted, 405 Dredges, oyster, 322 Dried fish, 22 Drift boats, 15, 20 Drift-net, 254, 278, 507, 513 Drying-nets, 240 Dusky perch, 87 Dutch eels, 53 INDEX. 55* Dutch fishermen, 281 Dynamite or other explosives, use of, prohibited, 225 EAGLE RAY, 196 Ebu Modalbir, first to lay a tax on fishing, 474 Echiodon, 154 Eel-basket and pot, 228 Eel-bucks, 319 Eel-pout, 152 Eels, 40, 53, 61, 394, 397, 399, 401, 432 ,, ancient methods of catching, 481 Effects of toil on food consumption, 351 Egypt, 471 Egyptian frogs, 476 ,, sea-foxes, 476 ,, sea-tortoise, 476 Egyptians, art of drying and curing fish known to the ancient, 473 Elasmobranchiata, 185 Electric eel, 203 Elethyia, 471 Engines, fixed, 213, 222, 233, 236 England, general rules for salmon fishing in, 217, 218 ' right of fishing in tidal part of navigable rivers, 211 ,, statute law, 214 English and foreign trawls, distinction between, 257 Eperlan. See Smelts, Epervier net, 526 Erswick, J. (1642) extract from, 407 Erythrinus, 91 Esk subject to special statutes, 236 Esocidse, 165 Estuaries, fishing in, 207, 216, 221, 231 Exhaustion of fish supply, 66 Experiments in artificial propagation of fish, 521 Explosives, use of, prohibited, 225 Export trade, 22, 27. Exportation of unseasonable salmon prohibited, 228 Expulsion of chemical elements by the human frame, 352, 353 Eyles, Sir John, 506 FALMOUTH, fishing port of, 10 Father-lasher, 97 Fats, 345 Fick and Wislecenus experiment, 350, 440 File-fish, 180 Filey, 509 Fish as Food preface, 331 552 INDEX. Fish as Food chemical preliminaries, 331 list of works &c. referring to, 457 Fish in Ancient Egypt, 375 ,, among the Hebrews, 376 Assyrians, 377 Greeks, 378, 411 in the age of luxury, 379 ,, later recognition of its dietetic value, 380 ,, ,, general inferences, 380 among the ancient Romans, 381, 411, 414 use as diet in foreign countries at present time, 382 ,, ancient prices of, 485, 486 ,, diminishing in inland waters, 519, 520 ,, found in Swedish waters, 628 hawking, 472 species, 528-530 Fish-diet conducive to health, 383 ., should be practically tried, 366 ,, want of evidence as to value of, 366 Fish markets, 53, 70 oil, 23 passes, 218-220 ,, ponds of Lucullus, 414 ,, roe casein, 365 ,, roe, use of, as bait prohibited, 223 traps, 315 Fisheries, value of, n, 46 Fishermen, commission of inquiry into state of, 538 divided into classes, 480 habits of, respecting fishing grounds and number employed, 7-9 ,, how cared for, 501 perils of, 468, 490, 512, 539 Fishery Acts, 214, 215, 218, 226, 227, 242, 246 ,, Board, 242 Commissioners, 222, 223 ,, Districts, 230, 231, 234 Fishgarths and piles, 213 Fishing-frog, 101 ,, gear, 12-14. See also Apparatus for Fishing. ,, implements used in ancient times, 480 ,, licences, 223, 224, 232, 233 ,, lines, description of, 534 mill dams, 217 ,, nets, description of, 509, 514 ,, on the high seas, 208 ,, snares, 534 vessels, 9, 18, 45, 53, 243, 261, 310. See also Boats and Smacks. INDEX. 553 Fishing-vessels, total value of, n ,, ,, description of, and general information respecting, 15, 45 ,, weir, 217, 221-222 Fixed engines, 213, 221, 222, 233, 236 Fixed-nets, 254, 295 Flat fish, 12, 43 Flax drift-nets, 281 Flemings, 491 "Flie,"398 Floating fish, 12 Float net and tackle, 222 Flosco, native of Sweden, 528 Flounder, 158, 398 Fly-net, 521 Flying-fish, 167 Food collection at Bethnal Green Museum, 360, 362 ,, tables, 367, 368 ,, values, foundation of study of, 347 Foot-seine, 291 Foreign and English trawls, distinction between, 257 Foreign trade (see also Export Trade and Import Trade), 21 Fork-beard, 152 Fowey, 10 Fox-shark, 188 France, 501, 511, 525 ,, Convention with, 242 ,, fluctuation in supply of oysters from, 247 ,, restrictive legislation, 247 Frankland, experiments by, 349 Freedon, Herr Von, 281 Free Fisheries Company, 500 gaps, 219, 220 ,, passage offish, 215, 216, 218-220 French trawls, 259 Freshwater and sea-fishing, distinction between, 253 Freshwater fisheries, 208, 209, 222, 223, 229, 230, 248 Act 1878, 223, 227, 229, 230, 231 Friendship of tench to pike, 400 Fry, causes of destruction of, 521 Fry of fish and spawn, Act for preservation of, 230 150 Ganoidei, 183 Gaps in dams in fishing weirs, 220 Gar-fish, 166 Garvies. See Sprats. Gasterosteidae, 143 German See-Warte, Director of, 281 554 INDEX. Gilt-head, 94, 427 Globe-fish, 181 Gobies, 124 Gobiesociedse, 132 Gobiidae, 124 Gold carp, 169, 204 schlei. See Gold Tench. ,, tench, 170 Golden orfe, 202 Government brand on fish barrels. See Branding. Government inquiry into diet of artizans, 369 Grant by the Crown before Magna Charta, 209 ,, for fish protection, 500 Gratings in artificial cut to prevent passage of young salmon, 220 Grayling, 165, 229 Greeks, 287 Greenland seal fishery, 248 shark, 189 Grey mullet, 142 Grimsby, fishing port of, 9, 16, 44, 46, 256, 273, 304, 509, 511 Ground favourable for trawling, 268 Ground-seine, 288 Gudgeon, 168, 365, 399, 432 Guernsey, 301 Guiniad, 165 Gunnell, 138 Gurnard, 98, 424 Gymnodontidae, 181 HADDOCK, 12, 42, 62, 152, 254, 303, 420, 425 Hague Convention (1882), 17, 69, 243 Hairtail, 122 Hake, 152, 301, 425 Halibut, 12, 62, 157, 303, 417, 426 Hammer trawl, 277 Hand-line fishing, 303, 310 Hand or shove-net, 293 Harbours, construction of, by Government, 69 Harpoons, 323 Hartlepool, 509 Harwich, 306, 511 Heat and force from carbon and from hydrc gen, 372 Hebridal smelt, 165 Hemp used for trawl-net, 261 Herring branding, 29, 239, 240 ,, fisheries, 238, 239 ,, fishing, 495-501 nets used in, -512, 513 INDEX. 555 Herrings, 12, 22, 26, 31, 62, 66, 170, 278, 299, 362, 363, 364, 392, 395, 406, 410, 429, 497 first caught at Yarmouth, 536 ,, 'Norwegian. See Norwegian Herring. statute of, 491 ,, when caught, 56 Hewett, Mr., 273 Higden " Polychronicon " (Babington's), 418 Hippocampus, 177 Historic notes of the former use of fish in England temp. Edward IV., 384 temp. Henry VII., 385 A.D. 1512 to 1525, 389 Prices, A.D. 1259 to 1400 herrings, 392 lampreys, 394 eels, 394 pike, 395 oysters, 395 salmon, 393 stockfish, 392 Prices A.D. 1401 to 1582 herring, 396 eels, 397 pike, 397 salmon, 396 salt conger, 397 History of prices and agriculture in England, 391, 395 Holinshed Chronicles, 399 Holland, 511 Holocephala, 185 Hooker, 399 Home Office, superintendence of salmon fisheries vested in, 220, 221, 229, 230, 236, 237 Hoop-net, 295 ,, bait for, 313 Horned ray, 197 Horse mackerel, 1 14 Hull, fishing port of, 16, 44, 46, 256, 262, 273, 511 Humber, 273 ,, statutes regulating fishing of the, 213 Huxley, Mr., 70, 230, 247, 518 Hydro-carbons, 345 Hydrogen, 338, 355 Hydrogen oxide (water), 339 ICELAND, 491 Ichthyophagi in Upper Egypt, 476, 477 Illegal instrument for catching salmon, &c., 222, 223, 224, 228, 236 556 INDEX. Implements used in ancient fishing, 480, 481 Impossibility of calculating out daily diet with scientific accuracy, 355 Influence of thought on digestion, 359 Inland waters, river, lake, or pond, exclusive right of fishing in, belongs to owner of soil under water, 211 Inspector of Fisheries, 230, 237 Instrument for catching salmon, &c., unlicensed, 224, 228, 24^ International Conference at the Hague 1881-2, 243, 244 Conventions, 242-244 law, 208 Introduction of beam-trawl fishing, 273 Ireland, coast-guard, 44, 238 ,, constabulary inland, 238 ,, cruisers of Royal Navy, 238 } ,, dredging for shell fish, 241 ,, duties of Special Commissioners, transferred to inspector, 237 Fisheries Act, 240, 246 ,, herring fisheries, 240 ,, Inspector of Fisheries, 237, 245, 246 ,, law of freshwater fisheries, 237 ,, Lord Lieutenant, powers of, 237, 245, 246 ,, oyster and mussel fisheries, 246 ,, right of fishing in tidal part of navigable river, 211 Isis, worshipped by the ancient Suevi, 474 JACK, 166 Jacobi, 521 John Dory, 117 KAVIAR, 365 Kerry, coast of, 39 Kettle-net, 316, 513 Kinsale, fishing port of, 39 " Kipper," origin of the word, 36 Kippered herrings, 35 Kuen Keon line, description of, 534 Kullinck, 399 LABOUR, its effects orj food consumption, &c., 351 Labridae, 147 Lam pern, 198, 399 wheels, 319 Lamprey, 198, 364, 394, 399, 404, 428 Lancashire famine, 1862, 369 Lancelet, 199 Landing nets and stores, right of, 240 Last (English herring measure), 37 Launch. See Sand Eel. Leather carp, 202 INDEX. 557 Lecky, Mr., opinion on decay of Irish fisheries, 64 Leconfield v. Lonsdale, action at law, 212, 217 Lefevre, Sir John, report on branding of fish barrels, 29 "Liber Domicilii," 1525-1585, extract from, 412 Leigh, 295 Lemon sole, 158 Licences to fish, 224, 232, 233 Liebig, 348, 349, 439 Lights of fishing vessels, 19, 69, 223 Line-fishing, 302 Lines. See Fishing gear. Ling, 12, 22, 23, 62, 152, 307 Liver of carp, 365 pike, 365 trout, 365 Loach, 169 Lobster-pots, 221, 319 Lobsters, 46, 245, 402, 430 ,, in the northern districts of Norway, 527 Local and general regulations for freshwater fishings, 208, 220, 234 ,, authorities and administration, 240 ,, Boards of Conservators, 215, 219, 220, 222-224 ,, statutes, Humber and Ouse, 213 Loch Fyne, 516, 517 London, supply offish to, 51 Long flounder, 158 Lophobranchii, 175 Lord -fish, 151 Lowestoft, fishing-port of, 10 Lucky proach, 97 Luggers, 15 Lump-fish, 129, 427 MACKEREL, 12, 14, 38, 61, 108, 278, 286, 311, 362, 363, 365, 399, 420 ,, fishing-grounds, 39 Macrobians, 477 Macrundse, 155 Magna Charta, 209, 212 Maigre, 121 Manilla hemp, 261 Maremmes, 5 Market (Fish). See Fish Markets. Marsipobranchii, 197 Mason, Henry, 434 Matties (young herrings cured), 33 Mease (Irish herring measure), 37 Mediterranean, 277 Megrim, 157 55 8 INDEX. Merchant Shipping Act. See Acts of Parliament. Meshes of nets, dimensions of, 223, 242 Meteorological Society of Scotland, 280 Method of fishing in frozen rivers, 504 Middleman, 60 Migration and breeding of young fish, 226 Migratory fish, 229 Mill-dams, 217-219, 222 ,, weirs, 217-222 Miller's thumb, 97 Minnow, 168 Mirror carp, 202 Mischief done by trawlers and seiners, 515 Modes of fishing, 12 Monk-fish, 192 Montgaudry, Baron de, 521 Moulin, M. du, 499 Movable nets, 254 Mud lamprey, 199 Mugilidse, 142 Mullet, 404, 425 Mullidse, 88 Muraena, 175 Muraenidae, 173 Muscular power, source of, 349, 440 Mussel-bait, 314 Musselburgh, 282 Mussel fisheries, 246 Mussels, 13, 46, 62, 430 Myxine, 199 NAVIGATION, hindrances to, 200 Net fishing, 227, 228 ,, dimensions of meshes, 224, 242 ,, prohibitions applicable to, 223, 224 weekly close time, 228, 229 NETS, 12, 13, 14, 40, 509, 510. See also Apparatus for Fishing. ,, methods of using, 501, 502 ,, periodical renewal of, 263 Nevophth, tomb of, 471 Nile, 473 Nitrogen, 338 ,, number of grains of, in nitrogenous compounds, 354 Nitrogenous compounds in food, 356, 358, 360 fish, 361 Nordenskjold, Professor, 528 Norfolk fisheries, regulated by special Board of Conservators, 224 North Sea beam-trawl fishing stations, 273 INDEX. 559 North Sea Convention, 243, 244 long-line fishing stations, 304 ,, trawling grounds, 42, 66 Northumberland coast, drift-net fishing, 285 Norway haddock, 95 ,, skiffs, 310 Norwegian herrings, 34 Norwich, city of, 224 Notidanus, 189 Nurse hound, 189 OBSTRUCTION of passage offish, 213, 221-223, 2 3& " Offal " (meaning of term), 59 Oke's Handy Book of the Fishery Laws, 230, 231 Oil. See Fish Oil. Olaus Magnus, 503, 528 Old wife, 92 Olsen, 518 Opah, 113 Ophidiidae, 154 Ophidiom, 154 Orders in Council, 243 Oswan, cataract of, fishing first taxed at, 474 Otters (instrument so called), 223 Ouse, fishing statutes, 213 Oxidation, 336, 348, 351, 439 ,, of nitrogen, the source of muscular power, 349, 440 Oxygen, 335 Oysters, 47, 365, 395, 402, 429 ,, and shell-fish, cultivation, &c., of, 245 ,, in abundance in the Christiana Fjord, 527 PACKING COD, 300 Pamphleteer (The), 1813, extracts from, 420 Paper Mills v. preservation of salmon, 249 Paradise-fish, 203 Parliament, action taken by, respecting fisheries, 63, 64 > suggested action of, respecting fisheries, 68 Parnell (Dr.), 413 Paterson, Mr. James, 215 Pau'ta-tseng snare, description of, 534 Peacham, Sir G., 531 Peacock-fish, 203 Pearce v. Scotcher, action at law, 209 Pe-chen-keon line, description of, 534 Pediculati, 101 Pelamid, ill 560 INDEX. Penalties for infringement of general rules for salmon fishing in England, 218, 220, 223-229, 233, 234 Penalties for infringement of prohibitions applicable to the Fisheries of the Counties of Norfolk and Sussex, and the City of Norwich, 223 ,, for infringement of prohibitions applicable to net fishing, 224-228 ,, for selling fish in the close season, 228 for using illegal instruments in fishing, 224-228 Penzance, fishing port of, 10 Pepys, Samuel, 495 Perch, 83, 399, 431, 529 Percidae, 83 Perils to fishermen, 468, 492, 512, 539 Periwinkles, 47, 62 Pettenkoffer, experiments by, 350 Pharyngobranchii, 197 Phoenicians, 287 Physiologists, chronological table of, 449 Physostomi, 160 Picked dog-fish, 187 Pickled oysters, 430 Pike, 1 66, 362, 364, 395, 397, 498, 404, 431, Pike perch, 201 Pilchard -seining, 288 Pilchards, 12, 22, 41, 62, 172, 287, 428, 506 Piles and fishgarths, 213 Pilot-fish, 115 Pinch on, Dom, 521 Pipe-fish, 176 Piscatorial rights of England, 491 Plaice, 12, 158, 424 Plaice caught by the trawl, 254 Plectognathi, 180 Pleuronectidae, 156 Plymouth, 10, 511 Pocket-fish, 105 Poisoning and polluting rivers, 224-226 Pole, 158 " Pole or hammer " trawl, 277 Police, fishery, of high seas, 207, 242-243 Police regulations suggested for preserving order at sea, 70 Pollack, 152, Pollan, 165, 229 Polyolbion, 405 Pope, 85 Pope's remarks on fisheries, 67 Porbeagle, 188 Porpoise, 398, 428 Powan, 165 INDEX. 56* Power cod, 152 Powers of Conservators, 234 ,, Fishery Commissioners, 222 ,, owners of private fisheries, 229 Prawns, 46, 291;, 431 Present condition of fishermen, 538-543 Preservation of salmon, prohibitions for, 222 Prevention of passage and repassage of fish, 212 Prices of fish in ancient times, 392, 396, 398, 485, 486 "Prime" fish, 59, 254 " Prime, "'59 Private fisheries, powers of owners of, 229, 234 Proclamation by James I. as to fish, 410 Charles I., 410 Prohibitions applicable to angling, 229 ,, ,, fishing for trout or char, 223-225, 237 ,, ,, preservation of salmon, 223, 237 ,, ,, use of fixed engines, 223, 237 Protection of freshwater fisheries, 229, 230, 234 ,, clam and bait beds, 246 Provisional order for compulsory purchase of weirs, dams, &c. , 220 Prussian carp, 169 Public right of fishing and navigation, 220, 232 Puffin, 433 Purse-shaped shrimp net, 293 Putchers, 221, 319 Putts, 221, 319 RABBIT-FISH, 185 Raffle net, 503 Railway Companies and fisheries, suggestions with reference to, 70 Ramsgate, 273, 511 Rasch, Professor, 522 Ravoirs, rules for use of, 501 Rays, 192 Ray's bream, 113 Red band -fish, 139 herrings, 35, 364, 396 ,, mullet, 88, 414, 425 ,, wrasse, 417 Reece v. Miller, action at law, 209 Regulations of fisheries, early attempts at, 212 of Fishery Acts, 215 Relative cost of food, 367, 368 , Remora, in Renewal of nets, periodical, 263 Report by Fishery Commissioners, 1870, 215 Report of Select Committee on Herring Fisheries, 1881, 242 VOL. I. H. 2 O 562 INDEX. Restrictions on freshwater fisheries, 208, 248 ,, modes of fishing, 215, 242 ,, oyster and shell fishing, 245, 246 times of fishing, 215 ,, weirs, 218 Retail trade, 57 Rhodian maritime laws, 487, 488 Ribbon-fish, 140 Riparian owners, rights of, 210-212, 217 River banks, right of fishing from, 210-212 ,, boundary between two landowners, 211-212 Rivers exempted from control of fishery districts or special local Acts : Der- went of Cumberland, Great Ouse, Itchin, Welland, Witham, 215, 234 ,, pollution, 227 ,, subject to special rules : Severn, Thames, 234 Roach, 1 68, 365, 398, 432 Rockling, 152 Rock whiting, 152 Rod and line fishing, 219, 224, 227 Rogers' " History of Prices and Agriculture in England," 391, 395 Rolle v. Whyte, action at law, 218 Romans, seine known to the, 287 Roole d'Oleron, 488 Rosellini, 472 Rough dab, 157 ,, hound, 189 Round-fish, 12 Royal fish, 207 Royal fishery formed, 495 Rudd, 1 68, 399 Ruff, 85 Ruther v. Harris, 224 SAIL-FLUKE, 157 Saithe, 153 Salmon, 40, 62, 161, 362, 364, 393, 396, 398, 400, 419, 425 ,, fisheries, value of, n, 40 Fishery Acts, 1871 to 1878, 214, 215, 218, 226, 227, 242, 246 fishings, 217, 222, 224, 227, 228, 241 nets, 316 peale, 426 ,, trout, 163 Salmonidae, 161 Sanazzaro, Jacopo, 504 Sand-eel, 154 Sand-smelt, 141 Sandwich, Lord, 495 Sardines, 364 INDEX. 563 Sars, Professor, 527 Saury Pike, 166 Scabbard-fish, 123 Scad, 114, Schlei. See Tench, Gold. Scina, Signer Domenico, 479 Sckena, 121 Scicenidse, 121 Sclerodermi, 180 Scombresocidae, 166 Scombridce, 108 Scoresby, 492 Scorpcenidae, 94 Scotland, Commissions of Salmon Fisheries, 235 ,, District Boards, 235 ,, Fishery Board, 236 ,, herring branding, 240 ,, ,, fisheries, 237, 241 ,, Inspector of Salmon Fisheries, 237 Scotland, Law of Salmon Fisheries, 235 Meteorological Society of, 280 ,, right of fishing in tidal part of navigable rivers, 210 salmon and trout fishing, 211, 235 ,, Salmon Fisheries Act, 235 ,, salmon fishing, special privilege of the Crown, 211 ,, use of seine-net, 290 ,, white fishing, 240 Scringe-net, 291 Sea and freshwater fishing, distinction between, 253 Sea-bream, 92, 399, 424 Sea-bullhead, 97 Sea fisheries, 207, 238-242, 246, 248 Sea Fisheries Act. See Acts of Parliament. Seal fishery, Greenland, 248 Sea-horse, 177 Sea-snail, 132 Sean-nets, 287 Seasons of fish, 401 Sea-trout, 163 Seine fishing, 223, 239 Seine-nets, 287, 513, 514 Selling fish in close season, penalties on, 228 Serranus, 86 Set-nets, 254, 299 " Several Fishery," 211 Severn Fisheries, 221 Sewin, 163 Shad, 40, 172, 424 202 564 INDEX. Shanny, 136 Sharks, 186 Shaw, 521 Sheet-fish, 201 Shell-fish, 245, 364, 429 " Shoe " of trawl-iron, 256 Shove-net, 293 Shrimping boats, 294 net, 293 Shrimps, 47, 431 Silurus, 20 1 Silver eel, 173 Silver spots, 160 Skate, 62, 192 Skate-toothed shark, 187 Skiffs, Norwegian, 310 Skulpin, 127 Smacks, 18, 45, 53 Smacks, used for trawling, 261 Small fish, question of destruction of. See Immature Fish. Smear dab, 158 Smelts, 40, 164, 424 Smith, Dr. E., experiments by, 350, 448 Smooth hound, 187 Snap-net, 317 Snares, 223 Society for Relief of Fishermen, 542, 543 Soft crabs, 245 Solent, stow-nets in the, 296 Soles, 12, 158, 254, 362, 365, 424 Solonette, 159 South Sea Fisheries Company, 506 islanders, 492, 493 Spain, trawling on f, 277 Spanish bream, 91 ,, mackerel, 109 Sparidoe, 91 Sparling. See Smelts. Spawn and fry of fish, Act for preservation of, 230 crabs, 245 Spears, 223 Special statutes regulating fisheries of rivers and districts, 233, 234 Spiller or trot, 303 Spilliard, 303 Spinax, 189 Spinous shark, 189 Spotted dog-fish, 189 Spotted gunnell, 138 INDEX. 565 Sprat-net, 295 Sprats, 12, 37, 41, 172 Stake-nets, 221, 316 Statistics relating to fish, 3, 19, 37, 39, 42, 46, 498, 499, 5 l6 5 2 5 5 2 7> 537 want of better, 3, 68, 70 Statute of herrings, 487 Statutes (general and special) regulating salmon and other fisheries, 207, 209, 212, 213, 217-246, 435 Steam power applied to beam-trawlers, 273 Sterlet, 203 Sternoptychidag, 160 Sticklebacks, 143, 399 Sting-ray, 196 St. Ives Bay Fisheries, 239 ,, pilchard seining at, 288 Stockfish (dried), 364 (salted), 364 Stone bass, 87, 414 Storing of cod, 308 Stowage, provision for, 263 Stow-net, 295 Stromateidae, 1 12 Structures for obstructing passage and capturing of fish, 216 Sturgeon, 183, 403, 426 the property of the Crown, 207 Suckers, 132 Sucking-fish, III Suffolk fisheries regulated by special Board of Conservators, 223 Summary Jurisdiction Act, 233 Sun-fish, 82 Suppression of weirs, &c., Act of Parliament for, 212-230 Surmullet, 88 Sutherland, Duke of, 235 Sweden, 521 Sweep-net, 287 Sword-fish, 119 Sygnathidse, 176 System of apprenticeship, 538 TADPOLE-FISH, 152 Tedclington Lock, 209 Teleostei, 82 Telescope-fish, 204 Temperature of water, effect of, 281 ,, effect on take of herrings, 513 Tench, 168, 398, 404, 417, 432 ,, Gold, 170 Territorial or marginal waters, 208 566 INDEX. Thames (the) in 1593, 418 Thames fisheries regulated by Conservators, 209, 234 Thames shrimp nets, 293 Thiersant, M. Dabry de, 534 Thirle pole, 402 Thornback skate, 194, 428 . Thunny. See Tunny. Thresher, 188 Thunder-fish, 202 Thunderstorms, effect of, 281 Tidal rivers, fishing in, 207 Title to exclusive fishing rights, 209 Toper, 187 Topknot, 157 Torpedo, 192 Torsk, 152 Towing-paths, right of fishing from, 210 Trachinidee, 107 Trachypteridse, 140 Trammel net, description of, 299 Traps, 216, 221. See also Weirs. Trawler, duties of crew, Trawl nets. See Nets. Trawlers and trawling-grounds, 15, 1 8, 20, 41 Trawling, ground favourable for, 268 ,, introduction of beam-trawling, 273 ,, restrictions on, 239, 246 Trawls, beam, 254 English and Foreign, distinction between, 257 ,, French, 259 otter, 254, 274 ,, " pole or hammer " 277 Treatise on fasting, 1623, 434 Treaty of Washington between England and United States (1871), 244 Trichiuridae, 122 Trigger-fish, 181 Trot or bulter, 303 Trout, 163, 201, 399, 403, 431 Trout fishing, 223-229 Trumpet-fish, 146 Trunk-net fishing, 320 " Tucking " fish, 290 Tuck-seine, 288 Tunny, no, 428 afforded sport to ancient Greeks, 478 ,, belongs to a gregarious and carnivorous class, 479 ,, derivation of name, 479 method of capture, 478 INDEX. 567 Turbot, 12, 157, 426 Twait. See Shad. Tweed, river, subject to special statutes, 236 Tweeddale, Marquess of, 280 UMBRINA, 121 Unclean or unseasonable salmon, trout, and char, 226, 227 United States, common law of, as to ;_fishing rights of riparian owners, 210 ,, ,, East Coast fishing, 245 Unlicensed instruments for catching salmon, 224 Unseasonable salmon, exportation prohibited, 228 VAAGMAER, 140 Variegated sole, 158 Vendace, 165 Venner, 1650, extract from, 421 Vessels (fishing). See Fishing Vessels. Vinets, rules for use of, 501 Viviparous blenny, 138 Walpole, Mr. Spencer, 214 Wash, trim-nets used on the, 299 Washington, treaty of, 244 Water, 339, 346 ,, bailiffs, powers and privileges of, 233 ,, influence of temperature of, 301 Weever, 107 Weirs, 212-222, 228, 234, 318 Welsh fisheries, 51 Whales, the property of the Crown, 207 Whaling, 324 Whelks, 46, 62 Whitebait, 36, 38, 41, 171 White herring fishery, British, 242 Whiting, 152, 311, 364, 424 Wilson, Bishop, prayer for restoration of the fisheries, 64 Winds, effect of, 281 Wolf-fish, 134, 427 Wolf-net. See Nets. Wrasses, 147 XIPHIID^;, 119 YARMOUTH, fishing port of, 9-10, 283-285 Yarrell, 413, 416 Young fish, breeding and migration of, 226 ZANDER,20I LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSa UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. JUN JUN 1 9 1952 INTER-LIBRARY LOAN JUL 22 LD 21-95m-ll,'50(2877sl6)476